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= Arizona State Route 72 =
State Route 72 ( SR 72 ) is a 36 @.@ 74 @-@ mile @-@ long ( 59 @.@ 13 km ) state highway in the U.S. state of Arizona . It runs from SR 95 near Parker southeast to U.S. Route 60 ( US 60 ) in Hope . Along its route , the highway is mostly parallel to the Arizona and California Railroad and runs through the community of Bouse in desert terrain . The route was established in 1930 from its current eastern terminus all the way to the California state line , but was truncated in 1965 . The route was completely paved by 1940 .
= = Route description = =
SR 72 begins at a T @-@ intersection at which SR 95 turns from north – south to east – west south of Parker . The highway heads eastward into desert terrain . Turning southeastward , the route enters the town of Bouse , running parallel to the Arizona and California Railroad . SR 72 enters Bouse as Broadway Avenue . As it runs through the community , the railroad to its northeast cuts most of the town in half , with a commercial areas both southwest and northeast of the roadway , but none along the railroad . Exiting Bouse , the highway enters an area dotted with farms spread among the desert , passing the communities of McVay and Utting . SR 72 crosses over the Central Arizona Project aqueduct southeast of McVay . Near a junction with Vicksburg Road in Vicksburg , the railroad turns away from SR 72 as the roadway heads southeast . The route ends at a junction with US 60 near Hope .
The highway is maintained by the Arizona Department of Transportation ( ADOT ) , which is responsible for constructing and maintaining highways in the state . As part of this role , ADOT surveys volumes of traffic on their highways . These surveys are most often presented in the form of annual average daily traffic ( AADT ) , which is the number of vehicles that travel a road during an average day during the year . In 2009 , ADOT calculated that around 2 @,@ 600 vehicles used the road daily near Bouse , and around 2 @,@ 000 daily near Vicksburg . No part of the highway has been listed in the National Highway System , a system of roads in the United States important to the nation 's economy , defense , and mobility .
= = History = =
SR 72 was first established in 1930 from US 60 through Bouse to the California state boundary along the Colorado River at Parker . At the time , it was a dirt road . Between 1935 and 1939 , the section of the route from Parker to Bouse had been paved , as was a section slightly north of Vicksburg . The rest of the highway had been graveled at the time , and was paved the next year . Between 1951 and 1958 , SR 72 was removed from the SR 95 junction near the southern city limit of Parker to the California state line . This section was added as part of a northern extension of SR 95 . A section of the highway just east of the western terminus was widened in 2008 . A new traffic signal was installed at the SR 95 junction in 2010 .
= = Junction list = =
The entire route is in La Paz County .
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= Tropical Storm Olga ( 2007 ) =
Tropical Storm Olga was the fifteenth named storm of the 2007 Atlantic hurricane season . In the second week of December , after the official end of the hurricane season , a low developed east of the northernmost Lesser Antilles . It slowly acquired tropical characteristics , and late on December 10 , the NHC declared it Subtropical Storm Olga while just north of Puerto Rico . It is the first post @-@ season storm since Tropical Storm Zeta in the 2005 season , making the 2007 season one of the few with activity both before and after the official bounds of the hurricane season . Olga was only one of a few out of season tropical cyclones to make landfall . The storm made landfall on December 11 on the eastern tip of the Dominican Republic . Later that evening , Olga transitioned into a tropical storm just after making landfall . Olga tracked over Hispaniola and emerged in the Caribbean Sea . Strong wind shear and dry air caused Olga to weaken into a remnant low early on December 13 .
The storm impacted many areas affected by Tropical Storm Noel a month earlier . In Puerto Rico , moderate rainfall caused one death . 37 fatalities were confirmed in the Dominican Republic , including twenty deaths due to the release of floodgates at a dam in Santiago Province . Two deaths were also reported in Haiti . Olga killed a total of 40 people throughout its existence .
= = Meteorological history = =
In the first week of December , a westward @-@ moving upper @-@ level low led to the formation of a broad surface trough well to the east of the northern Lesser Antilles . With a strong ridge to its northeast , the trough tracked slowly westward , producing scattered convection and some cyclonic turning . On December 8 convection began to persist in association with the trough and an upper @-@ level low . Early on December 9 , officials at the Tropical Prediction Center began classifying the system using the Hebert @-@ Poteat technique , and several tropical cyclone forecast models anticipated its development of tropical characteristics . The system , which consisted of a sharp trough with an area of gale force winds to its north , continued westward through an area of moderately warm sea surface temperatures . On December 10 a low @-@ level circulation developed within the system , though its convection had become disorganized and well @-@ removed from the center . Southerly wind shear left the structure asymmetric , and convection steadily increased closer to the center . With an upper @-@ level low situated just south of the center , the National Hurricane Center classified it as Subtropical Storm Olga at 0300 UTC on December 11 while located about 55 miles ( 85 km ) east of San Juan , Puerto Rico .
Upon being classified as a subtropical cyclone , Olga maintained well @-@ defined outflow , and located to the southeast of a strong ridge over the western Atlantic Ocean , the cyclone tracked west @-@ southwestward . The storm strengthened slightly while paralleling the north coast of Puerto Rico , and after an increase in convection near the center , Olga made landfall near Punta Cana , Dominican Republic at 1800 UTC on December 11 . A Hurricane Hunters flight into the storm reported a tighter wind gradient and peak winds of 60 mph ( 95 km / h ) , and at 0000 UTC on December 12 the National Hurricane Center reclassified Olga as a tropical cyclone while it was still inland . Convection rapidly weakened as the storm crossed central Hispaniola , and upon reaching the Caribbean Sea the system lacked the convection required for the classification of a tropical cyclone ; rainbands well to its northeast maintained stronger winds , though the center became ill @-@ defined with dry air and strong wind shear . Late on December 12 , convection increased slightly over the center , though by that time the cyclone weakened to tropical depression status . As significant convection failed to persist , the National Hurricane Center discontinued advisories on Olga earlier on December 13 while located about 80 miles ( 130 km ) northwest of Kingston .
Its remnants continued west @-@ northwestward with a clear low @-@ level circulation , producing scattered thunderstorms over Cuba and the Cayman Islands with its moisture extending northward into southern Florida . A small cluster of deep convection developed just east of the center , and the low @-@ level circulation remained well @-@ defined as it approached the coast of the Yucatán Peninsula . The remnants of Olga turned northward into the Gulf of Mexico as a cold front approached the center from the northwest . Late on December 16 and early on December 17 , the low intensified as it approached the west coast of Florida , with sustained winds of tropical storm force , and gusts to hurricane force , being reported at Clearwater Beach . Ultimately , the approaching cold front absorbed the low as it moved across the Florida peninsula . The cold front was associated with a powerful winter storm that affected much of Eastern America during that weekend and killed at least 25 across six US states and three Canadian provinces tapped Olga 's moisture , drawing it northeastward mainly offshore the East Coast .
= = Preparations = =
On December 10 , the Tropical Prediction Center issued a gale warning for waters north of the Lesser Antilles , Puerto Rico , and the Dominican Republic , in association with the precursor disturbance to Olga . Upon it being classified as a subtropical cyclone , the government of the Dominican Republic issued a tropical storm warning from Cabo Engaño along the north coast to its border with Haiti ; a tropical storm watch was also issued along the southern coastline to near Santo Domingo . Because winds were well to the north of its center , a tropical storm warning was not issued for Puerto Rico . Prior to it moving ashore , the government of Haiti issued a tropical storm warning for its northern coastline , and later a tropical storm warning was issued for the Turks and Caicos Islands , as well as the southeastern Bahamas .
The San Juan National Weather Service office issued a flood watch for all of Puerto Rico , including the islands of Culebra and Vieques . Extended periods of heavy rainfall also resulted in flash flood warnings for portions across the island . Ferry service between Fajardo and the islands of Culebra and Vieques was temporarily suspended during the passage of the storm . In the Dominican Republic , officials opened shelters in 15 provinces , with citizens in low @-@ lying areas recommended to stay elsewhere during the passage of the storm ; citizens in 22 communities were evacuated .
= = Impact = =
The cyclone dropped light to moderate precipitation across Puerto Rico , peaking at 11 @.@ 13 inches ( 283 mm ) near Ponce . The rainfall increased levels along several rivers across the island , including the Arecibo Big River which was reported at several feet above flood stage . Its passage left about 79 @,@ 000 people without power and 144 @,@ 000 without water . In the northern portion of the island , the rainfall caused a mudslides that buried an automobile , which killed its driver .
Heavy rainfall fell across the Dominican Republic , with isolated totals of 10 inches ( 250 mm ) expected . The rainfall caused flooding along the Yaque del Norte River , and initially there appeared to be a threat that the Tavera Dam along the river would fail , potentially killing thousands in Santiago Province . Officials instead opted to open all six floodgates at 0400 UTC on December 12 , which released about 1 @.@ 6 million gallons ( 6 @.@ 1 million liters ) of water into the river every second . The deluge created a 66 foot ( 20 m ) wave of water that caught many off guard due to the time of night and only about 15 minutes to prepare , according to eyewitnesses who criticized the decision ; the flooding killed at least 35 people and left homes in seven towns flooded . Two other deaths were reported elsewhere in the country , and more than 34 @,@ 000 people fled their homes due to the storm ; more than 7 @,@ 500 houses were damaged . Damage in the country was estimated at $ 1 @.@ 5 billion ( 2007 DOP , $ 45 million 2007 USD ) . In neighboring Haiti , two deaths were reported in the northern portion of the country . On December 11 , a station in the Turks and Caicos Islands recorded sustained winds of 36 mph ( 58 km / h ) .
While still moving through the western Caribbean sea , heavy rains fell along a trough in its northeast quadrant beginning on December 14 , with a total of 7 @.@ 08 inches / 179 @.@ 8 mm falling at Nettles Island , Florida . The remnant low intensified due to occasional convection forming near and northeast of the center as it approached the Sunshine State . Clearwater Beach recorded a pressure as low as 1002 mb as well as sustained winds reaching 45 mph ( 72 km / h ) , with gusts to 78 mph ( 126 km / h ) between 4 and 5 on the morning of December 16 . As a cold front approached , the low pressure area became ill @-@ defined and dissipated before reaching Florida 's Space Coast .
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= Great Britain at the 2010 Winter Olympics =
The United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland competed as Great Britain in the 2010 Winter Olympics held in Vancouver , British Columbia , Canada . The United Kingdom was represented by the British Olympic Association ( BOA ) , and the team of selected athletes was officially known as Team GB . The team was made up of athletes from the whole United Kingdom including Northern Ireland , whose athletes may elect to hold Irish citizenship , allowing them to represent either Great Britain or Ireland . Additionally some British overseas territories compete separately from Britain in Olympic competition .
Great Britain sent a delegation of fifty athletes to compete in eleven sports and were led by Andy Hunt as Chef de Mission , but despite being set a target of three medals by UK Sport , the team won just one , Amy Williams ' gold in the women 's skeleton , and finished 19th in the medal table .
= = Medalists = =
The following British competitors won medals at the Games . In the discipline sections below , medalists ' names are in bold . All results are taken from the official Vancouver 2010 website .
= = Targets = =
UK Sport , the organisation responsible for distributing National Lottery funding to elite sport , set Team GB a target of winning three medals , of any colour , at the Vancouver Games ; two more than the single silver medal won in Turin by Shelley Rudman . If achieved this would have been the best performance by a British Winter Olympics team since 1936 when a gold , silver and bronze medal were won . The target was set following £ 6 @.@ 5 million of funding in the four years leading up to the Games . Whilst no particular events were targeted as potential sources of medals , the success of British athletes in the previous four years was taken into account when setting the target ; the men 's curling team and the two @-@ woman bobsleigh team , Nicola Minichiello and Gillian Cooke , won world championships , and in 2008 Kristan Bromley became the first man in the history of bob skeleton to win the World Championship , European Championship and World Cup in the same year .
The preparations of Britain 's skiers and snowboarders for the Games were hampered by the financial problems of the British Ski and Snowboard Federation ( BSSF ) , operating under the name Snowsport GB , which was responsible for administering the lottery funds received through UK Sport . In August 2009 the BSFF was £ 300 @,@ 000 in debt and a number of British skiers , including medal hope Chemmy Alcott , were forced to fund their own summer training camps in New Zealand and Chile . On 5 February 2010 , just a week before the opening ceremony of the Games , it was announced that BSSF had entered administration after the Royal Bank of Scotland withdrew the organisation 's overdraft facility . This put the participation of British skiers in doubt , as a governing body is a necessity for Olympic competition , but the British Olympic Association ( BOA ) revived a subsidiary company to take over . The financial difficulties suffered by Alcott , partly as a result of the BSSF collapse , led her to consider her future in the sport at the end of the Games .
On 25 February , having finished 19th overall in the medal table , and 14th out of European countries , head of Team GB Andy Hunt said that despite not reaching UK Sport 's target the team " have achieved what we set out to do " by bettering their performance in the 2006 Games . This was in reference to Amy Williams ' gold in the women 's skeleton , which was the sole medal won by the team .
Steve Redgrave , vice @-@ president of the BOA , added " I don 't think there is a sense of disappointment – I think there is a sense of celebration of winning that gold medal . I would take one gold medal over five bronze medals any day . " Hunt also announced that the BOA would conduct a strategic review of funding and may support the channeling of more funds towards realistic medal hopes .
= = Alpine skiing = =
Four British athletes competed in alpine skiing events at the Games . Andy Noble and David Ryding qualified for two events each whilst Ed Drake and Chemmy Alcott , taking part in her third Olympics , qualified for all five variants . The preparations of Britain 's skiers were disrupted by the collapse of Snowsport GB , but all athletes were able to enter the games after the intervention of the British Olympic Association . Alcott , considered a realistic contender for a medal , achieved the squad 's best finish coming eleventh in the women 's combined .
Men
Women
= = Biathlon = =
Britain sent a single biathlete to the Games ; Lee @-@ Steve Jackson was the first British competitor to qualify for the Olympic pursuit and finished in 56th position . He also took part in the individual and sprint events .
= = Bobsleigh = =
Britain sent eight athletes to compete in the bobsleigh events with entries in the two @-@ man , four @-@ man and two @-@ woman competitions . Allyn Condon competed in the four @-@ man event having previously taken part in the 4 x 100 m relay at the 2000 Summer Olympics in Sydney ; the first Briton to take part in both a Summer and Winter Games since Marcus Adam . In the two @-@ man the British pairing of Dan Money and John Jackson suffered a crash on their first run ; they escaped serious injury , but were disqualified for failing to complete the run .
Nicola Minichiello and Gillian Cooke went into the two @-@ woman event as the reigning world champions and after two of four runs were placed tenth , one position ahead of Paula Walker and Kelly Thomas . On the third run Minichiello and Cooke lost control , resulting in them crossing the finishing line with their sled on its side , and the pair withdrew from the competition before the final run .
Cumulative time and standings given in brackets .
= = Cross @-@ country skiing = =
Three British cross @-@ country skiers went to the Games , all three were competing in their first Olympics . Andrew Young and Andrew Musgrave , aged seventeen and nineteen , entered the team sprint in addition to their individual events but were forced to withdraw as Young , suffering from a cold , was unable to complete his leg .
Men
Women
= = Curling = =
Curling events at the 2010 Winter Olympics were in the form of a round @-@ robin tournament ; each nation played all others in a group stage with the top four qualifying for medal playoffs . The men 's team , the reigning world champions , won group stage games against France , Denmark , China , United States and Germany . These five wins left them in a tie for the last semifinal place with Sweden , who beat them in their group game . A single tie @-@ breaker match was played between the two sides which was won by the Swedes in the first extra end . The women 's team , skippered by 19 @-@ year @-@ old Eve Muirhead , entered the tournament ranked seventh in the world and beat world champions China in their opening match , but won just two of their remaining eight games to finish seventh in the group and miss out on the semifinals .
= = = Men 's tournament = = =
Men 's team
Lockerbie CC ( curling club ) , Lockerbie
Skip : David Murdoch
Third : Ewan MacDonald
Second : Peter Smith
Lead : Euan Byers
Alternate : Graeme Connal
Results
Round @-@ robin
Tie @-@ breaker
Having finished level with Sweden with five wins Great Britain faced a single match tie @-@ breaker to decide who advanced to the semifinals .
Standings
= = = Women 's tournament = = =
Women 's team
Skip : Eve Muirhead
Third : Jackie Lockhart
Second : Kelly Wood
Lead : Lorna Vevers
Alternate : Anne Laird
Results
Standings
= = Figure skating = =
Great Britain had qualified seven athletes ; one in ladies singles , one pair in the pairs skating , and two pairs in ice dancing . The team was announced as Jenna McCorkell in the ladies singles , Stacey Kemp and David King in the pairs and in the ice dancing Sinead Kerr and John Kerr , and Penny Coomes and Nicholas Buckland . Brother and sister pairing Sinead and John Kerr were considered medal contenders before the Games as they entered the event ranked fifth in the world . The pair , who came third in the 2009 European Championships , went on to finish eighth .
= = Freestyle skiing = =
Three British women competed in freestyle skiing events , one each in the aerials , moguls and ski cross . Sarah Sauvey became the first Briton to compete in Olympic ski cross , as the sport was making its debut in Vancouver . She finished 34th in the qualifying rounds missing out on the medal rounds by two places .
Women 's - Aerials and Moguls
Women 's Ski cross
= = Luge = =
Britain 's sole competitor in luge was Adam Rosen , an American @-@ born athlete who had previously competed at the 2006 Games . The 25 @-@ year @-@ old 's sixteenth @-@ place finished equalled his performance in Turin and was just one place off of the highest Winter Olympic finish by any British luger .
Cumulative time and standings given in brackets .
= = Short track speed skating = =
Britain qualified six athletes in individual short track speed skating events . In the men 's events four skaters competed , with Anthony Douglas and Jon Eley each racing at two distances ; a team also qualified for the relay event . Eley achieved the squad 's best individual finish , coming sixth in 500 metres , a position matched by the relay team . In the women 's events Elise Christie raced in the 500 , 1000 and 1500 metres and Sarah Lindsay also took part in the 500 metres but was disqualified in her heat following a clash with Canada 's Jessica Gregg .
Men
Women
Key : Q = Qualified for next round , QB = Qualified for B final
= = Skeleton = =
Four British athletes qualified for the skeleton events . Amy Williams won Britain 's only medal of the Games , a gold in the women 's skeleton . Williams became the first British gold medalist in an individual event at the Winter Olympics for thirty years , following Robin Cousins ' victory in figure skating at the 1980 Winter Olympics in Lake Placid , and the first British female individual Winter Olympics gold medalist since Jeannette Altwegg in 1952 . Shelley Rudman , Britain 's only medalist at the 2006 Olympics , finished sixth in the women 's event and her fiancé , Kristan Bromley , finished in the same position in the men 's event .
Cumulative time and standings given in brackets .
Key : * New track records
= = Snowboarding = =
Four British snowboarders qualified for the Games.Ben Kilner qualified 7th and progressed through the semifinals , however finished 18th in the Final for the Men 's halfpipe . Reserve Marcijan Harasymiw crashed on his second run and did not advance due to injury . Zoe Gillings reached the semifinals of the women 's snowboard cross and finished in eighth position overall .
Halfpipe
Parallel giant slalom
Snowboard cross
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= Radio Bart =
" Radio Bart " is the thirteenth episode of The Simpsons ' third season . It originally aired on the Fox network in the United States on January 9 , 1992 . In the episode , for his birthday Bart receives a microphone that transmits sound to nearby AM radios , and also uses a labelmaker to put " Property of Bart Simpson " on all his possessions . To play a prank on the citizens of Springfield , Bart places a radio deep inside a well and uses the microphone to trick the town into thinking a little boy is stuck in it . He enjoys the prank until Lisa reminds him of the " Property of Bart Simpson " label stuck to the radio . Whilst trying to retrieve it , Bart gets trapped in the well . Still smarting from his prank , the town leaves him down there . Eventually Homer decides to rescue Bart by himself .
The episode was written by Jon Vitti and directed by Carlos Baeza . Musician Sting guest starred in the episode as himself , though the producers originally approached Bruce Springsteen to appear . The episode features cultural references to charity singles such as " We Are the World " . Since airing , " Radio Bart " has received mostly positive reviews from television critics . It acquired a Nielsen rating of 14 @.@ 1 and was the highest @-@ rated show on the Fox network the week it aired . It was nominated for an Emmy Award , but lost to A Claymation Easter .
= = Plot = =
The Simpson family are busy preparing for Bart 's birthday party . Homer sees a commercial on television for a prank microphone called the Superstar Celebrity Microphone that can be used to tap into localized AM radio systems and instantly decides to buy one for Bart. Subsequently , Bart experiences a crushingly disappointing birthday party when all his gifts turn out to be useless things like a cactus , a label maker , and a new suit . At first , he is also disappointed by the microphone , but later finds a use for it in creating practical jokes , such as tricking Ned Flanders ' boys into believing that God is talking to them , listening in on Lisa and Janey 's conversations about boys , and persuading Homer that martians are invading the Earth .
Bart plays a prank when he throws a radio down a well and speaks through it with the microphone , tricking the townspeople into thinking an orphan named Timmy O 'Toole has fallen down the well . Although they are unable to get " Timmy " out , as the well is too small for any adult to fit in , the entire town offers moral support and do everything they can to give him hope . Krusty even gets musician Sting to join other celebrities in recording a charity single , " We 're Sending Our Love Down the Well " . However , Lisa catches Bart in the act and reminds him he put a label with his name on the radio . Bart falls into the well while trying to retrieve it after Eddie and Lou unintentionally untie his rope . When the townspeople find him , he admits that Timmy O 'Toole does not exist . Angry at being tricked , the townspeople leave Bart in the well . After this , " We 're Sending Our Love Down The Well " dramatically falls off the number one spot all the way down to 97 , supplanted at number one by " I Do Believe We 're Naked " by Funky C , Funky Do .
Despite efforts by Homer and Marge to mobilize a rescue operation , the entire town remains outraged at Bart and are disinclined to help . After Bart cries , Homer finally has had enough : he decides to dig a tunnel and rescue Bart himself . Groundskeeper Willie sees this and joins Homer , starting an excavation operation . Bart is finally rescued ( with help from Sting and other residents ) and Willie puts up a small warning sign near the well the next morning to prevent future incidents instead of boarding the well up instead .
= = Production = =
" Radio Bart " was written by Jon Vitti and directed by Carlos Baeza , though series creator Matt Groening came up with the idea for it . The episode was based on the 1951 film Ace in the Hole , which sees the story of a former journalist exploiting a story about a man trapped in a cave to re @-@ jump start his career . Vitti did not watch the film until after the episode had been written ; " [ Groening ] came in out of nowhere and just gave me , start to finish , the whole story . " Vitti said renting the film was the first thing he did after finishing the script . He remarked , " It 's surprisingly hard to rent . It 's really dark and funny and it 's by Billy Wilder , so you think it would be in stores , but it 's not . It was hard to find . "
The producers approached singer Bruce Springsteen to appear in the episode because he had participated to the charity song " We Are the World " , on which " We 're Sending Our Love Down the Well " is based . Springsteen declined so the producers offered the role to British musician Sting instead . Executive producer Al Jean said Sting is one of his favorite guest stars that have appeared on the show and he " couldn 't have been better . He was really funny . " The Simpsons director David Silverman said Sting 's appearance in the episode worked for his persona because he has campaigned for political and social causes in real life . Sting was staying in New York City at the time of the episode 's recording so Vitti flew there to record the lines with him .
The television commercial for the Superstar Celebrity Microphone that Homer watches , was inspired by a popular Ronco Mr. Microphone commercial from the late 1970s , in which a boy becomes popular and " scores with the girls " by using his microphone to be on the radio . Both commercials feature a boy riding by in a car full of friends saying , " Hey , good @-@ looking , we 'll be back to pick you up later , " a line the staff thought was " hilarious " . In the Superstar Celebrity Microphone commercial , the boy sings the 1975 song " Convoy " by C. W. McCall into the microphone . The producers originally wanted him to sing " The Wreck of the Edmund Fitzgerald " by Gordon Lightfoot , a song about the sinking of the bulk carrier S.S. Edmund Fitzgerald on Lake Superior .
Vitti said the reason the song was not used was because Lightfoot had made it so that in order to clear the copyrights for song , they would have to get permission from the families of the twenty @-@ nine crewmen who died on the ship . In another scene , Bart uses his radio to make Homer believe aliens are invading Earth ; Homer was originally supposed to create a punch made from Kool @-@ Aid and rat poison so that he and the family could commit suicide before the aliens arrived . The writers thought this scene was " too dark " and younger viewers might copy him . The scene was changed to Homer brandishing a shotgun and going after the aliens , before finding out that Bart is playing a trick on him .
= = Cultural references = =
" Radio Bart " features several pop culture references . At the beginning of the episode , Homer watches the show Soul Train and its host Don Cornelius on television . The Wall E. Weasel pizza restaurant that Bart celebrates his birthday at is a parody of the family pizza restaurant franchise Chuck E. Cheese 's . The episode also parodies charity singles . The song " We 're Sending Our Love Down the Well " is a spoof of " We Are the World " , and the idea of celebrities singing it is based on USA for Africa , the name under which forty @-@ five famous artists recorded " We Are the World " . Funky @-@ See , Funky @-@ Do with their hit " I Do Believe We 're Naked " resembles the music style of Milli Vanilli .
This episode is similar to an incident involving Jessica McClure , who fell into a well and received support from citizens and celebrities . One citizen suggests using chocolate attached to a fish @-@ hook to save Timmy , a reference to a character from the 1975 film Jaws . Kay McFadden of The Seattle Times used " Radio Bart " as an example of the Simpsons writers ability to predict the future . He said " Radio Bart " aired more than five years before Princess Diana 's death that " provoked the exact same celebrity posturing and media panic " as seen in the episode . Timmy 's story is eventually bumped off the front page when the media discovers a squirrel who resembles Abraham Lincoln . Kay said Princess Diana 's death was " bumped by a fund @-@ raising imbroglio involving Vice President Al Gore , a political figure who resembles oatmeal , which squirrels sometimes eat . "
= = Reception = =
In its original American broadcast , " Radio Bart " finished 31st in the ratings for the week of January 6 – 12 , 1992 , with a Nielsen rating of 14 @.@ 1 , equivalent to approximately 13 million viewing households . It was the highest @-@ rated show on the Fox network that week . The episode was nominated for an Emmy Award in the " Outstanding Animated Program " category , but lost to Will Vinton 's A Claymation Easter on CBS . " Radio Bart " was submitted for consideration because it was the staff 's favorite episode of the season . Executive producer Al Jean said they thought this episode or an episode of Ren & Stimpy would win and they were " absolutely floored " when neither did . The Simpsons director David Silverman said he thinks The Simpsons and Ren & Stimpy split the vote , allowing A Claymation Easter to win the Emmy .
Since airing , the episode has received mostly positive reviews from television critics . It was named the second best episode of The Simpsons by Kirk Baird of the Las Vegas Sun and the third best episode by Sarah Culp of The Quindecim . DVD Movie Guide 's Colin Jacobson commented : " Despite the potential for some heavy @-@ handed moralizing , ' Radio Bart ' provides a terrific show . From Bart ’ s crappy birthday to his pranks to the public reaction to Timmy ’ s trapping , the humor flies fast and furious in this excellent episode . It ’ s one of the better ones . " The Daily Telegraph characterized the episode as one of ten best episodes of The Simpsons . DVD Times 's Chris Kaye said " Radio Bart " is " another demonstration of the series ' knack for cultural references , parodying the Billy Wilder movie Ace in the Hole . " Entertainment Weekly ranked " Radio Bart " as the twentieth best episode of The Simpsons and commented that " it 's a media parody so sharp , we 're still stinging a bit . "
Monsters and Critics 's Trent McMartin praised Sting 's guest performance , calling it " humorous " . Total Film 's Nathan Ditum ranked his performance as the 11th best guest appearance in the show 's history . The authors of the book I Can 't Believe It 's a Bigger and Better Updated Unofficial Simpsons Guide , Warren Martyn and Adrian Wood , commented that " The Police had a song called ' Canary in the Coalmine ' ( the episode contains a scene where a canary dies in the well , but is later determined by Dr. Hibbert to have died by " natural causes " ) , and Sting had made a point of campaigning for good causes , which explains why he was singled out in this sharp critique of celebrity posturing and media panic . " Tom Nawrocki of Rolling Stone rated the " We 're Sending Our Love Down the Well " song as one of the best musical moments in the history of the show .
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= Dorian Holley =
Dorian Holley is an African American musician , backing singer and vocal coach . Holley began his professional career as an on @-@ stage backing vocalist for American entertainer Michael Jackson during his Bad World Tour in 1987 . The series of concerts had him perform to millions of people throughout the world , including British royalty . From there , Holley went on to travel with Jackson for all of his subsequent world tours . He also performed with other artists such as Rod Stewart in 1991 and James Taylor in 1994 . His stage presence and vocal ability were praised by music critics during such performances .
Holley successfully auditioned to become a featured vocalist on the reality television show Dancing with the Stars . He served in this capacity for the first three seasons of the American series . Holley has also worked for several years as an associate music director and vocal coach for the singing competition American Idol , where he works with contestants before and after they appear before the show 's judges and a worldwide television audience .
In 2008 , Holley self @-@ released his debut album , Independent Film . The subsequent year , he worked with Jackson for the final time , in preparation for the entertainer 's ill @-@ fated concert series This Is It . Holley was to serve as a backing vocalist , as well as the vocal director for the shows . Jackson 's death forced the concerts to be canceled .
In 2010 , Holley host a weekend at the LA Music Academy called " The Art of the Audition " . As of 2011 , Holley was the vocalist for the house band on The Tonight Show with Jay Leno , led by Rickey Minor . He is also the Artist Development Director at Los Angeles Music Academy College of Music and teaches in the school 's Vocal Department . Dorian is married to trial attorney Shawn Chapman Holley , who once represented Jackson and has been a Chief Legal Correspondent for the E ! Network
. The couple have three daughters together .
= = Career = =
= = = Bad World Tour and Rod Stewart = = =
Holley first performed with pop superstar Michael Jackson during the entertainer 's first solo concert series , the Bad World Tour . Beginning in Japan in September 1987 , the tour lasted for 16 months , during which time Holley visited 15 countries while serving as a backing singer for Jackson , along with Kevin Dorsey , Darryl Phinnessee and Sheryl Crow . As part of the tour , Holley performed to over 4 million people , including Diana , Princess of Wales and Charles , Prince of Wales . The Bad World Tour concluded several months later in January 1989 .
English musician Rod Stewart enlisted the services of both Holley and Phinnessee in 1991 , when he toured the US . The two singers were part of an 11 @-@ man backing ensemble , when Stewart performed at the Pacific Amphitheatre in Costa Mesa , Orange County , California in September 1991 . During the show 's encore , Stewart performed his signature song " Twistin ' the Night Away " . The Los Angeles Times described in a review of the concert that the song was " embellished with a delicious a cappella doo @-@ wop break featuring the 46 @-@ year @-@ old star and backup singers Darryl Phinnessee and Dorian Holley " . The two vocalists were also praised by the Chicago Tribune after a performance at the Poplar Creek Music Theatre , where their " sublime harmonies " " formed a perfect counterpoint to Stewart 's impassioned pleas on ' This Old Heart of Mine ' " . The San Jose Mercury News concluded that Holley and Phinnessee were " great " .
= = = James Taylor , Dangerous Tour and HIStory Tour = = =
Holley returned to work with Jackson for the Dangerous World Tour ( June 1992 – November 1993 ) , a 69 date concert series which was attended by almost 3 @.@ 5 million fans . The tour was cut short , however , after child sexual abuse allegations were levelled against Jackson and he cancelled the remainder of the tour due to the stress caused by the accusations .
In 1994 , Holley joined with Kate Markowitz , Valerie Carter , and David Lasley to form what The Pantagraph and The Boston Globe respectively described as a " wonderful " and " angelic " backing group to James Taylor . While on tour with Taylor , Holley was praised for his vocal ability by several news sources . The Roanoke Times stated that the highlight of the show at the city 's Civic Center was the performance of " Shower the People " , which " showcased the singing " of Holley . The St. Louis Post @-@ Dispatch revealed that during a performance of the same song at Riverport Amphitheater , the backing vocalist " sang a spirited solo that drew an ovation equal to anything Taylor had drawn thus far " .
Holley worked with Michael Jackson again for the entertainer 's last concert series , the HIStory World Tour , which began in Prague , Czech Republic in September 1996 . The tour attracted more than 4 @.@ 5 million fans from 58 cities in 35 countries around the world and concluded in Durban , South Africa in October 1997 .
= = = Reality television work = = =
Holley auditioned to become a featured vocalist on the American reality television show Dancing with the Stars . The audition consisted of him performing seven different sounds , ranging from Frank Sinatra to Sly Stone . He was successful and became a featured singer during the first three seasons of the series . Holley later noted that the concept of diversity in vocal performance was not a new experience for him . " I 've been at sessions where a producer has said he wants me to sound like Michael Jackson and Bruce Springsteen at the same time . I 've had people say can you make it a little more green . Huh ? It 's tricky . " He added , " Sometimes they think they want Sheryl Crow , because she has a hit single . But what they really want is magic , and that is whatever you , as an individual , can bring . It 's a tough call between being a blank slate and being yourself . "
Holley has also served for several years as an associate music director and vocal coach for the reality singing competition American Idol . As part of his job , he helps contestants rehearse and arrange the songs that they are to perform . He states that his primary task , however , is to encourage and support the participants as they face scrutiny and criticism . Holley added that it is common for some of the contestants to " crumbl [ e ] " upon leaving the stage if they have received critical comments from judge Simon Cowell . His job on American Idol has had him work with winners such as Jordin Sparks and Kris Allen .
= = = Debut album , workshops and This Is It = = =
Independent Film , Holley 's debut solo album , was self @-@ released by the singer in 2008 . Joan Anderman of The Boston Globe described the album as being a " soul @-@ satisfying project that won 't pay the bills " . It was reported in October 2008 that Holley had been conducting workshops on the art of audition . He drew inspiration from his time on American Idol , as well as his experience with artists such as Stevie Wonder , Christina Aguilera , Kanye West and Queen Latifah . While at Berklee College of Music , he offered advice to young singers who wanted to become famous . " Everyone starts out dreaming , and then you get married , have a baby , buy a house and a car , and what I want to let people know is that there are so many jobs out there . My thinking is , if you 're a musician and you can make music instead of digging a ditch , make it . "
Holley 's last experiences with Jackson were in 2009 , when he prepared for a scheduled 50 @-@ date concert series called This Is It . Holley rehearsed with Jackson as a backing singer at the Staples Center in Los Angeles and was also hired as the vocal director for the ill @-@ fated shows . He was present on the singer 's last night of rehearsals in June 2009 . Hours later , Jackson died after he entered into cardiac arrest at his nearby home . Holley sang during the group rendition of " We Are the World " at the entertainer 's memorial service the subsequent month . He was joined by fellow This Is It backing vocalists Darryl Phinnessee , Judith Hill and Orianthi .
= = Personal life = =
The singer is married to trial attorney Shawn Chapman Holley , who practices law in the areas of both civil and criminal litigation . A partner of Howard Weitzman of Kinsella Weitzman Iser Kump & Aldiser LLP , she has defended and worked for individuals such as O.J. Simpson , Sara Jane Olson , Lindsay Lohan , Nicole Richie , Paris Hilton , Tupac Shakur , Snoop Dogg , Mike Tyson , The Game , Axl Rose , Jesse McCartney and Michael Jackson . She was also an on @-@ air legal analyst during the E ! Network 's nightly international coverage of Jackson 's 2005 child sexual abuse trial . Together , Dorian and Shawn have three daughters ; Nayanna , Sasha , and Olivia . Nayanna Holley is a singer , actor , and songwriter , she starts to traveling with her father since 3 years old . The Los Angeles Times reported in 2005 that the family live in a 2 @,@ 800 @-@ square @-@ foot ( 260 m2 ) home , which was built in 1920 and bought by Holley and his wife in 2003 . The Standard noted in 2007 that the pair had purchased a 3 @,@ 500 @-@ square @-@ foot ( 330 m2 ) Italian Renaissance Revival home in Lafayette Square , Los Angeles . Writers for the publication further commented that the Holleys planned to keep a home in nearby Wellington Square .
= = Discography = =
Independent Film ( 2008 )
= = Filmography = =
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= London , Ontario =
London is a city located in Southwestern Ontario , Canada along the Quebec City – Windsor Corridor . The city has a population of 366 @,@ 151 according to the 2011 Canadian census . London is at the confluence of the non @-@ navigable Thames River , approximately halfway between Toronto , Ontario and Detroit , Michigan . The City of London is a separated municipality , politically separate from Middlesex County , though it remains the county seat .
London and the Thames were named in 1793 by Lord Simcoe , who proposed the site for the capital of Upper Canada . The first European settlement was between 1801 and 1804 by Peter Hagerman . The village was founded in 1826 and incorporated in 1855 . Since then , London has grown to be the largest Southwestern Ontario municipality and Canada 's 11th largest municipality , having annexed many of the smaller communities that surrounded it .
London is a regional centre of health care and education , being home to the University of Western Ontario , Fanshawe College , and several hospitals . The city hosts a number of musical and artistic exhibits and festivals , which contribute to its tourism industry , but its economic activity is centred on education , medical research , insurance , and information technology . London 's university and hospitals are among its top ten employers . London lies at the junction of Highway 401 and 402 , connecting it to Toronto , Windsor , and Sarnia . It also has an international airport , train and bus station .
= = History = =
= = = Founding = = =
Prior to European contact in the 18th century , the present site of London was occupied by several Neutral and Odawa / Ojibwa villages . Archaeological investigations in the region indicate that aboriginal people have resided in the area for at least the past 10 @,@ 000 years .
The current location of London was selected as the site of the future capital of Upper Canada in 1793 by Lieutenant @-@ Governor John Graves Simcoe . Simcoe intended to name the settlement Georgina , in honour of King George III , and renamed the river . However , the choice of a capital site in the midst of extensive hardwood forests was rejected by Guy Carleton ( Governor Dorchester ) . In 1814 , there was a skirmish during the War of 1812 in what is now southwest London at Reservoir Hill , formerly Hungerford Hill .
The village of London , named after the English capital of London , was not founded until 1826 , and not as the capital Simcoe envisioned . Rather , it was an administrative seat for the area west of the actual capital , York ( now Toronto ) . Locally , it was part of the Talbot Settlement , named for Colonel Thomas Talbot , the chief coloniser of the area , who oversaw the land surveying and built the first government buildings for the administration of the Western Ontario peninsular region . Together with the rest of Southwestern Ontario , the village benefited from Talbot 's provisions , not only for building and maintaining roads , but also for assignment of access priorities to main routes to productive land . At the time , Crown and clergy reserves were receiving preference in the rest of Ontario .
In 1832 , the new settlement suffered an outbreak of cholera . London proved a centre of strong Tory support during the Upper Canada Rebellion of 1837 , notwithstanding a brief rebellion led by Dr. Charles Duncombe . Consequently , the British government located its Ontario peninsular garrison there in 1838 , increasing its population with soldiers and their dependents , and the business support populations they required . London was incorporated as a town in 1840 .
On 13 April 1845 , fire destroyed much of London , which was at the time largely constructed of wooden buildings . One of the first casualties was the town 's only fire engine . This fire burned nearly 30 acres of land destroying 150 buildings before burning itself out later the same day . One @-@ fifth of London was destroyed and this was the province 's first million dollar fire .
On 1 January 1855 , London was incorporated as a " city " ( 10 @,@ 000 or more residents ) . In the 1860s , a sulphur spring was discovered at the forks of the Thames River while industrialists were drilling for oil . The springs became a popular destination for wealthy Ontarians , until the turn of the 20th century when a textile factory was built at the site , replacing the spa .
Long before the Royal Military College of Canada was established in 1876 , there were proposals for military colleges in Canada . Staffed by British Regulars , adult male students underwent a 3 month long military courses from 1865 at the School of Military Instruction in London . Established by Militia General Order in 1865 , the school enabled Officers of Militia or Candidates for Commission or promotion in the Militia to learn Military duties , drill and discipline , to command a Company at Battalion Drill , to Drill a Company at Company Drill , the internal economy of a Company and the duties of a Company 's Officer . The school was not retained at Confederation , in 1867 .
= = = Development = = =
Sir John Carling , Tory MP for London , gave three events to explain the development of London in a 1901 speech . They were : the location of the court and administration in London in 1826 ; the arrival of the military garrison in 1838 ; and the arrival of the railway in 1853 .
In 1875 , London 's first iron bridge , the Blackfriars Street Bridge , was constructed . It replaced a succession of flood @-@ failed wooden structures that had provided the city 's only northern road crossing of the river . A rare example of a bowstring truss bridge , the Blackfriars remains open to pedestrian and bicycle traffic , though it is currently closed indefinitely to vehicular traffic due to various structural problems . The Blackfriars , amidst the river @-@ distance between the Carling Brewery and the historic Tecumseh Park ( including a major mill ) , linked London with its western suburb of Petersville , named for Squire Peters of Grosvenor Lodge . That community joined with the southern subdivision of Kensington in 1874 , formally incorporating as the municipality of Petersville . Although it changed its name in 1880 to the more inclusive " London West " , it remained a separate municipality until ratepayers voted for amalgamation with London in 1897 , largely due to repeated flooding . The most serious flood was that of July 1883 , which resulted in serious loss of life and property devaluation . This area retains much original and attractively maintained 19th @-@ century tradespeople 's and workers ' housing , including Georgian cottages as well as larger houses , and a distinct sense of place .
London 's eastern suburb , London East , was ( and remains ) an industrial centre , which also incorporated in 1874 . Attaining the status of town in 1881 , it continued as a separate municipality until concerns over expensive waterworks and other fiscal problems led to amalgamation in 1885 . The southern suburb of London , including Wortley Village , was collectively known as " London South " . Never incorporated , the South was annexed to the city in 1890 , although Wortley Village still retains a distinct sense of place . By contrast , the settlement at Broughdale on the city 's north end had a clear identity , adjoined the university , and was not annexed until 1961 .
On 24 May 1881 , the ferry SS Victoria capsized in the Thames River , drowning approximately 200 passengers , the worst disaster in London 's history . Two years later , on 12 July 1883 , the first of the two most devastating floods in London 's history killed 17 people . The second major flood , on 26 April 1937 , destroyed more than a thousand houses and caused over $ 50 million in damages , particularly in West London . After repeated floods the Upper Thames River Conservation Authority in 1953 built Fanshawe Dam on the North Thames to control the downstream rivers . Financing for this project came from the federal , provincial , and municipal governments . Other natural disasters include a 1984 tornado that led to damage on several streets in the White Oaks area of South London .
London 's role as a military centre continued into the 20th century during the two World Wars , serving as the administrative centre for the Western Ontario district . In 1905 , the London Armoury was built and housed the First Hussars until 1975 . A private investor purchased the historic site and built a new hotel ( Delta London Armouries , 1996 ) in its place preserving the shell of the historic building . In the 1950s , two reserve battalions amalgamated and became London and Oxford Rifles ( 3rd Battalion ) , The Royal Canadian Regiment . This unit continues to serve today as 4th Battalion , The Royal Canadian Regiment . The Regimental Headquarters of The Royal Canadian Regiment remains in London at Wolseley Barracks on Oxford Street . The barracks are home to the First Hussars militia regiment as well .
= = = Annexation to present = = =
London annexed many of the surrounding communities in 1961 , including Byron and Masonville , adding 60 @,@ 000 people and more than doubling its area . After this amalgamation , suburban growth accelerated as London grew outward in all directions , creating expansive new subdivisions such as Westmount , Oakridge , Whitehills , Pond Mills , White Oaks and Stoneybrook .
In 1992 , London annexed nearly the entire township of Westminster , a large , primarily rural municipality directly south of the city , including the police village of Lambeth . With this massive annexation , London almost doubled in area again , adding several thousand more residents . London now stretches south to the boundary with Elgin County .
The 1993 annexation made London one of the largest urban municipalities in Ontario . Intense commercial and residential development is presently occurring in the southwest and northwest areas of the city . Opponents of this development cite urban sprawl , destruction of rare Carolinian zone forest and farm lands , replacement of distinctive regions by generic malls , and standard transportation and pollution concerns as major issues facing London . The City of London is currently the eleventh @-@ largest urban area in Canada , eleventh @-@ largest census metropolitan area in Canada , and the sixth @-@ largest city in Ontario .
= = Geography = =
The area was formed during the retreat of the glaciers during the last ice age , which produced areas of marshland , notably the Sifton Bog ( which is actually a fen ) , as well as some of the most agriculturally productive areas of farmland in Ontario . The Thames River dominates London 's geography . The North and South branches of the Thames River meet at the centre of the city , a location known as " The Forks " or " The Fork of the Thames . " The North Thames runs through the man @-@ made Fanshawe Lake , located in northeast London . Fanshawe Lake was created by Fanshawe Dam , constructed to protect the downriver areas from the catastrophic flooding which affected the city in 1883 and 1937 .
= = = Climate = = =
London has a humid continental climate ( Köppen Dfb ) , though due to its downwind location relative to Lake Huron and elevation changes across the city , it is virtually on the Dfa / Dfb ( hot summer ) boundary favouring the former climate zone to the southwest of the confluence of the South and North Thames Rivers , and the latter zone to the northeast ( including the airport ) . Because of its location in the continent , London experiences large seasonal contrast , tempered to a point by the surrounding Great Lakes . The summers are usually warm to hot and humid , with a July average of 20 @.@ 8 ° C ( 69 @.@ 4 ° F ) , and temperatures above 30 ° C ( 86 ° F ) occur on average 10 days per year . In 2012 , however , temperatures at or above 30 ° C ( 86 ° F ) occurred a total of 27 times . The city is affected by frequent thunderstorms due to hot , humid summer weather , as well as the convergence of breezes originating from Lake Huron and Lake Erie . The same convergence zone is responsible for spawning funnel clouds and the occasional tornado . London is located in Canada 's Tornado Alley . Spring and autumn in between are not long , and winters are cold but witness frequent thaws . Annual precipitation averages 1 @,@ 011 @.@ 5 mm ( 39 @.@ 82 in ) . Its winter snowfall totals are heavy , averaging about 194 cm ( 76 in ) per year . The majority of it comes from lake effect snow and snow squalls originating from Lake Huron , some 60 km ( 37 mi ) to the northwest , which occurs when strong , cold winds blow from that direction . From 5 December 2010 , to 9 December 2010 , London experienced record snowfall when up to 2 m ( 79 in ) of snow fell in parts of the city . Schools and businesses were closed for three days and bus service was cancelled after the second day of snow .
The highest temperature ever recorded in London was 41 @.@ 1 ° C ( 106 ° F ) on 6 August 1918 . The lowest temperature ever recorded was − 32 @.@ 2 ° C ( − 26 ° F ) on 20 January 1892 .
= = = Parks = = =
London has a number of parks . Victoria Park in downtown London is a major centre of community events , attracting an estimated 1 million visitors per year . Other major parks include Harris Park , Gibbons Park , Fanshawe Conservation Area ( Fanshawe Pioneer Village ) , Springbank Park , and Westminster Ponds . The city also maintains a number of gardens and conservatories .
= = Demographics = =
According to the 2011 census , the city of London had a population of 366 @,@ 151 people , a 3 @.@ 9 % increase from the 2006 population . Children under five accounted for approximately 5 @.@ 2 percent of the resident population of London . The percentage of the resident population in London of retirement age ( 65 and over ) is 13 @.@ 7 , also the percentage for Canada as a whole . The average age is 38 @.@ 2 years of age , compared to 39 @.@ 9 years of age for all of Canada .
Between 2006 and 2011 , the population of metropolitan London grew by 3 @.@ 7 percent , compared with an increase of 5 @.@ 7 percent for Ontario as a whole .
According to the 2011 census , the majority of Londoners profess a Christian faith , which accounts for 62 @.@ 8 percent of the population ( Roman Catholic : 27 @.@ 0 % , Protestant : 25 @.@ 0 % , other Christian : 9 @.@ 0 % ) . Other religions include Islam ( 4 @.@ 4 % ) , Buddhism ( 0 @.@ 8 % ) , Hinduism ( 0 @.@ 8 % ) , and Judaism ( 0 @.@ 5 % ) , with 29 @.@ 9 percent of the population reporting no religious affiliation .
According to the 2011 census , 82 @.@ 0 percent of the population of London are European , 2 @.@ 7 percent are Latin American , 2 @.@ 6 percent are Arab , 2 @.@ 4 percent are Black , 2 @.@ 2 percent are South Asian , 2 @.@ 0 percent are Chinese Canadian , 1 @.@ 9 percent are Aboriginal , 1 @.@ 0 percent are Southeast Asian , 0 @.@ 8 percent are West Asian , 0 @.@ 8 percent are Korean Canadian , 0 @.@ 6 percent are Filipino , and 0 @.@ 7 percent belong to other groups . In the 2011 census , the predominant ethnic origins of Londoners were English ( 30 @.@ 5 % ) , Canadian ( 26 @.@ 0 % ) , Scottish ( 20 @.@ 8 % ) , Irish ( 20 @.@ 3 % ) , German ( 11 @.@ 5 % ) , French ( 10 @.@ 1 % ) , Dutch ( 6 @.@ 2 % ) , Italian ( 4 @.@ 7 % ) , Polish ( 4 @.@ 4 % ) , Portuguese ( 2 @.@ 8 % ) , and Ukrainian ( 2 @.@ 5 % ) .
In February 2015 , Statistics Canada published a population estimate of the London CMA of 502 @,@ 360 , as of July 1 , 2014 .
= = Economy = =
London 's economy is dominated by medical research , insurance , manufacturing , and information technology . Much of the life sciences and biotechnology @-@ related research is conducted or supported by the University of Western Ontario , which adds about C $ 1 @.@ 5 billion to the London economy annually .
The headquarters of the Canadian division of 3M are located in London . The London Life Insurance Company was founded there , as was Imperial Oil ( in 1880 ) and both the Labatt and Carling breweries . The Libro Financial Group was founded in London 1951 and is the second largest credit union in Ontario and employs over 550 people.Canada Trust was also founded in London in 1864 . The TD @-@ Canada Trust tower is still one of the tallest buildings in London , and has been home to two nesting peregrine falcons for more than a decade .
General Dynamics Land Systems builds armoured personnel carriers in the city . GDLS has a 14 @-@ year $ 15 @-@ billion deal to supply light armoured vehicles to Saudi Arabia . There are 2 @,@ 000 workers at GDLS Canada . A $ 223 million expansion project in 1984 temporarily made Kellogg 's Canada 's 106 @,@ 000 m2 ( 1 @,@ 140 @,@ 000 sq ft ) London plant one of the most technologically advanced manufacturing facilities in the Kellogg Company . In late 2013 , Kellogg 's announced the closure of this plant by end of 2014 , resulting in 500 jobs lost ( production to move to Belleville and Michigan plants ) .
A portion of the city 's population work in factories outside of the city limits , including the General Motors automotive plant CAMI , and a Toyota plant in Woodstock . A Ford plant in Talbotville became one of the casualties of the economic crisis in 2011 .
In 1999 , the Western Fair Association introduced slot machines . Currently , 750 slot machines operate at the fair grounds year @-@ round . McCormick Canada , formerly Club House Foods , was founded in 1883 and currently employs more than 500 Londoners .
London 's city centre mall , Galleria , renamed Citi Plaza in 2009 , has suffered since the 2000 collapse of Eaton 's and the loss of its Hudson 's Bay Company store . The large space left empty by the departure of the Bay has since been filled by London 's central library . Other sections of Galleria / Citi Plaza have also lost businesses , which have been replaced by campuses for London 's major post @-@ secondary education schools , Fanshawe College and the University of Western Ontario . London Mews , another downtown mall , was demolished in 2001 and replaced by parking lots .
11 December 2009 , Minister of State Gary Goodyear announced a new $ 11 @-@ million cargo terminal at the London International Airport .
= = Culture = =
The city is home to many festivals , funded by the London Arts Council , including Sunfest , the Home County Folk Festival , the London Fringe Theatre Festival , the Expressions in Chalk Street Painting Festival , Rock the Park , Western Fair , the London Ontario Live Arts Festival ( LOLA ) and The International Food Festival ] ] . The London Rib @-@ Fest , where barbecue ribs are cooked and served , is the second largest barbecue rib festival in North America . Pride London Festival is the 11th largest Pride festival in Ontario . Sunfest , a World music festival , is the second biggest in Canada after Caribana in Toronto , and is among the top 100 summer destinations in North America .
Musically , London is home to Orchestra London , the London Youth Symphony , noise music pioneers the Nihilist Spasm Band , and the Amabile Choirs of London , Canada . London is home to several museums , including Museum London , which is located at the Forks of the Thames . Museum London exhibits art by a wide variety of local , regional and national artists . London is also home to the Museum of Ontario Archaeology , owned by the University of Western Ontario ( UWO ) . Its main feature is Canada 's only on @-@ going excavation and partial reconstruction of a prehistoric village of the Neutral Nation ( Lawson Site ) . Other museums include the London Regional Children ’ s Museum , the Royal Canadian Regiment Museum , and the Secrets of Radar Museum . The Guy Lombardo museum closed to the public in 2007 but its collection remains in London .
London is also home to the McIntosh Gallery , an art gallery on the UWO campus , and the Grand Theatre , a professional theatre . The Open House Arts Collective is involved in promoting cultural activities in London . The London Public Library also hosts art exhibitions and author readings . The Writers Resource Center is the home of the Canadian Poetry Association London Chapter . The Forest City Gallery is one of Canada 's first artist run centres .
Eldon House is the former residence of the prominent Harris Family and oldest surviving such building in London . The entire property was donated to the city of London in 1959 and is now a heritage site . An Ontario Historical Plaque was erected by the province to commemorate The Eldon House 's role in Ontario 's heritage . The Banting House National Historic Site of Canada is the house where Sir Frederick Banting thought of the idea that led to the discovery of insulin . Banting lived and practiced in London for ten months , from July 1920 to May 1921 . London is also the site of the Flame of Hope , which is intended to burn until a cure for diabetes is discovered .
For famous people born in London , Ontario see List of people from London , Ontario .
= = Sports = =
London is currently the home of the London Knights of the Ontario Hockey League , who play at the Budweiser Gardens ( previously known as the John Labatt Centre ) . The Knights were both 2004 @-@ 2005 OHL and Memorial Cup Champions . During the summer months , the London Majors of the Intercounty Baseball League play at Labatt Park . London City of the Canadian Soccer League , is the highest level of soccer in London . The club was founded in 1973 ; it is the oldest active professional soccer franchise in North America . The squad plays at Cove Road Stadium at the German Canadian Club . Other sports teams include the London Silver Dolphins Swim Team , the Forest City Volleyball Club , London Cricket Club , the London St. George 's Rugby Club , the London Aquatics Club , the London Rhythmic Gymnastics Club , London City Soccer Club and Forest City London .
Football teams include the London Beefeaters ( Ontario Football Conference ) .
London 's basketball team , the London Lightning plays at Budweiser Gardens as members of the National Basketball League of Canada . Finishing their inaugural regular season at 28 @-@ 8 , the Lightning would go on to win the 2011 @-@ 12 NBL Canada championship , defeating the Halifax Rainmen in the finals three games to two .
There are also a number of former sports teams that have now either moved or folded . London 's four former baseball teams are the London Monarchs ( Canadian Baseball League ) , the London Werewolves ( Frontier League ) , the London Tecumsehs ( International Association ) and the London Tigers ( AA Eastern League ) . Other former sports teams include the London Lasers ( Canadian Soccer League ) and the London Nationals ( Western Ontario Hockey League ) .
In March 2013 , London hosted the 2013 World Figure Skating Championships .
The University of Western Ontario teams play under the name Mustangs . The university 's football team plays at TD Waterhouse Stadium . Western 's Rowing Team rows out of one of two National Training Centres at Fanshawe Lake . Fanshawe College teams play under the name Falcons . The Women 's Cross Country team has won 3 consecutive Canadian Collegiate Athletic Association ( CCAA ) National Championships . In 2010 , the program cemented itself as the first CCAA program to win both Men 's and Women 's National team titles , as well as CCAA Coach of the Year .
The Western Fair Raceway , about 85 acres harness racing track and simulcast centre , operates year @-@ round . The grounds include a coin slot casino , a former IMAX theatre , and Sports and Agri @-@ complex . Labatt Memorial Park the world 's oldest continuously used baseball grounds was established as Tecumseh Park in 1877 ; it was renamed in 1937 , because the London field has been flooded and rebuilt twice ( 1883 and 1937 ) , including a re @-@ orientation of the bases ( after the 1883 flood ) . The Forest City Velodrome , located at the former London Ice House , is the only indoor cycling track in Ontario and the third to be built in North America , opened in 2005 .
= = = Current franchises = = =
= = Law and government = =
London 's municipal government is divided among fourteen councillors ( one representing each of London 's fourteen wards ) and the mayor . Matt Brown was elected mayor in the 2014 municipal election , officially taking office on 1 December 2014 . Prior to Brown 's election , London 's most recent elected mayor was Joe Fontana ; following Fontana 's resignation on 19 June 2014 , city councillor Joe Swan served as acting mayor until councillor Joni Baechler was selected as interim mayor 24 June . Until the elections in 2010 , there was a Board of Control , consisting of four controllers and the mayor , all elected city @-@ wide .
The composition of London City Council was challenged by two ballot questions during the civic election of 2003 . A proposal to restructure the municipal government would have seen the council reduced to ten wards and the Board of Control eliminated . The council could not come to a determination and as a result decided to put two questions on the ballot for the fall 2003 election : whether city council should be reduced in size and whether the Board of Control should be eliminated . While the " yes " votes prevailed in both instances , the voter turnout failed to exceed 50 per cent and was therefore insufficient to make the decisions binding under the Municipal Act . When the council voted to retain the status quo , Imagine London , a citizens group , petitioned the Ontario Municipal Board ( OMB ) to change the ward composition of the city from seven wards in a roughly radial pattern from the downtown core , to 14 wards defined by communities of interest .
The OMB ruled for the petitioners in December 2005 and , while the city sought leave to appeal the OMB decision via the courts , leave was denied on 28 February 2006 , in a decision of Superior Court 's Justice McDermid . In response , the city conceded change , but asked for special legislation from the province to ensure that there will only be one councillor in each of the 14 new wards , not two . 1 June 2006 , the Ontario bill received royal assent , which guarantees that London will have one councillor per ward .
Although London has many ties to Middlesex County , it is now " separated " and the two have no jurisdictional overlap . The exception is the Middlesex County courthouse and former jail , as the judiciary is administered directly by the province .
In the provincial government , London is represented by Liberal Deb Matthews ( London North Centre ) ; Progressive Conservative Jeff Yurek ( Elgin — Middlesex — London ) , and NDPs : Teresa Armstrong ( London — Fanshawe ) and Peggy Sattler ( London West ) . In the federal government , London is represented by Conservative Karen Vecchio ( Elgin — Middlesex — London ) , Liberals Peter Fragiskatos ( London North Centre ) and Kate Young ( London West ) , and NDP Irene Mathyssen ( London — Fanshawe ) .
= = = Serial killing = = =
Between 1959 and 1984 , London contained the largest concentration of serial killers in the world , as the city was startled by 29 murders . During that time period , up to six serial killers may have been operating in London , though three were convicted for 13 of the killings : Gerald Thomas Archer ( the " London Chamber Maid Slayer " ) , Christian Magee ( the " Mad Slasher " ) and Russell Johnson ( the " Balcony Killer " ) , with the other 16 murders still unsolved as of August 2015 .
= = = Civic initiatives = = =
The City of London initiatives in Old East London are helping to create a renewed sense of vigour in the East London Business District . Specific initiatives include the creation of the Old East Heritage Conservation District under Part V of the Ontario Heritage Act , special Building Code policies and Facade Restoration Programs .
London is home to heritage properties representing a variety of architectural styles , including Queen Anne , Art Deco , Modern , and Brutalist
Londoners have become protective of the trees in the city , protesting " unnecessary " removal of trees . The City Council and tourist industry have created projects to replant trees throughout the city . As well , they have begun to erect metal trees of various colours in the downtown area , causing some controversy .
= = Transportation = =
= = = Road transportation = = =
London is at the junction of Highway 401 that connects the city to Toronto and Detroit , and Highway 402 to Sarnia . Also , Highway 403 , which diverges from the 401 at nearby Woodstock , Ontario , provides ready access to Brantford , Hamilton , the Golden Horseshoe area , and the Niagara Peninsula . Many smaller two @-@ lane highways also pass through or near London , including Kings Highways 2 , 3 , 4 , 7 and 22 . Many of these are " historical " names , as provincial downloading in the 1980s and 1990s put responsibility for most provincial highways on municipal governments . Nevertheless , these roads continue to provide access from London to nearby communities and locations in much of Western Ontario , including Goderich , Port Stanley and Owen Sound .
Since the 1970s , London has improved urban road alignments that eliminated " jogs " in established traffic patterns over 19th @-@ century street mis @-@ alignments . The lack of a municipal freeway ( either through or around the city ) as well as the presence of two significant railways ( each with attendant switching yards and few over / under @-@ passes ) are the primary causes of rush hour congestion , along with construction and heavy snow . Thus , traffic times can be significantly variable , although major traffic jams are rare . Wellington Road between Commissioners Road E and Southdale Road E is London 's busiest section of roadway , with more than 46 @,@ 000 vehicles using the span on an average day City council rejected early plans for the construction of a freeway , and instead accepted the Veterans Memorial Parkway to serve the east end . Some Londoners have expressed concern that the absence of a local freeway may hinder London 's economic and population growth , while others have voiced concern that such a freeway would destroy environmentally sensitive areas and further contribute to London 's already uncontrolled suburban sprawl . Road capacity improvements have been made to Veterans Memorial Parkway ( formerly named Airport Road and Highway 100 ) in the industrialized east end . However , the Parkway has received criticism for not being built as a proper highway ; a recent city @-@ run study suggested upgrading it by replacing the intersections with interchanges .
London 's public transit system is run by the London Transit Commission , which has 38 bus routes throughout the city . The Transit Commission has been improving bus service over the years , but not enough to cope with the city 's growing number of riders during peak periods . Bus service is currently the only mode of public transit available to the public in London , with no ground light rail or rapid transit networks like those used in other Canadian cities . London does have several taxi and for @-@ hire limousine services . Recently , London has constructed cycleways along some of its major arteries in order to encourage a reduction in automobile use .
= = = Intercity transport = = =
London is on the Canadian National Railway main line between Toronto and Chicago ( with a secondary main line to Windsor ) and the Canadian Pacific Railway main line between Toronto and Detroit . Via Rail operates regional passenger service through London station as part of the Quebec City – Windsor Corridor , with connections to the United States . Via Rail 's London terminal is the fourth @-@ busiest passenger terminal in Canada .
London is also a destination for inter @-@ city bus travellers . London is the seventh @-@ busiest Greyhound Canada terminal in terms of passengers , and connecting services radiate from London throughout Southwestern Ontario and through to the American cities of Detroit , Michigan and Chicago , Illinois .
Aboutown Transportation is a diversified transportation company based in the city that operates the North Link , intercity bus service from Owen Sound , and six transit bus routes between Kings and Brescia Colleges , and the main campus at the University of Western Ontario .
London International Airport ( YXU ) is the 12th busiest passenger airport in Canada and the 11th busiest airport in Canada by take @-@ offs and landings . It is served by airlines including Air Canada Jazz , United Airlines and WestJet , and provides direct flights to both domestic and international destinations , including Toronto , Chicago , Las Vegas , Orlando , Ottawa , Winnipeg , Calgary and Cancún .
= = = Plans = = =
The city of London is considering light rail ( LRT ) , bus rapid transit ( BRT ) and / or high @-@ occupancy vehicle lanes ( HOV ) to help it achieve its long @-@ term transportation plan . Additional cycleways are planned for integration in road @-@ widening projects , where there is need and sufficient space along routes . An expressway / freeway network is possible along the eastern and western ends of the city , from Highway 401 ( and Highway 402 for the western route ) past Oxford Street , potentially with another highway , joining the two in the city 's north end .
A parclo interchange between Highway 401 and Wonderland Road has been planned to move traffic more efficiently through the city 's southwest end . It will probably be built when the Ontario Ministry of Transportation widens Highway 401 from four to six lanes between Highway 4 and Highway 402 and reconstructs the outdated cloverleaf interchange with nearby Colonel Talbot Road . Construction will begin in 2013 .
The City of London has assessed the entire length of the Veterans Memorial Parkway , identifying areas where interchanges can be constructed , grade separations can occur , and where cul @-@ de @-@ sacs can be placed . Upon completion , the Veterans Memorial Parkway would no longer be an expressway , but a freeway , for the majority of its length .
A high @-@ speed rail station has been proposed for London , connecting it to a future high @-@ speed rail line along the Quebec City @-@ Windsor corridor . It would run along the Canadian National rail right of way through the city .
= = Education = =
London public elementary and secondary schools are governed by four school boards – the Thames Valley District School Board , the London District Catholic School Board and the French first language school boards ( the Conseil scolaire Viamonde and the Conseil scolaire catholique Providence or CSC ) . The CSC has a satellite office in London .
There are also more than twenty private schools in the city .
London is home to London Central Secondary School , the highest ranking academic school in Ontario .
The city is home to two post @-@ secondary institutions : the University of Western Ontario ( UWO ) and Fanshawe College , a college of applied arts and technology . UWO , founded in 1878 , has about 3500 full @-@ time faculty and staff members and almost 30 @,@ 000 undergraduate and graduate students . It placed tenth in the 2008 Maclean 's magazine rankings of Canadian universities . The Richard Ivey School of Business , part of UWO , was formed in 1922 and ranked among the best business schools in the country by the Financial Times in 2009 . UWO has three affiliated colleges : Brescia University College , founded in 1919 ( Canada 's only university @-@ level women 's college ) ; Huron University College , founded in 1863 ( also the founding college of UWO ) and King 's University College , founded in 1954 . All three are liberal arts colleges with religious affiliations : Huron with the Anglican Church of Canada , King 's and Brescia with the Roman Catholic Church . London is also home to Lester B. Pearson School for the Arts one of few of its kind .
Fanshawe College has an enrollment of approximately 15 @,@ 000 students , including 3 @,@ 500 apprentices and over 500 international students from over 30 countries . It also has almost 40 @,@ 000 students in part @-@ time continuing education courses . Fanshawe 's Key Performance Indicators ( KPI ) have been over the provincial average for many years now , with increasing percentages year by year .
The Ontario Institute of Audio Recording Technology ( OIART ) is also in London . Founded in 1983 , it offers recording studio experience for audio engineering students .
Westervelt College is also located in London . This private career college was founded in 1885 and offers several diploma programs .
= = Sister cities = =
London currently has one sister city :
Nanjing , China
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= Ventus ( Kingdom Hearts ) =
Ventus ( Japanese : ヴェントゥス , Hepburn : Ventusu ) , commonly referred to as Ven ( ヴェン ) , is a fictional character from Square Enix 's video game franchise Kingdom Hearts . Having first made cameos in Kingdom Hearts II and other related titles , Ventus was introduced in the 2010 prequel Kingdom Hearts Birth by Sleep as one of the three protagonists . In its story , Ventus is introduced as the youngest apprentice of Master Eraqus who trains him alongside his best friends , Terra and Aqua , to become experienced warriors with the Keyblade . When Terra goes on a mission to find Master Xehanort , Ventus follows him , having also become concerned about his fate . As Ventus journeys through various worlds , he learns about his origins as well as his relation with Xehanort and his apprentice Vanitas .
Ventus was designed by director Tetsuya Nomura who wanted to create a character with an important connection with the series ' main character Sora . Ventus bears a strong resemblance to the character of Roxas , both of whom are voiced by Kōki Uchiyama in Japanese and Jesse McCartney in English . After Ventus ' first cameo , Nomura had to state that both of them are different characters , and the reason for such connection would be revealed in Birth by Sleep . Video game websites also commented on Ventus ' first appearance , initially confusing him for Roxas during the development of Birth by Sleep , but has since been well received .
= = Appearances = =
Before being introduced in Kingdom Hearts Birth by Sleep , Ventus first made cameos in the secret endings of Kingdom Hearts II and its re @-@ release , Kingdom Hearts II Final Mix , which depicted him and his friends Terra and Aqua battling Master Xehanort and Vanitas . Ventus is also shown in a cameo in Kingdom Hearts 358 / 2 Days when Xion , a replica of Roxas , appears as Ventus while fighting Xigbar from Organization XIII . Ventus is also constantly referenced by Xigbar in Kingdom Hearts II and 358 / 2 Days while Xemnas , the Nobody of Xehanort , is in search of him in Castle Oblivion .
Prior to the start of Kingdom Hearts Birth by Sleep , Ventus was the apprentice of Master Xehanort , who trained him to complete the legendary χ @-@ blade ( pronounced as " key blade " ) . However , due to Ventus ' reluctance to use darkness , Xehanort extracted it from his heart , resulting in the creation of Vanitas , but also leaving his heart incomplete and on the verge of collapse . He is brought by Xehanort to Destiny Islands , where his heart merges with that of the newborn Sora to keep it safe . Having lost his memories , Ventus is placed in the care of Master Eraqus as his youngest Keyblade apprentice alongside Terra and Aqua . At the games beginning , Vanitas taunts Ventus into following Terra who is on a quest to find Xehanort . Ventus travels through various worlds , fighting mysterious creatures called the Unversed and meeting various people . Vanitas attacks Ventus during his journey to test his strength , but he is defeated when Ventus is aided by the Keyblade apprentice Mickey . Upon meeting Xehanort , Ventus is forced to remember his purpose as being used to create the χ @-@ blade . Ventus refuses to battle Vanitas to avoid creating the χ @-@ blade , but is forced to after Vanitas threatens to kill Terra and Aqua if he does refuse . They battle within the Keyblade Graveyard , where Vanitas merges with Ventus and obtains the χ @-@ blade . However , this fusion is incomplete , which allows Ventus to destroy Vanitas within his heart and Aqua to destroy the χ @-@ blade . As a result , Ventus loses his heart and his body is placed within Castle Oblivion by Aqua until he awakens . Ventus ' wandering heart is able to find its way back to the young Sora , who accepts Ventus ' heart into his body . In the game 's secret ending , he is seen in the Land of Departure with Terra , and the two utter Sora 's name with newfound hope .
Ventus is mentioned in the secret ending of Kingdom Hearts Re : coded , when Mickey reveals he has learned where Ventus ' heart is , having searched for his whereabouts for the past ten years . In Kingdom Hearts 3D : Dream Drop Distance , Sora briefly takes the form of Ventus during a dream , and when his heart is wounded , Ventus ' armor appears to protect his body . In the ending of the game , Ventus is shown in Castle Oblivion , still in his catatonic state , his face drawn into a smile .
= = Creation and development = =
When first designing Ventus , Tetsuya Nomura already decided the character should look like Sora or Roxas , and decided to choose the latter when thinking that Vanitas being revealed to have Sora 's appearance would give a big impact to the gamers . Nomura wanted Ventus ' personality to more closely resemble Sora 's , which led to his outgoing personality , yet at the same time he wanted him to become more serious as the game progressed to make them distinct . Ventus was first shown in the secret endings of Kingdom Hearts II and its rerelease Kingdom Hearts II : Final Mix . Ventus ' name first appeared as a code in a 2006 Tokyo Game Show promotional video of the games . While making Final Mixs ending , Nomura had only developed the backstory for Terra , Aqua and Ventus and not their appearances , but had to finish their design for the end of game cameo . Nomura did not reveal their identities , and only stated that the three character were from the chronological past of the Kingdom Hearts series . Following their release , Nomura stated that his nickname was Ven . Ventus was first mentioned by the character Lingering Sentiment in Final Mix as Ven , while his full name was still unrevealed . He also mentioned a connection between him and Xemnas but wanted to leave it up to people 's imaginations as he still could not reveal his identity .
Nomura commented that , despite how similar they are , Roxas and Ventus are not the same character . Additionally , he stated that by playing Kingdom Hearts Birth by Sleep , players will be able to distinguish Roxas from Ventus and that the game explores his true personality . In another interview , Nomura implied both characters are related , specifically to Sora , but he wanted fans to imagine reasons for such connection . The guidebook Kingdom Hearts Birth by Sleep Ultimania clarified the connection , stating that Roxas and Ventus look alike because Ventus ' heart entered Sora 's body and Roxas ' birth allowed Ventus ' heart to reside in Roxas . In early versions of development , Nomura planned to have Ventus ' broken heart be healed by the heart of Sora before he was born , but after negative feedback from overseas coworkers it was abandoned . Like Roxas , Ventus has been voiced Kōki Uchiyama in Japanese and Jesse McCartney in English .
Ventus ' name means " wind " in Latin ; both it and his Keyblade are called Wayward Wind , known in Japan as Fresh Breeze ( フレッシュブリーズ , Furesshu Burīzu ) , and have a " sky " theme similar to that of Sora 's . During development of Birth by Sleep , the Osaka team in charge of developing the game suggested that Ventus should be related with Vanitas , something which Nomura liked as he wanted to add more connections within the story , so Vanitas ' name was made to sound similar to Ventus ' name . Nomura had trouble designing the armor for Ventus , Terra and Aqua since the gameplay mechanism for activating their armor had not been fleshed out . Therefore , an " X " was added to their clothes as a way to activate the armors as well as due to the fact it was one of the game 's keywords . Ever since development of Birth by Sleep started , the staff already decided that Ventus ' , Aqua 's and Terra 's stories would be told in separate scenarios , with Ventus ' story being the second one written . They also wanted emphasize the lack of coincidences in the series , leading to the interaction between the three scenarios . In gameplay perspective , Ventus was designed to be the easiest character to play with in Birth by Sleep , although Nomura recommended to players that Ventus should be the second character to play with in order to understand the story better . Additionally , the way Ventus handles his Keyblade backwards is meant to show the gameplay differences between his and Terra 's and Aqua 's scenarios . Nomura also remarked Ventus ' encounter with the characters Lea and Isa as an important event from the game , hoping both newcomers and older gamers will also find it important from Ventus ' perspective .
= = Reception = =
Due to his resemblance with Roxas , video game publications initially thought that Roxas would be one of the protagonists from Kingdom Hearts Birth by Sleep when seeing one of Ventus ' images . However , when it was revealed that the two were different , publications continued to discuss how similar they were and if there was a connection between them . GamesRadar particularly thought that there would be an eventual connection between the two of them and Sora . Amanda L. Kondolojy from Cheat Code Central also commented on speculations regarding the similarities between both of them , but mentioned that due to the existence of Nobodies in series , it is hard to find them as coincidences . When Jesse McCartney confirmed he was working on the English localization of Birth by Sleep , sites thought that he would voice Ventus , as he also voiced Roxas in previous titles . The character 's story and actions shown in the demonstrations were praised for being the " most original take on Kingdom Hearts " and yet " frustratingly traditional " . Upon Ventus ' introduction in Birth by Sleep , X @-@ Play found the character to be very similar to Sora 's due to his friendly attitude . Kevin VanOrd from the same site gave praise to Ventus ' character for his " well @-@ meaning " and yet not " annoying " personality . The site also said that the time players spend playing with Ventus would be " rewarding " and commented on the English voice acting . PlayStation LifeStyle 's Thomas Williams found the trio of Ventus , Terra and Aqua as welcome additions to the franchise , finding their stories enjoyable even though the three travel to the same worlds . On the other hand , PALGN found the three characters unappealing , labelling Ventus as " just a Roxas clone , but without his personality . " In contrast to 1UP 's comments towards Ventus ' actions in Cinderella 's world , VanOrd commented that such interactions to be " more bothersome than boisterous . " Writing for GamesRadar , Chris Antistaer called Ventus a " Roxas @-@ clone " , and did not understand why he was briefly featured in Kingdom Hearts II .
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= ( You Drive Me ) Crazy =
" ( You Drive Me ) Crazy " is a song recorded by American singer Britney Spears for her debut studio album , ... Baby One More Time ( 1999 ) . Written and produced by Max Martin , Per Magnusson and David Kreuger , with additional writing by Jörgen Elofsson and remix by Martin and Rami Yacoub , it was released as the album 's third single on August 23 , 1999 , by JIVE Records . It was remixed for the soundtrack of Drive Me Crazy . " ( You Drive Me ) Crazy " is a pop song . The song garnered positive reviews from music critics , some of whom praised its simple formula and noted similarities to Spears ' debut single , " ... Baby One More Time " .
" ( You Drive Me ) Crazy " was a commercial success , and peaked inside the top ten on the singles charts of seventeen countries . In the United Kingdom , it became Spears ' third consecutive single to peak inside the top five , while it reached number 10 in the United States ' Billboard Hot 100 , and peaked at number one in Belgium ( Wallonia ) . An accompanying music video , directed by Nigel Dick , and portrayed Spears as a waitress of a dance club , and performed a highly choreographed dance routine with the other waitresses . The video premiered on MTV 's Making the Video special , and featured cameo appearances of actors Melissa Joan Hart and Adrian Grenier . As part of promotion for the song , Spears performed the song at the 1999 MTV Europe Music Awards and 1999 Billboard Music Awards . It has also been included on five of her concert tours .
= = Background = =
Before recording her debut album , Spears had originally envisioned it in style of " Sheryl Crow music , but younger [ and ] more adult contemporary " . However , the singer agreed with her label 's appointment of producers , who had the objective to target a teenage audience at the time . She flew to Cheiron Studios in Stockholm , Sweden , where half of the album was recorded from March to April 1998 , with producers Max Martin , Denniz Pop and Rami Yacoub , among others . " ( You Drive Me ) Crazy " was written by Jörgen Elofsson , while song production and additional songwriting was done by Martin , Per Magnusson and David Kreuger . Spears recorded the vocals for the song in March 1998 , at Cheiron Studios in Stockholm , Sweden . It was also mixed at Cheiron Studios by Martin . Esbjörn Öhrwall and Johan Carlberg played the guitar , while bass guitar was done by Thomas Lindberg . Keyboards and programming was done by Kreuger , and additional keyboards by Magnusson . Background vocals were provided by Jeanette Söderholm , Martin , Yacoub and THE FANCHOIR , formed by Chatrin Nyström , Jeanette Stenhammar , Johanna Stenhammar , Charlotte Björkman and Therese Ancker . In May 1999 , Martin and Spears went to the Battery Studios in New York City , New York , to re @-@ record the vocals of the track , due to the fact that a remixed version called " The Stop ! Remix " was going to be included on the original motion picture soundtrack of the film Drive Me Crazy ( 1999 ) . " ( You Drive Me ) Crazy " was released as a remix package as the third single from ... Baby One More Time on August 23 , 1999 .
= = Composition = =
" ( You Drive Me ) Crazy " is a pop song . The song 's composition follows a simple formula and infuses edgy synthesized instruments , including a recurring cowbell , and having a roughly similar sound to Spears ' debut single " ... Baby One More Time " ( 1999 ) . According to the sheet music published at Musicnotes.com by Universal Music Publishing Group , " ( You Drive Me ) Crazy " is composed in the key of C minor and runs through a moderately slow dance beat infused metronome of 92 beats per minute . Spears ' vocals were deemed as heavily processed when compared to the ones of her previous single , " Sometimes " . Her vocal range spans over an octave , from the low @-@ key of G3 to the high @-@ note of D ♭ 5 . The song 's primary chord progression is Cm – A ♭ -G ( vi @-@ IV @-@ III ) , with a few deviations .
= = Critical reception = =
The song garnered positive reviews from music critics . Kyle Anderson for MTV considered " ( You Drive Me ) Crazy " as " a similar @-@ sounding anthem [ to ' ... Baby One More Time ' ] with some streamlined rock guitar taking center stage ( there 's even a solo ) . It 's catchy enough . " Spence D. of IGN considered " ( You Drive Me ) Crazy " a " [ Max ] Martin 's glossy grown @-@ up pop " song , while Caryn Ganz of Rolling Stone called " ( You Drive Me ) Crazy " a " further hit " from ... Baby One More Time , along with " From the Bottom of My Broken Heart " and " Sometimes " . Music critic Walt Mueller wrote " When Spears starts to sing on this one , she sounds a lot like Janet Jackson . " Christy Lemire of the Associated Press noted that the song and " Stronger " are " so lamely feel @-@ good " tracks that they " could have been the theme song to a ' Karate Kid ' sequel . " Evan Sawdey of PopMatters called it a " lightly dorky " song , and Stephen Thomas Erlewine of Allmusic deemed it as a " fluffy dance @-@ pop at its best . " In a list compiled by Sara Anderson of AOL Radio , " ( You Drive Me ) Crazy " was ranked ninth in a list of Spears ' best songs . During the 2001 BMI Pop Awards , " ( You Drive Me ) Crazy " was honored with the award of Most Performed BMI Song .
= = Chart performance = =
" ( You Drive Me ) Crazy " was a commercial success . The song peaked at number two on the European Hot 100 Singles , being held off the top spot by R. Kelly 's " If I Could Turn Back the Hands of Time " . In the United Kingdom , it was Spears ' third consecutive single to reach a top five position . The track debuted and peaked at number five on the chart issue dated October 2 , 1999 , and stayed on the chart for a total of eleven weeks . It was eventually certified Silver by the British Phonographic Industry ( BPI ) , for shipments over 200 @,@ 000 units . According to The Official Charts Company , " ( You Drive Me ) Crazy " is Spears ' seventh best @-@ selling single in the United Kingdom , with sales over 275 @,@ 000 physical units . The song peaked at number two in France and number four in Germany , being certified Gold in both countries for shipping over 250 @,@ 000 units . It also peaked at number one in Belgium ( Wallonia ) , finishing the year of 1999 as the 17th best @-@ selling single . " ( You Drive Me ) Crazy " was also able to peak inside the top five in Belgium ( Flanders ) , Finland , Ireland , Netherlands , Norway , Sweden , and Switzerland , while reaching top ten positions in Denmark and Italy . Later in 2012 , the song managed to peak at number 65 in Czech Republic due to high airplay .
In the United States , " ( You Drive Me ) Crazy " peaked at number ten on Billboard Hot 100 on the chart issue dated November 13 , 1999 , and became Spears ' second single to peak inside the top ten in the country . On the same week , it peaked at number four on the Pop Songs component chart . On the chart compiled by RPM magazine , the song peaked at number three in Canada . However , on the Canadian Hot 100 compiled by Nielsen Soundscan , it peaked at number 13 . The latter revealed that " ( You Drive Me ) Crazy " was the 44th best @-@ selling single of 1999 in the country . The track peaked at number five in New Zealand , but failed to reach the top ten in Australia , where it peaked at number 12 on the chart issue dated November 12 , 1999 . However , the single was later certified Platinum by the Australian Recording Industry Association ( ARIA ) , and was one of the best @-@ selling singles of 2000 in the country . " ( You Drive Me ) Crazy " performed poorly in Japan , where it peaked at number 80 , and stayed on the chart for two weeks only . Despite the low sales , it is Spears ' 12th best @-@ selling CD release in the country .
= = Music video = =
The song 's accompanying music video was directed by Nigel Dick . Spears conceptualized the video 's treatment , and explained during an interview with MTV in 1999 that " it would be cool to be in a club , and we 're dorky waitresses , and we break out and start dancing . " At the time , Spears expected that the video would take her " to the next level " . To promote the film Drive Me Crazy , actors Adrian Grenier and Melissa Joan Hart were invited to make cameo appearances in the video , since the song had been included on the film 's soundtrack , however , Grenier did not want to participate . Dick commented on the issue , saying , " I was given instructions to ring him up and make sure he appeared in the video . I said , ' You know what , Adrian , I just think it would be great for your career , and Britney 's a great girl and she 's fun to work with . ' Eventually he came around . " Dick also revealed that he was impressed by the singer 's work ethic , adding that she " came to the set completely rehearsed . " The music video premiered on MTV 's Making the Video special that aired on July 18 , 1999 .
The video opens with Spears as a waitress of a dance club . She then goes with other waitresses to their dressing room , where they finish their make @-@ up and change costumes . Spears , now wearing a green sparkly outfit , goes through the corridor to the dance floor with her friends , and starts to perform a high profile choreography , including a chair dance sequence referencing Janet Jackson 's " Miss You Much " video , which Spears also referenced in live performances of the song on the " Crazy 2K Tour " . Scenes of Spears singing in front of a shining orange sign with the word " CRAZY " are also seen throughout the video . On August 24 , 1999 , the music video debuted at number four on Total Request Live . It is the longest running by a female artist on TRL , staying on the top ten for seventy @-@ three days . The video was nominated on the category of Best Dance Video on the 2000 MTV Video Music Awards ; it lost , however , to Jennifer Lopez 's " Waiting for Tonight " ( 1999 ) . An alternate footage of the video can be found on the DVD of Spears first compilation album Greatest Hits : My Prerogative ( 2004 ) . Jennifer Vineyard of MTV commented , " the alternate audio gives the feel of Spears singing the song as a round , where the beat is in sync but one layer of her vocals is just slightly ahead of the other . "
= = Live performances and covers = =
As part of promotion for " ( You Drive Me ) Crazy " ' s release as a single , Spears performed it at the 1999 MTV Europe Music Awards and at the 1999 Billboard Music Awards . It was also performed on five concert tours , the first being the ... Baby One More Time Tour ( 1999 ) . The show began with a dance introduction by Spears ' dancers among smoke effects . She appeared shortly after at the top of the staircase wearing a hot pink vinyl tube top and white vinyl pants with pink knee patches . During the 2000 leg of the tour , entitled Crazy 2k Tour , Spears changed the opening sequence of the show ; the show started with a skit in which the dancers came out of lockers and stayed in the stage until a bell rang . They all sat until a female teacher voice started calling their names . After the teacher called Spears , she emerged at the top of the staircase in a cloud of smoke , wearing a top and white stretch pants , to perform a short dance mix of " ... Baby One More Time " . She then entered one of the lockers and appeared in another one on the opposite side of the stage to perform " ( You Drive Me ) Crazy " , which included a chair dance sequence referencing Janet Jackson 's " Miss You Much " music video that ended with Spears saying " Is that the end ? " , quoting Jackson 's phrase from the video . The song was once again performed in a dance @-@ oriented form on the Oops ! ... I Did It Again World Tour ( 2000 ) , while in 2001 's Dream Within a Dream Tour , the performance featured Spears being captured by her dancers . " ( You Drive Me ) Crazy " was also performed on The Onyx Hotel Tour ( 2004 ) . For the tour , the song was remixed with elements of latin percussion . " Crazy " would not be performed by Spears for another nine years until it was included on the setlist of her Las Vegas residency show Britney : Piece of Me .
In 2003 , American musician Richard Cheese covered " ( You Drive Me ) Crazy " and included it on his album Tuxicity . American pop band Selena Gomez & the Scene performed a homage to Spears during their 2011 We Own the Night Tour . They performed " ( You Drive Me ) Crazy " along with a medley of hits that included " ... Baby One More Time " , " Oops ! ... I Did It Again " , " I 'm a Slave 4 U " , " Toxic " and " Hold It Against Me " , mixed similar to the Chris Cox Megamix included in Greatest Hits : My Prerogative . In the 2012 Glee episode " Britney 2 @.@ 0 " , the characters of Marley Rose and Jake Puckerman performed a medley of the track with Aerosmith 's " Crazy " ( 1993 ) .
= = Track listings = =
= = Credits and personnel = =
Credits for " ( You Drive Me ) Crazy " are taken from the single 's liner notes .
Technical
Recorded and mixed at Cheiron Studios in Stockholm , Sweden .
Additional recording at Battery Studios in New York City , New York .
Personnel
= = Charts = =
= = Certifications = =
= = Release history = =
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= M @-@ 331 ( Michigan highway ) =
M @-@ 331 is an unsigned state trunkline highway in the U.S. state of Michigan located within the city of Kalamazoo . It runs from the southern city limits north into downtown Kalamazoo . This was one of many highways to be established or realigned as a result of a rationalization process initiated in 1998 during the tenure of Governor John Engler . M @-@ 331 uses streets in Kalamazoo that were once part of US Highway 131 ( US 131 ) before a freeway was built that bypassed the downtown area .
= = Route description = =
M @-@ 331 runs along Westnedge Avenue from the intersection of Kilgore Road on the Kalamazoo – Portage city limit near an exit with Interstate 94 ( I @-@ 94 ) . It runs north from this endpoint , which is unconnected to the rest of the trunkline system , to the vicinity of Crane Park in Kalamazoo along Westnedge Avenue . M @-@ 331 runs west of Blanche Hull Park and east of the Kalamazoo Country Club . It also passes immediately next to the Mt . Ever @-@ Rest Cemetery . From Crane Park northward , Park Street carries the northbound traffic while Westnedge Avenue is restricted to the southbound traffic . Along this pairing of one @-@ way streets , M @-@ 331 passes South Westnedge Park and meets Bronson Park at the intersection of Michigan Avenue ( eastbound Business Loop Interstate 94 / M @-@ 43 and northbound Business US Highway 131 ) downtown . The M @-@ 331 designation ends at Michigan Avenue , and Westnedge Avenue and Park Street continue north as Bus . US 131 .
= = History = =
The current alignment of M @-@ 331 was part of the long @-@ time alignment of US 131 before that highway was relocated onto a freeway west of Kalamazoo in the 1960s . The trunkline was designated on October 1 , 1998 as part of a rationalization process started by Governor John Engler designed to transfer control of roads and streets in Michigan of economic importance to the state . The highway is not shown on the official state map published by the Michigan Department of Transportation , but it is labeled on the truck operator 's map as an " unsigned state highway " .
= = Major intersections = =
The entire highway is in Kalamazoo , Kalamazoo County .
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= Lee 's Ferry =
Lees Ferry ( also known as Lee 's Ferry , Lee Ferry , Little Colorado Station and Saints Ferry ) is a site on the Colorado River in Coconino County , Arizona in the United States , about 7 @.@ 5 miles ( 12 @.@ 1 km ) southwest of Page and 9 miles ( 14 km ) south of the Utah – Arizona border .
Due to its unique geography – the only place in hundreds of miles from which one can easily access the Colorado River from both sides – it historically served as an important river crossing and starting in the mid @-@ 19th century was the site of a ferry operated by John Doyle Lee , for whom it is named . Boat service at Lees Ferry continued for over 60 years before being superseded by a bridge in the early 20th century , which allowed for much more efficient automobile travel .
Lees Ferry served as a military outpost for 19th @-@ century settlements in Utah , a center of limited gold seeking and since the 1920s the principal point at which river flow is measured to determine water allocations in the 246 @,@ 000 @-@ square @-@ mile ( 640 @,@ 000 km2 ) Colorado River basin . Lees Ferry demarcates the boundary between the Upper and Lower Basins of the Colorado River ; the states which make up each basin are legally allocated one @-@ half of the river 's natural flow . Glen Canyon Dam impounds the Colorado a short distance upstream and completely regulates the river flow past Lees Ferry . Lees Ferry has long been a focal point of American Southwest water disputes , and has been called " both the physical and spiritual heart of water history in the arid West " . Today Lees Ferry is a well @-@ known fishing and boat launching point , including for whitewater rafting trips through the Grand Canyon .
= = Geography and geology = =
Lees Ferry is located in northern Arizona , at the point where the Paria River joins the Colorado from the north . Lying in an open valley directly downstream from Glen Canyon and shortly above Marble Canyon ( the uppermost section of the Grand Canyon ) , it is the only place in more than 260 miles ( 420 km ) where the Colorado is not hemmed in by sheer canyon walls . This made it an important crossing point before the construction of Navajo and Glen Canyon Bridges in the 20th century . Here , the Colorado River is also much smoother and calmer than the stretches that lie above and below . In the past , another crossing was the former Glen Canyon reach , but it is now flooded under Lake Powell , formed by Glen Canyon Dam 16 miles ( 26 km ) upstream . Lees Ferry is designated within the southwesternmost extreme of Glen Canyon National Recreation Area and is considered the northernmost end of Grand Canyon National Park . It lies 689 miles ( 1 @,@ 109 km ) upstream of the Colorado 's mouth at the Gulf of California , at the approximate halfway mark of the river 's length .
The surrounding valley formed because of a swell in the underlying rock of the Colorado Plateau that caused the regional elevation to intersect the Chinle and Moenkopi Formations , deposited in the Triassic about 208 – 245 million years ago . This area contains sandstone , siltstone , shale and limestone formed by the sediments on ancient seabeds and later alluvial deposits made by the Colorado and Paria Rivers . Because these are more easily eroded than the rock layers that lie above and below them , the Colorado Plateau gradually slopes down to river level at Lees Ferry through a series of flat benchlands .
= = History = =
= = = Early inhabitants and explorers = = =
In pre @-@ Columbian times , the Lees Ferry area was inhabited first by Paleo @-@ Indians , who populated the region beginning about 11 @,@ 500 years ago , followed by the Archaic culture , which appeared on the Colorado Plateau about 8 @,@ 000 years ago . The Anasazi , Paiute and Navajo peoples , who left more evidence of habitation in the valley , arrived only in the last 1 @,@ 000 years or so . Evidence , including the discovery of two ruins nearby on the Paria River , suggests that the Anasazi utilized the area sometime in the 12th century A.D. Nonetheless , indigenous peoples generally did not make extensive use of the Lees Ferry area and other canyon stretches of the Colorado River , preferring the open plains above for hunting . However , Lees Ferry did later become a disputed territory between the Navajos and Paiutes , who recognized it as a valuable livestock watering point .
The first Europeans who happened upon Lees Ferry were members of the 18th @-@ century Dominguez @-@ Escalante Expedition , an attempt to find an overland route through the Southwest between Spanish settlements in present @-@ day New Mexico and California , and in the process , to convert as many Southwestern Native Americans as possible to Christianity . In late 1776 , the party ran out of supplies in what is now southern Utah and having decided to turn back towards Santa Fe , had to find a way to cross the Colorado River . Their Native American guides told them of two regional fords of the river , one at the site of Lees Ferry and the other at Glen Canyon . When the explorers arrived at Lees Ferry in October , they found the river too wide and deep and had no choice but to head for the second ford more than 40 miles ( 64 km ) upstream . Almost two weeks later they successfully crossed the river , and made it back to Santa Fe on January 2 , 1777 . This point , now submerged under Lake Powell , is named Crossing of the Fathers after Francisco Atanasio Domínguez and Silvestre Vélez de Escalante , the two Franciscan priests who headed the expedition .
During the 19th century , Lees Ferry served as a gateway for the expansion of white settlement from Utah south into Arizona . Most of the settlers were Mormons , who had been long established in the Utah Valley near present @-@ day Salt Lake City , and were looking for additional land . Although the river at Lee 's Ferry is too deep to ford for most of the year , its relatively calm current presented an attractive site for crossing by boat . Jacob Hamblin successfully crossed the river here in 1864 , and during the next few years the Mormon presence swelled to the scale of a small military outpost ( Fort Meeks ) in order to defend against Navajo raids . However , these works eventually fell into disrepair as a result of not being able to sustain themselves in the valley .
= = = John D. Lee and the ferry ( 1870 – 1876 ) = = =
John D. Lee , for whom Lees Ferry is now named , came to the crossing in 1870 with the goal of setting up a permanent ferry service for Mormon settlers heading south to Arizona . In 1857 , Lee had taken part in the Mountain Meadows massacre , in which a group of Mormons and Native Americans attacked a passing non @-@ Mormon wagon train from Arkansas , killing about 120 people . The ill @-@ conceived attack was the result of several factors including hysteria surrounding the 1857 " Utah War " and animosity toward Arkansans after the murder of Mormon apostle Parley P. Pratt near Van Buren , Arkansas . Years after the massacre , Lee moved to the remote Colorado River crossing to take refuge from the law .
Lee arrived in September with two of his wives and his children , and created a small settlement named Lonely Dell . The ferry was formally established in January 1873 , with the launching of the Colorado , the first of many boats that would ply the treacherous and fluctuating river at this point . The location of the ferry upstream from the Paria River confluence required passengers to traverse a dangerous incline nicknamed " Lee 's Backbone " on their ascent up the south wall of the valley . Four years later , Lee was finally arrested by the U.S. government and tried for his role in the massacre . Found guilty , he was executed by firing squad at Mountain Meadows on March 28 , 1877 . He was the only participant in the massacre to be tried and executed out of the over fifty men who had participated .
= = = 1877 – 1929 = = =
After Lee 's death , his wife Emma continued to operate the ferry for two years , in 1878 establishing an alternative ferry route below the confluence of the Paria River that allowed travelers to avoid the infamous Lee 's Backbone segment . However , this route could not be used in the summer months due to dangerous high water levels from snowmelt . In 1879 , the LDS Church bought the ferry and transferred its operation to Warren Marshall Johnson and his family . In 1896 the ferry was transferred to Jim Emett , who installed a cable across the Colorado River to reduce the risk of boats washing downstream during high water .
During this time , Lees Ferry and the surrounding area attracted people because of a series of gold strikes in southern Utah , beginning with Cass Hite , a prospector who discovered gold in Glen Canyon in 1883 . Gold seekers came to the area as early as 1889 , when two Mormon prospectors by the names of Holladay and Huntington began to explore the surrounds of Lees Ferry . The most extravagant investment was a full @-@ scale mining operation led by Charles H. Spencer , head of the American Placer Company , who came to Lees Ferry in 1910 planning to extract gold from the Chinle Formation . Spencer brought in tons of equipment including a 92 @-@ foot ( 28 m ) steamboat , the Charles H. Spencer , reputedly the largest vessel ever to float the Colorado River upstream of the Grand Canyon . The operation was a dismal failure , and Spencer left , broke , in 1912 . The steamboat sank in 1921 and now lies in pieces along the Colorado from Glen Canyon to below Lees Ferry .
The ferry continued to run until 1928 . In 1929 the first Navajo Bridge was completed at a location 4 miles ( 6 @.@ 4 km ) downstream and allowed for far more efficient road travel between Utah and Arizona . Somewhat ironically , the ferry was instrumental in transporting materials for the bridge until June 1928 , when the ferryboat capsized , drowning three men and a Ford Model T. The ferry was never replaced , and the bridge was completed seven months later , relegating Lees Ferry from a crowded transportation hub to a quiet backwater .
= = Water rights = =
Since August 1921 , Lees Ferry has been the site of a stream gage operated by the U.S. Geological Survey and has since accumulated one of the most extensive streamflow records ever made in the United States . The river flow here is the principal factor in allocating water to the seven U.S. and two Mexican states in the Colorado River basin . The Colorado River Compact of 1922 apportioned an equal portion of the river 's flow to the Upper Basin ( the U.S. states of Colorado , New Mexico , Utah , Wyoming and northern Arizona ) and the Lower Basin ( Arizona , California and Nevada ) , with the individual " basins " divided by an imaginary line at Lees Ferry .
Total allocations , including a later 1944 treaty with Mexico guaranteeing that country most of the remaining water in the river , ran up to 16 @.@ 5 million acre feet ( 20 @.@ 3 km3 ) , which was believed to be the natural flow of the Colorado River based on early observations at Lees Ferry and other gages along the river . To fully utilize these allocations and prevent water from " wasting " to the ocean , the U.S. federal government constructed a number of large storage dams on the Colorado River system . The canyon country around Lees Ferry was considered for the site of the first dam , but was abandoned in favor of a site lower on the Colorado , where Hoover Dam was completed in 1936 . In the 1960s , the area was again investigated as part of the U.S. Bureau of Reclamation 's Colorado River Storage Project , and that assessment culminated in the construction of Glen Canyon Dam in 1966 . The filling of the resulting Lake Powell of 24 @.@ 3 million acre feet ( 30 @.@ 0 km3 ) inundated the Crossing of the Fathers , Charles Spencer 's old mining operation , and other historic landmarks of the area . Flood control at Glen Canyon also smoothed out the seasonal flux of the Colorado River that so beleaguered the ferry operations at Lees Ferry in the past .
Lees Ferry has long been a focal point of American Southwest water disputes , and has been called " both the physical and spiritual heart of water history in the arid West " . From the 1940s onward , Colorado River flows were found to average significantly less than what was allocated under the two treaties , and 21st century studies have postulated that the actual sustainable flow past Lees Ferry is between 13 @.@ 5 and 14 @.@ 7 million acre feet ( 16 @.@ 7 – 18 @.@ 1 km3 ) , creating water supply issues for the river basin .
= = Lees Ferry today = =
Lees Ferry is considered the official beginning of Grand Canyon National Park on the Colorado River and is used as a fishing area and river rafting launch site . The main access is by Lees Ferry Road , which splits off from U.S. Route 89 at the hamlet of Marble Canyon , Arizona , on the west side of the Navajo Bridges . The Lonely Dell Ranch Historic District , listed on the National Register of Historic Places in 1978 and expanded to include Lees Ferry in 1997 , features several buildings built during and after John D. Lee 's brief tenure at the site along with some remnants of the Charles H. Spencer . The area is managed by the National Park Service within the Glen Canyon National Recreation Area as a historical site .
Lees Ferry is the principal starting point for whitewater rafting trips through the Grand Canyon , which are said to offer " a trip backwards through time " as the river cuts through progressively older strata . The majority of trips are run by commercial rafting enterprises using both paddle and motorized inflatable rafts to carry large parties of tourists ( up to 24 passengers per raft ) on the river with most trips lasting from one week to ten days . Some trips travel all the way to Lake Mead , 277 miles ( 446 km ) downstream , and can last several weeks . Permits for private trips are no longer backlogged on an extensive waiting list , but instead are now based on a lottery system . All but the most experienced rapid runners are discouraged from this potentially dangerous trip .
Trips upstream from the nearby Paria Riffle may be made without special permit ( other than a day use boating fee ) and users may travel 16 miles ( 26 km ) upstream on calm waters to the foot of Glen Canyon Dam . This reach of the Colorado River is also well known for its status as a Blue Ribbon fishery , thanks to releases of cold , clear water from Glen Canyon Dam that make conditions ideal for introduced rainbow trout . While the river here has been stocked with rainbows since 1964 , the implementation of a more stable flow regime at Glen Canyon Dam in 1991 has somewhat reduced the average size of fish caught there due to the increased survival rate of young fish and the resulting competition .
Lees Ferry is also the ending point for backpacking and canyoneering trips down the Paria River , which features historic petroglyphs , slot canyons , waterfalls and natural bridges including Wrather Arch , the longest such formation in the U.S. outside of Utah .
Fishing is an especially important part of the local recreational use of Lees Ferry drawing thousands of anglers a year seeking large trout . In given year there are possible world record fish available in the Glen Canyon Dam area . Several local guides and shops service the water .
= = = In film = = =
Irvin Willat and a cast and crew of 200 people used Lees Ferry during the filming of Heritage of the Plains , released in 1924 . Lee 's Ferry is also mentioned as one of the stops in the film Stagecoach ( 1939 ) .
Scenes from the movie Into the Wild ( based on the book by Jon Krakauer ) were shot on location in 2006 at the Lees Ferry National Park Service Station , which featured actors Emile Hirsch as Christopher McCandless and Steven Wiig as the Lees Ferry Ranger , Steve Koehler .
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= Battle of Baykand =
The Battle of Baykand was fought in 729 between the Turkic Turgesh khaganate and its Soghdian allies and the Arabs of the Umayyad Caliphate at Baykand , a town near Bukhara in Transoxiana ( in modern Uzbekistan ) . The Arab army , under the governor of Khurasan Ashras ibn Abdallah al @-@ Sulami , campaigned across the Oxus River to suppress a large @-@ scale rebellion of the subject Soghdian princes , that had broken out the previous year and received Turgesh support . As the Arab army advanced on Bukhara , it was encircled by the Turgesh and cut off from water . A series of engagements followed that almost ended in a disaster for the Arabs like the " Day of Thirst " five years earlier , but in the end , through the inspirational bravery of a few Arab leaders and the actions of the vanguard under al @-@ Harith ibn Surayj and Qatan ibn Qutayba , the Arabs broke through and reached Bukhara , which they laid siege to .
= = Background = =
The region of Transoxiana ( Arabic : Ma wara ' al @-@ nahr ) had been conquered by the Umayyad leader Qutayba ibn Muslim in the reign of al @-@ Walid I ( reigned 705 – 715 ) , following the Muslim conquests of Persia and Khurasan in the mid @-@ 7th century . The loyalties of Transoxiana 's native Iranian and Turkic populations and of the autonomous local rulers remained questionable , however : in 719 the Transoxianian princes sent a petition to the Chinese court and their Turgesh vassals for military aid against the Umayyad Caliphate 's governors . In response , from 720 on the Turgesh launched a series of attacks against the Muslims in Transoxiana , coupled with uprisings against the Caliphate among the local Sogdians . The Umayyad governors initially managed to suppress the unrest , although control over the Ferghana Valley was lost . In 724 governor Muslim ibn Sa 'id al @-@ Kilabi and his army suffered a heavy defeat ( the so @-@ called " Day of Thirst " ) at the hands of the Turgesh when he tried to subdue Ferghana . This defeat pushed the Arabs on the defensive , and even though no pitched battles took place , over the next few years the Arab position in Transoxiana collapsed swiftly .
= = Ashras al @-@ Sulami 's campaign = =
Faced with this crisis , the Caliph Hisham ibn Abd al @-@ Malik ( r . 723 – 743 ) took drastic measures : Khurasan was separated from the purview of the governor of Iraq and raised to a separate province , under the Jaziran general Ashras ibn Abdallah al @-@ Sulami . Like his predecessor , Asad ibn Abdallah al @-@ Qasri , Ashras tried to win over the loyalties of the local population and the native , non @-@ Arab converts to Islam ( mawali ) , by addressing some of their grievances on taxation . Soon , however , this policy was reversed — possibly due to pressure from the Caliph himself — and the often brutal measures the Arab tax @-@ gatherers employed to gather the taxes from the mawali and the local landed aristocracy ( dihqans ) led to a general revolt in Transoxiana . This was made all the more dangerous to the Arabs due to the rebels ' call for assistance to the Turgesh ruler , the khagan , who replied by leading his army in person against the Arabs . By the time the khagan entered the field in 728 , only Samarkand and the two fortresses of Kamarja and Dabusiyya on the Zarafshan River remained in Arab hands in all of Transoxiana .
In order to confront the Turgesh , Ashras assembled the forces of Khurasan , and led them to Amul on the Oxus River . A vanguard under Qatan , son of Qutayba ibn Muslim , was sent over the river and established a fortified camp , but with the arrival of the combined native Soghdian and Turgesh armies , the bulk of the Arab force was unable to cross for three months . During this period Qatan 's force was beleaguered by the Turgesh , who at the same time crossed the Oxus in small raiding parties . Ashras gave command of his cavalry to Thabit Qutnah , who managed to rout the raiders and drive them to Amul . There the Arabs defeated the Turgesh , although a decisive victory eluded them as Turgesh reinforcements crossed the river and allowed the raiders to escape to safety back over the Oxus . At length Ashras got his forces across , linked up with Qatan ibn Qutayba , and began to advance on Bukhara . The Arabs beat off attacks to reach the trading town of Baykand , some five farsakhs — roughly 30 kilometres ( 19 miles ) — south of Bukhara itself and outside the oasis that surrounded the latter . After the Arab army encamped at Baykand , the Turgesh and Soghdians cut off the water supply from the oasis .
Threatened with thirst , the Arab army left Baykand and headed for Bukhara , with Qatan in the vanguard . When the Turgesh and Soghdian forces attacked , the vanguard , some 6 @,@ 000 men , was cut off from the main body under Ashras , and Ashras and Qatan gave each other up for lost until they met again two days later . The king of Samarkand , Ghurak , who had unto this moment remained ostensibly loyal to the Arabs — although , ever careful to hedge his bets , he had sent his son Mukhtar to the khagan — now switched sides . Exhausted by thirst , the Arab vanguard was almost cut down by their enemies , losing 700 men . At this point , according to the account preserved by al @-@ Tabari , the Tamimi warrior al @-@ Harith ibn Surayj , who was later to lead a widespread revolt in Khurasan , urged the Arabs forward , crying that " being killed by the sword is nobler in ( this ) world and greater in reward with God than death by thirst " . Encouraged by his example , the Tamimi and Qaysi cavalry under al @-@ Harith and Qatan broke through the Turgesh lines and reached the water sources , narrowly staving off a second " Day of Thirst " and allowing Ashras to continue his advance towards Bukhara .
= = Aftermath = =
Following the series of battles around Baykand , the Turgesh retired north to Samarkand , where they assaulted the fortress of Kamarja , while Ashras with his troops besieged Bukhara and wintered in its oasis . Warfare did not die down , however , and the Arabs ' situation remained precarious : when , in early 730 , Ashras ' newly appointed successor Junayd ibn Abd al @-@ Rahman al @-@ Murri tried to reach the army , which was still encamped in the Bukhara oasis , he had to be escorted from Amul by 7 @,@ 000 cavalry who were attacked on the way by the Turgesh and almost destroyed . Although Bukhara was recovered by the Arabs at this time , either under Ashras or under Junayd , in the very next year the latter led the Khurasani army to disaster in the Battle of the Defile , an event which shattered the tenuous Arab control over what remained of their possessions in Transoxiana . The Arabs were not able to recover their position until the governorship of Nasr ibn Sayyar , who in 739 – 741 managed to re @-@ establish the Caliphate 's authority up to Samarkand .
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= Western green mamba =
The western green mamba ( Dendroaspis viridis ) , also known as the West African green mamba or Hallowell 's green mamba , is a long , thin , and highly venomous snake of the mamba genus , Dendroaspis . This species was first described in 1844 by the American herpetologist Edward Hallowell . The western green mamba is a fairly large and predominantly arboreal species , capable of navigating through trees swiftly and gracefully . It will also descend to ground level to pursue prey such as rodents and other small mammals .
The western green mamba is a very alert , nervous , and extremely agile snake that lives mainly in the coastal tropical rainforest , thicket , and woodland regions of western Africa . Like all the other mambas , the western green mamba is a highly venomous elapid species . Its venom is a highly potent mixture of rapid @-@ acting presynaptic and postsynaptic neurotoxins ( dendrotoxins ) , cardiotoxins and fasciculins . Some consider this species to not be a particularly aggressive snake , but others have suggested that they are extremely nervous and are prone to attack aggressively when cornered . Conflict with humans is low compared to some other species found in the region . Bites to people by this species are quite uncommon . Their mortality rate , however , is high ; many of the recorded bites have been fatal . Rapid progression of severe , life @-@ threatening symptoms are hallmarks of mamba bites . Bites with envenomation can be rapidly fatal . Case reports of rapidly fatal outcomes , in as little as 30 minutes , have been recorded for this species .
= = Etymology = =
Dendroaspis viridis was first described by the American herpetologist and physician Edward Hallowell in 1844 . The generic name , Dendroaspis , is derived from Ancient Greek – Dendro , which means " tree " , and aspis ( ασπίς ) or " asp " , which ' is understood to mean " shield " , but it also denotes " cobra " or simply " snake " . In old texts , aspis or asp was used to refer to Naja haje ( in reference to the hood , like a shield ) . Thus , " Dendroaspis " literally means tree snake , which refers to the arboreal nature of most of the species within the genus . Schlegel used the name Dendroaspis , which he described as meaning tree cobra . The specific name viridis is of Latin origin and means " green " . In addition to being called the western green mamba , this species is also commonly known as the West African green mamba or Hallowell 's green mamba .
= = Taxonomy = =
The western green mamba is classified under the genus Dendroaspis of the family Elapidae . The genus was described by the German ornithologist and herpetologist Hermann Schlegel in 1848 . Slowinski et al ( 1997 ) pointed out that the relationships of the African genus Dendroaspis are problematical . However , evidence suggests that Dendroaspis , Ophiophagus , Bungarus , and Hemibungarus form a solid non @-@ coral snake Afro @-@ Asiatic clade .
= = Description = =
The western green mamba is a long and very slender bodied snake with a long tapering tail . The average length of an adult snake of this species is between 1 @.@ 4 metres ( 4 @.@ 6 ft ) and 2 @.@ 1 metres ( 6 @.@ 9 ft ) . Some specimens of this species can grow to maximum lengths of 2 @.@ 4 metres ( 7 @.@ 9 ft ) . The head is narrow and elongate , with a distinct canthus and slightly distinct from the neck . On rare occasions the neck may be flattened when the snake is aroused , but there is no hood . Eyes are medium in size with round pupils and a yellow brown iris .
= = = Scalation = = =
Dorsal surface body colour is vivid yellowish green to green with anterior margins of the scales yellow . In many specimens the posterior body and tail are yellow . In some specimens , dorsal body scales are distinctly bordered with black forming chevron shaped markings . The black interstitial skin is clearly visible especially highlighting individual head scales and scales on the tail . Head dorsum is similar to dorsal surface anterior body colour or slightly darker green . Laterally , the head scales , particularly the labials , are distinctly black edged and colouration is usually paler than dorsum or slightly yellowish tinted . When viewed from above the black edging of scales and black interstitial skin result in a plaited appearance . Head venter , throat , ventral and subcaudal surface colour is pale yellowish to yellowish green .
The head , body and tail scalation of the western green mamba :
= = Distribution and habitat = =
The western green mamba is native to West Africa . Different sources give slightly different ranges but generally agree that it occurs from Gambia and southern Senegal to Benin , including the intervening countries ( from west to east ) Guinea @-@ Bissau , Guinea , Sierra Leone , Liberia , Cote d 'Ivoire ( Ivory Coast ) , Ghana , and Togo . In Togo it has a known northern limit to its distribution in Aledjo , but it might occur in forests of the more northerly Kara region Records from Nigeria might be unreliable , and its presence in the Central African Republic is similarly unclear . Some sources mention it also from the very southern tip of Mali along the border with Côte d 'Ivoire , as well as from western Cameroon and Gabon .
Western green mambas live mainly in the coastal tropical rainforest , thicket , and woodland regions of western Africa . The majority of records of the western green mamba are from within the continuous forest , but the Gambia and Guinea @-@ Bissau records are from isolated forests . The species persists in areas where the tree cover has been removed , providing that sufficient hedges and thicket remain . Found in some suitably vegetated suburbs and towns and parklands therein . It is largely confined to areas where rainfall exceeds 1 @,@ 500 millimetres ( 150 cm ) . In Togo , however , its range extends into the drier open forests of the north , the Guinean savannas of the west , and the littoral zone .
= = = Conservation status = = =
This species is classified as Least Concern ( LC ) on the IUCN Red List of Threatened Species ( v3.1 , 2011 ) . The conservation status of this species was last assessed in July 2012 and published in 2013 , and it was classed as such due to a wide distribution , fairly generalist habits , stable population and the lack of major threats .
= = Behaviour and ecology = =
This species is mostly diurnal , but may be active at night as well . It is an arboreal snake , but it does commonly go to the ground . In fact , it is equally at home hunting and feeding on prey on the ground or in trees . When it wants to sleep it seeks out tree branches that offer dense cover . It is a very quick , extremely agile , alert , and nervous snake . When confronted it will quickly attempt to escape ( usually up a tree if possible ) and avoid any sort of confrontation . If cornered , the western green mamba is highly dangerous and will show a fearsome display of aggression , loudly hissing and striking repeatedly .
= = = Diet and predators = = =
The western green mamba 's natural prey consists mainly of birds and small mammals , including rodents such as mice , rats , and squirrels . Other mammals include bats , tree pangolins , and shrews . They also feed on lizards , frogs , and bird eggs . This snake pursues its prey , striking rapidly and often until the prey succumbs to the venom .
The western green mamba , as a large and highly venomous snake , has very few natural predators , but humans and birds of prey are this snake 's main threats .
= = Venom = =
The western green mamba 's venom is similar to those of other members of the mamba genus ( Dendroaspis ) , but differs from others in toxicity and the composition of the toxins . The venom consists mainly of both pre @-@ synaptic and post @-@ synaptic neurotoxins , cardiotoxins , and fasciculins . The toxicity of the venom can vary tremendously depending on various factors including diet , geographical location , age @-@ dependent change , and other factors . The SC and IV LD50 for this species is 0 @.@ 79 mg / kg and 0 @.@ 71 mg / kg , respectively ( Christensen and Anderson ( 1967 ) ) . One study determined the LD50 of the venom administered to mice via the intraperitoneal ( IP ) route was 0 @.@ 33 mg / kg . In another test using mice that were administered the western green mamba 's venom via the intraperitoneal ( IP ) route the LD50 was 0 @.@ 045 mg / kg . Another experimental IV LD50 toxicity of 0 @.@ 5 mg / kg has been reported , with an average wet venom yield of 100 mg . Like other mamba species , western green mamba venom is among the most rapid @-@ acting venom of snakes .
Human fatalities as a result of bites from this species are rare due to the fact that this species does not often cross paths with humans , but bites have occurred and the majority of the recorded bites have been fatal . The three species of green mambas , including the western green mamba , have venom toxicities that are similar to and comparable to many species of cobras , but green mamba bites often present with more severe and life @-@ threatening symptoms in a shorter period of time . Mortality rates are also higher among green mamba bite victims than with cobra bite victims . Although bites by Dendroaspis viridis are not well documented and the rate of bites , envenoming and fatality is not well known , it appears that bites attributed to this species produce more severe envenomation than bites caused by Dendroaspis angusticeps ( eastern green mamba ) , but far less severe than bites caused by Dendroaspis polylepis ( black mamba ) . When bitten , symptoms rapidly begin to manifest , usually within the first 15 minutes or less . The extraordinary speed with which the venom spreads through tissue and produces rapid manifestations of life @-@ threatening symptoms is unique to mambas . Common symptoms of a bite from a western green mamba include local pain and swelling , although uncommon , local necrosis can be moderate , ataxia , headache , drowsiness , difficulty breathing , vertigo , hypotension ( low blood pressure ) , diarrhea , dizziness , and paralysis . Left untreated , new and more severe symptoms rapidly progress . All symptoms worsen and the victim eventually dies due to suffocation resulting from paralysis of the respiratory muscles . Bites with envenomation can be rapidly fatal . Case reports of rapidly fatal outcomes , in as little as 30 minutes , have been recorded for this species .
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= 2015 Clásica de San Sebastián =
The 2015 Clásica de San Sebastián was a one @-@ day cycling classic that took place in the Basque Country in Spain on 1 August 2015 . It was the 35th edition of the Clásica de San Sebastián and was the nineteenth race of the 2015 UCI World Tour . The defending champion was Alejandro Valverde ( Movistar Team ) , who won a solo victory in the 2014 race .
The race took place in and around the city of San Sebastián and was 219 kilometres ( 136 mi ) in length . The principal difficulty in the race was the sequence of climbs in the final part of the course . Adam Yates ( Orica – GreenEDGE ) attacked on the final climb , the Bordako Tontorra . Greg Van Avermaet ( BMC Racing Team ) was leading the race at the time , but he was hit by a race motorbike , forcing him out of the race . Yates went on to win a solo victory , 15 seconds ahead of the chasing group , becoming the first British rider to win the race . Valverde came third behind Philippe Gilbert ( BMC ) .
= = Route = =
The race began in San Sebastián with a 3 @.@ 7 kilometres ( 2 @.@ 3 mi ) neutral zone and left the city to the west , along the coast of the Bay of Biscay . After 22 @.@ 6 kilometres ( 14 @.@ 0 mi ) , in Zarautz , the course turned to the south for another 24 kilometres ( 15 mi ) to come to Azpeitia . Here the route turned to the east and began climbing towards the first categorised climb of the day . The road gradually climbed for over 13 kilometres ( 8 @.@ 1 mi ) , but only the final 3 @.@ 5 kilometres ( 2 @.@ 2 mi ) were categorised . This section of road , the Alto de Iturburu , had an average gradient of 5 % and was a first @-@ category climb . The summit of the climb came after 59 @.@ 5 kilometres ( 37 @.@ 0 mi ) .
After the descent , there was a fairly flat section of the course . This took the riders northeast for approximately 60 kilometres ( 37 mi ) through Hernani , Oiartzun and Lezo before the first of two ascents of the Alto de Jaizkibel . This was also a first @-@ category climb ; it was 7 @.@ 8 kilometres ( 4 @.@ 8 mi ) in length at an average gradient of 5 @.@ 8 % . The summit of the climb came after 125 kilometres ( 78 mi ) , with 94 kilometres ( 58 mi ) to go to the finish . There was then a descent and a fairly flat 20 @-@ kilometre ( 12 mi ) section of road through Irun . The next climb was the second @-@ category Alto Arkale . This was 2 @.@ 7 kilometres ( 1 @.@ 7 mi ) at 6 @.@ 3 % ; the summit came with 71 @.@ 2 kilometres ( 44 @.@ 2 mi ) remaining . The descent took the riders through Oiartzun and then into a second loop through the climbs of the Alto de Jaizkibel and the Alto Arkale . At the second summit of the Alto Arkale , there were 30 @.@ 8 kilometres ( 19 @.@ 1 mi ) remaining to the finish line .
The next section of the course was 20 kilometres ( 12 mi ) of fairly flat roads . During this section of the race , the riders returned to San Sebastián and crossed the finish line ; at this point there were still 16 kilometres ( 9 @.@ 9 mi ) remaining . The riders left the town again to face the final climb of the day , the second @-@ category Bordako Tontorra . This was a 2 @.@ 5 @-@ kilometre ( 1 @.@ 6 mi ) climb at 9 % ; at the summit there were 7 @.@ 1 kilometres ( 4 @.@ 4 mi ) of descent and then flat roads to the finish . The final climb was introduced in the 2014 edition and included gradients up to 20 % ; the lead group was formed on this ascent in the 2014 race , with Alejandro Valverde attacking on the descent and maintaining a gap to the finish line .
= = Teams = =
As the Clásica de San Sebastián is a UCI World Tour event , all seventeen UCI WorldTeams were invited automatically and obliged to send a squad . Two UCI Professional Continental teams , Caja Rural – Seguros RGA and Cofidis , were given wildcard places to form a nineteen @-@ team peloton . Seventeen teams started the race with eight riders ; Team Sky and LottoNL – Jumbo started the race with seven men . There were therefore 150 riders in the peloton at the start of the race .
= = Pre @-@ race favourites = =
The Clásica de San Sebastián is the most important one @-@ day race in Spain . It comes a week after the conclusion of the Tour de France . Some riders , including Chris Froome ( Team Sky ) , the winner of the Tour , chose not to participate in the race . Riders also arrived from the Tour in a variety of conditions : some were in good form , while others were exhausted . Another of the principal riders from the Tour de France , Alberto Contador ( Tinkoff – Saxo ) , originally planned to participate but was forced to withdraw because of a fever .
The principal favourite for the race was Alejandro Valverde ( Movistar Team ) , who was third in the Tour de France . Valverde was the defending champion in the Clásica de San Sebastián , having won the 2014 edition with an attack on the final descent ; he had also won the 2008 race from a small group sprint . As well as his podium place at the Tour , Valverde had also won La Flèche Wallonne and the Liège – Bastogne – Liège in 2015 . The other principal favourite was Joaquim Rodríguez ( Team Katusha ) . Rodríguez won two stages during the Tour and was expected to be in fresh condition , as he did not attempt a high position in the general classification .
Several other riders were considered to have a strong chance of victory . These included Philippe Gilbert ( BMC Racing Team ) , the winner in 2011 , Mikel Landa ( Astana ) , who had been third in the Giro d 'Italia , and Julian Alaphilippe ( Etixx – Quick @-@ Step ) , who had finished second to Valverde in both La Flèche Wallonne and Liège – Bastogne – Liège .
= = Race report = =
A breakaway of eight riders formed in the early part of the race . These were Manuele Boaro ( Tinkoff – Saxo ) , Valerio Agnoli ( Astana ) , Dennis Vanendert ( Lotto – Soudal ) , Nathan Haas ( Cannondale – Garmin ) , Maarten Wynants ( LottoNL – Jumbo ) , Thomas Degand ( IAM Cycling ) , Lluís Mas ( Caja Rural – Seguros RGA ) and Romain Hardy ( Cofidis ) . These riders stayed together for approximately 160 kilometres ( 99 mi ) ; the Movistar Team controlled the peloton and kept the breakaway 's lead to around three minutes . Boaro attacked the group on the second climb of the Alto de Jaizkibel and opened a gap on the other riders , but he was too far from the finish to make a solo attack last to the finish of the race .
On the final climb of the Alto de Jaizkibel , there were several attacks in the main peloton . These attacks came together on the penultimate climb of the day , the Alto Arkale , to form a sixteen @-@ rider lead group . This group included Warren Barguil ( Giant @-@ Alpecin ) , Dan Martin ( Cannondale @-@ Garmin ) , Philippe Gilbert and Greg Van Avermaet ( both BMC Racing Team ) , Alejandro Valverde ( Movistar Team ) , Joaquim Rodríguez ( Team Katusha ) and Adam Yates ( Orica – GreenEDGE ) . There was significant confusion on the final climb : the last riders from the early breakaway were being caught and the television coverage failed , so the teams were relying on race radio to follow the riders ' positions .
The first attacks on the final climb came from Barguil and Van Avermaet , followed by Yates , while Rodríguez and Valverde waited in the main group . Yates passed Barguil and was chasing Van Avermaet , who was in the lead of the race . Towards the top of the climb , however , Van Avermaet was hit from behind by one of the motorbikes providing television coverage of the race . He was knocked to the ground and the frame of the bike was broken ; Van Avermaet was unable to finish the race . Yates therefore led the race alone at the top of the final climb as the race descended into San Sebastián . Unlike in the 2014 race , when he had crashed out of the lead group on the final descent , Yates extended his lead to 15 seconds as the road flattened out and was able to keep this advantage to the end of the race . As he crossed the finish line , Yates was unaware that he had won the race , as he believed that the initial breakaway had not been caught . It took some time for the message to come through from his team that he had won . In the group behind , Gilbert sprinted to second place ahead of Valverde .
Yates 's victory was the first WorldTour victory of his career and the first ever victory by a British rider in the Clásica de San Sebastián . Van Avermaet and the BMC team , however , were unhappy with the crash that had eliminated him from the race and issued a statement from Jim Ochowicz , the team 's manager , saying that " Greg was robbed and the BMC Racing Team was robbed " and that the team would " explore every legal option " . Simon Yates – Adam 's brother and his teammate at Orica – GreenEDGE – described these comments as " quite disrespectful " ; Van Avermaet later clarified that he considered Yates 's victory well @-@ deserved . The race organisers later wrote to Van Avermaet apologising for the incident ; Van Avermaet was unable to read the letter , however , as it was written in Spanish .
= = Results = =
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= Parity of zero =
Zero is an even number . In other words , its parity — the quality of an integer being even or odd — is even . The simplest way to prove that zero is even is to check that it fits the definition of " even " : it is an integer multiple of 2 , specifically 0 × 2 . As a result , zero shares all the properties that characterize even numbers : 0 is divisible by 2 , 0 is neighbored on both sides by odd numbers , 0 is the sum of an integer ( 0 ) with itself , and a set of 0 objects can be split into two equal sets .
Zero also fits into the patterns formed by other even numbers . The parity rules of arithmetic , such as even − even
= even , require 0 to be even . Zero is the additive identity element of the group of even integers , and it is the starting case from which other even natural numbers are recursively defined . Applications of this recursion from graph theory to computational geometry rely on zero being even . Not only is 0 divisible by 2 , it is divisible by every power of 2 , which is relevant to the binary numeral system used by computers . In this sense , 0 is the " most even " number of all .
Among the general public , the parity of zero can be a source of confusion . In reaction time experiments , most people are slower to identify 0 as even than 2 , 4 , 6 , or 8 . Some students of mathematics — and some teachers — think that zero is odd , or both even and odd , or neither . Researchers in mathematics education propose that these misconceptions can become learning opportunities . Studying equalities like 0 × 2 =
0 can address students ' doubts about calling 0 a number and using it in arithmetic . Class discussions can lead students to appreciate the basic principles of mathematical reasoning , such as the importance of definitions . Evaluating the parity of this exceptional number is an early example of a pervasive theme in mathematics : the abstraction of a familiar concept to an unfamiliar setting .
= = Why zero is even = =
The standard definition of " even number " can be used to directly prove that zero is even . A number is called " even " if it is an integer multiple of 2 . As an example , the reason that 10 is even is that it equals 5 × 2 . In the same way , zero is an integer multiple of 2 , namely 0 × 2 , so zero is even .
It is also possible to explain why zero is even without referring to formal definitions . The following explanations make sense of the idea that zero is even in terms of fundamental number concepts . From this foundation , one can provide a rationale for the definition itself — and its applicability to zero .
= = = Basic explanations = = =
Zero is a number , and numbers are used for counting . Given a set of objects , one uses a number to describe how many objects are in the set . Zero is the count of no objects ; in more formal terms , it is the number of objects in the empty set . The concept of parity is used for making groups of two objects . If the objects in a set can be marked off into groups of two , with none left over , then the number of objects is even . If an object is left over , then the number of objects is odd . The empty set contains zero groups of two , and no object is left over from this grouping , so zero is even .
These ideas can be illustrated by drawing objects in pairs . It is difficult to depict zero groups of two , or to emphasize the nonexistence of a leftover object , so it helps to draw other groupings and to compare them with zero . For example , in the group of five objects , there are two pairs . More importantly , there is a leftover object , so 5 is odd . In the group of four objects , there is no leftover object , so 4 is even . In the group of just one object , there are no pairs , and there is a leftover object , so 1 is odd . In the group of zero objects , there is no leftover object , so 0 is even .
There is another concrete definition of evenness : if the objects in a set can be placed into two groups of equal size , then the number of objects is even . This definition is equivalent to the first one . Again , zero is even because the empty set can be divided into two groups of zero items each .
Numbers can also be visualized as points on a number line . When even and odd numbers are distinguished from each other , their pattern becomes obvious , especially if negative numbers are included :
The even and odd numbers alternate . Starting at any even number , counting up or down by twos reaches the other even numbers , and there is no reason to skip over zero .
With the introduction of multiplication , parity can be approached in a more formal way using arithmetic expressions . Every integer is either of the form ( 2 × ▢ ) + 0 or ( 2 × ▢ ) + 1 ; the former numbers are even and the latter are odd . For example , 1 is odd because 1 |
= ( 2 × 0 ) + 1 , and 0 is even because 0 =
( 2 × 0 ) + 0 . Making a table of these facts then reinforces the number line picture above .
= = = Defining parity = = =
The precise definition of a mathematical term , such as " even " meaning " integer multiple of two " , is ultimately a convention . Unlike " even " , some mathematical terms are purposefully constructed to exclude trivial or degenerate cases . Prime numbers are a famous example . Before the 20th century , definitions of primality were inconsistent , and significant mathematicians such as Goldbach , Lambert , Legendre , Cayley , and Kronecker wrote that 1 was prime . The modern definition of " prime number " is " positive integer with exactly 2 factors " , so 1 is not prime . This definition can be rationalized by observing that it more naturally suits mathematical theorems that concern the primes . For example , the fundamental theorem of arithmetic is easier to state when 1 is not considered prime .
It would be possible to similarly redefine the term " even " in a way that no longer includes zero . However , in this case , the new definition would make it more difficult to state theorems concerning the even numbers . Already the effect can be seen in the algebraic rules governing even and odd numbers . The most relevant rules concern addition , subtraction , and multiplication :
even ± even
= even
odd ± odd =
even
even × integer
= even
Inserting appropriate values into the left sides of these rules , one can produce 0 on the right sides :
2 − 2 =
0
− 3 + 3
= 0
4 × 0 =
0
The above rules would therefore be incorrect if zero were not even . At best they would have to be modified . For example , one test study guide asserts that even numbers are characterized as integer multiples of two , but zero is " neither even nor odd " . Accordingly , the guide 's rules for even and odd numbers contain exceptions :
even ± even
= even ( or zero )
odd ± odd =
even ( or zero )
even × nonzero integer = even
Making an exception for zero in the definition of evenness forces one to make such exceptions in the rules for even numbers . From another perspective , taking the rules obeyed by positive even numbers and requiring that they continue to hold for integers forces the usual definition and the evenness of zero .
= = Mathematical contexts = =
Countless results in number theory invoke the fundamental theorem of arithmetic and the algebraic properties of even numbers , so the above choices have far @-@ reaching consequences . For example , the fact that positive numbers have unique factorizations means that one can determine whether a number has an even or odd number of distinct prime factors . Since 1 is not prime , nor does it have prime factors , it is a product of 0 distinct primes ; since 0 is an even number , 1 has an even number of distinct prime factors . This implies that the Möbius function takes the value μ ( 1 ) = 1 , which is necessary for it to be a multiplicative function and for the Möbius inversion formula to work .
= = = Not being odd = = =
A number n is odd if there is an integer k such that n |
= 2k + 1 . One way to prove that zero is not odd is by contradiction : if 0 =
2k + 1 then k = − 1 / 2 , which is not an integer . Since zero is not odd , if an unknown number is proven to be odd , then it cannot be zero . This apparently trivial observation can provide a convenient and revealing proof explaining why a number is nonzero .
A classic result of graph theory states that a graph of odd order ( having an odd number of vertices ) always has at least one vertex of even degree . ( The statement itself requires zero to be even : the empty graph has an even order , and an isolated vertex has an even degree . ) In order to prove the statement , it is actually easier to prove a stronger result : any odd @-@ order graph has an odd number of even degree vertices . The appearance of this odd number is explained by a still more general result , known as the handshaking lemma : any graph has an even number of vertices of odd degree . Finally , the even number of odd vertices is naturally explained by the degree sum formula .
Sperner 's lemma is a more advanced application of the same strategy . The lemma states that a certain kind of coloring on a triangulation of a simplex has a subsimplex that contains every color . Rather than directly construct such a subsimplex , it is more convenient to prove that there exists an odd number of such subsimplices through an induction argument . A stronger statement of the lemma then explains why this number is odd : it naturally breaks down as ( n + 1 ) + n when one considers the two possible orientations of a simplex .
= = = Even @-@ odd alternation = = =
The fact that zero is even , together with the fact that even and odd numbers alternate , is enough to determine the parity of every other natural number . This idea can be formalized into a recursive definition of the set of even natural numbers :
0 is even .
( n + 1 ) is even if and only if n is not even .
This definition has the conceptual advantage of relying only on the minimal foundations of the natural numbers : the existence of 0 and of successors . As such , it is useful for computer logic systems such as LF and the Isabelle theorem prover . With this definition , the evenness of zero is not a theorem but an axiom . Indeed , " zero is an even number " may be interpreted as one of the Peano axioms , of which the even natural numbers are a model . A similar construction extends the definition of parity to transfinite ordinal numbers : every limit ordinal is even , including zero , and successors of even ordinals are odd .
The classic point in polygon test from computational geometry applies the above ideas . To determine if a point lies within a polygon , one casts a ray from infinity to the point and counts the number of times the ray crosses the edge of polygon . The crossing number is even if and only if the point is outside the polygon . This algorithm works because if the ray never crosses the polygon , then its crossing number is zero , which is even , and the point is outside . Every time the ray does cross the polygon , the crossing number alternates between even and odd , and the point at its tip alternates between outside and inside .
In graph theory , a bipartite graph is a graph whose vertices are split into two colors , such that neighboring vertices have different colors . If a connected graph has no odd cycles , then a bipartition can be constructed by choosing a base vertex v and coloring every vertex black or white , depending on whether its distance from v is even or odd . Since the distance between v and itself is 0 , and 0 is even , the base vertex is colored differently from its neighbors , which lie at a distance of 1 .
= = = Algebraic patterns = = =
In abstract algebra , the even integers form various algebraic structures that require the inclusion of zero . The fact that the additive identity ( zero ) is even , together with the evenness of sums and additive inverses of even numbers and the associativity of addition , means that the even integers form a group . Moreover , the group of even integers under addition is a subgroup of the group of all integers ; this is an elementary example of the subgroup concept . The earlier observation that the rule " even − even
= even " forces 0 to be even is part of a general pattern : any nonempty subset of an additive group that is closed under subtraction must be a subgroup , and in particular , must contain the identity .
Since the even integers form a subgroup of the integers , they partition the integers into cosets . These cosets may be described as the equivalence classes of the following equivalence relation : x ~ y if ( x − y ) is even . Here , the evenness of zero is directly manifested as the reflexivity of the binary relation ~ . There are only two cosets of this subgroup — the even and odd numbers — so it has index 2 .
Analogously , the alternating group is a subgroup of index 2 in the symmetric group on n letters . The elements of the alternating group , called even permutations , are the products of even numbers of transpositions . The identity map , an empty product of no transpositions , is an even permutation since zero is even ; it is the identity element of the group .
The rule " even × integer =
even " means that the even numbers form an ideal in the ring of integers , and the above equivalence relation can be described as equivalence modulo this ideal . In particular , even integers are exactly those integers k where k ≡ 0 ( mod 2 ) . This formulation is useful for investigating integer zeroes of polynomials .
= = = 2 @-@ adic order = = =
There is a sense in which some multiples of 2 are " more even " than others . Multiples of 4 are called doubly even , since they can be divided by 2 twice . Not only is zero divisible by 4 , zero has the unique property of being divisible by every power of 2 , so it surpasses all other numbers in " evenness " .
One consequence of this fact appears in the bit @-@ reversed ordering of integer data types used by some computer algorithms , such as the Cooley – Tukey fast Fourier transform . This ordering has the property that the farther to the left the first 1 occurs in a number 's binary expansion , or the more times it is divisible by 2 , the sooner it appears . Zero 's bit reversal is still zero ; it can be divided by 2 any number of times , and its binary expansion does not contain any 1s , so it always comes first .
Although 0 is divisible by 2 more times than any other number , it is not straightforward to quantify exactly how many times that is . For any nonzero integer n , one may define the 2 @-@ adic order of n to be the number of times n is divisible by 2 . This description does not work for 0 ; no matter how many times it is divided by 2 , it can always be divided by 2 again . Rather , the usual convention is to set the 2 @-@ order of 0 to be infinity as a special case . This convention is not peculiar to the 2 @-@ order ; it is one of the axioms of an additive valuation in higher algebra .
The powers of two — 1 , 2 , 4 , 8 , ... — form a simple sequence of numbers of increasing 2 @-@ order . In the 2 @-@ adic numbers , such sequences actually converge to zero .
= = Education = =
The subject of the parity of zero is often treated within the first two or three years of primary education , as the concept of even and odd numbers is introduced and developed .
= = = Students ' knowledge = = =
The chart on the right depicts children 's beliefs about the parity of zero , as they progress from Year 1 to Year 6 of the English education system . The data are from Len Frobisher , who conducted a pair of surveys of English schoolchildren . Frobisher was interested in how knowledge of single @-@ digit parity translates to knowledge of multiple @-@ digit parity , and zero figures prominently in the results .
In a preliminary survey of nearly 400 seven @-@ year @-@ olds , 45 % chose even over odd when asked the parity of zero . A follow @-@ up investigation offered more choices : neither , both , and don 't know . This time the number of children in the same age range identifying zero as even dropped to 32 % . Success in deciding that zero is even initially shoots up and then levels off at around 50 % in Years 3 to 6 . For comparison , the easiest task , identifying the parity of a single digit , levels off at about 85 % success .
In interviews , Frobisher elicited the students ' reasoning . One fifth @-@ year decided that 0 was even because it was found on the 2 times table . A couple of fourth @-@ years realized that zero can be split into equal parts . Another fourth @-@ year reasoned " 1 is odd and if I go down it 's even . " The interviews also revealed the misconceptions behind incorrect responses . A second @-@ year was " quite convinced " that zero was odd , on the basis that " it is the first number you count " . A fourth @-@ year referred to 0 as " none " and thought that it was neither odd nor even , since " it 's not a number " . In another study , Annie Keith observed a class of 15 second grade students who convinced each other that zero was an even number based on even @-@ odd alternation and on the possibility of splitting a group of zero things in two equal groups .
More in @-@ depth investigations were conducted by Esther Levenson , Pessia Tsamir , and Dina Tirosh , who interviewed a pair of sixth @-@ grade students who were performing highly in their mathematics class . One student preferred deductive explanations of mathematical claims , while the other preferred practical examples . Both students initially thought that 0 was neither even nor odd , for different reasons . Levenson et al. demonstrated how the students ' reasoning reflected their concepts of zero and division .
Deborah Loewenberg Ball analyzed a third grade class students ' ideas about even and odd numbers and zero , which they had just been discussing with a group of fourth @-@ graders . The students discussed the parity of zero , the rules for even numbers , and how mathematics is done . The claims about zero took many forms , as seen in the list on the right . Ball and her coauthors argued that the episode demonstrated how students can " do mathematics in school " , as opposed to the usual reduction of the discipline to the mechanical solution of exercises .
One of the themes in the research literature is the tension between students ' concept images of parity and their concept definitions . Levenson et al . ' s sixth @-@ graders both defined even numbers as multiples of 2 or numbers divisible by 2 , but they were initially unable to apply this definition to zero , because they were unsure how to multiply or divide zero by 2 . The interviewer eventually led them to conclude that zero was even ; the students took different routes to this conclusion , drawing on a combination of images , definitions , practical explanations , and abstract explanations . In another study , David Dickerson and Damien Pitman examined the use of definitions by five advanced undergraduate mathematics majors . They found that the undergraduates were largely able to apply the definition of " even " to zero , but they were still not convinced by this reasoning , since it conflicted with their concept images .
= = = Teachers ' knowledge = = =
Researchers of mathematics education at the University of Michigan have included the true @-@ or @-@ false prompt " 0 is an even number " in a database of over 250 questions designed to measure teachers ' content knowledge . For them , the question exemplifies " common knowledge ... that any well @-@ educated adult should have " , and it is " ideologically neutral " in that the answer does not vary between traditional and reform mathematics . In a 2000 – 2004 study of 700 primary teachers in the United States , overall performance on these questions significantly predicted improvements in students ' standardized test scores after taking the teachers ' classes . In a more in @-@ depth 2008 study , the researchers found a school where all of the teachers thought that zero was neither odd nor even , including one teacher who was exemplary by all other measures . The misconception had been spread by a math coach in their building .
It is uncertain how many teachers harbor misconceptions about zero . The Michigan studies did not publish data for individual questions . Betty Lichtenberg , an associate professor of mathematics education at the University of South Florida , in a 1972 study reported that when a group of prospective elementary school teachers were given a true @-@ or @-@ false test including the item " Zero is an even number " , they found it to be a " tricky question " , with about two thirds answering " False " .
= = = Implications for instruction = = =
Mathematically , proving that zero is even is a simple matter of applying a definition , but more explanation is needed in the context of education . One issue concerns the foundations of the proof ; the definition of " even " as " integer multiple of 2 " is not always appropriate . A student in the first years of primary education may not yet have learned what " integer " or " multiple " means , much less how to multiply with 0 . Additionally , stating a definition of parity for all integers can seem like an arbitrary conceptual shortcut if the only even numbers investigated so far have been positive . It can help to acknowledge that as the number concept is extended from positive integers to include zero and negative integers , number properties such as parity are also extended in a nontrivial way .
= = Numerical cognition = =
Adults who do believe that zero is even can nevertheless be unfamiliar with thinking of it as even , enough so to measurably slow them down in a reaction time experiment . Stanislas Dehaene , a pioneer in the field of numerical cognition , led a series of such experiments in the early 1990s . A numeral or a number word is flashed to the subject on a monitor , and a computer records the time it takes the subject to push one of two buttons to identify the number as odd or even . The results showed that 0 was slower to process than other even numbers . Some variations of the experiment found delays as long as 60 milliseconds or about 10 % of the average reaction time — a small difference but a significant one .
Dehaene 's experiments were not designed specifically to investigate 0 but to compare competing models of how parity information is processed and extracted . The most specific model , the mental calculation hypothesis , suggests that reactions to 0 should be fast ; 0 is a small number , and it is easy to calculate 0 × 2 |
= 0 . ( Subjects are known to compute and name the result of multiplication by zero faster than multiplication of nonzero numbers , although they are slower to verify proposed results like 2 × 0 =
0 . ) The results of the experiments suggested that something quite different was happening : parity information was apparently being recalled from memory along with a cluster of related properties , such as being prime or a power of two . Both the sequence of powers of two and the sequence of positive even numbers 2 , 4 , 6 , 8 , ... are well @-@ distinguished mental categories whose members are prototypically even . Zero belongs to neither list , hence the slower responses .
Repeated experiments have shown a delay at zero for subjects with a variety of ages and national and linguistic backgrounds , confronted with number names in numeral form , spelled out , and spelled in a mirror image . Dehaene 's group did find one differentiating factor : mathematical expertise . In one of their experiments , students in the École Normale Supérieure were divided into two groups : those in literary studies and those studying mathematics , physics , or biology . The slowing at 0 was " essentially found in the [ literary ] group " , and in fact , " before the experiment , some L subjects were unsure whether 0 was odd or even and had to be reminded of the mathematical definition " .
This strong dependence on familiarity again undermines the mental calculation hypothesis . The effect also suggests that it is inappropriate to include zero in experiments where even and odd numbers are compared as a group . As one study puts it , " Most researchers seem to agree that zero is not a typical even number and should not be investigated as part of the mental number line . "
= = Everyday contexts = =
Some of the contexts where the parity of zero makes an appearance are purely rhetorical . The issue provides material for Internet message boards and ask @-@ the @-@ expert websites . Linguist Joseph Grimes muses that asking " Is zero an even number ? " to married couples is a good way to get them to disagree . People who think that zero is neither even nor odd may use the parity of zero as proof that every rule has a counterexample , or as an example of a trick question .
Around the year 2000 , media outlets noted a pair of unusual milestones : " 1999 / 11 / 19 " was the last calendar date composed of all odd digits that would occur for a very long time , and that " 2000 / 02 / 02 " was the first all @-@ even date to occur in a very long time . Since these results make use of 0 being even , some readers disagreed with the idea .
In standardized tests , if a question asks about the behavior of even numbers , it might be necessary to keep in mind that zero is even . Official publications relating to the GMAT and GRE tests both state that 0 is even .
The parity of zero is relevant to odd – even rationing , in which cars may drive or purchase gasoline on alternate days , according to the parity of the last digit in their license plates . Half of the numbers in a given range end in 0 , 2 , 4 , 6 , 8 and the other half in 1 , 3 , 5 , 7 , 9 , so it makes sense to include 0 with the other even numbers . However , in 1977 , a Paris rationing system led to confusion : on an odd @-@ only day , the police avoided fining drivers whose plates ended in 0 , because they did not know whether 0 was even . To avoid such confusion , the relevant legislation sometimes stipulates that zero is even ; such laws have been passed in New South Wales and Maryland .
On U.S. Navy vessels , even @-@ numbered compartments are found on the port side , but zero is reserved for compartments that intersect the centerline . That is , the numbers read 6 @-@ 4 @-@ 2 @-@ 0 @-@ 1 @-@ 3 @-@ 5 from port to starboard . In the game of roulette , the number 0 does not count as even or odd , giving the casino an advantage on such bets . Similarly , the parity of zero can affect payoffs in prop bets when the outcome depends on whether some randomized number is odd or even , and it turns out to be zero .
The game of " odds and evens " is also affected : if both players cast zero fingers , the total number of fingers is zero , so the even player wins . One teachers ' manual suggests playing this game as a way to introduce children to the concept that 0 is divisible by 2 .
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= 17th Precinct =
17th Precinct is a police procedural television program created by Ronald D. Moore . In a modern world where magic supplanted science , the unaired pilot featured two non @-@ intersecting stories : the death of a city executive at the hands of a wrongful convict , and the introduction of terrorists who are devoted to the destruction of magic . Moore developed the series with Sony Pictures Television for NBCUniversal , bringing with him several of the stars of his reimagined Battlestar Galactica franchise as cast members . The series was pitched in September 2010 , the pilot was ordered January 2011 , NBC passed on the series in May 2011 , and the unaired pilot was leaked in December 2011 . Reviewers mostly liked 17th Precinct , commenting on its innovativeness despite its police procedural roots .
= = Plot = =
The series takes place in the American city of Excelsior ( shot in Vancouver , modeled on San Francisco ) , in a world where science was never " invented " , and instead of using " oil , electricity , [ and ] coal " , mankind relies on plant- and fire @-@ powered magic to run society . The police of Excelsior 's 17th Precinct use spells to collect evidence and information , they defend themselves with " magic discs " , and they psychically access " the stream " ( a smokey light beam ) for information , printouts , and newspapers .
= = = Unaired pilot = = =
Donald Pynchon , Excelsior 's executive prophet ( a city government official concerned with making and interpreting city @-@ wide prophesies ) , is murdered in a North Beach back alley on September 23 , 2011 . Detectives Longstreet and Bosson ( Bamber & Callis ) are tasked with the case and determine that his murder was intentionally brutal , and it was unobserved due to a magical charm which deadened sound in the alley . It turns out that fifteen years previously , Pynchon was in Mendocino , California when , relying on a prophetic vision , testified against Lionel Dixon on charges of rape and murder . Dixon received a life sentence of magically reliving his victim 's final experiences . After Dixon was acquitted thirteen years later , he was magically given a new life as a child ( Quinn Lord ) in an effort to make up for the mistaken identity ; Dixon instead was driven to murder both Pynchon and the acquitting judge .
Unconnected with the Pynchon case , DCI Wilder Blanks ( Walker ) begins seeing visions related to the Stoics , " a group dedicated to the destruction of magic " in favor of " reason , rationality , and [ ... ] science " — a laughable prospect , but one about which they are deadly serious . Twelve years previously ( 1999 ) , the Stoics committed a series of murders to further their cause , but have neither been seen nor heard of since . Blanks retrieves DS Mira Barkley ( Channing ) from her dissatisfying work in another precinct to help with the Stoics ; Barkley was his partner during the previous Stoics case . Blanks partners Barkley with rookie detective Jimmy Travers ( Long ) due to the latter 's potential as an intuitive savant . Investigating a nuisance case in an apartment building , Barkley and Travers unwittingly allow the Stoics access to murder an otherwise protected tenant , a college professor of " advanced magical engineering and biology with an emphasis on power plant design . " In the dénouement , it is revealed that the Stoics use " mechanical , rather than ' true ' magic " which nothing in their world can defend against ; the professor was killed using the Stoics ' means , something called a bullet .
= = Production = =
17th Precinct was created by Ronald D. Moore and produced by Sony Pictures Television . Moore 's development of 17th Precinct was part of a two @-@ year deal with Sony Pictures Television to " create and executive produce series projects for broadcast and cable through his production company Tall Ship Prods . " When Moore pitched the show to NBCUniversal in September 2010 , it carried with it an approximate $ 2 million price tag for the pilot and penalties . In January 2011 , NBC ordered a pilot for the series from Moore and Sony .
= = Cast = =
Moore brought several actors with whom he 'd worked before into 17th Precinct , particularly from the reimagined Battlestar Galactica franchise .
Jamie Bamber as Caolan Longstreet : A detective with the Excelsior Police Department ( EX.P.D. ) , Longstreet is described as determined to succeed and be promoted ; his skills allow him great forensic insight into a crime scene . Longstreet is married to Susan and has two children . Bamber foregoes his native British accent for an American one .
James Callis as Jeff Bosson : Longstreet 's partner on the EX.P.D. , Bosson is the counterpart to Longstreet 's straight man and family man persona . In pre @-@ release information on the series , it was said that Bosson is keeping a " big secret " from his partner . Callis retains his native British accent for 17th Precinct .
Tricia Helfer as Doctor Morgana Kurlansky : As the precinct 's " public necromancer " , Kurlansky communes with dead victims at crime scenes to gain their testimony , and coordinates with the police on other forensic evidence derived from the corpse . She has a personal relationship with DCI Blanks which is not elaborated upon either in the leaked episode or the pre @-@ release information .
Eamonn Walker as Detective Chief Inspector Wilder Blanks : Blanks is chief inspector at the EX.P.D. 12 years prior to the series ' time , he was partnered with DS Barkley during the Stoics ' previous series of murders . As an " intuitive savant " , Blanks experiences visions and feelings which have tangible connections to events .
Esai Morales as Detective Inspector Liam Butterfield : Working at the EX.P.D. , Butterfield has an antagonistic relationship with DS Barkley from her previous stint working in the Homicide Division . The character also was apparently a woman ( Lisa ) when last associated with Barkley , a change about which he is defensive when she needles him — " I 'm not Lisa anymore , inside or out . " ; io9 described Butterfield as " [ o ] therwise , he 's pretty much a total hard @-@ ass . "
Stockard Channing as Detective Sergeant Mira Barkley : After dissatisfied years working in the Robbery Division , Barkley is brought back at the request of DCI Blanks because of her expertise from working the Stoics ' murders in Alameda 12 years previously . She was partnered with Blanks when he was just a rookie .
Matt Long as Detective James " Jimmy " Travers : As a rookie officer , Travers is partnered with Barkley because of his potential as a " intuitive savant " .
Kristin Kreuk as Susan : Longstreet 's wife did not appear in the unaired pilot , but was said to run a declining antiques store and have a " huge dark secret . "
= = Release = =
On May 12 , 2011 , NBC announced that they had passed on 17th Precinct for their fall 2011 season of shows . NBC instead ordered a full season of another program featuring a supernatural angle on the traditional police procedural genre , Universal Television 's Grimm .
The unnamed pilot episode of 17th Precinct was leaked online at Vimeo in the last days of December 2011 .
= = Reception = =
Science fiction blog io9 called Moore a " master of world @-@ building " , describing Excelsior as a richly described setting . They lauded its freshness in spite of its police procedural genre , saying that it was " bursting with new ideas " and " [ r ] ejuvenated a whole new genre " . Airlock Alpha also commended 17th Precinct for incorporating a fresh take on the police procedural genre , though also felt the pilot introduced too many characters and concepts . TG Daily thought the concept was cool , though they felt " the execution could use a little polish " . They also specifically lauded Bamber , Helfer , and Callis , while not being overly impressed by the supporting cast . In the end , they would have preferred 17th Precinct over Grimm .
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= Typhoon Nepartak ( 2003 ) =
Typhoon Nepartak , known in the Philippines as Typhoon Weng , was a modest tropical cyclone that struck the central Philippines and the southern China island of Hainan in November 2003 . Forming as a tropical depression on November 11 between Yap and Guam , the system moved westward and slowly intensified . It received the name Nepartak midday on November 12 from the Japan Meteorological Agency , becoming the 20th named storm of the 2003 Pacific typhoon season . On November 13 , Napartak struck Samar in the Philippines and bisected the island chain . Up to four million people lost power , and transportation ground to a halt ; over 5 @,@ 000 individuals became stranded on ships forced to stay in port during the tropical storm . It was reported that 13 individuals lost their lives to the storm in the Philippines .
After entering the open waters of the South China Sea , Nepartak continued to intensify and turned more toward the northwest . It attained its peak intensity on November 16 , with maximum 10 ‑ minute sustained winds of 120 km / h ( 75 mph ) and 1 @-@ minute winds of 140 km / h ( 85 mph ) . After weakening slightly , the storm found a weakness in the easterly steering currents and bore north , reintensifying slightly and directly striking southwestern Hainan . There , heavy rainfall and strong winds destroyed crops , livestock , and hundreds of homes , leaving $ 197 million ( 2003 USD ) in damage . The storm rapidly deteriorated in the Gulf of Tonkin and dissipated as it neared mainland China .
= = Meteorological history = =
Nepartak originated in a region of strong thunderstorm activity , associated with a broad trough of low surface pressure , which was situated around 640 km ( 400 mi ) southeast of Guam by 0000 UTC on November 11 . With weak wind shear and modest divergence of air over the system , it began to mature , although initially the Joint Typhoon Warning Center ( JTWC ) downplayed the potential for tropical cyclogenesis . Over the next several hours , a low @-@ level circulation center became evident and convection organized around it , prompting the JTWC to issue an updated outlook . At 1800 UTC , the Japan Meteorological Agency ( JMA ) classified the storm as a tropical depression while it was located northeast of Yap in the Caroline Islands . The JTWC issued a tropical cyclone formation alert for the system at 2030 UTC , and designated it Tropical Depression 25W at 1200 UTC on November 12 . The system intensified gradually as it began to track quickly westward toward the Philippines .
The depression had found its way to the southwestern quadrant of a large anticyclone aloft , allowing for continued strengthening . Both the JMA and the JTWC upgraded the system to a tropical storm midday on November 12 , when it gained the name Nepartak from the JMA . Simultaneously , the cyclone entered the area of responsibility of the Philippine Atmospheric , Geophysical and Astronomical Services Administration , which named it Tropical Storm Weng . Meteorologically , the storm began to exhibit improved outflow and deepening convection as it neared the central Philippines . At around 1600 UTC on November 13 , Nepartak made landfall on northern Samar Island in the Philippines before traversing the remainder of the archipelago from east to west . The cyclone emerged into the South China Sea briefly weakened and with reduced forward motion , but quickly resumed its intensification trend as it turned more toward the northwest . Shortly thereafter — at 0000 UTC on November 15 — the JTWC further upgraded 25W to a typhoon .
Continuing generally toward the west @-@ northwest under steering currents from a mid @-@ level ridge to its north , Nepartak maintained its windspeeds throughout the day . With an improving appearance on satellite imagery , however , the storm gained some additional strength , and the JTWC estimated 25W to have attained its first peak intensity with maximum 1 ‑ minute sustained winds of 140 km / h ( 85 mph ) at 0000 UTC on November 16 . Later that day , the JMA determined Nepartak to have reached maximum 10 @-@ minute winds of 120 km / h ( 75 mph ) , placing it at typhoon status . The cyclonic envelope began to ingest dry air from its surroundings , and convection began to wane , leading to slight weakening as the storm approached the island of Hainan . A shortwave trough soon cut a weakness in the mid @-@ level ridge which had previously suppressed Nepartak to the south , allowing the cyclone to curve north and enhancing outflow over the storm . By late on November 17 , a small eye feature about 19 km ( 12 mi ) in diameter had formed , and at 0000 UTC the next day it was situated just offshore southwestern Hainan .
The cyclone 's 1 @-@ minute winds increased once again to 140 km / h , marking its second and final peak at 0000 UTC on November 18 . The JMA , however , maintained Nepartak as a severe tropical storm . The JTWC indicated that 25W made a second landfall on the coast of Hainan , although the JMA did not make such mention , implying Nepartak 's center remained over the Gulf of Tonkin . Regardless , the cyclone 's circulation had obscured most of Hainan and the Gulf of Tonkin and reached into adjacent Vietnam , and its forward speed slowed to a crawl . Extended interaction with land proved detrimental to the storm , and it began to rapidly disintegrate . Just 18 hours after its final bout of strengthening , Nepartak had been reduced to an exposed circulation center with no associated thunderstorms . Turning toward the northeast , the system had been concurrently downgraded to a tropical depression by the JTWC and JMA early on November 19 . The weak remnant low of Nepartak limped ashore over Beihai , China at 1900 UTC and dissipated shortly thereafter .
= = Impact = =
On its first landfall , the tropical storm buffeted the eastern @-@ central Philippines with damaging winds gusting up to 160 km / h ( 100 mph ) , heavy rainfall , and rough seas . At least 20 provinces experienced adverse or dangerous weather , with the worst conditions concentrated over the islands of Samar and Masbate . While structural and crop damages were limited , local infrastructure and transportation suffered the greatest . Nepartak 's winds caused complete power outages on Samar , Masbate , and nearby Marinduque , affecting their entire collective population of nearly four million individuals . Many schools were closed . The storm forced the cancellation of nearly two dozen domestic flights to and from the region , and at least 120 ferries and other vessels sought shelter in ports around the Manila , Bicol , and Visayas regions . On those ships were more than 5 @,@ 000 people who became stranded until safe passage could be made . By November 15 , five deaths had been confirmed in the Philippines , four the result of electrocutions from downed powerlines . Immediately following the disaster , then @-@ President Gloria Macapagal @-@ Arroyo made assisting the stranded passengers in coastal ports a priority . According to the PAGASA in its post @-@ storm report , a total of 13 people lost their lives , 5 others remained unaccounted for , and 11 sustained injuries . One newspaper reported that a motorized craft in the Tañon Strait capsized at the height of the storm , forcing the rescue of 11 people . Another source also describes the sinking of a boat with at least 13 survivors and one fatality . It is not clear whether these accounts cover the same incident .
Nepartak inflicted widespread destruction on Hainan , including damage to farms and buildings . Most of the island was subject to strong winds and torrential rains , but the storm helped to relieve one of the worst summer droughts in almost 65 years . Due to the danger , shipping was halted in the Qiongzhou Strait between November 16 and 19 . Nepartak impacted at least 1 @.@ 72 million people on Hainan , compromised infrastructure , and impeded industry . The storm halted the operation of mines and rendered 72 highways temporarily unusable . Crops suffered extensively ; 64 @,@ 000 ha ( 160 @,@ 000 acres ) of fields were damaged , reducing grain production by as much as 3 @,@ 200 tons . In addition , 400 head of livestock were lost to the typhoon . With about 800 homes destroyed , damage on Hainan amounted to $ 197 million ( 2003 USD ) , and no fatalities were reported . Following the storm , a young male sperm whale weighing over 500 kg ( 1100 lb ) washed ashore near Dongfang City on the island 's southern shore , and died shortly after . Biologists speculated that the whale 's demise may have been related to typhoon , although this was not confirmed .
By the time the storm had begun to abate over Hainan , it was already nearly dissipated , and as a result produced few , if any , noticeable effects in mainland China . Across the Gulf of Tonkin , Vietnam had experienced deadly flooding in the week before Nepartak 's approach , and the typhoon initially raised concerns about worsening the situation . Officials made preparations to minimize potentially exacerbating factors , and the cyclone remained far enough east to avoid seriously impacting the country .
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= Ryan Getzlaf =
Ryan Getzlaf ( born May 10 , 1985 ) is a Canadian professional ice hockey centre who currently serves as captain of the Anaheim Ducks of the National Hockey League ( NHL ) . A first round selection , 19th overall , at the 2003 NHL Entry Draft , Getzlaf has played his entire professional career in the Ducks organization and ranks as one of the franchise 's all @-@ time leading scorers . He has played in three NHL All @-@ Star Games and was a member of the Ducks ' 2007 Stanley Cup championship team . A playmaker and power forward , Getzlaf has led the Ducks in assists seven times , including a franchise record of 66 in 2008 – 09 .
As a junior , Getzlaf played four seasons with the Calgary Hitmen and was twice named to a Western Hockey League ( WHL ) all @-@ star team . Internationally , he has represented Canada on numerous occasions . Getzlaf was a member of the 2005 World Junior Championship squad considered the greatest in Canadian history , and won a silver medal at the 2008 IIHF World Championship . A two @-@ time Olympian , Getzlaf played with Canadian teams that won gold medals at the 2010 and 2014 Winter Games .
= = Early life = =
Getzlaf was born May 10 , 1985 , in Regina , Saskatchewan . He is the younger son of Steve and Susan Getzlaf , and has an older brother , Chris . He attended Robert Usher Collegiate in Regina .
Growing up in an athletically minded family , both Ryan and Chris were encouraged to play several sports , particularly hockey and football . Chris focused on football and ultimately joined their hometown Saskatchewan Roughriders in the Canadian Football League as a slotback . Ryan played tailback in football , and represented Saskatchewan as a catcher in a national youth baseball tournament , but focused on his hockey career .
= = Playing career = =
= = = Junior = = =
While a member of the Regina Bantam AAA Rangers in 2000 , Getzlaf was drafted into the Western Hockey League ( WHL ) by the Calgary Hitmen with the 54th pick in the 2000 WHL Bantam Draft . He stood 5 feet 9 inches ( 1 @.@ 75 m ) at the time of the draft , but grew 6 inches ( 0 @.@ 15 m ) by the time he joined the team as a 16 @-@ year @-@ old . Getzlaf made his junior debut in 2001 – 02 and recorded 18 points in 63 games . He nearly quadrupled his offensive production as a 17 @-@ year @-@ old in 2002 – 03 by scoring 29 goals and 68 points . His performance made him a top prospect for the 2003 National Hockey League ( NHL ) Entry Draft ; the NHL Central Scouting Bureau ranked Getzlaf as the fifth best North American skater in the draft and he was taken in the first round , 19th overall , by the Mighty Ducks of Anaheim .
The Mighty Ducks returned Getzlaf to the Hitmen for the 2003 – 04 season . He recorded 75 points in just 49 games and was named to the WHL 's first all @-@ star team . Due to the 2004 – 05 NHL lockout , Getzlaf was again returned to Calgary for his fourth season of junior hockey . He was named team captain , but was briefly stripped of the title by the coaches after earning several misconduct penalties for arguing with the officials . The captaincy was restored after a couple weeks , and Getzlaf moderated his interactions with referees . He also missed time during the season after suffering a concussion as a result of a hit by Dion Phaneuf of the Red Deer Rebels . Getzlaf finished the regular season with 54 points in 51 games , and after the Hitmen were eliminated from the WHL playoffs , was assigned to the Cincinnati Mighty Ducks of the American Hockey League ( AHL ) for their own playoff run . Getzlaf appeared in 10 post @-@ season games for Cincinnati in his professional debut . He recorded one goal and four assists .
= = = Anaheim Ducks = = =
Getzlaf made the Mighty Ducks ' roster out of training camp and began the 2005 – 06 season in Anaheim ; he made his NHL debut on October 5 , 2005 , against the Chicago Blackhawks . After recording his first point with an assist on October 14 against the Columbus Blue Jackets , Getzlaf scored his first NHL goal seven days later against goaltender Manny Legace of the Detroit Red Wings . Though Getzlaf had seven points in his first 16 games with Anaheim , he was demoted to the AHL 's Portland Pirates in mid @-@ November , partially to gain more playing time than he was getting in Anaheim . He appeared in 17 games for the Pirates in which he scored 8 goals and added 25 assists . Along with teammate Corey Perry , Getzlaf shared AHL co @-@ rookie of the month honours for December and while he was named to play in the 2006 AHL All @-@ Star game , Getzlaf did not appear in the contest as he was recalled to Anaheim in mid @-@ January . He completed the season in the NHL , and finished with 14 goals and 39 points in 57 regular season games , then added seven points in 16 post @-@ season contests .
In his sophomore season with the newly renamed Anaheim Ducks , Getzlaf appeared in all 82 regular season games for the team and finished with 25 goals and 58 points . He played in the YoungStars Game at the 2007 NHL All @-@ Star Game in Dallas . At the age of 22 years , Getzlaf joined with Corey Perry ( 21 ) and Dustin Penner ( 24 ) to form the Ducks ' " kid line " which emerged as a top scoring unit during a 2007 playoff run to the Stanley Cup final . Getzlaf led the Ducks in post @-@ season scoring with 17 points , at the time a franchise playoff record , as the Ducks defeated the Ottawa Senators in the final series . It was the first Stanley Cup championship in Anaheim 's franchise history .
The " kid line " was broken up prior to the 2007 – 08 season after Penner signed a contract as a restricted free agent with the Edmonton Oilers , however Getzlaf opted to remain in Anaheim . He signed a five @-@ year , $ 26 @.@ 625 million extension that carried through the 2012 – 13 season . Getzlaf emerged as one of the NHL 's top young stars as he played in his first All @-@ Star Game in 2008 , and led the Ducks in both assists ( 58 ) and points ( 82 ) .
Getzlaf tied a Ducks franchise record early in the 2008 – 09 season as he recorded five assists in a 5 – 4 victory over the Detroit Red Wings on October 29 , 2008 . One of the League 's leading scorers , Getzlaf again led the Ducks with a franchise @-@ record 66 assists , and his 91 points was sixth @-@ best in the NHL . He appeared in his second All @-@ Star Game after being voted into the starting line @-@ up for the 2009 contest by the fans . Though the Ducks were eliminated in the second round of the 2009 playoffs , Getzlaf set a franchise playoff record with 14 assists ( in 13 games ) , and finished sixth overall in post @-@ season scoring .
Injury , primarily an ankle sprain , reduced Getzlaf to 66 games played in 2009 – 10 . He still led the Ducks with 50 assists , and was second in team scoring with 69 points . Scott Niedermayer retired as a player following the season , and the Ducks named Getzlaf his successor as team captain prior to the 2010 – 11 season . Ducks ' Head Coach Randy Carlyle described the promotion of the 25 @-@ year @-@ old in terms of Getzlaf 's maturation as an NHL player . He added , " We felt that with it being his sixth season in the League , now is the time for the transition and the veteran players agreed with us . " During the season , he suffered multiple nasal sinus fractures after being struck in the face by a puck , and consequently appeared in only 67 games ; he recorded 19 goals . Getzlaf 's 57 assists ranked fourth in the NHL and he added six points in six post @-@ season contests , including his 50th career playoff point .
Getzlaf played his 500th career game on March 12 , 2012 , a 3 – 2 loss to the Colorado Avalanche . He played all 82 games for the Ducks in 2011 – 12 and led the team with 46 assists . Another milestone came late in the 2012 – 13 season as Getzlaf recorded his 500th point on March 8 , 2013 , with an assist on a Bobby Ryan goal in a 4 – 0 win over the Calgary Flames . On the same day , the Ducks signed Getzlaf to an eight @-@ year contract extension that runs through the 2021 – 22 season and is worth $ 66 million . He finished the lockout @-@ shortened campaign as the team leader in assists ( 34 ) and points ( 49 ) , and tied for the team lead with 15 goals .
In 2013 – 14 , Getzlaf recorded a career @-@ high 31 goals and finished second to Sidney Crosby in League scoring with 87 points . Getzlaf was named to the Second All @-@ Star Team and was a first @-@ time finalist for the Hart Memorial Trophy as the NHL 's most valuable player . He finished as the runner @-@ up to Crosby .
In the final seconds of Anaheim 's opening contest in the 2014 playoffs , against the Dallas Stars , Getzlaf suffered lacerations and bruises after blocking a shot with his face . He returned for the second game of the series , but missed the following two games due an undisclosed " upper body injury . " Getzlaf returned for the remainder of his team 's playoff run , and recorded 15 points in 12 post @-@ season games before the Ducks were eliminated in the second round by the Los Angeles Kings .
In the 2015 playoffs , Getzlaf tied the previous Ducks record for most assists in a post @-@ season – which he himself set in 2009 – at 14 when he provided the primary assist on teammate Simon Després ' game @-@ winning goal in Game 3 of the Western Conference Finals against the Chicago Blackhawks on May 22 , 2015 .
= = = International = = =
Getzlaf made his international debut as a member of the seventh @-@ place Canada @-@ West entry at the 2002 World U17 Hockey Challenge in Manitoba . The following year , he joined the Canadian under @-@ 18 team at the 2003 IIHF World U18 Championships . In seven games at the tournament , Getzlaf recorded two goals and two assists as Canada , in its second appearance at the event , won the nation 's first gold medal at the U18 level .
Moving up to the national junior team , Getzlaf made his first of two appearances at the World Junior Hockey Championship in 2004 . He recorded six points in six games for a dominant Canadian squad that scored 25 goals in its four round @-@ robin games and surrendered only four en route to a gold medal showdown with the United States . With Canada leading 3 – 1 early in the third period of the final , both Getzlaf and Sidney Crosby failed to capitalize on opportunities to add an extra goal that may have sealed a victory . Instead , Canada surrendered the lead , and Getzlaf and his teammates were forced to settle for the silver medal after goaltender Marc @-@ André Fleury accidentally sent a clearing pass off a teammate and into his own net for the game @-@ winning goal .
The 2004 – 05 lockout ensured that several players who would otherwise have been playing in the NHL , including Getzlaf , were available to return to the national team for the 2005 World Junior Championship . One of 12 players with previous experience at the tournament for Canada , Getzlaf was a leading player for what many observers have called the greatest team in the tournament 's history . With 12 points in 6 games , Getzlaf finished second in overall scoring to teammate Patrice Bergeron 's 13 . He scored one goal and added two assists in the championship game against Russia as the Canadians won the gold medal by a 6 – 1 score ; it was the nation 's first title in eight years at the event .
Getzlaf made his first appearance with the senior team at the 2008 World Championship . He led the tournament with 11 assists and his 14 points was second overall to teammate Dany Heatley 's 20 . Canada reached the championship game , but were forced to settle for the silver medal after Russia overcame a two @-@ goal third period deficit and won the championship 5 – 4 in overtime . Getzlaf was named to the Canadian roster for the 2010 Winter Olympics in Vancouver , however a sprained ankle suffered during the NHL season left his participation in doubt until just before Canada was required to confirm its roster . He had recovered enough to play and recorded seven points in seven games , including the game @-@ winning goal in Canada 's 3 – 2 semi @-@ final victory over Slovakia . Canada won the gold medal with a 3 – 2 overtime victory over the United States .
Two years later , Getzlaf served as Canada 's captain at the 2012 World Championship . He tied for second in team scoring with nine points in eight games . However , Canada was eliminated in the quarterfinal against Slovakia , 4 – 3 . Getzlaf was assessed a major penalty and game misconduct late in the game for kneeing Juraj Mikúš . A dejected Getzlaf lamented the result and his penalty following the game : " It hurts like hell right now . I feel like I let the guys down . To be in a hard @-@ fought game like that and play the tournament we did and lose in that fashion , it 's not easy to swallow as a group . "
Returning to the Canadian roster for the 2014 Winter Olympics in Sochi , Getzlaf 's play was cited , along with that of fellow centres Sidney Crosby and Jonathan Toews , as being one of the key aspects of Canada 's successful defence of their Olympic title . Canada defeated Sweden by a 3 – 0 score to win the gold medal and repeat as Olympic champions .
= = Playing style = =
Getzlaf is known as a power forward with excellent playmaking skills . The Hockey News describes Getzlaf as being " the complete package " and praises his all @-@ round game . He is credited as having both a powerful shot and willingness to engage in physical play , but also criticized for taking poor penalties at times and occasionally passing despite being in a quality shooting location . One of the league 's top passers , Getzlaf has led the Ducks in assists for eight consecutive seasons between 2008 and 2015 ; he has also led the team in points five times . With 678 career points through the 2014 – 15 season , Getzlaf is the second @-@ leading scorer in Ducks franchise history behind only Teemu Selänne ( 985 ) . He and winger Corey Perry have formed one of the NHL 's most potent scoring tandems ; both were top five in NHL scoring in 2013 – 14 . The duo , who have been called the " twins " in Anaheim , have played together since being drafted in 2003 . In addition to pairing up for the Ducks ' 2007 Stanley Cup championship , they have played together on World Junior Championship and Olympic gold medal teams . Getzlaf was recognized for his leadership role with the Ducks in 2014 as he earned his first nomination for the Mark Messier Leadership Award , with a second nomination coming the following season .
= = Personal life = =
Getzlaf is married to Paige and they have two sons , Ryder and Gavin , and a daughter , Willa . They live in Corona Del Mar , California , during the season and maintain an off @-@ season residence in Kelowna , British Columbia . Active within the Orange County community , Getzlaf hosts an annual golf tournament on behalf of CureDuchenne , an organization that seeks a cure for Duchenne muscular dystrophy . He also maintains a program with the Calgary Hitmen called " Getzlaf 's Gamers , " which allows underprivileged children to attend games .
= = Career statistics = =
= = = Regular season and playoffs = = =
= = = International = = =
= = Awards and honours = =
= = Records = =
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= German cruiser Blücher =
Blücher was the second of five Admiral Hipper @-@ class heavy cruisers of Nazi Germany 's Kriegsmarine , built after the rise of the Nazi Party and the repudiation of the Treaty of Versailles . Named for Gebhard Leberecht von Blücher , the Prussian victor of the Battle of Waterloo , the ship was laid down in August 1936 and launched in June 1937 . She was completed in September 1939 , shortly after the outbreak of World War II . After completing a series of sea trials and training exercises , the ship was pronounced ready for service with the fleet on 5 April 1940 .
Assigned to Group 5 during the invasion of Norway in April 1940 , Blücher served as Konteradmiral Oskar Kummetz 's flagship . The ship led the flotilla of warships into the Oslofjord on the night of 8 April , to seize Oslo , the capital of Norway . Two old 28 cm ( 11 in ) coastal guns in the Oscarsborg Fortress engaged the ship at very close range , scoring two hits . Two torpedoes fired by land @-@ based torpedo batteries struck the ship , causing serious damage . A major fire broke out aboard Blücher , which could not be contained . After a magazine explosion , the ship sank , with major loss of life . The wreck remains on the bottom of the Oslofjord .
= = Construction = =
Blücher was ordered by the Kriegsmarine from the Deutsche Werke shipyard in Kiel . Her keel was laid on 15 August 1936 , under construction number 246 . The ship was launched on 8 June 1937 , and was completed slightly over two years later , on 20 September 1939 , the day she was commissioned into the German fleet . The commanding admiral of the Marinestation der Ostsee ( Baltic Naval Station ) , Admiral Conrad Albrecht , gave the christening speech . Frau Erdmann , widow of Fregattenkapitän Alexander Erdmann , former commander of SMS Blücher , performed the christening . As built , the ship had a straight stem , though after her launch this was replaced with a clipper bow increasing the overall length to 205 @.@ 90 meters ( 675 @.@ 5 ft ) . A raked funnel cap was also installed .
As launched , Blücher was 202 @.@ 80 meters ( 665 @.@ 4 ft ) long overall , had a beam of 21 @.@ 30 m ( 69 @.@ 9 ft ) and a maximum draft of 7 @.@ 74 m ( 25 @.@ 4 ft ) . The ship had a design displacement of 16 @,@ 170 t ( 15 @,@ 910 long tons ; 17 @,@ 820 short tons ) and a full load displacement of 18 @,@ 200 long tons ( 18 @,@ 500 t ) . Blücher was powered by three sets of geared steam turbines , which were supplied with steam by twelve ultra @-@ high pressure oil @-@ fired boilers . The ship 's top speed was 32 knots ( 59 km / h ; 37 mph ) , at 132 @,@ 000 shaft horsepower ( 98 @,@ 000 kW ) . As designed , her standard complement consisted of 42 officers and 1 @,@ 340 enlisted men .
Blücher 's primary armament was eight 20 @.@ 3 cm ( 8 @.@ 0 in ) SK L / 60 guns mounted in four twin gun turrets , placed in superfiring pairs forward and aft . Her anti @-@ aircraft battery consisted of twelve 10 @.@ 5 cm ( 4 @.@ 1 in ) L / 65 guns , twelve 3 @.@ 7 cm ( 1 @.@ 5 in ) guns , and eight 2 cm ( 0 @.@ 79 in ) guns . The ship would also have carried a pair of triple 53 @.@ 3 cm ( 21 @.@ 0 in ) torpedo launchers abreast of the rear superstructure . She had four triple 53 @.@ 3 cm ( 21 @.@ 0 in ) torpedo launchers , all on the main deck next to the four FLAK range finders . The ship was equipped with three Arado Ar 196 seaplanes and one catapult . Blucher never had more than two seaplanes onboard and en route to Oslo one had to rest on the catapult as one of the hangars was used for storing bombs and torpedoes . Blücher 's armored belt was 70 to 80 mm ( 2 @.@ 8 to 3 @.@ 1 in ) thick ; her upper deck was 12 to 30 mm ( 0 @.@ 47 to 1 @.@ 18 in ) thick while the main armored deck was 20 to 50 mm ( 0 @.@ 79 to 1 @.@ 97 in ) thick . The main battery turrets had 105 mm ( 4 @.@ 1 in ) thick faces and 70 mm thick sides .
= = Service history = =
Blücher spent the majority of November 1939 fitting out and finishing additional improvements . By the end of the month , the ship was ready for sea trials ; she steamed to Gotenhafen in the Baltic Sea . The trials lasted until mid @-@ December , after which the ship returned to Kiel for final modifications . In January 1940 , she resumed her exercises in the Baltic , but by the middle of the month , severe ice forced the ship to remain in port . On 5 April , she was deemed to be ready for action , and was therefore assigned to the forces participating in the invasion of Norway .
= = = Operation Weserübung = = =
On 5 April 1940 , Konteradmiral Oskar Kummetz came aboard the ship while she was in Swinemünde . An 800 @-@ strong detachment of ground troops from the 163rd Infantry Division also boarded . Three days later , on 8 April , Blücher left port , bound for Norway ; she was the flagship for the force that was to seize Oslo , the Norwegian capital . Organized as Group 5 of the invasion force she was accompanied by the heavy cruiser Lützow , the light cruiser Emden , and several smaller escorts . While steaming through the Kattegat and Skagerrak , the British submarine Triton spotted the convoy and fired a spread of torpedoes ; the Germans successfully evaded the torpedoes , however , and proceeded with the mission .
Night had fallen by the time the German flotilla reached the approaches to the Oslofjord . Shortly after 23 : 00 ( Norwegian time ) the flotilla was spotted by the Norwegian patrol boat Pol III . The German torpedo boat Albatros attacked Pol III and set her on fire , but not before the Norwegian patrol boat raised the alarm with a radio report of being attacked by unknown warships . At 23 : 30 ( Norwegian time ) the south battery on Rauøy spotted the flotilla in the searchlight and fired two warning shots . Five minutes later , the guns at the Rauøy battery fired four rounds at the approaching Germans , but visibility was poor and no hits were scored . The guns at Bolærne fired only one warning shot at 23 : 32 . Before Blücher could be targeted again , she was out of the firing sector of these shore guns and was seen no more by them after 23 : 35 .
The German flotilla steamed on at a speed of 12 knots ( 22 km / h ; 14 mph ) . Shortly after midnight ( Norwegian time ) , an order from the Commanding Admiral to extinguish all lighthouses and navigation lights was broadcast over the NRK ( Norsk riksingkasting ) [ Norwegian Broadcasting Corporation ] . The German ships had been ordered to fire only in the event they were directly fired on first . Between 00 : 30 and 02 : 00 , the flotilla stopped and 150 infantrymen of the landing force were transferred to the escorts R17 and R21 ( from Emden ) and R18 and R19 ( from Blücher ) .
The R @-@ boats were ordered to engage Rauøy , Bolærne and the naval port and city of Horten . Despite the apparent loss of surprise , the Blücher proceeded further into the fjord to continue with the timetable to reach Oslo by dawn . At 04 : 40 , Norwegian searchlights again illuminated the ship and at 04 : 21 the 28 cm ( 11 in ) guns of Oscarsborg Fortress opened fire on Blücher at very close range , beginning the Battle of Drøbak Sound with two hits on her port side . The first was high above the bridge , hitting the battle station for the commander of the anti @-@ aircraft guns , killing AO II Kapitänleutnant Hans @-@ Erich Pochhammer . The main range finder in the top of the battle mast was knocked out of alignment , but Blücher had four more major rangefinders ( B @-@ turret , on the bridge roof , the aft battle station ( Nachtstand ) and C @-@ turret ) and many smaller on the bridge and the four rangefinder stations for the AA . The commander in D @-@ turret , Oberstückmeister Waldeck , stated that the first 28 cm hit had no influence on the battle capability of the 20 @.@ 3 cm guns . Blücher immediately returned fire .
= = = Fire starts = = =
The second 28 cm shell struck near the aircraft hangar and started a major fire . As the fire spread , it detonated explosives carried for the infantry , hindering firefighting efforts . The explosion set fire to the two Arado seaplanes onboard : one on the catapult and the other in one of the hangars . The explosion also probably punched a hole in the armored deck over turbine room 1 . Turbine 1 and generator room 3 stopped for lack of steam and only the outboard shafts from turbine room 2 / 3 were operational .
The Germans were unable to locate the source of the gunfire . Blücher increased speed to 32 knots ( 59 km / h ; 37 mph ) in an attempt to get past the Norwegian guns . The 15 cm ( 5 @.@ 9 in ) guns on Drøbak , some 400 yd ( 370 m ) on Blücher 's starboard side , opened fire as well . At a distance of 500 metres ( 1 @,@ 600 ft ) Blücher entered the narrows between Kopås and Hovedbatteriet ( the main battery ) at Kaholmen . The Kopås battery ceased firing at Blücher and engaged the next target , Lützow , scoring multiple hits . First engineer Leitende Ingenieur Fregattenkapitän Dip . Ing . Karl Thannemann wrote in his report that the hits from the guns on Drøbak , which were fired on the starboard side , were all between section IV and X in a length of 75 metres ( 246 ft ) amidships , between B @-@ turret and C @-@ turret . However , all damage were on the port side . The shells must have traversed most of the superstructure before exploding .
After the first salvo from the 15 cm batteries in Drøbak , the steering from the bridge was disabled . Blücher had just passed Drøbakgrunnen ( Drøbak shallows ) and was in a turn to port . The commander got her back on track by using the side shafts , but she lost speed . Normally the rudder is controlled electrically from the bridge to the motors forward of the Handsteuerraum ( hand steering room ) deep under the armored deck , forward of the rudder . In an emergency it can be switched within seconds to manual steering , but orders from the bridge to the rudder may be delayed . At 04 : 34 Norwegian land @-@ based torpedo batteries scored two hits on the ship . The targeting device in the torpedo battery was very primitive . The speed of the torpedo was known and set , but the speed of the target had to be adjusted by Dead reckoning ( guessing ) .
According to Admiral Kummetz ' report , the first torpedo hit Kesselraum 2 ( boileroom 2 , just under the funnel ) and the second hit Turbinenraum 2 / 3 ( the turbine room for the side shafts ) . Boiler 1 had already been destroyed by gunfire . Only one boiler remained , but the steam pipes through boiler 1 and 2 and turbine room 2 / 3 had been damaged and turbine 1 for the main shaft lost its power . By 04 : 34 , the ship had been severely damaged , but had successfully passed through the firing zone ; the Norwegian guns could no longer bear on her . The 15 cm guns in the Kopås battery were all standing in open positions with a wide sector of firing . After the torpedo hits , Blücher was still within range . The battery asked for orders , but Eriksen concluded : The fortress has served its purpose With all propellers stopped , about 60 % of the electric power gone , Blucher quickly lost speed and at about 04 : 50 dropped anchors at Askoholmene .
= = = Sinking = = =
After passing the gun batteries , the crew of Blücher , including the personnel manning the guns , were tasked with fighting the fire . By that time she had taken on a list of 18 degrees , although this was not initially problematic . The fire eventually reached one of the ship 's 10 @.@ 5 cm ammunition magazines between turbine room 1 and turbine room 2 / 3 , which exploded violently . The blast ruptured several bulkheads in the engine rooms and ignited the ship 's fuel stores . The battered ship slowly began to capsize and the order to abandon ship was given . Blücher rolled over and sank at 07 : 30 , with significant casualties . Naval historian Erich Gröner states that the number of casualties is unknown , but Henrik Lunde gives a loss of life figure ranging between 600 and 1 @,@ 000 soldiers and sailors . Jürgen Rohwer meanwhile states that 125 seamen and 195 soldiers died in the sinking .
The loss of Blücher and the damage done to Lützow caused the German force to withdraw . The ground troops were landed on the eastern side of the fjord ; they proceeded inland and captured the Oscarborg Fortress by 09 : 00 on 10 April . They then moved on to attack the capital . Airborne troops captured the Fornebu Airport and completed the encirclement of the city , and by 14 : 00 on 10 April it was in German hands . The delay caused by the temporary withdrawal of Blücher 's task force , however , allowed the Norwegian government and royal family to escape the city .
Blücher remains at the bottom of the Drøbak Narrows , at a depth of 35 fathoms ( 210 ft ; 64 m ) . The ship 's screws were removed in 1953 , and there have been several proposals to raise the wreck since 1963 , but none have been carried out . When Blücher left Germany , she had about 2 @,@ 670 cubic metres ( 94 @,@ 000 cu ft ) of oil on board . She expended some of the fuel en route to Norway , and some was lost in the sinking , but she was constantly leaking oil . In 1991 the leakage rate increased to 50 liters ( 11 imp gal ; 13 U.S. gal ) per day , threatening the environment . The Norwegian government therefore decided to remove as much oil as possible from the wreck . In October 1994 the company Rockwater AS , together with deep sea divers drilled holes in 133 fuel tanks and removed 1 @,@ 000 t ( 980 long tons ; 1 @,@ 100 short tons ) of oil ; 47 fuel bunkers were unreachable and may still contain oil . After being run through a cleaning process , the oil was sold . The oil extraction operation provided an opportunity to recover one of Blücher 's two Arado 196 aircraft . The plane was raised on 9 November 1994 and is currently at the Flyhistorisk Museum , Sola aviation museum near Stavanger .
The shipwreck was 16 . June 2016 protected as a war memorial , but also protected by law by Norwegian Directorate for Cultural Heritage for those who actually have their burial at the bottom of the fjord . The intention was to protect the ship from wreck looters .
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= High @-@ level radioactive waste management =
High @-@ level radioactive waste management concerns how radioactive materials created during production of nuclear power and nuclear weapons are dealt with . Radioactive waste contains a mixture of short @-@ lived and long @-@ lived nuclides , as well as non @-@ radioactive nuclides . There was reported some 47 @,@ 000 tonnes of high @-@ level nuclear waste stored in the USA in 2002 .
The most troublesome transuranic elements in spent fuel are neptunium @-@ 237 ( half @-@ life two million years ) and plutonium @-@ 239 ( half @-@ life 24 @,@ 000 years ) . Consequently , high @-@ level radioactive waste requires sophisticated treatment and management to successfully isolate it from the biosphere . This usually necessitates treatment , followed by a long @-@ term management strategy involving permanent storage , disposal or transformation of the waste into a non @-@ toxic form . Radioactive decay follows the half @-@ life rule , which means that the rate of decay is inversely proportional to the duration of decay . In other words , the radiation from a long @-@ lived isotope like iodine @-@ 129 will be much less intense than that of short @-@ lived isotope like iodine @-@ 131 .
Governments around the world are considering a range of waste management and disposal options , usually involving deep @-@ geologic placement , although there has been limited progress toward implementing long @-@ term waste management solutions . This is partly because the timeframes in question when dealing with radioactive waste range from 10 @,@ 000 to millions of years , according to studies based on the effect of estimated radiation doses .
Thus , Alfvén identified two fundamental prerequisites for effective management of high @-@ level radioactive waste : ( 1 ) stable geological formations , and ( 2 ) stable human institutions over hundreds of thousands of years . As Alfvén suggests , no known human civilization has ever endured for so long , and no geologic formation of adequate size for a permanent radioactive waste repository has yet been discovered that has been stable for so long a period . Nevertheless , avoiding confronting the risks associated with managing radioactive wastes may create countervailing risks of greater magnitude . Radioactive waste management is an example of policy analysis that requires special attention to ethical concerns , examined in the light of uncertainty and futurity : consideration of ' the impacts of practices and technologies on future generations ' .
There is a debate over what should constitute an acceptable scientific and engineering foundation for proceeding with radioactive waste disposal strategies . There are those who have argued , on the basis of complex geochemical simulation models , that relinquishing control over radioactive materials to geohydrologic processes at repository closure is an acceptable risk . They maintain that so @-@ called " natural analogues " inhibit subterranean movement of radionuclides , making disposal of radioactive wastes in stable geologic formations unnecessary . However , existing models of these processes are empirically underdetermined : due to the subterranean nature of such processes in solid geologic formations , the accuracy of computer simulation models has not been verified by empirical observation , certainly not over periods of time equivalent to the lethal half @-@ lives of high @-@ level radioactive waste . On the other hand , some insist deep geologic repositories in stable geologic formations are necessary . National management plans of various countries display a variety of approaches to resolving this debate .
Researchers suggest that forecasts of health detriment for such long periods should be examined critically . Practical studies only consider up to 100 years as far as effective planning and cost evaluations are concerned . Long term behaviour of radioactive wastes remains a subject for ongoing research . Management strategies and implementation plans of several representative national governments are described below .
= = Geologic disposal = =
The International Panel on Fissile Materials has said :
It is widely accepted that spent nuclear fuel and high @-@ level reprocessing and plutonium wastes require well @-@ designed storage for periods ranging from tens of thousands to a million years , to minimize releases of the contained radioactivity into the environment . Safeguards are also required to ensure that neither plutonium nor highly enriched uranium is diverted to weapon use . There is general agreement that placing spent nuclear fuel in repositories hundreds of meters below the surface would be safer than indefinite storage of spent fuel on the surface .
The process of selecting appropriate permanent repositories for high level waste and spent fuel is now under way in several countries with the first expected to be commissioned some time after 2017 . The basic concept is to locate a large , stable geologic formation and use mining technology to excavate a tunnel , or large @-@ bore tunnel boring machines ( similar to those used to drill the Chunnel from England to France ) to drill a shaft 500 – 1 @,@ 000 meters below the surface where rooms or vaults can be excavated for disposal of high @-@ level radioactive waste . The goal is to permanently isolate nuclear waste from the human environment . However , many people remain uncomfortable with the immediate stewardship cessation of this disposal system , suggesting perpetual management and monitoring would be more prudent .
Because some radioactive species have half @-@ lives longer than one million years , even very low container leakage and radionuclide migration rates must be taken into account . Moreover , it may require more than one half @-@ life until some nuclear materials lose enough radioactivity to no longer be lethal to living organisms . A 1983 review of the Swedish radioactive waste disposal program by the National Academy of Sciences found that country ’ s estimate of several hundred thousand years — perhaps up to one million years — being necessary for waste isolation " fully justified . "
The proposed land @-@ based subductive waste disposal method would dispose of nuclear waste in a subduction zone accessed from land , and therefore is not prohibited by international agreement . This method has been described as a viable means of disposing of radioactive waste , and as a state @-@ of @-@ the @-@ art nuclear waste disposal technology .
In nature , sixteen repositories were discovered at the Oklo mine in Gabon where natural nuclear fission reactions took place 1 @.@ 7 billion years ago . The fission products in these natural formations were found to have moved less than 10 ft ( 3 m ) over this period , though the lack of movement may be due more to retention in the uraninite structure than to insolubility and sorption from moving ground water ; uraninite crystals are better preserved here than those in spent fuel rods because of a less complete nuclear reaction , so that reaction products would be less accessible to groundwater attack .
= = Materials for geological disposal = =
In order to store the high level radioactive waste in long @-@ term geological depositories , specific waste forms need to be used which will allow the radioactivity to decay away while the materials retain their integrity for thousands of years . The materials being used can be broken down into a few classes : glass waste forms , ceramic waste forms , and nanostructured materials .
The glass forms include borosilicate glasses and phosphate glasses . Borosilicate nuclear waste glasses are used on an industrial scale to immobilize high level radioactive waste in many countries which are producers of nuclear energy or have nuclear weaponry . The glass waste forms have the advantage of being able to accommodate a wide variety of waste @-@ stream compositions , they are easy to scale up to industrial processing , and they are stable against thermal , radiative , and chemical perturbations . These glasses function by binding radioactive elements to nonradioactive glass @-@ forming elements . Phosphate glasses while not being used industrially have much lower dissolution rates than borosilicate glasses , which make them a more favorable option . However , no single phosphate material has the ability to accommodate all of the radioactive products so phosphate storage requires more reprocessing to separate the waste into distinct fractions . Both glasses have to be processed at elevated temperatures making them unusable for some of the more volatile radiotoxic elements .
The ceramic waste forms offer higher waste loadings than the glass options because ceramics have crystalline structure . Also , mineral analogues of the ceramic waste forms provide evidence for long term durability . Due to this fact and the fact that they can be processed at lower temperatures , ceramics are often considered the next generation in high level radioactive waste forms . Ceramic waste forms offer great potential , but a lot of research remains to be done .
= = National management plans = =
Finland , the United States and Sweden are the most advanced in developing a deep repository for high @-@ level radioactive waste disposal . Countries vary in their plans on disposing used fuel directly or after reprocessing , with France and Japan having an extensive commitment to reprocessing . The country @-@ specific status of high @-@ level waste management plans are described below .
In many European countries ( e.g. , Britain , Finland , the Netherlands , Sweden and Switzerland ) the risk or dose limit for a member of the public exposed to radiation from a future high @-@ level nuclear waste facility is considerably more stringent than that suggested by the International Commission on Radiation Protection or proposed in the United States . European limits are often more stringent than the standard suggested in 1990 by the International Commission on Radiation Protection by a factor of 20 , and more stringent by a factor of ten than the standard proposed by the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency ( EPA ) for Yucca Mountain nuclear waste repository for the first 10 @,@ 000 years after closure . Moreover , the U.S. EPA ’ s proposed standard for greater than 10 @,@ 000 years is 250 times more permissive than the European limit .
The countries that have made the most progress towards a repository for high @-@ level radioactive waste have typically started with public consultations and made voluntary siting a necessary condition . This consensus seeking approach is believed to have a greater chance of success than top @-@ down modes of decision making , but the process is necessarily slow , and there is " inadequate experience around the world to know if it will succeed in all existing and aspiring nuclear nations " .
Moreover , most communities do not want to host a nuclear waste repository as they are " concerned about their community becoming a de facto site for waste for thousands of years , the health and environmental consequences of an accident , and lower property values " .
= = = Asia = = =
= = = = People 's Republic of China = = = =
In the Peoples Republic of China , ten reactors provide about 2 % of electricity and five more are under construction . China made a commitment to reprocessing in the 1980s ; a pilot plant is under construction at Lanzhou , where a temporary spent fuel storage facility has been constructed . Geological disposal has been studied since 1985 , and a permanent deep geological repository was required by law in 2003 . Sites in Gansu Province near the Gobi desert in northwestern China are under investigation , with a final site expected to be selected by 2020 , and actual disposal by about 2050 .
= = = = Republic of China = = = =
In the Republic of China , nuclear waste storage facility was built at the Southern tip of Orchid Island in Taitung County , offshore of Taiwan Island . The facility was built in 1982 and it is owned and operated by Taipower . The facility receives nuclear waste from Taipower 's current three nuclear power plants . However , due to the strong resistance from local community in the island , the nuclear waste has to be stored at the power plant facilities themselves .
= = = = India = = = =
Sixteen nuclear reactors produce about 3 % of India ’ s electricity , and seven more are under construction . Spent fuel is processed at facilities in Trombay near Mumbai , at Tarapur on the west coast north of Mumbai , and at Kalpakkam on the southeast coast of India . Plutonium will be used in a fast breeder reactor ( under construction ) to produce more fuel , and other waste vitrified at Tarapur and Trombay . Interim storage for 30 years is expected , with eventual disposal in a deep geological repository in crystalline rock near Kalpakkam .
= = = = Japan = = = =
In 2000 , a Specified Radioactive Waste Final Disposal Act called for creation of a new organization to manage high level radioactive waste , and later that year the Nuclear Waste Management Organization of Japan ( NUMO ) was established under the jurisdiction of the Ministry of Economy , Trade and Industry . NUMO is responsible for selecting a permanent deep geological repository site , construction , operation and closure of the facility for waste emplacement by 2040 . Site selection began in 2002 and application information was sent to 3 @,@ 239 municipalities , but by 2006 , no local government had volunteered to host the facility . Kōchi Prefecture showed interest in 2007 , but its mayor resigned due to local opposition . In December 2013 the government decided to identify suitable candidate areas before approaching municipalities .
The head of the Science Council of Japan ’ s expert panel has said Japan 's seismic conditions makes it difficult to predict ground conditions over the necessary 100 @,@ 000 years , so it will be impossible to convince the public of the safety of deep geological disposal .
= = = Europe = = =
= = = = Belgium = = = =
Belgium has seven nuclear reactors that provide about 52 % of its electricity . Belgian spent nuclear fuel was initially sent for reprocessing in France . In 1993 , reprocessing was suspended following a resolution of the Belgian parliament ; spent fuel is since being stored on the sites of the nuclear power plants . The deep disposal of high @-@ level radioactive waste ( HLW ) has been studied in Belgium for more than 30 years . Boom Clay is studied as a reference host formation for HLW disposal . The Hades underground research laboratory ( URL ) is located at − 223 m in the Boom Formation at the Mol site . The Belgian URL is operated by the Euridice Economic Interest Group , a joint organisation between SCK • CEN , the Belgian Nuclear Research Centre which initiated the research on waste disposal in Belgium in the 1970s and 1980s and ONDRAF / NIRAS , the Belgian agency for radioactive waste management . In Belgium , the regulatory body in charge of guidance and licensing approval is the Federal Agency of Nuclear Control , created in 2001 .
= = = = Finland = = = =
In 1983 , the government decided to select a site for permanent repository by 2010 . With four nuclear reactors providing 29 % of its electricity , Finland in 1987 enacted a Nuclear Energy Act making the producers of radioactive waste responsible for its disposal , subject to requirements of its Radiation and Nuclear Safety Authority and an absolute veto given to local governments in which a proposed repository would be located . Producers of nuclear waste organized the company Posiva , with responsibility for site selection , construction and operation of a permanent repository . A 1994 amendment to the Act required final disposal of spent fuel in Finland , prohibiting the import or export of radioactive waste .
Environmental assessment of four sites occurred in 1997 – 98 , Posiva chose the Olkiluoto site near two existing reactors , and the local government approved it in 2000 . The Finnish Parliament approved a deep geologic repository there in igneous bedrock at a depth of about 500 meters in 2001 . The repository concept is similar to the Swedish model , with containers to be clad in copper and buried below the water table beginning in 2020 . An underground characterization facility , Onkalo spent nuclear fuel repository , was under construction at the site in 2012 .
= = = = France = = = =
With 58 nuclear reactors contributing about 75 % of its electricity , the highest percentage of any country , France has been reprocessing its spent reactor fuel since the introduction of nuclear power there . Some reprocessed plutonium is used to make fuel , but more is being produced than is being recycled as reactor fuel . France also reprocesses spent fuel for other countries , but the nuclear waste is returned to the country of origin . Radioactive waste from reprocessing French spent fuel is expected to be disposed of in a geological repository , pursuant to legislation enacted in 1991 that established a 15 @-@ year period for conducting radioactive waste management research . Under this legislation , partition and transmutation of long @-@ lived elements , immobilization and conditioning processes , and long @-@ term near surface storage are being investigated by the Commissariat à l ’ Energie Atomique ( CEA ) . Disposal in deep geological formations is being studied by the French agency for radioactive waste management , L 'Agence Nationale pour la Gestion des Déchets Radioactifs , in underground research labs .
Three sites were identified for possible deep geologic disposal in clay near the border of Meuse and Haute @-@ Marne , near Gard , and at Vienne . In 1998 the government approved the Meuse / Haute Marne Underground Research Laboratory , a site near Meuse / Haute @-@ Marne and dropped the others from further consideration . Legislation was proposed in 2006 to license a repository by 2015 , with operations expected in 2025 .
= = = = Germany = = = =
Nuclear waste policy in Germany is in flux . German planning for a permanent geologic repository began in 1974 , focused on salt dome Gorleben , a salt mine near Gorleben about 100 kilometers northeast of Braunschweig . The site was announced in 1977 with plans for a reprocessing plant , spent fuel management , and permanent disposal facilities at a single site . Plans for the reprocessing plant were dropped in 1979 . In 2000 , the federal government and utilities agreed to suspend underground investigations for three to ten years , and the government committed to ending its use of nuclear power , closing one reactor in 2003 .
Within days of the March 2011 Fukushima Daiichi nuclear disaster , Chancellor Angela Merkel " imposed a three @-@ month moratorium on previously announced extensions for Germany 's existing nuclear power plants , while shutting seven of the 17 reactors that had been operating since 1981 " . Protests continued and , on 29 May 2011 , Merkel 's government announced that it would close all of its nuclear power plants by 2022 .
Meanwhile , electric utilities have been transporting spent fuel to interim storage facilities at Gorleben , Lubmin and Ahaus until temporary storage facilities can be built near reactor sites . Previously , spent fuel was sent to France or the United Kingdom for reprocessing , but this practice was ended in July 2005 .
= = = = Russia = = = =
In Russia , the Ministry of Atomic Energy ( Minatom ) is responsible for 31 nuclear reactors which generate about 16 % of its electricity . Minatom is also responsible for reprocessing and radioactive waste disposal , including over 25 @,@ 000 tons of spent nuclear fuel in temporary storage in 2001 .
Russia has a long history of reprocessing spent fuel for military purposes , and previously planned to reprocess imported spent fuel , possibly including some of the 33 @,@ 000 metric tons of spent fuel accumulated at sites in other countries who received fuel from the U.S. , which the U.S. originally pledged to take back , such as Brazil , the Czech Republic , India , Japan , Mexico , Slovenia , South Korea , Switzerland , Taiwan , and the European Union .
An Environmental Protection Act in 1991 prohibited importing radioactive material for long @-@ term storage or burial in Russia , but controversial legislation to allow imports for permanent storage was passed by the Russian Parliament and signed by President Putin in 2001 . In the long term , the Russian plan is for deep geologic disposal . Most attention has been paid to locations where waste has accumulated in temporary storage at Mayak , near Chelyabinsk in the Ural Mountains , and in granite at Krasnoyarsk in Siberia .
= = = = Sweden = = = =
In Sweden , as of 2007 there are ten operating nuclear reactors that produce about 45 % of its electricity . Two other reactors in Barsebäck were shut down in 1999 and 2005 . When these reactors were built , it was expected their nuclear fuel would be reprocessed in a foreign country , and the reprocessing waste would not be returned to Sweden . Later , construction of a domestic reprocessing plant was contemplated , but has not been built .
Passage of the Stipulation Act of 1977 transferred responsibility for nuclear waste management from the government to the nuclear industry , requiring reactor operators to present an acceptable plan for waste management with " absolute safety " in order to obtain an operating license . In early 1980 , after the Three Mile Island meltdown in the United States , a referendum was held on the future use of nuclear power in Sweden . In late 1980 , after a three @-@ question referendum produced mixed results , the Swedish Parliament decided to phase out existing reactors by 2010 . In 2010 , the Swedish government opened up for construction of new nuclear reactors . The new units can only be built at the existing nuclear power sites , Oskarshamn , Ringhals or Forsmark , and only to replace one of the existing reactors , that will have to be shut down for the new one to be able to start up .
The Swedish Nuclear Fuel and Waste Management Company . ( Svensk Kärnbränslehantering AB , known as SKB ) was created in 1980 and is responsible for final disposal of nuclear waste there . This includes operation of a monitored retrievable storage facility , the Central Interim Storage Facility for Spent Nuclear Fuel at Oskarshamn , about 150 miles south of Stockholm on the Baltic coast ; transportation of spent fuel ; and construction of a permanent repository . Swedish utilities store spent fuel at the reactor site for one year before transporting it to the facility at Oskarshamn , where it will be stored in excavated caverns filled with water for about 30 years before removal to a permanent repository .
Conceptual design of a permanent repository was determined by 1983 , calling for placement of copper @-@ clad iron canisters in granite bedrock about 500 metres underground , below the water table in what is known as the KBS @-@ 3 method . Space around the canisters will be filled with bentonite clay . After examining six possible locations for a permanent repository , three were nominated for further investigation , at Osthammar , Oskarshamn , and Tierp . On 3 June 2009 , Swedish Nuclear Fuel and Waste Co. chose a location for a deep @-@ level waste site at Östhammar , near Forsmark Nuclear Power plant . The application to build the repository was handed in by SKB 2011 .
= = = = Switzerland = = = =
Switzerland has five nuclear reactors that provide about 43 % of its electricity . Some Swiss spent nuclear fuel has been sent for reprocessing in France and the United Kingdom ; most fuel is being stored without reprocessing . An industry @-@ owned organization , ZWILAG , built and operates a central interim storage facility for spent nuclear fuel and high @-@ level radioactive waste , and for conditioning low @-@ level radioactive waste and for incinerating wastes . Other interim storage facilities predating ZWILAG continue to operate in Switzerland .
The Swiss program is considering options for the siting of a deep repository for high @-@ level radioactive waste disposal , and for low & intermediate level wastes . Construction of a repository is not foreseen until well into this century . Research on sedimentary rock ( especially Opalinus Clay ) is carried out at the Swiss Mont Terri rock laboratory ; the Grimsel Test Site , an older facility in crystalline rock is also still active .
= = = = United Kingdom = = = =
Great Britain has 19 operating reactors , producing about 20 % of its electricity . It processes much of its spent fuel at Sellafield on the northwest coast across from Ireland , where nuclear waste is vitrified and sealed in stainless steel canisters for dry storage above ground for at least 50 years before eventual deep geologic disposal . Sellafield has a history of environmental and safety problems , including a fire in a nuclear plant in Windscale , and a significant incident in 2005 at the main reprocessing plant ( THORP ) .
In 1982 the Nuclear Industry Radioactive Waste Management Executive ( NIREX ) was established with responsibility for disposing of long @-@ lived nuclear waste and in 2006 a Committee on Radioactive Waste Management ( CoRWM ) of the Department of Environment , Food and Rural Affairs recommended geologic disposal 200 – 1 @,@ 000 meters underground . NIREX developed a generic repository concept based on the Swedish model but has not yet selected a site . A Nuclear Decommissioning Authority is responsible for packaging waste from reprocessing and will eventually relieve British Nuclear Fuels Ltd. of responsibility for power reactors and the Sellafield reprocessing plant .
= = = North America = = =
= = = = Canada = = = =
The 18 operating nuclear power plants in Canada generated about 16 % of its electricity in 2006 . A national Nuclear Fuel Waste Act was enacted by the Canadian Parliament in 2002 , requiring nuclear energy corporations to create a waste management organization to propose to the Government of Canada approaches for management of nuclear waste , and implementation of an approach subsequently selected by the government . The Act defined management as " long term management by means of storage or disposal , including handling , treatment , conditioning or transport for the purpose of storage or disposal . "
The resulting Nuclear Waste Management Organization ( NWMO ) conducted an extensive three @-@ year study and consultation with Canadians . In 2005 , they recommended Adaptive Phased Management , an approach that emphasized both technical and management methods . The technical method included centralized isolation and containment of spent nuclear fuel in a deep geologic repository in a suitable rock formation , such as the granite of the Canadian Shield or Ordovician sedimentary rocks . Also recommended was a phased decision making process supported by a program of continuous learning , research and development .
In 2007 , the Canadian government accepted this recommendation , and NWMO was tasked with implementing the recommendation . No specific timeframe was defined for the process . In 2009 , the NWMO was designing the process for site selection ; siting was expected to take 10 years or more .
= = = = United States = = = =
The Nuclear Waste Policy Act of 1982 established a timetable and procedure for constructing a permanent , underground repository for high @-@ level radioactive waste by the mid @-@ 1990s , and provided for some temporary storage of waste , including spent fuel from 104 civilian nuclear reactors that produce about 19 @.@ 4 % of electricity there . The United States in April 2008 had about 56 @,@ 000 metric tons of spent fuel and 20 @,@ 000 canisters of solid defense @-@ related waste , and this is expected to increase to 119 @,@ 000 metric tons by 2035 . The U.S. opted for Yucca Mountain nuclear waste repository , a final repository at Yucca Mountain in Nevada , but this project was widely opposed , with some of the main concerns being long distance transportation of waste from across the United States to this site , the possibility of accidents , and the uncertainty of success in isolating nuclear waste from the human environment in perpetuity . Yucca Mountain , with capacity for 70 @,@ 000 metric tons of radioactive waste , was expected to open in 2017 . However , the Obama Administration rejected use of the site in the 2009 United States Federal Budget proposal , which eliminated all funding except that needed to answer inquiries from the Nuclear Regulatory Commission , " while the Administration devises a new strategy toward nuclear waste disposal . " On March 5 , 2009 , Energy Secretary Steven Chu told a Senate hearing " the Yucca Mountain site no longer was viewed as an option for storing reactor waste . " Starting in 1999 , military @-@ generated nuclear waste is being entombed at the Waste Isolation Pilot Plant in New Mexico .
In a Presidential Memorandum dated January 29 , 2010 , President Obama established the Blue Ribbon Commission on America ’ s Nuclear Future ( the Commission ) . The Commission , composed of fifteen members , conducted an extensive two @-@ year study of nuclear waste disposal , what is referred to as the " back end " of the nuclear energy process . The Commission established three subcommittees : Reactor and Fuel Cycle Technology , Transportation and Storage , and Disposal . On January 26 , 2012 , the Commission submitted its final report to Energy Secretary Steven Chu . In the Disposal Subcommittee ’ s final report the Commission does not issue recommendations for a specific site but rather presents a comprehensive recommendation for disposal strategies . During their research the Commission visited Finland , France , Japan , Russia , Sweden , and the UK . In their final report the Commission put forth seven recommendations for developing a comprehensive strategy to pursue :
Recommendation # 1
The United States should undertake an integrated nuclear waste management program that leads to the timely development of one or more permanent deep geological facilities for the safe disposal of spent fuel and high @-@ level nuclear waste .
Recommendation # 2
A new , single @-@ purpose organization is needed to develop and implement a focused , integrated program for the transportation , storage , and disposal 1 of nuclear waste in the United States .
Recommendation # 3
Assured access to the balance in the Nuclear Waste Fund ( NWF ) and to the revenues generated by annual nuclear waste fee payments from utility ratepayers is absolutely essential and must be provided to the new nuclear waste management organization .
Recommendation # 4
A new approach is needed to site and develop nuclear waste facilities in the United States in the future . We believe that these processes are most likely to succeed if they are :
Adaptive — in the sense that process itself is flexible and produces decisions that are responsive to new information and new technical , social , or political developments .
Staged — in the sense that key decisions are revisited and modified as necessary along the way rather than being pre @-@ determined in advance .
Consent @-@ based — in the sense that affected communities have an opportunity to decide whether to accept facility siting decisions and retain significant local control .
Transparent — in the sense that all stakeholders have an opportunity to understand key decisions and engage in the process in a meaningful way .
Standards- and science @-@ based — in the sense that the public can have confidence that all facilities meet rigorous , objective , and consistently @-@ applied standards of safety and environmental protection .
Governed by partnership arrangements or legally @-@ enforceable agreements with host states , tribes and local communities .
Recommendation # 5
The current division of regulatory responsibilities for long @-@ term repository performance between the NRC and the EPA is appropriate and should continue . The two agencies should develop new , site @-@ independent safety standards in a formally coordinated joint process that actively engages and solicits input from all the relevant constituencies .
Recommendation # 6
The roles , responsibilities , and authorities of local , state , and tribal governments ( with respect to facility siting and other aspects of nuclear waste disposal ) must be an element of the negotiation between the federal government and the other affected units of government in establishing a disposal facility . In addition to legally @-@ binding agreements , as discussed in Recommendation # 4 , all affected levels of government ( local , state , tribal , etc . ) must have , at a minimum , a meaningful consultative role in all other important decisions . Additionally , states and tribes should retain — or where appropriate , be delegated — direct authority over aspects of regulation , permitting , and operations where oversight below the federal level can be exercised effectively and in a way that is helpful in protecting the interests and gaining the confidence of affected communities and citizens .
Recommendation # 7
The Nuclear Waste Technical Review Board ( NWTRB ) should be retained as a valuable source of independent technical advice and review .
= = = International repository = = =
Although Australia does not have any nuclear power reactors , Pangea Resources considered siting an international repository in the outback of South Australia or Western Australia in 1998 , but this stimulated legislative opposition in both states and the Australian national Senate during the following year . Thereafter , Pangea ceased operations in Australia but reemerged as Pangea International Association , and in 2002 evolved into the Association for Regional and International Underground Storage with support from Belgium , Bulgaria , Hungary , Japan and Switzerland . A general concept for an international repository has been advanced by one of the principals in all three ventures . Russia has expressed interest in serving as a repository for other countries , but does not envision sponsorship or control by an international body or group of other countries . South Africa , Argentina and western China have also been mentioned as possible locations .
In the EU , COVRA is negotiating a European @-@ wide waste disposal system with single disposal sites that can be used by several EU @-@ countries . This EU @-@ wide storage possibility is being researched under the SAPIERR @-@ 2 program .
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= Ezra Johnson =
Ezra Ray Johnson ( born October 2 , 1955 in Shreveport , Louisiana ) is a retired American football defensive end who played for the Green Bay Packers , Indianapolis Colts and Houston Oilers in a fifteen @-@ year career that lasted from 1977 to 1991 in the National Football League ( NFL ) .
A first @-@ round pick from Morris Brown College by the Green Bay Packers in 1977 , Johnson was known as one of the best defensive linemen in his first few years in the league . Johnson earned a spot in the 1979 Pro Bowl after unofficially finishing second , to Detroit Lions Al " Bubba " Baker , with 20 @.@ 5 sacks in 1978 . ( Quarterback sacks were not an official NFL statistic until 1982 . ) However by 1981 , Johnson 's career was marred by a series of back injuries and allegations of his lack of discipline on the field , including one incident in which he ate a hot dog while sitting on the bench during a preseason game , and being inconsistent at times . He lost and regained his starting job multiple times during that period .
Johnson was exclusively used as the third @-@ down pass rush specialist after 1986 , and took a leadership role with the team . He was released by the Packers in 1988 and played with two seasons with the Colts , and one with the Oilers before retiring in 1991 . Despite his adverse relationship with the team at times , Johnson was elected to the Green Bay Packers Hall of Fame in 1997 .
= = College career = =
Johnson played college football at Morris Brown College in Atlanta , Georgia . In his last year at Morris Brown he had 112 tackles and 28 sacks . However his size and the small school he played for helped lower his draft stock . He was projected to go anywhere from the first to fourth rounds prior to the NFL Draft .
= = NFL career = =
= = = Green Bay Packers = = =
Johnson was drafted as the 28th pick of the first round in the 1977 NFL Draft by the Green Bay Packers . Johnson was considered a " gamble pick " for the Packers because of lack of major college experience and his relatively small size for a defensive end . In his rookie season , Johnson appeared in 14 games as the backup for Alden Roche at defensive end . Johnson significantly improved in his second year , becoming one of the top defensive ends in the league with his size and speed , a 4 @.@ 5 in the 40 @-@ yard dash , being the main factors for his success . He thrived on the Packers 4 – 3 defense , and recorded 14 sacks by the eighth game of the season . Johnson had two sacks and forced two fumbles in a 45 – 28 win against the Seattle Seahawks on October 16 , 1978 . At that time , the Packers had the best record in the NFC Central at 6 – 1 . By the end of the year , Johnson recorded an unofficial 20 @.@ 5 sacks , a statistic used , but not kept , by the NFL until 1982 . However , the Packers offense were among the worst in the league , and the team lost a chance for a playoff berth in the final game of the season against the Los Angeles Rams . Johnson was rewarded for his efforts by being selected to play in the Pro Bowl and was rewarded with the Packers Defensive Player of the Year award .
In 1979 , Johnson missed seven games early in the season because of a sprained left ankle . On his return against the Minnesota Vikings on November 11 , he sacked quarterback Tommy Kramer four times in a 19 – 7 win . During that period , Johnson teamed up with fellow first @-@ round pick Mike Butler to form one of the league 's most potent defensive lineups . Nicknamed the " Gang Green " , they became known for their ability to pressure the quarterback to force a sack .
Prior to the start to the 1980 season , Johnson was notoriously fined $ 1 @,@ 000 and required by then @-@ general manager @-@ head coach Bart Starr to apologize for eating a hot dog on the sidelines during the fourth quarter of a 38 – 0 Packers ' home preseason loss to the Denver Broncos on August 30 , 1980 . Starr gave Johnson back the $ 1 @,@ 000 at the end of the year . However , defensive line coach Fred von Appen resigned five days after the incident because Starr refused to suspend Johnson . He started in all 15 games that season , as the Packers finished with a 5 – 10 – 1 record . After the season , Johnson and Butler were both criticized for not playing up to the Packers expectations when they drafted them . One journalist stated that their development was halted because of a lack of stability in the Green Bay coaching situation , who went though four defensive line coaches in three years .
In 1981 , Johnson lost his starting role to Casey Merrill as the Packers had changed to a 3 – 4 defensive scheme , and decided instead to use Johnson exclusively for pass rushing situations . It was a decision which confused the local media as Johnson had been the starter since 1978 . Merrill , who was released by the Cincinnati Bengals and claimed off waivers by the Packers , was considered by the team as the better , more consistent interior lineman against the run . The Packers claimed Johnson lost his job because of his lack of " size " and low upside . However , during the preseason , many people within the Packers organization " questioned " Johnson 's desire to play and his attitude , an allegation Johnson quickly denied . He also was fined by Starr an unknown amount of money for almost missing a team flight to New York after celebrating his birthday the previous night , misplacing his car keys . He only started three games that season .
By 1982 , Johnson regained his starting job over Merrill . Defensive coordinator John Meyer stated that Johnson was " playing his best football " since his breakout 1978 season . Johnson stated that " eating his mother 's cooking " and being " healthy " were the main reasons for his improvement . He signed a three @-@ year contract with the Packers at $ 450 @,@ 000 a year . It led to a lawsuit against his former agency Bradcor Sports Servicing , who claimed that he never gave the agency their commission . He had an official career best of 14 @.@ 5 quarterback sacks in 1983 along with 107 tackles , a team record by a defensive lineman in a single season .
The success didn 't last long , as Johnson started to get hampered with back injuries , which reduced his effectiveness . In 1984 , Johnson had surgery for a herniated disk , an injury he suffered during training camp , and was known as a potential career @-@ ending injury . He missed the first game of the regular season against the St. Louis Cardinals and could not fully recover from the injury . Again he lost his starting job , becoming a third @-@ down pass @-@ rushing specialist , and was credited with seven sacks for the year ; the injury forced Johnson to mull retirement .
Prior to the start of training camp for the 1985 season , Johnson had a second surgery to repair his herniated disk . At the same time , Johnson took on a leadership role for the Green Bay defense , and started to accept his role as a backup and started to mentor the younger players . After injuries befell the Packers ' defensive line , Johnson regained his starting position at defensive end . He started all 16 games that year , achieving 9 @.@ 5 sacks . His career started to diminish after that season . In 1986 , Johnson was credited with three and a half sacks as he was used as the designated third @-@ down pass rushing specialist . He injured his right knee in 1987 , missing 10 of the first 11 games of the season . He was released by the Packers on January 8 , 1988 . At the time of his release , Johnson was the Packers ' all @-@ time leader in sacks with 84 .
= = = Indianapolis and Houston = = =
Johnson signed with the Indianapolis Colts in 1988 in order to provide experience to a young and inexperienced Colts squad . During his time with the Colts , Johnson was used as a part @-@ time starter in a role similar to his final few years with the Packers . He played in ten games that year , recording three sacks and played in all 16 games the following year , recording 8 @.@ 5 sacks . He joined the Houston Oilers in 1990 , where he played in all 16 games , starting three , and was credited with 2 @.@ 5 sacks . After playing two games for the Oilers in 1991 , Johnson retired .
He played in 192 games in his career , having officially 55 @.@ 5 quarterback sacks ( 99 when his unofficial totals are added ) .
= = Life after football = =
After retirement Johnson coached at Morris Brown and at Morehouse College . He was elected to the Green Bay Packers Hall of Fame in 1997 . He currently lives in the Atlanta area and has four children .
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= Army of Ghosts =
" Army of Ghosts " is the twelfth and penultimate episode in the second series of the British science fiction television programme Doctor Who which was first broadcast on 1 July 2006 . It is the first episode of a two @-@ part story ; the concluding episode , " Doomsday " , was first broadcast on 8 July .
The episode takes place on contemporary Earth , some time after the Doctor 's and Rose 's last visit to Earth in " Love & Monsters " . During this time , the public have become accustomed to intermittent appearances of ghosts . The Doctor tracks the source of the ghosts to the Torchwood Institute , where the Doctor learns of the Cybermen from " Rise of the Cybermen " and " The Age of Steel " crossing a breach in the Void created by a Dalek @-@ piloted Void ship .
= = Plot = =
The episode begins with a cold open in which Rose , via narration , recollects her life with the Doctor and her belief that they would always be travelling together . She then mentions that this episode is " the story of how I died " .
Rose Tyler and the Doctor decide to visit Rose 's mother Jackie . Jackie is pleased to see them , but makes a strangely happy remark that her deceased father will be joining them shortly . Despite Rose 's protestations that her grandfather is dead , Jackie insists that he has returned and has been visiting her for some time . A vaguely humanoid and luminous silhouette appears in the flat , surprising both the Doctor and Rose but delighting Jackie before disappearing . TV broadcasts confirm that this is a worldwide phenomenon and Jackie explains that a few months previously millions of ghosts began appearing all over the world . Humans have come to accept them and believe that they are the manifestations of loved ones .
The Doctor dismisses the possibility that these are ghosts and conducts an experiment with the help of the TARDIS . He attempts to trap a ghost and determines that they are not ghosts but are impressions of something forcing its way into this universe . The Doctor tracks the signal back and uses the TARDIS to travel there , arriving at the Torchwood Institute . The Doctor introduces himself and tells everyone that Jackie is Rose , his companion . They are taken by soldiers to see Torchwood 's current director Yvonne Hartman , while the TARDIS is impounded with Rose inside . Ms. Hartman shows the Doctor the source of the ghost energy , an invisible breach in the universe through which a mysterious spherical object has arrived . The Doctor inspects the sphere , declaring it to be a " Void ship " — which , according to him , is impossible . It is designed to exist in the space between universes , a nothingness called the Void . The ship is completely undetectable by all scientific instruments . Torchwood has no explanation for the sphere is or how it got there , but they claim responsibility for the ghosts . Torchwood has been conducting experiments on the breach , forcing it open in an attempt to harness it as a source of energy . Ms. Hartman also reveals to the Doctor that his encounter with Queen Victoria in " Tooth and Claw " made him an enemy of the state and was the catalyst for the creation of Torchwood . Unbeknownst to all at this point , an unseen party has infiltrated the institute and has been successful in subverting three Torchwood staff .
Meanwhile , Rose slips out of the TARDIS and uses a lab coat she found to masquerade as an employee to explore Torchwood . She gains access to the sphere chamber with the Doctor 's psychic paper , but is detained by a Dr. Singh . He discovers that Rose is an imposter and informs Ms. Hartman of her presence . Dr. Singh then asks his colleague Samuel , whom Rose recognises as Mickey Smith , to seal the doors . Ms. Hartman questions the Doctor , who admits that the woman in the sphere chamber is really Rose and that the woman with him in her office is Rose 's mum Jackie . In the command centre , the three employees under manipulation initiate an unscheduled ghost shift and forcibly open the breach . The extended shift causes millions of ghosts to appear across the globe before they materialise into their true form , the Cybermen . At the same time the Cybermen arrive the Void ship suddenly activates and begins to open . The Cybermen take control of Torchwood and order the complete surrender of humanity for conversion . The Doctor , puzzled at how the Cybermen could have created an advanced piece of technology like the Void ship , asks the Cyber Leader how they were able to build it . The Cyber Leader responds that the Cybermen are similarly oblivious to the origins of the sphere and that they merely followed its course through the breach .
In the sphere chamber , Mickey explains to Rose that after a battle in the parallel universe the Cybermen mysteriously disappeared . He happened upon their means of escape and returned to his native universe with the intention of stopping them . Mickey believes that the Cybermen are in control of the sphere and produces a gun to destroy whatever is in it . Rose is horrified when the sphere opens and reveals its occupants to be a quartet of Daleks , who identify their location as Earth and begin chanting , " Exterminate ! Exterminate ! " .
= = = Continuity = = =
The majority of this episode takes place in the Torchwood Institute , which is seen on screen for the first time . The phrase " Torchwood " originated from an anagram of Doctor Who used to conceal the " rushes " tapes during the filming of the first series . It was an arc word used through the majority of the second series , starting with the series one episode " Bad Wolf " .
The episode 's secondary plot device is the Cybermen , from the parallel universe featured in " The Age of Steel " and " Rise of the Cybermen " . The Cybermen breaking through plastic sheets is a recurring theme throughout Cybermen appearances , in particular , The Tomb of the Cybermen , The Invasion and Earthshock . The concept of a CyberKing , mentioned by Mickey , would eventually come to pass in " The Next Doctor " .
The episode is also the first in which Freema Agyeman appears , although she is not playing the role of Martha Jones , which she would play in series 3 , but a minor character named Adeola ( who is later revealed to be Martha 's cousin ) . Russell T Davies admired Agyeman 's performance as Adeola and called her back to fill the role of companion that Piper had chosen to leave .
Although Cybermen and Daleks previously appeared together in The Wheel in Space , The War Games , The Mind of Evil , Logopolis , The Five Doctors , and " Dalek " , this two @-@ part episode ( including the next episode " Doomsday " ) is the first time that both the Cybermen and Daleks play a major role .
= = Production = =
The two @-@ part finale comprising " Army of Ghosts " and " Doomsday " was originally going to take place in Cardiff on the time rift which was the focus of the episodes " The Unquiet Dead " and " Boom Town " . With the commission of the Torchwood series in 2005 , Davies decided to base the spin @-@ off in Cardiff and relocate " Army of Ghosts " and " Doomsday " to Canary Wharf in London .
To ensure that Noel Clarke and Shaun Dingwall ( Mickey Smith and Pete Tyler , respectively ) were available for filming , the story was filmed in the season 's third production block along with " Rise of the Cybermen " and " The Age of Steel " . Filming for the story started on 2 November 2005 on location in Kennington , but this story did not become the primary focus of the production crew until 29 November , when filming began on the scenes in and around the sphere chamber . Scenes in the lever room , the main setting for the story , were filmed between 12 December and 15 December , and 3 January and 5 January 2006 .
The episode also features references to other programmes by the BBC . The most notable of these is the cameo of Barbara Windsor as Peggy Mitchell in EastEnders , where she bars a ghost whom she presumes to be Den Watts from The Queen Victoria . Watts , presumed killed in 1989 , returned to the soap in 2003 , before being killed a second time in 2005 after being written out of the show . Other British TV personalities appearing in the episode are Trisha Goddard , Alistair Appleton and Derek Acorah , appearing as themselves . Additionally , the shot of One Canada Square is taken from the opening credits of The Apprentice . A programme with the same name as a controversial broadcast in 1992 by the BBC , Ghostwatch , also appears in the show .
Location shooting took place at the Coal Exchange and Mount Stuart Square , Cardiff Bay .
= = Broadcast and reception = =
To keep the appearance of the Daleks secret , the final scene was removed from all preview tapes and replaced with a title card reading " final scene withheld until transmission " , including the copy given to the Doctor Who microsite 's " fear forecast " team .
The episode was watched by 8 @.@ 19 million viewers , and was the seventh most watched programme of the week , behind four World Cup games and two episodes of Coronation Street . The Companion episode of Doctor Who Confidential gained 570 @,@ 000 viewers . The episode 's Appreciation Index was 86 , above the average baseline of 77 for drama series .
The episode was generally well reviewed by critics . The Stage commented that the episode was " a tense contest , full of drama , tears , adversity and two powerful forces coming face to face in the ultimate battle " while mockingly downplaying the England football team 's defeat earlier that evening . The author of the review then stated that the cliffhanger increased his affection of the show . The Guardian commented that the episode was " Who back at its best " while The People complimented the humour of the scene of the Doctor channel surfing . Jacob Clifton of Television Without Pity gave the episode an A- rating . Ahsan Haque of IGN gave the episode 9 @.@ 8 out of 10 ( Incredible ) , and complimented the pacing of the episode and the revelation of both the Cybermen and the Daleks , concluding that " you couldn 't ask for a better cliffhanger " .
After its initial airing , the episode was released on DVD with " Fear Her " and " Doomsday " on 25 September 2006 . The story ( " Army of Ghosts " / " Doomsday " ) was nominated for the 2007 Hugo Award for Best Dramatic Presentation , Short Form .
= = = Reviews = = =
" Army of Ghosts " reviews at Outpost Gallifrey
" Army of Ghosts " / " Doomsday " reviews at Outpost Gallifrey
" Army of Ghosts " reviews at The Doctor Who Ratings Guide
" Army of Ghosts " / " Doomsday " reviews at The Doctor Who Ratings Guide
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= New York State Route 318 =
New York State Route 318 ( NY 318 ) is an east – west state highway in the Finger Lakes region of New York in the United States . The western terminus of the route is at an intersection with NY 14 at New York State Thruway ( Interstate 90 or I @-@ 90 ) exit 42 in the town of Phelps . The eastern terminus is at an intersection with U.S. Route 20 ( US 20 ) and NY 5 northeast of the hamlet of Seneca Falls . All but 0 @.@ 70 miles ( 1 @.@ 13 km ) of the 10 @.@ 90 @-@ mile ( 17 @.@ 54 km ) route is located in Seneca County .
The origins of NY 318 date back to the 19th century when the highway was part of a road connecting the village of Phelps to a bridge over the Seneca River near Cayuga Lake . It was mostly designated as Route 6 @-@ a , an unsigned legislative route , by the New York State Legislature in 1911 . The section of Route 6 @-@ a from West Junius to Halsey Corners was designated as New York State Route 291 ( west of Magee ) and part of NY 89 ( east of Magee ) as part of the 1930 renumbering of state highways in New York . NY 291 was removed in the 1940s .
The alignments of NY 89 and NY 414 north of Seneca Falls were largely flipped in the 1950s , placing both highways on their modern alignments . Part of NY 89 's former routing became a short @-@ lived extension of New York State Route 390 . All of NY 89 's former routing from Magee to Halsey Corners was designated as NY 318 c . 1963 . NY 318 was extended west to NY 14 in the 1970s over former NY 291 .
= = Route description = =
NY 318 begins at an intersection with NY 14 in an area of the Ontario County town of Phelps known as West Junius . West of the intersection , the right @-@ of @-@ way for NY 318 leads to the toll barrier for New York State Thruway ( I @-@ 90 ) exit 42 . The route heads eastward , crossing the Norfolk Southern Railway Corning Secondary line before passing into Seneca County a mere 0 @.@ 70 miles ( 1 @.@ 13 km ) from NY 14 .
Now in the town of Junius , the route follows an alignment parallel to that of the Thruway as it passes south of a large housing development and by a series of small lakes collectively known as Junius Ponds . NY 318 continues on , passing through a mixture of forested areas and cultivated fields as it heads eastward through the town . Just past an intersection with Nine Foot Road ( County Route 108 or CR 108 ) , NY 318 serves the Waterloo Premium Outlets , a large collection of outlet stores situated between NY 318 and the Thruway . Past the outlet mall , the route continues through largely rural surroundings to the community of Stone Church Corner , where it briefly curves to the northeast before veering back to the east as it enters the town of Tyre .
Roughly 0 @.@ 5 miles ( 0 @.@ 8 km ) from the town line , NY 318 enters the hamlet of Magee , a small community centered around NY 318 's junction with NY 414 ( Ridge Road ) . East of Magee , NY 318 turns to the southeast and begins to separate from the Thruway as it passes through vast , open fields . At the community of Nichols Corners , located at the intersection of NY 318 and Gravel Road ( CR 101 ) , the route curves back to the east and begins to straddle the Tyre – Seneca Falls town line . NY 318 ends 1 @.@ 35 miles ( 2 @.@ 17 km ) later at an intersection with US 20 and NY 5 . The junction is only 0 @.@ 1 miles ( 0 @.@ 16 km ) west of where US 20 and NY 5 meet NY 89 at Halsey Corners , a point just west of the Montezuma National Wildlife Refuge and northwest of Cayuga Lake .
= = History = =
= = = Origins = = =
On April 16 , 1825 , the New York State Legislature passed an act permitting the construction of a " free bridge " over the Seneca River . The bridge was ultimately constructed just north of Cayuga Lake near the site of the modern US 20 and NY 5 river crossing . A road was later built to connect the bridge to the village of Phelps by way of West Junius and Magee . The highway became known as the " free bridge state road " . In 1908 , the portion of the road from the free bridge to Halsey Corners was included as part of Route 6 , an unsigned legislative route defined by the New York State Legislature as beginning in Buffalo and ending in Albany . The remainder of the old free bridge highway was designated as Route 6 @-@ a in 1911 .
When the first set of posted routes in New York were assigned in 1924 , the portion of Route 6 @-@ a from Phelps to West Junius was incorporated into NY 15 ( modern NY 96 ) , a route extending from Owego to Rochester . Farther east , the Route 6 segment of the old free bridge road was co @-@ designated as part of NY 5 and NY 5A ( now US 20 and NY 5 ) , two cross @-@ state highways linking Western New York to the Capital District . The remainder of the old highway — namely Route 6 @-@ a from West Junius to Halsey Corners — did not initially receive a designation .
= = = Designations = = =
The entirety of old Route 6 @-@ a between West Junius and Halsey Corners was assigned a designation as part of the 1930 renumbering of state highways in New York . From West Junius to Magee , the highway was designated as NY 291 ; meanwhile , the section from Magee to Halsey Corners became part of NY 89 , which originally continued north from Magee to North Rose on what is now NY 414 . At the same time , Black Brook Road , a connector between the village of Seneca Falls and NY 89 east of Magee , was assigned NY 390 . In the mid @-@ 1930s , the portion of Gravel Road between US 20 and NY 5 and NY 89 was designated as NY 390A . The route was a spur route of NY 390 in name only as NY 390A never connected to NY 390 . The NY 291 designation was deleted in the early 1940s .
The alignments of NY 89 and NY 414 north of US 20 and NY 5 were mostly swapped in the late 1950s ; however , NY 414 continued south of Magee along its current alignment instead . At the same time , NY 390 was extended westward to Magee along the former routing of NY 89 while the NY 390A designation was deleted . The entirety of NY 89 's former routing from Magee to Halsey Corners was redesignated as NY 318 c . 1963 , resulting in the truncation of NY 390 back to its previous northern terminus before being removed altogether in the mid @-@ 1960s . NY 318 was extended west to its current terminus at NY 14 in West Junius in the mid @-@ 1970s . The former routings of NY 390 and NY 390A between NY 318 and the former Seneca Falls village line are now maintained by Seneca County as CR 102 ( Black Brook Road ) and part of CR 101 ( Gravel Road ) , respectively .
= = Major intersections = =
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= Ben Crosby =
Benjamin Lewis Crosby , Jr . ( March 22 , 1868 – December 29 , 1892 ) was an American football player , coach , and law student . Born in Halcott Centre , New York , Crosby attended Yale University beginning in 1889 ; while there , he was a popular student and sportsman . A member of both Delta Kappa Epsilon and Skull and Bones , Crosby was a two @-@ year starter on the football team and a backup on the crew team . During his junior year , Crosby was replaced on the football team by freshman Frank Hinkey and never returned to a starting position . The remainder of Crosby 's time at Yale was successful and he enrolled at the New York Law School after graduation .
Crosby was invited in 1892 to serve as head coach of the United States Naval Academy football program . He accepted the position , and , using a rigorous practicing regime , led his team to a 5 – 2 record , which included a victory over rival Army in the Army – Navy Game . Crosby was repeatedly in the news for his coaching decisions leading up to the game , which he was then commended for following the upset victory . At the end of the season , Crosby returned to New York to continue his studies , but he was hospitalized after a cold he caught while coaching worsened shortly after his arrival . He died from typhoid fever in late December , at the age of 24 .
= = Career = =
= = = Early life and college = = =
Crosby was born on March 22 , 1868 in Halcott Centre , Greene County , New York , son of David J. Crosby . As a child , Crosby attended Hopkins Grammar School in New Haven , Connecticut , the second person in his family to do so . He graduated from the school in 1888 , and the following year , Crosby began classes at Yale University . Crosby was very popular while at Yale , and was a member of both Delta Kappa Epsilon and the secret undergraduate society Skull and Bones . In his sophomore year , Crosby was the starting right end of the Bulldogs football team ; the squad finished the season with a thirteen @-@ and @-@ one record , with the sole loss coming to national champion Harvard . In his following year , Crosby joined the university 's crew team as a substitute , and was described by classmates as being " quite prominent in athletics " .
However , Crosby 's football season turned out to be a disappointment . Early in the season , both he and John A. Hartwell , the other starting end , who would later follow Crosby as Navy football coach , were injured in a game . While observing a team practice , Hartwell noticed the play of backup end Frank Hinkey . After the two watched Hinkey for a brief time , Hartwell decided that he needed to return to practicing or he would lose his starting position . Crosby did not share his view . By the next game , Hinkey had replaced Crosby as the starting end and Crosby did not regain his position . Despite this , Crosby remained popular through his senior year at the university , and he was one of three graduates presented with a class award . Upon graduation from the school , Crosby enrolled in New York Law School and joined a law office in New York City .
= = = Coaching career = = =
In October 1892 , shortly after he began attending New York Law School , Crosby was invited by former Yale coach Walter Camp to live in Annapolis , Maryland and serve as the coach for the United States Naval Academy football team . The program requested that Camp serve as coach in response to Army 's hiring of Crosby 's former teammate , Henry L. Williams , but Camp suggested that Crosby would be a better fit for the job . Crosby accepted the invitation , and became the second head coach in Navy history and the first that had been independent of the program . The prior coach , Vaulx Carter , had been a student at the academy and was responsible for the revival of the program . Crosby 's strategy for practices was one of the most intensive used at the academy during its early years ; after classes every day , the team would play two forty @-@ five minute games against a team of twenty @-@ two backup players , followed immediately by a long swimming session in a cold pool . Shortly before the season began , he hired former St. John 's College , Johns Hopkins , and Lehigh player Paul Dashiell to serve as his assistant coach .
The 1892 season commenced on October 12 with a 16 – 0 shutout loss against the Penn Quakers in Annapolis . The Quakers would finish the season with a 15 – 1 record , losing only to national champion Yale . Crosby 's team played their next game just three days later , against the Princeton Tigers . Navy lost the game in another shutout , by the score of 28 – 0 . These losses continued a losing streak that dated back to November 21 of the previous year . The following week , on October 22 , Crosby received his first coaching win after Navy defeated the Lafayette Leopards 22 – 4 . This was followed by a victory the next week over the small Franklin & Marshall College ; Navy won in a 24 – 0 shutout , their largest shutout win since the 1890 Army – Navy Game . They continued the winning streak into November with a 48 – 12 blowout of Rutgers , the biggest win for Navy since the beginning of the 1890 season . After a week 's break , Crosby received his fourth win , a forty @-@ point shutout of nearby Georgetown .
The final game of the season was the annual Army – Navy Game against Navy 's biggest rivals , the Army Cadets . Navy had been upset by the Cadets in the previous year 's game , and came into the 1892 game as an underdog against the unbeaten Army . Despite this , Crosby expected a victory , even telling reporters that he was " of the opinion that they [ Navy ] will certainly win " . Crosby also caught the attention of the press with his scheduling of constant practices leading up to the game , including organizing night practices on a lighted field . He also closed all press and fan access to the practices , an unusual action at the time , because Navy officials claimed that Army had learned their plays the prior year by observing the practices . Crosby 's actions proved successful as , on November 26 at West Point , Navy led Army for the entire game and won easily , 12 – 4 . About a month after the game , in appreciation for his coaching Navy to the win , the team presented Crosby an eight @-@ inch high sterling silver loving cup , produced by the Gorham Manufacturing Company , which was inscribed with the simple message : " Benjamin L. Crosby . Jr . – From the officers and cadets of the United States Naval Academy , Nov. 26 , 1892 " .
= = = Death and legacy = = =
Following the conclusion of the season , Crosby returned to New York City to continue his studies at the New York Law School . However , he only attended classes for a brief time . Crosby had , reportedly , contracted a " severe cold " during his time as a head coach , which continued to affect him after the season . On December 19 , while attending one of his law classes , his illness intensified and he apparently " succumbed to an attack of typhoid fever " . Crosby was taken to St. Luke 's Hospital , where his condition progressively worsened over the following ten days . Crosby finally succumbed to the effects of typhoid fever on December 29 at the age of 24 . In his one season as a head coach , Crosby amassed a record of 5 – 2 and his team outscored their opponents 146 – 64 . The five wins are tied for the seventh @-@ fewest of any Navy coach , but third @-@ most of single @-@ season coaches . Crosby also has the third @-@ fewest losses among Navy coaches . His .714 win percentage is tied for the tenth @-@ highest of any Navy coach . Crosby 's coaching position was filled by Yale teammate John A. Hartwell , who was subsequently replaced by another Yale teammate , William Wurtenburg . Crosby has been largely forgotten outside of Navy football history . One event from his life that was remembered was his replacement as Yale end by Frank Hinkey , which was discussed in magazines until at least the 1920s . The most significant impact that Crosby had was through his hiring of Dashiell . The latter would serve as assistant under the following eight Navy coaches , until 1903 ; as head coach from 1904 to 1906 , Dashiell brought Navy to national prominence and won 25 games . He later became one of the longest @-@ serving members of the college football Rules Committee , helping to legalize the forward pass and ban the flying wedge , among other things .
= = Head coaching record = =
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= Fiji parrotfinch =
The Fiji parrotfinch ( Erythrura pealii ) is a species of estrildid finch endemic to Fiji that was formerly considered to be a subspecies of the red @-@ headed parrotfinch . This parrotfinch is a small , mainly green bird with a red head and tail and a stubby dark grey bill . It is found in both forested and open habitats , and has adapted well to man @-@ made environments such as grasslands , pasture and gardens . Pairs have a courtship display in which they fly above the trees in an undulating flight , calling constantly . Breeding birds build a domed grass nest with a side entrance , and lay a clutch normally of four white eggs . Newly hatched chicks are naked and pink , with blue balls at the upper and lower corners of the gape , and black markings inside the mouth ; older fledglings resemble the adults , but lack the red head colouring . The Fiji parrotfinch eats seeds , especially of grasses , and also readily feeds on insects and nectar . It forms small flocks of up to six birds after the breeding season .
Parrotfinches may be preyed upon by indigenous birds of prey such as the endemic Fiji goshawk , or by introduced mammals such as the small Asian mongoose , rats , and mice , and they may be susceptible to disease . The Fiji species , despite being both uncommon and endemic to one island group , appears to be stable in numbers . It is therefore classified as Least Concern on the IUCN Red List , and it is protected under Fijian law .
= = Taxonomy = =
The parrotfinches are a genus of estrildid finches found in Southeast Asia and Australasia . They are small birds with short rounded wings and tails . Most species have green bodies , and all but one have the red tail that gives the genus its scientific name Erythrura , which is derived from the Ancient Greek ερυθρός erythros , " red " , and ουρά oura , " tail " . The English name of Fijian Fire @-@ tail Finch was used in early writings .
The Fiji parrotfinch was initially described by American naturalist and entomologist Titian Peale . As chief naturalist for the United States Exploring Expedition of 1838 – 1842 led by Charles Wilkes , Peale collected and preserved many specimens , including the red @-@ throated parrotfinch from Samoa and the Fiji parrotfinch from Vanua Levu . Peale named the latter species as Geospiza prasina . Peale 's birds were reviewed by German physician and ornithologist Gustav Hartlaub . Hartlaub moved the Fiji species to the genus Erythrura , and then had to change the specific name , since another bird , the pin @-@ tailed parrotfinch already had the binomial E. prasina . He renamed the Fiji bird as E. pealii in honour of its finder . The Fijian common names kulakula and qiqikula are derived from " kula " , red .
The Fiji parrotfinch and the royal parrotfinch of northern Vanuatu are now again usually considered to be distinct species , but they were formerly frequently treated as subspecies of the Samoan red @-@ headed parrotfinch , E. cyaneovirens .
= = Description = =
The Fiji parrotfinch is a small finch , 10 cm ( 4 in ) in length . The adult male has a bright green body and wings , red head , and scarlet rump and tail . The blackish feathering of the chin becomes dark blue on the lower throat and turquoise on the upper breast before fading into the green of the underparts . The stubby bill is blackish @-@ grey , the eyes are reddish @-@ brown and the legs and feet are pinkish @-@ brown . The female is very similar to the male , but possibly slightly duller and with paler flanks . Young birds have a dark @-@ tipped yellow bill and sometimes a bluish face which gradually turns red , but the rest of the plumage is like the adult . Full mature plumage is achieved at about 20 months . Some rare individuals of this parrotfinch have the entire head and face blue , apparently due to a natural mutation .
The flight of the Fiji parrotfinch is fast and undulating with rapid wingbeats , and frequent calling . It tends to fly fairly high , landing in the tree tops , then descending to seek food . Its call is a high , thin seep or peep , similar to those of other parrotfinches such as blue @-@ faced and red @-@ throated , and is often repeated in bursts of varying length . The song is a long whistled double note similar to , but less urgent , than that of the orange @-@ breasted myzomela , a Fijian endemic honeyeater .
Fiji has another Erythrura species , the rare and endangered pink @-@ billed parrotfinch . This is a larger bird with a green head , blue crown and black face , and a very large pink bill . The Fiji parrotfinch resembles the closely related royal and red @-@ headed parrotfinches , and the rare blue @-@ headed variant is very like the blue @-@ faced parrotfinch , but these three species do not occur in Fiji .
= = Distribution and habitat = =
The Fiji parrotfinch is endemic to Fiji , where it is found on the four largest islands ( Viti Levu , Vanua Levu , Taveuni and Kadavu ) and also in the smaller western islands of the Mamanuca and the Yasawa groups . It is uncommon but widespread , found in both forested and open habitats , from sea level to at least 1 @,@ 200 m ( 3 @,@ 900 ft ) on Viti Levu . It appears to be less common on Taveuni than the larger islands . It has adapted well to man @-@ made habitats , and is seen in grasslands , pasture , rice paddies , parks and gardens . Many parrotfinch species are mainly forest birds , but American ornithologist Jared Diamond has suggested that in the central Pacific , where there are no seed @-@ eating munias occupying the open habitats , species such as Vanuatu 's blue @-@ faced parrotfinch and its Fijian relative have expanded into grassy areas of their islands to exploit the supply of seeds .
= = Behaviour = =
This species has a courtship flight conducted above the trees . The pair fly on a strongly oscillating path with one bird ascending while the other is descending , both calling constantly . After display , the birds land on a branch for a mating ritual which starts with locking bills , followed by the female hanging upside @-@ down for a variable period of time , and then copulation while the male holds the female 's neck . The flight and mating rituals have been recorded for three @-@ coloured and red @-@ throated parrotfinches , and may be typical for the genus . The nest is built with fresh grass blades , and is domed with a side entrance . It is always hidden in thick foliage , but can be at any height from the ground . The normal clutch is four spherical whitish eggs . Chicks are naked and have pinkish skin ; the distinctive gape has blue nodular spots technically termed as papillae or tubercles at the upper and lower corners , and the yellow palate has a ring of five black spots . Most young estrildid finches beg for food with their wings held against the side , but juvenile parrotfinches lift the wing on the side away from the feeding parent . This behaviour may restrict competition for food from other nestlings .
When not breeding , the Fiji parrotfinch is gregarious , and is usually found in small flocks of up to six birds . It feeds on seeds , usually at the " milk " ( watery ripe ) stage . A favourite is the Guinea grass , Megathyrsus maximus . The finch will also take seed from rice ears , and its spread into gardens has been aided by another preferred food plant , carpet grass , Axonopus compressus , which is a common lawn grass in Fiji . This finch readily takes insects , often extracted from under loose bark or tree crevices . It also feeds on nectar and small berries . In some areas , this finch 's diet may bring it into conflict with rice growers , but there is no evidence that this protected species is seen as a serious agricultural threat either in Fiji , or in Australia , where it is kept in captivity in small numbers .
= = Predators and parasites = =
The common endemic Fiji goshawk is a specialist predator of small and medium @-@ sized birds , and the swamp harrier is also a widespread predator , often taking fledglings . The local subspecies of the peregrine falcon , Falco peregrinus nesiotes will hunt finches , but is itself rare and declining . Barn owls eat mainly rats , but sometimes take small birds . Rats and mice use Fiji parrotfinch nests , and may be significant predators of the species , and the small Asian mongoose will prey on birds feeding on the ground . The fan @-@ tailed cuckoo , which has an endemic Fijian subspecies , is a brood parasite , but the parrotfinch does not appear to be a host of this large cuckoo .
No specific parasites of Fiji parrotfinch have been recorded , but microsporidiosis and avian malaria , both spread by parasites , have been found in captive populations of other parrotfinch species .
= = Status = =
The Fijian parrotfinch is endemic to a single country ; although its population is unknown , it is described as uncommon or locally common . In the absence of evidence for any decline in numbers , its population is believed to be stable , and it is therefore classed as Least Concern on the IUCN Red List . It is protected under Schedule 2 of Fiji 's Endangered and Protected Species Act 2002 , which regulates the import and trade of species that are not thought to be at a high risk of extinction , but may be threatened if trade in those species is not regulated . In the early 20th century , Europeans in Fiji kept these finches as cagebirds , calling them croton finches because of their liking for the croton bush , but the pet trade appears not to be a significant factor at present .
Fiji 's native birdlife has been badly affected by agriculture , deforestation and introduced pests like rats and mongooses . Although Important Bird Areas have been established on Taveuni and the forest east of Vanua Levu , conservation problems persist . The Fiji parrotfinch has adapted well to man @-@ made landscapes ; it is neither a ground nor hole nester , so it avoids predation from the mongoose and competition for nest sites with introduced common and jungle mynas . Introduced rodents are able to access the nests and may affect breeding productivity . The potential introduction of other species , such as snakes , or diseases like avian malaria could lead to major losses among bird species .
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= South Carolina @-@ class battleship =
The South Carolina @-@ class battleships , also known as the Michigan @-@ class , were built during the first decade of the twentieth century for the United States Navy . Named South Carolina and Michigan , they were the first American dreadnoughts — powerful warships whose capabilities far outstripped those of the world 's older battleships .
In the opening years of the twentieth century , the prevailing theory of naval combat was that battles would continue to be fought at relatively close range using many small , fast @-@ firing guns . As such , each of the ships in the United States ' previous battleship class ( the Connecticut class ) had many medium @-@ sized weapons alongside four large guns . This paradigm , however , was soon to be subverted , as American naval theorists proposed that a ship mounting a homogeneous battery of large guns would be more effective in battle .
As their ideas began to enjoy wider acceptance , the US Congress authorized the country 's Navy to construct two small 16 @,@ 000 long tons ( 16 @,@ 257 t ) battleships . This displacement was roughly the same size as the Connecticut class and at least 2 @,@ 000 long tons ( 2 @,@ 032 t ) smaller than the foreign standard . A solution was found in an ambitious design drawn up by Rear Admiral Washington L. Capps , the chief of the navy 's Bureau of Construction and Repair , which featured heavy armament and relatively thick armor , both favored by naval theorists . However , in balancing the congressionally mandated limits to displacement and the inherent design trade @-@ offs between armament , armor , and propulsion , the South Carolina class ' speed was severely limited — an ultimately fatal disadvantage that severely limited their utility in a conflict .
With their superfiring main armament , press accounts billed South Carolina and Michigan , alongside the British HMS Dreadnought , as heralding a new epoch in warship design . Both , however , were soon surpassed by ever @-@ larger and stronger super @-@ dreadnoughts . The class ' low top speed of about 18 @.@ 5 kn ( 21 mph ; 34 km / h ) , as compared to the 21 kn ( 24 mph ; 39 km / h ) standard of later American battleships , relegated them to serving with older , obsolete battleships during the First World War . Thereafter , both South Carolinas were scrapped with the signing of the Washington Naval Treaty .
= = Background = =
In 1901 , the US Navy 's battleship designs reflected the prevailing theory of naval combat — that battles would initially be fought at some distance , but the ships would then approach to close range for the final blows , when shorter @-@ range , faster @-@ firing guns would prove most useful . The premier battleship class then under construction carried four large 12 @-@ inch ( 305 mm ) , eight 8 @-@ inch ( 203 mm ) , and twelve 7 @-@ inch ( 178 mm ) guns , a striking power slightly heavier than typical foreign battleships of the time .
The Naval Institute 's Proceedings magazine devoted space in two of its 1902 issues to possible improvements in battleship design . The first article was authored by Lieutenant Matt H. Signor , who argued for a ship with 13 @-@ inch ( 330 mm ) and 10 @-@ inch ( 254 mm ) / 40 caliber guns in four triple turrets . The secondary battery would be composed of 5 @-@ inch ( 127 mm ) / 60 guns . This paper provoked enough thought that Proceedings published comments on the story from Captain William M. Folger , Professor P.R. Alger and naval constructor David W. Taylor — an up @-@ and @-@ coming officer and future head of the Bureau of Construction and Repair ( C & R ) . These comments expressed doubt that the proposed vessel could be modified into a feasible design , but they praised his thoughts as a step in the right direction . Alger believed that Signor was on the right track in suggesting larger armament , though he thought that triple turrets would be unworkable and eight 12 @-@ inch guns in four twin turrets would be a much more realistic arrangement . Naval historian Norman Friedman believes that this was one of the " earliest serious proposals for a homogeneous big @-@ gun battery . "
The suggestion leading directly to the South Carolina class came from Homer Poundstone , a Lieutenant Commander in the Navy , who became the principal proponent of an American all @-@ big @-@ gun design . In a December 1902 paper written for President Theodore Roosevelt , he argued for greatly increasing the size of current battleships , although he also supported retaining mixed main batteries . However , by the March and June 1903 editions of Proceedings , Poundstone began advocating for an all @-@ big @-@ gun arrangement , featuring twelve 11 @-@ inch ( 279 mm ) guns mounted on a 19 @,@ 330 long tons ( 19 @,@ 640 t ) ship . In October of the same year , the Italian naval architect Vittorio Cuniberti presented a similar idea in an article for Jane 's Fighting Ships entitled " An Ideal Battleship for the British Navy " . He argued in favor of a ship with twelve 12 @-@ inch guns on a slightly larger displacement than the battleships in service at the time , 17 @,@ 000 long tons ( 17 @,@ 273 t ) . He believed that the higher weight would allow 12 inches of armor and machinery capable of propelling the ship at 24 kn ( 44 km / h ; 28 mph ) . Poundstone used what he believed to be the great popularity for this idea among Europeans to justify the all @-@ big @-@ gun design .
In 1903 , Poundstone 's designs began receiving attention from American naval authorities . After being refined by Washington Irving Chambers , Poundstone 's work was brought to the Naval War College , where it was tested in war games during the 1903 Newport Conference . The results indicated that a theoretical battleship that dispensed with the intermediate 8- and 7 @-@ inch armament and was armed with only twelve 11- or 12 @-@ inch guns , all able to fire on a single broadside , was worth three of the battleships then in service . According to the men who conducted the tests , the main reasoning for the finding was that the measure of effective gun ranges was directly related to the maximum length of an enemy 's torpedo range . At this time , the latter was roughly 3 @,@ 000 yd ( 2 @,@ 743 m ) ; at that distance , the 7- and 8 @-@ inch guns common to American intermediate batteries would not be able to penetrate the armor of enemy battleships . Worse still , it was certain that — as the United States was developing a 4 @,@ 000 yd ( 3 @,@ 658 m ) torpedo — gun range would have to rise in the near future , making the intermediate guns even less useful . However , a homogeneous main battery of 11- or 12 @-@ inch guns would be able to penetrate the armor and have sufficient explosive power to disable an enemy capital ship , and adding as many 3 @-@ inch ( 76 mm ) guns as possible would provide a strong defense against torpedo @-@ carrying but unarmored destroyers .
= = Design = =
Faced with this evidence , the General Board sent a formal request in October 1903 to C & R , asking it to draw up plans for a battleship including these characteristics . No progress had been made by 26 January 1904 , when the General Board asked C & R for a design including four 12 @-@ inch guns , eight 10 @-@ inch or larger guns , and no intermediate armament beyond 3 @-@ inch anti @-@ destroyer guns . The move to only 10 @-@ inch weaponry was the result of doubt among naval authorities that heavier guns could physically be mounted on a ship 's broadside . No action was taken on this request until September , when C & R began planning a ship with four 12 @-@ inch guns in dual turrets along with eight dual 10 @-@ inch or four single 12 @-@ inch guns .
Meanwhile , the Naval War College played three battleship designs against each other at its 1904 Newport Conference : the ships that were built following the 1903 conference ; the new C & R design from September ; and the latest battleships under construction , the Connecticut class . The 7- and 8 @-@ inch guns , and even the 10 @-@ inch guns , were demonstrated again to be unsatisfactory ; even when hitting a battleship at the ideal angle of 90 ° to its belt , they failed to pierce beyond 12 inches of Krupp armor — not enough to counter enemy capital ships . Speed calculations were also performed which demonstrated that even a 3 kn ( 6 km / h ; 3 mph ) advantage over an enemy fleet would be inconsequential in the final outcome of almost all naval battles because the slower ships could stay within range by turning on a tighter radius .
Within the naval bureaus , however , there was still much resistance . In mid @-@ to @-@ late 1904 , Poundstone continued to lobby the General Board while C & R protested that the final determinant in a naval battle would be the light guns — and in any case such a large uniform battery was not feasible . Poundstone replied with a design of his own creation , which he called USS Possible and fit twelve 11 @-@ inch guns on a ship that displaced 19 @,@ 330 long tons . With support from Lieutenant Commander William Sims , who was able to cite the increasingly accurate long @-@ gunnery of the Navy , and interest shown in the project by President Roosevelt , the bureaucratic stalling ended .
On 3 March 1905 , Congress passed a bill that authorized the Navy to construct two new battleships to be named after the states of South Carolina and Michigan . The maximum tonnage limit was set at 16000 long tons , the same weight as the mixed @-@ battery Connecticut class of two years prior , in an attempt to stem the rising displacement — and accompanying costs — of the Navy 's new capital ships . The provision was met with a mixed reception from naval designers . Some , including retired Admiral of the Navy George Dewey , thought the limit should have been set at the minimum standard of foreign battleships , or around 18 @,@ 000 long tons ( 18 @,@ 289 t ) . Others believed adding a significant amount of speed or firepower — something one would expect with an increase in tonnage — would require much more than 18 @,@ 000 tons , and argued that the increase in size would buy nothing more than an increased target profile .
The Constructor of the Navy , Rear Admiral Washington L. Capps , devised an ambitious design that packed powerful armament and thick armor onto the small hull . He believed that future naval battles would involve fleets rather than single @-@ ship actions , and so while the wing turrets so common in European designs were useful in the latter role for putting a maximum amount of firepower in any given direction , they were less so when operating as part of a line of battle . From this , Capps theorized that the principal concern of battleships was how much shell weight they could fire per broadside . The arrangement of superfiring turrets placed on the centerline would allow the hull to be as short as possible while still having the most powerful broadside possible . A ship with its main battery placed along the center of the ship can focus the same amount of fire to port or starboard during a broadside . This is juxtaposed against wing turrets , which had significant shortcomings : their location on the left or right of a ship 's superstructure led to smaller possible broadsides , and the extreme weight placed on the sides of the ships led to torsional stress and rolling inertia .
As the additional main battery turrets with their associated magazines used a great amount of space within each already @-@ limited ship , Capps was forced to economize in other ways to stay within the tonnage limit . Machinery had to be built smaller than normal to fit in the space between the fore and aft magazines , both of which were larger than usual . Boiler rooms were moved inboard to make room for torpedo protection . The biggest drawback was in propulsion : there was no room for engines that could provide the same amount of power as on previous battleships . Capps suggested cutting down the number of boilers by one @-@ third to make room ; it may have been at this point that he considered turbine propulsion , for which he would have needed extra room . All the Bureau of Engineering could offer in response was more compact boiler rooms by eliminating centerline bulkheads .
The designers were running into the problem that Friedman calls the " squeeze " : the essential elements of a battleship ( armament , propulsion machinery , and armor ) typically added up to about sixty percent of their design displacement ; favoring one of these factors , the " three primary military qualities " , would mean accepting compromises in one or both of the others .
In the end , the choice of armament and armor meant that the South Carolinas top speed was lower than HMS Dreadnought , the namesake British ship built shortly before the South Carolinas , and all future US battleships .
= = Specifications = =
At a design displacement of 16 @,@ 000 long tons , the South Carolina class dreadnoughts were the same size as their Connecticut @-@ class pre @-@ dreadnought predecessors . In service , they could actually be lighter : Louisiana had a standard displacement of 15 @,@ 272 long tons ( 15 @,@ 517 t ) , while Michigan was only 14 @,@ 891 long tons ( 15 @,@ 130 t ) by the same measurement . The ship 's hull size was also comparable to the Connecticuts , with a length of 452 ft 9 in ( 138 m ) overall , 450 ft ( 137 m ) between perpendiculars , and the same at the waterline . The class ' beam was 80 ft 2 @.@ 5 in ( 24 m ) , draft was 24 ft 6 in ( 7 m ) , and metacentric height was 6 @.@ 9 ft ( 2 m ) normally , coming in slightly lower at 6 @.@ 3 ft ( 2 m ) when at full load . They were designed to carry about 869 men .
The South Carolinas had a propulsion system consisting of two vertical triple @-@ expansion steam engines driving two 3 @-@ bladed screws . These were in turn powered by twelve coal @-@ fired superheating Babcock & Wilcox water @-@ tube boilers located in three watertight compartments . Together , they weighed 1 @,@ 555 long tons ( 1 @,@ 580 t ) , which was just over the specified contract limit . Traditional triple @-@ expansion engines were installed rather than the steam turbines used in the British Dreadnought . The actual coal capacity of the ships was 2 @,@ 374 long tons ( 2 @,@ 412 t ) at full load , slightly more than the designed maximum of 2 @,@ 200 long tons ( 2 @,@ 235 t ) , allowing for an endurance of 6 @,@ 950 nmi ( 12 @,@ 871 km ; 7 @,@ 998 mi ) at 10 kn ( 19 km / h ; 12 mph ) . While both ships surpassed 20 kn ( 37 km / h ; 23 mph ) in idealized trial conditions , the navy expected that the normal top speed would be around 18 @.@ 5 kn ( 34 km / h ; 21 mph ) .
The class ' main battery consisted of eight 12 @-@ inch ( 305 mm ) / 45 caliber Mark 5 guns in four turrets , one pair fore and one aft , with 100 rounds for each gun . The guns were placed in an innovative superfiring arrangement , where one turret was mounted slightly behind and above the other . The anti @-@ torpedo @-@ boat secondary armament of twenty @-@ two 3 @-@ inch ( 76 mm ) guns was mounted in casemates , and the two 21 @-@ inch ( 533 mm ) torpedo tubes were placed beneath the waterline , one on each side of the ship .
Armor on the South Carolina class was described by naval author Siegfried Breyer as " remarkably progressive " , despite deficiencies in horizontal and underwater protection . The belt was thicker over the magazines , 12 to 10 inches ( 305 to 254 mm ) , than over the propulsion , 11 to 9 inches ( 279 to 229 mm ) , and in front of the forward magazines , 10 to 8 inches ( 254 to 203 mm ) . The casemates were also protected with 10 to 8 inches of armor , while the deck armor varied from 2 @.@ 5 to 1 inch ( 64 to 25 mm ) . The turrets and conning tower had the heaviest armor , with 12 – 8 – 2 @.@ 5 inches ( face / side / roof ; 305 – 203 – 63 @.@ 5 mm ) and 12 to 2 inches ( 305 to 51 mm ) , respectively . The barbettes were protected with 10 to 8 inches of armor . The total weight of the armor amounted to 31 @.@ 4 % of the design displacement , slightly more than the next three battleship classes .
= = Ships = =
= = Construction and trials = =
The contracts for the class were awarded on 20 and 21 July , respectively . Without armor or armament , South Carolina would cost $ 3 @,@ 540 @,@ 000 , while Michigan would come in at $ 3 @,@ 585 @,@ 000 . With armor and armament , the ships cost about $ 7 @,@ 000 @,@ 000 each .
Michigan 's keel was laid down on 17 December 1906 , one day before South Carolina 's . After the initial construction periods , the ships were launched on 26 May and 11 July 1908 ( respectively ) . Michigan was slightly more than half complete when launched , and the ship was christened by Carol Newberry , the daughter of Assistant Secretary of the Navy Truman Handy Newberry . The warship was billed as epoch @-@ making , and the spectacle drew many prominent individuals , including the governor and lieutenant @-@ governor of Michigan , the governor of New Jersey , the mayor of Detroit , and the secretary of the Interior Department , along with many naval admirals and constructors . Like its sister ship , South Carolina was just over halfway completed when it was launched . The accompanying ceremony took place just after noon and was attended by many notable residents of the state of South Carolina , including Governor Martin Frederick Ansel . His daughter Frederica christened the ship .
After their fitting @-@ out stage , the two ships were put through sea trials to ensure they met their contracted specifications . The first attempt at putting Michigan through a trial was conducted at the navy 's traditional testing grounds off Rockland , Maine beginning on 9 June 1909 . Although the ship completed its standardization run , other tests were disrupted when it ran aground on a sand bar . Although Michigan was pulled off without incident , the navy soon discovered that both propellers required repair , delaying the completion of the trials until 20 – 24 June . The battleship was commissioned several months later on 4 January 1910 — making the United States the third country to have a dreadnought in commission , behind the United Kingdom and Germany , but just ahead of Brazil 's Minas Geraes class — and its shakedown cruise lasted until 7 June .
South Carolina 's trials were conducted off the Delaware Capes beginning on 24 August 1909 , and its standardization runs were slightly faster than Michigan 's . After final modifications at William Cramp , South Carolina was commissioned on 1 March 1910 and departed for a shakedown cruise six days later .
= = Service history = =
After being commissioned , both ships were assigned to the US Atlantic Fleet . The two operated up and down the American east coast from July until November . On 2 November , as part of the Second Battleship Division , the ships left the Boston Navy Yard for a training voyage to Europe , where they visited the Isle of Portland in the United Kingdom and Cherbourg in France . In January 1911 , they returned to the US naval base in Guantanamo Bay , Cuba before continuing to another base in Norfolk . After further maneuvers , the two ships split up ; Michigan remained on the east coast , while South Carolina embarked on another trip to Europe . The ship visited Copenhagen ( Denmark ) , Stockholm ( Sweden ) , Kronstadt ( Russia ) , and Kiel ( Germany ) — the last during Kieler Woche , a large sailing event — before returning in July 1911 .
South Carolina next took part in the 1911 naval review in New York , before several months of traveling to ports on the east coast and welcoming a visiting German naval squadron including the battlecruiser SMS Moltke and two light cruisers . After a three @-@ month overhaul in Norfolk , South Carolina joined Michigan on a cruise to Pensacola , New Orleans , Galveston , and Veracruz in Mexico , as part of the Special Service Squadron . South Carolina later visited Colon , Panama in January 1913 . Both ships continued their previous service of visiting east coast ports before unrest in Mexico and the Caribbean caused the American government to order them away . South Carolina landed marines on Haiti on 28 January to protect the American delegation there . They returned to the ship when Oreste Zamor took power , but continued disorder later led the United States to occupy Haiti . South Carolina then joined Michigan at Vera Cruz while the United States occupied that city .
At the beginning of the First World War , both of the South Carolina @-@ class battleships were grouped with two older pre @-@ dreadnoughts ( Vermont and Connecticut due to their top speeds , which were lower than all subsequent US battleships . South Carolina was refitted in Philadelphia between 14 October and 20 February 1915 , and both ships were kept on neutrality patrols on the American side of the Atlantic , even after the US entered the war on 6 April 1917 . In January 1918 , Michigan was training with the main fleet when it traveled through a strong storm . The high winds and waves caused its forward cage mast to collapse , killing six and injuring thirteen .
On 6 September 1918 , South Carolina escorted a fast convoy partway across the Atlantic , becoming one of the first American battleships ( alongside New Hampshire and Kansas ) to do so . When returning to the United States , South Carolina lost its starboard propeller . When continuing with the port propeller , a valve in its engine malfunctioned ; continuing with an auxiliary valve caused a large amount of vibration , so the ship was stopped just hours later for temporary repairs on the main valve before continuing to the Philadelphia Naval Yard for repairs . Michigan had the same problem when escorting a convoy in the next month ; the ship lost its port propeller on 8 October , but managed to return home on 11 October without further incident . After the war 's end on 11 November 1918 , both South Carolina @-@ class battleships were used to repatriate American soldiers that had been fighting in the war .
In the years after the war , the two battleships were used for training cruises . The terms of the 1922 Washington Naval Treaty , which limited naval construction to avert a vastly expensive naval arms race , also called for disposing of dozens of older battleships in the signatories ' navies . South Carolina was decommissioned on 15 December 1921 , shortly before the end of the conference , and its sister followed on 11 February 1922 , days after the treaty was signed . Both were stricken from the navy listing on 10 November 1923 and scrapped during 1924 in the Philadelphia Naval Yard .
= = Images = =
= = Endnotes = =
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= Sandra Cisneros =
Sandra Cisneros ( born December 20 , 1954 ) is an American writer best known for her acclaimed first novel The House on Mango Street ( 1984 ) and her subsequent short story collection Woman Hollering Creek and Other Stories ( 1991 ) . Her work experiments with literary forms and investigates emerging subject positions , which Cisneros herself attributes to growing up in a context of cultural hybridity and economic inequality that endowed her with unique stories to tell . She is the recipient of numerous awards including a National Endowment for the Arts Fellowship , and is regarded as a key figure in Chicana literature .
Cisneros 's early life provided many experiences she would later draw on as a writer : she grew up as the only daughter in a family of six brothers , which often made her feel isolated , and the constant migration of her family between Mexico and the United States instilled in her the sense of " always straddling two countries ... but not belonging to either culture . " Cisneros 's work deals with the formation of Chicana identity , exploring the challenges of being caught between Mexican and Anglo @-@ American cultures , facing the misogynist attitudes present in both these cultures , and experiencing poverty . For her insightful social critique and powerful prose style , Cisneros has achieved recognition far beyond Chicano and Latino communities , to the extent that The House on Mango Street has been translated worldwide and is taught in American classrooms as a coming @-@ of @-@ age novel .
Cisneros has held a variety of professional positions , working as a teacher , a counselor , a college recruiter , a poet @-@ in @-@ the @-@ schools , and an arts administrator , and has maintained a strong commitment to community and literary causes . In 1998 she established the Macondo Writers Workshop , which provides socially conscious workshops for writers , and in 2000 she founded the Alfredo Cisneros Del Moral Foundation , which awards talented writers connected to Texas . Cisneros currently resides in San Antonio , Texas .
= = Early life = =
Cisneros was born in Chicago , Illinois on December 20 , 1954 , the third of seven children . The only surviving daughter , she considered herself the " odd number in a set of men " . Cisneros 's great @-@ grandfather had played the piano for the Mexican president and was from a wealthy background , but he gambled away his family 's fortune . Her paternal grandfather was a veteran of the Mexican Revolution , and he used what money he had saved to give her father , Alfredo Cisneros de Moral , the opportunity to go to college . However , after failing classes due to what Cisneros called his " lack of interest " in studying , Alfredo ran away to the United States to escape his father 's anger . While roaming the southern United States with his brother , Alfredo visited Chicago where he met Elvira Cordero Anguiano . After getting married , the pair settled in one of Chicago 's poorest neighborhoods . Cisneros 's biographer Robin Ganz writes that she acknowledges her mother 's family name came from a very humble background , tracing its roots back to Guanajuato , Mexico , while her father 's was much more " admirable " .
Taking work as an upholsterer to support his family , Cisneros 's father began " a compulsive circular migration between Chicago and Mexico City that became the dominating pattern of Cisneros 's childhood . " Their family was constantly moving between the two countries , which necessitated their finding new places to live as well as schools for the children . Eventually the instability caused Cisneros 's six brothers to pair off in twos , leaving her to define herself as the isolated one . Her feelings of exclusion from the family were exacerbated by her father , who referred to his " seis hijos y una hija " ( " six sons and one daughter " ) rather than his " siete hijos " ( " seven children " ) . Ganz notes that Cisneros 's childhood loneliness was instrumental in shaping her later passion for writing . Cisneros ’ s one strong female influence was her mother , Elvira , who was a voracious reader and more enlightened and socially conscious than her father . According to Ganz , although Elvira was too dependent on her husband and too restricted in her opportunities to fulfill her own potential , she ensured her daughter would not suffer from the same disadvantages as she did .
Her family made a down @-@ payment on their own home in Humboldt Park , a predominantly Puerto Rican neighborhood on Chicago 's West Side when she was eleven years old . This neighborhood and its characters would later become the inspiration for Cisneros 's novel The House on Mango Street . For high school , Cisneros attended Josephinum Academy , a small Catholic all @-@ girls school . Here she found an ally in a high @-@ school teacher who helped her to write poems about the Vietnam War . Although , Cisneros had written her first poem around the age of ten , with her teacher 's encouragement she became known for her writing throughout her high @-@ school years . In high school she wrote poetry and was the literary magazine editor , but , according to herself , she did not really start writing until her first creative writing class in college in 1974 . After that it took a while to find her own voice . She explains , " I rejected what was at hand and emulated the voices of the poets I admired in books : big male voices like James Wright and Richard Hugo and Theodore Roethke , all wrong for me . "
Cisneros was awarded a Bachelor of Arts degree from Loyola University Chicago in 1976 , and received a Master of Fine Arts degree from the Iowa Writers ' Workshop at the University of Iowa in 1978 . It was while attending the Workshop that Cisneros discovered how the particular social position she occupied gave her writing a unique potential . She recalls being suddenly struck by the differences between her and her classmates : " It wasn 't as if I didn 't know who I was . I knew I was a Mexican woman . But , I didn 't think it had anything to do with why I felt so much imbalance in my life , whereas it had everything to do with it ! My race , my gender , and my class ! And it didn 't make sense until that moment , sitting in that seminar . That 's when I decided I would write about something my classmates couldn 't write about . " She cast aside her attempt to conform to American literary canons and adopted a writing style that was purposely opposite that of her classmates , realizing that instead of being something to be ashamed of , her own cultural environment was a source of inspiration . From then on , she would write of her " neighbors , the people [ she ] saw , the poverty that the women had gone through . "
Cisneros says of this moment :
So to me it began there , and that 's when I intentionally started writing about all the things in my culture that were different from them — the poems that are these city voices — the first part of Wicked Wicked Ways — and the stories in House on Mango Street . I think it 's ironic that at the moment when I was practically leaving an institution of learning , I began realizing in which ways institutions had failed me .
Drawing on Mexican and Southwestern popular culture and conversations in the city streets , Cisneros wrote to convey the lives of people she identified with . Literary critic Jacqueline Doyle has described Cisneros 's passion for hearing the personal stories that people tell and her commitment to expressing the voices of marginalized people through her work , such as the " thousands of silent women " whose struggles are portrayed in The House on Mango Street .
Five years after receiving her MFA , she returned to Loyola University Chicago , where she had previously earned a BA in English , to work as an administrative assistant . Prior to this job , she worked in the Chicano barrio in Chicago teaching to high school dropouts at Latino Youth High School . Through these jobs , she gained more experience with the problems of young Latino Americans .
= = Later life and career = =
= = = Teaching = = =
In addition to being an author and poet , Cisneros has held various academic and teaching positions . In 1978 , after finishing her MFA degree , she taught former high @-@ school dropouts at the Latino Youth High School in Chicago . The 1984 publication of The House on Mango Street secured her a succession of Writer @-@ in @-@ Residence posts at universities in the United States , teaching creative writing at institutions such as the University of California , Berkeley and the University of Michigan . She was subsequently a Writer @-@ in @-@ Residence at Our Lady of the Lake University in San Antonio , Texas . Cisneros has also worked as a college recruiter and an arts administrator .
= = = Family = = =
Cisneros currently resides in San Miguel de Allende , a city in central Mexico , but for years she lived and wrote in San Antonio , Texas , in her briefly controversial " Mexican @-@ pink " home with " many creatures little and large . " In 1990 when Pilar E. Rodríguez Aranda asked Cisneros in an interview for the Americas Review why she has never married or started a family , " I 've never seen a marriage that is as happy as my living alone , " Cisneros replied . " My writing is my child and I don 't want anything to come between us . " She has elaborated elsewhere that she enjoys living alone because it gives her time to think and write . In the introduction to the third edition of Gloria E. Anzaldúa 's Borderlands / La Frontera : The New Mestiza , Cisneros wrote : " It 's why I moved from Illinois to Texas . So that the relatives and family would allow me the liberty to disappear into myself . To reinvent myself if I had to . As Latinas , we have to ... Because writing is like putting your head underwater . "
= = = Writing process = = =
Cisneros 's writing is often influenced by her personal experiences and by observations of the people in her community . She once confided to other writers at a conference in Santa Fe that she writes down " snippets of dialogue or monologue — records of conversations she hears wherever she goes . " These snippets are then mixed and matched to create her stories . Names for her characters often come from the San Antonio phone book ; " she leafs through the listings for a last name then repeats the process for a first name . " By mixing and matching she is assured that she is not appropriating anyone 's real name or real story , but at the same time her versions of characters and stories are believable .
Cisneros once found herself so immersed in the characters of her book Woman Hollering Creek that they began to infiltrate her subconscious mind . Once while she was writing the story " Eyes of Zapata , " she awoke " in the middle of the night , convinced for the moment that she was Ines , the young bride of the Mexican revolutionary . Her dream conversation with Zapata then became those characters 's dialogue in her story . "
Her biculturalism and bilingualism are also very important aspects of her writing . Cisneros was quoted by Robin Ganz as saying that she is grateful to have " twice as many words to pick from ... two ways of looking at the world , " and Ganz referred to her " wide range of experience " as a " double @-@ edged sword . " Cisneros 's ability to speak two languages and to write about her two cultures gives her a unique position from where she is able to tell not just her story , but also the stories of those around her .
= = = Community legacy = = =
Cisneros has been instrumental in building a strong community in San Antonio among other artists and writers through her work with the Macondo Foundation and the Alfredo Cisneros del Moral Foundation . The Macondo Foundation , which is named after the town in Gabriel García Márquez 's book One Hundred Years of Solitude , " works with dedicated and compassionate writers who view their work and talents as part of a larger task of community @-@ building and non @-@ violent social change . " Officially incorporated in 2006 , the foundation began in 1998 as a small workshop that took place in Cisneros 's kitchen . The Macondo Writers Workshop , which has since become an annual event , brings together writers " working on geographic , cultural , economic , social and spiritual borders " and has grown from 15 participants to over 120 participants in the first 9 years . Currently working out of Our Lady of the Lake University in San Antonio , the Macondo Foundation makes awards such as the Gloria E. Anzaldúa Milagro Award honoring the memory of Anzaldúa , a fellow Chicana writer who died in 2004 , by providing Chicano writers with support when they are in need of some time to heal their " body , heart or spirit " and the Elvira Cordero Cisneros Award which was created in memory of Sandra Cisneros 's mother . Macondo offers services to member writers such as health insurance and the opportunity to participate in the Casa Azul Residency Program . The Residency Program provides writers with a furnished room and office in the Casa Azul , a blue house across the street from where Cisneros lives in San Antonio , which is also the headquarters of the Macondo Foundation . In creating this program , Cisneros " imagined the Casa as a space where Macondistas could retreat from the distractions of everyday life , and have a room of his / her own for the process of emotional , intellectual and spiritual introspection . "
Cisneros founded the Alfredo Cisneros del Moral Foundation in 2000 . Named in the memory of her father , the foundation " has awarded over $ 75 @,@ 500 to writers born in Texas , writing about Texas , or living in Texas since 2007 " . Its intention is to honour Cisneros 's father 's memory by showcasing writers who are as proud of their craft as Alfredo was of his craft as an upholsterer .
= = = Chicano literary movement = = =
Literary critic Claudia Sadowski @-@ Smith has called Cisneros " perhaps the most famous Chicana writer " , and she has been acknowledged as a pioneer in her literary field as the first female Mexican @-@ American writer to have her work published by a mainstream publisher . In 1989 , The House on Mango Street , which was originally published by the small Hispanic publishing company Arte Público Press , was reissued in a second edition by Vintage Press ; and in 1991 Woman Hollering Creek was published by Random House . As Ganz observes , previously only male Chicano authors had successfully made the crossover from smaller publishers . That Cisneros had garnered enough attention to be taken on by Vintage Press said a lot about the possibility for Chicano literature to become more widely recognized . Cisneros spoke of her success and what it meant for Chicana literature in an interview on National Public Radio on 19 September 1991 :
I think I can 't be happy if I 'm the only one that 's getting published by Random House when I know there are such magnificent writers — both Latinos and Latinas , both Chicanos and Chicanas — in the U.S. whose books are not published by mainstream presses or whom the mainstream isn 't even aware of . And , you know , if my success means that other presses will take a second look at these writers ... and publish them in larger numbers then our ship will come in .
As a pioneer Chicana author , Cisneros filled a void by bringing to the fore a genre that had previously been at the margins of mainstream literature . With her first novel , The House on Mango Street , she moved away from the poetic style that was common in Chicana literature at the time and began to define a " distinctive Chicana literary space " , challenging familiar literary forms and addressing subjects such as gender inequality and the marginalization of cultural minorities . According to literary critic Alvina E Quintana , The House on Mango Street is a book that has reached beyond the Chicano and Latino literary communities , and is now read by people of all ethnicities . Quintana states that Cisneros 's writing is accessible for both Anglo- and Mexican @-@ Americans alike since it is free from anger or accusation , presenting the issues ( such as Chicana identity and gender inequalities ) in an approachable way . Cisneros ’ s writing has been influential in shaping both Chicana and feminist literature . Quintana sees her fiction as a form of social commentary , contributing to a literary tradition that resembles the work of contemporary cultural anthropologists in its attempt to authentically represent the cultural experience of a group of people , and acknowledges Cisneros 's contribution to Chicana feminist aesthetics by bringing women to the center as empowered protagonists in much of her work .
= = Writing style = =
= = = Bilingualism = = =
Cisneros often incorporates Spanish into her English writing , substituting Spanish words for English ones where she feels that Spanish better conveys the meaning or improves the rhythm of the passage . However , where possible she constructs sentences so that non @-@ Spanish speakers can infer the meaning of Spanish words from their context . In Woman Hollering Creek and Other Stories Cisneros writes : " La Gritona . Such a funny name for such a lovely arroyo . But that 's what they called the creek that ran behind the house . " Even if the English @-@ speaking reader does not initially know that arroyo means creek , Cisneros soon translates it in a way that does not interrupt the flow of the text . She enjoys manipulating the two languages , creating new expressions in English by literally translating Spanish phrases . In the same book Cisneros writes : " And at the next full moon , I gave light , Tía Chucha holding up our handsome , strong @-@ lunged boy . " Previous sentences inform the reader that a baby is being born , but only a Spanish speaker will notice that " I gave light " is a literal translation of the Spanish " dí a luz " which means " I gave birth . " Cisneros joins other Hispanic @-@ American US writers such as Gloria Anzaldúa , Piri Thomas , Giannina Braschi , and Junot Díaz who create playful linguistic hybrids of Spanish and English . Cisneros noted on this process : " All of a sudden something happens to the English , something really new is happening , a new spice is added to the English language . " Spanish always has a role in Cisneros 's work , even when she writes in English . As she discovered , after writing The House on Mango Street primarily in English , " the syntax , the sensibility , the diminutives , the way of looking at inanimate objects " were all characteristic of Spanish . For Cisneros , Spanish brings to her work not only colourful expressions , but also a distinctive rhythm and attitude .
= = = Narrative modes , diction , and apparent simplicity = = =
Cisneros 's fiction comes in various forms — as novels , poems , and short stories — by which she challenges both social conventions , with her " celebratory breaking of sexual taboos and trespassing across the restrictions that limit the lives and experiences of Chicanas " , and literary ones , with her " bold experimentation with literary voice and her development of a hybrid form that weaves poetry into prose " . Published in 1991 , Woman Hollering Creek and Other Stories is a collection of twenty @-@ two short stories that form a collage of narrative techniques , each serving to engage and affect the reader in a different way . Cisneros alternates between first person , third person , and stream @-@ of @-@ consciousness narrative modes , and ranges from brief impressionistic vignettes to longer event @-@ driven stories , and from highly poetic language to brutally frank realist language . Some stories lack a narrator to mediate between the characters and the reader ; they are instead composed of textual fragments or conversations " overheard " by the reader . For example , " Little Miracles , Kept Promises " is composed of fictional notes asking for the blessings of patron saints , and " The Marlboro Man " transcribes a gossiping telephone conversation between two female characters .
Works by Cisneros can appear simple at first reading , but this is deceptive . She invites the reader to move beyond the text by recognizing larger social processes within the microcosm of everyday life : the phone conversation in " The Marlboro Man " is not merely idle gossip , but a text that allows the reader to dig into the characters ' psyches and analyze their cultural influences . Literary critics have noted how Cisneros tackles complex theoretical and social issues through the vehicle of apparently simple characters and situations . For example , Ramón Saldívar observes that The House on Mango Street " represents from the simplicity of childhood vision the enormously complex process of the construction of the gendered subject " . In the same vein , Felicia J. Cruz describes how each individual will interact differently with Woman Hollering Creek and Other Stories , thus eliciting such varied reader responses as " it is about growing up " , to " it 's about a Chicana 's growing up " , to " it is a critique of patriarchal structures and exclusionary practices " . Cisneros ’ s writing is rich not only for its symbolism and imagery , deemed by critic Deborah L Madsen to be " both technically and aesthetically accomplished " , but also for its social commentary and power to " evoke highly personal responses " . this helped her achieve the way she taught .
= = Literary themes = =
= = = Place = = =
When Cisneros describes the aspirations and struggles of Chicanas , the theme of place often emerges . Place refers not only to her novels ' geographic locations , but also to the positions her characters hold within their social context . Chicanas frequently occupy Anglo @-@ dominated and male @-@ dominated places where they are subject to a variety of oppressive and prejudicial behaviors ; one of these places that is of particular interest to Cisneros is the home . As literary critics Deborah L. Madsen and Ramón Saldívar have described , the home can be an oppressive place for Chicanas where they are subjugated to the will of male heads @-@ of @-@ household , or in the case of their own home , it can be an empowering place where they can act autonomously and express themselves creatively . In The House on Mango Street the young protagonist , Esperanza , longs to have her own house : " Not a flat . Not an apartment in back . Not a man 's house . Not a daddy 's . A house all my own . With my porch and my pillow , my pretty purple petunias . My books and my stories . My two shoes waiting beside the bed . Nobody to shake a stick at . Nobody 's garbage to pick up after . " An aspiring writer , Esperanza yearns for " a space for myself to go , clean as paper before the poem . " She feels discontented and trapped in her family home , and witnesses other women in the same position . According to Saldívar , Cisneros communicates through this character that a woman needs her own place in order to realize her full potential — a home which is not a site of patriarchal violence , but instead " a site of poetic self @-@ creation . " One source of conflict and grief for Cisneros 's Chicana characters is that the male @-@ dominated society in which they live denies them this place . Critics such as Jacqueline Doyle and Felicia J. Cruz have compared this theme in Cisneros 's work to one of the key concepts in Virginia Woolf 's famous essay " A Room of One 's Own " , that " a woman must have money and a room of her own if she is to write fiction , " or put another way , " economic security " and personal liberty are necessary for " artistic production . "
Cisneros explores the issue of place in relation not only to gender but also to class . As Saldívar has noted , " Aside from the personal requirement of a gendered woman 's space , Esperanza recognizes the collective requirements of the working poor and the homeless as well . " He refers to Esperanza 's determination not to forget her working @-@ class roots once she obtains her dream house , and to open her doors to those who are less fortunate . Esperanza says " Passing bums will ask , Can I come in ? I 'll offer them the attic , ask them to stay , because I know how it is to be without a house . " According to Saldívar , this statement of Esperanza 's alludes to " the necessity for a decent living space " that is fundamental to all people , despite the different oppressions they face .
= = = Construction of femininity and female sexuality = = =
As Madsen has described , Cisneros 's " effort to negotiate a cross @-@ cultural identity is complicated by the need to challenge the deeply rooted patriarchal values of both Mexican and American cultures . " The lives of all Cisneros ’ s female characters are affected by how femininity and female sexuality are defined within this patriarchal value system and they must struggle to rework these definitions . As Cisneros has said : " There 's always this balancing act , we 've got to define what we think is fine for ourselves instead of what our culture says . "
Cisneros shows how Chicanas , like women of many other ethnicities , internalize these norms starting at a young age , through informal education by family members and popular culture . In The House on Mango Street , for example , a group of girl characters speculate about what function a woman ’ s hips have : " They ’ re good for holding a baby when you ’ re cooking , Rachel says ... You need them to dance , says Lucy ... You gotta know how to walk with hips , practice you know . " Traditional female roles , such as childrearing , cooking , and attracting male attention , are understood by Cisneros 's characters to be their biological destiny . However , when they reach adolescence and womanhood , they must reconcile their expectations about love and sex with their own experiences of disillusionment , confusion and anguish . Esperanza describes her " sexual initiation " — an assault by a group of Anglo @-@ American boys while awaiting her friend Sally at the fairground . She feels stricken and powerless after this , but above all betrayed ; not only by Sally , who was not there for her , but " by all the women who ever failed to contradict the romantic mythology of love and sex " . Cisneros illustrates how this romantic mythology , fueled by popular culture , is often at odds with reality in Woman Hollering Creek and Other Stories , where multiple references to romantic telenovelas obsessively watched by the female characters are juxtaposed with the abuse and poverty they face in their own lives .
When Cisneros addresses the subject of female sexuality , she often portrays negative scenarios in which men exert control over women through control over their sexuality , and explores the gap she perceives between the real sexual experiences of women and their idealized representation in popular culture . However , Cisneros also describes female sexuality in extremely positive terms , especially in her poetry . This is true , for example , of her 1987 volume of poetry My Wicked , Wicked Ways . According to Madsen , Cisneros refers to herself as " wicked " for having " reappropriated , taken control of , her own sexuality and the articulation of it – a power forbidden to women under patriarchy " . Through these poems she aims to represent " the reality of female sexuality " so that women readers will recognize the " divisive effects " of the stereotypes that they are expected to conform to , and " discover the potential for joy in their bodies that is denied them " .
Cisneros breaks the boundary between what is a socially acceptable way for women to act and speak and what is not , using language and imagery that have a " boisterous humor " and " extrovert energy " and are even at times " deliberately shocking " . Not all readers appreciate this " shocking " quality of some of Cisneros ’ s work . Both female and male readers have criticized Cisneros for the ways she celebrates her sexuality , such as the suggestive photograph of herself on the My Wicked , Wicked Ways cover ( 3rd Woman Press , 1987 ) . Cisneros says of this photo : " The cover is of a woman appropriating her own sexuality . In some ways , that ’ s also why it ’ s wicked : the scene is trespassing that boundary by saying ' I defy you . I 'm going to tell my own story . ' " Some readers " failed to perceive the transgressive meaning of the gesture " , thinking that she was merely being lewd for shock value , and questioned her legitimacy as a feminist . Cisneros ’ s initial response to this was dismay , but then she reports thinking " Wait a second , where ’ s your sense of humor ? And why can ’ t a feminist be sexy ? "
= = = Construction of Chicana identity = = =
The challenges faced by Cisneros ’ s characters on account of their gender cannot be understood in isolation from their culture , for the norms that dictate how women and men ought to think and behave are culturally determined and thus distinct for different cultural groups . Through her works , Cisneros conveys the experiences of Chicanas confronting the " deeply rooted patriarchal values " of Mexican culture through interactions not only with Mexican fathers , but the broader community which exerts pressure upon them to conform to a narrow definition of womanhood and a subservient position to men .
A recurrent theme in Cisneros ’ s work is the triad of figures that writer and theorist Gloria Anzaldúa has referred to as " Our Mothers " : the Virgen de Guadalupe , La Malinche and La Llorona . These symbolic figures are of great importance to identity politics and popular culture in Mexico and the southwest United States , and have been used , argues theorist Norma Alarcón , as reference points " for controlling , interpreting , or visualizing women " in Mexican @-@ American culture .
Many theorists , including Jacqueline Doyle , Jean Wyatt , Emma Perez and Cordelia Candelaria , have argued that the gender identity of Mexican and Chicana women is complexly constructed in reference to these three figures . La Virgen de Guadalupe , a Catholic icon of the manifestation of the Virgin Mary in the Americas , is revered in Mexico as a " nurturing and inspiring mother and maiden " . La Malinche , the indigenous mistress and intermediary of conquistador Hernán Cortés , has according to Wyatt " become the representative of a female sexuality at once passive , " rapeable , " and always already guilty of betrayal " . Cisneros describes the problematic dichotomy of the virgin and the whore presented by these two figures : " We ’ re raised in a Mexican culture that has two role models : La Malinche and la Virgen de Guadalupe . And you know that ’ s a hard route to go , one or the other , there ’ s no in @-@ betweens . " Madsen has noted that these ' good ' and ' bad ' archetypes are further complicated by the perception , held by many Chicana feminists , that they would be guilty of betraying their people , like La Malinche , if they attempt to define their femininity in more " Anglo " terms . Through her work , Cisneros critiques the pressures Chicanas face to suppress their sexuality or channel it into socially acceptable forms so as to not be labeled " Malinchista [ s ] ... corrupted by gringa influences which threaten to splinter [ their ] people " .
The third figure , La Llorona , who derives from a centuries @-@ old Mexican / Southwestern folktale , is " a proud young girl [ who ] marries above her station and is so enraged when her husband takes a mistress of his own class that she drowns their children in the river " . She dies grief @-@ stricken by the edge of the river after she is unable to retrieve her children and it is claimed that she can be heard wailing for them in the sound of the wind and water . These entities , from the gentle and pure Virgen de Guadalupe , to the violated and treacherous la Malinche , to the eternally grieving la Llorona give rise to a " fragmentary subjectivity " often experienced by Chicanas , and their need to come to terms with them , renegotiate them on their own terms , or reject them altogether .
The three " Mothers " come out most clearly in Woman Hollering Creek and Other Stories . In the stories " Never Marry a Mexican " and " Woman Hollering Creek " , the female protagonists grapple with these " Mexican icons of sexuality and motherhood that , internalized , seem to impose on them a limited and even negative definition of their own identities as women " . The protagonist in " Never Marry a Mexican " is haunted by the myth of la Malinche , who is considered a whore and a traitor , and defies la Malinche 's passive sexuality with her own aggressive one . In " Woman Hollering Creek " the protagonist reinvents the la Llorona myth when she decides to take charge of her own future , and that of her children , and discovers that the grito of the myth , which is the Spanish word for the sound made by la Llorona , can be interpreted as a " joyous holler " rather than a grieving wail . It is the borderland , that symbolic middle ground between two cultures , which " offers a space where such a negotiation with fixed gender ideals is at least possible " .
= = = Borderland = = =
Even though that Cisneros does not explicitly locate her stories and novels on the Mexico @-@ U.S. border , Sadowski @-@ Smith identifies the concept as perhaps Cisneros 's most salient theme due to the constant border crossings , both real and metaphorical , of characters in all of her works . The House on Mango Street takes place in Chicago where the narrator lives , and in Mexico City where she visits extended family . Caramelo primarily takes place in those settings as well , but part of the book details the narrator 's experiences as a teenager in San Antonio , TX . Various characters in Woman Hollering Creek and Other Stories also make trips to Mexico to reunite with family members . However , to quote literary critics Jesús Benito and Ana María Manzanas , the " image of the border has become fully meaningful not only when we consider it as a physical line but when we decenter it and liberate it from the notion of space to encompass notions of sex , class , gender , ethnicity , identity , and community . " Cisneros frequently divorces the border from its strictly geographic meaning , using it metaphorically to explore how Chicana identity is an amalgamation of both Mexican and Anglo @-@ American cultures . The border represents the everyday experiences of people who are neither fully from one place nor the other ; at times the border is fluid and two cultures can coexist harmoniously within a single person , but at other times it is rigid and there is an acute tension between them . Literary critic Katherine Payant has analyzed the border metaphor in Woman Hollering Creek and Other Stories , which manifests in references to the Chicana / o characters ' Mexican roots and the ( im ) migration between the two countries , the recurrence of overlapping pre @-@ Columbian , mestizo and Southwestern Chicano myths , and the portrayal of Chicanas / os as " straddling two or three cultures . " Payant makes use of Gloria Anzaldúa 's concept of living " on the borderlands " to describe the experience of Cisneros 's Chicana characters who , in addition to their struggle to overcome patriarchal constructs of their gender and sexual identity , must negotiate linguistic and cultural boundaries .
= = Awards = =
Sandra Cisneros received fellowships from the National Endowment for the Arts in 1981 and 1988 , and in 1985 was presented with the American Book Award by the Before Columbus Foundation for The House on Mango Street . Subsequently she received a Frank Dobie Artists Fellowship , and came first and second in the Segundo Concurso Nacional del Cuento Chicano , sponsored by the University of Arizona .
She has further received the Quality Paperback Book Club New Voices Award , the Anisfield @-@ Wolf Book Award , the PEN Center West Award for best fiction , and the Lannan Foundation Literary Award for Woman Hollering Creek and Other Stories . This book was selected as the noteworthy book of the year by both The New York Times and The American Library Journal , and an anthology of erotic poetry , Loose Woman , won the Mountain & Plains Booksellers ' Award .
Cisneros was recognized by the State University of New York , receiving an honorary doctorate from Purchase in 1993 and a MacArthur fellowship in 1995 . In 2003 , Caramelo was highly regarded by several journals including The New York Times , the Los Angeles Times , the San Francisco Chronicle , the Chicago Tribune , and The Seattle Times , which led to her Premio Napoli Award in 2005 ; the novel also was shortlisted for the Dublin International IMPAC award , and was nominated for the Orange Prize in England . In 2003 , Cisneros became part of the second group of recipients of the newly formed Texas Cultural Trust 's Texas Medal of Arts . In 2016 , the University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill awarded Cisneros an honorary Doctor of Letters .
The Archives and Special Collections at Amherst College holds some of her papers .
= = = Books = = =
Cisneros , Sandra ( 1980 ) . Bad boys . San Jose : Mango . OCLC 7339707 .
Cisneros , Sandra ( 1984 ) , The House on Mango Street , Houston : Arte Público , ISBN 978 @-@ 0 @-@ 934770 @-@ 20 @-@ 0 . Second edition : Cisneros , Sandra ( 1989 ) , The House on Mango Street , New York : Vintage , ISBN 978 @-@ 0 @-@ 679 @-@ 73477 @-@ 2 .
Cisneros , Sandra ( 1987 ) , My Wicked , Wicked Ways , Bloomington , IN : Third Woman Press , ISBN 978 @-@ 0 @-@ 943219 @-@ 01 @-@ 1
Cisneros , Sandra ( 1991 ) , Woman Hollering Creek and Other Stories , New York : Random House , ISBN 978 @-@ 0 @-@ 394 @-@ 57654 @-@ 1
Cisneros , Sandra ( 1994 ) , Hairs = Pelitos , New York : Knopf , ISBN 978 @-@ 0 @-@ 679 @-@ 89007 @-@ 2
Cisneros , Sandra ( 1994 ) , Loose Woman : Poems , New York : Knopf , ISBN 978 @-@ 0 @-@ 679 @-@ 41644 @-@ 9
Cisneros , Sandra ( 2002 ) , Caramelo , or , Puro cuento , New York : Knopf , ISBN 978 @-@ 1 @-@ 4000 @-@ 4150 @-@ 3
Cisneros , Sandra ( 2004 ) , Vintage Cisneros , New York : Vintage , ISBN 978 @-@ 1 @-@ 4000 @-@ 3405 @-@ 5
Cisneros , Sandra ( 2011 ) , Bravo Bruno , Italy : La Nuova Frontiera ( Italian )
Cisneros , Sandra ( 2012 ) , Have You Seen Marie ? , New York : Vintage
Cisneros , Sandra ( 2015 ) , A House of My Own , New York : Knopf , ISBN 978 @-@ 0 @-@ 385 @-@ 35133 @-@ 1
= = = Contributions = = =
Days and Nights of Love and War ( 2000 ) . By Eduardo Galeano . Contribution by Sandra Cisneros .
Family Pictures / Cuadros de Familia ( 2005 ) . By Carmen Lomas Garza . Introduction by Sandra Cisneros
Emergency Tacos : Seven Poets Con Picante ( 2007 ) . By Carlos Cumpian , Sandra Cisneros , Carlos Cortez , Beatriz Badikian , Cynthia Gallaher , Margarita Lopez @-@ Castro , Raul Nino .
Things We Do Not Talk About : Exploring Latino / a Literature through Essays and Interviews ( 2014 ) . By Daniel Olivas . Interview of Sandra Cisneros featured in book .
= = = Essays and reporting = = =
Cisneros , Sandra ( Autumn 2009 ) . " An ofrenda for my mother " . Granta ( 108 ) : 219 – 224 .
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= Glory and Gore =
" Glory and Gore " is a song by New Zealand singer Lorde from her debut studio album , Pure Heroine ( 2013 ) . The song was released on 11 March 2014 as the album 's fifth single by Lava Records and Republic Records . The track was written by Lorde and its producer , Joel Little . " Glory and Gore " is an electropop song influenced by chillwave and hip hop music . It speaks about modern society 's fascination with violence and celebrity culture . The song was met with a mixed reception from critics , and reached numbers sixty @-@ eight and nine on the United States Billboard Hot 100 and Hot Rock Songs , respectively . In 2014 , " Glory and Gore " was used in an advertisement for the second season of the History television series Vikings .
= = Composition = =
As with the rest of Pure Heroine , " Glory and Gore " was written by Lorde and Joel Little , recorded at Golden Age Studios and produced , mixed and engineered by Little . " Glory and Gore " is a chillwave and hip hop @-@ influenced electropop ballad , instrumented by pulsing synthesisers . According to the sheet music published at Musicnotes.com by EMI Music Publishing , it is set in a moderate tempo of 72 beats per minute . It is written in the key of F minor , and follows the chord progression A ♭ – Fm – Cm – B ♭ m . Lorde 's vocals range from E ♭ 3 to E ♭ 5 . Throughout the song , she uses black satire to express disdain towards modern emphasis on violence , and compares celebrity culture to gladiatorial combat . This is exemplified in the lyric " Glory and gore go hand @-@ in @-@ hand / That 's why we 're making headlines . " It continues the derision of popular culture of " Team " , the preceding song on Pure Heroine . " Glory and Gore " also portrays an empowerment theme ; PopMatters ' Evan Sawdey described it as a " dark " version of Katy Perry 's " Roar " ( 2013 ) .
= = Release = =
" Glory and Gore " was sent to United States modern rock radio by Lava Records and Republic Records on 11 March 2014 as the fourth US single from Pure Heroine , following " Royals " , " Team " and " No Better " . A US adult album alternative ( AAA ) release followed on 7 April 2014 . " Glory and Gore " serves as the fifth single overall from Pure Heroine , as " Tennis Court " was released outside the US in 2013 . Originally , " Tennis Court " was going to be the third US single , but the record labels changed to " Glory and Gore " instead after it was featured in History 's promotional campaign for the second season of its historical television series , Vikings . However , the 8 April 2014 US contemporary hit radio ( CHR ) scheduled release of " Glory and Gore " was cancelled , and " Tennis Court " eventually impacted US CHR on 22 April 2014 .
= = Critical reception = =
In a review of Pure Heroine , Larry Day from The 405 called the track " single @-@ worthy " . Billboard 's Jason Lipshutz called Lorde 's vocals during the song 's hook " contagious " . Jon Hadusek of Consequence of Sound wrote that " Glory and Gore " did not fit in with the minimal production found in the majority of Pure Heroine . Pitchfork Media 's Lindsay Zoladz criticised the song for having too many lyrics forced into each line . John Murphy from musicOMH was critical of the latter half of Pure Heroine , writing " by the time ' Glory and Gore ' and ' Still Sane ' roll around , the template 's starting to sound a bit tired . "
= = Commercial performance = =
Following the release of Pure Heroine , " Glory and Gore " appeared at number seventeen on the New Zealand Artists Singles Chart dated 7 October 2013 . Prior to its single release , the song entered the United States Billboard Hot 100 chart at number 88 on the week of 8 March 2014 , with sales of about 32 @,@ 000 copies that week — almost double the sales of the previous week . The following week " Glory and Gore " sold 47 @,@ 000 copies ( up 46 % ) and became the Hot 100 's " Digital Gainer " as it moved up to number 68 on the chart . The song peaked at number 30 on the US Digital Songs chart , number seventeen on the US Alternative Songs , and number nine on the main Hot Rock Songs . As of April 2014 , " Glory and Gore " has sold 307 @,@ 000 digital downloads in the US .
= = Live performances = =
On 24 September 2013 , Lorde performed the track , among others , at The Fonda Theatre in Los Angeles , California . On 3 October 2013 , Lorde held a concert at the Warsaw Venue in Brooklyn and performed the song among other tracks from the album . Lorde performed " Glory and Gore " at Silo Park , Auckland on 29 January 2014 as part of her make @-@ up show for the 2014 Laneway Festival , with The New Zealand Herald 's Chris Schulz calling the performance a " highlight " . In 2014 , Lorde opened her show at Roseland Ballroom and her Coachella Festival set with the song , and performed it at Lollapalooza in São Paulo , Brazil .
= = Charts = =
= = = Weekly charts = = =
= = = Year @-@ end charts = = =
= = Release history = =
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= Dragon Challenge =
Dragon Challenge ( known as Dueling Dragons from 1999 to 2010 ) is a pair of intertwined inverted roller coasters in the Wizarding World of Harry Potter area of Universal Studios ' Islands of Adventure in Orlando , Florida , U.S .. The ride is themed to two chasing dragons , one side being Chinese Fireball and the other Hungarian Horntail . It features a layout in which the two trains share adjacent lift hills but then traverse two unique courses . The ride was designed by Bolliger & Mabillard of Switzerland . The Chinese Fireball dragon reaches a top speed of 60 mph , and the Hungarian Horntail dragon reaches a top speed of 55 mph . Both versions feature five inversions . The total ride time is about two minutes and 25 seconds .
When Islands of Adventure opened on May 28 , 1999 , the ride was called Dueling Dragons and was located in The Lost Continent area with the two sides named Fire and Ice . During much of the ride 's history , the trains were dispatched simultaneously , providing three near @-@ miss encounters along the courses . However , after two injuries related to loose objects hitting riders on the other coaster , the roller coasters are now dispatched separately . After a renovation period , the attraction reopened in mid @-@ March 2010 , and was officially renamed as Dragon Challenge with The Wizarding World of Harry Potter grand opening on June 18 , 2010 .
= = History = =
= = = Dueling Dragons ( 1999 – 2010 ) = = =
Dueling Dragons was one of Islands of Adventure 's original attractions , opening with the theme park on May 28 , 1999 , in the park 's The Lost Continent area . At the time , it was the only fully inverted dueling roller coaster in the world . The ride was themed to two dueling dragons , with one track named Ice and the other named Fire .
During construction , Superior Rigging & Erection was responsible for erecting the supports and track of the two roller coasters .
= = = Dragon Challenge ( 2010 – present ) = = =
In May 2007 , Universal announced plans to construct The Wizarding World of Harry Potter , a new section devoted to the popular Harry Potter book and film series . Dueling Dragons , as well as the adjacent Flight of the Hippogriff roller coaster , were shown to be included in the new section . Universal later announced that the attraction would be renamed Dragon Challenge upon the re @-@ opening of the attraction and that the two roller coasters would be renamed as Hungarian Horntail and Chinese Fireball .
Construction on re @-@ theming the queue began in the third quarter of 2009 . In the first quarter of 2010 , the ride closed in order to refurbish the attraction to incorporate the Harry Potter theme . In mid @-@ March 2010 , the roller coasters reopened to the public . On June 18 , 2010 , with the opening of the entire The Wizarding World of Harry Potter section , the ride officially became Dragon Challenge .
During the summer of 2011 , there were two accidents ( one serious ) caused by what is believed to be loose objects hitting riders while riding the roller coaster . The most serious accident was when a man got struck with an object and had to get his eye removed due to the amount of damage . On the same day that the man got hit , Universal Studios announced that the coasters would not duel until an investigation was completed . For two months the coasters were dispatched separately and in mid @-@ October 2011 , Universal made the decision to remove the dueling aspect of the ride permanently without any explanation to what caused the injuries . No injuries have been reported since .
= = Ride experience = =
= = = Queue = = =
When first entering the queue , guests are taken past a number of banners for the Triwizard Tournament showing support for the four contestants . After passing the Weasleys ' crashed flying Ford Anglia , they enter the Champions ' Tent . From there guests pass a large pedestal with the Triwizard Cup glowing at the top , and several dark " tunnels " which lead to both coaster 's stations . Just before entering the station guests must choose which coaster they want to ride : Chinese Fireball to the left or Hungarian Horntail to the right . Once in the station , on the ceiling , there is a projection of the dragons .
The queue before the Harry Potter refurbishment was set as a ruined castle where the Fire and Ice dragons lived . The queue passed through dungeons and included human skeletons , torches , and cobwebs . Just like the present queue , to ride Fire , guests would go left while riders wanting to ride Ice would go right at the intersection point .
In April 2015 , metal detectors were installed as a permanent fixture to the entrance . The attraction now officially has metal detectors , security with metal detecting wands , and a zero tolerance policy for cell phones , wallets , coins , watches , cameras , anything that can be placed in one 's pockets ; all pockets must be absolutely empty prior to boarding . Persons in violation will be sent to the lockers or possibly ejected from the park without a refund .
= = = Track layout = = =
= = = = Chinese Fireball = = = =
Upon departing from the station , the train makes a slight left turn leading into the transfer track section before beginning to climb the 125 @-@ foot ( 38 m ) lift hill . Once at the top and after going through a pre @-@ drop , the train makes a sharp 115 @-@ foot ( 35 m ) left @-@ hand drop back to the ground . Then , the train goes back up , through an Immelmann followed by a slight downward right turn before entering an air @-@ time hill ( this was the first of three near @-@ miss points with the Hungarian Horntail train when the roller coasters duelled ) . Next , the train drops back down turning left slightly leading into a second Immelmann . After a downward right helix and a short section of straight track , the train goes through the second former near @-@ miss point with the other train , a vertical loop . After the loop and another section of straight track , the train makes a right turn leading into the third and final former near @-@ miss element which is a corkscrew . Then , the train makes a left turn followed by a small drop leading into another section of straight track before entering the final element in the coaster layout , another corkscrew . The train then make a left turn into the final brake run . Following a left turn , the train returns to the station where the riders unload and the next riders load .
= = = = Hungarian Horntail = = = =
Upon departing from the station , the train makes a slight right turn leading into the transfer track section before beginning to climb the 125 @-@ foot ( 38 m ) lift hill . Once at the top and after going through a pre @-@ drop , the train makes a sharp 95 @-@ foot ( 29 m ) right @-@ hand drop back to the ground . Then , the train goes through a 270 degree right overbanked turn before entering a Zero @-@ gravity roll which was the first of three former near @-@ miss points with the Chinese Fireball train . Then , the train makes a slight right turn heading straight into a wall before entering a Cobra roll . After a straight section of track , the train enters the second former near @-@ miss point with the other train , a vertical loop . The train then makes a right turn into the final former near @-@ miss point , a corkscrew . Next , the train makes a right turn followed by a left turn leading into the final brake run . Following a right turn , the train returns to the station where the riders unload and the next riders load .
= = = Track = = =
The steel track is approximately 3 @,@ 200 feet ( 980 m ) in length and the height of the lift is approximately 125 feet ( 38 m ) for both roller coasters . The first drop for Chinese Fireball is 115 feet ( 35 m ) while Hungarian Horntail 95 feet ( 29 m ) . Chinese Fireball 's track is red and Hungarian Horntail 's is blue . Both coaster 's supports are white .
= = = Trains = = =
Dragon Challenge operates with several steel and fiberglass trains . Each train has eight cars with four seats for a total of 32 riders per train . All the Hungarian Horntail trains resemble a blue ice dragon while all the Chinese Fireball trains resemble a red fire dragon .
When the coaster cars duelled , in order to make the trains meet at each of the three near @-@ miss points along the layout , the trains would be weighed once they were loaded at the station to adjust the dispatch times . For example , if the Chinese Fireball train weighed more than the Hungarian Horntail train , the Fireball would be dispatched after the Horntail .
= = Reception = =
Dragon Challenge has generally been well received , with most riders preferring the Chinese Fireball track .
In the annual Amusement Today Golden Ticket Awards for the Top Steel Roller Coasters , Dragon Challenge ranked in the top 50 every year between 2000 and 2012 . It peaked at position 11 in 2002 .
In Mitch Hawker 's worldwide Best Roller Coaster Poll , the two tracks are ranked separately . In every year that the steel roller coaster poll has been held , Chinese Fireball has ranked higher than the Hungarian Horntail . In 1999 , Chinese Fireball and Hungarian Horntail peaked at positions 9 and 18 , respectively .
These poll results are supported by a review by Jeremy Thompson of Roller Coaster Philosophy . Thompson ranks the Chinese Fireball a B- and the Hungarian Horntail a C + ; only The Incredible Hulk and Jurassic Park River Adventure are ranked higher . Thompson also made comparisons between the ride in its generic @-@ themed state versus the Harry Potter theme added in 2010 stating the " roller coaster has also lost a certain poetic quality that made the original so pleasurable " . The loss of the dueling function also contributed to the lower ranking .
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= Zawieszenie dzwonu Zygmunta =
Zawieszenie dzwonu Zygmunta ( Polish : Zawieszenie dzwonu Zygmunta na wieży katedry w roku 1521 w Krakowie , English : The Hanging of the Sigismund bell at the Cathedral Tower in 1521 in Kraków ) is a painting by Jan Matejko finished in 1874 . It depicts the installation of the Sigismund Bell in the Wawel Cathedral in Kraków in 1521 . The bell was installed in the Sigismund Tower and rung for the first time on 13 July 1521 . The bell is considered to be one of the national symbols of Poland . This painting is one of a number of historical paintings by Matejko . It shows a crowd of people , with a number of identifiable figures of historical importance . It conveys the Golden Era of the Polish Renaissance , and the power of the Kingdom of Poland .
There are several alternative names for the painting . They include The consecrating of the Sigismund bell ... ( Poświęcenie dzwonu Zygmunta ... ) , as proposed by Mieczysław Treter , The raising of the Sigismund bell ... , King Sigismund 's Bell , or just Sigismund Bell ( Dzwon Zygmunta ) .
= = History = =
The Sigismund Bell painting was created in 1874 . During his work , Matejko commissioned craftsmen to create a replica of a scaffolding that was used to move the bell , and he identified its likely original location , in order for it to be portrayed realistically .
There are numerous anecdotes associated with this painting . Matejko used his family for models , and likely the painting contains nearly all the members of his family . The painting was well received by contemporaries , and Stanisław Tarnowski published an extensive and positive review in 1875 in Przegląd Polski . The work was displayed in Paris in 1875 , and probably contributed to Matejko 's recognition by the Académie française ; three years later it was displayed there again , during the Exposition Universelle ( 1878 ) , and ( together with two other paintings – the Unia lubelska ( Union of Lublin ) and Wacław Wilczek ) yielded him an honorary golden medal .
The painting is in the collection of the National Museum , Warsaw .
= = Composition and significance = =
Matejko was deeply interested in the era of the Renaissance in Poland , and this painting is one of a number of historical paintings that he set in that period . The composition is very colorful , yet realistic . It conveys the Golden Era of Polish Renaissance , and the power of the contemporary Kingdom of Poland , both its elites and the common people . The left side of the painting is focused on the richness and glory of the era , while the right notes the hard work of ordinary people that made this greatness possible . Although the painting is usually known as the The hanging of the Sigismund bell .. , in fact it shows not the moment of hanging but the moment of the bell 's emergence from the mold in which it was cast .
The painting shows a crowd , with a number of identifiable figures of historical importance . On the left , there is the royal court , but only the king , Sigismund I , his family ( including queen Bona Sforza ) , and the court jester , Stańczyk , can be identified . Sigismund , the patron of the Sigismund Bell , and his son Sigismund August , were Polish kings that inspired other works of Matejko , including The Babin Republic ( 1881 ) and The Founding of the Lubranski Academy in Poznań ( 1886 ) . Sigismund I 's portrayal on the Hanging ... painting is the one where Matejko shows him with pride and respect . Other figures in the court include banker Jan Boner , merchant and official Seweryn Bethman , and castellan and voivode Stanisław Kmita . Bishop Jan Chojeński is also shown on the painting , consecrating the bell , with canon Grzegorz Lubrański nearby .
Outside the court , master bell @-@ founder Hans Beham is seen above the bell . Between him and the court there are two dark @-@ clad figures . These are the Wawel architect Bartolommeo Berrecci , and a musician , Valentin Bakfark , who according to a legend threw a string from his instrument into the melted bronze ( in fact , he arrived in Poland two decades after the bell was cast ) . In the background , Wawel Castle can be seen .
As he would often do , Matejko included people whom he considered significant for the era , but who could not be present in the scene , like Sigismund I 's son , Sigismund II August , who would have been only one year old . In 1885 Matejko would paint a sequel @-@ like picture , Zygmunt I słuchający Dzwonu Zygmunta ( Sigismund I listening to the Sigismund Bell ) , showing an older Sigismund and Stańczyk , contemplating the passing of their era .
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= Kirtlandian =
The Kirtlandian is a North American land @-@ vertebrate faunal age of the Cretaceous period , following the Judithian and succeeded by the Edmontonian . It lasted about 2 million years , ca 74 @.@ 8 to 72 @.@ 8 Mya and is characterized by the ceratopsian Pentaceratops sternbergii , which lived throughout the Kirtlandian . It was first named by R.M. Sullivan and S.G. Lucas in 2003 as a faunal age for the Kirtland and Fruitland formations . Previously , only five land @-@ vertebrate ages were identified from the Late Cretaceous. as identified by Loris S. Russell in 1975 , they include the Paluxian , Aquilan , Judithian , Edmontonian , and the Lancian . Before the naming of the Kirtlandian , three gaps , between the Paluxian and Aquilan , the Aquilan and the Judithian , and the Judithian and Edmontonian , were identified but not named .
The Fruitland Formation measures 97 to 107 metres ( 318 to 351 ft ) thick , and with the 594 metres ( 1 @,@ 949 ft ) of the Kirtland Formation , the Kirtlandian consists of 701 metres ( 2 @,@ 300 ft ) of sediments . The rock types within the formations are primarily coal beds , but also include sandstone , siltstone , mudstone , and shale . Within the sediments with a Kirtlandian age , two local faunas , the Hunter Wash local fauna , and the Willow Wash local fauna , have been identified . The currently accepted date of the Kirtlandian is 74 @.@ 8 to 72 @.@ 8 million years ago .
= = Paleoecology = =
The Kirtlandian is an age of fauna that lasted for 2 million years . It is Campanian in age , and is placed between the Judithian age , which is characterized by older taxa , and the Edmontonian faunal age , characterized by the appearance of Edmontosaurus regalis and Pachyrhinosaurus canadensis . The geological formations found to date or persist from the Kirtlandian are the Bearpaw , the upper Kaiparowits Formation , the Kirtland , Fruitland , Williams Fork , Fort Crittenden , Ringbone , Corral de Enmedio , Packard , and El Gallo formations , and possibly the lower part of the Cerro del Pueblo Formation and upper region of the Aguja Formation . These formations are exposed in Alberta and Montana , Utah , New Mexico , New Mexico , Colorado , Arizona , New Mexico , Sonora , Baja California , Baja California , and possibly Coahuila , and Texas , respectively .
= = = Stratigraphy = = =
The stratigraphy of the Kirtlandian was studied by Robert M. Sullivan and Spencer G. Lucas in 2003 , Sullivan in 2006a , Lucas and Sullivan in 2006b , and Nicholas R. Longrich in 2010 .
= = = = Local faunas = = = =
Two local faunas are known from the Kirtlandian faunal age . They include the Hunter Wash local fauna and the Willow Wash local fauna . The Hunter Wash local fauna was defined as the vertebrates " obtained from the upper 40 feet of the Fruitland Formation and the lower 55 feet of the lower shale of the Kirtland Shale ( now a formation ) in Hunter Wash ( member ) . " The Hunter Wash fauna therefore includes all taxa from the Bisti region of the Bisti / De @-@ Na @-@ Zin Wilderness , and the animals from the Fossil Forest and Ah @-@ shi @-@ sle @-@ pah Wash . The Willow Wash fauna was named for all the fauna of the De @-@ na @-@ zin Member of the Kirtland Formation . The majority of the fauna from the Willow Wash were originally thought to belong to the Alamo Wash local fauna of the Ojo Alamo Formation , until it was found that the entire fauna was in fact from the older Kirtland Formation .
= = = = Thickness = = = =
The Kirtland and Fruitland formations both consist of the major formations in the Kirtlandian age . The Fruitland Formation was measured in 2003 to be between 97 and 107 metres ( 318 and 351 ft ) thick , and the Kirtland was measured at 594 metres ( 1 @,@ 949 ft ) thick . Together they measured 691 to 701 metres ( 2 @,@ 267 to 2 @,@ 300 ft ) . Later in 2010 , a different study found more precise measurements . It found the Fruitland Formation to be 100 metres ( 330 ft ) thick , and the Kirtland Formation to be around 600 metres ( 2 @,@ 000 ft ) thick . These thicknesses combine to give the formation a height of 700 m ( 2 @,@ 300 ft ) .
= = = = Lithology = = = =
The lithology of the Kirtlandian formations are made up of mostly a combination of coal beds . The Fruitland Formation consists entirely of them , and one fifth of all rocks of the Kirtland Formation are a coal . The other common rocks found in the Kirtland Formation are siltstone , mudstone , shale and most commonly , sandstone . The Bisti Bed of the Hunter Wash Member is made up completely of sandstone , which marks the border between the Kirtland and Fruitland formations .
= = = = Age = = = =
The Kirtlandian faunal age was named by Lucas and Sullivan in 2003 , and found by their original study to date from 74 @.@ 9 to 72 million years ago . In 2006 , Sullivan and Lucas refined their estimate , stating that the Kirtlandian ranged from 75 to 72 @.@ 8 million years ago . Later that year , Sullivan changed the time range again , finding that the faunal age lasted only 2 million years , from 74 @.@ 8 to 72 @.@ 8 million years ago . He said that the later part of the Kirtlandian , from the De @-@ na @-@ zin Member of the Kirtland Formation , dated to 73 million years ago , on the basis of ash layers dating to 73 @.@ 04 and 73 @.@ 37 million years ago . This observation was based on findings by Sullivan and Lucas , who dated the two ash layers from 73 @.@ 04 ± 0 @.@ 25 and 73 @.@ 37 ± 0 @.@ 28 million years ago . They also dated the earlier ashes from the Fruitland Formation , which dated to 75 @.@ 56 ± 0 @.@ 41 , 74 @.@ 55 ± 0 @.@ 29 , and 74 @.@ 11 ± 0 @.@ 62 million years ago . The first ash , called by them the Dog Eye Pond , was found slightly higher than the start of the Fruitland Formation , which meant that the start of the Fruitland Formation was older than 75 @.@ 5 million years ago . More precise dating in 2010 by Longrich found that the second youngest ash can actually be dated more precisely than thought by Sullivan ( 2006 ) , only having an error range of 0 @.@ 18 million years . Longrich also dated the two older ashes , finding a date the same as that of Sullivan in 2006 . These ash datings are what Sullivan used to find the precise age of the Kirtlandian age .
= = = Fauna = = =
The Kirtlandian has a distinct fauna , including four species distinguishing it from other ages . The species include the dinosaurians Pentaceratops sternbergii , Parasaurolophus cyrtocristatus , and Kritosaurus navajovius , with the only non @-@ dinosaurian being Melvius chauliodous , a fish taxon .
= = = = Fruitland and Kirtland Formations = = = =
The dinosaurian fauna from the Kirtlandian from the Fruitland and Kirtland formations includes the theropods Bistahieversor sealeyi ( previously Daspletosaurus and Albertosaurus sp . ) , Ornithomimus antiquus , and " Saurornitholestes " robustus ( previously Saurornitholestes langstoni ) ; the titanosaur Alamosaurus sanjuanensis ; the hadrosaurids Anasazisaurus horneri , Kritosaurus navajovius , Naashoibitosaurus ostromi , Parasaurolophus cyrtocristatus , and Parasaurolophus tubicen ; the ankylosaurians Nodocephalosaurus kirtlandensis , Glyptodontopelta mimus , and Ahshislepelta minor ; and the marginocephalians Sphaerotholus goodwini ( called Prenocephale goodwini ) , Stegoceras novomexicanum ( previously Stegoceras validum ) , Pentaceratops sternbergii , Titanoceratops ouranos , and a new genus and species of centrosaurine .
Fossil turtles were very abundant in the Kirtlandian , and in the Campanian in general . Over 200 specimens and 15 species of turtle have been found from the Fruitland / Kirtland Formations . Among the turtles are the bothremydid Chedighaii hutchisoni ; the pleurosternid Compsemys sp . ; the baenodds Denazinemys nodosa and Scabremys ornata ( previously Denazinemys ornata ) ; the non @-@ baenodd baenids Neurankylus baueri , Thescelus hemispherica , and Thescelus rapiens ; the adocids Adocus bossi and Adocus kirtlandicus ; the nanhsiungchelyids Basilemys gaffneyi and possibly Basilemys nobilis ; the trionychids Aspideretoides austerus , Aspideretoides robustus ; and two indeterminate turtles , one a plastominine , and one assigned to Kinosternoidea .
= = = = Williams Fork Formation = = = =
Kirtlandian fauna are also present in the Williams Fork Formation . The principal index taxon of the Kirtlandian , Pentaceratops sternbergii , in known from the formation , along with the theropods Troodon formosus , Dromaeosaurus albertensis , Saurornitholestes langstoni , Richardoestesia gilmorei , and indeterminate tyrannosaurids ; the ankylosaurians Ankylosaurus magniventris and Nodosauridae indet . ; the ornithopods Thescelosaurus neglectus and an unnamed hadrosaurid . Mammals from the formation include Mesodma thompsoni , Cimolodon nitidus , ? Cimolodon sp . , Cimolomys sp . , cf . Meniscoessus intermedius , Meniscoessus major , Meniscoessus collomensis , ? Paracimexomys sp . , Turgidodon rhaister , Turgidodon russelli , Alphadon marshi , Alphadon wilsoni , Pediomys cooki , Aquiladelphis incus , Eodelphis sp . , and Aenigmadelphys sp. nov . , although many identifications of mammals , as well as dinosaurs are uncertain .
= = = = Fort Crittenden Formation = = = =
The Fort Crittenden Formation is one of many formations dating from inside the Kirtlandian . The formation is characterized by Melvius , a possible index taxon for the Kirtlandian . Species other than Melvius sp. include the fishes Myledaphus bipartitus , cf . Pachyrizodus sp . , lepisosteids , and pycnodontids ; the turtles Brasilemys , " Aspideretes " sp . , and " Plastomenus " , the dinosaurs cf . Saurornitholestes and cf . Richardoestesia ; the amphibians cf . Opisthotriton and cf . Scapherpeton sp . ; the crocodylian Allognathosuchus sp . ; teiid and anguid lizards ; and possibly a pterosaur .
= = = = Ringbone Formation = = = =
Few fossils have been found in the Ringbone Formation , the only significant one being a specimen that is either Albertosaurus sp. or Daspletosaurus sp . , known from a tooth and vertebrae . The only reason the Ringbone Formation is assigned to the Kirtlandian age is because the rocks are the same age as the Fort Crittenden Formation , which contains one of the index taxa of the Kirtlandian .
= = = = Upper Aguja Formation = = = =
The upper region of the Aguja Formation is from the Kirtlandian . Fauna from the section of this formation include the protostegid turtles Terlingualchelys fischbecki and " Aspideretes " ; the crocodylian Deinosuchus riograndensis ( previously Phobosuchus ) ; the dinosaurs Agujaceratops mariscalensis , Kritosaurus navajovius , Kritosaurus sp . , Panoplosaurus sp . , ? Stegoceras sp . , Saurornitholestes langstoni , Richardoestesia isosceles , Richardoestesia cf. gilmorei , an intermediate tyrannosaurid , and an unnamed ornithomimid .
= = = Paleobiogeography = = =
The two main formations of the Kirtlandian , the Fruitland and Kirtland , were originally included in the older Judithian age , an interpretation superseded with the naming of the Kirtlandian . In 1975 , Russell identified five Late Cretaceous land @-@ vertebrate ages , the Paluxian , Aquilan , Judithian , Edmontonian , and Lancian , based on mammal assemblages . Three previously unnamed faunal ages were given names and term " Kirtlandian " was chosen for the gap between the Judithian and Edmontonian . Pentaceratops is distributed throughout all of the San Juan Basin . Outside of the basin , Pentaceratops is well @-@ known , and known with certainty , from the Williams Fork Formation . This means that the formation , along with the Cretaceous formations of the basin , are inside the Kirtlandian .
= = = = Associations = = = =
The Kirtlandian is characterized by a single vertebrate association . The association was identified by Lehman in 2001 and termed the " Kritosaurus - Parasaurolophus association " . This association was found to only be present in the later half of the Kirtlandian faunal age , around 73 @.@ 4 – 73 million years ago . Another association , this one the " Corythosaurus - Centrosaurus association " is found at the very end of the Judithian , right before the Kirtlandian , between 76 @.@ 5 and 74 @.@ 2 million years ago . Another association , the " Pachyrhinosaurus - Edmontosaurus association " , was found to date to 70 @.@ 6 mya , and it used to symbolize the end of the Kirtlandian .
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= Maryse Ouellet =
Maryse Mizanin ( / məˈriːs / ; née Ouellet ; born January 21 , 1983 ) is a French Canadian glamour model , businesswoman , actress , professional wrestling manager , and former professional wrestler currently signed to WWE under the ring name Maryse , where she is a former two @-@ time Divas Champion , performing on the on the SmackDown brand as the manager of her real – life husband The Miz .
After spending years modeling , including winning Miss Hawaiian Tropic Canada in 2003 , Ouellet was hired by the professional wrestling promotion WWE in August 2006 , after she participated in the WWE Diva Search competition . She spent time in Ohio Valley Wrestling and Florida Championship Wrestling , WWE 's developmental territories , before being assigned to the SmackDown brand in 2008 . In December 2008 , Maryse won her first WWE Divas Championship and held it for seven months , which is the third longest reign in the championship 's history . In April 2009 , she was drafted to the Raw brand , and won the Divas Championship for the second time in February 2010 , making her the first wrestler to have held the championship on more than one occasion . In 2011 , she became the co @-@ host of NXT and the manager of Ted DiBiase , prior to her release from the company in October 2011 . In April 2016 , she returned to the company , and became the manager of her husband The Miz .
In late 2011 , she announced plans for a clothing and jewelry line called House of Maryse , and later began working as a realtor .
= = Early life and career = =
Ouellet was born in Montreal , Quebec , but grew up in Edmundston , New Brunswick . In high school , Ouellet was the only girl in her class , and ran the school 's fashion show . She also began developing a range of makeup products .
Ouellet began her modelling career as a beauty pageant contestant , winning Miss Hawaiian Tropic Canada 2003 and finishing second at the International Finals of Miss Hawaiian Tropic 2004 . She was also on the cover of Playboy 's 2007 Girls of Canada calendar .
= = Professional wrestling career = =
= = = World Wrestling Entertainment / WWE = = =
= = = = Diva Search and developmental territories ( 2006 – 2008 ) = = = =
In mid @-@ 2006 , Ouellet tried out for World Wrestling Entertainment ( WWE ) ' s Diva Search . She made the final cut and was one of the top eight contestants , but was the second person eliminated on July 24 . Despite her elimination , she was invited to observe workouts and the training facility at WWE 's developmental territory , Ohio Valley Wrestling ( OVW ) , along with Brooke Adams . Ouellet later said that she was " very , very excited " , as it was her " dream to become a WWE Diva " .
Ouellet was officially signed to a WWE developmental contract on August 24 , 2006 and was assigned to OVW for training . She made her in @-@ ring debut at an OVW live event in December 2006 . In March 2007 , she began wrestling in dark matches prior to the OVW television tapings . In mid @-@ 2007 , Ouellet began managing Sylvain Grenier . When Florida Championship Wrestling ( FCW ) opened in mid @-@ 2007 , Ouellet was transferred to the new developmental facility , and on September 25 , she made her FCW debut as the valet of Ryan O 'Reilly along with Lacey Von Erich . Ouellet then started competing in singles and tag team competition , before managing Ted DiBiase , Jr. in December 2007 , and was at ringside when he captured the FCW Southern Heavyweight Championship . She continued making sporadic appearances in FCW until January 2008 .
= = = = SmackDown ( 2006 – 2008 ) = = = =
On the September 22 , 2006 episode of SmackDown ! , Ouellet , known as simply Maryse , was shown on the TitanTron welcoming the Montreal viewers in French to the season premiere of SmackDown ! on the CW Network . Maryse made her first official televised appearance on the May 21 , 2007 episode of Raw to present American rapper Timbaland 's new music video for the single " Throw It on Me " , in which she had appeared .
By the time she began appearing regularly on SmackDown at the beginning of 2008 , she had adopted a snobby attitude and become a villainous character . On the March 7 , 2008 episode of SmackDown , Maryse competed in a swimsuit contest against Victoria , Michelle McCool , Cherry , and Eve Torres , which ended in a brawl between Maryse and Torres . The following week , she was the first eliminated from another swimsuit competition . On March 28 , Maryse competed in a " Wet and Wild " match , teaming with Victoria against Cherry and McCool in a losing effort . On a " SmackDown after the bell " video on WWE 's website , the tag team Deuce ' n Domino dumped Cherry , who had been their manager , and replaced her with Maryse . Maryse then insulted Cherry , only for Cherry to slap her . On the May 16 episode of SmackDown , Maryse made her in @-@ ring debut in a loss to Cherry , though she defeated Cherry in a rematch the following week . On the June 6 episode of SmackDown ! , SmackDown General Manager Vickie Guerrero announced the creation of the WWE Divas Championship , and that same night the Divas competed in a Golden Dreams match to qualify for the championship match at The Great American Bash , which was won by Natalya . On the July 4 , 2008 episode of SmackDown ! , she competed again in another Golden Dreams match to face Natalya for the championship , however she failed to win . For several weeks , Maryse competed in six @-@ person tag team matches with Victoria and Natalya against Cherry , Michelle McCool and Maria . She suffered a minor broken nose after receiving a bulldog from Maria in August 2008 .
= = = = Divas Champion ( 2008 – 2010 ) = = = =
Maryse began a rivalry with Michelle McCool in September 2008 , unsuccessfully challenging her for the WWE Divas Championship at Unforgiven , and in a rematch the following week on SmackDown , but failed to win on both occasions . On the September 23 episode of ECW , Maryse defeated McCool in a non @-@ title match . After a month @-@ long absence , Maryse returned at Survivor Series pay @-@ per @-@ view event in November , participating in a five @-@ on @-@ five Divas elimination tag team match , eliminating Kelly Kelly , Mickie James and Candice Michelle ; Maryse was the sole survivor of her team , but was ultimately eliminated by Beth Phoenix . At the Armageddon pay @-@ per @-@ view on December 14 , Maryse teamed up with Jillian Hall , Victoria and Natalya in a losing effort to McCool , Maria , Kelly Kelly and Mickie James in an Eight @-@ Diva Santa 's Little Helper tag team match . On December 19 , Maryse pinned Maria to become the number one contender for Michelle McCool 's Divas Championship . The following week on SmackDown , Maryse defeated McCool , with Maria as the special guest referee , to win her first Divas Championship . On December 28 , at a house show in Raleigh , North Carolina , Maryse dislocated her knee in a tag team match against The Bella Twins . It was later announced that the injury was not major , and therefore only missed a few weeks action . On the January 23 , 2009 episode of SmackDown , Maryse returned and sat at ringside commentating during a Divas ' tag team match . She returned to in @-@ ring action on February 20 , teaming with Michelle McCool in a win against Maria and Eve Torres , where she pinned Torres .
Maryse made her first appearance on Raw on March 2 , as a commentator for a match involving the WWE Women 's Champion Melina , with Maryse attacking her after the match . The following week , Maryse made her in @-@ ring debut on Raw in a champion vs champion lumberjill match , which she defeated Melina . The rivalry extended to a tag team match on SmackDown on March 13 , where Melina and Maria defeated McCool and Maryse . On 27 March episode of SmackDown , Maryse made her first championship defense , losing by disqualification after the returning Gail Kim attacked Maryse and McCool , and thus retained the championship . On April 5 , Maryse competed in a 25 @-@ Diva Miss WrestleMania battle royal at WrestleMania XXV , but she was eliminated by Beth Phoenix and the match was won by Santina Marella ( Santino Marella dressed in drag ) . Maryse made her last appearance on SmackDown on April 24 , retaining her championship against Gail Kim .
As part of the 2009 WWE Draft on April 13 , Maryse was drafted to the Raw brand , and in the process , the Divas Championship became exclusive to Raw . She made her debut for the brand on April 27 , teaming with Beth Phoenix , Rosa Mendes , and Jillian Hall in a loss to Santina Marella , Mickie James , Brie Bella and Kelly Kelly . Maryse then began feuding with Mickie James after she cost James a number one contender 's battle royal , which was eventually won by Kelly Kelly , by spraying hairspray in her eyes . The following week , Maryse lost a championship match against Kelly by disqualification , meaning the championship did not change hands , and won a subsequent rematch by pinfall two weeks later on June 8 . At Night of Champions on July 26 , Maryse lost the Divas Championship to James . Despite being only the second Divas champion , her reign of 216 days remained the longest in the title 's history for nearly five years , until AJ Lee surpassed her reign in January 2014 .
After losing the championship , Maryse underwent knee surgery . She returned on the November 23 episode of Raw , disguised as The Gobbledy Gooker , as the guest timekeeper for a Thanksgiving @-@ themed 6 @-@ Divas tag team match . After the match , she revealed herself by attacking the Divas Champion Melina . The following week , Maryse made her in @-@ ring return teamed with Jillian Hall in a tag team match against Melina and Gail Kim , where Maryse pinned Melina . On the December 7 episode of Raw , Maryse defeated Gail Kim , and following the match , Maryse proceed to attack Kelly Kelly but was stopped by Melina .
In early 2010 , a tournament was held for the newly vacated WWE Divas Championship due to Melina 's injury . Maryse entered the tournament , and defeated Brie Bella and Eve Torres in the first round and semi @-@ finals , respectively , to advance to the finals . At Royal Rumble , on January 31 , Maryse teamed up with Katie Lea Burchill , Jillian Hall , Alicia Fox , and Natalya in a untelevised match in a losing effort to Gail Kim , Kelly Kelly , Eve Torres , and The Bella Twins ( Nikki and Brie ) . The tournament 's finals were originally scheduled for Elimination Chamber on February 21 ; instead , the match was changed by the SmackDown General Manager Vickie Guerrero to a interbrand tag team match , where Maryse teamed with her scheduled opponent Gail Kim against LayCool ( Michelle McCool and Layla ) , which was won by LayCool as a result of Maryse abandoning Kim during the match . The following night on Raw , Maryse defeated Kim in the finals to win the championship , becoming the first Diva to have held it twice .
At WrestleMania XXVI , on March 28 , she was part of the winning team of a 10 @-@ Diva tag team match with LayCool , Alicia Fox and Vickie Guerrero against Beth Phoenix , Mickie James , Gail Kim , Eve Torres and Kelly Kelly , but the following night on Raw , she was pinned by Torres in a rematch . Maryse lost the Divas Championship two weeks later to Eve Torres on the April 12 episode of Raw , and was unsuccessful to regain it at Over the Limit pay @-@ per @-@ view in May . At Fatal 4 @-@ Way on June 20 , Maryse failed to regain the title in a Fatal Four @-@ Way match that also involved then @-@ champion Eve , Gail Kim , and Alicia Fox , which Fox would win pinning her to become the champion .
= = = = Managing Ted DiBiase and NXT ( 2010 – 2011 ) = = = =
On the June 21 episode of Raw , after Ted DiBiase fired Virgil , Maryse became DiBiase 's new personal assistant . At Money in the Bank , on 18 July , Maryse accompanied DiBiase in his Money in the Bank ladder match for the WWE Championship contract , which she tried to pick the briefcase , but was stopped by John Morrison . Along with DiBiase , Maryse was announced as a mentor for Brodus Clay for the fourth season of NXT on November 30 . On Raw , on December 13 , Maryse was involved in a battle royal to determine the winner of the Diva of the Year Slammy Award , but was eliminated by Natalya . Clay traded his mentors , Maryse and DiBiase , for Alberto Del Rio on the January 25 , 2011 episode of NXT . In late September 2010 , Maryse was involved in an storyline with Goldust , in which he stole the Million Dollar Championship from DiBiase , and lost a subsequent mixed tag team match against Goldust and Aksana on October 26 .
On March 8 , Maryse became the co @-@ host of NXT , alongside Matt Striker . As part of NXT Redemption , Maryse was involved in several romantic storylines , most notably with Yoshi Tatsu , Lucky Cannon , and Hornswoggle . In April , DiBiase made an ultimatum to Maryse for her to choose to continue on the NXT or continue with him . The following week , Maryse chose to continue appearing on NXT , disbanding their alliance in the process . In August , Maryse underwent surgery for an abdominal hernia and took time off WWE programming . After two months of inactivity , Maryse was released from her WWE contract on October 28 .
= = = Independent circuit ( 2012 ) = = =
On October 5 , 2012 , Maryse appeared at the Family Wrestling Entertainment ( FWE ) event Back 2 Brooklyn , performing live commentary . She began appearing regularly for FWE , where she commentated during women 's matches .
= = = Return to WWE ( 2016 – present ) = = =
On the April 4 , 2016 episode of Raw , Maryse returned during a WWE Intercontinental Championship match between the champion Zack Ryder and her husband , The Miz . During the match , Maryse slapped Ryder 's father , who was in the front row , in order to distract Ryder and allowed Miz to capture the championship for the fifth time , thus becoming his manager in the process . She formally re @-@ introduced herself three days later on the April 7 episode of SmackDown before she once again helped Miz to retain his championship over Ryder . She then began to cut various promos with Miz as his host during the " Miz TV " segments , while calling themselves the " It " Couple .
After a hiatus due to the shoot of a WWE film , Maryse returned to WWE television on the June 27 episode of Raw , where she helped Miz to retain his title from Kane after she faked an ankle injury . On July 19 , at the 2016 WWE Draft , Maryse and Miz were drafted to SmackDown .
= = Other media = =
In April 2007 , she appeared alongside fellow WWE Divas Ashley , Torrie Wilson , Brooke Adams , Layla , and Kelly Kelly in Timbaland 's music video " Throw It On Me " featuring The Hives .
Ouellet also appeared in the January 2009 issue of Muscle & Fitness , along with Eve Torres and Michelle McCool . She and John Morrison were interviewed on Eurosport in the same year . She also made a special appearance on Redemption Song , which was hosted by WWE wrestler Chris Jericho , along with Candice Michelle , Mickie James , and Eve Torres . She has also appeared in several newspaper interviews , including Tokyo Headline , and was on the cover of Sessions Magazine in October 2010 .
In 2012 , Maryse was featured on the cover of Le Journal de Montréal , and on MDA Show of Strength with The Miz and other celebrities . In 2015 , Ouellet had roles in Sharknado 3 : Oh Hell No ! and in Santa 's Little Helper , the latter starring Ouellet 's husband , The Miz . In the same year , she appeared on the E ! reality television series WAGS . In 2016 , it was announced that Maryse would appear as a main cast member on the upcoming sixth season of Total Divas , which prompted her return to WWE .
Maryse has appeared in three WWE video games . She made her in @-@ game debut at WWE Smackdown vs Raw 2010 and appears in WWE Smackdown vs Raw 2011 and WWE ' 12 .
= = Filmography = =
= = = Film = = =
= = = Television = = =
= = = Web = = =
= = Other endeavors = =
Following her release from WWE in 2011 , Ouellet announced her plans for a clothing and jewelry line named House of Maryse .
Beginning in late 2013 , Ouellet began working as a realtor in Los Angeles after spending a year earning her real estate license .
= = Personal life = =
Ouellet is trilingual ; she is a native speaker of French , fluent in English , and she is able to read Spanish , although she cannot speak it . Ouellet has a tattoo of her late father 's name , Guy , on her left wrist . She has a degree in business administration , and holds a black belt in martial arts . Her favorite actress is Scarlett Johansson , her favorite bands are Simple Plan , Nickleback and she loves techno music . Ouellet is an avid supporter of animal rights and gay rights , and posed for the NOH8 campaign in 2011 . Ouellet is catholic .
Ouellet was inspired to become a professional wrestler by Lita . She cites Lita and Victoria as her dreams opponents .
In July 2011 , Ouellet asked a judge for protection from 61 @-@ year @-@ old " crazed fan " Lee Silber , and filed a request for a permanent restraining order . She claimed that Silber had sent " numerous terrifying letters to [ her ] home and left more than 50 voicemail 's on [ her ] personal cell phone all of which are extremely disturbing and delusional . " In the filed documents and an interview for TMZ , Ouellet stated that she " feared for [ her ] life " . She also explained that she had beefed up her personal security , and noted that Silber was a " crazy stalker ... who needs to either be in a psychiatric hospital or jail ! " . On 3 August , the court granted her the restraining order .
In 2013 , Ouellet got engaged to longtime boyfriend and fellow wrestler Mike Mizanin , best known by his ring name The Miz , and were married in the Bahamas on February 20 , 2014 . The couple reside in Los Angeles , California .
= = In wrestling = =
Finishing moves
French Kiss ( Snap or flowing DDT , with theatrics )
French TKO ( Reverse roundhouse kick , to the back of the opponent 's head )
Running knee strike , to the head of a kneeling opponent – 2008
Signature moves
French Pain ( Camel clutch )
Forward Russian legsweep
Hair @-@ pull mat slam
Hair @-@ pull facebuster
Leg choke
Modified sleeper hold
Single leg Boston crab
Spinning backbreaker
Short @-@ arm clothesline
Wrestlers managed
Sylvain Grenier
Ryan O 'Reilly
Deuce ' n Domino
Ted DiBiase
The Miz
Nicknames
" The French @-@ Canadian Beauty "
" The Sexiest of Sexy "
" The Sultry Diva "
" The French Phenom "
" The Ultra @-@ Dangerous Superstar "
Entrance themes
" Pourquoi ? " by Jim Johnston ( 2008 – 2011 ; April 7 , 2016 – present )
" I Came to Play " by Downstait ( w / Hollywood Intro , April 7 , 2016 – present ; used while managing The Miz )
= = Championships and accomplishments = =
Pro Wrestling Illustrated
PWI ranked her # 9 of the best 50 female singles wrestlers in the PWI Female 50 in 2009 .
World Wrestling Entertainment
WWE Divas Championship ( 2 times )
Divas Championship Tournament ( 2010 )
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= Age of Empires II =
Age of Empires II : The Age of Kings is a real @-@ time strategy ( RTS ) video game developed by Ensemble Studios and published by Microsoft . Released in 1999 for the Microsoft Windows and Macintosh operating systems , it was the second game in the Age of Empires series . An expansion , The Conquerors , was released in 2000 . A PlayStation 2 version was released by Konami in 2001 , and a Nintendo DS spinoff , Age of Empires : The Age of Kings was developed by Backbone Entertainment in 2006 . A Dreamcast port , by Konami , was canceled .
The Age of Kings is set in the Middle Ages and contains thirteen playable civilizations . Players aim to gather resources , which they use to build towns , create armies , and defeat their enemies . There are five historically based campaigns , which constrict the player to specialized and story @-@ backed conditions . There are three additional single @-@ player game modes , and multiplayer is supported . Despite using the same game engine and similar code to its predecessor , development of The Age of Kings took a year longer than expected , forcing Ensemble Studios to release Age of Empires : The Rise of Rome in 1998 instead . The design team focused on resolving significant issues in Age of Empires , but noted on release that some problems remained .
Reception of The Age of Kings was highly positive . The significant number of new features was praised , as were the gameplay improvements . Some reviewers , however , were critical of the presentation of units — they were seen as bland and uninteresting — while others considered The Age of Kings to be too similar to its predecessor , Age of Empires . Three months after its release , two million copies of The Age of Kings had been shipped , and it topped sales charts in seven countries . The game won multiple awards and is today considered a classic of its type , having had a significant impact on future games in its genre . Both the original Age of Empires II and the expansion pack were later released as " the Gold Edition " .
In April 2013 , Age of Empires II : HD Edition was released on the Steam digital distribution platform for Windows operating systems . The HD Edition includes both the original game and the expansion The Conquerors , as well as updated graphics for high @-@ resolution displays . It also supports user @-@ generated content through the Steam Workshop and multiplayer games provided through the Steam servers . On August 16 , 2013 , Microsoft announced The Forgotten , the first new expansion in nearly 13 years and exclusive to the HD Edition . On November 5 , 2015 , Microsoft released another new expansion to Age of Empires II : HD Edition , The African Kingdoms .
= = Gameplay = =
The Age of Kings focuses on building towns , gathering resources , creating armies and ultimately conquering opponents by destroying their units and buildings . Players conquer rival towns and empires as they advance one of 13 civilizations through four " Ages " : the Dark Age , the Feudal Age , the Castle Age ( being the High Middle Ages ) , and the Imperial Age , reminiscent of the Renaissance — a 1000 @-@ year timeframe . Advancing to a new Age unlocks new units , structures , and technologies , but players must first build certain buildings from their current age and then pay a sum of resources ( typically food and gold ) .
Civilian units , called " villagers " , are used to gather resources ; they are either male or female – gender does not affect their abilities . Resources can be used to train units , construct buildings , and research technologies , among other things ; for example , players can research better armour for infantry units . The game offers four types of resources : food , wood , gold , and stone . Food is obtained by hunting animals , gathering berries , harvesting livestock , farming , and shore fishing and fishing from boats . Wood is gathered by chopping down trees . Gold is obtained from either gold mines , trade or collecting relics in a monastery , and stone is collected from stone mines . Villagers require checkpoints , typically depository buildings ( town center , mining camp , mill , and lumber yard ) , where they can store gathered resources . Each civilization can purchase upgrades that increase the rate of gathering these resources . Players can construct a market for trade ; players can trade wood , stone , and food for gold , and use gold to buy other resources . Market prices fluctuate with every transaction . Furthermore , markets and docks can also generate gold by using trading carts or cogs which are used to visit foreign markets and ports ; once they return to the player 's market / dock , gold is added to the stockpile . The amount of gold a trade unit earns on each trip is related to the distance it had to travel to a foreign market ; more gold is earned on longer trips . It is possible to trade with enemies ' markets or docks , but the player 's trading units may be attacked or destroyed by enemy units in the process . Players do not need to keep trading manually , as once they select the port or market the trading units infinitely continue to trade .
There are five campaigns in The Age of Kings , containing historically based scenarios such as Genghis Khan 's invasion of Eurasia , Barbarossa 's Crusade , or Saladin 's defence of the Holy Land . In the Joan of Arc and William Wallace campaigns , the player can control a unit based on its namesake ; in others , players take orders from guiding spirits representative of the army 's commander .
Additional game modes are available to the player in The Age of Kings . One mode , random map , generates a map from one of several randomly chose map generating scripts , with players starting in the Dark Age with a Town Center , three villagers ( or more depending on civilization ) , and a scout unit . The game can be won through military conquest , by constructing a special building known as a Wonder and keeping it standing for a certain amount of time , or by obtaining control of all relics on the map for a set amount of time . Deathmatch mode allows players to begin with large amounts of resources , creating a focus on military dominance , while in the regicide mode each player is given a king unit , winning by killing all of the other monarchs .
= = = Units and civilizations = = =
Every player has a limit to the number of units they can create — a population limit — but may not immediately use the entire potential population . The population capacity , which can be capped at anywhere between 75 – 200 in intervals of 25 , is based on the number of houses , Castles , or Town Centers — the main building in a player 's town — which have been built . The Age of Kings introduced two significant new features for unit management : the idle villager button , which helps players identify villagers that have not been assigned a task , and the town bell , which sends all a player 's villagers into their Town Center , Castle , or tower for safety ; units garrisoned within these three buildings , especially archers , increase the building 's firepower ( towers fire more arrows with units garrisoned inside ) including the town center , which can not fire anything at all without someone garrisoned there .
The Age of Kings also includes five types of military units : infantry , archers , cavalry , siege weaponry , and naval units . Certain types of infantry , archers , and cavalry are " counter units " with special defenses against other types of unit . The three human classes of military generally follow a rock @-@ paper @-@ scissors model . For example , infantry are generally powerful against buildings but weak against cavalry , thus the infantry counter units — spearmen and pikemen — have attack bonuses against cavalry . Each Civilization in The Age of Kings has one or two special units that are exclusive to that Civilization . For instance , the Britons have access to Longbowmen , an archery unit with increased range . These Civilization @-@ specific units are generally more powerful , but still follow the basic rock @-@ paper @-@ scissors model . The monk is a special kind of military unit that has the ability to convert enemy units to the player 's civilization , and to heal allied units . Monks are also used to collect relics ; relics accumulate gold once held in the player 's monastery — the more relics are captured , the faster the gold is accumulated . Collecting all relics on the map is one method by which a player can win a random map game , depending on the victory setting . Once a player has all in their monasteries , a timer is shown to all players . If an opposing player does not destroy a monastery holding a relic after the set time , then that player wins .
Players choose to play as one of 13 civilizations split into four architectural styles — Western European , Eastern European , Middle Eastern , and East Asian — that determine building appearance in @-@ game . The civilizations have varying strengths and weaknesses with regards to economics , technology , and battle , and each has access to a different , very powerful " Unique Unit " . Additionally , each civilization provides an individual team bonus in team games . To add variety , each civilization has a set of sound bites in its native language that are uttered by units when selected or instructed to perform a task .
= = = Buildings = = =
The buildings in The Age of Kings are split into the economic and military buildings categories . Buildings can research technologies and upgrades that increase economic , military or unit @-@ based efficiency , as well as provide resources for the player .
The most important economic building is the Town Center , where villagers are created , all types of resources can be stored , some technologies are researched , and the player can advance to the next Age . The Town Center can fire arrows at enemy units within range if villagers or archers are garrisoned while under attack . Other economic buildings available include storage buildings for resources , farms , docks ( the dock may also produce several military ships ) , and houses to support a higher population .
Military buildings include unit @-@ producing buildings such as barracks , archery ranges , stables , and castles , as well as defensive buildings such as walls and towers . Military buildings can perform research to improve the abilities of military units , increasing their strength , defensive capabilities , or other attributes . The castle is a military building which can build trebuchets , train the civilization 's " unique unit / s " , and fire arrows at enemy units within range , with garrisoned units firing extra arrows . It can only be built after a player has reached the Castle Age , although in some game options , players can begin with an already @-@ built castle as early as the Dark Age .
= = = Multiplayer = = =
The Age of Kings supports multiplayer over the Internet , or via a local area network ( LAN ) . Up to eight players can take part in one game , with all of the single player game modes available . The MSN Gaming Zone supported the game until the service closed on June 19 , 2006 .
= = Development = =
Prior to the completion of Age of Empires , Ensemble Studios had signed a contract with Microsoft for a sequel . The design team chose to set The Age of Kings in the Middle Ages as a logical progression from the ancient era setting of Age of Empires . The design team was conscious of attempting to capture the broad appeal of the first game without making the game 's design too similar . Nonetheless , they attempted to appeal to the vast demographic who played Age of Empires . The Age of Kings 's design team intended to complete the game within a year by using code from the original and reusing the Genie game engine . Several months into the process they found they would not be able to complete a game of the quality they sought in that time . Ensemble Studios informed Microsoft they would need another year and instead created Age of Empires : The Rise of Rome , an easily developed expansion pack of Age of Empires , as a compromise which could be released for Christmas 1998 . To help meet the next year 's deadline , additional programmers , artists , and designers were employed . To overcome another significant objection to Age of Empires — that of path finding — the team completely redesigned the game engine 's movement system .
The original Age of Empires had been criticized for its artificial intelligence ( AI ) . Because the original AI did not " cheat " by attributing itself extra resources or using other techniques the human player could not , it was easier to defeat than in many other real @-@ time strategy games . For The Age of Kings , Ensemble Studios attempted to develop a more powerful AI system that did not compromise by cheating . Industry veteran Mario Grimani led Ensemble Studios in the creation of the new system . The Age of Kings saw the introduction of a triggers system for its scenario editor . The triggers allow messages to be displayed , or actions to take place , based on pre @-@ set criteria or " events " . The scenario editor was also improved by the new AI system . The AI and trigger systems interacted regularly in the single player campaigns .
The team was less successful in resolving other issues ; programmer Matt Pritchard complained following the release of Age of Empires that there was still no process by which patches could be issued . Extensive cheating in multiplayer games of Age of Empires came as a result of several bugs in the game , which resulted in Microsoft promising Ensemble Studios there would be a patch process for The Age of Kings . On release , there were several bugs that needed immediate attention , but the patch process was not yet ready . The first patch was released 11 months later .
Ensemble Studios developed a new terrain system for The Age of Kings , with 3D presentation capabilities that were vastly superior to those of Age of Empires . Pritchard noted an improvement in the team 's artistic abilities following their work on the past two games , and he is noted as saying that " AoK became a showcase for their improved talent " . However , he complained about the lack of an art asset management tool , while other departments gained new tools and automated procedures to assist in design and play testing .
The soundtrack for The Age of Kings was directed by Stephen Rippy , who has since taken that role for all games in the Age of Empires series . Music for the game was split into two categories . For " in game " music , Rippy 's team took musical elements from a variety of cultures and combined them to create a mixed sound . " Pre @-@ game " music was designed to be unique to the civilization in question . Campaigns based on historical figures would include " a theme that will at least be rooted in [ the character 's ] culture " .
A demo of The Age of Kings was released on October 16 , 1999 . It featured the learning campaign , a sample of a random map game , and the ability to play via the MSN Gaming Zone . Much to Ensemble Studios ' disappointment , numerous incomplete versions of the game were leaked . These were picked up by warez sites , and sold illegally throughout the Pacific Rim ; warez versions of the game were even sold outside Microsoft 's offices in South Korea .
= = = High @-@ definition remake = = =
In 2012 , Hidden Path Entertainment began working on a high @-@ definition remake of Age of Empires II , an effort spearheaded by Matt Pritchard , an original Ensemble lead programmer . On March 7 , 2013 , its release was announced , branded as Age of Empires II : HD Edition . It has improved graphics , widescreen support and new multiplayer options through Steam . It was released on April 9 , 2013 , and there was a pre @-@ order available on April 5 .
= = Reception = =
The Age of Kings received " universal acclaim " , according to video game review aggregator Metacritic .
According to Eurogamer 's Geoff Richards , " the list of new features and improvements over the original game is over a page long " . GamePro 's review similarly focused on " new additions to the genre itself " which it argued made The Age of Kings outstanding . These included the idle unit button and town bell . GameSpy 's Carlos Salgado was appreciative of other features ; he praised the ability to create individual profiles for different players and to customize hotkeys . Meanwhile , IGN appreciated the new abilities given to the villager unit — the review stated villagers " now play an important role not only in the collection of resources , but also in town defense and even in combat . "
AllGame 's Michael L. House enjoyed the use of sound bites in civilizations ' native languages , which he said was " very influential in developing an era @-@ enhancing atmosphere " . Eurogamer said this feature " gives [ villagers ] a personality , rather than the standard ' Acknowledged ' grunt of military RTS games " , also stating that the use of female villagers provided a good variety . Game Revolution 's review explained that by being set in a more recent epoch of human history , The Age of Kings was able to " add character to an otherwise impersonal style of gameplay " . Computer and Video Games approved of The Age of Kings ' use of shorter , more focused campaigns , compared to its predecessor , while Game Revolution noted that even in slower sections of the campaign , the historical narrative helped maintain player interest . GameSpot said that with the screen full of units , " you can begin to imagine how their historical equivalents once prospered " , while GameSpy said The Age of Kings presents " realism rarely seen in the RTS genre " . IGN staff argued that while the strengths and weaknesses attributed to different civilizations made the game more realistic , the fact that they were still mostly the same prevented The Age of Kings from " delivering the same battlefield impact of StarCraft or Tiberian Sun " .
House also praised the gameplay interface , which he said " couldn 't be simpler " , as well as the advanced grouping and path @-@ finding systems . Nash Werner of GamePro said that the formation tools were wonderful , and complained only that they could not be assigned to naval units . Computer and Video Games generally agreed , stating that " the controls are very user @-@ friendly and well explained " . GameSpot 's Greg Kasavin wrote that despite the game 's improved graphics , " there 's nothing foreign about its appearance " and that most game features will be " immediately recognizable if you 've played a real @-@ time strategy game before " . PC Zone agreed , but in a negative sense — it argued that The Age of Kings " is essentially an update of a two @-@ year @-@ old game " .
Richards was surprised by the quality of The Age of Kings ' graphics , considering they were all bitmapped . However , AllGame complained that units were sometimes difficult to tell apart , a point numerous reviewers agreed on . It also called the sound of The Age of Kings as a negative , but not something significant enough to draw players away from the game 's overall quality . IGN stated that cutscenes were somewhat bland , but that overall the graphics added " an amazing amount of detail to the actual game " . IGN 's main criticism was for the in @-@ game speech used in campaigns ; it rhetorically asked " why can 't they just find a Frenchman to do a French accent ? " Alex Constantides of Computer and Video Games rated the graphics highly , saying that some in @-@ game buildings are " so grand you 'll even feel guilty about burning them to the ground " . Werner agreed ; " the most noticeable graphical advancements " , he wrote , were " the sheer size and scale of things " . Game Revolution stated " AOE2 is the best looking of the 2D RTS games out there right now " .
In January 2000 , three months after its release , Microsoft announced that they had shipped two million copies of The Age of Kings . The game topped sales charts in the United States , Japan , the United Kingdom , Germany , France , Australia , and South Korea . It would spend the next two and a half years on top 20 sales lists . The Age of Kings was top selling game in October 1999 , and the fourth highest selling game in 1999 .
The Age of Kings won GameSpot 's Strategy Game of the Year in 1999 , and was a nominee for Game of the Year . GamePower also named it Strategy Game of the Year , while PC Gamer and Computer Gaming World gave it Editor 's Choice awards . The Age of Kings won Strategy Game of the Year and Computer Game of the Year at the 2000 Academy of Interactive Arts & Sciences awards . It was also nominated for Game of the Year , Outstanding Achievement in Animation , Outstanding Achievement in Game Design , and Outstanding Achievement in Game Play Engineering . IGN ranked The Age of Kings the 53rd best game of all time in 2005 , and the 10th best PC game of all time in 2007 . GameFAQs users placed it 56th in a poll of the best games ever .
The Age of Kings was highly influential on its genre . Star Wars : Galactic Battlegrounds , a 2001 game by LucasArts , shared The Age of Kings ' game engine , and was heavily influenced by its mechanics . Empire Earth 's design was also similar to that of The Age of Kings ; GameSpot said it " borrows most of that game 's controls , interface features , and even some of its keyboard shortcuts " . Rick Goodman , designer of Age of Empires and The Rise of Rome , designed Empire Earth . GameSpot 's Scott Osborne argued that the gameplay of Cossacks : European Wars was heavily based on The Age of Kings .
= = = HD Edition = = =
Age of Empires II : HD Edition received mixed reviews with aggregate review website Metacritic assigning a score of 68 out of 100 based on reviews from 20 critics . Critics agreed that the HD Edition changed very little from the original game . Daniel Starkey of Destructoid added that the reluctance to change the game features encourages " a much more aggressive , and obsessive style of play " . He highlights the fact that many of the problems of trying to run the original game on a modern computer are gone , and calls its compatibility with Steam 's Workshop " an amazing bonus " .
Paul Dean of Eurogamer was less forgiving ; although he agreed that the Workshop compatibility was a good addition and praised the players in the online community as " remarkably calm and friendly " , he thought that the game should have been updated more , citing its " boring campaign " and poorly @-@ aged gameplay mechanics : " It just doesn 't play very well , and its flaws are more blatant than ever before " . Underscoring his criticisms of the lack of significant changes to the game , he described it as " a mouldy time @-@ capsule that will likely mar your memories of the original " .
= = Sequels = =
An expansion for The Age of Kings , The Conquerors , was released in 2000 . It introduced numerous new game features , including five new civilizations . Two of these , the Aztecs and the Mayans , represent the New World and have new distinctive architectural style . Other new civilizations are the Spanish , Huns , and Koreans . As well as three campaigns similar in concept to those in The Age of Kings , The Conquerors included a " Battles of the Conquerors " campaign which contained several unrelated battles such as those of Agincourt and Hastings . Age of Mythology , released in 2002 , broke away from the historical trend and instead focused on Greek , Egyptian , and Norse mythology . It shared many gameplay elements with The Age of Kings and was considered a spin @-@ off of the main Age of Empires series .
The third historical game in the Age of Empires series , Age of Empires III , was released in 2005 . The game portrayed the European colonization of the Americas . Aside from one significant feature , the home city , the game 's design was similar to that of its predecessor .
In 2012 , a free @-@ to @-@ play title was released in the series , called Age of Empires Online . While the game was freely accessible , it featured premium content which could either be earned through gameplay or purchased , enabling the player to use higher @-@ tier equipment and new game modes . Active development of the game ended on January 1 , 2014 , when executive producer Kevin Perry stated that adding new content was " no longer cost effective , " and announced that the game would be moving from " development phase " to its " support phase " . The game servers were subsequently shut down on July 1 , 2014 .
= = = Age of Empires II HD : The Forgotten = = =
In August 2013 an expansion pack was announced for Age of Empires II HD , entitled The Forgotten . It is based on the fan @-@ made expansion , The Forgotten Empires . The expansion includes five new civilizations , seven new campaigns , two new game modes , twenty @-@ seven new technologies , ludakris map size , Twitch streaming and spectator mode . It was developed by Forgotten Empires and SkyBox Labs and released on November 7 , 2013 .
= = = Age of Empires II HD : The African Kingdoms = = =
A second expansion pack for Age of Empires II HD was announced on April 9 , 2015 , and released later the same year . The focus of the expansion is on African civilizations , thus named The African Kingdoms . On June 23 , 2015 , new details and a tease were released for the The African Kingdoms expansion . The expansion includes four new civilizations , four new fully voice acted campaigns , one new game mode , new generic units and technologies , twenty @-@ three new maps , improved AI , and new scenario editor objects . It was again developed by Forgotten Empires and SkyBox Labs and released on November 5 , 2015 .
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= Dwarka =
Dwarka ( ) is a small city and a municipality of Devbhoomi Dwarka district in the state of Gujarat in northwestern India . It is located on the western shore of the Okhamandal Peninsula on the right bank of the Gomti River . In 2011 it had a population of 38 @,@ 873 . Dwarka is one of the foremost Chardhams , four sacred Hindu pilgrimage sites , and is one of the Sapta Puri , the seven most ancient religious cities in the country . Dwarka is often identified with the Dwarka Kingdom , the ancient kingdom of Krishna , and is believed to have been the first capital of Gujarat .
The city 's Dwarkadhish Temple dedicated to Krishna was originally built around 2 @,@ 500 years ago , but was destroyed by Mahmud Begada rulers and subsequently rebuilt in the 16th century . The temple is also the location of Dwaraka maţha , also called Sharada Matha / Peeth and " western peeth " , one of the four peeths ( Sanskrit : " religious center " ) established by Adi Shankaracharya . As an important pilgrimage center for Hindus , Dwarka has several notable temples , including Rukmini Devi Temple , Gomti Ghat , and Bet Dwarka . There is also a lighthouse at the land end point of Dwarka .
Dwarka 's economy relies heavily on pilgrims and tourism but is supplemented by the production of millets , ghee ( clarified butter ) , oilseeds , and salt , which are transported from its port . A long @-@ term development plan was proposed in 2011 by the Government of Gujarat , with investment of ₹ 830 million to refurbish the city of Dwarka and build a bridge connecting the city with Okha and Bet Dwarka . Janmashtami is the main festival that is celebrated during August and September . Sharda Peeth Vidya Sabha is an educational society sponsored by the Sharda Peeth , Dwarka which runs an arts college in Dwarka . Dwarka was selected as a heritage city by the Indian government 's Heritage City Development and Augmentation Yojana ( HRIDAY ) initiative .
= = History = =
= = = Puranic traditions = = =
Dwarka is believed to have been the first capital of Gujarat . The city 's name literally means the " gateway to heaven " in Sanskrit , as Dwar means " gate " and ka references " Brahma " . Dwarka has also been referred to throughout its history as " Mokshapuri " , " Dwarkamati " , and " Dwarkavati " . It is mentioned in the ancient prehistoric epic period of the Mahabharata . According to legend , Krishna settled here after he defeated and killed his uncle Kansa at Mathura . This mythological account of Krishna 's migration to Dwarka from Mathura is closely associated with the culture of Gujarat . Krishna is also said to have reclaimed 12 yojanas or 96 square kilometres ( 37 sq mi ) of land from the sea to create Dwarka .
It has been argued that Dwarka was established as the capital in Saurashtra by the Aryans during the Puranaic . The Yadavas , who had migrated from Mathura , established their kingdom here when the city was known as " Kaushathali " . It was during this period that the city underwent rebuilding and was named Dwarka . A friendly population of Ahirs also prompted Krishna to settle at Dwarka when he decided , after fighting Jarasandha , the king of Magadh , to retreat from Mathura . The kingdom , also known as the Ahir or Yadav empire , was established by Krishna , and flourished and extended its domain . It is said that Krishna conducted the administration of his kingdom from Dwarka while residing with his family in Bet Dwarka .
= = = Archaeological evidence = = =
Archaeological investigations at Dwarka , both on shore and offshore in the Arabian Sea , have been performed by the Archaeological Survey of India . The first investigations carried out on land in 1963 revealed many artifacts . Excavations done at two sites on the seaward side of Dwarka brought to light submerged settlements , a large stone @-@ built jetty , and triangular stone anchors with three holes . The settlements are in the form of exterior and interior walls , and fort bastions . From the typological classification of the anchors it is inferred that Dwarka had flourished as a port during the period of the Middle kingdoms of India . Coastal erosion was probably the cause of the destruction of what was an ancient port .
Dwarka is mentioned in the copper inscription dated 574 AD of Simhaditya , the Maitraka dynasty minister of Vallabhi . He was the son of Varahdas , the king of Dwarka . The nearby Bet Dwarka island is a religious pilgrimage site and an important archaeological site of the Late Harappan period , with one thermoluminescence date of 1570 BC .
= = = Early history = = =
In 200 AD , King Vasudev II of Dwarka was defeated by Mahakshatriya Rudradama . Upon the death of Rudradama , his wife , Queen Dheeradevi , invited his brother Pulumavi , seeking guidance to rule . Rudradama had embraced the Vaishnava religion and worshipped Krishna at Dwarka . Vajranabha , his successor , built a chhattri ( an umbrella type monument ) and deified an idol of Krishna in it .
An epigraphic reference ascribed to Garulaka Simhaditya , the son of Varahdas , the king of Dwarka , is inscribed on a copper plate dated to 574 AD , found in Palitana . The Greek writer of the Periplus of the Erythraean Sea referred to a place called Baraca , which has been interpreted as present @-@ day Dwarka . A reference made in Ptolemy 's Geography identified Barake as an island in the Gulf of Kanthils , which has also been inferred to mean Dwarka .
One of the four dhams ( religious seats ) , which were founded by Adi Shankaracharya ( 686 – 717 AD ) at the four corners of the country , was established as a monastic center at a time when mainstream Hinduism had still not been accepted ; it forms part of the Dwarka temple complex . In 885 AD , the temple was renovated by Shree Nrushinhaashrma , head of the " Shreemad Jagatguru Shankaracharya pith . "
= = = Middle Ages to present = = =
In 1241 , Mohammad Shah invaded Dwarka and damaged the temple . During this battle , five Brahmins ( Virajee Thakar , Nathu Thakar , Karasan Thakar , Valjee Thakar , and Devasee Thakar ) fought against him , died , and were honoured as martyrs . A shrine was built near the temple in their honor and is known as " Panch Peer " , which is a name of Muslim origin .
In 1473 the Gujarat Sultan Mahmud Begada sacked the city and destroyed the temple of Dwarka . The Jagat Mandir or the Dwarakadhisa temple was later rebuilt . Vallabha Acharya retrieved an idol of Dwarkadhish , which was revered by Rukmini . He hid it in a stepwell , known as Savitri vav , during the Muslim invasion , before moving it to Ladva village . In 1551 , when Turk Aziz invaded Dwarka , the idol was shifted to the island of Bet Dwarka .
Dwarka , along with the Okhamandal region , was under the rule of Gaekwad of Baroda state during the Indian rebellion of 1857 . A war broke out at Okhamandal in 1858 between the local Vaghers and the British . The Vaghers had won the battle and ruled until September 1859 . Later , after a joint offensive of the British , the Gaekwads , and other princely state troops , the Vaghers were ousted in 1859 . During these operations , led by Colonel Donovan , the temples at Dwarka and Bet Dwarka suffered damage and were looted . A complaint of atrocities by the British was made by the local people of Jamnagar , Porbander , and Kutch , which led to their restoration . In 1861 , Dwarakadheesh Temple was renovated by Maharaja Khanderao and the British , who refurbished the shikara . Maharaja Gaikwad of Baroda added a golden pinnacle to the shikara in 1958 during a refurbishment by Shankaracharya of Dwarka . Since 1960 , the temple has been maintained by the Government of India .
Dwarka is one of 12 heritage cities across the country selected under the Heritage City Development and Augmentation Yojana ( HRIDAY ) scheme of the Government of India to develop civic infrastructure . The Sudama Setu , a bridge over the Gomti River connecting mainland Dwarka ( Dwarkadheesh 's Jagat Mandir ) with Panchkui ( five wells ) thirth ( Sanskrit : " pilgrimage site " ) , was scheduled to be commissioned during the Krishna Janmashtami holiday in 2015 . It is a cable @-@ stayed bridge which is 166 metres ( 545 ft ) in length with a width of 2 @.@ 4 metres ( 7 ft 10 in ) .
= = Geography and climate = =
= = = Geography = = =
Dwarka , at the mouth of the Gulf of Kutch , on the western shore of the Okhamandal Peninsula , is on the right bank of the Gomti River which rises from the Bhavda village at a place known as Mul @-@ Gomti , 10 kilometres ( 6 @.@ 2 mi ) to the east . It is now under the newly formed district of Devbhoomi Dwarka at the western end of the Saurashtra ( Kathiawar ) peninsula , facing the Arabian Sea . The Gomti River was a harbour until the 19th century .
Dwarka is well connected to the rest of India by air , rail , and road transport . It is 131 kilometres ( 81 mi ) by State Highway 947 from Jamnagar , where there is a domestic airport . The Dwarka railway station is on the broad gauge railway line that runs from Ahmedabad to Okha at a distance of about 137 kilometres ( 85 mi ) from Jamnagar . Dwarka is 217 kilometres ( 135 mi ) away from Rajkot and 378 kilometres ( 235 mi ) from Ahmedabad .
= = = Climate = = =
According to the Köppen @-@ Geiger classification , Dwarka has a subtropical desert / low @-@ latitude arid hot climate . The Holdridge life zones system of bio @-@ climatic classification identifies Dwarka in or near the subtropical thorn woodland biome . On the basis of 40 years of climatic data : The average annual rainfall is 310 millimetres ( 12 in ) spread over a rainy period of 29 days with rainfall limited to the months of June to September ; the average maximum temperature is 31 ° C ( 88 ° F ) with a maximum of 42 ° C ( 108 ° F ) and an average minimum temperature of 15 ° C ( 59 ° F ) with a minimum of 5 ° C ( 41 ° F ) ; the average annual relative humidity is 72 % , with a maximum of 80 % .
= = Demographics = =
As of the 2001 Census of India , Dwarka had a population of 33 @,@ 614 ( as per Census 2011 , the population reported is 38 @,@ 873 ) . Males constitute 53 % of the population , and females constitute 47 % . Dwarka has an average literacy rate of 64 % , higher than the national average of 59 @.@ 5 % ; the male literacy rate is 72 % , and the female literacy rate is 55 % . 13 % of the population is under six years of age .
= = Economy = =
Most of the revenue of Dwarka is derived from tourism , due to it being a site for pilgrims . It is a producer of agricultural produce such as millets , ghee ( clarified butter ) , oilseeds , and salt , which are transported from its port . A long term development plan was proposed in 2011 with investment of ₹ 830 million to refurbish the city of Dwarka and to build a bridge connecting the city with Okha and Bet Dwarka .
A wind farm power generation of 39 @.@ 2 MW , operated near Dwarka by the AES Saurashtra Windfarms Pvt Ltd ( ASW ) , is now run by Tata Power Renewable Energy Ltd ( TPREL ) . Dwarka 's industrial activity mainly centres around cement production .
= = Landmarks = =
= = = Temples = = =
Considered a holy city , Dwarka is a well known for its temples and as a pilgrimage centre for Hindus . The Dwarakadhisa Temple , also called Jagat Mandir , located in the heart of Dwarka , is a Vaishnava temple . It was built by Raja Jagat Singh Rathore , hence it is called Jagat Mandir . The temple , facing west , is at an elevation of 12 @.@ 19 metres ( 40 @.@ 0 ft ) above mean sea @-@ level . It is conjectured that this temple location is 2 @,@ 500 years old and is where Krishna built his city and a temple . However , the existing temple is dated to the 16th century ) . It is a five @-@ storied edifice built over 72 pillars ( a sandstone temple with 60 pillars is also mentioned ) . The temple spire rises to a height of 78 metres ( 256 ft ) , and a very large flag with symbols of the sun and moon is hoisted on it . The temple layout consists of a garbhagriha ( Nijamandira or Harigraha ) and an antarala ( an antechamber ) . The main deity deified in the sanctum is of Dwarkadeesh , which is known as the Trivikrama form of Vishnu and is depicted with four arms .
The Dwarakadhisa Temple is also the location of Dvaraka Pitha , also called Sharada Matha / Peeth and " western peeth " ) , one of the four peeths ( Sanskrit : " religious center " ) established by Adi Shankaracharya .
Gomti Ghat consists of steps leading to the Gomti River , which is also a holy place for pilgrims to take a dip in the river , before visiting Dwarakadish temple . The ghat has a number of small shrines dedicated to the Samudra ( God of the Sea ) , Saraswati and Lakshmi . Other notable temples in the ghat area include the Samudra Narayana ( Sangam Narayana ) temple , which is at the confluence of the Gomti River with the sea , the Chakra Narayana temple where there is a stone with an imprint of a chakra as a manifestation of Vishnu , and the Gomati temple , which has an idol of the river goddess Gomati that is said to have been brought to earth by the sage Vasishta .
The Rukmini Devi Temple , dedicated to Rukmini , Krishna 's chief queen , is located 2 kilometres ( 1 @.@ 2 mi ) away from Dwarka . The temple is said to be 2 @,@ 500 years old , but in its present form it is estimated to belong to the 12th century . It is a richly carved temple decorated with sculptures of gods and goddesses on the exterior with the sanctum housing the main image of Rukmini . Carved naratharas ( human figures ) and carved gajatharas ( elephants ) are depicted in panels at the base of the tower .
= = = Lighthouse and lake = = =
There is a lighthouse at the Dwarka Point on the Dwarka peninsula , which provides a panoramic view of the city . It is a fixed light situated 70 feet ( 21 m ) above the sea level , and the light is visible over a distance of 10 miles ( 16 km ) . The lighthouse tower is 40 feet ( 12 m ) in height and is 117 yards ( 107 m ) away from the high water level in the sea . The radio beacon provided on this lighthouse tower is powered by a solar photovoltaic module .
There is a lake or tank called Gopi Talab in the western part of the city .
A similar lake known for Gopi Chandan , meaning " sandal paste from Gopi " , is situated in Bet Dwarka ; this mud is found in the bed of the lake . This fragrant mud is applied as a sanctity symbol by devout Hindus on their forehead .
= = = Bet Dwarka = = =
Bet Dwarka , an island in the Arabian sea off the coast of Dwarka . Considered the original residence of Krishna , Bet Dwarka was the old port during the ancient times of Krishna before the Okha port was developed in Dwarka . The temple built here is credited to the religious Guru Vallabhacharya of the " Pushtimarg Sampradaya " . Rice is the traditional offering here to the deity as it is believed that Sudama offered rice to his childhood friend Krishna . There are also smaller shrines on Bet Dwarka which are dedicated to Shiva , Vishnu , Hanuman and Devi . According to a legend , Vishnu killed the demon Shankhasura on this island . There are temples of Vishnu in the incarnation of matsya , or fish . Other shrines here are of Rukmini , Trivikrama , Devaki , Radha , Lakshmi , Satyabhama , Jambavati , Lakshmi Narayan , and many other gods .
Hanuman Dandi temple is another notable temple located in Bet Dwarka , 6 kilometres ( 3 @.@ 7 mi ) away from Dhwarkadhish Temple , Bet Dwarka . The temple is deified with many images of Hanuman and his son Makardhwaja . The legend associated with the birth of a son to Hanuman , who is considered celibate , is that the sweat of Hanuman was consumed by a fish which then gave birth to a son named Makardhwaja . The Jethwa Rajput clan of Kshatriyas claim their descent from Makardhwaja .
Nageshvara _ Jyotirlinga Mandir is a temple dedicated to Shiva , and one of the twelve Jyotirlingas ( meaning radiant sign of The Almighty ) is deified here in a subterranean cell .
= = Culture and sports = =
= = = Culture = = =
Janmashtami is the main festival that is celebrated during August and September with great fervor and piety as it was in the prehistoric times the abode of Krishna . The festival is marked by several night long celebrations to mark the birth of Krishna . Bhajans and sermons are part of the festivities . At midnight there is reenactment of Krishna 's childhood in the form of Garba and Raas dances . On this occasion , the local boys create a pyramid and a young boy in the costume of Krishna climbs up this pyramid to strike a pot holding butter , an act which Krishna had mischievously performed with the gopis .
Sharda Peeth Vidya Sabha is an educational society sponsored by the Sharda Peeth , which runs an arts college in Dwarka . The city is also home to the N.D.H. High School and P.V.M Girls ' High School .
= = = Sports = = =
The underwater ancient city off the coast of Bet Dwarka has been proposed to be developed as a scuba diving site . This project is a joint initiative of Adventure Sports Ltd ( ASL ) and the Government of Gujarat , with investment of ₹ 13 crore . This is believed to be the first effort anywhere in the world to exploit a submerged city for tourism . Water and beach sports are also being promoted by the state government , and there are proposals to further promote aero and submarine sports .
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= Complete & Unbelievable : The Otis Redding Dictionary of Soul =
Complete & Unbelievable : The Otis Redding Dictionary of Soul , or simply Dictionary of Soul , is the fifth studio album by American soul singer @-@ songwriter Otis Redding and his last solo studio album released before his death . The successful Otis Blue and the following performance at Whisky a Go Go led to his rising fame across the United States . The album has two sides : the first mainly contains cover versions , and the second songs mainly written by Redding .
The Otis Redding Dictionary of Soul was released on October 15 , 1966 on the Stax label and peaked at number 73 and at number 5 on the Billboard 200 and the R & B LP charts respectively . The album produced two singles , " Fa @-@ Fa @-@ Fa @-@ Fa @-@ Fa ( Sad Song ) " and " Try a Little Tenderness " . In 2016 , the album was ranked number 254 on Rolling Stone magazine 's list of the 500 greatest albums of all time .
= = Background = =
The success of Redding 's third album , Otis Blue , saw a rearrangement of the Stax company . Producer and co @-@ founder of the American label Stax Records , Phil Walden , signed musicians including Percy Sledge , Johnnie Taylor , Clarence Carter and Eddie Floyd , and together with Redding they founded the production companies " Jotis Records " ( derived from Joe Galkin and Otis ) , on which only four recordings were released , two by Arthur Conley and one by Billy Young and Loretta Williams , and Redwal Music ( derived from Redding and Walden ) .
Redding decided to perform at the nightclub Whisky a Go Go on the Sunset Strip in front of a predominantly white audience , becoming one of the first soul artists to play in the western United States . His performance received critical acclaim by the press , and musician Bob Dylan offered an alternative track of his hit song " Just Like a Woman " to him , but he declined his proposal . After his performance there he went back to the Stax studios to continue recording new songs . This would be his final solo studio album .
= = Recording = =
Dictionary of Soul features the Booker T. & the M.G. ' s — organist Booker T. Jones , pianist / guitarist Steve Cropper , bassist Donald " Duck " Dunn , drummer Al Jackson , Jr . — pianist Isaac Hayes , and the Memphis Horns , consisting of tenor saxophonist Joe Arnold , trumpeter Wayne Jackson , tenor saxophonist Andrew Love and baritone saxophonist Floyd Newman .
The album opens with " Fa @-@ Fa @-@ Fa @-@ Fa @-@ Fa ( Sad Song ) " . Derived from the theme of The $ 64 @,@ 000 Question , the song was written by Redding and Cropper and its lyrics are about Redding 's habit to hum or sing the horn lines . David Porter served as the background singer , singing the " fa @-@ fa @-@ fa @-@ fa @-@ fa " part alongside Redding .
The second single on this album , " Try a Little Tenderness " , was written by English songwriter duo Jimmy Campbell , Reg Connelly and American Tin Pan Alley songwriter Harry M. Woods in the early 30s , but it was not until February 1933 when bandleader and clarinetist Ted Lewis ' version became a hit . The first version by a black artist was by Aretha Franklin , who recorded it in 1962 for her The Tender , the Moving , the Swinging Aretha Franklin . Two years later , Sam Cooke recorded it as a part of a medley alongside Tin Pan Alley standard " For Sentimental Reasons " and " You Send Me " on his At The Copa . According to Cropper , Redding listened to the latter two songs , but rearranged it with the help of pianist Hayes . Examples of what the latter arranged and introduced was the tree @-@ part , contrapuntal horn line in the first seconds , which was inspired by Cooke 's " A Change is Gonna Come " strings , and the cymbal break in the peak , which Hayes later featured on his " Theme from Shaft " . The song was recorded on September 13 and released on November 14 , 1966 , charting at number 25 on the Billboard Hot 100 and at number 4 on the Hot R & B chart . Side one features mainly cover versions , including country standard " Tennessee Waltz " and The Beatles ' " Day Tripper " , the latter of which was praised for turning " into a swaggering stomper " as opposed to the original . Parts of the song were later mixed in the Grammy Award @-@ winning " Otis " by hip @-@ hop artists Jay @-@ Z and Kanye West .
Side two is mainly composed of Redding songs , the exception being Chuck Willis ' " You 're Still My Baby " and " Love Have Mercy " , co @-@ written by David Porter and Hayes . The Otis Redding Dictionary of Soul was released on October 15 , 1966 on the Stax label and peaked at number 73 and at number 5 on the Billboard 200 and the R & B LP charts respectively .
= = Reception = =
The Otis Redding Dictionary of Soul received positive critical reception . Mark Deming of Allmusic gave the album 5 out of 5 stars , stating that it " found the rugged @-@ voiced deep soul singer continuing to expand the boundaries of his style while staying true to his rough and passionate signature sound . " He liked " My Lover 's Prayer " and " Fa @-@ Fa @-@ Fa @-@ Fa @-@ Fa ( Sad Song ) " , asserting that they were worthy of an Academy Award . The backing bands were for him " thoroughly distinctive and remarkably adaptable , fitting to the nooks and crannies of Redding 's voice with their supple but muscular performances . " Magazine Rolling Stone rated the album 4 out of 5 stars , stating that Redding " delivers one of his most mature performances , smoky and at times almost langorous " in " Try a Little Tenderness " , and the second single is " hard and precise but swinging . " In 2009 , Daryl Easlea of BBC music gave the album a positive review and stated that Redding was at the " peak of his powers " when he recorded it . One song from the album , " Try a Little Tenderness " , was said by Easlea to be Redding 's most remembered song after only " ( Sittin ' on ) The Dock of the Bay " , which was released posthumously shortly after his death . The album was ranked at number 251 on Rolling Stone 's 500 Greatest Albums of All Time . Critic Jon Landau called it " The finest record ever to come out of Memphis and certainly the best example of modern soul ever recorded . "
= = Track listing = =
Track listing adapted from Allmusic .
= = Personnel = =
Credits adapted from Allmusic .
Otis Redding – vocals
Steve Cropper – guitar
Donald Dunn – bass
Booker T. Jones - keyboards , piano
Isaac Hayes – keyboards , piano
Al Jackson , Jr . – drums
Wayne Jackson – trumpet
Gilbert Cable – tenor saxophone ( on " Try a Little Tenderness " )
Andrew Love – tenor saxophone
Joe Arnold – tenor saxophone
Floyd Newman – baritone saxophone
Ronnie Stoots – cover design
= = Charts = =
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= National Weather Service Lincoln , Illinois =
National Weather Service Lincoln , Illinois also known as National Weather Service Central Illinois is a weather forecast office responsible for monitoring weather conditions for 35 counties in Central and Southeastern Illinois . The Central Illinois office initially consisted of two forecast offices in Peoria and Springfield until the current location in Lincoln became the sole local forecast office in 1995 . Federal meteorology offices and stations in the region date back to the 19th century when the Army Signal Service began taking weather observations using weather equipment at the Springer Building in Springfield . Since that time the presence of the National Weather Service greatly increased with the instillation of new weather radars , stations and forecast offices . The current office in Lincoln maintains a WSR @-@ 88D ( NEXRAD ) radar system , and Advanced Weather Interactive Processing System ( AWIPS ) that greatly improve forecasting in the region . Lincoln is in charge of weather forecasts , warnings and local statements as well as aviation weather .
= = History = =
= = = Early History ( 1879 – 1930 ) = = =
On July 1 , 1879 the Army Signal Service began taking weather observations using weather equipment at the Springer Building in Springfield becoming the first federal weather station in the region . Eleven years later the U.S. Weather Bureau was founded and the equipment in Springfield was transferred from the Signal Service to the Weather Bureau . In 1898 Springfield became the site of a new weather station that used kites to measure data in the atmosphere using tethered instruments . In 1905 Peoria became the site of a new U.S. Weather Bureau , constructed at the cost of $ 7 @,@ 969 the station measured temperatures , wind speeds , precipitation , snowfall , and barometric pressure . A year later at the Peoria Station a telegraph was installed to help better transmit weather data and observations . In Springfield the Weather Bureau was officially moved from its original location to a new building at 7th and Monroe . In 1928 the Springfield Weather Bureau moved temporarily to the Abe Lincoln Hotel and the old office was subsequently destroyed for construction of a new federal courthouse . Finally in 1930 the Springfield office was moved to its new location at the Springfield federal building .
= = = Aviation Weather Stations ( 1931 – 1954 ) = = =
In 1931 the Peoria Weather Bureau began 24 @-@ hour operations , and in the following years the office began direct radio broadcasts , through local radio station WMBD . As the aviation industry grew a Weather Bureau Airport Station ( WBAS ) was opened at the Peoria Municipal Airport , initial observations included temperature , wind and rain readings . Only a couple of months later another WBAS station was opened at a small airport in Springfield . In 1943 weather bureau operations at the original Peoria office merged with the airport station and in 1944 the original station closed permanently . In 1947 the airport weather station in Springfield was moved to the new Lincoln Capital Airport . In 1954 the Springfield Weather Bureau was closed and the airport station picked up the responsibilities of the old office .
= = = Introduction of Radars ( 1955 – 1992 ) = = =
In 1955 parts of Central and Western Illinois became covered by the new weather radar WSR @-@ 1 at Lambert Field in Saint Louis . Radar coverage continued to improve after a new WSR @-@ 57 radar was installed in Saint Louis . In 1965 the weather bureau becomes part of the Environmental Science Services Administration ( ESSA ) and only a few years later it became the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration ( NOAA ) and the Weather Bureau became the National Weather Service ( NWS ) . The Peoria and Springfield offices become known as " Weather Service Offices " under the new agency . In 1974 another radar ( WSR @-@ 74S ) was installed in Marseilles greatly improving the radar coverage in Central Illinois . A new radar , WSR @-@ 74C , was installed in Moline and helped the Peoria NWS issue severe weather warnings for the region . In 1980 the Springfield office received a WSR @-@ 74C radar system to use for local warning operations . In 1992 Automated Surface Observing Systems ( ASOS ) were installed at both the Peoria and Springfield airports .
= = = National Weather Service Lincoln ( 1993 – ) = = =
In 1993 construction began on a new NWS Weather Forecast Office at the Logan County Airport in Lincoln . The new office would be part of a modernization plan that relocate all operation to Lincoln and close the Peoria and Springfield offices . In 1994 the new Lincoln office was officially accepted by the federal government but did not have any operational responsibilities to begin with . The following year the upper air equipment from the National Weather Service Paducah was moved to the new Lincoln location , the only function the new office had at the time was to take observations using this equipment . In the spring of 1995 construction began on a new WSR @-@ 88D radar system in Lincoln . The first five meteorologists reported to the Lincoln location , but forecasting responsibilities remained at the Peoria and Springfield offices . By September 1995 the Lincoln office began full @-@ time operations sand picks up the counties from the Peoria and Springfield offices as well as a few from the Saint Louis and Evansville offices . On October 1 , 1995 the National Weather Service offices in Peoria and Springfield were officially closed after serving Central Illinois since the early 20th century .
In 1996 the WSR @-@ 88D radar was completed and joins a network of other " NEXRAD " radars throughout the country , while the WSR @-@ 74C in Springfield was officially decommissioned . In 1998 an Advanced Weather Interactive Processing System ( AWIPS ) is installed at the office and helps forecasters make more accurate weather forecasts in the region . By the early 21st century the weather radio network in the region was greatly expanding and Lincoln could transmit warnings and general forecasts via such stations .
= = Operations = =
Lincoln is equipped with a WSR @-@ 88D ( NEXRAD ) radar , one of 159 high @-@ resolution Doppler weather radars operated by the National Weather Service . The Lincoln office is also equipped with an Advanced Weather Interactive Processing System ( AWIPS ) that greatly increases monitoring capabilities of weather , satellite , and computer model data by forecasters . In addition the Lincoln office is also in charge of Automated Surface Observing Systems ( ASOS ) at General Wayne A. Downing Peoria International Airport and Abraham Lincoln Capital Airport . NWS Lincoln employs both short and long term weather forecasters who each have vital duties . The short term forecaster issues the Hazardous Weather Outlook , river forecast products and monitors thunderstorm activity as it develops . The long term forecaster plans weather forecasts up until seven days into the future , coordinates with other long term forecasters in neighboring regions and issues advisories for Winter weather and dense fog . There are also meteorologists assigned to data acquisition responsibilities , staff in this position are responsible for monitoring weather balloons , river stage observations , operation of the NOAA weather radio system and operations of the cooperative observer network . During times of Severe Weather NWS Lincoln divides its covered area into various geographic districts with different forecasters handling the severe weather operation of his or her own sector . Depending on the severity of the outbreak NWS Lincoln employs 2 to 6 meteorologists to issue any warnings . Volunteer HAM radio operators are also present during most severe weather outbreaks , coordinating information between weather spotters and forecasters .
= = = Area of Responsibility = = =
The National Weather Service Central Illinois is in charge of weather forecasts , warnings and local statements for 35 counties in Central and Southeastern Illinois : Cass , Champaign , Christian , Clark , Clay , Coles , Crawford , Cumberland , De Witt , Douglas , Edgar , Effingham , Fulton , Jasper , Knox , Lawrence , Logan , McLean , Macon , Marshall , Mason , Menard , Morgan , Moultrie , Peoria , Piatt , Richland , Sangamon , Schuyler , Scott , Shelby , Stark , Tazewell , Vermilion , and Woodford . In addition the office is in charge of aviation forecasts for five regional airports , Peoria , Springfield , Decatur , Champaign and Bloomington / Normal .
= = Significant events = =
In June 1957 Hurricane Audrey 's extratropical remnants caused a major rain , and flooding event across much of Central Illinois . The Weather Bureau used many rain gauges across the region to measure the impacts of the storm . The National Weather Service in Lincoln has covered many significant weather events in its history . Early in the Lincoln office 's history , an F3 tornado that was part of the May 1995 Tornado Outbreak Sequence passed within two miles of the new office . During the North American blizzard of 1999 several Lincoln forecasters were forced to spend 1 @-@ 2 consecutive days at the office when their replacements could not get to them . During the May 2003 tornado outbreak sequence the office used new high resolution warning products consisting of suite of three applications ; Base Reflectivity ( DZ ) , Base Velocity ( DV ) , and Storm Relative Mean Radial Velocity Map ( SRM8 ) . During the April 20 , 2004 tornado outbreak multiple tornadoes occurred within the Lincoln coverage area , prompting the office to issue multiple warnings and conduct many post storm surveys .
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= Melbourne Castle =
Melbourne Castle was a medieval castle in Melbourne , Derbyshire . It was built on the site of an earlier royal manor house that had provided accommodation for noblemen hunting in a nearby royal park in the reign of King John . Construction of the castle was started in 1311 by Thomas , 2nd Earl of Lancaster , and continued until 1322 , shortly before his execution , but the work was never fully completed .
From the early fourteenth century , Melbourne Castle was mainly in the possession of the Earls and Dukes of Lancaster or the crown . Improvements and repairs were made , notably by John of Gaunt , and the building was in generally good condition throughout the fifteenth and early sixteenth centuries . John I , Duke of Bourbon , was kept at Melbourne for 19 years after his capture at the Battle of Agincourt in 1415 , and the castle was considered as a possible prison for Mary Queen of Scots , although events led to her incarceration elsewhere .
The castle was in decline by the end of the reign of Elizabeth I. Although the stonework was sound , minimal maintenance had led to significant deterioration of other parts of the structure . The manor was purchased in 1604 by Henry Hastings , 5th Earl of Huntingdon , who had his own castle in nearby Ashby @-@ de @-@ la @-@ Zouch . The Melbourne property was then demolished and used as a source for building materials . All that remains of Melbourne Castle today is a section of wall about 15 m ( 50 ft ) long and 4 m ( 13 ft ) high and some foundations ; nothing is known of the internal layout of the former building . The ruins are grade II listed and the site is a scheduled monument . There is no public access to the site .
= = Background = =
Melbourne is a town in South Derbyshire close to the River Trent , which may have originated as buildings associated with the royal manor to the south of the nearby settlement at Kings Newton . Melbourne Castle was constructed on the site of an earlier manor house of unknown date ; there is an old tradition that the manor was originally established in about the year 900 , during the reign of Alfred the Great , but there is no evidence for this . As recorded in the Domesday Book , the manor of Melbourne and its lands were the property of King Edward the Confessor prior to the Norman Conquest . The property then passed into the hands of William I of England . After creating the Diocese of Carlisle in 1133 , Henry I gave the manor for life to Æthelwold , the first bishop . Some time later , the diocese built a palace nearby on the site of what is now Melbourne Hall . When Bishop Æthelwold died in about 1156 , the manor reverted to the crown .
A royal hunting park close to Melbourne was probably created by King John around 1200 , and the King is known to have stayed at the manor house on at least five occasions . John gave the manor and its lands to Hugh Beauchamp , although they appear to have soon reverted to the crown , being gifted by Henry III to Bishop Walter Mauclerk of Carlisle in about 1230 . The estate returned to the crown on the bishop 's death in 1248 , and Henry granted the land to his son , Edmund Crouchback , 1st Earl of Lancaster in 1265 . At some later date , the manor appears to have been granted to a Philip Marc , before passing to Thomas , 2nd Earl of Lancaster , the King 's son . This was in 1298 when he came of age , his father having died two years earlier . Early references to the house itself are rare , but there are records of repairs to the gutters in 1246 and to the roof of the King 's Chamber in 1248 .
= = Description = =
The castle was built to the east of the fourteenth @-@ century town on a slightly raised location . The area enclosed within the castle 's outer walls was about 2 @.@ 8 ha ( 7 acres ) , but with outbuildings , other ancillary constructions and orchards , the total area has been estimated to be at least 8 ha ( 20 acres ) . The walls were constructed with rubble faced with ashlar , and even without their former polished facings the walls are about 3 m ( 10 ft ) thick .
All that is known of the appearance of the castle is from contemporary drawings . Although these may seem fanciful to modern eyes , there are better preserved sites which share some features . Tutbury and Pontefract castles both have similar gatehouses and chapels , and Tutbury 's motte and Pontefract 's curtain wall are also close in style to those in the illustrations . Sandal Castle has a multi @-@ angular tower like those depicted , and this feature is confirmed at Melbourne by foundations which still remain .
A bakehouse , kitchen and chapel are recorded , as well as the hall , great chamber , and drawbridge , but the details of the internal layout for the castle are unknown .
= = History = =
= = = Early years = = =
Earl Thomas granted the manor to his steward , Robert de Holland , in February 1308 . In 1311 , Robert obtained a licence to crenellate from Edward II in order to fortify the manor house , and the more modest earlier building was converted into a castle between 1311 and 1322 . Local tradition says that the stone was obtained from a quarry on the site of what is now Melbourne Pool . The records show £ 1 @,@ 313 was spent on the project in the year 1313 – 14 , of which £ 548 was paid to masons for dressing stone . Several masons working on the project were involved in an affray at Ravenstone in 1315 . The important medieval buildings in Melbourne were constructed from the local bedrock , Millstone Grit . This is a coarsely grained sandstone which can be worked to produce good @-@ quality ashlar . The village was centred around the church , castle and High Street until the late eighteenth century .
Earl Thomas , with other barons , captured King Edward 's favourite , Piers Gaveston , and killed him in 1312 . Nevertheless , the King stayed at Melbourne in 1314 . For a time , after Edward 's defeat at Bannockburn , the earl , a friend of the Scots , controlled most of England , but by 1321 , Edward had raised an army and driven Thomas from the Midlands . The Lancastrian castles at Melbourne and Tutbury were left deserted and looted by the local populace . Earl Thomas was finally defeated at the Battle of Boroughbridge in 1322 . He was swiftly executed , and Robert de Holland was beheaded in 1328 . The King sent a garrison to Melbourne and appointed a steward , Ralph Basset , to replace the incumbent , John de Hardedeshull . In March , those who had stolen from the castle were arrested , and by April Edward had withdrawn his troops . He appointed Robert Tocher and Roger de Beler in 1323 to help administer his possessions in Melbourne using money obtained from confiscations of rebel property in Staffordshire . Edward stayed at Melbourne again in 1325 , and while there he issued a right to collect tolls to the men of nearby Swarkestone to repair the bridge over the Trent .
= = = Lancastrian improvements = = =
The castle , still unfinished at the time of Thomas ' execution , and its lands , remained as crown property until it was bestowed on Henry , 3rd Earl of Lancaster , Earl Thomas ' brother , in 1327 . In turn , it passed to Henry 's son , the fourth earl , who became the first Duke of Lancaster . At the time of the duke 's death in 1361 , his constable was Ingram Fauconer , who received an annual life stipend of £ 10 , a further £ 5 going to his wife . Henry 's heiress was Blanche , wife of John of Gaunt . Duke John confirmed Fauconer 's pension when he came into possession of the Lancastrian lands .
Peter Melbourne was made keeper of the Melbourne estate in 1377 with an annual income of £ 10 . He was granted another 66s 8d in 1386 , and 10 marks ( £ 6 13s 4d ) in 1395 . The last award was conditional on his not meddling with the offices of constable and keeper of the parks , which had passed on to his son , also called Peter . The younger Peter Melbourne was involved in the upbringing of the future Henry IV during the reign of Richard II . He was again appointed constable and steward of the Derbyshire manor in March 1399 , although he gave up his office in April in return for an annuity from King Richard , who had confiscated the Lancastrian estates when John of Gaunt died earlier that year . Upon Henry 's seizure of the throne , Peter was confirmed as constable and in October 1399 , his annuity was increased from £ 10 to 100 marks ( £ 66 8s ) ; in the following year he was awarded land in Derbyshire confiscated from Thomas Merke , Bishop of Carlisle , co @-@ leader of plot against the King .
The Duchy of Lancaster continued to improve and expand the property through the 14th and 15th centuries . John of Gaunt had windows glazed in the Communal Hall and the Great Chamber in 1392 / 3 , along with other works . He repaired a drawbridge in 1393 / 4 and made plumbing improvements in 1399 / 1400 , using lead acquired as a forfeit two years earlier .
For 19 years , the castle served as a prison for John I , Duke of Bourbon after he was taken at the Battle of Agincourt in 1415 . His custodian was a Nicholas Montgomery the Younger . Nineteenth @-@ century local historian John Joseph Briggs claimed that during the Wars of the Roses , the castle was partially dismantled by the Lancastrian forces of Margaret of Anjou , but since her campaign was along the line of the Great North Road , it was Melbourne , Cambridgeshire she sacked , not its Derbyshire namesake .
In 1545 , antiquarian John Leland reported to Henry VIII the property was in good enough shape that it was described as " praty and yn meately good reparation " perhaps following repairs in the reign of Edward IV , when Sir Ralph Shirley , a commander at Agincourt , was governor of the castle .
= = = Decline = = =
When Elizabeth I became queen , she ordered a survey of her castles . A 1562 report told her that only ten castles in the north of her realm were worth keeping ; Melbourne was not one of these . A further survey in 1576 reported that , although the stonework was in good condition apart from one chimney and window , the timbers were perished , the lead roof was full of holes , one kitchen was on the verge of collapse , and another needed its floor replacing . In the same year , George Talbot , 6th Earl of Shrewsbury wrote to the queen to assure her that the castle was in good condition , worth £ 1 @,@ 000 , and could be repaired for £ 100 . Since he was responsible for keeping the imprisoned Mary , Queen of Scots and her 140 retainers , he hoped to get her moved to Melbourne . In 1583 , the castle was inspected again to see if it was suitable to house the captive queen . Although the rooms were sufficient in number and quality , the unfinished building was deemed " imperfect at every corner " . The large rooms would need subdividing , the floors were earth and plaster , and there was no paved courtyard " so as being out of dors you are in the myre , for it is verie foule and unpleasaunt to walk round about the said house " . In 1584 , Queen Elizabeth finally decided to move Mary to Melbourne , only for the plan to be abandoned following the Babington Plot to assassinate the English queen and place her Scottish cousin on the throne .
In 1597 , the castle was being used as a cattle pound , although a survey in 1602 assured Elizabeth that it was a " faire and anciente castle " , in the charge of Gilbert , Earl of Shaftsbury . The constable 's annual fee of £ 10 was the same as that paid to Ingram Fauconer 140 years earlier .
The castle and lands were bought for £ 4 @,@ 700 in 1604 , by Henry Hastings , 5th Earl of Huntingdon , whose family seat at Ashby de la Zouch Castle was just 11 km ( 7 mi ) away . Melbourne Castle was destroyed between 1610 and 1637 so that its materials could be used in other construction . By 1629 , it is likely that all the worked stone above ground level had been removed ; Sir John Coke of Melbourne Hall obtained permission from the Bishop of Carlisle in that year to quarry stone from the castle foundations . Some of the facing stones were used to repair the weir at King 's Mill , seen by some at the time to fulfil the words of a local prophet that " the waters of the Trent should overflow the towers of Melbourne castle " . The Hastings estate was gradually sold off , and the castle site was sold by Earl Moira in 1811 .
= = Ruins and archaeology = =
A section of rubble wall about 15 m ( 50 ft ) long and 4 m ( 13 ft ) high remains , incorporated into outbuilding of the adjacent farm on its north side . The ruins and the later farmhouse are jointly grade II listed and the castle remains are designated as a scheduled monument . The area to the south of the wall has been excavated to reveal the ashlar bases of two polygonal towers . The site is on the east side of Castle Street in a private garden to which there is no public access .
Some of the stone taken from the castle was used to construct the mid @-@ eighteenth @-@ century grade II @-@ listed buildings at 43 and 45 Castle Street , and other buildings known to have used the stone , but no longer extant , include old houses demolished to build the Castle Mill textile factory . The mill , now demolished , was said to have been built on castle foundations up to 4 m ( 12 ft ) thick ; 15 Castle Street also rests on the old foundation wall . It is likely that the former Melbourne Furnace and the Furnace Farm barn also used recycled castle material .
An early nineteenth @-@ century excavation found underground apartments " of considerable extent and superior workmanship " , and excavations in the latter part of the same century found considerable foundations in the gardens of Castle Farm . Castle Mills housing estate contains a now @-@ covered well 2 m ( 6 ft ) in width and 15 m ( 50 ft ) deep , and work in 1961 uncovered massive 5 m ( 16 ft ) foundations east of the old mill and on the same alignment as the existing wall . Excavations in 1969 – 1971 found an extensive network of walls faced with ashlar , a door post , the base of a spiral staircase and evidence of an outer courtyard . Many stones had mason 's marks . During construction works in 1988 , masonry including the rubble centres of two large east – west walls was found in test trenches . Apart from the area of the turret bases next to the standing wall , none of the archaeology is now visible .
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= Lone Wolf v. Hitchcock =
Lone Wolf v. Hitchcock , 187 U.S. 553 ( 1903 ) was a United States Supreme Court case brought against the US government by the Kiowa chief Lone Wolf , who charged that Native American tribes under the Medicine Lodge Treaty had been defrauded of land by Congressional actions in violation of the treaty .
The Court declared that the " plenary power " of the United States Congress gave it authority to unilaterally abrogate treaty obligations between the United States and Native American tribes . The decision marked a departure from the holdings of Cherokee Nation v. Georgia , 30 U.S. 1 ( 1831 ) , and Worcester v. Georgia , 31 U.S. 515 ( 1832 ) , which had shown greater respect for the autonomy of Native American tribes .
= = Background = =
= = = Tribes = = =
The Kiowa tribe is a Native American tribe that has historically inhabited the southern Great Plains what is now present @-@ day Oklahoma , Texas , Kansas , and New Mexico . Originally from the northern great plains along the Platte River , and under pressure from other tribes , they eventually moved and settled south of the Arkansas River primarily in present @-@ day Oklahoma . The Kiowa had a long history of close association and alliance with the Kiowa @-@ Apache or Plains Apache . Around 1790 , the Kiowa also formed an alliance with the Comanche and formed a barrier to European @-@ American incursions into their territories . This alliance made travel on the Santa Fe Trail hazardous , with attacks on wagon trains beginning in 1828 and continuing thereafter .
= = = Treaties = = =
In 1837 at Fort Gibson , leaders of the Kiowa tribe signed their first treaty with the United States . By 1854 , the need for another treaty became apparent , and the United States entered into a treaty with the Kiowa , Comanche , and Kiowa @-@ Apache ( KCA ) at Fort Ackinson , Indian Territory . The treaty did not specifically designate a reservation , but was , for the most part , an extension of the 1837 treaty . There was an attempt to place some of the tribes on a reservation on the Brazos River in Texas near Fort Belknap , under Indian Agent Robert S. Neighbors . By 1858 , Neighbors resolved to move the reservation into Indian Territory . By August 1859 , Neighbors had moved the Indians from the Brazos Reservation to Indian Territory , south of the Washita River near Fort Cobb . In 1865 , near present @-@ day Wichita , Kansas , the three tribes signed another treaty that provided for the reservation in present @-@ day Oklahoma and Texas . Finally , in 1867 , the tribes agreed to the Medicine Lodge Treaty . This treaty provided for a much smaller reservation , and stipulated that whites were not allowed to encroach on the reservation . Also , to further reduce the reserve 's land would require the approval of three @-@ fourths of the tribal members .
= = = Assimilation period = = =
Within one year , the United States breached the treaty when General William T. Sherman ordered all the tribes to Fort Cobb , withheld the treaty payments to them , and requested an order declaring that all hunting rights be forfeited . At the same time , Indian agents were trying to undermine tribal authority as the buffalo herds were being eliminated by white hunting . Two new leaders emerged during this time period , Quanah Parker and Lone Wolf ( the younger ) Following his defeat at the Battle of Palo Duro Canyon , Parker settled down and began to adopt white ways . Lone Wolf and his followers continued to resist assimilation policies . Many of the old tribal leaders had been arrested and imprisoned when they left the reservation to hunt , and war leaders such as Lone Wolf ( the elder ) started to pass away from old age and disease .
During this same period , as the tribes had been unsuccessful at farming it , the KCA found a way to make the land pay by leasing it to cattlemen for grazing . By 1885 , about 1 @,@ 500 @,@ 000 acres ( 610 @,@ 000 ha ) were being used to graze about 75 @,@ 000 cattle , with an annual payment to the tribes of $ 55 @,@ 000 . At the same time , whites living just outside the reservation boundary were coming onto it to take timber and other goods , resulting in the tribes forming a police force to protect their property from white theft .
= = = The Jerome Commission = = =
In 1892 , the United States sent the Jerome Commission , consisting of David H. Jerome , Alfred M. Wilson , and Warren G. Sayre , to meet with the Kiowa to convince them to turn over most of their reserve for white settlement in return for $ 2 million . Lone Wolf spoke out in opposition to the allotment , saying :
Now we have several good schools on the reservation , and to them we intend to send our children , where they will be taught the arts of manual labor . There they will learn to live like white people , and soon then they will be civilized . We advised our people to build houses , and quite a number of them today are living in houses . Some are building and still others are contemplating building . For that reason , because we are making such rapid progress , we ask the commission not to push us ahead too fast on the road we are to take . This morning in council the Comanches decided not to sell the country , and the Kiowas decided not to sell the country , and the Apaches decided not to sell the country . And I do not wish the commission to force us . That is all .
After over a week of negotiations , terms were set so that each member would receive 160 acres . The tribes would receive $ 2 million of which $ 250 @,@ 000 would be paid to members , with the remaining money to be held in trust for the tribes at 5 % interest . The commission immediately began to collect signatures and , just as quickly , allegations of fraud arose . Joshua Givens , an interpreter , was widely suspected of being dishonest . He was accused of forcing some members to sign and tricking others into thinking they were signing a document opposing the agreement . By now , the tribes were almost unanimous in their opposition to the agreement , asked to see the document , and requested that their signatures be removed . Lone Wolf later stated that this was refused and that they were threatened with violence . Jerome left the reservation with what the government claimed was the approval of three @-@ quarters of the tribe .
= = = Congress = = =
With the validity of the agreement in question , the tribes , joined by the Indian Rights Association ( IRA ) and local ranchers , lobbied against its ratification by Congress . The IRA wrote letters to Senators , stating that the agreement was : " utterly destructive of that honor and good faith which should characterize our dealings with any people , and especially with one too weak to enforce their rights as against us by any other mean as than an appeal to our sense of justice . " The Secretary of the Interior informed Congress that the allotment would be devastating to the tribes , as the land was not suited to farming , and the amount of land allotted would not allow them sufficient land to graze cattle . A bill was introduced in 1892 to ratify the agreement , but failed to receive the necessary votes . It was reintroduced every year until it passed in 1900 , eight years later . The agreement finally passed when the Rock Island Railroad agree to set aside an additional 480 @,@ 000 acres of pastureland for the tribes to hold in common .
= = = Lower courts = = =
At the ratification of the agreement , a delegation of tribal leaders traveled to Washington , D.C. and requested a meeting with President William McKinley . McKinley 's position was that the tribes must conform to the decision of Congress . Parker and the other principal chiefs accepted that the fight against allotment was over but Lone Wolf continued to argue against accepting allotment . In 1901 , Lone Wolf and others hired William M. Springer , a former federal judge and congressman .
= = = = Supreme Court of the District of Columbia = = = =
On June 6 , 1901 , Springer filed suit in the Supreme Court of the District of Columbia , which is a different court than the United States Supreme Court . The plaintiffs asked for an injunction to stop the opening of KCA lands to settlement and the allotment of the land . Springer argued that the Jerome agreement deprived the tribes of their lands without due process and in violation of the Constitution by breaking the treaty with the tribes . Springer alleged that the KCA were duped into signing the agreement and that it was not signed by three @-@ quarters of the members as required by the treaty , that the KCA had protested the agreement from the beginning , and that the version which Congress ratified was different from the version signed by the KCA . While the suit was being heard , on August 6 , 1901 , the government began to sell off the tribes ' surplus land . Judge A.C. Bradley ruled against Lone Wolf , holding that Congress had the authority to allot the land , citing United States v. Kagama .
= = = = Circuit Court of Appeals = = = =
Springer then appealed to the D.C. Circuit Court of Appeals . By the time that court heard the appeal , the reservation land had been allotted and excess land sold . The D.C. Circuit ruled that the question was not justiciable , rather it was a political question which had to be decided by Congress . The Court held that an act of Congress must prevail over any specific article in a treaty with an Indian tribe . The court further held that , in any event , the land did not belong to the tribe . It was controlled by the United States , with Indians as mere occupants . The Circuit Court affirmed the decision of the lower court .
= = Supreme Court = =
= = = Arguments = = =
At this point , the IRA hired another attorney , Hampton L. Carson , to take the lead from Springer . The arguments remained the same as they had in the lower courts : that the tribes were being deprived of their land without due process . The attorneys noted that the United States had never deprived a tribe of its land without some form of consent by the tribe . Carson and Springer highlighted Worcester v. Georgia and the Indian canon of construction in their arguments .
Willis Van Devanter argued the case for the United States , taking the position that Congress had the power to abrogate the treaty at will . Devanter cited Kagama as authority for Congress having plenary power over Indian matters .
= = = Opinion of the court = = =
Justice Edward White delivered the opinion of the unanimous court . The Court held that Congress had the authority to void treaty obligations with Native American tribes because it had an inherent plenary power , noting :
" Authority over the tribal relations of the Indians has been exercised by Congress from the beginning , and the power has always been deemed a political one , not subject to be controlled by the judicial department of the government . "
The decision was based , among other things , on a paternalistic view of the United States ' relationship with the tribes :
" These Indian tribes are the wards of the nation . They are communities dependent on the United States . Dependent largely for their daily food . Dependent for their political rights . They own no allegiance to the states , and receive from them no protection . Because of the local ill feeling , the people of the states where they are found are often their deadliest enemies . From their very weakness and helplessness , so largely due to the course of dealing of the Federal government with them and the treaties in which it has been promised , there arises the duty of protection , and with it the power . This has always been recognized by the executive and by Congress , and by this court , whenever the question has arisen . "
The decision presented American Indians as inferior in race , culture , and religion :
" It is to be presumed that in this matter the United States would be governed by such considerations of justice as would control a Christian people in their treatment of an ignorant and dependent race . Be that is it may , the propriety or justice of their action towards the Indians with respect to their lands is a question of governmental policy , and is not a matter open to discussion in a controversy between third parties , neither of whom derives title from the Indians . "
White held that requiring tribal consent would actually hurt the tribes , and that the tribes should presume that Congress would act in good faith to protect tribal needs .
Justice John Marshall Harlan concurred in the judgment , but did not author a separate opinion .
= = Subsequent developments = =
This was one of the first cases where an Indian tribe went to court rather than resort to warfare to resolve an issue . It was also a major defeat for the tribes . Reports show that ninety percent of the land allotted to tribal members was lost by them to settlers . By the 1920s , the KCA tribes were impoverished , with an unemployment rate of sixty percent .
By 1934 , approximately 90 @,@ 000 @,@ 000 acres ( 36 @,@ 000 @,@ 000 ha ) , which was two @-@ thirds of Indian lands , had been transferred to settlers . Until the Meriam Report was published showing the destructive effects of the policy , the allotment process continued unchecked . By the time Congress ended allotment , the KCA land went from 2 @,@ 900 @,@ 000 acres ( 1 @,@ 200 @,@ 000 ha ) to about 3 @,@ 000 acres ( 1 @,@ 200 ha ) . Also , the Court 's ruling meant that the only recourse left for Indian tribes to use to resolve land disputes was Congress . Indians were not eligible to bring a case in the United States Court of Claims under the Tucker Act , and were limited to actions in often hostile state courts .
Legally , scholars have compared Lone Wolf to the infamous Dred Scott case , and universally condemned the decision .
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= Politics and Prose =
Politics and Prose ( sometimes stylized as Politics & Prose or abbreviated as P & P ) is an independent bookstore located in Chevy Chase , Washington , D.C. , on Connecticut Avenue . The store was founded in 1984 by co @-@ owners Carla Cohen and Barbara Meade , who expanded the store fivefold to its current size . After a failed sale attempt in 2005 , the two co @-@ owners eventually sold the store to current owners Bradley Graham and Lissa Muscatine in 2011 . Politics and Prose is known for its knowledgeable staff and is seen as a part of DC culture . Its author events attract a number of famous speakers , such as Bill Clinton and J.K. Rowling , and have a reputation for their astute audiences .
= = History = =
= = = Founding and growth = = =
Carla Cohen , after losing her job with the Carter administration , decided to create an independent bookstore in Washington , D.C. , despite having no previous experience with running a business . She partnered with Barbara Meade , whom she found through the classifieds , and who , with her previous experience of managing a bookstore , became a co @-@ owner early on . Cohen decided to name the store Politics and Prose because it was " Washington @-@ sounding " and not pretentious , and the two co @-@ owners founded the store in 1984 . Meade worried that the name was a put @-@ off , and the store struggled at first to attract authors to speak at its events and relied on local journalists to publicize the location . The store 's original location in the Forest Hills neighborhood was across the street from its current spot , and in 1989 , Politics and Prose moved to their present larger location after finding success . Politics and Prose has over the years expanded their sections and collections . The store merged with a nearby children 's bookstore , the Cheshire Cat , and incorporated its staff in 1990 .
= = = Failed sale attempt = = =
Business continued to be successful during the late 1990s as other independent bookstores fell by the wayside and companies like Barnes & Noble expanded . Cohen and Meade decided to sell the store to Danny Gainsburg , who was selling his T @-@ shirt business so he would be able to afford the cost of the store . The co @-@ owners made an agreement with Gainsburg that he would gain control of the store if he was able to function amicably with the rest of the staff . Cohen and Meade set him up in a part @-@ time position to see how he would interact with the employees and sold him an equity stake in the business without informing the other staff members . After a number of other incidents , Gainsburg was pressured to leave by the staff after he kissed an employee on her birthday . The three co @-@ owners agreed that Gainsburg should resign , and Gainsburg received back his initial investment plus a premium . Gainsburg said to the Wall Street Journal , " We all started with good motives , but there was lots of naiveté on all sides . " In 2006 , a year after the botched sale attempt , Cohen and Meade both decided to hold onto the store as sole co @-@ owners for at least three to five more years and met with an outside consultant to devise an eventual exit strategy .
= = = New ownership = = =
In June 2010 , Cohen and Meade announced their intention to sell the store ; Cohen also became seriously ill around this time , and it contributed to the timing of their decision to sell . Jim Lehrer wrote of the impending sale , " ... putting Politics and Prose up for sale is like putting the Washington Monument up for sale . " There was considerable speculation in the media about possible buyers for the store . There were reportedly over 50 inquiries by October into the possible purchase of the store from Meade and Cohen 's husband , David , who inherited her stake in the store after her death from cancer .
It was announced on March 28 , 2011 that two former employees of The Washington Post , Bradley Graham , and his wife , Lissa Muscatine , had purchased the store from Meade and David Cohen . The store was reportedly sold for $ 2 million , although price was not the main factor in the selection of new owners . Meade fully retired from work in the store on December 31 , 2012 .
Graham and Muscatine have added literary classes and trips since purchasing the store . The co @-@ owners are also considering an expansion of the store into a Georgetown location .
= = Services and reputation = =
Politics and Prose has a reputation for staff who are able to recommend books to customers . The 14 @,@ 000 square foot space contains an Espresso Book Machine for on demand printing of self @-@ published and out of print books , a cafe on the first floor of the building called " Modern Times " , and a number of different book genres . A Washington Post review of the cafe in 2006 reacted favorably to changes to the menu .
The store is famous for its author events , in which writers usually read an excerpt from their book and take questions from the audience . The Washington Post notes that as the talks gained prominence and the store grew more popular , Cohen and Meade , the original co @-@ owners , " became known as literary tastemakers " . C @-@ SPAN broadcasts around five of the talks a month , and the store has gained a reputation for having astute and smart audiences present at readings . Famous readers at its author events have included politicians such as Presidents Bill Clinton and Barack Obama , and former Senator Edward Brooke , authors J.K. Rowling , Salman Rushdie , and Amy Chua , photographer Annie Leibovitz , and investigative reporter David Halberstam . Cohen in the past refused to allow some prominent writers to appear in the store , such as Matt Drudge , ostensibly because of their conservative leanings .
Politics and Prose is often seen to be an important stop for authors publicizing their work and is regarded as being a significant part of DC culture . New owners Bradley Graham and Lissa Muscatine were ranked # 50 on GQ 's " The 50 Most Powerful People in Washington " because of their purchase of Politics and Prose , describing the store as " ... liberal Washington 's most sacred space . " The New Yorker 's Hendrik Hertzberg commented on the unusually intelligent questions from the audience at readings , and Slate 's editor in 2007 , said : " If there 's one bookstore in the city you want to read in , it 's obviously the place . "
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= Peace Candle =
The Peace Candle is a tower @-@ like structure erected every Christmas season in Easton , Pennsylvania . The approximately 106 @-@ foot ( 32 m ) tall structure , which resembles a giant candle , is assembled each year over the Soldiers ' & Sailors ' Monument , a Civil War memorial located in the city 's Centre Square . It is typically assembled in mid November and lighted over Thanksgiving weekend and disassembled in early February each year .
The Peace Candle was first erected in 1951 , and has been put up almost every year since then . Due to damage or disrepair , the Peace Candle has been replaced with new candle structures twice since the original construction . The first candle lasted until 1968 , the second candle from 1969 to 1989 , and the current candle was built in 1990 and is expected to last until around 2014 . The structure is dedicated to the Easton area men and women who have served or are serving in the United States armed forces .
It has been said to be the largest non @-@ wax Christmas candle in the country . Although conceived with the hopes of restoring Easton 's pre @-@ 20th century reputation for elaborate Christmas decorations , city officials also believed a candle would serve as a symbol of peace for all religions and denominations . Due to its symbolism for peace and its placement over a Civil War monument , the candle has been the site of several anti @-@ war protests over the decades . Some have criticized the Peace Candle , calling it a symbol of the over @-@ commercialization of Christmas , and condemning the fact that it covers a war monument .
= = Structure = =
The Peace Candle has undergone several changes and variations over the last 58 years . The current candle was built in 1990 , and is expected to last until about 2014 , after which time Easton officials expect to build a new one . As of 2009 , the central main candle stands 94 @-@ foot ( 29 m ) , and the base brings it to about 106 @-@ foot ( 32 m ) . It reaches a height of about 118 @-@ foot ( 36 m ) above ground level when factoring the monument it rests atop . When the candle is assembled , several 8 @-@ foot ( 2 @.@ 4 m ) by 8 @-@ foot by 10 @-@ foot ( 3 @.@ 0 m ) box pieces are placed around the Soldiers ' & Sailors ' Monument , a Civil War memorial in Centre Square , the town square of Easton 's Downtown neighborhood . Made from marine @-@ grade plywood and galvanized steel , the box pieces are stacked vertically until the structure is assembled , and then bolted together using about 500 bolts inside the Peace Candle . The flame placed atop the candle is about 15 @-@ foot ( 4 @.@ 6 m ) high and illuminated with 31 bulbs . The entire structure weighs between eight and 10 tons . The main candle is surrounded by four , 15 @-@ foot ( 4 @.@ 6 m ) high side candles , and a fountain that surrounds the Peace Candle 's base is filled with a ring of Christmas trees .
The Peace Candle is believed to be the largest non @-@ wax Christmas candle in the United States . Since it was first erected in 1951 , Easton city officials have at various times declared it the largest candle in the world . In 1972 , city council president Henry Schultz declared , " We claim , and no one has ever argued with us , that this is the largest candle in the world . " However , the Schlitz Christmas Candle , a non @-@ wax candle @-@ like structure in Schlitz , a small town in Hesse , Germany , is larger at 138 @-@ foot ( 42 m ) tall . The current Peace Candle is taller than the Guinness World Record @-@ holder for tallest candle , which belongs to an 80 @-@ foot ( 24 m ) tall , 8 @.@ 5 @-@ foot ( 2 @.@ 6 m ) wide candle exhibited at the General Art and Industrial Exhibition of Stockholm in 1897 . However , only wax candles are eligible for the record , and there is no Guinness World Record for largest non @-@ wax candle . When the third incarnation of the Peace Candle was built in 1990 , Easton officials tried unsuccessful to seek a Guinness record for it .
= = Creation = =
Easton , the county seat of Northampton County in Pennsylvania , was considered one of the earliest cities to feature elaborate Christmas decoration displays on its city streets , with brightly colored lights and ornamental displays adorning its homes , businesses and residences long before they appeared in other American cities . Easton is also believed to be the home of America 's first Christmas tree , as German immigrants who settled in Easton brought the symbol with them in 1816 . By the mid @-@ 20th century , however , the predominance of Christmas decorations began to diminish in Easton , and support among city officials and residents began to wane as interest in the tradition dropped . Bethlehem , another Northampton County city , came better known for its elaborate Christmas decorations , although it has been suggested it followed the example first set by Easton . In 1951 , Mrs. Hutton Hughes wrote a letter in the city 's newspaper , The Easton Express , urging that a new holiday program of Christmas lighting be established in the city . On June 13 , 1951 , the Merchants Association of the Easton Chamber of Commerce responded to the letter by forming the Easton Area Christmas Committee , which set a goal of restoring the prestige of Easton 's old Yuletide decorations . Several suggestions were made for a Christmas centerpiece in Centre Square , the town square of Easton 's downtown neighborhood , to serve as the focal point of the Christmas program and promote downtown shopping . One of the suggestions was to pile evergreen trees around the Soldiers ' & Sailors ' Monument , a Civil War memorial located in Centre Square , but it was deemed too expensive to pursue . Another suggestion was to attach a giant candy cane atop the monument , but it was dismissed as too secular . During one of the committee meetings , Easton resident Virginia Purdy suggested the idea of assembling a large candle in Centre Square , " because it would have no commercial aspect and it would serve to further good will in the community " . The proposal was accepted .
Easton Councilman Frank Bechtel was named chairman of the Easton Area Christmas Committee , and W. Nilan Jones was appointed chairman of the construction subcommittee . Jones , with the help of committee member and architect William Tydeman , studied the engineering angles involved in building a wooden candle structure that could be assembled over the Soldiers ' & Sailors ' Monument . After determining such a project would be feasible , Jones drafted plans for a 96 @-@ foot ( 29 m ) candle @-@ shaped tower . The committee sought $ 4 @,@ 000 for the Christmas display , and asked about 1 @,@ 200 businesspeople were asked to make donations . Volunteers from the community , as well as members of the Local 239 United Brotherhood of Carpenters and Joiners of America , dedicated time , money and materials to the project , and Theodore Bean , proprietor of the local contractor company Bean , Inc . , arranged for the use of his equipment and services to erect the candle .
However , four days before it was scheduled to be built , Tydeman determined the structure design was too high to withstand the winds , and that there was a risk that it could topple along with the Soldiers ' & Sailors ' Monument . Tydeman resigned from the project to protect his company from possibly liability , but helped the committee come up with a new , safer design . The committee considered piercing the plywood panels to allow wind to travel through , but Jones said " some of the wood could have splintered apart and taken someone 's head off " . Jones called A.P. Heller , the Reading @-@ based company that built the Soldiers ' & Sailors ' Monument , and sought advice from the son of the man who owned the firm when the work was done . The son suggested shortening the candle would allow it to withstand the wind , but also delivered a message from his father : " He wants to know why you want to cover up his work ? " The candle proposal was completely redesigned and cut to 80 @-@ foot ( 24 m ) .
The planned structure was referred to as the Christmas Candle , which it was called every year until 1967 . Construction began on December 8 , 1951 . Using a crane with a 95 @-@ foot ( 29 m ) berm , as well as electrical equipment and other tools , 20 workmen placed the heavy plywood sheathing sections along all four sides of the Soldiers ' & Sailors ' Monument . The structure was red with speckles of gold and silver , and green fir foliage around the base . It was assembled in four sections , which each ranged between 300 pounds ( 140 kg ) and 750 pounds ( 340 kg ) in weight . Once the tower was complete , it was topped off by an electric neon " flame " . Since the Christmas Candle design was cut to 80 @-@ foot ( 24 m ) , the top of the candle reached the base of a bugler statue at the top of the memorial . The flame consisted a cage @-@ like frame of curved steel bars covered with yellow neon lights . The flame was placed over the bugler , and a yellow cotton sack was placed atop the statue to further create the image of a flame , and so the bugler would not be visible atop the candle . Plastic wax drippings were designed to extend downward from the top of the candle beneath the flame . Construction of the Christmas Candle progressed slower than expected because Bean Inc. contractors had trouble attaching the base sections . The work was not finished until December 9 . The original Christmas Candle display cost $ 3 @,@ 390 @.@ 92 , all of which was offset by donations from about 271 donors amounting to $ 4 @,@ 055 @.@ 35 in total .
= = First candle ( 1951 @-@ 1968 ) = =
= = = Inaugural decade = = =
On December 10 , 1951 , Easton Mayor Joseph Morrison flipped the switch to light up the Christmas Candle during its first dedication ceremony . Joining Morrison and Frank Bechtel in the dedication were a Catholic priest , a Jewish rabbi and a Protestant minister , to demonstrate the Christmas Candle was meant to serve as a symbol of peace for all religions and denominations . News reports indicate between 500 and 1 @,@ 000 people attended the ceremony . In addition to the candle , the decorations included Christmas trees , smaller candle displays , large plywood wreaths and Christmas lights set up by students from the Easton High School and the city 's Wolf and Schull junior high schools . It also included a plaque honoring the Easton area men and women on active duty in the United States armed forces . The Delaware River Joint Toll Bridge Commission decorated the nearby Northampton Street bridge , which crossed the Delaware River , with its first Christmas light display in 14 years . A series of nightly Christmas choir concerts were held in front of the Christmas Candle starting December 18 , and organ music was piped to the Centre Square from the city 's First Presbyterian Church . Downtown business owners participated by decorating their windows with Christmas themes . Morrison called the Christmas Candle display " the most elaborate in Easton 's history " . The Christmas Candle was so large it drew the attention of airplanes passing over the city .
On December 11 , however , one of the neon lights in the flame structure short @-@ circuited and started a fire on the yellow cotton sack placed over the bugler statue , causing an actual fire on the Christmas Candle flame for a brief amount of time . The blaze caused only minor damage to the Christmas Candle , but the bugler statue was exposed and visible inside the flame for the rest of the season . Despite this setback , the Christmas Candle was widely considered a success , and the Easton Area Christmas Committee signed a charter on December 17 , 1951 , tasking itself with organizing a yearly holiday program revolving around the Christmas Candle . The candle was assembled again every Christmas season until 1961 , with ceremonies generally including holiday decorations , Christmas carols , refreshments , appearances by Santa Claus and other forms of entertainment . The Easton Area Christmas Committee was responsible for raising the funds and encouraging the civic interest necessary to keep the program active .
In 1952 , a new , fireproof flame as designed in response to the previous year 's fire . The new flame design enclosed the steel tubing of the flame ( which concealed the bugler statue ) , looked more realistic and better matched the flames on the four smaller candles at the Christmas Candle 's base . The 1952 Christmas Candle display included further expansions from the previous year , including the addition of 20 new plywood light standard plaques by the Easton High School , as well as decorations on the Bushkill Street Bridge in addition to the Northampton Street bridge . With the hopes of increasing nationwide publicity for the Christmas Candle , the Easton City Council started dubbing the structure , " the world 's largest Christmas candle " . The Easton Area Christmas Committee continued raising the funds for the Christmas program up until 1957 , when they needed to raise $ 3 @,@ 500 from the public to make necessary repairs to the Christmas Candle for safety reasons . The next year , the committee started to receive a budget from the city , and were approved for $ 3 @,@ 000 by the city council in 1958 . The program continued to grow each year , and included 3 @,@ 000 Evergreen trees assembled around the Centre Square by 1957 , when more than 500 people attended the lighting ceremony in 20 @-@ degree weather .
= = = Removal and reconstruction = = =
In 1961 , the Christmas Candle fell into a state of disrepair , and the contractors who assemble the candle for discounted prices in previous years informed the city they could not handle the project again . The Easton Area Christmas Committee also had trouble raising additional money needed for the repairs , For all these reasons , they decided not to assemble the candle again . The candle was placed into storage at an old incinerator plant on Pennsylvania Route 611 , and the Easton Area Christmas Committee sought alternative decorations for its holiday program . In 1961 , 24 streams of multi @-@ colored Christmas light strands ( totaling 2 @,@ 650 bulbs ) were draped from the top of the monument to the edges of Centre Square , creating an umbrella @-@ like shape of lights . More than 200 Christmas Trees were also placed around the base of the monument , along with a nativity scene and Christmas light decorations on the nearby bridges . The set @-@ up cost only $ 2 @,@ 000 , compared to the average $ 3 @,@ 000 for the Christmas Candle display . This display was used for the next five years , and the decorations around the Soldiers ' & Sailors ' Monument came to be known as " the umbrella of Christmas lights " .
In early 1965 , Easton City Councilman Fred Ashton conducted a report announcing there had been " considerable criticism " of Easton 's holiday decorations , prompting the Easton Area Christmas Committee to consider restoring the candle . But public contributions had continued to decline , and the project was so expensive the city deemed they could not afford it . The next year , however , Councilman Henry Schultz started an effort to restore the Christmas Candle . Schultz recruited a number of volunteers to make the necessary repairs , including Easton artist Joseph DeThomas , who repainted the structure . Councilman William Tomino also urged that repairs be made , claiming the candle was " known all around the world " and should remain part of Easton 's holiday celebration . A new , 14 @-@ foot ( 4 @.@ 3 m ) flame was built using a new type of quartz , which used 6 @,@ 000 watts to create a stronger light . The candle was erected and lighted at a ceremony on November 25 , 1966 , for the first time in six years . Easton Mayor George S. Smith flipped the switch , and the candle was once again dedicated to the local men and women of the armed forces . More than 400 people attended the ceremony , which this year also included 68 Christmas trees decorated with 1 @,@ 500 lights .
In the fall of 1967 , it was decided the Christmas Candle would be renamed the Peace Candle , because the city planned to sell Christmas cards depicting the structure and hoped Easton would become known as " the Peace Candle city " . On October 18 , the city 's businesses issued a statement , " Whether you choose to call it a Christmas Candle or a Peace Candle is not important . The important aspect is that the Candle is our clarion call , and this call will be issued this year as a reaffirmation of our desire for peace and harmony in all facts of our lives and throughout the world . " On November 27 , 1967 , about 1 @,@ 500 people attended the Peace Candle lighting , which would prove to be the final ceremony of its kind for that incarnation of the candle , which would be rebuilt in subsequent years . The bells of six different downtown churches were rung during the ceremony , and people surrounded the Peace Candle holding lit wax candles themselves . Also in 1967 , a photo and caption of the Peace Candle was featured in the December 6 issue Weekly Reader , a national children 's newspaper circulated in the nation 's schools . A columnist for the magazine named " Aunt Em " said it was featured because , " I think the candle in Easton is especially lovely since it is a symbol for both Hanukkah and Christmas " . Appeared on December 6 , 1967 .
= = Second candle ( 1969 @-@ 1989 ) = =
= = = Fire damage and new construction = = =
On October 25 , 1968 , a fire at the former incinerator plant off Route 611 , where the Peace Candle was being stored , destroyed the four smaller candles that surround the base of the larger candle . The fire was believed to have started by someone playing with matches inside the building . Firefighters battled the blaze for more than an hour . Damage was estimated at a cost of $ 1 @,@ 200 . Initially , city officials announced the fire would not delay the lighting ceremony planned for December 1 . However , the Easton Area Christmas Committee had already been debating the construction of a new Peace Candle prior to the fire . On October 29 , Henry Schultz , now chairman of the Christmas committee , announced the four smaller candles were damaged beyond repair and no effort would be made to rebuild them . Instead , the committee would build an entirely new candle within a year .
The original plywood candle was replaced with a stronger candle made of fiberglass and galvanized steel , the covering of which was stretched on steel and wood frames . It was designed by the Allentown @-@ based firm Rileigh 's Inc. and constructed at a cost of about $ 12 @,@ 500 . The flame was built out of fiberglass strips with lights that changed color in sequence , to create a more realistic burning flame than the original candle . The new structure was 90 @-@ foot ( 27 m ) , compared to the original 80 @-@ foot ( 24 m ) . Each side of the new candle was about 8 @.@ 5 @-@ foot ( 2 @.@ 6 m ) wide on each side . Due to the increase in size , it was no longer necessary to place the flame structure over the bugler statue on the top of the Soldiers ' & Sailors ' Monument . Four new smaller candles were built and stood 20 @-@ foot ( 6 @.@ 1 m ) tall and were about 3 @-@ foot ( 0 @.@ 91 m ) wide on each side . Special lighting equipment was added to give the Peace Candle a natural effect that would make it realistically flicker throughout the night . At the base of the candles , 75 10 @-@ foot ( 3 @.@ 0 m ) tall evergreen trees with gold ornaments were placed , strung with more than 2 @,@ 000 Christmas tree lights .
The first lighting ceremony for the new candle was held on November 28 , 1969 , and attended by about 450 people . Mayor Fred Ashton Jr. threw the switch , and Rev. Harry Maue of the Olivet Presbyterian Church urged that the symbol serve as a symbol of peace in America , nothing the growing casualties in the Vietnam War at the time . Schultz said the new candle was symbolic of the growing development in the Easton area . The new candle was stored in the city 's garage on Bushkill Drive while not assembled .
= = = Second candle = = =
The new candle sustained some minor damage over its first few years . On November 20 , 1970 , heavy rain and inclement weather snapped a wire helping keep the structure in place , and firefighters had to install additional braces the next day . Also that year , about 75 lights were stolen from the decorative Christmas trees set up around the candle 's base . In 1971 , the building where the Peace Candle was stored was broken into and the fiberglass paneling was vandalized . Easton officials declined to discuss the extent of the damage , but Henry Schultz dismissed the vandals as " kids " . In 1974 , the Peace Candle was only lit a few hours a night , and not at all on some nights , due to an ongoing energy crisis , which prompted the Metropolitan Edison Company to ask its Easton area customers not to use Christmas lights that year . Since the Peace Candle was seldom lit , charitable donations dropped in 1974 , resulting in an $ 800 defect for the Easton Area Christmas Committee . Additionally the committee spent $ 1 @,@ 700 in Peace Candle Christmas cards meant to bring in donations , but only 500 packs were sold at $ 1 each . The use of less electricity to light the Peace Candle did not help the committee because the city paid the lighting bill .
In November 1975 , new concrete had been poured at Center Square as part of a beautification project , and the Peace Candle could not be assembled without damaging the work . As a result , the Easton Area Christmas Committee hastily organized a Christmas tree lighting on the Easton Redevelopment Authority parking lot , which was attended by only about 200 people , far below the usual candle lighting ceremony attendance . James Darvin , vice president of the Christmas committee , called it a " last @-@ minute affair " . In order to ensure the candle was erected in 1976 , Nazareth contractor Stewart Beatty donated equipment and employees to help erect the structure , along with local carpenters , electricians and city workers . Downtown Easton businesses also donated $ 1 @,@ 600 to help offset the $ 3 @,@ 500 cost of refurbishing and putting up the candle . Although the Peace Candle was erected and lit in 1977 , the formal lighting ceremony had to be canceled due to heavy rain and cold temperatures . Larry Holmes , the heavyweight boxing champion and Easton native , threw the switch himself during the lighting ceremony on November 24 , 1978 .
Throughout the late @-@ 1970s and the 1980s , the Nazareth @-@ based firm Beatty Contractors erected the candle each year . The firm originally did the project for free , but began charging $ 2 @,@ 000 in 1981 when the cost of fuel started to rise . During the Peace Candle lighting ceremony on November 28 , 1980 , Easton Mayor Philip Mitman dedicated the candle to the 52 American hostages being held in Iran during the Iran hostage crisis . During a storm on December 6 , 1983 , 47 mile @-@ per @-@ hour winds caused the Peace Candle to start tilting in place . When city workers removed the flame next day , they realized the bugler statue atop the Soldiers ' & Sailors ' Monument had moved on its base and would have toppled over had it not been leaning against the candle structure . One of the candle 's anchor cables was also snapped by the wind and torn out of the brickwork . The cable was repaired and the bugler statue , which was previously held by its own weight , was reinforced with grouting . A sixteen @-@ pound chunk of granite was also dislodged from the top of the statue , although in an area that most spectators cannot see from ground level . The candle suffered similar damage in 1988 , when high winds loosened parts of the structure and snapped support wires . As a result , it had to be taken down early on January 5 , 1989 . In 1985 , the Easton Area Christmas Committee was renamed to the Easton Holiday Committee .
= = Third candle ( 1990 @-@ present ) = =
= = = Construction of new structure = = =
By 1989 , the Peace Candle had become so dilapidated that it was hardly able to sustain the winter weather . Strong winds in November had shaken the structure so much that the wax dripping fixtures atop the candle had fallen off . On November 16 , 1989 , Mayor Sal Panto Jr. announced on WEST 's Voice of the People show that the Peace Candle would not go up another year because the support structure was too weak and the Easton Area Christmas Committee was not receiving enough donations to pay for repairs . The committee was now receiving an average of $ 3 @,@ 000 a year in donations , which was used to maintain the existing candle . Panto said , " The sad reality is , this is the last year . " However , new fundraising efforts were started to raise $ 20 @,@ 000 to build a new Peace Candle . Local businesses and unions volunteered their time and materials to work on it , with the Lehigh Valley Carpenters Union working up to 100 hours a week for about five weeks to have the candle ready for the 1990 holiday season .
The new candle was designed by the Allentown firm Alvin Butz Co . , the Allentown firm Barry Isett & Associates , and Bethlehem Steel Corp. Supplies were provided by Dugan & Marcon Inc . , Eisenhardt Mills , Ingersoll @-@ Rand Co. and Dectis Painting , and the construction done by the Carpenters Union Local 600 , Electricians Union Local 367 and the Northampton County Labor Council . It looked almost exactly the same as the old previous candle , with eight flood lights installed to illuminate the white shaft . The candle cost $ 35 @,@ 000 to build , but Panto said without the help from volunteers , it would have cost around $ 150 @,@ 000 , not including labor . In order to cover the $ 15 @,@ 000 shortfall in funds raised , the city sold Christmas cards , posters , ornaments and $ 10 Peace Candle ownership shares . The first lighting ceremony for the new candle was held November 23 , 1990 .
= = = Third candle = = =
On January 12 , 1999 , the spotlights surrounding the Peace Candle were accidentally turned on , and the heat from the lights ignited a fire among several of the Christmas trees surrounding the structure . Several residents called police and sprayed the flames with fire extinguishers until city firefighters arrived to put out the blaze . Although flames reached as high as 30 feet , only the trees were damaged and the Peace Candle itself was undamaged . The incident spurred discussion about removing the trees altogether , but Easton officials insisted the fire was just a fluke accident . New spotlights were installed in 2000 , which lit the candle from top to bottom and focused on the Soldiers ' & Sailors ' Monument for the rest of the year .
By 2000 , the city 's Christmas decorations also included lighted snowflakes on the utility poles of Easton streets surrounding the Peace Candle . The 32 six @-@ foot snowflake decorations cost just over $ 10 @,@ 800 , which were funded in part by a $ 6 @,@ 000 Community Development Block Grant secured by the city . The Easton Holiday Committee said it was becoming increasing difficult to raise sufficient funds for the holiday display and sought $ 10 @,@ 000 from the city council , but they were rejected . In response , six of the eleven Easton Holiday Committee members resigned in March 2001 , prompting fear that the Peace Candle would not be erected during its 50th anniversary that following holiday season . However , the committee was filled with new volunteers who revamped efforts to raise funds through the sale of wax candles and greeting cards . The Peace Candle was lit during a ceremony on November 23 , 2001 , in dedication to the victims of the September 11 terrorist attacks , as well as rescue workers from New York City , The Pentagon and Somerset County , Pennsylvania who responded the day of the attacks .
In 2003 , a six @-@ foot slab of fiberglass from the imitation wax at the top of the candle was knocked loose by 50 mile @-@ per @-@ hour winds during a storm . Nobody was injured . James Pruznick , a filmmaker from Pohatcong Township , New Jersey , made a documentary film in 2004 focused on that year 's assembly of the Peace Candle , as well as interviews with politicians , artists , merchants and construction workers about the history of the structure . It was first screened in December 2004 and made available subsequently on VHS and DVD . In October 2008 , fear grew that the Peace Candle would no longer be erected when Easton employees who previously volunteer to climb the Peace Candle structure no longer wished to assemble it . Those fears were put to rest the next month , however , when the trade union Lehigh Valley Erectors Inc. volunteered to put the candle up .
In 2007 , Easton Mayor Phil Mitman dedicated that year 's lighting to the troops fighting in Iraq and all of America 's veterans . At about 7 p.m. , the mayor introduced U.S. Navy veteran Kyle Stocker , whose son 4 ½ -year @-@ old Kayden hit the switch to turn on the spotlights illuminating the candle .
In 2009 , Superior Court Judge Jack Panella won a $ 770 bid on the auction website eBay to flip the switch and turn on the Peace Candle during the candle @-@ lighting ceremony on November 27 , 2009 . In November 2010 , Easton Holiday Committee Chairwoman Sandy O 'Brien @-@ Werner voiced doubts that the current candle structure would last until 2014 as previously projected and might need to be replaced sooner . She expressed concern at the cost of such a venture , claiming the Peace Candle cost $ 14 @,@ 640 in 2010 alone for maintenance and operation and that an altogether new structure would cost at least $ 35 @,@ 000 . In response , six @-@ year @-@ old MaryElizabeth Soffera and eight @-@ year @-@ old Katie Dietrich , two cousins from Williams Township who loved the Peace Candle , opened a snow cone stand during a garage sale to raise money for the candle . They raised $ 23 , which they presented to Mayor Sal Panto Jr. during a November city council meeting .
= = Anti @-@ war protests and vigils = =
Due to its symbolism for peace and its placement over a Civil War monument , the Peace Candle has been the site of several anti @-@ war protests over the decades . On December 16 , 1972 , a group of Vietnam War protesters gathered at the Trinity Episcopal Church in Easton and drafted a petition asking Easton City Council to keep the Peace Candle up all year long until the war was ended . Although the protesters acknowledged it was unlikely their request would be granted , they felt the petition itself was a symbolic gesture . Easton City Council President Henry Schultz commended the idea , but said it was not within the authority of the council and that it would be " physically impossible " to keep the candle up all year . At the time , liability insurance was only available up to February 1 , and that keeping it up longer than necessary increased the possibility of an accident or damage from the weather . As part of the petition , the protesters asked city council to draft a resolution formally naming the structure the Peace Candle , claiming although it was commonly referred to by that name , a formal name had never been officially established . Schultz refuted that request , claiming the name had already been established five years earlier .
In 1975 , the activist citizens group Lehigh @-@ Pocono Committee of Concern ( LEPOCO ) formed a " human peace candle " in front of the real structure as a protest against the Vietnam War . Three group members formed a triangle while another man stood on top of their shoulders , holding a lighted candle and a sign that read , " Bring the troops home for Christmas and the rest of the year " . The protest marked the 10th anniversary of LEPOCO 's first protest against the war when they formed in 1965 , which was also held at Center Square . In December 1981 , the Polish labor union Solidarity held a late @-@ night peace rally that included a candlelight vigil , singing and prayers for a peaceful resolution to the martial law crisis in Poland . In 1991 , the city decided to leave the Peace Candle standing until the Gulf War conflict was resolved in honor of the 500 @,@ 000 American troops serving in the war . The gesture was approved after a pool of residents indicated a ratio of 10 @-@ to @-@ 1 supported it . During this time , supporters of the troops tied yellow ribbons around the candle and its surrounding fence , while protesters tied black ribbons to symbolize those who died in the conflict . The candle was taken down that March after the war ended .
On November 14 , 2015 , the candle was lit nearly two weeks prior to the official ceremony date after local resident Joe Mercado posted to an Easton , Pennsylvania Facebook community page asking to light the candle to show support for the people of Paris , France after a terrorist attack the day before . Due to overwhelming response to the post , the city organized a candle light vigil that evening with several hundred residents attending . Prayers were offered in several languages , including French , and several faiths . Easton Mayor Sal Panto Jr. and Allentown Mayor Ed Pawlowski spoke . The candle remained lit for three days before being shut off until the official lighting event .
= = Merchandise and memorabilia = =
In 1967 , the Easton Area Christmas Committee began selling greeting cards depicting Easton 's Peace Candle with the hopes of raising funds to maintain the city 's holiday decorations . The committee created 15 @,@ 000 cards that year , and the city 's Downtown Improvement Group urged residents to buy the cards and mail them to friends and family across the country , with the hopes that Easton would become nationally known as the " Peace Candle City " . The cards were sold in packs of three for $ 1 at city businesses and homes . They were designed in four colors from a painting by Easton artist Joseph DeThomas depicting the Centre Square and the Peace Candle . The 15 @,@ 000 cards went on sale on Starting on October 18 , 1967 , Starting on October 18 , 1967 , and 12 @,@ 000 were already sold by October 30 . The rest by November 1 , and another and another 15 @,@ 000 due to what Councilman Henry Schultz called the " tremendous demand " . In 1969 , to advertise and celebrate the first lighting ceremony for the second candle , the Easton Area Christmas Committee sold placemats and napkin sets with an image of the Peace Candle in a night setting . Ten thousand sets were sold for $ 1 each at various stores and banks in the city .
Both in 1967 and 1968 , U.S. Rep. Fred B. Rooney lobbied the United States Post Office Department seeking for the Peace Candle to chosen for the official Christmas Stamp in the following year . However , it was rejected both years by the Citizens ' Stamp Advisory Committee , which reviewed the proposals and narrowed the applications . In 1968 , an image of the painting The Annunciation by Jan van Eyck was chosen rather than the Peace Candle . In October 1979 , the Schaefferstown , Pennsylvania @-@ based Michter 's Distillery created whiskey decanters patterned after the Peace Candle . The idea was first posed by Mark Hammerstone of Palmer Township , a decanter collector who approached Schultz with the concept in 1978 . Schultz brought the idea to the distillery , which chose to base their second annual Christmas decanter on the Peace Candle . They spent $ 3 @,@ 500 to build a 12 @-@ inch ( 300 mm ) sculpture based on photos of the structure . The decanter , which holds 750 @-@ millilitre ( 26 imp fl oz ; 25 US fl oz ) is off @-@ white with red and yellow flames atop the candles and bunches of Christmas greens around the base . Six thousand decanters were produced and originally sold for a $ 49 @.@ 50 retail price . They were shipped to collectors as far as Texas , California and England .
In 1990 , the city released a china plate with the Peace Candle along with a Christmas tree , which was meant to symbolize the first tree in the nation , which was believed to have been erected in Easton in 1816 . During the 2000 holiday season , the Easton Holiday Committee produced and sold commemorative plates marking the 50th anniversary of the Peace Candle , which included a painting of the structure by local artist Preston Hindmarch . They were sold for $ 32 along with ceramic ornaments of the Easton eatery Colonial Pizza , which sold for $ 22 . Over the years , Christmas cards depicting the Peace Candle have continued to be used as a means of raising funds for the structure .
= = Criticism = =
Ever since the Peace Candle was first erected , some Easton residents have been critical of the structure , arguing it is a tacky symbol of the over @-@ commercialization of Christmas and not a tasteful way to convey a message of peace . Many have condemned the fact that the Peace Candle covers the Soldiers ' & Sailors ' Monument , which proponents see as a sign of disrespect toward veterans . Critics have also argued the candle is too expensive to maintain each year , and some have claimed the phallic shape of the symbol is inappropriate . In 1982 , a petition was signed by 90 people and submitted to the Easton City Council seeking to discontinue the Peace Candle tradition , calling it a " garish symbol of inner @-@ city decadence " . The group wanted to replace it with a decorative display of evergreen tree , in honor of Easton 's claim to be the first city in the United States to observe that German custom . The city rejected the petition after conducting a survey of public opinion , which polled 29 city residents in favor of the Peace Candle and four against it .
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= Bald eagle =
The bald eagle ( Haliaeetus leucocephalus , from Greek hali " sea " , aiētos " eagle " , leuco " white " , cephalos " head " ) is a bird of prey found in North America . A sea eagle , it has two known subspecies and forms a species pair with the white @-@ tailed eagle ( Haliaeetus albicilla ) . Its range includes most of Canada and Alaska , all of the contiguous United States , and northern Mexico . It is found near large bodies of open water with an abundant food supply and old @-@ growth trees for nesting .
The bald eagle is an opportunistic feeder which subsists mainly on fish , which it swoops down and snatches from the water with its talons . It builds the largest nest of any North American bird and the largest tree nests ever recorded for any animal species , up to 4 m ( 13 ft ) deep , 2 @.@ 5 m ( 8 @.@ 2 ft ) wide , and 1 metric ton ( 1 @.@ 1 short tons ) in weight . Sexual maturity is attained at the age of four to five years .
Bald eagles are not actually bald ; the name derives from an older meaning of the word , " white headed " . The adult is mainly brown with a white head and tail . The sexes are identical in plumage , but females are about 25 percent larger than males . The beak is large and hooked . The plumage of the immature is brown .
The bald eagle is both the national bird and national animal of the United States of America . The bald eagle appears on its seal . In the late 20th century it was on the brink of extirpation in the contiguous United States . Populations have since recovered and the species was removed from the U.S. government 's list of endangered species on July 12 , 1995 and transferred to the list of threatened species . It was removed from the List of Endangered and Threatened Wildlife in the Lower 48 States on June 28 , 2007 .
= = Description = =
The plumage of an adult bald eagle is evenly dark brown with a white head and tail . The tail is moderately long and slightly wedge @-@ shaped . Males and females are identical in plumage coloration , but sexual dimorphism is evident in the species , in that females are 25 % larger than males . The beak , feet and irises are bright yellow . The legs are feather @-@ free , and the toes are short and powerful with large talons . The highly developed talon of the hind toe is used to pierce the vital areas of prey while it is held immobile by the front toes . The beak is large and hooked , with a yellow cere . The adult bald eagle is unmistakable in its native range . The closely related African fish eagle ( H. vocifer ) ( from far outside the bald eagle 's range ) also has a brown body , white head and tail , but differs from the bald in having a white chest and black tip to the bill .
The plumage of the immature is a dark brown overlaid with messy white streaking until the fifth ( rarely fourth , very rarely third ) year , when it reaches sexual maturity . Immature bald eagles are distinguishable from the golden eagle ( Aquila chrysaetos ) , the only other very large , non @-@ vulturine bird in North America , in that the former has a larger , more protruding head with a larger beak , straighter edged wings which are held flat ( not slightly raised ) and with a stiffer wing beat and feathers which do not completely cover the legs . When seen well , the golden eagle is distinctive in plumage with a more solid warm brown color than an immature bald eagle , with a reddish @-@ golden patch to its nape and ( in immature birds ) a highly contrasting set of white squares on the wing . Another distinguishing feature of the immature bald eagle over the mature bird is its black , yellow @-@ tipped beak ; the mature eagle has a fully yellow beak .
The bald eagle has sometimes been considered the largest true raptor ( accipitrid ) in North America . The only larger species of raptor @-@ like bird is the California condor ( Gymnogyps californianus ) , a New World vulture which today is not generally considered a taxonomic ally of true accipitrids . However , the golden eagle , averaging 4 @.@ 18 kg ( 9 @.@ 2 lb ) and 63 cm ( 25 in ) in wing chord length in its American race ( A. c. canadensis ) , is merely 455 g ( 1 @.@ 003 lb ) lighter in mean body mass and exceeds the bald eagle in mean wing chord length by around 3 cm ( 1 @.@ 2 in ) . Additionally , the bald eagle 's close cousins , the relatively longer @-@ winged but shorter @-@ tailed white @-@ tailed eagle and the overall larger Steller 's sea eagle ( H. pelagicus ) , may , rarely , wander to coastal Alaska from Asia .
The bald eagle has a body length of 70 – 102 cm ( 28 – 40 in ) . Typical wingspan is between 1 @.@ 8 and 2 @.@ 3 m ( 5 @.@ 9 and 7 @.@ 5 ft ) and mass is normally between 3 and 6 @.@ 3 kg ( 6 @.@ 6 and 13 @.@ 9 lb ) . Females are about 25 % larger than males , averaging 5 @.@ 6 kg ( 12 lb ) , and against the males ' average weight of 4 @.@ 1 kg ( 9 @.@ 0 lb ) . The size of the bird varies by location and generally corresponds with Bergmann 's rule , since the species increases in size further away from the Equator and the tropics . For example , eagles from South Carolina average 3 @.@ 27 kg ( 7 @.@ 2 lb ) in mass and 1 @.@ 88 m ( 6 @.@ 2 ft ) in wingspan , smaller than their northern counterparts . The largest eagles are from Alaska , where large females may weigh up to 7 @.@ 5 kg ( 17 lb ) and span 2 @.@ 44 m ( 8 @.@ 0 ft ) across the wings . A survey of adult weights in Alaska showed that females weighed on average 6 @.@ 3 kg ( 14 lb ) and males weighed 4 @.@ 3 kg ( 9 @.@ 5 lb ) . Among standard linear measurements , the wing chord is 51 @.@ 5 – 69 cm ( 20 @.@ 3 – 27 @.@ 2 in ) , the tail is 23 – 37 cm ( 9 @.@ 1 – 14 @.@ 6 in ) long , and the tarsus is 8 to 11 cm ( 3 @.@ 1 to 4 @.@ 3 in ) . The culmen reportedly ranges from 3 to 7 @.@ 5 cm ( 1 @.@ 2 to 3 @.@ 0 in ) , while the measurement from the gape to the tip of the bill is 7 – 9 cm ( 2 @.@ 8 – 3 @.@ 5 in ) .
The call consists of weak staccato , chirping whistles , kleek kik ik ik ik , somewhat similar in cadence to a gull 's call . The calls of young birds tend to be more harsh and shrill than those of adults .
= = Taxonomy = =
The bald eagle placed in the genus Haliaeetus ( sea eagles ) which gets both its common and specific scientific names from the distinctive appearance of the adult 's head . Bald in the English name is derived from the word piebald , and refers to the white head and tail feathers and their contrast with the darker body . The scientific name is derived from Haliaeetus , New Latin for " sea eagle " ( from the Ancient Greek haliaetos ) , and leucocephalus , Latinized Ancient Greek for " white head , " from λευκος leukos ( " white " ) and κεφαλη kephale ( " head " ) .
The bald eagle was one of the many species originally described by Linnaeus in his 18th century work Systema Naturae , under the name Falco leucocephalus .
There are two recognized subspecies of bald eagle :
H. l. leucocephalus ( Linnaeus , 1766 ) is the nominate subspecies . It is found in the southern United States and Baja California Peninsula .
H. l. washingtoniensis ( Audubon , 1827 ) , synonym H. l. alascanus Townsend , 1897 , the northern subspecies , is larger than southern nominate leucocephalus . It is found in the northern United States , Canada and Alaska .
The bald eagle forms a species pair with the Eurasian white @-@ tailed eagle . This species pair consists of a white @-@ headed and a tan @-@ headed species of roughly equal size ; the white @-@ tailed eagle also has overall somewhat paler brown body plumage . The two species fill the same ecological niche in their respective ranges . The pair diverged from other sea eagles at the beginning of the Early Miocene ( c . 10 Ma BP ) at the latest , but possibly as early as the Early / Middle Oligocene , 28 Ma BP , if the most ancient fossil record is correctly assigned to this genus .
= = Range = =
The bald eagle 's natural range covers most of North America , including most of Canada , all of the continental United States , and northern Mexico . It is the only sea eagle endemic to North America . Occupying varied habitats from the bayous of Louisiana to the Sonoran Desert and the eastern deciduous forests of Quebec and New England , northern birds are migratory , while southern birds are resident , remaining on their breeding territory all year . At minimum population , in the 1950s , it was largely restricted to Alaska , the Aleutian Islands , northern and eastern Canada , and Florida . Today , they are much more common ( almost attaining their peak numbers pre @-@ colonization in North America ) , and nest in every continental state and province in the United States and Canada .
Bald eagles will also congregate in certain locations in winter . From November until February , one to two thousand birds winter in Squamish , British Columbia , about halfway between Vancouver and Whistler . The birds primarily gather along the Squamish and Cheakamus Rivers , attracted by the salmon spawning in the area .
It has occurred as a vagrant twice in Ireland ; a juvenile was shot illegally in Fermanagh on January 11 , 1973 ( misidentified at first as a white @-@ tailed eagle ) , and an exhausted juvenile was captured in Kerry on November 15 , 1987 .
= = Habitat = =
The bald eagle occurs during its breeding season in virtually any kind of American wetland habitat such as seacoasts , rivers , large lakes or marshes or other large bodies of open water with an abundance of fish . Studies have shown a preference for bodies of water with a circumference greater than 11 km ( 7 mi ) , and lakes with an area greater than 10 km2 ( 4 sq mi ) are optimal for breeding bald eagles .
The bald eagle typically requires old @-@ growth and mature stands of coniferous or hardwood trees for perching , roosting , and nesting . Tree species reportedly is less important to the eagle pair than the tree 's height , composition and location . Perhaps of paramount importance for this species is an abundance of comparatively large trees surrounding the body of water . Selected trees must have good visibility , be over 20 m ( 66 ft ) tall , an open structure , and proximity to prey . If nesting trees are in standing water such as in a mangrove swamp , the nest can be located fairly low , at as low 6 m ( 20 ft ) above the ground . In a more typical tree standing on dry ground , nests may be located from 16 to 38 m ( 52 to 125 ft ) in height . In Chesapeake Bay , nesting trees averaged 82 cm ( 32 in ) in diameter and 28 m ( 92 ft ) in total height , while in Florida , the average nesting tree stands 23 m ( 75 ft ) high and is 23 cm ( 9 @.@ 1 in ) in diameter . Trees used for nesting in the Greater Yellowstone area average 27 m ( 89 ft ) high . Trees or forest used for nesting should have a canopy cover of no more than 60 % , and no less than 20 % , and be in close proximity to water . Most nests have been found within 200 m ( 660 ft ) of open water . The greatest distance from open water recorded for a bald eagle nest was over 3 km ( 1 @.@ 9 mi ) , in Florida .
Bald eagle nests are often very large in order to compensate for size of the birds . The largest recorded nest was found in Florida in 1963 , and was measured at nearly 10 feet wide and 20 feet deep .
In Florida , nesting habitats often consist of mangrove swamps , the shorelines of lakes and rivers , pinelands , seasonally flooded flatwoods , hardwood swamps , and open prairies and pastureland with scattered tall trees . Favored nesting trees in Florida are slash pines ( Pinus elliottii ) , longleaf pines ( P. palustris ) , loblolly pines ( P. taeda ) and cypress trees , but for the southern coastal areas where mangroves are usually used . In Wyoming , groves of mature cottonwoods or tall pines found along streams and rivers are typical bald eagle nesting habitats . Wyoming eagles may inhabit habitat types ranging from large , old @-@ growth stands of ponderosa pines ( Pinus ponderosa ) to narrow strips of riparian trees surrounded by rangeland . In Southeast Alaska , Sitka spruce ( Picea sitchensis ) provided 78 % of the nesting trees used by eagles , followed by hemlocks ( Tsuga ) at 20 % . Increasingly , eagles nest in man @-@ made reservoirs stocked with fish .
The bald eagle is usually quite sensitive to human activity while nesting , and is found most commonly in areas with minimal human disturbance . It chooses sites more than 1 @.@ 2 km ( 0 @.@ 75 mi ) from low @-@ density human disturbance and more than 1 @.@ 8 km ( 1 @.@ 1 mi ) from medium- to high @-@ density human disturbance . However , bald eagles will occasionally venture into large estuaries or secluded groves within major cities , such as Hardtack Island on the Willamette River in Portland , Oregon or John Heinz National Wildlife Refuge at Tinicum in Philadelphia , Pennsylvania , which are surrounded by a great quantity of human activity . Even more contrary to the usual sensitivity to disturbance , a family of bald eagles moved to the Harlem neighborhood in New York City in 2010 .
While wintering , bald eagles tend to be less habitat and disturbance sensitive . They will commonly congregate at spots with plentiful perches and waters with plentiful prey and ( in Northern climes ) partially unfrozen waters . Alternately , non @-@ breeding or wintering bald eagles , particularly in areas with a lack of human disturbance , spend their time in various upland , terrestrial habitats sometimes quite far away from waterways . In the northern half of North America ( especially the interior portion ) , this terrestrial inhabitance by bald eagles tends to be especially prevalent because unfrozen water may not be accessible . Upland wintering habitats often consist of open habitats with concentrations of medium @-@ sized mammals , such as prairies , meadows or tundra , or open forests with regular carrion access .
= = Behavior = =
The bald eagle is a powerful flier , and soars on thermal convection currents . It reaches speeds of 56 – 70 km / h ( 35 – 43 mph ) when gliding and flapping , and about 48 km / h ( 30 mph ) while carrying fish . Its dive speed is between 120 – 160 km / h ( 75 – 99 mph ) , though it seldom dives vertically . It is partially migratory , depending on location . If its territory has access to open water , it remains there year @-@ round , but if the body of water freezes during the winter , making it impossible to obtain food , it migrates to the south or to the coast . A number of populations are subject to post @-@ breeding dispersal , mainly in juveniles ; Florida eagles , for example , will disperse northwards in the summer . The bald eagle selects migration routes which take advantage of thermals , updrafts , and food resources . During migration , it may ascend in a thermal and then glide down , or may ascend in updrafts created by the wind against a cliff or other terrain . Migration generally takes place during the daytime , usually between the local hours of 8 : 00 a.m. and 6 : 00 p.m. , when thermals are produced by the sun .
= = = Diet and feeding = = =
The bald eagle is an opportunistic carnivore with the capacity to consume a great variety of prey . Throughout their range , fish often comprise the majority of the eagle 's diet . In 20 food habit studies across the species ' range , fish comprised 56 % of the diet of nesting eagles , birds 28 % , mammals 14 % and other prey 2 % . In Southeast Alaska , fish comprise approximately 66 % of the year @-@ around diet of bald eagles and 78 % of the prey brought to the nest by the parents . Eagles living in the Columbia River Estuary in Oregon were found to rely on fish for 90 % of their dietary intake . In the Pacific Northwest , spawning trout and salmon provide most of the bald eagles ' diet from late summer throughout fall . Southeast Alaskan eagles largely prey on pink salmon ( Oncorhynchus gorbuscha ) , coho salmon ( O. kisutch ) and , more locally , sockeye salmon ( O. nerka ) , with chinook salmon ( O. tshawytscha ) , due to their large size ( 12 to 18 kg ( 26 to 40 lb ) average adult size ) probably being taken only as carrion . Also important in the estuaries and shallow coastlines of southern Alaska are Pacific herring ( Clupea pallasii ) , Pacific sand lance ( Ammodytes hexapterus ) and eulachon ( Thaleichthys pacificus ) . In Oregon 's Columbia River Estuary , the most significant prey species were largescale suckers ( Catostomus macrocheilus ) ( 17 @.@ 3 % of the prey selected there ) , American shad ( Alosa sapidissima ; 13 % ) and common carp ( Cyprinus carpio ; 10 @.@ 8 % ) . Eagles living in the Chesapeake Bay in Maryland were found to subsist largely on American gizzard shad ( Dorosoma cepedianum ) , threadfin shad ( D. petenense ) and white bass ( Morone chrysops ) . Floridian eagles have been reported to prey on catfish , mostly prevalently the brown bullhead ( Ameiurus nebulosus ) and any species in the Ictalurus genus as well as mullet , trout , needlefish , and eels . Wintering eagles on the Platte River in Nebraska preyed mainly on American gizzard shads and common carp . From observation in the Columbia River , 58 % of the fish were caught live by the eagle , 24 % were scavenged as carcasses and 18 % were pirated away from other animals .
Even eagles living in relatively arid regions still typically rely primarily on fish as prey . In Sonora ( Mexico ) and Arizona , 77 % and over 73 % , respectively , of prey remains at the nests were from fish , largely various catfish and rainbow trout ( Oncorhynchus mykiss ) . Prey fish targeted by bald eagles are often quite large . When experimenters offered fish of different sizes in the breeding season around Lake Britton in California , fish measuring 34 to 38 cm ( 13 to 15 in ) were taken 71 @.@ 8 % of the time by parent eagles while fish measuring 23 to 27 @.@ 5 cm ( 9 @.@ 1 to 10 @.@ 8 in ) were chosen only 25 % of the time . At nests around Lake Superior , the remains of fish ( mostly suckers ) were found to average 35 @.@ 4 cm ( 13 @.@ 9 in ) in total length . In the Columbia River estuary , most preyed on by eagles were estimated to measure between 30 and 60 cm ( 12 and 24 in ) in length , and carp flown with ( laboriously ) were up to 86 cm ( 34 in ) in length .
Benthic fishes such as catfish are usually consumed after they die and float to the surface , though while temporarily swimming in the open may be more vulnerable to predation than most fish since their eyes focus downwards . Bald eagles also regularly exploit water turbines which produce battered , stunned or dead fish easily consumed . Predators who leave behind scraps of dead fish that they kill , such as brown bears ( Ursus arctos ) , gray wolves ( Canis lupus ) and red foxes ( Vulpes vulpes ) , may be habitually followed in order to scavenge the kills secondarily . Once North Pacific salmon die off after spawning , usually local bald eagles eat salmon carcasses almost exclusively . Eagles in Washington need to consume 489 g ( 1 @.@ 078 lb ) of fish each day for survival , with adults generally consuming more than juveniles and thus reducing potential energy deficiency and increasing survival during winter .
Behind fish , the next most significant prey base for bald eagles are other waterbirds . The contribution of such birds to the eagle 's diet is variable , depending on the quantity and availability of fish near the water 's surface . Waterbirds can seasonally comprise from 7 % to 80 % of the prey selection for eagles in certain localities . Exceptionally , in the Greater Yellowstone area , birds were eaten as regularly as fish year @-@ around , with both prey groups comprising 43 % of the studied dietary intake . Preferred avian prey includes grebes , alcids , ducks , gulls , coots , herons , egrets , and geese . Bird species most preferred as prey by eagles tend to be medium @-@ sized , such as western grebes ( Aechmophorus occidentalis ) , mallards ( Anas platyrhynchos ) and American coots ( Fulica americana ) as such prey is relatively easy for the much larger eagles to catch and fly with . American herring gull ( Larus smithsonianus ) are the favored avian prey species for eagles living around Lake Superior . Larger waterbirds are occasionally prey as well , with wintering emperor geese ( Chen canagica ) and snow geese ( C. caerulescens ) , which gather in large groups , sometimes becoming regular prey . Other large waterbirds hunted at least occasionally by bald eagles have included common loons ( Gavis immer ) , great black @-@ backed gulls ( Larus marinus ) , sandhill cranes ( Grus canadensis ) , great blue herons ( Ardea herodias ) , Canada geese ( Branta canadensis ) , brown pelicans ( Pelecanus occidentalis ) , and fledging American white pelicans ( P. erythrorhynchos ) . Colony nesting seabirds , such as alcids , storm petrels , cormorants , northern gannets ( Morus bassanus ) , terns and gulls , may be especially vulnerable to predation . Due to easy accessibility and lack of formidable nest defense by such species , bald eagles are capable of preying on such seabirds at all ages , from eggs to mature adults , and can effectively cull large portions of a colony .
Along some portions of the North Pacific coastline , bald eagles which had historically preyed mainly kelp @-@ dwelling fish and supplementally sea otter ( Enhydra lutris ) pups are now preying mainly on seabird colonies since both the fish ( possibly due to overfishing ) and otters ( cause unknown ) have had precipitious population declines , causing concern for seabird conservation . Because of this more extensive predation , some biologist have expressed concern that murres are heading for a " conservation collision " due to heavy eagle predation . Eagles have been confirmed to attack nocturnally active , burrow @-@ nesting seabird species such as storm petrels and shearwaters by digging out their burrows and feeding on all animals they find inside . If a bald eagle flies close by , waterbirds will often fly away en masse , though in other cases they may seemingly ignore a perched eagle . If the said birds are on a colony , this exposed their unprotected eggs and nestlings to scavengers such as gulls . Bird prey may occasionally be attacked in flight , with prey up to the size of Canada geese attacked and killed in mid @-@ air . Unprecedented photographs of a bald eagle unsuccessfully attempting to prey on a much larger adult trumpeter swan ( Cygnus buccinator ) in mid @-@ flight were taken recently . While adults often actively prey on waterbirds , congregated wintering waterfowl are frequently exploited for carcasses to scavenge by immature eagles in harsh winter weather . Bald eagles have been recorded as killing other raptors on occasion . In some cases , these may be attacks of competition or kleptoparasitism on rival species but ended with the consumption of the victim . Raptorial birds reported to be hunted by these eagles have included large adults of species such as red @-@ tailed hawks ( Buteo jamaicensis ) , ospreys ( Pandion haliaetus ) and black ( Coragyps atratus ) and turkey vultures ( Cathartes aura ) .
Mammalian prey includes rabbits , hares , ground squirrels , raccoons ( Procyon lotor ) , muskrats ( Ondatra zibethicus ) , beavers ( Castor canadensis ) , and deer fawns . Newborn , dead , sickly or already injured mammals are often targeted . However , more formidable prey such as adult raccoons and subadult beavers are sometimes attacked . In the Chesapeake Bay area , bald eagles are reportedly the main natural predators of raccoons . Where available , seal colonies can provide much food . On Protection Island , Washington , they commonly feed on harbor seal ( Phoca vitulina ) afterbirths , still @-@ borns and sickly seal pups . On San Juan Island in Washington , introduced European rabbits ( Oryctolagus cuniculus ) , mainly those killed by auto accidents , comprise nearly 60 % of the dietary intake of eagles . In landlocked areas of North America , wintering bald eagles may become habitual predators of medium @-@ sized mammals that occur in colonies or local concentrations , such as prairie dogs ( Cynomys ) and jackrabbits ( Lepus ) . Together with the golden eagle , bald eagles are occasionally accused of preying on livestock , especially sheep ( Ovis aries ) . There are a handful of proven cases of lamb predation , some of specimens weighing up to 11 kg ( 24 lb ) , by bald eagles but they are much less likely to attack a healthy lamb than a golden eagle and both species prefer native , wild prey and are unlikely to cause any extensive detriment to human livelihoods . There is one case of a bald eagle killing and feeding on an adult , pregnant ewe ( then joined in eating the kill by at least 3 other eagles ) , which , weighing on average over 60 kg ( 130 lb ) , is much larger than any other known prey taken by this species .
Supplemental prey are readily taken given the opportunity . In some areas reptiles may become regular prey , especially warm areas such as Florida where reptile diversity is high . Turtles are perhaps the most regularly hunted type of reptile . In coastal New Jersey , 14 of 20 studied eagle nests included remains of turtles . The main species found were common musk turtles ( Sternotherus odoratus ) , diamondback terrapin ( Malaclemys terrapin ) and juvenile common snapping turtles ( Chelydra serpentina ) . In these New Jersey nests , mainly subadult and small adults were taken , ranging in carapace length from 9 @.@ 2 to 17 @.@ 1 cm ( 3 @.@ 6 to 6 @.@ 7 in ) . Snakes are also taken occasionally , especially partially aquatic ones , as are amphibians and crustaceans ( largely crayfish and crabs ) .
To hunt fish , the eagle swoops down over the water and snatches the fish out of the water with its talons . They eat by holding the fish in one claw and tearing the flesh with the other . Eagles have structures on their toes called spicules that allow them to grasp fish . Osprey also have this adaptation . Bald eagles have powerful talons and have been recorded flying with a 6 @.@ 8 kg ( 15 lb ) mule deer ( Odocoileus hemionus ) fawn . This feat is the record for the heaviest load carrying ever verified for a flying bird . It has been estimated that the gripping power ( pounds by square inch ) of the bald eagle is ten times greater than that of a human . Bald eagles can fly with fish at least equal to their own weight , but if the fish is too heavy to lift , the eagle may be dragged into the water . It may swim to safety , in some cases pulling the catch along to the shore as it swims , but some eagles drown or succumb to hypothermia . Many sources claim that bald eagles , like all large eagles , cannot normally take flight carrying prey more than half of their own weight unless aided by favorable wind conditions . On numerous occasions , when large prey such as mature salmon or geese are attacked , eagles have been seen to make contact and then drag the prey in a strenuously labored , low flight over the water to a bank , where they then finish off and dismember the prey . When food is abundant , an eagle can gorge itself by storing up to 1 kg ( 2 @.@ 2 lb ) of food in a pouch in the throat called a crop . Gorging allows the bird to fast for several days if food becomes unavailable . Occasionally , bald eagles may hunt cooperatively when confronting prey , especially relatively large prey such as jackrabbits or herons , with one bird distracting potential prey , while the other comes behind it in order to ambush it . While hunting waterfowl , bald eagles repeatedly fly at a target and cause it to dive repeatedly , hoping to exhaust the victim so it can be caught ( white @-@ tailed eagles have been recorded hunting waterfowl in the same way ) . When hunting concentrated prey , a successful catch which often results in the hunting eagle being pursued by other eagles and needing to find an isolated perch for consumption if it is able to carry it away successfully .
Unlike some other eagle species , bald eagles rarely take on evasive or dangerous prey on their own . The species mainly target prey which is much smaller than themselves , with most live fish caught weighing 1 to 3 kg ( 2 @.@ 2 to 6 @.@ 6 lb ) and most waterbirds preyed weighing 0 @.@ 2 to 2 @.@ 7 kg ( 0 @.@ 44 to 5 @.@ 95 lb ) . They obtain much of their food as carrion or via a practice known as kleptoparasitism , by which they steal prey away from other predators . Due to their dietary habits , bald eagles are frequently viewed in a negative light by humans . Thanks to their superior foraging ability and experience , adults are generally more likely to hunt live prey than immature eagles , which often obtain their food from scavenging . They are not very selective about the condition or origin , whether provided by humans , other animals , auto accidents or natural causes , of a carcass 's presence , but will avoid eating carrion where disturbances from humans are a regular occurrence . They will scavenge carcasses up to the size of whales , though carcasses of ungulates and large fish are seemingly preferred . Bald eagles also may sometimes feed on material scavenged or stolen from campsites and picnics , as well as garbage dumps ( dump usage is habitual mainly in Alaska ) .
When competing for food , eagles will usually dominate other fish @-@ eaters and scavengers , aggressively displacing mammals such as coyotes ( Canis latrans ) and foxes , and birds such as corvids , gulls , vultures and other raptors . Occasionally , coyotes , bobcats ( Lynx rufus ) and domestic dogs ( Canis lupus familiaris ) can displace eagles from carrion , usually less confident immature birds , as has been recorded in Maine . Bald eagles are less active , bold predators than golden eagles and get relatively more of their food as carrion and from kleptoparasitism ( although it is now generally thought that golden eagles eat more carrion than was previously assumed ) . However , the two species are roughly equal in size , aggressiveness and physical strength and so competitions can go either way . Neither species is known to be dominant , and the outcome depends on the size and disposition of the individual eagles involved . The bald eagle is thought to be much more numerous in North America than the golden eagle , with the bald species estimated to number at least 150 @,@ 000 individuals , about twice as many golden eagles there are estimated to live in North America . Due to this , bald eagles often outnumber golden eagles at attractive food sources . Despite the potential for contention between these animals , in New Jersey during winter , a golden eagle and numerous bald eagles were observed to hunt snow geese alongside each other without conflict . Similarly , both eagle species have been recorded , via video @-@ monitoring , to feed on gut pills and carcasses of white @-@ tailed deer ( Odocoileus virginianus ) in remote forest clearings in the eastern Appalachian Mountains without apparent conflict . Many bald eagles are habitual kleptoparasites , especially in winters when fish are harder to come by . They have been recorded stealing fish from other predators such as ospreys , herons and even otters . They have also been recorded opportunistically pirating birds from peregrine falcons ( Falco peregrinus ) , prairie dogs from ferruginous hawks ( Buteo regalis ) and even jackrabbits from golden eagles . When they approach scavengers like dogs , gulls or vultures at carrion sites , they often aggressively attack them and try to force them to disgorge their food . Healthy adult bald eagles are not preyed on in the wild and are thus considered apex predators .
= = = Reproduction = = =
Bald eagles are sexually mature at four or five years of age . When they are old enough to breed , they often return to the area where they were born . It is thought that bald eagles mate for life . However , if one member of a pair dies or disappears , the other will choose a new mate . A pair which has repeatedly failed in breeding attempts may split and look for new mates . Bald eagle courtship involves elaborate , spectacular calls and flight displays . The flight includes swoops , chases , and cartwheels , in which they fly high , lock talons , and free fall , separating just before hitting the ground . Usually , a territory defended by a mature pair will be 1 to 2 km ( 0 @.@ 62 to 1 @.@ 24 mi ) of waterside habitat .
Compared to most other raptors which mostly nest in April or May , bald eagles are early breeders : nest building or reinforcing is often by mid @-@ February , egg laying is often late February ( sometimes during deep snow in the North ) , and incubation is usually mid @-@ March and early May . Eggs hatch from mid April to early May , and the young fledge late June to early July . The nest is the largest of any bird in North America ; it is used repeatedly over many years and with new material added each year may eventually be as large as 4 m ( 13 ft ) deep , 2 @.@ 5 m ( 8 @.@ 2 ft ) across and weigh 1 metric ton ( 1 @.@ 1 short tons ) ; one nest in Florida was found to be 6 @.@ 1 m ( 20 ft ) deep , 2 @.@ 9 meters ( 9 @.@ 5 ft ) across , and to weigh 3 short tons ( 2 @.@ 7 metric tons ) . This nest is on record as the largest tree nest ever recorded for any animal . Usually nests are used for under five years or so , as they either collapse in storms or break the branches supporting them by their sheer weight . However , one nest in the Midwest was occupied continuously for at least 34 years . The nest is built out of branches , usually in large trees found near water . When breeding where there are no trees , the bald eagle will nest on the ground , as has been recorded largely in areas largely isolated from terrestrial predators , such as Amchitka Island in Alaska . In Sonora , Mexico , eagles have been observed nesting on top of Hecho catcuses ( Pachycereus pectinaboriginum ) . Nests located on cliffs and rock pinnacles have been reported historically in California , Kansas , Nevada , New Mexico and Utah , but currently are only verified to occur only in Alaska and Arizona . The eggs average about 73 mm ( 2 @.@ 9 in ) long , ranging from 58 to 85 mm ( 2 @.@ 3 to 3 @.@ 3 in ) , and have a breadth of 54 mm ( 2 @.@ 1 in ) , ranging from 47 to 63 cm ( 19 to 25 in ) . Eggs in Alaska averaged 130 g ( 4 @.@ 6 oz ) in mass , while in Saskatchewan they averaged 114 @.@ 4 g ( 4 @.@ 04 oz ) . As with their ultimate body size , egg size tends to increase further away from the Equator . Eagles produce between one and three eggs per year , two being typical . Rarely , four eggs have been found in nests but these may be exceptional cases of polygyny . Eagles in captivity have been capable of producing up to seven eggs. it is rare for all three chicks to successfully reach the fledging stage . The oldest chick often bears the advantage of larger size and louder voice , which tends to draw the parents attention towards it . Occasionally , as is recorded in many large raptorial birds , the oldest sibling sometimes attacks and kills its younger sibling ( s ) , especially early in the nesting period when their sizes are most different . However , nearly half of known bald eagle produce two fledgings ( more rarely three ) , unlike in some other " eagle " species such as some in the Aquila genus , in which a second fledging is typically observed in less than 20 % of nests , despite two eggs typically being laid . Both the male and female take turns incubating the eggs , but the female does most of the sitting . The parent not incubating will hunt for food or look for nesting material during this stage . For the first two to three weeks of the nestling period , at least one adult is at the nest almost 100 % of the time . After five to six weeks , the attendance of parents usually drops off considerably ( with the parents often perching in trees nearby ) . A young eaglet can gain up to 170 g ( 6 @.@ 0 oz ) a day , the fastest growth rate of any North American bird . The young eaglets pick up and manipulate sticks , play tug of war with each other , practice holding things in their talons , and stretch and flap their wings . By eight weeks , the eaglets are strong enough to flap their wings , lift their feet off the nest platform , and rise up in the air . The young fledge at anywhere from 8 to 14 weeks of age , though will remain close to the nest and attended to by their parents for a further 6 weeks . Juvenile eagles first start dispersing away from their parents about 8 weeks after they fledge . Variability in departure date related to effects of sex and hatching order on growth and development . For the next four years , immature eagles wander widely in search of food until they attain adult plumage and are eligible to reproduce .
= = = Longevity and mortality = = =
The average lifespan of bald eagles in the wild is around 20 years , with the oldest confirmed one having been 38 years of age . In captivity , they often live somewhat longer . In one instance , a captive individual in New York lived for nearly 50 years . As with size , the average lifespan of an eagle population appears to be influenced by its location and access to prey . As they are no longer heavily persecuted , adult mortality is quite low . In one study of Florida eagles , adult bald eagles reportedly had 100 % annual survival rate . In Prince William Sound in Alaska , adults had an annual survival rate of 88 % even after the Exxon Valdez oil spill adversely affected eagles in the area . Of 1 @,@ 428 individuals from across the range necropsied by National Wildlife Health Center from 1963 to 1984 , 329 ( 23 % ) eagles died from trauma , primarily impact with wires and vehicles ; 309 ( 22 % ) died from gunshot ; 158 ( 11 % ) died from poisoning ; 130 ( 9 % ) died from electrocution ; 68 ( 5 % ) died from trapping ; 110 ( 8 % ) from emaciation ; and 31 ( 2 % ) from disease ; cause of death was undetermined in 293 ( 20 % ) of cases . In this study , 68 % of mortality was human @-@ caused . Today eagle @-@ shooting is believed to be considerably reduced due to the species protected status . In one case , an adult eagle investigating a peregrine falcon nest for prey items sustained a concussion from a swooping parent peregrine , and ultimately died days later from it . An early natural history video depicting a cougar ( Puma concolor ) ambushing and killing an immature bald eagle feeding at a rabbit carcass is viewable online although this film may have been staged .
Most non @-@ human @-@ related mortality involves nestlings or eggs . Around 50 % of eagles survive their first year . However , in the Chesapeake Bay area , 100 % of 39 radio @-@ tagged nestlings survived to their first year . Occasionally , nestling or egg fatalities are due to nest collapses , starvation , sibling aggression or inclement weather . Another significant cause of egg and nestling mortality is predation . These have been verified to be preyed by large gulls , corvids ( including ravens , crows and magpies ) , wolverines ( Gulo gulo ) , hawks , owls , eagles , bobcats ( Lynx rufus ) , American black bears ( Ursus americanus ) and raccoons . If food access is low , parental attendance at the nest may be lower because both parents may have to forage thus resulting in less protection . Nestlings are usually exempt from predation by terrestrial carnivores that are poor tree @-@ climbers , but Arctic foxes ( Vulpes lagopus ) occasionally snatched nestlings from ground nests on Amchitka Island in Alaska before they were extirpated from the island . The bald eagle will defend its nest fiercely from all comers and has even repelled attacks from bears , having been recorded knocking a black bear out of a tree when the latter tried to climb a tree holding nestlings .
= = Relationship with humans = =
= = = Population decline and recovery = = =
Once a common sight in much of the continent , the bald eagle was severely affected in the mid @-@ 20th century by a variety of factors , among them the thinning of egg shells attributed to use of the pesticide DDT . Bald eagles , like many birds of prey , were especially affected by DDT due to biomagnification . DDT itself was not lethal to the adult bird , but it interfered with the bird 's calcium metabolism , making the bird either sterile or unable to lay healthy eggs . Female eagles laid eggs that were too brittle to withstand the weight of a brooding adult , making it nearly impossible for the eggs to hatch . It is estimated that in the early 18th century , the bald eagle population was 300 @,@ 000 – 500 @,@ 000 , but by the 1950s there were only 412 nesting pairs in the 48 contiguous states of the US . Other factors in bald eagle population reductions were a widespread loss of suitable habitat , as well as both legal and illegal shooting . In 1930 a New York City ornithologist wrote that in the state of Alaska in the previous 12 years approximately 70 @,@ 000 bald eagles had been shot . Many of the hunters killed the bald eagles under the long @-@ held beliefs that bald eagles grabbed young lambs and even children with their talons , yet the birds were innocent of most of these alleged acts of predation ( lamb predation is rare , human predation is thought to be non @-@ existent ) . Later illegal shooting was described as " the leading cause of direct mortality in both adult and immature bald eagles , " according to a 1978 report in the Endangered Species Technical Bulletin . In 1984 , the National Wildlife Federation listed hunting , power @-@ line electrocution , and collisions in flight as the leading causes of eagle deaths . Bald eagles have also been killed by oil , lead , and mercury pollution , and by human and predator intrusion at nests .
The species was first protected in the U.S. and Canada by the 1918 Migratory Bird Treaty , later extended to all of North America . The Bald and Golden Eagle Protection Act , approved by the U.S. Congress in 1940 , protected the bald eagle and the golden eagle , prohibiting commercial trapping and killing of the birds . The bald eagle was declared an endangered species in the U.S. in 1967 , and amendments to the 1940 act between 1962 and 1972 further restricted commercial uses and increased penalties for violators . Perhaps most significant in the species ' recovery , in 1972 , DDT was banned from usage in the United States . DDT was completely banned in Canada in 1989 , though its use had been highly restricted since the late 1970s .
With regulations in place and DDT banned , the eagle population rebounded . The bald eagle can be found in growing concentrations throughout the United States and Canada , particularly near large bodies of water . In the early 1980s , the estimated total population was 100 @,@ 000 individuals , with 110 @,@ 000 – 115 @,@ 000 by 1992 ; the U.S. state with the largest resident population is Alaska , with about 40 @,@ 000 – 50 @,@ 000 , with the next highest population the Canadian province of British Columbia with 20 @,@ 000 – 30 @,@ 000 in 1992 . Obtaining a precise count of bald eagles population is extremely difficult . The most recent data submitted by individual states was in 2006 , when 9789 breeding pairs were reported . For some time , the stronghold breeding population of bald eagles in the lower 48 states was in Florida , where over a thousand pairs have held on while populations in other states were significantly reduced by DDT use . Today , the contiguous state with the largest number of breeding pairs of eagles is Minnesota with an estimated 1 @,@ 312 pairs , surpassing Florida 's most recent count of 1 @,@ 166 pairs . 23 , or nearly half , of the 48 contiguous states now have at least 100 breeding pairs of bald eagles . In Washington State , there were only 105 occupied nests in 1980 . That number increased by about 30 per year , so that by 2005 there were 840 occupied nests . 2005 was the last year that the Washington Department of Fish and Wildlife counted occupied nest . Further population increases in Washington may limited by the availability of late winter food , particularly salmon .
The bald eagle was officially removed from the U.S. federal government 's list of endangered species on July 12 , 1995 , by the U.S. Fish & Wildlife Service , when it was reclassified from " Endangered " to " Threatened . " On July 6 , 1999 , a proposal was initiated " To Remove the Bald Eagle in the Lower 48 States From the List of Endangered and Threatened Wildlife . " It was de @-@ listed on June 28 , 2007 . It has also been assigned a risk level of Least Concern category on the IUCN Red List . In the Exxon Valdez Oil Spill of 1989 an estimated 247 were killed in Prince William Sound , though the local population returned to its pre @-@ spill level by 1995 .
= = = In captivity = = =
Permits are required to keep bald eagles in captivity in the United States . Permits are primarily issued to public educational institutions , and the eagles which they show are permanently injured individuals which cannot be released to the wild . The facilities where eagles are kept must be equipped with adequate caging and facilities , as well as workers experienced in the handling and care of eagles . Bald eagles cannot legally be kept for falconry in the United States . As a rule , the bald eagle is a poor choice for public shows , being timid , prone to becoming highly stressed , and unpredictable in nature . Native American tribes can obtain a " Native American Religious Use " permit to keep non @-@ releasable eagles as well . They use their naturally molted feathers for religious and cultural ceremonies . The bald eagle can be long @-@ lived in captivity if well cared for , but does not breed well even under the best conditions . In Canada , a license is required to keep bald eagles for falconry .
= = Cultural significance = =
The bald eagle is important in various Native American cultures and , as the national bird of the United States , is prominent in seals and logos , coinage , postage stamps , and other items relating to the U.S. federal government .
= = = Role in Native American culture = = =
The bald eagle is a sacred bird in some North American cultures , and its feathers , like those of the golden eagle , are central to many religious and spiritual customs among Native Americans . Eagles are considered spiritual messengers between gods and humans by some cultures . Many pow wow dancers use the eagle claw as part of their regalia as well . Eagle feathers are often used in traditional ceremonies , particularly in the construction of regalia worn and as a part of fans , bustles and head dresses . In the Navajo Tradition an Eagle feather is represented to be a Protector , along with the Feather Navajo Medicine Man use the leg and wing bones for ceremonial whistles . The Lakota , for instance , give an eagle feather as a symbol of honor to person who achieves a task . In modern times , it may be given on an event such as a graduation from college . The Pawnee considered eagles as symbols of fertility because their nests are built high off the ground and because they fiercely protect their young . The Choctaw considered the bald eagle , who has direct contact with the upper world of the sun , as a symbol of peace .
During the Sun Dance , which is practiced by many Plains Indian tribes , the eagle is represented in several ways . The eagle nest is represented by the fork of the lodge where the dance is held . A whistle made from the wing bone of an eagle is used during the course of the dance . Also during the dance , a medicine man may direct his fan , which is made of eagle feathers , to people who seek to be healed . The medicine man touches the fan to the center pole and then to the patient , in order to transmit power from the pole to the patient . The fan is then held up toward the sky , so that the eagle may carry the prayers for the sick to the Creator .
Current eagle feather law stipulates that only individuals of certifiable Native American ancestry enrolled in a federally recognized tribe are legally authorized to obtain or possess bald or golden eagle feathers for religious or spiritual use . The constitutionality of these laws has been questioned by Native American groups on the basis that it violates the First Amendment by affecting ability to practice their religion freely .
The National Eagle Repository , a division of the FWS , exists as a means to receive , process , and store bald and golden eagles which are found dead , and to distribute the eagles , their parts and feathers , to federally recognized Native American tribes for use in religious ceremonies .
= = = National bird of the United States = = =
The bald eagle is the national bird of the United States of America . The founders of the United States were fond of comparing their new republic with the Roman Republic , in which eagle imagery ( usually involving the golden eagle ) was prominent . On June 20 , 1782 , the Continental Congress adopted the design for the Great Seal of the United States depicting a bald eagle grasping 13 arrows and an olive branch with its talons .
The bald eagle appears on most official seals of the U.S. government , including the presidential seal , the presidential flag , and in the logos of many U.S. federal agencies . Between 1916 and 1945 , the presidential flag ( but not the seal ) showed an eagle facing to its left ( the viewer 's right ) , which gave rise to the urban legend that the flag is changed to have the eagle face towards the olive branch in peace , and towards the arrows in wartime .
Contrary to popular legend , there is no evidence that Benjamin Franklin ever publicly supported the wild turkey ( Meleagris gallopavo ) , rather than the bald eagle , as a symbol of the United States . However , in a letter written to his daughter in 1784 from Paris , criticizing the Society of the Cincinnati , he stated his personal distaste for the bald eagle 's behavior . In the letter Franklin states :
For my own part . I wish the bald eagle had not been chosen the representative of our country . He is a bird of bad moral character . He does not get his living honestly ... besides he is a rank coward : The little king bird not bigger than a sparrow attacks him boldly and drives him out of the district .
Franklin opposed the creation of the Society because he viewed it , with its hereditary membership , as a noble order unwelcome in the newly independent Republic , contrary to the ideals of Lucius Quinctius Cincinnatus , for whom the Society was named ; his reference to the two kinds of birds is interpreted as a satirical comparison between the Society of the Cincinnati and Cincinnatus .
= = = Identification = = =
Grant , Peter J. ( 1988 ) " The Co . Kerry Bald Eagle " Twitching 1 ( 12 ) : 379 – 80 – describes plumage differences between bald eagle and white @-@ tailed eagle in juveniles
= = = Video links = = =
Bald eagle videos , photos , and sounds at the Internet Bird Collection
Bald eagle photo gallery at VIREO ( Drexel University )
Photo field guide on Flickr
100 + Bald Eagles
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= Bratislava =
Bratislava ( / ˌbrætᵻˈslɑːvə / or / ˌbrɑː- / ; Slovak pronunciation : [ ˈbracislaʋa ] ; also known by other names ) is the capital of Slovakia , and with a population of about 450 @,@ 000 , the country 's largest city . The greater metropolitan area is home to more than 650 @,@ 000 people . Bratislava is in southwestern Slovakia , occupying both banks of the River Danube and the left bank of the River Morava . Bordering Austria and Hungary , it is the only national capital that borders two independent countries .
Bratislava is the political , cultural and economic centre of Slovakia . It is the seat of the Slovak president , the parliament and the Slovak Executive . It is home to several universities , museums , theatres , galleries and other important cultural and educational institutions . Many of Slovakia 's large businesses and financial institutions also have headquarters there .
The history of the city has been strongly influenced by people of different nations and religions , namely by Austrians , Croats , Czechs , Germans , Hungarians , Jews , Serbs and Slovaks ( in alphabetical order ) . The city was the capital of the Kingdom of Hungary , a part of the larger Habsburg Monarchy territories , from 1536 to 1783 and has been home to many Slovak , Hungarian and German historical figures .
= = Etymology = =
The city received its contemporary name in 1919 . Beforehand it was mostly known in English by its German name , Pressburg , as it was long dominated by Austrians and other German @-@ speakers . This is the term which the German , the pre @-@ 1919 Slovak ( Prešporok ) and Czech ( Prešpurk ) names are derived from . The origin of the city 's Hungarian name , Pozsony , is unclear : it might come from the Hungarian Poson ( name of the city 's first castellan ) , the Czech Pos or the German Poscho , which are personal names . Hungarian speakers still use the Hungarian name , Pozsony .
The medieval settlement Brezalauspurc ( literally : Braslav 's castle ) is sometimes attributed to Bratislava , however the actual location of Brezalauspurc is under scholarly debate . The city 's modern name is credited to Pavel Jozef Šafárik 's misinterpretation of Braslav as Bratislav when analyzing medieval sources , thus coming up with the term Břetislaw , later Bratislav .
During the revolution of 1918 – 1919 , the name ' Wilsonov ' or ' Wilsonstadt ' ( after President Woodrow Wilson ) was proposed by American Slovaks , as he supported national self @-@ determination . The name Bratislava , which was used before only by some Slovak patriots , became official in March 1919 .
Other alternative names of the city in the past include Greek : Ιστρόπολις Istropolis ( meaning " Danube City " , also used in Latin ) , Czech : Prešpurk , French : Presbourg , Italian : Presburgo , Latin : Posonium , Romanian : Pojon and Serbo @-@ Croatian : Požun / Пожун . The name Pressburg was also used in English @-@ language publications until 1919 , and it is occasionally used today .
In older documents , confusion can be caused by the Latin forms Bratislavia , Wratislavia etc . , which refer to Wrocław , Poland – not to Bratislava .
= = History = =
The first known permanent settlement of the area began with the Linear Pottery Culture , around 5000 BC in the Neolithic era . About 200 BC , the Celtic Boii tribe founded the first significant settlement , a fortified town known as an oppidum . They also established a mint , producing silver coins known as biatecs .
The area fell under Roman influence from the 1st to the 4th century AD and was made part of the Danubian Limes , a border defence system . The Romans introduced grape growing to the area and began a tradition of winemaking , which survives to the present .
The Slavs arrived from the East between the 5th and 6th centuries during the Migration Period . As a response to onslaughts by Avars , the local Slavic tribes rebelled and established Samo 's Empire ( 623 – 658 ) , the first known Slavic political entity . In the 9th century , the castles at Bratislava ( Brezalauspurc ) and Devín ( Dowina ) were important centres of the Slavic states : the Principality of Nitra and Great Moravia . Scholars have debated the identification as fortresses of the two castles built in Great Moravia , based on linguistic arguments and because of the absence of convincing archaeological evidence .
The first written reference to a settlement named " Brezalauspurc " dates to 907 and is related to the Battle of Pressburg , during which a Bavarian army was defeated by the Hungarians . It is connected to the fall of Great Moravia , already weakened by its own inner decline and under the attacks of the Hungarians . The exact location of the battle remains unknown , and some interpretations place it west of Lake Balaton .
In the 10th century , the territory of Pressburg ( what would later become Pozsony county ) became part of Hungary ( called " the Kingdom of Hungary " from 1000 ) . It developed as a key economic and administrative centre on the kingdom 's frontier . This strategic position destined the city to be the site of frequent attacks and battles , but also brought it economic development and high political status . It was granted its first known " town privileges " in 1291 by the Hungarian King Andrew III , and was declared a free royal town in 1405 by King Sigismund . In 1436 he authorized the town to use its own coat of arms .
The Kingdom of Hungary was defeated by the Ottoman Empire in the Battle of Mohács in 1526 . The Turks besieged and damaged Pressburg , but failed to conquer it . Owing to Ottoman advances into Hungarian territory , the city was designated the new capital of Hungary in 1536 , becoming part of the Austrian Habsburg monarchy and marking the beginning of a new era . The city became a coronation town and the seat of kings , archbishops ( 1543 ) , the nobility and all major organisations and offices . Between 1536 and 1830 , eleven Hungarian kings and queens were crowned at St. Martin 's Cathedral . The 17th century was marked by anti @-@ Habsburg uprisings , fighting with the Turks , floods , plagues and other disasters , which diminished the population .
Pressburg flourished during the 18th @-@ century reign of Queen Maria Theresa , becoming the largest and most important town in Hungary . The population tripled ; many new palaces , monasteries , mansions , and streets were built , and the city was the centre of social and cultural life of the region . Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart gave a concert in 1762 in the Pálffy Palace . Joseph Haydn performed in 1784 in the Grassalkovich Palace . Ludwig van Beethoven was a guest in 1796 in the Keglević Palace .
The city started to lose its importance under the reign of Maria Theresa 's son Joseph II , especially after the crown jewels were taken to Vienna in 1783 in an attempt to strengthen the union between Austria and Hungary . Many central offices subsequently moved to Buda , followed by a large segment of the nobility . The first newspapers in Hungarian and Slovak were published here : Magyar hírmondó in 1780 , and Presspurske Nowiny in 1783 . In the course of the 18th century , the city became a centre for the Slovak national movement .
The city 's 19th @-@ century history was closely tied to the major events in Europe . The Peace of Pressburg between Austria and France was signed here in 1805 . Theben Castle was ruined by Napoleon 's French troops during an invasion of 1809 . In 1825 the Hungarian National Learned Society ( the present Hungarian Academy of Sciences ) was founded in Pressburg using a donation from István Széchenyi . In 1843 Hungarian was proclaimed the official language in legislation , public administration and education by the Diet in the city .
As a reaction to the Revolutions of 1848 , Ferdinand V signed the so @-@ called April laws , which included the abolition of serfdom , at the Primate 's Palace . The city chose the revolutionary Hungarian side , but was captured by the Austrians in December 1848 .
Industry developed rapidly in the 19th century . The first horse @-@ drawn railway in the Kingdom of Hungary , from Pressburg to Szentgyörgy Svätý Jur , was built in 1840 . A new line to Vienna using steam locomotives was opened in 1848 , and a line to Pest in 1850 . Many new industrial , financial and other institutions were founded ; for example , the first bank in present @-@ day Slovakia was founded in 1842 . The city 's first permanent bridge over the Danube , Starý most , was built in 1891 .
Before World War I , the city had a population that was 42 % ethnic German , 41 % Hungarian and 15 % Slovak ( 1910 census ) . After World War I and the formation of Czechoslovakia on October 28 , 1918 , the city was incorporated into the new state despite its representatives ' reluctance . The dominant Hungarian and German population tried to prevent annexation of the city to Czechoslovakia and declared it a free city . However , the Czechoslovak Legions occupied the city on January 1 , 1919 , and made it part of Czechoslovakia . The city became the seat of Slovakia 's political organs and organizations and became Slovakia 's capital on 4 February . On February 12 , 1919 the German and Hungarian population started a protest against the Czechoslovak occupation , but the Czechoslovak Legions opened fire on the unarmed demonstrators .
On March 27 , 1919 , the name Bratislava was officially adopted for the first time . Left without any protection after the retreat of the Hungarian army , many Hungarians were expelled or fled . Czechs and Slovaks moved their households to Bratislava . Education in Hungarian and German was radically reduced in the city . By the 1930 Czechoslovakian census , the Hungarian population of Bratislava had decreased to 15 @.@ 8 % ( see the Demographics of Bratislava article for more details ) .
In 1938 , Nazi Germany annexed neighbouring Austria in the Anschluss ; later that year it also annexed the still @-@ separate from Bratislava Petržalka and Devín boroughs on ethnic grounds , as these had many ethnic Germans . Bratislava was declared the capital of the first independent Slovak Republic on March 14 , 1939 , but the new state quickly fell under Nazi influence . In 1941 – 1942 and 1944 – 1945 , the new Slovak government cooperated in deporting most of Bratislava 's approximately 15 @,@ 000 Jews ; they were transported to concentration camps , where most were killed or died before the end of the war .
Bratislava was bombarded by the Allies , occupied by German troops in 1944 , and eventually taken by troops of the Soviet 2nd Ukrainian Front on 4 April 1945 . At the end of World War II , most of Bratislava 's ethnic Germans were helped to evacuate by the German authorities . A few returned after the war , but were soon expelled without their properties under the Beneš decrees , part of a widespread expulsion of ethnic Germans from eastern Europe .
After the Communist Party seized power in Czechoslovakia in February 1948 , the city became part of the Eastern Bloc . The city annexed new land , and the population rose significantly , becoming 90 % Slovak . Large residential areas consisting of high @-@ rise prefabricated panel buildings , such as those in the Petržalka borough , were built . The Communist government also built several new grandiose buildings , such as the Most Slovenského národného povstania bridge and the Slovak Radio headquarters .
In 1968 , after the unsuccessful Czechoslovak attempt to liberalise the Communist regime , the city was occupied by Warsaw Pact troops . Shortly thereafter , it became capital of the Slovak Socialist Republic , one of the two states of the federalized Czechoslovakia .
Bratislava 's dissidents anticipated the fall of Communism with the Bratislava candle demonstration in 1988 , and the city became one of the foremost centres of the anti @-@ Communist Velvet Revolution in 1989 .
In 1993 , the city became the capital of the newly formed Slovak Republic following the Velvet Divorce . In the 1990s and the early 21st century , its economy boomed due to foreign investment . The city has also hosted several important cultural and political events .
= = Geography = =
Bratislava is situated in south @-@ western Slovakia , within the Bratislava Region . Its location on the borders with Austria and Hungary makes it the only national capital that borders two countries . It is only 62 kilometres ( 38 @.@ 5 mi ) from the border with the Czech Republic and only 60 kilometres ( 37 @.@ 3 mi ) from the Austrian capital Vienna .
The city has a total area of 367 @.@ 58 square kilometres ( 141 @.@ 9 sq mi ) , making it the second @-@ largest city in Slovakia by area ( after the township of Vysoké Tatry ) . Bratislava straddles the Danube River , which it had developed around and for centuries was the chief transportation route to other areas . The river passes through the city from the west to the south @-@ east . The Middle Danube basin begins at Devín Gate in western Bratislava . Other rivers are the Morava River , which forms the north @-@ western border of the city and enters the Danube at Devín , the Little Danube , and the Vydrica , which enters the Danube in the borough of Karlova Ves .
The Carpathian mountain range begins in city territory with the Little Carpathians ( Malé Karpaty ) . The Záhorie and Danubian lowlands stretch into Bratislava . The city 's lowest point is at the Danube 's surface at 126 metres ( 413 ft ) above mean sea level , and the highest point is Devínska Kobyla at 514 metres ( 1 @,@ 686 ft ) . The average altitude is 140 metres ( 460 ft ) .
= = = Climate = = =
Bratislava lies in the north temperate zone and has a moderately continental climate ( original / US Köppen – Geiger climate classification Cfb / Dfb , Trewartha climate classification DCbo , USDA Plant Hardiness Zone 7b ) with mean annual temperature ( 1990 – 2009 ) of around 10 @.@ 5 ° C ( 50 @.@ 9 ° F ) , average temperature of 21 ° C ( 70 ° F ) in the warmest month and − 1 ° C ( 30 ° F ) in the coldest month , four distinct seasons and precipitation spread rather evenly throughout the year . It is often windy with a marked variation between hot summers and cold , humid winters . The city is in one of the warmest and driest parts of Slovakia . Recently , the transitions from winter to summer and summer to winter have been rapid , with short autumn and spring periods . Snow occurs less frequently than previously . Extreme temperatures ( 1981 – 2013 ) – record high : 39 @.@ 4 ° C ( 102 @.@ 9 ° F ) , record low : − 24 @.@ 6 ° C ( − 12 @.@ 3 ° F ) . Some areas , particularly Devín and Devínska Nová Ves , are vulnerable to floods from the Danube and Morava rivers . New flood protection has been built on both banks .
= = = Location = = =
= = Cityscape and architecture = =
The cityscape of Bratislava is characterised by medieval towers and grandiose 20th @-@ century buildings , but it has undergone profound changes in a construction boom at the start of the 21st century .
Most historical buildings are concentrated in the Old Town . Bratislava 's Town Hall is a complex of three buildings erected in the 14th – 15th centuries and now hosts the Bratislava City Museum . Michael 's Gate is the only gate that has been preserved from the medieval fortifications , and it ranks among the oldest of the town 's buildings ; the narrowest house in Europe is nearby . The University Library building , erected in 1756 , was used by the Diet of the Kingdom of Hungary from 1802 to 1848 . Much of the significant legislation of the Hungarian Reform Era ( such as the abolition of serfdom and the foundation of the Hungarian Academy of Sciences ) was enacted there .
The historic centre is characterised by many baroque palaces . The Grassalkovich Palace , built around 1760 , is now the residence of the Slovak president , and the Slovak government now has its seat in the former Archiepiscopal Palace . In 1805 , diplomats of emperors Napoleon and Francis II signed the fourth Peace of Pressburg in the Primate 's Palace , after Napoleon 's victory in the Battle of Austerlitz . Some smaller houses are historically significant ; composer Johann Nepomuk Hummel was born in an 18th @-@ century house in the Old Town .
Notable cathedrals and churches include the Gothic St. Martin 's Cathedral built in the 13th – 16th centuries , which served as the coronation church of the Kingdom of Hungary between 1563 and 1830 . The Franciscan Church , dating to the 13th century , has been a place of knighting ceremonies and is the oldest preserved sacral building in the city . The Church of St. Elizabeth , better known as the Blue Church due to its colour , is built entirely in the Hungarian Secessionist style .
A curiosity is the underground ( formerly ground @-@ level ) restored portion of the Jewish cemetery where 19th @-@ century Rabbi Moses Sofer is buried , located at the base of the castle hill near the entrance to a tram tunnel . The only military cemetery in Bratislava is Slavín , unveiled in 1960 in honour of Soviet Army soldiers who fell during the liberation of Bratislava in April 1945 . It offers an excellent view of the city and the Little Carpathians .
Other prominent 20th @-@ century structures include the Most Slovenského národného povstania ( Bridge of the Slovak national uprising ) across the Danube featuring a UFO @-@ like tower restaurant , Slovak Radio 's inverted @-@ pyramid @-@ shaped headquarters , and the uniquely designed Kamzík TV Tower with an observation deck and rotating restaurant . In the early 21st century , new edifices have transformed the traditional cityscape . The construction boom has spawned new public buildings , such as the Most Apollo and a new building of the Slovak National Theatre , as well as private real @-@ estate development .
= = = Bratislava Castle = = =
One of the most prominent structures in the city is Bratislava Castle , situated on a plateau 85 metres ( 279 ft ) above the Danube . The castle hill site has been inhabited since the transitional period between the Stone and Bronze ages and has been the acropolis of a Celtic town , part of the Roman Limes Romanus , a huge Slavic fortified settlement , and a political , military and religious centre for Great Moravia . A stone castle was not constructed until the 10th century , when the area was part of the Kingdom of Hungary . The castle was converted into a Gothic anti @-@ Hussite fortress under Sigismund of Luxemburg in 1430 , became a Renaissance castle in 1562 , and was rebuilt in 1649 in the baroque style . Under Queen Maria Theresa , the castle became a prestigious royal seat . In 1811 , the castle was inadvertently destroyed by fire and lay in ruins until the 1950s , when it was rebuilt mostly in its former Theresian style .
= = = Devín Castle = = =
The ruined and recently renovated Devín Castle is in the borough of Devín , on top of a rock where the Morava River , which forms the border between Austria and Slovakia , enters the Danube . It is one of the most important Slovak archaeological sites and contains a museum dedicated to its history . Due to its strategic location , Devín Castle was a very important frontier castle of Great Moravia and the early Hungarian state . It was destroyed by Napoleon 's troops in 1809 . It is an important symbol of Slovak and Slavic history .
= = = Rusovce = = =
Rusovce mansion , with its English park , is in the Rusovce borough . The house was originally built in the 17th century and was turned into an English neo @-@ Gothic @-@ style mansion in 1841 – 1844 . The borough is also known for the ruins of the Roman military camp Gerulata , part of Limes Romanus , a border defence system . Gerulata was built and used between the 1st and 4th centuries AD .
= = = Parks and lakes = = =
Due to its location in the foothills of the Little Carpathians and its riparian vegetation on the Danubian floodplains , Bratislava has forests close to the city centre . The total amount of public green space is 46 @.@ 8 square kilometres ( 18 @.@ 1 sq mi ) , or 110 square metres ( 1 @,@ 200 sq ft ) per inhabitant . The largest city park is Horský park ( literally , Mountainous Park ) , in the Old Town . Bratislavský lesný park ( Bratislava Forest Park ) is located in the Little Carpathians and includes many locales popular among visitors , such as Železná studienka and Koliba . The Forest Park covers an area of 27 @.@ 3 square kilometres ( 10 @.@ 5 sq mi ) , of which 96 % is forested mostly with oak and mixed oak / hornbeam forest , and contains original flora and fauna such as European badgers , red foxes , wild boar and red and roe deer . On the right bank of the Danube , in the borough of Petržalka , is Janko Kráľ Park founded in 1774 – 76 . A new city park is planned for Petržalka between the Malý Draždiak and Veľký Draždiak lakes .
Bratislava 's zoological park is located in Mlynská dolina , near the headquarters of Slovak Television . The zoo , founded in 1960 , currently houses 152 species of animals , including the rare white lion and white tiger . The Botanical Gardens , which belong to Comenius University , can be found on the Danube riverfront and house more than 120 species of domestic and foreign origin .
The city has a number of natural and man @-@ made lakes , most of which are used for recreation . Examples include Štrkovec lake in Ružinov , Kuchajda in Nové Mesto , Zlaté Piesky and the Vajnory lakes in the north @-@ east , and Rusovce lake in the south , which is popular with nudists .
= = Demographics = =
From the city 's origin until the 19th century , Germans were the dominant ethnic group . However , after the Austro @-@ Hungarian Compromise of 1867 , active Magyarisation took place , and by the end of World War I 40 % of the population of Pressburg spoke Hungarian as their native language , 42 % German , and 15 % Slovak . After the formation of the Czechoslovak Republic in 1918 , Bratislava remained a multi @-@ ethnic city , but with a different demographic trend . Due to Slovakization , the proportion of Slovaks and Czechs increased in the city , while the proportion of Germans and Hungarians fell . In 1938 , 59 % of population were Slovaks or Czechs , while Germans represented 22 % and Hungarians 13 % of the city 's population . The creation of the first Slovak Republic in 1939 brought other changes , most notably the expulsion of many Czechs and the deportation or flight of the Jews during the Holocaust . In 1945 , most of the Germans were evacuated . After the restoration of Czechoslovakia , the Beneš decrees ( partly revoked in 1948 ) collectively punished ethnic German and Hungarian minorities by expropriation and deportation to Germany , Austria , and Hungary for their alleged collaborationism with Nazi Germany and Hungary against Czechoslovakia . The city thereby obtained its clearly Slovak character . Hundreds of citizens were expelled during the communist oppression of the 1950s , with the aim of replacing " reactionary " people with the proletarian class . Since the 1950s , the Slovaks have been the dominant ethnicity in the town , making up around 90 % of the city 's population .
= = Politics = =
Bratislava is the seat of the Slovak parliament , presidency , ministries , supreme court ( Slovak : Najvyšší súd ) , and central bank . It is the seat of the Bratislava Region and , since 2002 , also of the Bratislava Self @-@ Governing Region . The city also has many foreign embassies and consulates .
The current local government ( Mestská samospráva ) structure has been in place since 1990 . It is composed of a mayor ( primátor ) , a city board ( Mestská rada ) , a city council ( Mestské zastupiteľstvo ) , city commissions ( Komisie mestského zastupiteľstva ) , and a city magistrate 's office ( Magistrát ) .
The mayor , based at the Primate 's Palace , is the city 's top executive officer and is elected to a four @-@ year term of office . The current mayor of Bratislava is Ivo Nesrovnal , who won the election held on November 15 , 2014 as an independent candidate . The city council is the city 's legislative body , responsible for issues such as budget , local ordinances , city planning , road maintenance , education , and culture . The Council usually convenes once a month and consists of 45 members elected to four @-@ year terms concurrent with the mayor 's . Many of the council 's executive functions are carried out by the city commission at the council 's direction . The city board is a 28 @-@ member body composed of the mayor and his deputies , the borough mayors , and up to ten city council members . The board is an executive and supervisory arm of the city council and also serves in an advisory role to the mayor .
Administratively , Bratislava is divided into five districts : Bratislava I ( the city centre ) , Bratislava II ( eastern parts ) , Bratislava III ( north @-@ eastern parts ) , Bratislava IV ( western and northern parts ) and Bratislava V ( southern parts on the right bank of the Danube , including Petržalka , the most densely populated residential area in Central Europe ) .
For self @-@ governance purposes , the city is divided into 17 boroughs , each of which has its own mayor ( starosta ) and council . The number of councillors in each depends on the size and population of the borough . Each of the boroughs coincides with the city 's 20 cadastral areas , except for two cases : Nové Mesto is further divided into the Nové Mesto and Vinohrady cadastral areas and Ružinov is divided into Ružinov , Nivy and Trnávka . Further unofficial division recognizes additional quarters and localities .
= = Economy = =
The Bratislava Region is the wealthiest and most economically prosperous region in Slovakia , despite being the smallest by area and having the second smallest population of the eight Slovak regions . It accounts for about 26 % of the Slovak GDP . The GDP per capita ( PPP ) , valued at € 41 @,@ 800 ( 2009 ) , is 178 % of the EU average and is the fifth @-@ highest of all regions in the EU member states .
The average gross monthly salary in the Bratislava region in 2011 was € 1220 .
The unemployment rate in Bratislava was 1 @.@ 83 % in December 2007 . Many governmental institutions and private companies have their headquarters in Bratislava . More than 75 % of Bratislava 's population works in the service sector , mainly composed of trade , banking , IT , telecommunications , and tourism . The Bratislava Stock Exchange ( BSSE ) , the organiser of the public securities market , was founded on March 15 , 1991 .
Companies with the highest value added according to TREND TOP 200 ranking ( 2011 ) , operating predominantly in Bratislava , include the Volkswagen Bratislava Plant , Slovnaft refinery ( MOL ) , Eset ( software developer ) , Asseco ( software company ) , PPC Power ( producer of heat and steam ) and Trenkwalder personnel agency .
Volkswagen Group took over and expanded the BAZ communist @-@ built factory in 1991 , and has since considerably expanded production beyond original Skoda Auto models . Currently , 68 % of production is focused on SUVs : Audi Q7 ; VW Touareg ; as well as the body and under @-@ chassis of the Porsche Cayenne . Since 2012 , production has also included Volkswagen up ! and badge @-@ engineered SEAT Mii and Skoda Citigo .
In recent years , service and high @-@ tech @-@ oriented businesses have prospered in Bratislava . Many global companies , including IBM , Dell , Lenovo , AT & T , SAP , and Accenture , have built outsourcing and service centres here or plan to do so soon . Reasons for the influx of multi @-@ national corporations include proximity to Western Europe , skilled labour force and the high density of universities and research facilities .
Other large companies and employers with headquarters in Bratislava include Slovak Telekom , Orange Slovensko , Slovenská sporiteľňa , Tatra banka , Doprastav , Hewlett @-@ Packard Slovakia , Slovnaft , Henkel Slovensko , Slovenský plynárenský priemysel , Kraft Foods Slovakia , Whirlpool Slovakia , Železnice Slovenskej republiky , and Tesco Stores Slovak Republic .
The Slovak economy 's strong growth in the 2000s has led to a boom in the construction industry , and several major projects have been completed or are planned in Bratislava . Areas attracting developers include the Danube riverfront , where two major projects are already finished : River Park in the Old Town , and Eurovea near the Apollo Bridge . Other locations under development include the areas around the main railway and bus stations , around the former industrial zone near the Old Town and in the boroughs of Petržalka , Nové Mesto and Ružinov . It is expected that investors will spend € 1 @.@ 2 billion on new projects by 2010 . The city has a balanced budget of 277 million Euros ( as of 2010 ) , with one fifth used for investment . Bratislava holds shares in 17 companies directly , for example , in the public transport company ( Dopravný podnik Bratislava ) , the waste collection and disposal company , and the water utility . The city also manages municipal organisations such as the City Police ( Mestská polícia ) , Bratislava City Museum and ZOO Bratislava .
= = = Tourism = = =
For the list of sights in the city , see cityscape and architecture above .
In 2006 , Bratislava had 77 commercial accommodation facilities ( of which 45 were hotels ) with a total capacity of 9 @,@ 940 beds . A total of 986 @,@ 201 visitors , 754 @,@ 870 of whom were foreigners , stayed overnight . Altogether , visitors made 1 @,@ 338 @,@ 497 overnight stays . However , a considerable share of visits is made by those who visit Bratislava for a single day , and their exact number is not known . The largest numbers of foreign visitors come from the Czech Republic , Germany , the United Kingdom , Italy , Poland and Austria .
Among other factors , the growth of low @-@ cost airline flights to Bratislava , led by Ryanair , has led to conspicuous stag parties , primarily from the UK . While these are a boon to the city 's tourism industry , cultural differences and vandalism have led to concern by local officials . Reflecting the popularity of rowdy parties in Bratislava in the early to mid @-@ 2000s , the city was a setting in the 2004 comedy film Eurotrip , which was actually filmed in the city and suburbs of Prague , the Czech Republic .
= = Culture = =
Bratislava is the cultural heart of Slovakia . Owing to its historical multi @-@ cultural character , local culture is influenced by various ethnic and religious groups , including Germans , Slovaks , Hungarians , and Jews . Bratislava enjoys numerous theatres , museums , galleries , concert halls , cinemas , film clubs , and foreign cultural institutions .
= = = Performing arts = = =
Bratislava is the seat of the Slovak National Theatre , housed in two buildings . The first is a Neo @-@ Renaissance theatre building situated in the Old Town at the end of Hviezdoslav Square . The new building , opened to the public in 2007 , is on the riverfront . The theatre has three ensembles : opera , ballet and drama . Smaller theatres include the Bratislava Puppet Theatre , the Astorka Korzo ' 90 theatre , the Arena Theatre , L + S Studio , and the Naive Theatre of Radošina .
Music in Bratislava flourished in the 18th century and was closely linked to Viennese musical life . Mozart visited the town at the age of six . Among other notable composers who visited or lived in the town were Haydn , Liszt , Bartók and Beethoven . It is also the birthplace of the composers Johann Nepomuk Hummel Dohnanyi Erno , and Franz Schmidt . Bratislava is home to both the Slovak Philharmonic Orchestra and the chamber orchestra , Capella Istropolitana . The city hosts several annual festivals , such as the Bratislava Music Festival and Bratislava Jazz Days . The Wilsonic Festival , held annually since 2000 , brings dozens of international musical acts to the city each year . During the summer , various musical events take place as part of the Bratislava Cultural Summer at Bratislava Castle . Apart from musical festivals , it is possible to hear music ranging from underground to well known pop stars .
= = = Museums and galleries = = =
The Slovak National Museum ( Slovenské národné múzeum ) , founded in 1961 , has its headquarters in Bratislava on the riverfront in the Old Town , along with the Natural History Museum , which is one of its subdivisions . It is the largest cultural institution in Slovakia , and manages 16 specialised museums in Bratislava and beyond . The Bratislava City Museum ( Múzeum mesta Bratislavy ) , established in 1868 , is the oldest museum in continuous operation in Slovakia . Its primary goal is to chronicle Bratislava 's history in various forms from the earliest periods using historical and archaeological collections . It offers permanent displays in eight specialised museums .
The Slovak National Gallery , founded in 1948 , offers the most extensive network of galleries in Slovakia . Two displays in Bratislava are next to one another at Esterházy Palace ( Esterházyho palác , Eszterházy palota ) and the Water Barracks ( Vodné kasárne , Vizikaszárnya ) on the Danube riverfront in the Old Town . The Bratislava City Gallery , founded in 1961 , is the second @-@ largest Slovak gallery of its kind . The gallery offers permanent displays at Pálffy Palace ( Pálffyho palác , Pálffy palota ) and Mirbach Palace ( Mirbachov palác , Mirbach palota ) , in the Old Town . Danubiana Art Museum , one of the youngest art museums in Europe , is near Čunovo waterworks .
= = = Media = = =
As the national capital , Bratislava is home to national and many local media outlets . Notable TV stations based in the city include Slovak Television ( Slovenská televízia ) , Markíza , JOJ and TA3 . Slovak Radio ( Slovenský rozhlas ) has its seat in the centre , and many Slovak commercial radio stations are based in the city . National newspapers based in Bratislava include SME , Pravda , Nový čas , Hospodárske noviny and the English @-@ language The Slovak Spectator . Two news agencies are headquartered there : the News Agency of the Slovak Republic ( TASR ) and the Slovak News Agency ( SITA ) .
= = Sport = =
Various sports and sports teams have a long tradition in Bratislava , with many teams and individuals competing in Slovak and international leagues and competitions .
Football is currently represented by the only club playing in the top Slovak football league , the Fortuna Liga . ŠK Slovan Bratislava , founded in 1919 , has its home ground at the Pasienky stadium . ŠK Slovan is the most successful football club in Slovak history , being the only club from the former Czechoslovakia to win the European football competition the Cup Winners ' Cup , in 1969 . FC Petržalka akadémia is the oldest of Bratislava 's football clubs , founded in 1898 , and is based at Stadium FC Petržalka 1898 in Petržalka ( formerly at Pasienky in Nové Mesto and Štadión Petržalka in Petržalka ) . They are currently the only Slovak team to win at least one match in the UEFA Champions League group stage , with a 5 – 0 win over Celtic FC in the qualifying round being the most well @-@ known , alongside a 3 – 2 win over FC Porto . Before then FC Košice in the 1997 – 98 season lost all six matches , despite being the first Slovak side since independence to play in the competition . In 2010 Artmedia were relegated from the Corgon Liga under their new name of MFK Petržalka , finishing 12th and bottom . FC Petržalka akadémia currently competes in 5 @.@ liga after bankruptcy in summer 2014 . Another known club from the city is FK Inter Bratislava . Founded in 1945 , they have their home ground at Stadium ŠKP Inter Dúbravka in Dúbravka , ( formerly at Štadión Pasienky ) and currently plays in the 3 @.@ liga . There are many more clubs with long tradition and successful history despite the lack of success in last years , e.g. LP Domino Bratislava currently playing in 4 @.@ liga ; FK Rača Bratislava competing in the 3 @.@ liga as well as Inter ; FK ŠKP Inter Dúbravka Bratislava , following ŠKP Devín ( successful team from 1990s ) and partially following the original Inter ( original Inter bankrupted in 2009 , sold the Corgoň Liga license to FK Senica and legally merged with FC ŠKP Dúbravka ; current Inter has taken over the tradition , name , colours , fans etc . , but legally is no successor of the original Inter ) ; FC Tatran Devín , the club that was successful mostly at youth level and merged with ŠKP Bratislava in 1995 ; MŠK Iskra Petržalka , playing under the name ŠK Iskra Matadorfix Bratislava in the former 1st League ( today 2nd ) in 1997 / 98 .
Bratislava is home to three winter sports arenas : Ondrej Nepela Winter Sports Stadium , V. Dzurilla Winter Sports Stadium , and Dúbravka Winter Sports Stadium . The HC Slovan Bratislava ice hockey team represents Bratislava from 2012 / 2013 season in Kontinental Hockey League . Slovnaft Arena , a part of Ondrej Nepela Winter Sports Stadium , is home to HC Slovan . The Ice Hockey World Championships in 1959 and 1992 were played in Bratislava , and the 2011 Men 's Ice Hockey World Championships were held in Bratislava and Košice , for which a new arena was built .
The Čunovo Water Sports Centre is a whitewater slalom and rafting area , close to the Gabčíkovo dam . It hosts several international and national canoe and kayak competitions annually .
The National Tennis Centre , which includes Aegon Arena , hosts various cultural , sporting and social events . Several Davis Cup matches have been played there , including the 2005 Davis Cup final . The city is represented in the top Slovak leagues in women 's and men 's basketball , women 's handball and volleyball , and men 's water polo . The Devín – Bratislava National run is the oldest athletic event in Slovakia , and the Bratislava City Marathon has been held annually since 2006 . A race track is located in Petržalka , where horse racing and dog racing events and dog shows are held regularly .
Bratislava is also the centre of rugby union in Slovakia .
= = Education and science = =
The first university in Bratislava , in the Kingdom of Hungary ( and also in the territory of present @-@ day Slovakia ) was Universitas Istropolitana , founded in 1465 by King Matthias Corvinus . It was closed in 1490 after his death .
Bratislava is the seat of the largest university ( Comenius University , 27 @,@ 771 students ) , the largest technical university ( Slovak University of Technology , 18 @,@ 473 students ) , and the oldest art schools ( the Academy of Performing Arts and the Academy of Fine Arts and Design ) in Slovakia . Other institutions of tertiary education are the public University of Economics and the first private college in Slovakia , City University of Seattle . In total , about 56 @,@ 000 students attend university in Bratislava .
There are 65 public primary schools , nine private primary schools and ten religious primary schools . Overall , they enroll 25 @,@ 821 pupils . The city 's system of secondary education ( some middle schools and all high schools ) consists of 39 gymnasia with 16 @,@ 048 students , 37 specialized high schools with 10 @,@ 373 students , and 27 vocational schools with 8 @,@ 863 students ( data as of 2007 ) .
The Slovak Academy of Sciences is also based in Bratislava . However , the city is one of the few European capitals to have neither an observatory nor a planetarium . The nearest observatory is in Modra , 30 kilometres ( 19 mi ) away , and the nearest planetarium is in Hlohovec , 70 kilometres ( 43 mi ) away . CEPIT , the Central European Park For Innovative Technologies , is slated for development in Vajnory . This science and technology park will combine public and private research and educational institutions . Construction was expected to begin in 2008 , but has since stalled .
= = Transport = =
The geographical position of Bratislava in Central Europe has long made it a natural crossroads for international trade traffic .
Public transport in Bratislava is managed by Dopravný podnik Bratislava , a city @-@ owned company . The transport system is known as Mestská hromadná doprava ( MHD , Municipal Mass Transit ) and employs buses , trams and trolleybuses . An additional service , Bratislavská integrovaná doprava ( Bratislava Integrated Transport ) , links train and bus routes in the city with points beyond .
As a rail hub , the city has direct connections to Austria , Hungary , the Czech Republic , Poland , Germany and the rest of Slovakia . Petržalka and Bratislava hlavná stanica are the main railway stations . Main bus station ( Autobusová stanica Mlynské Nivy or AS Mlynské Nivy ) is located at Mlynské Nivy , east of city centre and offers bus connections to cities in Slovakia and international bus lines .
The motorway system provides direct access to Brno in the Czech Republic , Trnava and other points in Slovakia , and Budapest in Hungary . The A6 motorway between Bratislava and Vienna was opened in November 2007 . The Port of Bratislava provides access to the Black Sea via the Danube and to the North Sea through the Rhine – Main – Danube Canal .
M. R. Štefánik Airport is located 9 kilometres ( 5 @.@ 6 mi ) north @-@ east of the city centre . It served 2 @,@ 024 @,@ 000 passengers in 2007 . Bratislava is also served by the Vienna International Airport located 49 kilometres ( 30 @.@ 4 mi ) west of the city centre .
= = International relations = =
= = = Twin towns and sister cities = = =
Bratislava is twinned with :
* Numbers in parentheses list the year of twinning . The first agreement was signed with the city of Perugia , Umbria , in Italy on July 18 , 1962 .
= = = Partnerships = = =
Tehran in Iran
Kraków in Poland
= = Image gallery = =
= = Genealogical resources = =
The records for genealogical research are available at the state archive " Statny Archiv in Bratislava , Slovakia "
Roman Catholic church records ( births / marriages / deaths ) : 1601 – 1897 ( parish A )
Lutheran church records ( births / marriages / deaths ) : 1606 – 1919 ( parish A )
= = = Official sites = = =
Official Tourism and Travel Guide to Bratislava
Official Slovak National Tourism Portal
= = = Tourism and living information = = =
Public urban transport in Bratislava
English @-@ language community events taking place in Bratislava
= = = Images = = =
Virtual Tour of Bratislava
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= The Boat Race 1872 =
The 29th Boat Race took place on the 27 March 1872 . The Boat Race is an annual side @-@ by @-@ side rowing race between crews from the Universities of Oxford and Cambridge along the River Thames . In a race umpired by Robert Lewis @-@ Lloyd , Cambridge won by two lengths in a time of 21 minutes 15 seconds taking the overall record to 16 – 13 in Oxford 's favour .
= = Background = =
The Boat Race is a side @-@ by @-@ side rowing competition between the University of Oxford ( sometimes referred to as the " Dark Blues " ) and the University of Cambridge ( sometimes referred to as the " Light Blues " ) . The race was first held in 1829 , and since 1845 has taken place on the 4 @.@ 2 @-@ mile ( 6 @.@ 8 km ) Championship Course on the River Thames in southwest London . Cambridge went into the race as reigning champions , having defeated Oxford by one length in the previous year 's race , while Oxford led overall with sixteen wins to Cambridge 's twelve .
During the build @-@ up to the race , Oxford 's boat club president , Robert Lesley of Pembroke College , strained his side and was prohibited from practice . Worse still , four days before the race , the number two rower Armistead " broke down and was replaced by C. C. Knollys , also an untrained man " . Conversely , Cambridge saw John Goldie return as president for the third consecutive year , and while all the previous year 's Blues were available , four were selected for the race .
Oxford were coached by E. G. Banks of Worcester College and Frank Willan who had rowed for the Dark Blues four times between the 1866 and 1869 races . Cambridge 's coaches were John Graham Chambers ( who rowed for Cambridge in the 1862 and 1863 races , and was non @-@ rowing boat club president for the 1865 race ) and William Henry Lowe ( who rowed in three times , in the 1868 , 1870 and 1871 races ) .
While sliding seats had started to come to prominence , having been first used by a crew from Pembroke College , Goldie was reluctant to allow them to be tried for the race and disallowed the Light Blue boat manufacturer Harry Clasper from fitting them . The umpire for the race was Robert Lewis @-@ Lloyd , the first time since The Boat Race 1856 that the event was not overseen by Joseph William Chitty . Lewis @-@ Lloyd had rowed for Cambridge four times , between the 1856 and the 1859 races inclusively . Edward Searle once again performed the duties of the starter .
= = Crews = =
The Cambridge crew weighed an average of 11 st 12 @.@ 875 lb ( 75 @.@ 6 kg ) , 2 @.@ 375 pounds ( 1 @.@ 1 kg ) more than their opponents . Oxford 's crew contained three rowers with Boat Race experience , and saw F. H. Hall return to cox the Dark Blue boat for the third time . Along with stroke and president Goldie , Cambridge 's crew included Edmund Spencer and Edward Randolph ( each rowing their third race ) , and John Brooks Close who had rowed in 1871 .
= = Race = =
Cambridge won the toss and elected to start from the Middlesex station , handing the Surrey side of the river to Oxford . The race started at 1.35pm " in the teeth of a bitter north @-@ easterly gale and snow @-@ storm " , and proved uneventful with the Light Blues winning by two lengths in a time of 21 minutes 15 seconds . Partway through the race , Goldie had broken a bolt in his rigging ; although he could no longer contribute to the power of the Light Blue boat , he continued to stroke and provide the required rhythm to lead Cambridge to the victory . It was Cambridge 's third consecutive win and took the overall record to 16 – 13 in Oxford 's favour .
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= Magdeburg @-@ class cruiser =
The Magdeburg class of light cruisers was a group of four ships built for the German Kaiserliche Marine ( Imperial Navy ) . The class comprised SMS Magdeburg , the lead ship , Breslau , Strassburg , and Stralsund . All four ships were laid down in 1910 and were completed by the end of 1912 . They were armed with a main battery of twelve 10 @.@ 5 cm guns , though over the course of their careers , Breslau , Strassburg , and Stralsund were rearmed with more powerful 15 cm guns . They displaced 4 @,@ 570 t ( 4 @,@ 500 long tons ) at full load and were rated at a top speed of 27 @.@ 5 knots ( 50 @.@ 9 km / h ; 31 @.@ 6 mph ) , though all four vessels exceeded that figure on trials .
Magdeburg was used as a torpedo test ship before the outbreak of World War I in August 1914 , after which she was assigned to the Baltic . She conducted a series of raids on Russian positions culminating in a sweep into the Gulf of Finland that resulted in her grounding off the Estonian coast . Russian cruisers seized the stranded ship and captured code books ; they gave one copy to the British Royal Navy , which used it to great advantage . Breslau was assigned to the Mittelmeerdivision with the battlecruiser Goeben in 1912 and remained in the Mediterranean until the outbreak of war . After evading British warships , the two vessels reached Constantinople , where they were transferred to the Ottoman Navy . She operated primarily in the Black Sea against the Russian Navy , but in January 1918 she ventured into the Mediterranean and was mined and sunk after the Battle of Imbros .
Strassburg and Stralsund served with the High Seas Fleet in the North Sea against the British . They saw action at the Battle of Heligoland Bight in August 1914 and served in the reconnaissance screen for the battlecruisers of the I Scouting Group on several bombardments of the British coast in 1914 – 1915 . Stralsund was also present at the Battle of Dogger Bank , but was not heavily engaged . Strassburg saw action during Operation Albion against the Russians in the Baltic . Both ships were surrendered to the Allies after the end of the war ; Strassburg was ceded to Italy and renamed Taranto ; she served with the Italian Navy until 1943 , when she was scuttled after the Italian surrender . She was raised by the Germans and sunk by Allied bombers twice in 1943 – 1944 , and finally scrapped in 1946 – 1947 . Stralsund was given to France and renamed Mulhouse . She served only until 1925 , when she was placed in reserve . She was ultimately broken up in 1935 .
= = Design = =
The design for the ships of the Magdeburg class was prepared in 1908 – 1909 . The design incorporated a number of innovations , including a new longitudinal frame system in the hull , the development of which delayed construction by three to four years . The hull form was also redesigned to improve efficiency , and a new clipper bow was used instead of the old cruiser ram bow . They were the first German light cruisers to incorporate an armored belt at the waterline ; this increased the strength of the hull and became standard practice in warship construction for decades . The quarterdeck was cut down to provide a location to drop mines . All of these features became standard for subsequent German cruiser designs .
= = = General characteristics and machinery = = =
The ships of the Magdeburg class were 136 meters ( 446 ft ) long at the waterline and 138 @.@ 7 m ( 455 ft ) long overall . They had a beam of 13 @.@ 5 m ( 44 ft ) and a draft of 4 @.@ 4 m ( 14 ft ) forward and 5 @.@ 16 m ( 16 @.@ 9 ft ) aft . They displaced 4 @,@ 535 metric tons ( 4 @,@ 463 long tons ; 4 @,@ 999 short tons ) 4 @,@ 570 t ( 4 @,@ 500 long tons ; 5 @,@ 040 short tons ) at full combat load . The hulls were built with longitudinal steel frames and contained fourteen watertight compartments in Magdeburg , Strassburg , and Stralsund . Breslau 's hull was divided into sixteen watertight compartments . All four vessels had a double bottom that extended for forty @-@ five percent of the length of the hull .
The four vessels each had a crew of 18 officers and 336 enlisted men . They carried a number of smaller boats , including one picket boat , one barge , one cutter , two yawls , and two dinghies . The German Navy regarded the ships as good sea boats , with slight weather helm and gentle motion in a swell . The cruisers were maneuverable , but were slow going into a turn . Steering was controlled by a single large rudder . They lost speed only slightly in a head sea , but lost up to sixty percent in hard turns . They had a transverse metacentric height of .79 m ( 2 ft 7 in ) .
Their propulsion systems consisted of steam turbines of various types . Each ship had turbines built by different manufacturers to evaluate each design and configuration . Magdeburg had three engines produced by Bergmann , which drove three 2 @.@ 75 @-@ meter ( 9 ft 0 in ) propellers . Breslau was equipped with two pairs of AG Vulcan turbines , which powered four 3 @-@ bladed screws 2 @.@ 47 m ( 8 ft 1 in ) in diameter . Strassburg had a pair of Marine @-@ type turbines with two 3 @.@ 4 m ( 11 ft ) wide propellers . Stralsund initially had three Bergmann turbines with three 2 @.@ 75 m screws , though by the end of the war the center shaft was removed . All four propulsion systems were rated at 25 @,@ 000 shaft horsepower ( 19 @,@ 000 kW ) , but reached significantly higher speeds in service .
The ships ' turbines were powered by sixteen coal @-@ fired Marine @-@ type water @-@ tube boilers , although they were later altered to use fuel oil that was sprayed on the coal to increase its burn rate . These were divided into five boiler rooms on the centerline . These gave the ships a top speed of 27 @.@ 5 knots ( 50 @.@ 9 km / h ; 31 @.@ 6 mph ) , though on speed trials all four ships exceeded this by at least half a knot . The ships carried 1 @,@ 200 tonnes ( 1 @,@ 200 long tons ) of coal , and an additional 106 tonnes ( 104 long tons ) of oil that gave them a range of approximately 5 @,@ 820 nautical miles ( 10 @,@ 780 km ; 6 @,@ 700 mi ) at 12 knots ( 22 km / h ; 14 mph ) . At 25 knots ( 46 km / h ; 29 mph ) , the range fell considerably to 900 nmi ( 1 @,@ 700 km ; 1 @,@ 000 mi ) . Magdeburg , Strassburg , and Stralsund each had four turbo generators with a combined output of 320 kilowatts ( 430 hp ) at 220 Volts ; Breslau only had two generators .
= = = Armament and armor = = =
The four Magdeburg @-@ class ships were armed with twelve 10 @.@ 5 cm SK L / 45 guns in single pedestal mounts . Two were placed side by side forward on the forecastle , eight were located amidships , four on either side , and two were side by side aft . The guns had a maximum elevation of 30 degrees , which allowed them to engage targets out to 12 @,@ 700 m ( 41 @,@ 700 ft ) . They were supplied with 1 @,@ 800 rounds of ammunition , for 150 shells per gun . They were also equipped with a pair of 50 cm ( 19 @.@ 7 in ) torpedo tubes with five torpedoes submerged in the hull on the broadside . The ships could also carry 120 mines .
Over the course of their careers , the ships all had their armament upgraded , with the exception of Magdeburg . In 1916 , two of Breslau 's 10 @.@ 5 cm guns were replaced with 15 cm SK L / 45 guns , which had a range of 17 @,@ 600 m ( 57 @,@ 700 ft ) . The following year , the remaining ten 10 @.@ 5 cm guns were replaced with six 15 cm guns . In 1915 , Strassburg was rearmed with seven 15 cm guns , two 8 @.@ 8 cm ( 3 @.@ 46 in ) SK L / 45 guns , and two deck @-@ mounted 50 cm torpedo tubes . Stralsund was modified similarly , though her submerged torpedo tubes were removed during the refit .
The ships were protected by a waterline armored belt that was 60 mm ( 2 @.@ 4 in ) thick amidships and 18 mm ( 0 @.@ 71 in ) thick on the bow . The stern was unarmored . The deck was covered with up to 60 mm thick armor plate forward , 40 mm ( 1 @.@ 6 in ) thick amidships , and 20 mm ( 0 @.@ 79 in ) thick aft . Sloped armor 40 mm thick connected the deck and belt armor . The conning tower had 100 mm ( 3 @.@ 9 in ) thick sides and a 20 mm thick roof . A rangefinder was added with 30 mm ( 1 @.@ 2 in ) thick steel plating . The main battery guns had 50 mm ( 2 @.@ 0 in ) thikc gun shields .
= = Construction = =
Magdeburg was ordered under the contract name " Ersatz Bussard " and was laid down at the AG Weser shipyard in Bremen in 1910 and launched on 13 May 1911 , after which fitting @-@ out work commenced . She was commissioned into the High Seas Fleet on 20 August 1912 . Breslau was ordered under the contract name " Ersatz Falke " and was laid down at the AG Vulcan shipyard in Stettin in 1910 . At her launching ceremony on 16 May 1911 , she was christened by the mayor of Breslau , the ship 's namesake . After her launching , fitting @-@ out work commenced and lasted until mid @-@ 1912 . She was commissioned into the High Seas Fleet on 20 August 1912 .
Strassburg was ordered under the contract name " Ersatz Condor " and was laid down at the Kaiserliche Werft shipyard in Wilhelmshaven in 1910 and launched on 24 August 1911 , after which fitting @-@ out work commenced . She was commissioned into the High Seas Fleet on 9 October 1912 . Stralsund was ordered under the contract name " Ersatz Cormoran " and was laid down at the AG Weser shipyard in 1910 and launched on 4 November 1911 , after which fitting @-@ out work commenced . She was commissioned into the High Seas Fleet on 10 December 1912 .
= = Service history = =
= = = Magdeburg = = =
Magdeburg was used as a torpedo test ship after her commissioning until the outbreak of World War I in August 1914 , when she was brought to active service and deployed to the Baltic . In the Baltic , Magdeburg fired the first shots of the war against the Russians on 2 August , when she shelled the port of Libau . She participated in a series of bombardments of Russian positions until late August . On the 26th , she participated in a sweep of the entrance to the Gulf of Finland ; while steaming off the Estonian coast , she ran aground off the island of Odensholm and could not be freed . A pair of Russian cruisers appeared and seized the ship . Fifteen crew members were killed in the brief engagement . They recovered three intact German code books , one of which they passed to the British . The ability to decrypt German wireless signals provided the British with the ability to ambush German units on several occasions during the war , including the Battle of Jutland . The Russians partially scrapped Magdeburg while she remained grounded before completely destroying the wreck .
= = = Breslau = = =
Following her commissioning , Breslau and the battlecruiser Goeben were assigned to the Mittelmeerdivision in response to the Balkan Wars . After evading British warships in the Mediterranean to reach Constantinople , Breslau and Goeben were transferred to the Ottoman Empire in August 1914 , to entice the Ottomans to join the Central Powers in World War I. The ships were renamed Midilli and Yavuz Sultan Selim , respectively , and saw extensive service with the Ottoman fleet , primarily in the Black Sea against the Russian Black Sea Fleet . The two ships , along with several other Ottoman vessels , raided Russian ports in October 1914 , prompting a Russian declaration of war .
Midilli was active in laying minefields off the Russian coast , bombarding Russian ports and installations and , because of a shortage of Ottoman merchant ships , transporting troops and supplies to the Black Sea ports supplying Ottoman troops fighting in the Caucasus Campaign . She was lightly damaged several times by Russian ships , but the most serious damage was inflicted by a mine in 1915 , which kept her out of service for half of a year . The ship was mined and sunk in January 1918 during the Battle of Imbros in which Yavuz Sultan Selim was also mined and badly damaged . The majority of her crew were killed in the sinking .
= = = Strassburg = = =
Strassburg spent the first year of her service overseas , after which she was assigned to the reconnaissance forces of the High Seas Fleet . She saw significant action at the Battle of Heligoland Bight in August 1914 and participated in the raid on Scarborough , Hartlepool and Whitby in December 1914 . By 1916 , the ship was transferred to the Baltic to operate against the Russian Navy . She saw action during Operation Albion in the Gulf of Riga in October 1917 , including screening for the battleships König and Markgraf during the Battle of Moon Sound . She returned to the North Sea for the planned final operation against the British Grand Fleet in the last weeks of the war , and was involved in the mutinies that forced the cancellation of the operation .
The ship served briefly in the new Reichsmarine in 1919 before being transferred to Italy as a war prize . She was formally transferred in July 1920 and renamed Taranto for service in the Italian Navy . In 1936 – 1937 , she was rebuilt for colonial duties and additional anti @-@ aircraft guns were installed . She saw no significant action during World War II until the Armistice that ended Italy 's participation in the war . She was scuttled by the Italian Navy , captured and raised by the Germans , and sunk by Allied bombers in October 1943 . The Germans raised the ship again , which was sunk a second time by bombers in September 1944 . Taranto was finally broken up for scrap in 1946 – 1947 .
= = = Stralsund = = =
Stralsund was assigned to the reconnaissance forces of the High Seas Fleet for the majority of her career . She saw significant action in the early years of World War I , including several operations off the British coast and the Battles of Heligoland Bight and Dogger Bank , in August 1914 and November 1915 , respectively . She was not damaged in either action . The ship was in dockyard hands during the Battle of Jutland , and so she missed the engagement . After the end of the war , she served briefly in the Reichsmarine before being surrendered to the Allies . She was ceded to the French Navy , where she served as Mulhouse until 1925 . She was formally stricken in 1933 and broken up for scrap two years later .
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= Port Charlotte High School =
Port Charlotte High School ( PCHS ) is a four @-@ year , comprehensive , public high school located in Port Charlotte , Florida , US . The school opened in 1981 , graduated its first class in 1984 , its mascot is the pirate , and the school motto is " Yes , I am a Pirate . " It is operated by Charlotte County Public Schools . With 2 @,@ 082 students enrolled in grades Grades 9 through 12 , Port Charlotte High School has more students than any other public school in Charlotte County . Enrollment was traditionally based on students ' geographic locations , but is now by choice under the more recently created open enrollment program . The school has grown much , and it survived Hurricane Charley . The school 's main feeders are Murdock Middle School , Port Charlotte Middle School , and Punta Gorda Middle School . The school 's top athletic rivals are Charlotte High School and Lemon Bay High School . The property value of the school is $ 15 @,@ 797 @,@ 719 US . PCHS has educated two NFL players and one MLB player who also performed in the 2008 Beijing Olympics .
= = History = =
PCHS has experienced growth through its twenty @-@ five years of existence . The campus structure has grown with the population . The school was originally built in 1981 , and opened its doors that year for 9th and 10th graders . For each of the next two years , a class was added , and PCHS graduated its first class in 1984 . The original " G " and " B " buildings were completed in 1983 . The auditorium was built in 1984 . The science building , also known as A building , was built in 1987 . The BB building was built in 1990 . A swimming pool was added in 1991 . The " C building " , which houses the library and some classrooms , was built in 2001 . In 2003 , the new " B building " , the two story academic classroom building , was finished . In 2007 , the new gym was finished . The new gym did not replace the older one , but rather , was an addition .
In 2004 , Hurricane Charley brought devastation to the Port Charlotte region . Although Port Charlotte High School suffered only minor damage from the hurricane , other regional high schools suffered significant damage . In the aftermath , Port Charlotte High School shared its facility with the students of Charlotte High School , with Port Charlotte High School students attending morning class and Charlotte High School students attending in the evening .
In 2009 , Port Charlotte High School was recognized by US News and World Report as one of America 's best high schools and a " Bronze Medal School " for academic excellence . PCHS was one of 1 @,@ 189 schools nationwide to receive a bronze medal .
= = Academics = =
Port Charlotte High School currently has 15 English teachers , 17 math teachers , 8 intensive reading teachers , 14 science teachers , 15 social studies teachers , 8 foreign language teachers , 14 vocational teachers , 5 exceptional student education ( for students with disabilities ) teachers , and 1 ESOL teacher . There are seven periods in a school day . The school has a student / teacher ratio of 21 @.@ 2 . The curriculum is based on the Sunshine State Standards .
These grades are based on FCAT testing .
= = Athletics = =
The PCHS athletic department operates programs in football , basketball , baseball , softball , track , cheerleading , golf , wrestling , soccer , volleyball , bowling , swimming , lacrosse , diving , cross country , and weightlifting . Athletics at PCHS are regulated by the Florida High School Athletic Association under classification 4A , district 11 .
= = Extracurricular activities = =
Port Charlotte High School has many clubs and groups , including Academic Team Challenge ( A @-@ Team ) , Beta Club , Book Club , Creative Writing Club , Dance Team , DECA , Environmental Club , Fellowship of Christian Athletes ( FCA ) , French Club , Games Club , Interact Club , Key Club , Mock Trial Team , Model United Nations ( MUN ) , Mu Alpha Theta , National Art Honor Society , National Honor Society , Naval Junior Reserve Officers Training Corp ( NJROTC ) , Pirate Crew , Pride of Port Charlotte Marching Band , Recruitment & Educational Assistance for Careers In Health ( REACH ) , Red Cross Club , Scholars Club , Silver Cord , Spanish Club , Student Government Association , Thespian Society , Tri @-@ M Music Society , Water Polo , and Yearbook Team . Key Club , an organization for high school students , is operated by the Kiwanis Club .
= = = Model United Nations = = =
Port Charlotte High School 's Model United Nations Academic Team was ranked by the BEST DELEGATE website as the number five best Model UN team in America for the 2010 @-@ 2011 school year .
The school 's Model United Nations ( MUN ) is the most successful competitive team of any kind in Charlotte County history . For almost two decades , the PCHS Model United Nations Academic Team has been recognized as one of the very best Model UN teams in the country or its winning performances at conferences at both the national and international levels . In 2012 , PCHS MUN was ranked the fourth best Model United Nations team in the United States by Best Delegate , a Model United Nations Database recognized all over the world .
The team has won coveted Best Large School and Best Small School Awards at many national and international conferences , like Harvard ( HMUN ) , Yale ( YMUN ) , the University of Pennsylvania ( ILMUNC ) , McGill University in Montreal , Canada ( SSUNS ) , as well as multiple awards at other noteworthy conferences such as University of Chicago ( MUNUC ) , Brown University ( BMUN ) , Northwestern University ( NUMUN , Georgia Tech ( GTMUN ) , The College of William and Mary ( WMHSMUN ) , Duke University , and the Southwest Florida / FGCU ( SWFLMUN ) .
The team also does significant community outreach work . For the past 16 years team members have operated their award @-@ winning International Market . They import and sell arts and crafts created by struggling indigenous artisans from all across the planet . They work closely with the Fair Trade Federation to ensure that all of the artists they work with are treated fairly and paid top wages for their creations . The team has sold well over $ 100 @,@ 000 worth of arts and crafts . Their efforts keep people in the developing world solvent and ancient art forms alive .
Team members also put on a yearly Mini @-@ Mun conference for students from local public and private middle schools . They also present six @-@ week @-@ long public speaking / debate seminars at several local elementary schools . The seminars culminate in a public debate between teams from the elementary schools . The event is attended by over 200 friends and relatives .
= = = Naval Junior Reserve Officers ' Training Corps = = =
The Naval Junior Reserve Officer Training Corps ( NJROTC ) is a program allowing high school students to participate in the academic and physical training aspect of naval service , while also providing leadership opportunities to those involved in the program . It does not require a commitment to military service following high school graduation . Port Charlotte 's NJROTC program was established in the early 1990s ; since then , it has grown significantly . The company of cadets are overseen and instructed by two retired United States Navy personnel , who are in turn overseen by the United States Navy itself through the form of Area Managers . Port Charlotte 's unit is a member of NJROTC Area Seven , and is known for service to its community .
The Pirate NJROTC unit has received many awards over the years , including , but not limited to the " Distinguished Unit Award , " which it has been awarded over seven consecutive academic years - 2001 @-@ 2007 . The unit is a part of Area 7 , which consists of units in Alabama , Florida , and Georgia .
The unit has seven " teams " within its infrastructure that allow participating cadets to receive extracurricular training and experience of their choice : an armed and unarmed Drill Team , Color Guard , honor guard , academic team , orienteering team , marksmanship team and a physical training ( " PT " ) team . The teams compete against other Area Seven units at colleges , universities , military installations , and other high schools . The teams also compete with other units across the United States .
= = = Pride of Port Charlotte Bands = = =
As of 2008 , Port Charlotte High School 's " Pride of Port Charlotte " Bands have consistently ranked among the top bands in the state of Florida for several years . The Pride of Port Charlotte Marching Band has participated at many famous events , such as the Fiesta Bowl , Macy 's Day Parade , the New York City Saint Patrick 's Day Parade , the New Years Day Parade in London , England , and the Cotton Bowl Parade in Dallas , Texas among many others . The Pride Concert and Jazz Bands are also extremely successful , consistently receiving superior ratings from the Florida Bandmasters Association .
= = Demographics = =
Students at Port Charlotte High School generally are between 13 and 19 years of age . 71 % of the students are Caucasian , 14 % are African American , 9 % are hispanic and 6 % are multiracial or other .
= = Notable alumni = =
Vinnie Fiorello and Chris DeMakes are members of Less Than Jake , a ska punk band .
John Hall , placekicker for the New York Jets and Washington Redskins .
Anthony Hargrove ( class of 2001 ) is a defensive end . He helped the New Orleans Saints win Super Bowl XLIV . He has also played for the St. Louis Rams , the Buffalo Bills and the Seattle Seahawks .
David Holmberg , class of 2009 , is an American professional baseball pitcher for the Cincinnati Reds .
Matthew LaPorta , baseball player for the Cleveland Indians and US Olympic team , attended PCHS his freshman year .
Asher Levine , fashion designer .
= = Notable Faculty = =
Doug Dunakey - Former professional golfer . He became the golf coach for PCHS after his professional career .
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= Czech language =
Czech ( / ˈtʃɛk / ; čeština Czech pronunciation : [ ˈt ͡ ʃɛʃcɪna ] ) , formerly known as Bohemian ( / boʊˈhiːmiən , bə- / ; lingua Bohemica in Latin ) , is a West Slavic language strongly influenced by Latin and German . It is spoken by over 10 million people and is the official language of the Czech Republic . Czech 's closest relative is Slovak , with which it is mutually intelligible . It is closely related to other West Slavic languages , such as Silesian and Polish . Although most Czech vocabulary is based on shared roots with Slavic , Romance , and Germanic languages , many loanwords ( most associated with high culture ) have been adopted in recent years .
The language began in its present linguistic branch as Old Czech before slowly dwindling in importance , dominated by German in the Czech lands . During the mid @-@ eighteenth century , it experienced a revival in which Czech academics stressed the past accomplishments of their people and advocated the return of Czech as a major language . It has changed little since that time , except for minor morphological shifts and the formalization of colloquial elements .
Its phoneme inventory is moderate in size , comprising five vowels ( each short or long ) and twenty @-@ five consonants ( divided into " hard " , " neutral " and " soft " categories ) . Words may contain uncommon ( or complicated ) consonant clusters , including one consonant represented by the grapheme ř , or lack vowels altogether . Czech orthography is simple , and has been used as a model by phonologists .
As a member of the Slavic sub @-@ family of the Indo @-@ European languages , Czech is a highly inflected fusional language . Its nouns and adjectives undergo a complex system of declension for case , number , gender , animacy , and type of ending consonant ( hard , neutral or soft ) . Verbs ( with aspect ) are conjugated somewhat more simply for tense , number and gender . Because of this inflection , Czech word order is very flexible and words may be transposed to change emphasis or form questions .
= = Classification = =
Czech is classified as a member of the West Slavic sub @-@ branch of the Slavic branch of the Indo @-@ European language family . This branch includes Polish , Kashubian , Upper and Lower Sorbian and Slovak . Slovak is by far the closest genetic neighbor of Czech , and the languages are closer than any other pair of West Slavic languages ( including Upper and Lower Sorbian , which share a name by association with an ethnic group ) .
The West Slavic languages are spoken in an area classified as part of Central Europe . Except for Polish they differ from East and South Slavic languages by their initial @-@ syllable stress , and Czech is distinguished from other West Slavic languages by a more @-@ restricted distinction between " hard " and " soft " consonants ( see Phonology below ) .
= = = Mutual intelligibility = = =
Czech and Slovak have been considered mutually intelligible ; speakers of either language can communicate with greater ease than those of any other pair of West Slavic languages . Since the 1993 dissolution of Czechoslovakia mutual intelligibility has declined for younger speakers , probably because Czech speakers now experience less exposure to Slovak and vice versa .
The languages have not undergone the deliberate highlighting of minor linguistic differences in the name of nationalism as has occurred in the Bosnian , Serbian and Croatian standards of Serbo @-@ Croatian . However , most Slavic languages ( including Czech ) have been distanced in this way from Russian influences because of widespread public resentment against the former Soviet Union ( which occupied Czechoslovakia in 1968 ) . Czech and Slovak form a dialect continuum , with great similarity between neighboring Czech and Slovak dialects . ( See " Dialects " below . )
In phonetic differences , Czech is characterized by a glottal stop before initial vowels and Slovak by its less @-@ frequent use of long vowels than Czech ; however , Slovak has long forms of the consonants r and l when they function as vowels . Phonemic differences between the two languages are generally consistent , typical of two dialects of a language . Grammatically , although Czech ( unlike Slovak ) has a vocative case both languages share a common syntax .
One study showed that Czech and Slovak lexicons differed by 80 percent , but this high percentage was found to stem primarily from differing orthographies and slight inconsistencies in morphological formation ; Slovak morphology is more regular ( when changing from the nominative to the locative case , Praha becomes Praze in Czech and Prahe in Slovak ) . The two lexicons are generally considered similar , with most differences found in colloquial vocabulary and some scientific terminology . Slovak has slightly more borrowed words than Czech .
The similarities between Czech and Slovak led to the languages being considered a single language by a group of 19th @-@ century scholars who called themselves " Czechoslavs " ( Čechoslováci ) , believing that the peoples were connected in a way which excluded German Bohemians and ( to a lesser extent ) Hungarians and other Slavs . During the First Czechoslovak Republic ( 1918 – 1938 ) , although " Czechoslovak " was designated as the republic 's official language both Czech and Slovak written standards were used . Standard written Slovak was partially modeled on literary Czech , and Czech was preferred for some official functions in the Slovak half of the republic . Czech influence on Slovak was protested by Slovak scholars , and when Slovakia broke off from Czechoslovakia in 1938 as the Slovak State ( which then aligned with Nazi Germany in World War II ) literary Slovak was deliberately distanced from Czech . When the Axis powers lost the war and Czechoslovakia reformed , Slovak developed somewhat on its own ( with Czech influence ) ; during the Prague Spring of 1968 , Slovak gained independence from ( and equality with ) Czech . Since then , " Czechoslovak " refers to improvised pidgins of the languages which have arisen from the decrease in mutual intelligibility .
= = History = =
= = = Origins : Proto @-@ Czech and Old Czech = = =
Around the sixth century AD , a tribe of Slavs arrived in a portion of Central Europe . According to legend they were led by a hero named Čech , from whom the word " Czech " derives . The ninth century brought the state of Great Moravia , whose first ruler ( Rastislav of Moravia ) invited Byzantine ruler Michael III to send missionaries in an attempt to reduce the influence of East Francia on religious and political life in his country . These missionaries , Constantine and Methodius , helped to convert the Czechs from traditional Slavic paganism to Christianity and established a church system . They also brought the Glagolitic alphabet to the West Slavs , whose language was previously unwritten . This language , later known as Proto @-@ Czech , was beginning to separate from its fellow West Slavic hatchlings Proto @-@ Slovak , Proto @-@ Polish and Proto @-@ Sorbian . Among other features , Proto @-@ Czech was marked by its ephemeral use of the voiced velar fricative consonant ( / ɣ / ) and consistent stress on the first syllable .
The Czechs ' language separated from other Slavic tongues into what would later be called Old Czech by the thirteenth century , a classification extending through the sixteenth century . Its use of cases differed from the modern language ; although Old Czech did not yet have a vocative case or an animacy distinction , declension for its six cases and three genders rapidly became complicated ( partially to differentiate homophones ) and its declension patterns resembled those of Lithuanian ( its Balto @-@ Slavic cousin ) .
While Old Czech had a basic alphabet from which a general set of orthographical correspondences was drawn , it did not have a standard orthography . It also contained a number of sound clusters which no longer exist ; allowing ě ( / jɛ / ) after soft consonants , which has since shifted to e ( / ɛ / ) , and allowing complex consonant clusters to be pronounced all at once rather than syllabically . A phonological phenomenon , Havlik 's law ( which began in Proto @-@ Slavic and took various forms in other Slavic languages ) , appeared in Old Czech ; counting backwards from the end of a clause , every odd @-@ numbered yer was vocalized as a vowel , while the other yers disappeared .
Bohemia ( as Czech civilization was known by then ) increased in power over the centuries , as its language did in regional importance . This growth was expedited during the fourteenth century by Holy Roman Emperor Charles IV , who founded Charles University in Prague in 1348 . Here , early Czech literature ( a biblical translation , hymns and hagiography ) flourished . Old Czech texts , including poetry and cookbooks , were produced outside the university as well . Later in the century Jan Hus contributed significantly to the standardization of Czech orthography , advocated for widespread literacy among Czech commoners ( particularly in religion ) and made early efforts to model written Czech after the spoken language .
Czech continued to evolve and gain in regional importance for hundreds of years , and has been a literary language in the Slovak lands since the early fifteenth century . A biblical translation , the Kralice Bible , was published during the late sixteenth century ( around the time of the King James and Luther versions ) which was more linguistically conservative than either . The publication of the Kralice Bible spawned widespread nationalism , and in 1615 the government of Bohemia ruled that only Czech @-@ speaking residents would be allowed to become full citizens or inherit goods or land . This , and the conversion of the Czech upper classes from the Habsburg Empire 's Catholicism to Protestantism , angered the Habsburgs and helped trigger the Thirty Years ' War ( where the Czechs were defeated at the Battle of White Mountain ) . The Czechs became serfs ; Bohemia 's printing industry ( and its linguistic and political rights ) were dismembered , removing official regulation and support from its language . German quickly became the dominant language in Bohemia .
= = = Revival : Modern Czech = = =
The consensus among linguists is that modern , standard Czech originated during the eighteenth century . By then the language had developed a literary tradition , and since then it has changed little ; journals from that period have no substantial differences from modern standard Czech , and contemporary Czechs can understand them with little difficulty . Changes include the morphological shift of í to ej and é to í ( although é survives for some uses ) and the merging of í and the former ejí . Sometime before the eighteenth century , the Czech language abandoned a distinction between phonemic / l / and / ʎ / which survives in Slovak .
The Czech people gained widespread national pride during the mid @-@ eighteenth century , inspired by the Age of Enlightenment a half @-@ century earlier . Czech historians began to emphasize their people 's accomplishments from the fifteenth through the seventeenth centuries , rebelling against the Counter @-@ Reformation ( which had denigrated Czech and other non @-@ Latin languages ) . Czech philologists studied sixteenth @-@ century texts , advocating the return of the language to high culture . This period is known as the Czech National Revival ( or Renascence ) .
During the revival , in 1809 linguist and historian Josef Dobrovský released a German @-@ language grammar of Old Czech entitled Ausführliches Lehrgebäude der böhmischen Sprache ( Comprehensive Doctrine of the Bohemian Language ) . Dobrovský had intended his book to be descriptive , and did not think Czech had a realistic chance of returning as a major language . However , Josef Jungmann and other revivalists used Dobrovský 's book to advocate for a Czech linguistic revival . Changes during this time included spelling reform ( notably , í in place of the former j and j in place of g ) , the use of t ( rather than ti ) to end infinitive verbs and the non @-@ capitalization of nouns ( which had been a late borrowing from German ) . These changes differentiated Czech from Slovak . Modern scholars disagree about whether the conservative revivalists were motivated by nationalism or considered contemporary spoken Czech unsuitable for formal , widespread use .
Adherence to historical patterns was later relaxed and standard Czech adopted a number of features from Common Czech ( a widespread , informal register ) , such as leaving some proper nouns undeclined . This has resulted in a relatively high level of homogeneity among all varieties of the language .
= = Geographic distribution = =
In 2005 and 2007 , Czech was spoken by about 10 million residents of the Czech Republic . A Eurobarometer survey conducted from January to March 2012 found that the first language of 98 percent of Czech citizens was Czech , the third @-@ highest in the European Union ( behind Greece and Hungary ) .
Czech , the official language of the Czech Republic ( a member of the European Union since 2004 ) , is one of the EU 's official languages and the 2012 Eurobarometer survey found that Czech was the foreign language most often used in Slovakia . Economist Jonathan van Parys collected data on language knowledge in Europe for the 2012 European Day of Languages . The five countries with the greatest use of Czech were the Czech Republic ( 98 @.@ 77 percent ) , Slovakia ( 24 @.@ 86 percent ) , Portugal ( 1 @.@ 93 percent ) , Poland ( 0 @.@ 98 percent ) and Germany ( 0 @.@ 47 percent ) .
Czech speakers in Slovakia primarily live in cities . Since it is a recognised minority language in Slovakia , Slovak citizens who speak only Czech may communicate with the government in their language to the extent that Slovak speakers in the Czech Republic may do so .
= = = United States = = =
Immigration of Czechs from Europe to the United States occurred primarily from 1848 to 1914 . Czech is a Less Commonly Taught Language in U.S. schools , and is taught at Czech heritage centers . Large communities of Czech Americans live in the states of Texas , Nebraska and Wisconsin . In the 2000 United States Census , Czech was reported as the most @-@ common language spoken at home ( besides English ) in Valley , Butler and Saunders Counties , Nebraska and Republic County , Kansas . With the exception of Spanish ( the non @-@ English language most commonly spoken at home nationwide ) , Czech was the most @-@ common home language in over a dozen additional counties in Nebraska , Kansas , Texas , North Dakota and Minnesota . As of 2009 , 70 @,@ 500 Americans spoke Czech as their first language ( 49th place nationwide , behind Turkish and ahead of Swedish ) .
= = Dialects = =
In addition to a spoken standard and a closely related written standard , Czech has several regional dialects primarily used in rural areas by speakers less proficient in other dialects or standard Czech . During the second half of the twentieth century , Czech dialect use began to weaken . By the early 1990s dialect use was stigmatized , associated with the shrinking lower class and used in literature or other media for comedic effect . Increased travel and media availability to dialect @-@ speaking populations has encouraged them to shift to ( or add to their own dialect ) standard Czech . Although Czech has received considerable scholarly interest for a Slavic language , this interest has focused primarily on modern standard Czech and ancient texts rather than dialects . Standard Czech is still the norm for politicians , businesspeople and other Czechs in formal situations , but Common Czech is gaining ground in journalism and the mass media .
A detailed 2003 estimate from the Czech Statistical Office counts the following dialects :
Nářečí středočeská ( Central Bohemian dialects )
Nářečí jihozápadočeská ( Southwestern Bohemian dialects )
Podskupina chodská ( Chod subgroup )
Podskupina doudlebská ( Doudleby subgroup )
Nářečí českomoravská ( Bohemian – Moravian dialects )
Nářečí středomoravská ( Central Moravian dialects )
Podskupina tišnovská ( Tišnov subgroup )
Nářečí východomoravská ( Eastern Moravian dialects )
Podskupina slovácká ( Moravian Slovak subgroup )
Podskupina valašská ( Moravian Wallachian subgroup )
Nářečí slezská ( Silesian dialects )
Nářečí severovýchodočeská ( Northeastern Bohemian dialects )
Podskupina podkrknošská ( Krkonoše subgroup )
The main colloquial Czech dialect , spoken primarily near Prague but also throughout the country , is known as Common Czech ( obecná čeština ) . This is an academic distinction ; most Czechs are unaware of the term or associate it with vernacular ( or incorrect ) Czech . Compared to standard Czech , Common Czech is characterized by simpler inflection patterns and differences in sound distribution .
The Czech dialects spoken in Moravia and Silesia are known as Moravian ( moravština ) . In the Austro @-@ Hungarian Empire , " Bohemian @-@ Moravian @-@ Slovak " was a language citizens could register as speaking ( with German , Polish and several others ) . Of the Czech dialects , only Moravian is distinguished in nationwide surveys by the Czech Statistical Office . As of 2011 , 62 @,@ 908 Czech citizens spoke Moravian as their first language and 45 @,@ 561 were diglossal ( speaking Moravian and standard Czech as first languages ) .
Beginning in the sixteenth century , some varieties of Czech resembled Slovak ; the southeastern Moravian dialects , in particular , are sometimes considered dialects of Slovak rather than Czech . These dialects form a continuum between the Czech and Slovak languages , using the same declension patterns for nouns and pronouns and the same verb conjugations as Slovak .
In a 1964 textbook on Czech dialectology , Břetislav Koudela used the following sentence to highlight phonetic differences between dialects :
= = Phonology = =
Czech contains ten basic vowel phonemes , and three more found only in loanwords . They are / a / , / ɛ / , / ɪ / , / o / , and / u / , their long counterparts / aː / , / ɛː / , / iː / , / oː / and / uː / , and three diphthongs , / ou ̯ / , / au ̯ / and / ɛu ̯ / . The latter two diphthongs and the long / oː / are exclusive to loanwords . Vowels are never reduced to schwa sounds when unstressed . Each word usually has primary stress on its first syllable , except for enclitics ( minor , monosyllabic , unstressed syllables ) . In all words of more than two syllables , every odd @-@ numbered syllable receives secondary stress . Stress is unrelated to vowel length , and the possibility of stressed short vowels and unstressed long vowels can be confusing to students whose native language combines the features ( such as English ) .
Voiced consonants with unvoiced counterparts are unvoiced at the end of a word , or when they are followed by unvoiced consonants . Czech consonants are categorized as " hard " , " neutral " or " soft " :
Hard : / d / , / ɡ / , / ɦ / , / k / , / n / , / r / , / t / , / x /
Neutral : / b / , / f / , / l / , / m / , / p / , / s / , / v / , / z /
Soft : / c / , / ɟ / , / j / , / ɲ / , / r ̝ / , / ʃ / , / ts / , / tʃ / , / ʒ /
This distinction describes the declension patterns of nouns , which is based on the category of a noun 's ending consonant . Hard consonants may not be followed by i or í in writing , or soft ones by y or ý ( except in loanwords such as kilogram ) . Neutral consonants may take either character . Hard consonants are sometimes known as " strong " , and soft ones as " weak " .
The phoneme represented by the letter ř ( capital Ř ) is considered unique to Czech . It represents the raised alveolar non @-@ sonorant trill ( IPA : [ r ̝ ] ) , a sound somewhere between Czech 's r and ž ( example : " řeka " ( river ) ) , and is present in Dvořák .
The consonants / r / and / l / can be syllabic , acting as syllable nuclei in place of a vowel . This can be difficult for non @-@ native speakers to pronounce , and Strč prst skrz krk ( " Stick [ your ] finger down [ your ] throat " ) is a Czech tongue twister .
= = Vocabulary = =
Czech vocabulary derives primarily from Slavic , Baltic and other Indo @-@ European roots . Although most verbs have Balto @-@ Slavic origins , pronouns , prepositions and some verbs have wider , Indo @-@ European roots . Some loanwords have been restructured by folk etymology to resemble native Czech words ( hřbitov , " graveyard " and listina , " list " ) .
Most Czech loanwords originated in one of two time periods . Earlier loanwords , primarily from German , Greek and Latin , arrived before the Czech National Revival . More recent loanwords derive primarily from English and French , and also from Hebrew , Arabic and Persian . Many Russian loanwords , principally animal names and naval terms , also exist in Czech .
Although older German loanwords were colloquial , recent borrowings from other languages are associated with high culture . During the nineteenth century , words with Greek and Latin roots were rejected in favor of those based on older Czech words and common Slavic roots ; " music " is muzyka in Polish and музыка ( muzyka ) in Russian , but in Czech it is hudba . Some Czech words have been borrowed as loanwords into English and other languages — for example , robot ( from robota , " labor " ) and polka ( from polka , " Polish woman " or from " půlka " " half " ) .
= = Grammar = =
Typical of Indo @-@ European languages , Czech grammar is fusional ; its nouns , verbs , and adjectives are inflected by phonological processes to modify their meanings and grammatical functions , and the easily separable affixes characteristic of agglutinative languages are limited . Slavic @-@ language inflection is complex and pervasive , inflecting for case , gender and number in nouns and tense , aspect , mood , person and subject number and gender in verbs .
Other parts of speech include adjectives , adverbs , numbers , interrogative words , prepositions , conjunctions and interjections . Adverbs are primarily formed by taking the final ý or í of an adjective and replacing it with e , ě , or o . Negative statements are formed by adding the affix ne- to the verb of a clause , with one exception : je ( he , she or it is ) becomes není .
= = = Sentence and clause structure = = =
Because Czech uses grammatical case to convey word function in a sentence ( instead of relying on word order , as English does ) , its word order is flexible . As a pro @-@ drop language , in Czech an intransitive sentence can consist of only a verb ; information about its subject is encoded in the verb . Enclitics ( primarily auxiliary verbs and pronouns ) must appear in the second syntactic slot of a sentence , after the first stressed unit . The first slot must contain a subject and object , a main form of a verb , an adverb or a conjunction ( except for the light conjunctions a , " and " , i , " and even " or ale , " but " ) .
Czech syntax has a subject – verb – object sentence structure . In practice , however , word order is flexible and used for topicalization and focus . Although Czech has a periphrastic passive construction ( like English ) , colloquial word @-@ order changes frequently produce the passive voice . For example , to change " Peter killed Paul " to " Paul was killed by Peter " the order of subject and object is inverted : Petr zabil Pavla ( " Peter killed Paul " ) becomes " Paul , Peter killed " ( Pavla zabil Petr ) . Pavla is in the accusative case , the grammatical object ( in this case , the victim ) of the verb .
A word at the end of a clause is typically emphasized , unless an upward intonation indicates that the sentence is a question :
Pes jí bagetu . – The dog eats the baguette ( rather than eating something else ) .
Bagetu jí pes . – The dog eats the baguette ( rather than someone else doing so ) .
Pes bagetu jí . – The dog eats the baguette ( rather than doing something else to it ) .
Jí pes bagetu ? – Does the dog eat the baguette ? ( emphasis ambiguous )
In portions of Bohemia ( including Prague ) , questions such as Jí pes bagetu ? without an interrogative word ( such as co , " what " or kdo , " who " ) are intoned in a slow rise from low to high , quickly dropping to low on the last word or phrase .
In Czech syntax , adjectives precede nouns . Relative clauses are introduced by relativizers such as the adjective který , analogous to the English relative pronouns " which " , " that " , " who " and " whom " . As with other adjectives , it is declined into the appropriate case ( see Declension below ) to match its associated noun , person and number . Relative clauses follow the noun they modify , and the following is a glossed example :
English : I want to visit the university that John attends .
= = = Declension = = =
In Czech , nouns and adjectives are declined into one of seven grammatical cases . Nouns are inflected to indicate their use in a sentence . A nominative – accusative language , Czech marks subject nouns with nominative case and object nouns with accusative case . The genitive case marks possessive nouns and some types of movement . The remaining cases ( instrumental , locative , vocative and dative ) indicate semantic relationships , such as secondary objects , movement or position ( dative case ) and accompaniment ( instrumental case ) . An adjective 's case agrees with that of the noun it describes . When Czech children learn their language 's declension patterns , the cases are referred to by number :
Some Czech grammatical texts order the cases differently , grouping the nominative and accusative ( and the dative and locative ) together because those declension patterns are often identical ; this order accommodates learners with experience in other inflected languages , such as Latin or Russian . This order is nominative , accusative , genitive , dative , locative , instrumental and vocative .
Some prepositions require the nouns they modify to take a particular case . The cases assigned by each preposition are based on the physical ( or metaphorical ) direction , or location , conveyed by it . For example , od ( from , away from ) and z ( out of , off ) assign the genitive case . Other prepositions take one of several cases , with their meaning dependent on the case ; na means " onto " or " for " with the accusative case , but " on " with the locative .
Examples of declension patterns ( using prepositions ) for a few nouns with adjectives follow . Only one plural example is given , since plural declension patterns are similar across genders .
This is a glossed example of a sentence using several cases :
English : I carried the box into the house with my friend .
= = = = Gender and animacy = = = =
Czech distinguishes three genders — masculine , feminine , and neuter — and the masculine gender is subdivided into animate and inanimate . With few exceptions , feminine nouns in the nominative case end in -a , -e , or -ost ; neuter nouns in -o , -e , or -í , and masculine nouns in a consonant . Adjectives agree in gender and animacy ( for masculine nouns in the accusative or genitive singular and the nominative plural ) with the nouns they modify . The main effect of gender in Czech is the difference in noun and adjective declension , but other effects include past @-@ tense verb endings : for example , dělal ( he did , or made ) ; dělala ( she did , or made ) and dělalo ( it did , or made ) .
= = = = Number = = = =
Nouns are also inflected for number , distinguishing between singular and plural . Typical of a Slavic language , Czech cardinal numbers one through four allow the nouns and adjectives they modify to take any case , but numbers over five place these nouns and adjectives in the genitive case when the entire expression is in nominative or accusative case . The Czech koruna is an example of this feature ; it is shown here as the subject of a hypothetical sentence , and declined as genitive for numbers five and up .
Numerical words decline for case and , for numbers one and two , for gender . Numbers one through five are shown below as examples , and have some of the most exceptions among Czech numbers . The number one has declension patterns identical to those of the demonstrative pronoun , to .
Although Czech 's main grammatical numbers are singular and plural , a vestigial dual number remains . Some nouns for paired body parts have a dual form : ruka ( hand ) — ruce ; noha ( leg ) — nohy ; oko ( eye ) — oči , and ucho ( ear ) — uši . While two of these nouns are neuter in their singular forms , all dual nouns are considered feminine . Czech has no standard declension pattern for dual nouns , and their gender is relevant to their associated adjectives and verbs .
= = = Verb conjugation = = =
Czech verb conjugation is less complex than noun and adjective declension because it codes for fewer categories . Verbs agree with their subjects in person ( first , second or third ) and number ( singular or plural ) , and are conjugated for tense ( past , present or future ) . For example , the conjugated verb mluvíme ( we speak ) is in the present tense and first @-@ person plural ; it is distinguished from other conjugations of the infinitive mluvit by its ending , me .
= = = = Aspect = = = =
Typical of Slavic languages , Czech marks its verbs for one of two grammatical aspects : perfective and imperfective . Most verbs are part of inflected aspect pairs — for example , koupit ( perfective ) and kupovat ( imperfective ) . Although the verbs ' meaning is similar , in perfective verbs the action is completed and in imperfective verbs it is ongoing . This is distinct from past and present tense , and any Czech verb of either aspect can be conjugated into any of its three tenses . Aspect describes the state of the action at the time specified by the tense .
The verbs of most aspect pairs differ in one of two ways : by prefix or by suffix . In prefix pairs , the perfective verb has an added prefix — for example , the imperfective psát ( to write , to be writing ) compared with the perfective napsat ( to write down , to finish writing ) . The most common prefixes are na- , o- , po- , s- , u- , vy- , z- and za- . In suffix pairs , a different infinitive ending is added to the perfective stem ; for example , the perfective verbs koupit ( to buy ) and prodat ( to sell ) have the imperfective forms kupovat and prodávat . Imperfective verbs may undergo further morphology to make other imperfective verbs ( iterative and frequentative forms ) , denoting repeated or regular action . The verb jít ( to go ) has the iterative form chodit ( to go repeatedly ) and the frequentative form chodívat ( to go regularly ) .
Many verbs have only one aspect , and verbs describing continual states of being — být ( to be ) , chtít ( to want ) , moct ( to be able to ) , ležet ( to lie down , to be lying down ) — have no perfective form . Conversely , verbs describing immediate states of change — for example , otěhotnět ( to become pregnant ) and nadchnout se ( to become enthusiastic ) — have no imperfective aspect .
= = = = Tense and mood = = = =
Although Czech 's use of present and future tense is largely similar to that of English , the language uses past tense to represent the English present perfect and past perfect ; ona běžela could mean she ran , she has run or she had run .
In some contexts , Czech 's perfective present ( which differs from the English present perfect ) implies future action ; in others , it connotes habitual action . As a result , the language has a proper future tense to minimize ambiguity . The future tense does not involve conjugating the verb describing an action to be undertaken in the future ; instead , the future form of být ( as shown in the table at left ) is placed before the infinitive ( for example , budu jíst — " I will eat " ) .
This conjugation is not followed by být itself , so future @-@ oriented expressions involving nouns , adjectives , or prepositions ( rather than verbs ) omit být . " I will be happy " is translated as Budu šťastný ( not Budu být šťastný ) .
The infinitive form ends in t ( archaically , ti ) . It is the form found in dictionaries and the form that follows auxiliary verbs ( for example , můžu tě slyšet — " I can hear you " ) . Czech verbs have three grammatical moods : indicative , imperative and conditional . The imperative mood adds specific endings for each of three person ( or number ) categories : -Ø / -i / -ej for second @-@ person singular , -te / -ete / -ejte for second @-@ person plural and -me / -eme / -ejme for first @-@ person plural . The conditional mood is formed with a particle after the past @-@ tense verb . This mood indicates possible events , expressed in English as " I would " or " I wish " .
= = = = Classes = = = =
Most Czech verbs fall into one of five classes , which determine their conjugation patterns . The future tense of být would be classified as a Class I verb because of its endings . Examples of the present tense of each class and some common irregular verbs follow in the tables below :
= = Orthography = =
Czech has one of the most phonemic orthographies of all European languages . Its thirty @-@ one graphemes represent thirty sounds ( in most dialects , i and y have the same sound ) , and it contains only one digraph : ch , which follows h in the alphabet . As a result , some of its characters have been used by phonologists to denote corresponding sounds in other languages . The characters q , w and x appear only in foreign words . The háček ( ˇ ) is used with certain letters to form new characters : š , ž , and č , as well as ň , ě , ř , ť , and ď ( the latter five uncommon outside Czech ) . The last two letters are sometimes written with a comma above ( ʼ , an abbreviated háček ) because of their height . The character ó exists only in loanwords and onomatopoeia .
Unlike most European languages , Czech distinguishes vowel length ; long vowels are indicated by an acute accent or , occasionally with ů , a ring . Long u is usually written ú at the beginning of a word or morpheme ( úroda , neúrodný ) and ů elsewhere , except for loanwords ( skútr ) or onomatopoeia ( bú ) . Long vowels and ě are not considered separate letters .
Czech typographical features not associated with phonetics generally resemble those of most Latin European languages , including English . Proper nouns , honorifics , and the first letters of quotations are capitalized , and punctuation is typical of other Latin European languages . Writing of ordinal numerals is similar to most European languages . The Czech language uses a decimal comma instead of a decimal point . When writing a long number , spaces between every three numbers ( e.g. between hundreds and thousands ) may be used for better orientation in handwritten texts , but not in decimal places , like in English . The number 1 @,@ 234 @,@ 567 @.@ 8910 may be written as 1234567 @,@ 8910 or 1 234 567 @,@ 8910 . Ordinal numbers ( 1st ) use a point as in German ( 1 . ) . In proper noun phrases ( except personal names ) , only the first word is capitalized ( Pražský hrad , Prague Castle ) .
= = Sample text = =
According to Article 1 of the United Nations Universal Declaration of Human Rights :
Czech : Všichni lidé se rodí svobodní a sobě rovní co do důstojnosti a práv . Jsou nadáni rozumem a svědomím a mají spolu jednat v duchu bratrství .
English : " All human beings are born free and equal in dignity and rights . They are endowed with reason and conscience and should act towards one another in a spirit of brotherhood . "
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= Joseph Brittan =
Dr. Joseph Brittan ( 12 January 1805 – 27 October 1867 ) , a surgeon , newspaper editor , and provincial councillor , was one of the dominant figures in early Christchurch , New Zealand . Born into a middle @-@ class family in southern England , he caused a scandal by marrying his deceased wife 's sister . As was not unusual at the time , this was responded to by emigrating , and he followed his younger brother Guise Brittan to Christchurch , where he and his wife arrived in February 1852 with four children . Joseph Brittan soon got involved in the usual activities of early settlers and gained prominence in doing so . He had bought 100 acres on 10 July 1851 and took up 50 of this to the east of Christchurch that he converted to farmland . There , he built the family residence , and the suburb of Linwood was subsequently named after Brittan 's farm and homestead of Linwood House .
The members of the Brittan family were devout Anglicans and had a close association with the neighbouring Holy Trinity Avonside , where Guise Brittan was a lay reader . William Rolleston became Joseph Brittan 's son @-@ in @-@ law in 1865 , when he married his only surviving daughter Mary ; Rolleston was elected Canterbury 's third Superintendent just months after Brittan 's death .
Brittan was a member of the Canterbury Provincial Council for just over three years . He served as Provincial Secretary from 1855 to 1857 and was expected to succeed James FitzGerald as the second Superintendent of the Canterbury Province , but was beaten by William Sefton Moorhouse in October 1857 . He established the third newspaper in Canterbury , the Canterbury Standard , which existed for 12 years until shortly before Brittan 's death . Brittan was a very eloquent speaker , but he had a biting and sarcastic character , and was disliked , and even feared , by some . Later in life , he suffered from gout and frequent headaches , and this together with financial trouble , often made him irritable and impatient . He died at his homestead in October 1867 after a long period of declining health .
= = Early life = =
Joseph Brittan was born on 12 January 1805 in Bristol , England , into a respectable middle @-@ class family that originated in Bristol . His father was a brewer . He was listed in Kelly 's 1848 Directory of Dorset for Sherborne under the heading " Traders " as " agent to Royal Exchange & fire office , " and also with his brother William G as " proprietors of ' Sherborne & Yeovil Mercury ' " . He lived at some point in Linwood , Hampshire . His first wife was Elizabeth Mary Chandler with whom he had seven children . Three of them died in infancy , and then his wife died in 1849 , two weeks after the birth and death of their last child . The surviving children were Joseph ( Joe ) , Arthur , Elizabeth Mary ( Mary ) and Frances ( Frank ) .
Brittan married his deceased wife 's sister Sophia as his second wife . This was not legal in England or acceptable to the Church of England . He intended to marry in Denmark where it was legal and the necessary documents for the application were eventually collected and countersigned by the lord Mayor of London on 1 September 1851 . However , for some reason the wedding was performed in Gretna Green in Scotland . As was not unusual at the time , having caused such a scandal was responded to by emigrating , which the newly @-@ weds did a month after the ceremony . They sailed for Christchurch in New Zealand on the William Hyde with his other sister @-@ in law and her 2 children , which left Deal , Kent on 21 October 1851 . Brittan 's younger brother William Guise Brittan ( known as Guise Brittan ) had immigrated to Christchurch earlier aboard the Sir George Seymour in 1850 . Guise Brittan had married Louisa Chandler , a sister of Joseph 's wives . Charles Fooks , who by this time was in Melbourne was married to another of the Chandler sisters ; his wife and children did not travel with him , though . Instead , Mrs Fooks and her two daughters came out on the William Hyde together with Joseph Brittan and family . Also on board was some livestock brought by Joseph Brittan , including a Devon cow , ducks , geese , pheasants , and some rabbits .
During the journey , Brittan performed the duties of the ship 's surgeon . He and the ship 's chaplain produced a play , The Merchant of Venice , and his contribution was to invite women to act the female roles , which was unusual for the time and a hot topic of conversation causing great amusement . Arriving in Lyttelton on 5 February 1852 , most of the immigrants had to find somewhere to live and many slept in tents or under the open sky . The Brittans were among the fortunate few , as a house on Christchurch 's Hereford Street had been arranged for them by Guise Brittan . Like everybody else who was heading for Christchurch , upon disembarking from the ship they had to make their way over the Port Hills then follow the steep Bridle Path to reach the city . They carried as many of their possessions as possible , but following months at sea , their fitness was rather poor . The remainder of their possessions was shipped by whaleboat around the coast and up the Avon River , which was a dangerous undertaking due to the Sumner sand bar located at the entrance to the Avon Heathcote Estuary .
= = Life in New Zealand = =
Christchurch , still a very small settlement ( it had around 140 buildings in early 1852 ) , already had two doctors , so Brittan 's services in that area were not required . Instead , he followed his brother 's interest and became involved in land speculation . He bought rural section ( RS ) 300 , a triangular piece of land of 50 acres ( 20 ha ) along Canal Reserve ( later called Linwood Avenue ) , with the northern tip of the land touching the Avon River . He leased the adjacent RS 301 , which he later purchased . In total , the property had 110 acres ( 45 ha ) , which was in addition to land he owned at Papanui Bush .
Brittan converted the land in Avonside to farming , with 10 acres ( 40 @,@ 000 m2 ) set aside for a homestead , garden and orchard . He called the property Linwood after his place in Hampshire . Linwood House was ready in 1857 and the family moved there from their first home on Hereford Street . Adjacent to his farm was Holy Trinity Avonside , which at the time was a cob church . On 24 February 1857 , it became the first Anglican church in Canterbury consecrated by Bishop Harper , and Guise Brittan , as churchwarden , read the lesson at the service . The entire Brittan family had a close connection to the church , with Joseph Brittan helping to raise money for its construction , and Mary Brittan singing in the church choir . They faithfully attended church on Sundays , and when subscriptions were taken for the construction of ChristChurch Cathedral , Brittan pledged a generous ₤ 100 .
Brittan had sundry interests and immediately upon arriving in Christchurch , joined others in various activities . He played cricket in Hagley Park within a fortnight of reaching Christchurch , and later helped improve the grounds and raised money for fencing the area . He also pursued horse racing , later bred horses , and hosted Canterbury 's first steeplechase on his Linwood farm . The Brittans enjoyed music , and not only did Sophia play her piano brought from England , but Joseph played a portable harmonium . He joined a musical group in the port town of Lyttelton , which in the early years was culturally more important than Christchurch , and walked there over the Bridle Path with his instrument strapped to his back . Musical evenings were also held at the Brittan home .
= = = Newspaper proprietorship = = =
Before they emigrated , Joseph and Guise Brittan had been proprietors of the Sherborne Mercury , a newspaper covering Dorset and outlying areas . In his new country Brittan continued this line of work , becoming the founder , proprietor and editor , of the Canterbury Standard , published from 1854 to 1866 . The advertisement announcing this new paper appeared in the Lyttelton Times in August 1853 . Owned in part by William Thomson and James Willis , the paper was first published on 3 June 1854 , and became the third newspaper in Canterbury , following the Lyttelton Times ( first published in 1851 ) and the short @-@ lived Guardian and Canterbury Advertiser ( published for three months in 1852 ) .
Brittan was also part of a ten @-@ member syndicate that in February 1862 attempted to formalise the ownership of another Christchurch newspaper , The Press , which had been founded in the previous year . A deed of association for " The Proprietors of The Press " was drafted , but surprisingly , the deed was not executed . Four months later Brittan 's political colleague , James FitzGerald , who had no funds , was the sole owner " through the liberality of the proprietors " , as he called it later . Part of Brittan 's interest in The Press was its declared opposition to the proposal to connect Christchurch and Lyttelton via a rail tunnel , a project that he himself was strongly opposed to . Brittan and Henry Jacobs , the first headmaster of Christchurch 's first school , Christ 's College , are listed as two major writers for The Press during its early years . Before mid @-@ 1863 FitzGerald had a prolonged absence from Christchurch , and Brittan became the acting editor of The Press . In 1866 the Canterbury Standard was sold at auction to The Press , which within days , on 23 April , stopped its publication .
= = = Political career = = =
Elections were first held in New Zealand in the second half of 1853 , and two levels of government were introduced : a House of Representatives at the national level , and Provincial Councils for the six provinces . Brittan first stood for public office in 1855 , when membership of the Canterbury Provincial Council was expanded and various seats across many electorates became available . As a resident of Hereford Street , he stood in the Town of Christchurch electorate , where two positions were to be filled . For weeks campaigning filled the newspapers , with candidates using derogatory language towards each other , and Brittan being accused of " assiduously frequenting the public houses " . When the nomination meeting was held on 8 March in Market Square , only Brittan and Dr Alfred Charles Barker were nominated , and both were thus declared elected .
In May 1855 , the Executive Council , led by John Hall as Provincial Secretary , resigned . James FitzGerald , the Province 's first Superintendent , tasked Brittan to form a new Executive Council , and he succeeded Hall as Provincial Secretary . While FitzGerald was attending the first session of the 2nd Parliament in Auckland in 1856 , Brittan deputised for him . Brittan resigned as Provincial Secretary in February 1857 and was succeeded by Richard Packer , but remained on the Provincial Council until the end of the first term in July 1857 , when he did not seek re @-@ election .
Later in 1857 , FitzGerald resigned from Parliament on the advice of his doctors , and also decided not to seek re @-@ election as provincial Superintendent . Robert Heaton Rhodes offered a requisition to Brittan to make himself available for the by @-@ election that would result from FitzGerald 's resignation from Parliament in the Lyttelton electorate , but Brittan replied that he could not absent himself from his private affairs as yet ; Parliament at that time met in Auckland , and the 1858 session lasted from 10 April to 21 August , which required an absence from home for several months . Instead , Crosbie Ward , the editor and proprietor of the Lyttelton Times , was the only person nominated on 28 May 1858 and was thus declared elected .
The public generally expected that Brittan would succeed FitzGerald as Superintendent , but this did not transpire . Brittan became a candidate for the position when he published his political views in a long letter that appeared in almost all editions of the bi @-@ weekly Lyttelton Times over a period of several months . William Sefton Moorhouse announced his candidacy a few months later , but was not only less experienced than Brittan , but a less polished public speaker . William Richmond , who visited from Taranaki during the election campaign , remarked that " Joe Brittan is a much cleverer man than Moorhouse who seems a softie " . The idea of building the Lyttelton Rail Tunnel became the central issue of the election campaign . Moorhouse was a strong proponent of the project , whilst Brittan was opposed to it . Moorhouse received much support for his position from the residents of Lyttelton , as evidenced by the results of the election : of the 12 @,@ 000 residents of Canterbury , including 3 @,@ 205 in Christchurch and 1 @,@ 944 in Lyttelton , both candidates received 206 votes from the residents of Christchurch . However , overall results were a victory for Moorhouse by 727 votes to 352 . Moorhouse later began the project by turning the first sod on 17 July 1861 . Helping Moorhouse in his 30 October 1857 election victory was the support of John Ollivier , a skilled orator who was regarded as the ' kingmaker ' and had a reputation as ' perhaps the best after @-@ dinner speaker ' .
Following his January 1860 resignation from Parliament , Ollivier spearheaded a requisition , broadly supported by influential people , to have Brittan make himself available for the resulting by @-@ election in the Christchurch Country electorate . Brittan declined the requisition , mostly because he was opposed to the rail tunnel scheme which had overwhelming support by the population , and he could not see himself being their representative if he disagreed with this popular public opinion . Isaac Thomas Cookson , who had earlier supported the Brittan requisition , was elected .
On 30 August 1861 , a nomination meeting was held for the election of a Canterbury Superintendent , and to fill the four positions on the Provincial Council available in the City of Christchurch electorate . Moorhouse was returned unopposed as Superintendent , and ten candidates were nominated for the Provincial Council . The election was held the next day , and Brittan topped the polls with 140 votes , followed by Isaac Thomas Cookson with 139 , Frederick Thompson with 114 , and Richard Westenra with 100 , these being the men who were elected . Isaac Luck , Edward Reece , George Wilmer , William Barnard , John Cracroft Wilson , and Richard Taylor were defeated .
Within months , Moorhouse prorogued the council , and another election was scheduled . Seven candidates were nominated for the four positions available in the City of Christchurch electorate . At the election in May 1862 , Brittan again topped the poll , with Isaac Thomas Cookson and Richard Westenra being re @-@ elected , and Samuel Bealey also being elected . In September of the same year , Brittan announced his resignation from the Provincial Council , citing declining health , but it is thought that the loss of his son earlier that year was also a factor . Brittan was succeeded by James Somerville Turnbull , who was elected unopposed . William Wilson , who later became the first Mayor of Christchurch , publicly thanked Brittan at Turnbull 's nomination meeting for the years of service that he had given .
In mid @-@ 1863 , Brittan was appointed resident magistrate for Christchurch and Kaiapoi , succeeding John Hall . Declining health made this position untenable for him , and he resigned after nine months , being succeeded by Charles Bowen .
= = = Family , death and legacy = = =
Brittan had four children who survived childhood , all with his first wife . The eldest son , Joe , appears to have been of a simple mind , was never tasked with important roles , and later lived as a recluse , being regarded as a burden to the family . His two younger brothers , Arthur and Frank , were sent to Christ 's College . Mary was likely first educated privately with her nieces at the home of her aunt . In 1854 , a private School for Young Ladies was opened on Oxford Terrace , which she attended until she was 16 . After the family moved to Linwood House in 1857 , Mary continued at that school as a boarder .
Tragedy struck on 1 January 1862 , when Arthur Brittan drowned in the Avon River while learning to swim . He got entangled in watercress , which the Brittans themselves had introduced to the Avon , and it took a half @-@ hour for his body to be recovered . Arthur had left school by then and was helping his father on the farm . Joseph Brittan was heartbroken and there are indications that he went through a period of depression . Soon after the drowning , he advertised for both a dairyman and a farmworker , and even put Linwood House up for sale , though no property transaction was recorded .
William Rolleston , at the time Provincial Secretary , proposed to Mary Brittan in early 1865 . He was 34 at the time , and she was 19 . Both Joseph and Sophia Brittan were opposed to this marriage , which is surprising , given that Rolleston was intelligent , well educated , successful , and even of higher social standing . They thought he was too old for their daughter , and that she was too young to marry . Perhaps Sophia Brittan did not want to lose her daughter , who was in effect running the household and entertaining guests , as she was often too ill to look after these tasks herself . Despite parental objections , an engagement was announced , soon after which Rolleston was offered and accepted the role of Under Secretary for Native Affairs , requiring a move to Wellington . Hence , the wedding went ahead on 24 May 1865 at Avonside Trinity Church , after which the newly @-@ weds moved to the capital .
Sophia Brittan was often ill , and health was a dominant issue in her life . Joseph Brittan also had his problems , suffering from frequent headaches and gout , and together with financial trouble , he was often irritable and impatient . Joseph Brittan 's health declined during 1867 . Distressing for the family were the financial affairs , with various debts that only Joseph knew about . Rolleston tried to give financial advice to both Sophia and Frank Brittan , but he was ignored . Joseph Brittan died on 27 October 1867 at Linwood House . He was buried at Holy Trinity Avonside next to his son Arthur , and when Sophia Brittan died in August 1877 she was buried near her husband . Brittan 's oldest son Joseph died in 1924 , and an inscription for him was placed on his father 's grave stone .
Brittan 's daughter 's biographer ( Rosamund Rolleston , his great @-@ granddaughter ) described him as " a man of ability and a polished speaker [ his ] biting , sarcastic manner made him both feared and disliked " , and as " quarrelsome and uncompromising " . In his obituary , he was described " as a speaker [ who ] took very high rank , possessing a force and fluency of expression , a power of lucid statement , and a readiness in debate , which with one or two exceptions have never been equalled in the Council . " Brittan Street was named for him and first appeared in street directories in 1892 . Linwood House , which fronted onto both Linwood Avenue and Brittan Street , was registered by the New Zealand Historic Places Trust as a class D heritage building in 1982 , and with a change of the classification system later , it later became a Category II listing . Significantly damaged in both the September 2010 and the February 2011 earthquakes , Civil Defence ordered the building 's demolition in March 2011 , which was carried out later that year .
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= Virgin Islands dwarf sphaero =
The Virgin Islands dwarf sphaero or Virgin Islands dwarf gecko ( Sphaerodactylus parthenopion ) is a species of gecko and also one of the smallest terrestrial vertebrates . It has only been found on three of the British Virgin Islands : Virgin Gorda , Tortola , and Moskito Island ( also spelled " Mosquito Island " ) . It was discovered in 1964 and is suspected to be a close relative of Sphaerodactylus nicholsi , a dwarf sphaero from the nearby island of Puerto Rico . It shares its range with the big @-@ scaled least gecko ( S. macrolepis ) , which is found in leaf litter . Unlike this larger gecko , the Virgin Islands dwarf sphaero lives on drier hillsides , yet prefers moist microhabitats found under rocks because it lacks the adaptations necessary for preventing water loss , which is a significant problem due to its small body size .
The Virgin Islands dwarf sphaero has a deep brown colour on its upper side , often with a speckling of darker scales . On average , it measures 18 mm ( 0 @.@ 71 in ) from its snout to its vent , and is nearly as small as a U.S. dime . At most , it weighs 0 @.@ 15 g ( 0 @.@ 0053 oz ) . There are several stripes or bars of lighter colouration behind the eyes and at the top of the neck that help distinguish it . There are no differences in colouration between males and females , although females are slightly larger in size . Its tail will regenerate when broken off . Little is known about its population size or its biology .
= = Taxonomy = =
The Virgin Islands dwarf sphaero , also referred to as the Virgin Islands dwarf gecko , was discovered in the summer of 1964 by biologist Richard Thomas during a collecting trip along the dry , wooded slopes of Virgin Gorda in the British Virgin Islands . The holotype for Sphaerodactylus parthenopion , MCZ 77211 , was an adult female collected on 12 August 1964 on a hillside above Pond Bay . A total of eight paratypes were collected on Virgin Gorda and used to describe the new species .
Classified as a species of dwarf sphaero or dwarf gecko ( genus Sphaerodactylus ) , it is characterised not only by its small body size , but also by a distinctive scale colouration pattern on its head , scales that are small but keeled ( having a central ridge ) and imbricate on its upper ( dorsal ) side ; a generally uniform dark colouration of the dorsal side , a lack of granular scales on the mid @-@ dorsal area , and a lack of colouration patterns around the shoulders ( scapular region ) and the pelvis ( sacral region ) .
Despite striking differences in appearance , S. parthenopion may be most closely related to S. nicholsi . Like the diminutive S. parthenopion in the Virgin Islands , S. nicholsi , the smallest endemic sphaerodactylid in Puerto Rico , is very small . The geographic range of another species , S. townsendi , divides these two closely related populations , suggesting that S. townsendi evolved after S. parthenopion and S. nicholsi diverged .
= = Description = =
The Virgin Islands dwarf sphaero is one of the smallest known amniotes ( which includes 23 @,@ 000 species of reptiles , birds , and mammals ) , with an average body size ( measured as the snout – vent length or SVL ) of 18 mm ( 0 @.@ 71 in ) and a maximum body mass of 0 @.@ 15 g ( 0 @.@ 0053 oz ) , but ranging as low as 0 @.@ 043 g ( 0 @.@ 0015 oz ) and averaging 0 @.@ 117 g ( 0 @.@ 0041 oz ) . The only known amniote that is smaller is the closely related S. ariasae , which measures 16 mm ( 0 @.@ 63 in ) and weighs a maximum of 0 @.@ 14 g ( 0 @.@ 0049 oz ) .
Typically , the species has a deep brown colouration on the dorsal side and legs , often with a scattering or a fine pattern of interconnected darker scales . The species has a preocular transverse bar ( a line of coloured scales in front of the eyes at the base of the snout ) , although this can be hard to see in some individuals . Along each side and directly behind the eyes , a narrow , dark @-@ edged , yellow @-@ brown postocular stripe crosses the temple and fades out near the base of the head . In the occipital region , on top of the head behind the eyes , an almost oval @-@ shaped , dark @-@ edged , yellow @-@ brown bar stretches from one side of the head to the other and sometimes connects with the postocular stripes . The dark brown scales on the dorsal side cross over to the ventral side ( underside ) and fade out , although many scales retain dark edges . The ventral side is light grey or cream . The tail is mostly yellowish @-@ brown with occasional clusters or short lines of darker scales . The gular ( throat ) pattern has faint to bold lines of light scales running laterally .
There is no sexual dichromatism in this species ( the genders do not differ in colour ) , although females may be larger than males , with the SVL of females averaging 18 mm ( 0 @.@ 71 in ) , but only 16 mm ( 0 @.@ 63 in ) in males . The snout is moderate in length and blunt . The tail regenerates if broken off .
The dorsal scales are generally small , acute , keeled , imbricate , and flattened , while the throat and pectoral ( chest ) scales are keeled . Granular ( bumpy ) scales are found on the top of the head and the anterior neck , while the scales on the middle of the neck are keeled , acute , flattened , and imbricate . In the middle of the back , there is some crowding and size reduction in the scales , and none of these scales are granular . On the dorsal side of the tail , the scales are acute , keeled , imbricate , and flattened . On the underside of the tail , the scales are smooth , rounded , and enlarged towards the centre of the tail ( mid @-@ ventrally ) . The ventral scales are rounded , smooth , cycloid ( have a smooth outer edge ) , and imbricate . The scales on the ventral caudal ( head ) scales are smooth , cycloid , and enlarged mid @-@ ventrally .
The count of dorsal scales , from axilla ( armpit ) to groin , averages 32 with a range of 30 to 35 . The ventral count from axilla to groin along the midventral line averages 28 scales and ranges from 26 to 29 . The scales around the midbody average approximately 52 and range from 50 to 55 . There are two postnasals and one to three ( usually two ) internasal scales . There are two to three ( usually three ) scales from the upper lip to the eye ( upper labials ) . On the fourth toe of the right foot , there are eight or nine ( usually eight ) lamellae , or plate @-@ like scales that provide traction for geckos . The escutcheons ( scales around the genital region ) are relatively small and only slightly extend onto the thighs , varying from three to five scales in length and 11 to 13 scales in width .
= = = Comparisons with related species = = =
S. nicholsi from Puerto Rico is both bulkier and larger than the Virgin Islands dwarf sphaero , measuring 20 to 22 mm ( 0 @.@ 8 to 0 @.@ 9 in ) from snout to vent . It also differs in the size of its dorsal scales , which is reflected in scale count comparisons . S. nicholsi has 19 to 24 dorsal scales from axilla to groin , whereas S. parthenopion has 30 to 35 . Also , S. nicholsi has only 34 to 42 scales around the midbody compared to 50 to 55 in S. parthenopion , and its ventral scales from axilla to groin range from 21 to 26 , which is still less than 26 to 29 in S. parthenopion . S. nicholsi typically has one internasal scale versus the two more commonly seen in S. parthenopion . The escutcheons are also larger in male S. nicholsi , on average . In terms of colouration , both species are very similar , but S. nicholsi usually has a crescent @-@ shaped pattern on its head that touches the postocular stripes , instead of an oval @-@ shaped pattern that may or may not reach the stripes . Also , its postocular stripes run the length of its body and tail instead of ending on the neck . The dorsolateral stripes of S. nicholsi converge to make a dark @-@ edged U- or Y @-@ shaped pattern in the sacral ( pelvic ) region . The majority of S. nicholsi have a pattern on the scapular ( shoulder ) region consisting of two small pale dots encompassed by small regions of black .
The big @-@ scaled least gecko is significantly larger than the Virgin Islands dwarf sphaero , measuring 25 to 30 mm ( 0 @.@ 98 to 1 @.@ 18 in ) from snout to vent . It also has larger , courser scales . According to Thomas , " S. macrolepis has a pattern of dark lateral stripes and dorsal spotting on a tan or light brown ground color with a boldly black @-@ edged pair of scapular spots ( females ) or a nearly uniform yellow @-@ brown body color , weak or absent scapular pattern , and contrasting head pattern of black vermiculations [ irregular wavy lines ] on a grey ground color or unicolor yellow or orange heads ( male ) . "
= = Distribution and habitat = =
Originally found only on the island of Virgin Gorda , it has since been reported on Tortola and Moskito Island . Its range is sometimes estimated to encompass the entire British Virgin Islands , although the original expedition by Thomas did not find any specimens on Tortola , Anegada , or other smaller islands , nor in the United States Virgin Islands of Saint Croix , Saint Thomas , and Saint John . Its distribution is considered unusual because despite being separated from its closest relative , S. nicholsi in Puerto Rico , another species , the Puerto Rican Crested Toad ( Bufo lemur ) , has a geographic range that includes both islands , yet it has not diverged .
The Virgin Islands dwarf sphaero appears to favour dry ( xeric ) scrub forests — often mixed with cacti and thorny scrub — on rocky hillsides . It has been found at sea level , although not on the beach among the seaweed litter or in piles of rotting palm debris in the littoral zone , like the more abundant and larger big @-@ scaled least gecko ( S. macrolepis ) with which it shares its range . Also unlike the big @-@ scaled least gecko , they do not " swarm " in the leaf litter , but are only uncommonly found hiding under rocks , which are considered moist or mesic microhabitats within their dry ecological niche .
= = Ecology and behaviour = =
As with other dwarf sphaeros , little is known about the ecology and behaviour of the Virgin Islands dwarf sphaero . Because of its high surface @-@ area @-@ to @-@ volume ratio that results from its diminutive size , the species was thought to be susceptible to water loss , so it has been studied to understand how it survives in its semi @-@ arid habitat . Unlike desert @-@ dwelling lizards , the Virgin Islands dwarf sphaero lacks special adaptations to prevent desiccation and loses water at a rate similar to that of lizards from mesic habitats . From size differences alone , it loses water 70 % faster than the larger and sympatric big @-@ scaled least gecko . It survives instead by inhabiting humid microhabitats in its dry environment , by adjusting its reproductive cycle so that hatchlings emerge during the time of year with the highest precipitation , and by reducing activity during the driest parts of the day .
= = Conservation = =
Too little data has been gathered to assess the population size and trend of the Virgin Islands dwarf sphaero . It has been reported as " moderately common " , although difficult to find because of its size and ability to blend into its surroundings . Its distribution across the British Virgin Islands seems to be limited , and development may affect it further .
In early 2011 , the Virgin Islands dwarf sphaero gained international attention when Sir Richard Branson announced plans to introduce lemurs — endangered primates from Madagascar — to Moskito Island as part of a captive breeding project for conservation purposes . Biologists , conservationists , and the general public quickly voiced concerns over the impact that would have on the native species of the island . In particular , people feared that the lemurs would wipe out the local population of Virgin Islands dwarf sphaeros , which was referred to as " one of the world 's rarest lizards " , because of the lemurs ' " aggressive , omnivorous " behaviour . Other researchers instead focused on concerns about the lemurs ' ability to thrive or the pathogens they might introduce . The leader of Branson 's environmental impact assessment agreed that caution was needed with the introduction , even before the plans to introduce the lemurs were announced . Regarding the Virgin Islands dwarf sphaero , Branson stated that the concerns were misplaced because lemurs mostly eat plant material and would rarely eat geckos if at all . However , Branson ultimately backed down , stating , " I will keep the lemurs enclosed whilst we get experts to conduct further surveys on geckos and particularly the dwarf geckos . If these studies indicate any real risk to these geckos , we will keep the lemurs enclosed . "
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= HMS Firedrake ( H79 ) =
HMS Firedrake was an F @-@ class destroyer built for the Royal Navy during the early 1930s . Although assigned to the Home Fleet upon completion , the ship was attached to the Mediterranean Fleet in 1935 – 36 during the Abyssinia Crisis . During the Spanish Civil War of 1936 – 39 , she spent much time in Spanish waters , enforcing the arms blockade imposed by Britain and France on both sides of the conflict .
Several weeks after the start of the Second World War in September 1939 , Firedrake helped to sink a German submarine and took part in the Norwegian Campaign in early 1940 . She was sent to Gibraltar in mid @-@ 1940 and formed part of Force H where she escorted many Malta convoys in the Mediterranean and helped to sink an Italian submarine . Firedrake participated in the Battle of Cape Spartivento and screened the capital ships of Force H as they bombarded Genoa before she was damaged by an Italian bomb in mid @-@ 1941 . After her repairs were completed the ship became a convoy escort in the Atlantic at the beginning of 1942 . Firedrake was torpedoed and sunk by a German U @-@ boat in late 1942 with the loss of most of her crew .
= = Description = =
The F @-@ class ships were repeats of the preceding E @-@ class . They displaced 1 @,@ 405 long tons ( 1 @,@ 428 t ) at standard load and 1 @,@ 940 long tons ( 1 @,@ 970 t ) at deep load . The ships had an overall length of 329 feet ( 100 @.@ 3 m ) , a beam of 33 feet 3 inches ( 10 @.@ 1 m ) and a draught of 12 feet 6 inches ( 3 @.@ 8 m ) . They were powered by two Parsons geared steam turbines , each driving one propeller shaft , using steam provided by three Admiralty three @-@ drum boilers . The turbines developed a total of 36 @,@ 000 shaft horsepower ( 27 @,@ 000 kW ) and gave a maximum speed of 35 @.@ 5 knots ( 65 @.@ 7 km / h ; 40 @.@ 9 mph ) . Firedrake barely exceeded her designed speed during her sea trials . She carried a maximum of 470 long tons ( 480 t ) of fuel oil that gave her a range of 6 @,@ 350 nautical miles ( 11 @,@ 760 km ; 7 @,@ 310 mi ) at 15 knots ( 28 km / h ; 17 mph ) . The ships ' complement was 145 officers and ratings .
The ships mounted four 4 @.@ 7 @-@ inch ( 120 mm ) Mark IX guns in single mounts , designated ' A ' , ' B ' , ' X ' , and ' Y ' in sequence from front to rear . For anti @-@ aircraft ( AA ) defence , they had two quadruple Mark I mounts for the 0 @.@ 5 inch Vickers Mark III machine gun . The F class was fitted with two above @-@ water quadruple torpedo tube mounts for 21 @-@ inch ( 533 mm ) torpedoes . One depth charge rack and two throwers were fitted ; 20 depth charges were originally carried , but this increased to 35 shortly after the war began .
= = = Wartime modifications = = =
By October 1940 , Firedrake had her rear torpedo tube mount replaced by a 12 @-@ pounder AA gun . While the ship was under repair in late 1941 , ' Y ' gun had was removed to allow a total of 70 depth charges to be stowed aboard . Several other changes also probably happened during this refit , notably two single 20 mm ( 0 @.@ 8 in ) Oerlikon light AA guns were installed abreast the bridge and a Type 286 short @-@ range surface search radar was fitted as was a HF / DF radio direction finder mounted on a pole mainmast .
= = Construction and career = =
Firedrake , the sixth ship of her name in the Royal Navy , was built by Parsons Marine Steam Turbine Company , Wallsend , although her hull was sub @-@ contracted to Vickers Armstrongs . She was laid down at their Walker , Newcastle upon Tyne shipyard on 5 July , launched on 28 June 1934 , the same day as her sister ship , Fame , and completed on 30 April 1935 . The ship cost 243 @,@ 966 pounds , excluding government @-@ furnished equipment like the armament . Firedrake was initially assigned to the 6th Destroyer Flotilla ( DF ) of the Home Fleet , but was sent to reinforce the Mediterranean Fleet , together with most of her sisters , during the Abyssinian crisis , in September and remained there until December . Firedrake was refitted at Gibraltar from 14 December 1935 to 11 February 1936 . She briefly returned home to give leave to the crew later that month , but she returned to the Mediterranean in March and remained there until July when she began a refit at Sheerness Dockyard .
Upon its completion on 30 September , the ship returned to the Mediterranean and began to enforce the arms embargo imposed on both sides in the Spanish Civil War by the Non @-@ Intervention Committee until June 1937 . On 23 April 1937 , Firedrake , together with the battlecruiser Hood , escorted a British merchantman into Bilbao harbour despite the presence of the Nationalist cruiser Almirante Cervera that attempted to blockade the port . Firedrake returned to Gibraltar in September and resumed patrols in Spanish waters until November when she began another refit at Sheerness that lasted until 30 December . The ship spent another two months at Gibraltar between January and March 1938 and then patrolled the Spanish coastline in the Bay of Biscay a year later . The 6th DF was renumbered the 8th Destroyer Flotilla in April 1939 , five months before the start of World War II . Firedrake remained assigned to it until June 1940 , escorting the larger ships of the fleet .
= = = World War II = = =
In September 1939 Firedrake was assigned to the Home Fleet and based at Scapa Flow . In the first month of hostilities she was part of an anti @-@ submarine hunting group centred on the aircraft carrier Ark Royal . On 14 September , the carrier was unsuccessfully attacked by the German submarine U @-@ 39 . Firedrake , in company with her sisters Faulknor and Foxhound , counter @-@ attacked and sank U @-@ 39 north @-@ west of Ireland . On 5 October , the ship rescued survivors from the small freighter SS Glen Farg . In February 1940 , she was one of the escorts for Convoy TC 3 carrying troops from Canada to the UK . Firedrake was slightly damaged going alongside the destroyer Icarus at Invergordon on 28 March and was repaired between 2 and 26 April at Cardiff , Wales .
In the Norwegian Campaign , she supported the Allied landings on 12 – 13 May at Bjerkvik during the Battle of Narvik . The ship continued to provide fire support during the battle for the rest of the month . During the nights of 30 and 31 May , Firedrake helped to evacuate troops from Bodø to Harstad and Borkenes to await further evacuation . She was one of the ships that escorted the troop ships evacuating the troops from the Narvik area on 7 and 8 June . She was slightly damaged by splinters during an aerial attack on 23 May and again on 12 June when her port steering motor and ' A ' gun were knocked out of action ; her repairs were completed eight days later .
Firedrake was briefly assigned to the 4th Destroyer Flotilla until she rejoined the 8th DF in mid @-@ August as they escorted the battleship Valiant and the new carrier Illustrious from the UK to Gibraltar , arriving on 29 August . The next day , Fury and Force H covered the passage of Valiant and Illustrious through the Western Mediterranean to rendezvous with the Mediterranean Fleet ( Operation Hats ) . On 18 October , she sank the Italian submarine Durbo east of Gibraltar together with the destroyer Wrestler and two Saro London flying boats of 202 Squadron RAF . A boarding party captured cipher and operational documents aboard the boat which led to the sinking of the Italian submarine Lafolè two days later . Between them , the two destroyers rescued 5 officers and 43 ratings . Firedrake escorted the carriers Argus and Ark Royal during Operations Coat and White in November as they flew off aircraft for Malta . The ship escorted Force F to Malta during Operation Collar later in the month and participated in the inconclusive Battle of Cape Spartivento on 27 November , where she was part of the screen for the battlecruiser Renown and the battleship Ramillies .
On 1 January 1941 , Firedrake was one of the ships that intercepted a Vichy French convoy off Mellila and seized all four merchant ships of the convoy . Later that month , she was involved in Operation Excess . On 31 January 1941 , Force H departed Gibraltar to carry out Operation Picket , an unsuccessful night torpedo attack by eight of Ark Royal 's Fairey Swordfish on the Tirso Dam in Sardinia . The British ships returned to Gibraltar on 4 February and began preparing for Operation Grog , a naval bombardment of Genoa , that was successfully carried out five days later . The destroyer accidentally ran aground in fog near Gibraltar on 1 March and received preliminary repairs there until 21 April . Final repairs were completed at Chatham Royal Dockyard on 19 June and she rejoined the 8th DF back at Gibraltar shortly afterwards .
During Operation Substance , Firedrake and Foxhound were each leading a column of the convoy , streaming their TSDS minesweeps , through the Sicilian Narrows on 23 July when an Italian 100 @-@ kilogram ( 220 lb ) bomb near missed Firedrake and detonated off her port side . The shockwave blew in the plating over No. 1 boiler room and disabled her so that she had to be towed back to Gibraltar by the destroyer Eridge . Temporary repairs were made in Gibraltar and she was transferred to the Boston Navy Yard for repair on 23 September . Firedrake exchanged one 4 @.@ 7 @-@ inch gun for additional depth charges while under repair to better suit her new role as a convoy escort .
After escorting Convoy NA 2 to the UK in January 1942 , the ship was assigned to Escort Group B7 of the Mid @-@ Ocean Escort Force . While escorting Convoy ON ( S ) 94 in May , the escorts drove off U @-@ 406 . Firedrake received repairs in April on the Clyde and August in Belfast . She rescued survivors from the torpedoed merchantman MV Olaf Fostenes on 26 September . Two months later , the ship was detached to reinforce the escort for Convoy ON 144 on 18 November and helped to prevent any further losses to the convoy . On 16 December , while escorting Convoy ON 153 , Firedrake was torpedoed by U @-@ 211 at 19 : 11 . She broke in two ; the bow section sinking immediately at coordinates 50 ° 50 ′ N 25 ° 15 ′ W , but the stern stayed afloat until 00 : 45 . The corvette Sunflower picked up 26 survivors , but the rest of her crew of 140 men were lost .
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= Symbiosis ( Star Trek : The Next Generation ) =
" Symbiosis " is the 22nd episode of the American science fiction television series Star Trek : The Next Generation . It first aired on April 18 , 1988 , in broadcast syndication . The teleplay was written by Robert Lewin , Richard Manning , and Hans Beimler , based on a story by Lewin , and the episode was directed by Win Phelps .
Set in the 24th century , the series follows the adventures of the crew of the Starfleet starship Enterprise @-@ D. In this episode , Captain Jean @-@ Luc Picard ( Patrick Stewart ) tries to mediate a trade dispute between two co @-@ dependent neighbouring planets regarding medical supplies which turn out to be narcotic drugs .
The episode was written after executive producer Maurice Hurley worked on Miami Vice , which he credited for resulting in a narcotic theme in the episode . The guest cast included Judson Scott and Merritt Butrick who had both appeared in Star Trek II : The Wrath of Khan ( 1982 ) . The episode received mixed reviews with criticism directed at the subject matter and the unsubtle nature of the presentation .
= = Plot = =
The Enterprise attempts to rescue the freighter Sanction , which is trapped in a star 's magnetic field . An agreement is reached to transport over the crew of the freighter , but they surprisingly send over a cargo barrel first . The Enterprise crew attempts to transport the freighter 's crew , but is only successful in recovering four of them before their ship is destroyed . Two , T 'Jon ( Merritt Butrick ) and Romas ( Richard Lineback ) , are scruffy and unshaven , while the other two , Sobi ( Judson Scott ) and Langor ( Kimberly Farr ) , are groomed and well dressed . They all show relief that the barrel made it over , and little remorse for the lost ship and crewmen . Both groups start to fight over the ownership of the barrel , and are escorted to the observation lounge under guard .
The two pairs come from different planets within the same system . It is explained that the barrel contains Felicium , a medicine for a plague which is ravaging the planet Ornara . Felicium is produced on the planet Brekka , but the Ornarans are the only race in the system with the means of space travel ; however , the Ornaran ships were all built long ago and are beginning to fail due to overuse and lack of maintenance - and the Ornarans no longer know how to repair them . Captain Jean @-@ Luc Picard ( Patrick Stewart ) offers to return them each to Ornara and provide replacement parts for the remaining freighters . The Brekkans , Sobi and Langor , argue that they retain ownership of the Felicium , as the items the Ornarans offered in payment were lost on board the freighter . T 'Jon and Romas , of Ornara , are suffering from the effects of the plague , and are sent to sickbay where Dr. Beverly Crusher ( Gates McFadden ) can find no reason for their symptoms . In a gesture of goodwill following the demand of compassion from Crusher , the Brekkans offer two doses of Felicium for T 'Jon and Romas ' immediate needs . Langor explains that the entire Brekkan economy and industry is devoted to producing the medicine for Ornara , whose inhabitants provide Brekka with the necessities of daily life in return . After T 'Jon and Romas take their doses , Dr. Crusher realizes that Felicium is actually a highly addictive narcotic , and the plague itself was cured long ago , so the symptoms believed to be attributed to the plague were actually withdrawal symptoms . Crusher wants to offer assistance to aid the Ornarans in breaking free of their addition , but Picard warns that the Federation cannot intervene due to the Prime Directive . He and Dr. Crusher later question the Brekkans alone and confirm that the Brekkans know the truth regarding the plague being eradicated , and the addictive nature of the medicine , and are knowingly exploiting the Ornarans because of the clear implication that Brekka 's economy would collapse if the Ornarans no longer needed Felicium .
The Enterprise arrives at Ornara , and Sobi and Langor have agreed to provide the Felicium to the Ornarans for later payment . However , Picard announces that as the Prime Directive prevents him from interfering in the transactions between the two planets , it also prevents him from providing any replacement parts for the aging freighters . T 'Jon and Romas are furious at the decision as it means that the trade between Ornara and Brekka will stop because the freighters can no longer make the trips without the parts . After the four are transported off the Enterprise , Picard confides to Dr. Crusher that while the Ornarans may suffer from withdrawal symptoms in the short term , this will be an opportunity for both races to advance in their own ways .
= = Production = =
The episode was influenced by co @-@ executive producer Maurice Hurley 's recent work on Miami Vice , and was intended to have the Enterprise come across a drug deal in progress . Hurley was also responsible for the insertion of a " Just Say No " style drugs speech by Tasha Yar ( Denise Crosby ) to Wesley Crusher ( Wil Wheaton ) , which came over the objections from the cast .
Guest stars in this episode included two who had previously appeared in Star Trek II : The Wrath of Khan ( 1982 ) , as Sobi and T 'Jon were played by Judson Scott and Merritt Butrick respectively . Butrick had also appeared in Star Trek III : The Search for Spock ; on both occasions he portrayed David Marcus , the son of Captain James T. Kirk . Butrick - who was suffering from AIDS , was unable to afford health insurance , and was offered the role as a way of helping him , and died of AIDS less than a year after filming this episode .
Director Win Phelps recalled that there were numerous continuity issues throughout filming , with character motivations changing from one scene to the next . Because of changes to the script , the actors were often acting scenes that they had not seen the script for before the first take . " Symbiosis " was filmed after " Skin of Evil " , which featured the death of Tasha Yar , making this the final filmed episode with Denise Crosby as Yar until she reappeared in " Yesterday 's Enterprise " . Towards the end of the episode , as Picard and Crusher leave the cargo bay , Crosby can be seen waving goodbye to the camera behind them . LeVar Burton later used behind the scenes footage from this episode in a feature on his show Reading Rainbow .
= = Reception = =
" Symbiosis " aired in broadcast syndication during the week commencing April 22 , 1988 . It received Nielsen ratings of 10 @.@ 8 , reflecting the percentage of all households watching the episode during its timeslot . This was the highest ratings received by the series since the broadcast of " Too Short a Season " during the preceding February . The ratings received by " Symbiosis " were not beaten until the first episode of the second season , " The Child " .
" Symbiosis " first aired in broadcast syndication within the United States on April 18 , 1988 . Several reviewers re @-@ watched the episode after the end of the series . Zack Handlen reviewed the episode for The A.V. Club in May 2010 . He felt that the drug use allegory could have been better refined , but praised the performance of Patrick Stewart and gave the episode an overall grade of a B. Keith DeCandido watched the episode for Tor.com , and described it as the least subtle " message " based episode since The Original Series episode " Let That Be Your Last Battlefield " . He criticised the electricity based powers of the two alien species , saying that they didn 't add anything to the plot . He gave the episode a score of four out of ten .
James Hunt of the website Den of Geek said that " This is one of those episodes which exemplify all that is awful about Star Trek in general . I 'm not talking about season one 's dubious production values ( which , to be fair , are considerably more even than they were when the series began ) but about the episode 's very fabric . " Michelle Erica Green for TrekNation thought that the episode could have been better if the guest cast was up to a better quality . However , she felt that the episode fell foul of several TNG season one writing errors , such as Deanna Troi 's statements breaking any mounting tension and the crew failing to do such quite simple steps such as separating feuding aliens and William Riker being held hostage for the second time in successive episodes .
= = Home media release = =
The first home media release of " Symbiosis " was on VHS cassette , appearing on May 26 , 1993 in the United States and Canada . The episode was later included on the Star Trek : The Next Generation season one DVD box set , released in March 2002 , and then released as part of the season one Blu @-@ ray set on July 24 , 2012 .
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= Laguna Canyon =
Laguna Canyon ( also called Cañada de las Lagunas , Spanish : Lagoon Canyon ) is the name of a canyon that cuts through the San Joaquin Hills in southern Orange County , California , in the United States , directly west of the city of Irvine . The canyon runs from northeast to southwest , drained on the east side by tributaries of San Diego Creek and on the west by Laguna Canyon Creek . It is deeper and more rugged on the southwestern end near Laguna Beach .
Geologically , the canyon likely originated millions of years ago as the result of San Diego Creek cutting through the San Joaquin Hills . Uplift diverted that stream to its present course , leaving Laguna Canyon as a wind gap . California State Route 133 runs the entire length of the canyon connecting Laguna Beach and Irvine , while California State Route 73 crosses it , running southeast @-@ northwest . A majority of the canyon is located within the Laguna Coast Wilderness Park ; small portions are part of Aliso and Wood Canyons Wilderness Park and the cities of Irvine , Laguna Beach , Laguna Woods and Aliso Viejo .
= = Geography and geology = =
Laguna Canyon is approximately 8 miles ( 13 km ) long and 1 mile ( 1 @.@ 6 km ) wide at the widest points . The city of Irvine lies to the northeast , Lake Forest and Aliso Viejo to the east , the undeveloped San Joaquin Hills to the west , and Laguna Beach to the south . The drainage divide of the canyon near its northern end separates Laguna Canyon Creek from the San Diego Creek watershed .
State Route 133 , locally called Laguna Canyon Road , winds through Laguna Canyon for the entire length of the gorge . California State Route 73 bisects the gorge east @-@ west . The lower section of the canyon is part of the Laguna Coast Wilderness , while the upper section also has a few smaller wilderness preserves . The upper section contains the Laguna Lakes , a series of small natural lakes formed by groundwater rising along a local fault line , which are the namesake of the canyon . A section of the lower canyon within the city limits of Laguna Beach is heavily developed . The northernmost extreme of the canyon lies near a residential area that adjoins Interstate 405 .
The canyon was most likely formed by San Diego Creek cutting through the rising San Joaquin Hills over a span of about 1 @.@ 22 million years . At some point , however , the creek changed course , and the water gap it had formed was walled off by the mountains and became a separate watershed . The gradient of the drainage divide separating Laguna Canyon and the San Diego Creek watershed is very small , allowing for the canyon 's modern use as a transportation route .
= = = The creek = = =
Laguna Canyon Creek begins as an ephemeral creek draining a mountainside west of the valley floor down into the canyon . It is briefly culverted where it crosses under Laguna Canyon Road , but most of the upper course flows in a natural channel . It soon passes the Laguna Lakes and receives Little Sycamore Canyon from the right ; this creek drains a narrow side canyon which runs about 2 miles ( 3 @.@ 2 km ) eastward . The creek continues southward , and then passes beneath Laguna Canyon Rd. again and receives Camarillo Canyon , a short and steep tributary , from the right .
The stream then runs south under the twin California State Route 73 bridges and enters an underground culvert beneath an onramp . While in this culvert , Laurel Canyon ( which harbors a 100 @-@ foot ( 30 m ) waterfall ) and larger Willow Canyon join from the right , then about 0 @.@ 5 miles ( 0 @.@ 80 km ) later , the creek re @-@ emerges from underground and flows in a riprap lined channel for the next few miles . It receives its major tributary , El Toro Creek , from the left . El Toro Creek , which follows El Toro Road for much of its length , drains parts of Laguna Hills and Aliso Viejo before emptying into Laguna Canyon Creek .
The creek turns sharply west and then back south , then shortly after , is forced into a concrete @-@ lined box culvert that carries it through downtown Laguna Beach ( This stretch is also known as Broadway Creek . ) It then is diverted completely underground and its channel winds to an outfall at Main Beach , one of the most popular beaches in Laguna Beach .
= = = Modifications = = =
Laguna Canyon and its side tributaries have received some flood control modifications . These include debris basins at the mouth of nearly every major tributary , stretches of lined or unlined flood control channels , and other structures . The debris basins , sometimes called retention basins , are circular depressions constructed by the Orange County Flood Control Division to slow down flash floods . The upper Laguna Canyon area has a few flood control channels and the lower creek is encased entirely in one ; this begins as a riprap channel with an unlined bottom , which transitions to a concrete culvert . These improvements help to protect infrastructure in the canyon from storm and landslide damage .
There is little development within the main canyon , although the El Toro Creek area is primarily residential . There is also some residential and commercial development downstream of State Route 73 . The concrete channel in this area is small and undersized for major floods , which caused it to overflow in the late 1990s and again in 2010 .
= = Wildlife = =
= = = Animals = = =
The Laguna Canyon area supports a variety of native Southern California wildlife , including large mammals such as mountain lions , bobcats , coyotes and mule deer . Like Aliso and Wood Canyons Regional Park to the south , the canyon supports over one hundred species of birds . Some of its endangered species include California gnatcatcher , cactus wren , and orange @-@ throated whiptail . Except for the Laguna Lakes , the canyon has no fish habitat , and riparian habitat is sparse because the local creeks have only seasonal flow .
= = = Plants = = =
The dominant vegetation cover of coastal sage scrub typically goes through approximately 25 @-@ year cycles , with its peak biodiversity reached in roughly 10 years after the beginning of a new 25 @-@ year period . Such periods are typically separated by wildfires , which clear away dead or dying vegetation and leave bare ground for new growth . The canyon is one of the last remaining sanctuaries for many plants native to Southern California . Approximately one hundred species of plants , most native to California , are found in Laurel and Willow Canyons alone . These include monkey flower , goldenrod , and sagebrush .
= = Recreation = =
Laguna Canyon forms the center section of an approximately 17 @,@ 500 @-@ acre ( 71 km2 ) strip of wilderness preserve running northeast @-@ southwest along the Pacific coast . Most of the canyon is covered Laguna Coast Wilderness Park , which is 7 @,@ 000 acres ( 28 km2 ) . It is bordered on the south by Aliso and Wood Canyons Regional Park , and on its north by Crystal Cove State Park . The parks are managed by the County of Orange and the California Department of Fish and Game , while portions of Laguna Coast are also owned by the City of Laguna Beach . Although there is no trail that follows the main canyon ( as it is traversed by State Route 133 ) , there are many trails , mostly hiking , that lead up narrow side canyons , as well as a trail that circumnavigates Laguna Lakes . Several connecting trails run east @-@ south towards Aliso and Wood Canyons , providing access between the two watersheds .
= = History = =
Lying to the north of Aliso Canyon , the Laguna Canyon area lay within the tribal boundary of the Tongva , a Native American group whose territory expanded from north @-@ central Orange County well past the San Gabriel River and into the Los Angeles Basin . Aliso Creek , whose watershed borders Laguna Canyon to the east , formed the tribal boundary between the Tongva and Acjachemen .
Laguna Canyon Creek was a seasonal stream but the Laguna Lakes , formed by springs arising from a minor fault zone , stayed year round . A Native American path ran through the canyon to the present @-@ day Laguna Beach area , where they fished and collected abalone and limpets . The Tongva lived in villages of 50 @-@ 100 people , in huts made of brushes and tules on a wooden framework . When Spanish explorers arrived in the mid @-@ 18th century , they named the canyon " Cañada de las Lagunas " , referring to the Laguna Lakes . A land grant called La Bolsa de San Joaquín occupied the canyon area up to the 19th century . By 1905 , Laguna Beach began to draw municipal water from springs in Laguna Canyon .
Before Laguna Canyon became a wilderness park , a housing development was proposed to be built in and around the canyon , tentatively called " Laguna Laurel " . The 2 @,@ 150 @-@ acre ( 8 @.@ 7 km2 ) community , which was proposed to contain 3 @,@ 200 housing units as well as a number of businesses , was canceled in the 1990s after the City of Laguna Beach purchased four of its parcels in order to provide space for a wilderness park , while the City of Irvine purchased one , and Laguna Coast Wilderness Park was opened and dedicated in 1993 . Occasionally , the park system ( which adjoins Aliso / Wood Canyons Regional Park ) is augmented by donations of vacant land .
The proposal to stop the development was supported by a crowd of eight to eleven thousand on November 11 , 1989 . This large group gathered in downtown Laguna Beach and marched out to the " The Tell " photographic mural , created by the Laguna Canyon Project , in the Sycamore Hills area of Laguna Canyon . This protest was called the " Walk to Save Laguna Canyon " . Several years later , two to three thousand gathered to protest the construction of California State Route 73 ( which would cross the canyon ) , but the highway was built eventually .
In 1993 , a massive wildfire burned over 16 @,@ 000 acres ( 65 km2 ) in Laguna Canyon and Laguna Beach , and ranked behind the 1948 Santa Ana Canyon fire as one of the worst fires in Orange County history . The fire was in part caused by strong Santa Ana Winds , which caused flames that rose up to 200 feet ( 61 m ) high .
= = Future = =
The canyon is one of the last remaining wild areas in Orange County in a strip of preserves along the San Joaquin Hills about 20 miles ( 32 km ) long and 8 miles ( 13 km ) wide . Recently , State Route 133 has been expanded to four lanes from the original two lanes ; the original road is now a one @-@ way southbound . The newly constructed road is mostly parallel to the original road but is closer to Laguna Canyon Creek . Recent construction work at the head of Laguna Canyon near the city of Irvine has leveled some hills on the east side of the canyon , but construction has presently stopped . There are plans to turn the northernmost extreme of the Canyon into a residential development consisting of 590 houses , called Laguna Crossing . It was originally planned to open in 2008 but this date has been moved to 2013 . There also has been work on culverts in the northern part of the canyon .
Other parts of Laguna Canyon has been impacted by development , mostly from construction of the state highway but also from buildings in the canyon in the last 3 miles ( 4 @.@ 8 km ) . Most of the remaining wild lands are now found in the side canyons . Urban runoff has resulted in bacterial pollution downstream at Main Beach in Laguna Beach . There now are several organizations working on preserving the remaining wild lands of the canyon ; Laguna Canyon Foundation is the most prominent one .
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= Sviatoslav 's invasion of Bulgaria =
Sviatoslav 's invasion of Bulgaria refers to a conflict beginning in 967 / 968 and ending in 971 , carried out in the eastern Balkans , and involving the Kievan Rus ' , Bulgaria , and the Byzantine Empire . The Byzantines encouraged the Rus ' ruler Sviatoslav to attack Bulgaria , leading to the defeat of the Bulgarian forces and the occupation of the northern and north @-@ eastern part of the country by the Rus ' for the following two years . The allies then turned against each other , and the ensuing military confrontation ended with a Byzantine victory . The Rus ' withdrew and eastern Bulgaria was incorporated into the Byzantine Empire .
In 927 , a peace treaty had been signed between Bulgaria and Byzantium , ending many years of warfare and establishing forty years of peace . Both states prospered during this interlude , but the balance of power gradually shifted in favour of the Byzantines , who made great territorial gains against the Abbasid Caliphate in the East and formed a web of alliances surrounding Bulgaria . By 965 / 966 , the warlike new Byzantine emperor Nikephoros II Phokas refused to renew the annual tribute that was part of the peace agreement and declared war on Bulgaria . Preoccupied with his campaigns in the East , Nikephoros resolved to fight the war by proxy and invited the Rus ' ruler Sviatoslav to invade Bulgaria .
Sviatoslav 's subsequent campaign greatly exceeded the expectations of the Byzantines , who had regarded him only as a means to exert diplomatic pressure on the Bulgarians . The Rus ' prince conquered the core regions of the Bulgarian state in the northeastern Balkans in 967 – 969 , seized the Bulgarian tsar Boris II , and effectively ruled the country through him . Sviatoslav intended to continue his drive south against Byzantium itself , which in turn regarded the establishment of a new and powerful Russo @-@ Bulgarian state in the Balkans with great concern . After stopping a Rus ' advance through Thrace at the Battle of Arcadiopolis in 970 , the Byzantine emperor John I Tzimiskes led an army north into Bulgaria in 971 and captured Preslav , the capital . After a three @-@ month siege of the fortress of Dorostolon , Sviatoslav agreed to terms with the Byzantines and withdrew from Bulgaria . Tzimiskes formally annexed Eastern Bulgaria to the Byzantine Empire . However , most of the country in the central and western Balkans remained in effect outside imperial control ; this would lead to the revival of the Bulgarian state in these regions under the Cometopuli dynasty .
= = Background = =
By the beginning of the 10th century , two powers had come to dominate the Balkans : the Byzantine Empire controlled the south of the peninsula and the coasts , and the Bulgarian Empire held the central and northern Balkans . The early decades of the century were dominated by Tsar Simeon ( r . 893 – 927 ) , who expanded his empire at Byzantium 's expense in a series of wars and secured for himself recognition of his imperial title . Simeon 's death in May 927 was soon followed by a rapprochement between the two powers , formalized with a treaty and a marriage alliance later that same year . Simeon 's second son and successor , Peter I ( r . 927 – 969 ) , married Maria , the granddaughter of the Byzantine emperor Romanos I Lekapenos ( r . 920 – 944 ) , and his imperial title was recognized . An annual tribute ( which the Byzantines termed a subsidy for Maria 's upkeep , to save face ) was agreed to be paid to the Bulgarian ruler in exchange for peace .
The agreement was kept for almost forty years as peaceful relations suited both sides . Bulgaria , despite the barrier formed by the Danube , was still menaced in its northern reaches by steppe peoples , the Magyars and the Pechenegs . They launched raids throughout Bulgaria , occasionally reaching Byzantine territory as well . The Byzantine – Bulgarian peace nevertheless meant less trouble from the north , as many Pecheneg raids had been sponsored by the Byzantines . Peter 's reign , although lacking the military splendour of Simeon 's , was still a " golden age " for Bulgaria , with a flourishing economy and a thriving urban society .
Byzantium used the peace to focus its energy on wars against the Abbasid Caliphate in the East , where a series of campaigns under generals John Kourkouas and Nikephoros Phokas greatly expanded imperial territory . At the same time , military reforms created a much more effective and offensively @-@ oriented army . The Byzantines did not neglect the Balkans , working steadily to improve their contacts with the peoples of central and eastern Europe , subtly altering the balance of power in the peninsula . Their Crimean outpost of Cherson maintained trade with the Pechenegs and the emerging power of the Kievan Rus ' ; Byzantine missionaries led the Christianization of the Magyars ; and the Slavic princes of the western Balkans came to once again acknowledge the suzerainty of the Empire , particularly after Caslav Klonimirovic ended Bulgarian control over Serbia . These relationships on the periphery of the Bulgarian Empire were an important asset for Byzantine diplomacy : instigating attacks against Bulgaria by the Pechenegs and the Khazars was a time @-@ honoured method of applying pressure on the Bulgarians .
Upon the sudden death of Emperor Romanos II in 963 , Nikephoros Phokas usurped the throne from Romanos ' infant sons and became senior emperor as Nikephoros II ( r . 963 – 969 ) . Nikephoros , a prominent member of the Anatolian military aristocracy , also focused mostly on the East , leading his army personally in campaigns that recovered Cyprus and Cilicia . Thus things stood when a Bulgarian embassy visited Nikephoros in late 965 or early 966 to collect the tribute owed . Nikephoros , his confidence boosted by his recent successes , and deeming the Bulgarian ruler 's demand presumptuous , refused to pay , claiming that with Empress Maria 's recent death ( ca . 963 ) any such obligations had ceased . He had the envoys beaten and sent them home with threats and insults . He proceeded with his troops to Thrace , where he staged an elaborate parade as a display of military strength and sacked a few Bulgarian border forts . Nikephoros ' decision to effect a breach of relations with Bulgaria was also in response to the recent treaty that Peter I had signed with the Magyars . The treaty stipulated that the Magyars would be allowed to pass through the country and raid Byzantium in exchange for halting their raids in Bulgaria .
Anxious to avoid war , Tsar Peter sent his two sons , Boris and Roman , as hostages to Constantinople . This move failed to appease Nikephoros , but he was not able or willing to campaign against Bulgaria ; his forces were engaged in the East , and furthermore , drawing on the Byzantines ' past experience , Nikephoros was reluctant to mount an expedition into the mountainous and heavily forested terrain of Bulgaria . Consequently , he resorted to the old Byzantine expedient of calling in a tribe from eastern Europe to attack Bulgaria . In late 966 or early 967 , he dispatched the patrikios Kalokyros , a citizen of Cherson , as his ambassador to Sviatoslav , ruler of the Rus ' . The Byzantines had long maintained close relations with the Rus ' , with whom they were bound by treaty . With promises of rich rewards and , according to Leo the Deacon , a payment of 1 @,@ 500 pounds of gold , the Rus ' ruler was induced to attack Bulgaria from the north . That Nikephoros should call upon Sviatoslav for aid was unusual , since the Pechenegs were traditionally used for such tasks . The historian A.D. Stokes , who examined the questions surrounding the background and chronology of Sviatoslav 's Bulgarian campaign , suggested that this move had a second motive of turning the attention of Sviatoslav , who had recently destroyed the Khazar khanate , away from the Byzantine outpost of Cherson .
Sviatoslav enthusiastically agreed to the Byzantine proposal . In August 967 or 968 , the Rus ' crossed the Danube into Bulgarian territory , defeated a Bulgarian army of 30 @,@ 000 men in the Battle of Silistra , and occupied most of the Dobruja . According to the Bulgarian historian Vasil Zlatarski , Sviatoslav seized 80 towns in northeastern Bulgaria . They were looted and destroyed but not permanently occupied . Tsar Peter I suffered an epileptic stroke when he received news of the defeat . The Rus ' wintered at Pereyaslavets , while the Bulgarians retreated to the fortress of Dorostolon ( Silistra ) . The next year , Sviatoslav left with part of his army to counter a Pecheneg attack on his capital at Kiev ( incited either by the Byzantines or , according to the Russian Primary Chronicle , by the Bulgarians ) . At the same time , Tsar Peter sent a new embassy to Byzantium , a visit that was recorded by Liutprand of Cremona . In contrast to their previous reception , this time the Bulgarian envoys were treated with great honour . Nevertheless , Nikephoros , confident of his position , demanded harsh terms : Tsar Peter was to resign and be replaced by Boris , and the two young emperors , Basil and Constantine , were to be married to Bulgarian princesses , daughters of Boris .
Peter retired to a monastery , where he died in 969 , while Boris was released from Byzantine custody and recognized as Tsar Boris II . For the moment , it appeared that Nikephoros ' plan had worked . However , Sviatoslav 's brief sojourn into the south awakened in him the desire to conquer these fertile and rich lands . In this intention he was apparently encouraged by the former Byzantine envoy , Kalokyros , who coveted the imperial crown for himself . Thus , after defeating the Pechenegs , he set up viceroys to rule Russia in his absence and turned his sights southward again .
In summer 969 , Sviatoslav returned to Bulgaria in force , accompanied by allied Pecheneg and Magyar contingents . In his absence , Pereyaslavets had been recovered by Boris II ; the Bulgarian defenders put up a determined fight , but Sviatoslav stormed the city . Thereafter Boris and Roman capitulated , and the Rus ' rapidly established control over eastern and northern Bulgaria , placing garrisons in Dorostolon and the Bulgarian capital of Preslav . There Boris continued to reside and exercise nominal authority as Sviatoslav 's vassal . In reality he was little more than a figurehead , retained in order to lessen Bulgarian resentment at and reaction to the Rus ' presence . Sviatoslav appears to have been successful in enlisting Bulgarian support . Bulgarian soldiers joined his army in considerable numbers , tempted partly by the prospects of booty , but also enticed by Sviatoslav 's anti @-@ Byzantine designs and probably mollified by a shared Slavic heritage . The Rus ' ruler himself was careful not to alienate his new subjects : he forbade his army from looting the countryside or plundering cities that surrendered peacefully .
Thus Nikephoros ' scheme had backfired : Instead of a weak Bulgaria , a new and warlike nation had been established at the Empire 's northern border , and Sviatoslav showed every intention of continuing his advance south into Byzantium . The emperor tried to get the Bulgarians to resume the war against the Rus ' , but his proposals were not heeded . Then , on 11 December 969 , Nikephoros was murdered in a palace coup and succeeded by John I Tzimiskes ( r . 969 – 976 ) , to whom fell the task of dealing with the situation in the Balkans . The new emperor sent envoys to Sviatoslav , proposing negotiations . The Rus ' ruler demanded a huge sum before he would withdraw , insisting that otherwise the Empire should abandon its European territories to him and withdraw to Asia Minor . For the time being , Tzimiskes was preoccupied with consolidating his position and countering the unrest of the powerful Phokas clan and its adherents in Asia Minor . He therefore entrusted the war in the Balkans to his brother @-@ in @-@ law , the Domestic of the Schools Bardas Skleros , and to the eunuch stratopedarch Peter .
In early 970 , a Rus ' army , with large contingents of Bulgarians , Pechenegs , and Magyars , crossed the Balkan Mountains and headed south . The Rus ' stormed the city of Philippopolis ( now Plovdiv ) , and , according to Leo the Deacon , impaled 20 @,@ 000 of its surviving inhabitants . Skleros , with an army of 10 @,@ 000 – 12 @,@ 000 men , confronted the Rus ' advance near Arcadiopolis ( now Luleburgaz ) in early spring 970 . The Byzantine general , whose army was considerably outnumbered , used a feigned retreat to draw the Pecheneg contingent away from the main army into a prepared ambush . The main Rus ' army panicked and fled , suffering heavy casualties at the hands of the pursuing Byzantines . The Rus ' withdrew north of the Balkan mountain range , which gave Tzimiskes time to deal with internal unrest and to assemble his forces .
= = Byzantine offensive = =
After being occupied with suppressing the revolt of Bardas Phokas throughout the year 970 , Tzimiskes marshalled his forces in early 971 for a campaign against the Rus ' , moving his troops from Asia to Thrace and gathering supplies and siege equipment . The Byzantine navy accompanied the expedition , tasked with carrying troops to effect a landing in the enemy 's rear and to cut off their retreat across the Danube . The emperor chose Easter week of 971 to make his move , catching the Rus ' completely by surprise : The passes of the Balkan mountains had been left unguarded , either because the Rus ' were busy suppressing Bulgarian revolts or perhaps ( as A.D. Stokes suggests ) because a peace agreement that had been concluded after the battle of Arcadiopolis made them complacent .
The Byzantine army , led by Tzimiskes in person and numbering 30 @,@ 000 – 40 @,@ 000 , advanced quickly and reached Preslav unmolested . The Rus ' army was defeated in a battle before the city walls , and the Byzantines proceeded to lay siege . The Rus ' and Bulgarian garrison under the Rus ' noble Sphangel put up a determined resistance , but the city was stormed on 13 April . Among the captives were Boris II and his family , who were brought to Constantinople along with the Bulgarian imperial regalia . The main Rus ' force under Sviatoslav withdrew before the imperial army towards Dorostolon on the Danube . As Sviatoslav feared a Bulgarian uprising , he had 300 Bulgarian nobles executed , and imprisoned many others . The imperial army advanced without hindrance ; the Bulgarian garrisons of the various forts and strongholds along the way surrendered peacefully .
As the Byzantines neared Dorostolon , they came upon the Rus ' army , which had deployed on a field before the city , ready for battle . After a long and bitter struggle , the Byzantines won the day when Tzimiskes ordered his heavy cataphract cavalry to advance . The Rus ' quickly broke ranks and fled inside the fortress . The subsequent siege of Dorostolon lasted for three months , during which the Byzantines blockaded the city by land and sea and the Rus ' attempted several sallies . Three pitched battles were fought , all of which ended in Byzantine victories . After the final and particularly savage battle in late July , the Rus ' were forced to capitulate . According to Byzantine chroniclers , by that time only 22 @,@ 000 out of an army of originally 60 @,@ 000 remained . Tzimiskes and Sviatoslav met and agreed to a peace treaty : The Rus ' army was allowed to depart , leaving their captives and plunder behind , and their trading rights were re @-@ affirmed in exchange for an oath to never again attack imperial territory . Sviatoslav would not long outlive the peace settlement , as he was slain on his way home in a Pecheneg ambush at the river Dnieper .
= = Aftermath = =
The outcome of the war was a complete Byzantine victory , and Tzimiskes decided to take full advantage . Although he initially recognized Boris II as the legitimate Bulgarian tsar , after the fall of Dorostolon his intentions changed . This became evident during his triumphal return to Constantinople , where the emperor entered the Golden Gate behind a wagon carrying an icon of the Virgin Mary as well as the Bulgarian regalia , with Boris and his family following behind Tzimiskes . When the procession reached the Forum of Constantine , Boris was publicly divested of his imperial insignia , and at the church of Hagia Sophia , the Bulgarian crown was dedicated to God .
This marked the symbolic end of Bulgaria as an independent state , at least in Byzantine eyes . Byzantine generals were installed in the eastern parts of the country along the Danube . Preslav was renamed Ioannopolis in honour of the emperor , and Dorostolon ( or perhaps Pereyaslavets ) was renamed Theodoropolis after St. Theodore the Stratelate , who was believed to have intervened in the final battle before Dorostolon . Tzimiskes reduced the Bulgarian patriarchate to an archbishopric subject to the Patriarch of Constantinople . He brought the Bulgarian royal family and many nobles to live in Constantinople and Asia Minor , while the region around Philippopolis was settled with Armenians . However , outside eastern Bulgaria , and there only in the major urban centres , Byzantine control existed only in theory . Tzimiskes , like Nikephoros Phokas , was more interested in the East . With the Rus ' threat banished and Bulgaria seemingly pacified , his attention turned to Syria . No coordinated Byzantine drive to secure the interior of the Balkans was made . As a result , the north @-@ central Balkans and Macedonia , where neither the Rus ' nor Tzimiskes ' troops had ventured , remained as before in the hands of the local Bulgarian elites .
In these areas , a Bulgarian resistance emerged , taking advantage of the Byzantine civil wars after the death of Tzimiskes in 976 , led by the four sons of a count ( comes ) Nicholas , who became known as the Cometopuli ( " sons of the count " ) . The most capable amongst them , Samuel , revived the Bulgarian realm , now centered in Macedonia , and was crowned Tsar in 997 . A formidable warrior , he led raiding campaigns into Byzantine territory as far south as the Peloponnese , and he engaged the Byzantine emperor Basil II ( r . 976 – 1025 ) in a series of wars resulting in the final conquest of the Bulgarian state by the Byzantines in 1018 . Nevertheless , due to the events of 971 , the Byzantines would never regard him as anything other than a rebel against imperial authority , let alone concede the principle of equality enjoyed by the Bulgarian rulers before 971 .
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= History of cricket to 1725 =
The history of cricket to 1725 traces the sport 's development from its perceived origins to the stage where it had become a major sport in England and had been introduced to other countries .
The earliest definite reference to cricket occurs in 1598 and makes clear that the sport was being played c . 1550 , but its true origin is a mystery . All that can be said with a fair degree of certainty is that its beginning was earlier than 1550 , somewhere in south @-@ east England within the counties of Kent , Sussex and Surrey . Unlike other games with batsmen , bowlers and fielders , such as stoolball and rounders , cricket can only be played on relatively short grass , especially as the ball was delivered along the ground until the 1760s . Therefore , forest clearings and land where sheep had grazed would have been suitable places to play .
The sparse information available about cricket 's early years suggests that it was originally a children 's game . Then , at the beginning of the 17th century , it was taken up by working men . During the reign of Charles I , the gentry took an increased interest as patrons and occasionally as players . A big attraction for them was the opportunity that the game offered for gambling and this escalated in the years following the Restoration . By the time of the Hanoverian succession , investment in cricket had created professional players and first @-@ class clubs , thus establishing the sport as a popular social activity in London and the south of England . Meanwhile , English colonists had introduced cricket to North America and the West Indies , and the sailors and traders of the East India Company had taken it to the Indian subcontinent .
= = Origins of cricket as a children 's game = =
The most widely accepted theory about the origin of cricket is that it first developed in early medieval times to the south and south @-@ east of London in the geographical areas of the North Downs , the South Downs and the Weald . The counties of Kent , Sussex and Surrey were therefore the earliest centres of excellence and it was from here that the game reached London , where its lasting popularity was ensured , and other southern counties like Berkshire , Essex , Hampshire and Middlesex . As early as 1610 , a cricket match was recorded at Chevening in Kent between teams representing the Downs and the Weald .
A number of words in common use at the time are thought to be possible sources for the name " cricket " . In the earliest known reference to the sport in 1598 , it is called creckett . Given the strong medieval trade connections between south @-@ east England and the County of Flanders when the latter belonged to the Duchy of Burgundy , the name may have been derived from the Middle Dutch krick ( -e ) , meaning a stick ; or the Olde English cricc or cryce meaning a crutch or staff . In what may be an early reference to the sport , a 1533 poem attributed to John Skelton describes Flemish weavers as " kings of crekettes " , a word of apparent Middle Dutch origin . In Samuel Johnson 's Dictionary of the English Language ( 1755 ) , he derived cricket from " cryce , Saxon , a stick " . In Old French , the word criquet seems to have meant a kind of club or stick , though this may have been the origin of croquet . Another possible source is the Middle Dutch word krickstoel , meaning a long low stool used for kneeling in church , the shape of which resembled the two stump wicket used in early cricket . According to Heiner Gillmeister , a European language expert of the University of Bonn , " cricket " derives from the Middle Dutch phrase for hockey , met de ( krik ket ) sen ( i.e. , " with the stick chase " ) . Gillmeister believes the sport itself had a Flemish origin but " the jury is still out " on the matter .
Cricket was probably devised by children and survived for many generations as essentially a children 's game . Possibly it was derived from bowls , assuming bowls is the older sport , by the intervention of a batsman trying to stop the ball reaching its target by hitting it away . Playing on sheep @-@ grazed land or in clearings , the original implements may have been a matted lump of sheep 's wool ( or even a stone or a small lump of wood ) as the ball ; a stick or a crook or another farm tool as the bat ; and a gate ( e.g. , a wicket gate ) , a stool or a tree stump as the wicket . The invention of the game could have happened in Norman or Plantagenet times anytime before 1300 ; or even in Saxon times before 1066 .
All acknowledged subject experts and authorities agree that there is no evidence of cricket having evolved from another bat @-@ and @-@ ball sport and , equally , no evidence that any other bat @-@ and @-@ ball sport evolved from cricket . The authorities include writers Harry Altham , John Arlott , Derek Birley , Arthur Haygarth , David Underdown , Roy Webber and Peter Wynne @-@ Thomas . Their consensus view is that the only thing that can definitely be said about the origin of cricket is that its earliest record is in a late 16th @-@ century court case in Surrey which proves it was played by children in southeast England in the middle of that century . There have been alternative theories of origin but these have been dismissed or ignored by authorities . For example , the writer Andrew Lang claimed in 1912 that cricket evolved from a bat @-@ and @-@ ball game which may have been played in Dál Riata as early as the 6th century and this claim has been dismissed in terms of " Lang 's idiosyncratic belief in the Celtic origin of cricket " . It is true that cricket is one of many bat @-@ and @-@ ball sports existing worldwide which have no known origin . Others are the definitely Celtic sports of hurling and shinty . Golf and hockey are other British ball games involving a club or stick while croquet was apparently imported from France and globally there are games such as Sweden 's brännboll , Italy 's lippa , India 's gilli @-@ danda , Finland 's pesäpallo and Samoa 's kilikiti . However , it is generally believed that cricket essentially belongs to the same family of bat @-@ and @-@ ball games as stoolball , rounders and baseball but whether it evolved from any of these , or vice versa , cannot be determined . There is a 1523 reference to stoolball at a designated field in Oxfordshire ; this may then have been a generic term for any game in which a ball is somehow hit with a bat or stick . 18th century references to stoolball in conjunction with cricket clearly indicate that it was a separate activity .
= = = " Creag " = = =
On Thursday , 10 March 1300 ( Julian calendar , the Gregorian date would be 19 March 1301 ) , wardrobe accounts of King Edward I of England included refunds to one John de Leek of monies that he had paid out to enable Prince Edward to play " creag and other games " at both Westminster and Newenden . Prince Edward , the future Prince of Wales , was then aged 15 . It has been suggested that " creag " was an early form of cricket . However , creag could have been something quite different . Creag is possibly an early spelling of the word craic , here taken as an Irish word meaning fun , entertainment , or enjoyable conversation . This sense of the word crack is found in Irish English , Scottish English , and Geordie in North East England . In Ireland the spelling craic is now more common than crack .
= = = Earliest definite references = = =
The earliest definite reference to cricket being played anywhere in England ( and hence anywhere in the world ) is in evidence given at a 1598 court case which confirms that it was played on common land in Guildford , Surrey , around 1550 . The court in Guildford heard on Monday , 17 January 1597 ( Julian date , equating to the year 1598 in the Gregorian calendar ) from a 59 @-@ year @-@ old coroner , John Derrick , who gave witness that when he was a scholar at the " Free School at Guildford " , fifty years earlier , " hee and diverse of his fellows did runne and play [ on the common land ] at creckett and other plaies . "
In 1598 , there was a reference to cricket in an Italian @-@ English dictionary by Giovanni Florio . His definition of the word sgillare was : " to make a noise as a cricket , to play cricket @-@ a @-@ wicket , and be merry " . Florio is the first writer known to have defined " cricket " in terms of both an insect and a game . In a later edition of his dictionary in 1611 , Florio infers that " to play cricket @-@ a @-@ wicket " has sexual associations with references to frittfritt , defined " as we say cricket a wicket , or gigaioggie " , and dibatticare , defined " to thrum a wench lustily till the bed cry giggaioggie " .
= = The development of village cricket : 1611 – 1660 = =
= = = Beginning of adult participation = = =
In 1611 , a French @-@ English dictionary was published by Randle Cotgrave who defined the noun crosse as " the crooked staff wherewith boys play at cricket " . The verb form of the word is crosser , defined as " to play at cricket " . Although cricket was defined as a boys ' game in Cotgrave 's dictionary , as per the Guildford schoolboys above , it was at this time that adult participation is known to have begun .
The first definite mention of cricket in Sussex was also in 1611 and relates to ecclesiastical court records stating that two parishioners of Sidlesham in West Sussex had failed to attend church on Easter Sunday because they were playing cricket . They were fined 12 pence each and made to do penance . In 1613 , another court case recorded that someone was assaulted with a " cricket staffe " at Wanborough , near Guildford .
Also in this period , the first definite mention of cricket in Kent is deduced from a 1640 court case which recorded a " cricketing " of " Weald and Upland " versus " Chalkhill " at Chevening " about thirty years since " ( i.e. , c . 1610 ) . This is the earliest known village cricket match and these contests became popular in the first half of the 17th century . The case concerned the land on which the game was played .
In 1617 , the 18 @-@ year @-@ old Oliver Cromwell played cricket and football in London . In 1622 , several parishioners of Boxgrove , near Chichester in west Sussex , were prosecuted for playing cricket in a churchyard on Sunday , 5 May . There were three reasons for the prosecution : one was that it contravened a local bye @-@ law ; another reflected concern about church windows which may or may not have been broken ; the third was that a little childe had like to have her braines beaten out with a cricket batt ! The latter reason was because the rules at the time allowed the batsman to hit the ball twice and so fielding near the batsman was very hazardous , as two later incidents drastically confirm .
In 1624 , a fatality occurred at Horsted Keynes in East Sussex when a fielder called Jasper Vinall was struck on the head by the batsman , Edward Tye , who was trying to hit the ball a second time to avoid being caught . Vinall is thus the earliest recorded cricketing fatality . The matter was recorded in a coroner 's court , which returned a verdict of misadventure . The tragedy was repeated in 1647 when another fatality was recorded at Selsey in West Sussex , a player called Henry Brand being hit on the head by a batsman trying to hit the ball a second time . When the first Laws of cricket were encoded in 1744 , it was illegal to hit the ball twice and a batsman breaking the rule was to be given out . The record of the 1624 case confirms that two villages , Horsted Keynes and West Hoathly , were involved in the match and provides further evidence of the growth of village cricket .
The issue of Sunday play during the years of Puritan influence , from about 1630 to the Restoration in 1660 , has left several references in ecclesiastical court records . These indicate that inter @-@ parish matches were being played but there is nothing to suggest that any teams representative of counties were formed before the Restoration . There is no evidence of large scale gambling or patronage prior to the English Civil War and it was those factors which drove the formation of " representative " teams in the 18th century . It must be concluded , therefore , that the cricket being played before the war was of minor standard only : i.e. , village cricket .
Village cricket continued to thrive in the 18th century . In 1717 , Thomas Marchant , a farmer from Hurstpierpoint in Sussex , first mentioned cricket in his diary . He made numerous references to the game , particularly concerning his local club , until 1727 . His son Will played for " our parish " , as he often called the Hurstpierpoint team .
= = = Breaking the Sabbath = = =
When the English Civil War began in 1642 , the Long Parliament banned theatres , as they had met with Puritan disapproval . Although similar action would be taken against certain sports , there is no evidence of cricket having been prohibited . Except that players must not " break the Sabbath " , references to the game before and during the Commonwealth suggest that it was approved : Cromwell himself had been a player as a young man . It was during the second half of the 17th century that " the game took a real grip " especially in the south @-@ eastern counties . The nobility withdrew to their country estates during the Commonwealth and were involved in village cricket as a pastime which , after the Commonwealth expired in 1660 , they took with them when they returned to London .
In 1628 , an ecclesiastical case related to a game at East Lavant , near Chichester in West Sussex , being played on a Sunday . One of the defendants argued that he had not played during evening prayer time but only before and after . It did him no good as he was fined the statutory 12d and ordered to do penance . Doing penance involved confessing his guilt to the whole East Lavant congregation the following Sunday .
There are three further references before the Civil War . In a 1636 court case concerning a tithe dispute , a witness called Henry Mabbinck testified that he played cricket " in the Parke " at West Horsley in Surrey . In 1637 , another ecclesiastical case recorded parishioners of Midhurst , West Sussex , playing cricket during evening prayer on Sunday , 26 February . In 1640 , Puritan clerics at both Maidstone and Harbledown , near Canterbury , denounced cricket as " profane " , especially if played on Sunday .
In 1654 , three men were prosecuted at Eltham in Kent for playing cricket on a Sunday . As the Puritans were now firmly in power , Cromwell 's Protectorate having been established the previous year , the penalty was doubled to 24 pence ( two shillings ) . The defendants were charged with " breaking the Sabbath " , not with playing cricket . Similarly , when Cromwell 's commissioners banned sport in Ireland two years later on the grounds of " unlawful assembly " , there is no evidence that the ban included cricket , which had probably not reached Ireland by that time .
= = = The beginning of amateur cricket = = =
The beginnings of cricket 's social division between amateurs and professionals , from which the annual Gentlemen v Players contest ultimately evolved , can be traced to the reign of Charles I. In 1629 , Henry Cuffin , a curate at Ruckinge in Kent , was prosecuted by an Archdeacon 's Court for playing cricket on Sunday evening after prayers . He claimed that several of his fellow players were " persons of repute and fashion " . This statement is the first evidence of cricket achieving popularity among the gentry .
It was the gentry who introduced large @-@ scale gambling into cricket and some of these gamblers subsequently became patrons by forming select teams that would improve their chances of winning . During the Commonwealth , gambling was , of political necessity , low key . The earliest reference to gambling on a cricket match is in the records of a 1646 court case concerning non @-@ payment of a wager that was made on a game at Coxheath in Kent on 29 May that year . Curiously , the wager was for twelve candles , but the participants included members of the local gentry . In 1652 , a case at Cranbrook against John Rabson , Esq. and others referred to " a certain unlawful game called cricket " . Rabson was evidently a member of the gentry but the other defendants were all working class .
Cricket has long been recognised as a sport that bridged the class divide but , in time , the cricketing gentlemen came to be called " amateurs " to emphasise the distinction between themselves and the professionals who belonged to the lower social classes , mostly to the working class . The amateur was not merely someone who played cricket in his spare time but a particular type of first @-@ class cricketer who existed officially until 1962 , when the distinction between amateur and professional was abolished and all first @-@ class players became nominally professional . In terms of remuneration , amateurs claimed expenses for playing while professionals were paid a salary or fee . Amateur cricket was an extension of the game played in schools , universities and other centres of education , both as a curricular and extracurricular activity . The schools and universities formed the " production line " that created nearly all the first @-@ class amateur players .
There are few 17th century references to cricket being played at or in the vicinity of schools but it was noted at Eton College and Winchester College by the time of the Commonwealth . In 1647 , a Latin poem contains a probable reference to cricket being played at Winchester College ; if so , it is the earliest known mention of cricket in Hampshire . There is a reference to the game at St Paul 's School , London about 1665 concerning John Churchill , 1st Duke of Marlborough , who studied there . In his Social History of English Cricket , Derek Birley comments that school cricket was " alive and well during the interregnum " ( 1649 – 1660 ) . He speculates that the game " must have been known to every schoolboy in the south @-@ east " of England . However , he doubts that the sport at this time was part of any school 's curriculum . Apart from Eton and Westminster School , all schools in the 17th century had local intakes and no class segregation . Therefore , the sons of rich and poor families played together . As evidenced by the legal cases of 1646 and 1652 , described above , cricket was played jointly by gentry and workers .
The earliest reference to cricket at Oxford University is dated 1673 . In John Phillips ' Duellum Musicum , a 1673 pamphlet concerning music tuition , there is a criticism of a rival author called Thomas Salmon who had boasted of being a graduate of Trinity College , Oxford :
" He shews but a slender sign of his University @-@ Education : Where he seems to have spent his time rather in the more laudable Exercises of Trap and Cricket , than in any sound Reading " .
Depending on when Salmon graduated , it would seem that cricket was a normal activity at Oxford for some time before Phillips wrote his pamphlet . Cricket was apparently well established at Oxford by October 1728 when the 19 @-@ year @-@ old Samuel Johnson entered Pembroke College . He told James Boswell that cricket matches were played during the one year he was at Oxford and this was recorded by Boswell in his Life of Samuel Johnson . A comment by Horace Walpole confirms that cricket was being played at Eton College during the first quarter of the 18th century . The earliest reference to cricket being played at Cambridge University was in 1710 and both of these establishments were attended by William Goldwin who , in 1706 , wrote a Latin poem of 95 lines on a rural cricket match . It was called In Certamen Pilae ( On a Ball Game ) and it was published in his Musae Juveniles .
= = Rules and equipment of early cricket = =
Early cricketers played in their everyday clothes and had no protective equipment such as gloves or pads . A 1743 painting of a game in progress at the Artillery Ground depicts two batsmen and a bowler dressed alike in white shirt , breeches , white knee @-@ length stockings and shoes with buckles . The wicket @-@ keeper wears the same clothes with the addition of a waistcoat . An umpire and scorer wear three @-@ quarter length coats and tricorn hats . Apart from the shirts and stockings , none of the clothes are white and no one wears pads or gloves . The ball is bowled underarm along the ground , as in bowls , at varying speed towards a wicket consisting of two stumps mounted by a single crosspiece . The batsman addresses the delivery with a bat that resembles a modern hockey stick , this shape being ideal for dealing with a ball on the ground . The modern straight bat evolved in the 1760s after bowlers began to " give the ball air " by pitching it . As a result , " the game changed completely and evolved from its pioneering phase into what may be termed its pre @-@ modern phase " .
The record of the 1622 case at Boxgrove contains the earliest reference to the cricket bat . The term " batt " in cricket was peculiar to Kent and Sussex , where coastal smugglers were known as " batmen " because of the cudgels they carried . The earliest reference to a " flat @-@ faced " bat ( i.e. , with a flat surface at the bottom of the stick in ice hockey style ) also occurs in 1622 . The term " bat " remained comparatively rare until about 1720 . The terms in more general use were " staff " , " stave " or " stick " . These tended to have regional usage : for example , " stave " was used in the Gloucester area and " batt " in the south @-@ east ; while " staff " and especially " stick " were more widely used . " Bat " is derived from the French " battledore " , shaped like a table tennis bat , which was used by washerwomen to beat their washing with .
The earliest reference to the cricket ball is found in 1658 in Mysteries of Love and Eloquence by Edward Phillips . The pitch has been 22 yards long ( i.e. , a chain ) since the first known code of laws in 1744 and it is believed this length had been in use since the introduction of Gunter 's chain in 1620 . The over consisted of four deliveries until the 19th century .
The earliest known reference to the wicket is contained in lines written in an old bible in 1680 which invited " All you that do delight in Cricket , come to Marden , pitch your wickets " . Marden is in West Sussex , north of Chichester , and close to Hambledon , which is just across the county boundary in Hampshire . The wicket until the 1770s comprised two stumps and a single bail . By that time , the shape of the wicket was high and narrow after the 1744 Laws of cricket defined the dimensions as 22 inches high and six inches wide . But earlier 18th century pictures show a wicket that was low and broad , perhaps two feet wide by one foot high . The ends of the stumps were forked to support the light bail and there were criteria for the firmness of pitching the stumps into the ground and for the delicate placing of the bail so that it would easily topple when a stump was hit .
There has been a lot of conjecture about the origin of the wicket , but suffice to say that the 17th century outline shape is more akin to the profile of a church stool , which is low and broad . Furthermore , the legs of the stool were called stumps , which adds further credence to the idea that stools were used as early wickets . According to the Churchwarden 's Accounts for Great St. Mary 's Church of Cambridge ( 1504 – 1635 ) , a church stool was sometimes known in the south @-@ east by the Dutch name of " kreckett " , this being the same word used for the game by John Derrick in 1597 .
There were two main forms of cricket in the 17th and 18th centuries . One was single wicket in which , as the name implies , there is only one batsman , although teams of threes or fives often took part . The converse is the " double wicket " form , with two batsmen , and this has long been associated with eleven @-@ a @-@ side teams playing two innings each .
In early cricket , there were two umpires as now , but the modern square @-@ leg umpire stood close to the striker 's wicket . Both umpires carried a bat which the running batsman was required to touch in order to complete his run . There were two scorers who sat on the field and recorded the scores by making notches on tallysticks ; runs were then known as notches for this reason .
= = The development of first @-@ class cricket : 1660 – 1700 = =
The Restoration of the monarchy in England in 1660 was immediately followed by the reopening of the theatres and sanctions imposed by the Puritans on sports were also lifted . Cricket was a leading entertainment and " it was ideal for a wager " . Although there are only scattered references to the game in the time of Charles II , it is clear that its popularity was increasing and that it was expanding .
The Restoration was effectively completed during the spring of 1660 and , in the general euphoria which both accompanied and followed these historic events , gambling on cricket and other sports was freely pursued . The large amounts at stake led some investors to try to improve their chances of winning by forming teams that were stronger than the typical parish XI . By now , the nobility had adopted cricket as one of their main sports along with horse racing and prizefighting . This was the beginning of the patronage that sustained and controlled cricket through the 18th century . The first teams representing several parishes and even whole counties were formed in the 1660s and the period saw the first " great matches " as cricket evolved into a major sport .
A significant aspect of this evolution was the introduction of professionalism . Members of the nobility who returned to London after the Restoration were keen to develop cricket and brought with them some of the " local experts " from village cricket whom they now employed as professional players . Within a year or two of the Restoration , " it became the thing in London society to make matches and form clubs " . A kind of " feudal patronage " was established as the nobility took control of the sport , their interest fuelled by the opportunities for gambling that it provided , and this set the pattern for cricket 's development through the next century . Consequently , there was a significant rise in standards of play to the level that is now termed " first @-@ class cricket " .
The Gaming Act 1664 was passed by the " Cavalier " Parliament to try and curb some of the post @-@ Restoration excesses . It limited stakes to £ 100 which was in any case a fortune at the time , equivalent to about £ 14 thousand in present @-@ day terms . It is known that cricket could attract stakes of 50 guineas by 1697 and it was funded by gambling throughout the next century .
The shortage of references in the latter part of the 17th century is due to the Licensing of the Press Act 1662 which imposed very stringent controls on the newspaper industry . Sport , including cricket , was not a subject to be reported and the few references found are in official records , such as court cases , or in private letters and diaries .
In May 1666 , Sir Robert Paston of Richmond wrote a letter to his wife mentioning " a game of criquett ( sic ) on Richmond Green " which is the first reference to cricket at Richmond Green , a popular venue for first @-@ class matches during the 17th and 18th centuries . In 1677 , accounts of Thomas Lennard , 1st Earl of Sussex , include an item which refers to £ 3 being paid to him when he went to a cricket match being played at " ye Dicker " , which was a common near Herstmonceux in East Sussex . In 1671 , a man called Edward Bound was charged with playing cricket on the Sabbath and was exonerated : an indication that attitudes were changing in the wake of the Restoration . The case was reported in Shere , Surrey . In 1694 , accounts of Sir John Pelham record 2s 6d paid for a wager concerning a cricket match at Lewes .
Mitcham Cricket Club was formed in 1685 , the club playing on what is today known as Mitcham Cricket Green . The site has hosted cricket matches ever since . Mitcham is believed to be the world 's oldest cricket club as there is no evidence of any club being founded before 1685 . Croydon , Dartford and London had all been founded by the 1720s but their dates of origin have been lost , although there was an actual reference to a London Club in 1722 .
London Cricket Club was chiefly associated with the Artillery Ground in Finsbury . This venue was first mentioned in 1725 when the 7 May minutes of the Honourable Artillery Company referred to its being used for cricket : there is a note which concerns " the abuse done to the herbage of the ground by the cricket players " . The Artillery Ground became the feature venue for cricket in the mid @-@ 18th century .
In 1695 , Parliament decided against a renewal of the 1662 Licensing Act and so cleared the way for a free press on the Act 's expiry in 1696 . Censorship had already been relaxed following the Bill of Rights 1689 . It was from this time that cricket matters could be reported in the newspapers , but it would be a very long time before the newspaper industry adapted sufficiently to provide frequent , let alone comprehensive , reports . The earliest known newspaper report of a first @-@ class match was in the Foreign Post dated Wednesday , 7 July 1697 :
" The middle of last week a great match at cricket was played in Sussex ; there were eleven of a side , and they played for fifty guineas apiece " .
The stakes on offer confirm the importance of the fixture and the fact that it was eleven a side suggests that two strong and well @-@ balanced teams were assembled . No other details were given but the report provides real evidence to support the view that " great matches " played for high stakes were in vogue in the years following the Restoration . It was possibly an inter @-@ county match ( i.e. , Sussex versus Kent or Surrey ) and , given the Sussex venue , Charles Lennox , 1st Duke of Richmond may have been one of the patrons involved .
= = English cricket in the early 18th century = =
= = = Patrons = = =
In 1702 , the Duke of Richmond 's XI defeated an Arundel XI in Sussex . The source for this game is a receipt sent by one Saul Bradley to the Duke on 14 December 1702 . The receipt was in respect of one shilling and six pence paid by the Duke " for brandy when your Grace plaid at Cricket with Arundel men " . It is thought the brandy was bought to celebrate a victory .
After the 1st Duke of Richmond died in 1723 , his son Charles Lennox , 2nd Duke of Richmond , quickly succeeded him as cricket 's main benefactor and became a famous patron of Sussex cricket for the next thirty years . The 2nd Duke enjoyed a friendly rivalry with his friend Sir William Gage , another Sussex patron . Their teams played each other many times and their earliest known contest was on Tuesday , 20 July 1725 , five days after Sir William 's team was beaten by unknown opponents . Our knowledge of these two games is based on a humorous letter sent by Sir William to the Duke on 16 July . Sir William bemoaned that he was " shamefully beaten " the previous day in " his first match of the year " but says nothing of his opponents . He then looked forward to playing the Duke 's team next Tuesday and wished his Grace " success in everything except his cricket match " .
The main rival to Richmond and Gage was Edwin Stead of Maidstone , who was the first of the noted Kent patrons . The Sussex teams of Richmond and Gage enjoyed an inter @-@ county rivalry with Stead 's Kent that could have originated the concept of the County Championship .
= = = The terms of the wager = = =
The patrons ensured that cricket was financed in the 18th century but their interest , equally applicable to horse racing and prizefighting , was based on the opportunities that cricket provided for gambling . Every important match in the 18th century , whether eleven @-@ a @-@ side or single wicket , was played for stakes . The early newspapers recognised this and were more interested in publishing the odds than the match scores . Reports would say who won the wager rather than who won the match . Sometimes , gambling would lead to dispute and two matches ended up in court when rival interests sought legal rulings on the terms of their wagers .
On Monday , 1 September 1718 , a game on White Conduit Fields in Islington between London and the Rochester Punch Club was unfinished because some of the Rochester players walked off in an attempt to have the game declared incomplete . This was so that they would retain their stake money . London was clearly winning at the time . The game while incomplete became the subject of a lawsuit where the terms of the wager were at issue . The court ordered it to be " played out " and this happened in July 1719 . Rochester with four wickets standing needed thirty more runs to win but lost by 21 and this is cricket 's earliest known definite result .
In 1724 , Chingford v Edwin Stead 's XI ended early because the Chingford team refused to play to a finish when Stead 's team had the advantage . A court case followed and , as in 1718 , it was ordered to be played out , presumably so that all wagers could be fulfilled . It is known that Lord Chief Justice Pratt presided over the case and ordered them to play it out on Dartford Brent , though it is unclear if that was the original venue . The game was completed in 1726 . This match is the earliest reference to cricket being played in Essex , assuming Chingford was the original venue , and is the first known to have involved an Essex team .
The introduction of articles of agreement , agreed before matches by the stakeholders , largely resolved any problems between patrons and match organisers . The concept was more important in terms of defining the rules of play and eventually these were codified as the Laws of cricket .
= = = Matches of the early 18th century = = =
Periodicals called The Post Boy and The Post Man were useful sources for cricket advertisements during the early 18th century . In 1700 , a series of matches to be held on Clapham Common was pre @-@ announced on 30 March by The Post Boy . The first was to take place on Easter Monday and prizes of £ 10 and £ 20 were at stake . No match reports could be found so the results and scores remain unknown . The advert says the teams would consist of ten " Gentlemen " per side but the invitation to attend was to " Gentlemen and others " . This clearly implies that cricket had achieved both the patronage that underwrote it through the 18th century and the spectators who demonstrated its lasting popular appeal . On 24 July 1705 , The Post Man announced West of Kent v Chatham , an 11 @-@ a @-@ side game at Malling , Kent .
On 1 and 8 July 1707 , Croydon played London twice , the first game played in Croydon , possibly at Duppas Hill , and the second at Lamb 's Conduit Field in Holborn . Both matches were advertised by The Post Man as " two great matches at cricket ( to be ) plaid , between London and Croydon ; the first at Croydon on Tuesday , 1 July , and the other to be plaid in Lamb 's @-@ Conduit @-@ Fields , near Holborn , on the Tuesday following , being the 3rd ( sic ) of July " . No post @-@ match reports could be found so the results and scores are unknown . In the same year , there was a match between London and Mitcham at Lamb 's Conduit Field .
The earliest known match that definitely involved county teams , or teams using the names of counties , was Kent v Surrey at Dartford Brent on Wednesday , 29 June 1709 . This was advertised in the Post Man the previous Saturday and played for a stake of £ 50 . Dartford Brent was a popular Kent venue in the 18th century and was probably used for matches in the 17th century . It is likely that Dartford Cricket Club , as the foremost Kent club in this period , provided not only the venue but also the nucleus of the team , while the Surrey team would have been drawn from a number of Surrey parishes and subscribed by their patron .
One player who could have taken part in the 1709 match was William Bedle ( 1680 – 1768 ) , of Dartford , who is the earliest great player whose name has been recorded . He was " reckoned to be the most expert player in England " and must have been in his prime c.1700 to c.1725. Other good players known to have been active in the 1720s were Edwin Stead of Kent ; Edmund Chapman and Stephen Dingate of Surrey ; Tim Coleman of London ; and Thomas Waymark of Sussex .
= = = Dartford v London = = =
The first great rivalry in cricket history was between the Dartford and London clubs who are first known to have played each other in 1722 . On Wednesday , 19 August 1719 , London v Kent was played at White Conduit Fields and Kent won . The report said the teams played for " a considerable sum of money " .
On Saturday , 9 July 1720 , London v Kent at White Conduit Fields was won by London . In this match , two London fielders were badly injured by a clash of heads . H. T. Waghorn wrote that advertising and reporting of cricket ceased for some years after this game and he wondered if that was due to a perception that the sport was dangerous . The South Sea Bubble may have had an economic impact on investment and gambling as , when the South Sea Company was found to be insolvent , its crash in 1720 caused massive repercussions throughout the economy and many formerly prosperous investors were ruined . This could have included cricket patrons , while a potential impact on reporting was the application of stamp duty to newspapers as this increased their publication costs and probably caused publishers to reduce paper size with less room for sports coverage .
On Wednesday , 18 July 1722 , London v Dartford in Islington was the subject of a letter in The Weekly Journal dated 21 July 1722 . The result of the match is unknown . In 1723 , the prominent Tory politician Robert Harley , Earl of Oxford recorded in his journal : " At Dartford upon the Heath as we came out of the town , the men of Tonbridge and the Dartford men were warmly engaged at the sport of cricket , which of all the people of England the Kentish folk are the most renowned for , and of all the Kentish men , the men of Dartford lay claim to the greatest excellence " . It is more than likely to have been Dartford Brent where this game was taking place .
Dartford and London met at Dartford Brent on Thursday , 11 June 1724 and , one week later , a return game was the earliest known match at Kennington Common , near where The Oval is now sited . The result is unknown . On Monday , 10 August 1724 , there was a match in Islington ( result unknown ) which featured the combined parishes of Penshurst , Tunbridge and Wadhurst versus Dartford . This was recorded in a diary entry by one John Dawson , who may have watched it . No details are known but Mr Dawson says it was " a great cricket match " .
= = The growth of cricket in England and overseas = =
The earliest known mention of cricket being played outside England is dated Saturday , 6 May 1676 . A diarist called Henry Tonge , who was part of a British mission at Aleppo in the Ottoman Empire ( now in Syria ) , recorded that " at least forty of the English " left the city for recreational purposes and , having found a nice place to pitch a tent for dinner , they " had several pastimes and sports " including " krickett " . At six they " returned home in good order " .
By this time , cricket had been introduced to India , North America and the West Indies but the first definite references occur in the 18th century . In 1709 , cricket was played by William Byrd of Westover on his James River estates in Virginia , then a British colony . This is the earliest reference to cricket being played in the New World . In 1721 , British sailors of the East India Company were reported to be playing cricket at Cambay , near Baroda , and this is the earliest reference to cricket being played in India . It was via the East India Company that cricket was introduced to and established in the Indian sub @-@ continent . There had not yet been any English colonisation of Australasia or southern Africa .
It is possible that cricket was introduced to the Americas and India before it had spread throughout the British Isles . For example , there is no record of cricket in Yorkshire , home of the English game 's most successful club , until 1751 . The earliest mentions of cricket in Ireland , Scotland and Wales occur even later in the 18th century .
While Britain 's seafaring and trading concerns ensured the spread of cricket overseas , at home it relied heavily on ease of transport and communications , most of these being waterborne as long journeys tended to be undertaken using coastal or river vessels . Road transport was slowly improving and , in 1706 , Parliament established the first turnpike trusts that placed a length of road under the control of trustees drawn from local landowners and traders . The turnpike trusts borrowed capital for road maintenance against the security of tolls . This arrangement became the common method of road maintenance for the next 150 years and came in time to assist the spread of cricket throughout Britain .
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= 2013 Mudsummer Classic =
The 2013 Mudsummer Classic ( formally the CarCash Mudsummer Classic presented by CNBC Prime 's The Profit ) was a NASCAR Camping World Truck Series stock car race held on July 24 , 2013 at Eldora Speedway in New Weston , Ohio . The race was the first dirt track race held by a NASCAR national touring series ( Cup , Xfinity , Trucks ) since 1970 . Contested over 150 laps , the race was the tenth of the 2013 NASCAR Camping World Truck Series season . Ken Schrader of self @-@ owned Ken Schrader Racing won the pole position , and became the oldest pole sitter in NASCAR history at 58 years of age . Austin Dillon of Richard Childress Racing won the race , while Kyle Larson and Ryan Newman finished second and third , respectively .
The qualifying procedure was unique for the race ; drivers ' qualifying times set the starting grids for five heat races to determine the feature race 's starting lineup , while the top five of a last chance qualifier ( LCQ ) advance to the feature . Schrader , Jared Landers , Timothy Peters , Kenny Wallace and Jeb Burton won the heat races , while Brennan Newberry won the LCQ . The feature 's format was also distinctive compared to other NASCAR events , as it was divided into three segments , lasting 60 , 50 and 40 laps . In the feature , Larson took the lead from Peters on lap 39 , and later battled with Dillon for the win , and Dillon claimed the victory after he retained the lead on the green – white – checker finish for his fifth career Truck Series win .
= = Background = =
The last race run on dirt in a NASCAR national touring series occurred on September 30 , 1970 at the North Carolina State Fairgrounds in Raleigh in a Grand National ( now Sprint Cup Series ) race , which was won by Richard Petty . Afterwards , NASCAR sanctioned the Busch All @-@ Star Tour , a dirt late model series , which lasted from 1985 to 2002 .
Eldora Speedway , which opened in 1954 , is considered to be one of 14 intermediate tracks on the Truck Series schedule , the others being Charlotte , Chicagoland , Dover , Homestead @-@ Miami , Iowa , Kansas , Kentucky , Las Vegas , Michigan , Phoenix , Pocono , Rockingham and Texas . The track is a 0 @.@ 5 mile ( 0 @.@ 80 km ) oval with turns at a 24 degree banking , while the straightaways are 8 degrees . The track 's grandstands can fit 17 @,@ 782 spectators , and the hillside seating can fit an unlimited number of fans .
On October 15 , track owner Tony Stewart and Austin Dillon held a private test at the track , driving trucks . On November 28 , 2012 , NASCAR announced that Eldora Speedway would be on the schedule as the first of two Wednesday Truck races , along with the UNOH 200 at Bristol Motor Speedway for 2013 . Although the track does not have any SAFER barriers , Tom Gideon , NASCAR Director of Safety , stated the track meets NASCAR regulations . By January 29 , 2013 , the 17 @,@ 782 grandstand seats had been sold out , with purchasers from 48 states and six countries .
" We 've been looking at getting the trucks back to short tracks – to the roots of racing including the dirt – and we ’ re excited to announce our 2013 NASCAR Camping World Truck Series will race at Eldora Speedway in July . The door @-@ to @-@ door racing that our truck series is known for plus Eldora 's popularity and [ Tony Stewart ] ' s dedication to putting on great shows for the fans is a perfect fit . We 'll have a maximum starting field of 30 trucks at Eldora . More details on the race format are still being developed . "
Various non @-@ Truck regulars entered the race for reasons such as to help a team in the owners ' championship , with teams hiring drivers who are familiar with dirt racing to assist them in the championship . Examples include dirt track specialists Scott Bloomquist , who won The Dream and the World 100 at the track six times and three times , respectively ; Tracy Hines , who had 85 career wins , including six at Eldora , and 52 starts in the Truck Series ; Jared Landers , who won 100 features in his career ; J. R. Heffner , who won the big @-@ block modified championship at Lebanon Valley Speedway twice ; Jeff Babcock , who won an American Late Model Series race at the track during 2013 ; and Joe Cobb , a dirt modified racer and the father of Truck Series regular Jennifer Jo Cobb . Cup Series drivers Dave Blaney , Ken Schrader and Ryan Newman , along with Nationwide Series drivers Austin Dillon , Kenny Wallace and Kyle Larson also ran in the event . Babcock , Blaney , Bloomquist , Hines , Schrader and Wallace had all won races at Eldora in various disciplines . Jason Bowles was later announced as the driver of the No. 5 for Wauters Motorsports , while Chris Jones was originally listed as the driver of the No. 93 for RSS Racing , but eventually withdrew .
In preparation for the race , tire provider Goodyear created new tires , branded " Wrangler " , based on a previous dirt tire that the company made . To give the trucks more grip , the tires were widened by one inch to eleven . The bias @-@ ply tires ( instead of radial tires ) also had treads to remove dirt quicker , in a block pattern , along with being softer . The left @-@ side tires were staggered three inches shorter to 85 @.@ 5 inches than the right tires ( 88 @.@ 5 ) to assist in handling . Meanwhile , the trucks had mesh shields and hood deflector screens attached to prevent debris from the dirt from entering the radiators and damaging the vehicles . The trucks also had the front spoilers and splitters removed , the grille closed , and the rear spoilers raised and enlarged by 40 square inches to generate more downforce . The trucks ' windshields remained , meaning the track crew had to keep the track dry , to prevent mud from making them unable to be cleared . On the hoods , bug deflectors , which were 8 by 12 inches , were installed to prevent stones from hitting the windshield . Teams added under panels to the trucks ' chassis to prevent dirt from increasing the trucks ' weight .
Entering the race , Matt Crafton led the points standings with 357 points , followed by Jeb Burton and James Buescher , both with 319 and 317 points , respectively . Ty Dillon and Johnny Sauter finished the top five with 309 and 305 points , respectively . Ryan Blaney had 290 points , and behind him were Miguel Paludo ( 285 ) , Timothy Peters ( 281 ) , Brendan Gaughan ( 280 ) and Darrell Wallace Jr . ( 272 ) .
= = Practice and qualifying = =
= = = Practice = = =
Two @-@ hour practice sessions were held on July 23 from 4 : 30 to 6 : 30 P.M. EST , followed by another from 7 : 00 to 9 : 00 P.M , the latter being televised on Speed . Another practice was held the following day from 11 : 30 A.M. to 1 : 30 P.M.
Kyle Larson held the fastest lap time in the first practice session with a time of 19 @.@ 645 seconds and speed of 91 @.@ 626 mph ( 147 @.@ 458 km / h ) , followed by father / son pair Dave ( 19 @.@ 856 seconds , 91 @.@ 653 mph ( 147 @.@ 501 km / h ) ) and Ryan Blaney ( 19 @.@ 918 seconds , 90 @.@ 371 mph ( 145 @.@ 438 km / h ) ) and brothers Austin ( 19 @.@ 982 seconds , 90 @.@ 081 mph ( 144 @.@ 971 km / h ) ) and Ty Dillon ( 20 @.@ 205 seconds , 89 @.@ 087 mph ( 143 @.@ 372 km / h ) ) . The top five featured three Chevrolets and two Fords ; the fastest Toyota driver was John Wes Townley ( 20 @.@ 483 seconds , 87 @.@ 878 mph ( 141 @.@ 426 km / h ) ) , who was seventh @-@ fastest .
In the second session , the top five consisted of three Chevrolets in the top three positions and Toyotas in fourth and fifth : Austin ( 21 @.@ 644 seconds , 83 @.@ 164 mph ( 133 @.@ 839 km / h ) ) and Ty Dillon ( 21 @.@ 703 seconds , 82 @.@ 938 mph ( 133 @.@ 476 km / h ) ) , Larson ( 21 @.@ 719 seconds , 82 @.@ 877 mph ( 133 @.@ 378 km / h ) ) , Ken Schrader ( 21 @.@ 748 seconds , 82 @.@ 766 mph ( 133 @.@ 199 km / h ) ) and Tracy Hines ( 21 @.@ 753 seconds , 82 @.@ 747 mph ( 133 @.@ 168 km / h ) ) . The fastest Ford truck was Dave Blaney , with a lap time and speed of 21 @.@ 872 seconds and 82 @.@ 297 mph ( 132 @.@ 444 km / h ) , respectively .
In the final practice , Toyotas dominated the top five , with Darrell Wallace Jr. leading the session with a time of 20 @.@ 040 seconds and speed of 89 @.@ 820 mph ( 144 @.@ 551 km / h ) , followed by Hines ( 20 @.@ 182 seconds , 89 @.@ 188 mph ( 143 @.@ 534 km / h ) ) , Townley ( 20 @.@ 303 seconds , 88 @.@ 657 mph ( 142 @.@ 680 km / h ) ) and Germán Quiroga ( 20 @.@ 307 seconds , 88 @.@ 639 mph ( 142 @.@ 651 km / h ) ) comprising the top four ; Chevy driver James Buescher ( 20 @.@ 528 seconds , 87 @.@ 685 mph ( 141 @.@ 115 km / h ) ) was fifth .
= = = Qualifying = = =
The field for the main event consisted only of 30 trucks instead of the usual 36 , with the top 20 trucks in the owner 's points standings guaranteed a spot . To determine the field , two @-@ lap qualifying runs were held , which determined the starting grids for five heat races of eight laps each . The top five fastest qualifiers started on the pole for the heats , and the highest non @-@ locked @-@ in truck were transferred in to the main event until there were 25 trucks in the field . For drivers that did not qualify via the heats , the top four in a last @-@ chance qualifier advance , with the final spot reserved for the most recent series champion , and if that spot is vacant , the fifth @-@ place finisher in the LCQ would qualify for the main event .
Qualifying was held at 5 : 05 P.M. Ken Schrader won the pole with a lap time of 19 @.@ 709 seconds and a speed of 91 @.@ 329 mph ( 146 @.@ 980 km / h ) for his first Truck Series pole since 2004 , and became the oldest pole @-@ sitter in NASCAR history at 58 years of age , passing Dick Trickle , who won the pole at Dover International Speedway in the Busch Series ' MBNA Platinum 200 in 1999 .
The heat races began at 7 : 00 P.M. , with each heat race occurring after 15 minutes of the previous heat 's start . The last chance qualifier was held at 8 : 45 P.M. Schrader eventually won his heat race after leading all 8 laps . In Heat 2 , the first caution flag of the day was flown for Darrell Wallace Jr . ' s spin with three laps remaining , and Jared Landers prevented a comeback by Matt Crafton to win . The next heat was dominated by Timothy Peters , who led all eight laps ; Heats 4 and 5 were won by Kenny Wallace and Jeb Burton , respectively , the two drivers leading every lap . In the last chance qualifier , J. R. Heffner , who started first in the race , failed to finish the race after completing one lap . Ultimately , Brennan Newberry led all fifteen laps to win , followed by Jeff Babcock , Jason Bowles and Justin Jennings . Norm Benning clinched the fifth and final transfer spot after holding off Clay Greenfield , who nearly wrecked him three times ; in response , Benning gave Greenfield the finger after the race concluded . Because they did not finish in the top five , Greenfield , Jimmy Weller , Bryan Silas , Joe Cobb and Heffner did not qualify for the event . When asked about the duel with Greenfield , Benning stated Tony Stewart had him that he " singlehandedly made the show a success " .
= = = = Qualifying results = = = =
= = = = = Heat races = = = = =
= = = = = = Heat Race # 1 = = = = = =
= = = = = = Heat Race # 2 = = = = = =
= = = = = = Heat Race # 3 = = = = = =
= = = = = = Heat Race # 4 = = = = = =
= = = = = = Heat Race # 5 = = = = = =
= = = = Last Chance Qualifier = = = =
= = Race = =
The race started at 9 : 35 P.M. EST and televised live on Speed , while being broadcast on radio by Motor Racing Network . Krista Voda hosted Speed 's prerace show , while Rick Allen , Phil Parsons and Michael Waltrip called the race from the booth ; the network 's pit reporters for the event were Ray Dunlap , Hermie Sadler and Bob Dillner . 1 @.@ 4 million people viewed the race on television , the tenth @-@ most viewed Truck race in series history , and the highest @-@ watched event of the day ; the race also had a Nielsen rating of 1 @.@ 20 . The weather for the race was mostly clear with a temperature of 68 ° F ( 20 ° C ) . The St. Henry High School band performed the national anthem , while the parade lap featured a four @-@ wide salute by the trucks to the fans .
Due to the lack of a pit road , the race was split into three segments of 60 , 50 and 40 laps so teams can make pit stops and adjustments between each segment , and there would be no positions gained nor lost during stops . In segment 1 , Timothy Peters took the lead from pole @-@ sitter Ken Schrader on lap 15 , and led for 23 laps until Kyle Larson took the lead on lap 39 , who led for the remainder of the segment . In the final five laps of the segment , the first caution of the race flew for debris , and the beneficiary was Max Gresham , who was the first driver at least a lap down , which allowed him to regain a lap . In the second segment , Larson continued to lead for a total of 50 laps until Austin Dillon passed him on lap 89 after the former collided with Germán Quiroga . One lap later , another caution was flown for debris , and Gresham was again the beneficiary . On lap 116 , Jared Landers ' truck became loose in turn 2 , collected Ty Dillon and made contact with Johnny Sauter . Quiroga was the beneficiary on the resulting caution . Larson and Austin Dillon dueled for the remainder of the race , with Dillon allowing Larson to pass on lap 122 , but Dillon managed to get past Larson on the following lap . Two more cautions for debris ( first on the front stretch , the second in turn 4 ) were eventually flown , and a green – white – checker finish was initiated due to debris in turn 4 on lap 149 . Dillon retained the lead on the GWC to win , beating Larson by 1 @.@ 197 seconds . Behind Dillon and Larson , Ryan Newman finished third , followed by Joey Coulter , Brendan Gaughan , Timothy Peters , Darrell Wallace Jr . , Matt Crafton , Dave Blaney and Max Gresham . Sauter ( accident ) and Jeff Babcock ( engine ) failed to finish the race .
The race concluded with four different leaders , eight lead changes , and six cautions . Dillon led the most laps with 64 , followed by Larson ( 51 ) , Peters ( 23 ) and Schrader ( 15 ) . Despite winning the race , Dillon , along with six other drivers , did not receive Truck Series points due to a rule that allowed drivers to compete in only one series ' drivers championship . The win was Dillon 's first of 2013 and fifth Truck Series victory in 53 starts . It was also the 29th Truck Series win for owner Richard Childress and Richard Childress Racing 's second Truck win of 2013 .
In August , Dillon 's truck , his winner 's trophy and a jar of dirt he shoveled at the start / finish line were placed on display in the NASCAR Hall of Fame .
= = Results = =
= = = Standings after the race = = =
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= Around the World ( Christina Aguilera song ) =
" Around the World " is a song by American recording artist Christina Aguilera from her seventh studio album , Lotus ( 2012 ) . It was written by Aguilera and Ali Tamposi and was co @-@ written and produced by Supa Dups and Jason Gilbert . The song is an uptempo pop track , with crashing drums and a thumping bassline . The song is about how Aguilera wants to make love in different countries around the world with her lover . It also refers to her 2001 single " Lady Marmalade " , where she whispers the lyrics " Voulez @-@ vous coucher avec moi , se soir ? " . " Around the World " received mixed reviews from music critics ; some thought it was fun , while others felt it was faceless . Upon the release of Lotus , the song debuted and peaked at number 158 on the South Korean International singles chart .
= = Background = =
Following the release of her sixth studio album , Bionic ( 2010 ) , Aguilera filed for divorce from her husband Jordan Bratman , starred in her first feature film , Burlesque and recorded the accompanying soundtrack . She then became a coach on NBC 's singing competition show The Voice and appeared as a featured artist on Maroon 5 's single " Moves like Jagger " ( 2011 ) , which spent four weeks atop the US Billboard Hot 100 chart . Following these events , Aguilera announced that had plans to begin production of her seventh album , stating that she wanted high quality and " personal " songs for the record . Regarding the creative direction , she revealed that the album would be a " culmination of everything I 've experienced up until this point ... I 've been through a lot since the release of my last album , being on ( ' The Voice ' ) , having had a divorce ... This is all sort of a free rebirth for me . " She further said " I 'm embracing many different things , but it 's all feel @-@ good , super @-@ expressive [ and ] super @-@ vulnerable . " Aguilera continued to say that the album would be about " self – expression and freedom " because of the personal struggles she had overcome during the last couple of years . Speaking about her new material during an interview on The Tonight Show with Jay Leno in 2012 , Aguilera said that the recording process for Lotus was taking a while because " I don 't like to just get songs from producers . I like them to come from a personal place ... I 'm very excited . It 's fun , exciting , introspective , it 's going to be great " .
= = Recording and composition = =
" Around the World " was co @-@ written by Aguilera with Dwayne Chin @-@ Quee , Jason Gilbert and Ali Thompson . It was produced by Supa Dups and it was co @-@ produced by Gilbert . Aguilera 's vocals were recorded at The Red Lips Room in Beverly Hills , California by Oscar Ramirez . It is a pop song with a ragga flavour , and runs for a duration of three minutes and 24 seconds . Its instrumentation contains crashing drums and " a thumping bassline " . According to Chris Younie from 4Music , the song 's chorus is " insanely catchy " . Lyrically , it talks about Christina wanting to have sexual intercourse with someone in different locations around the world , including Hollywood and Japan . The track also refers to her 2001 hit " Lady Marmalade " , where Aguilera whispers the lyrics " Voulez @-@ vous coucher avec moi , ce soir ? " .
= = Critical reception = =
" Around the World " received generally mixed reviews from music critics . Chris Younie of 4Music gave the song a favorable review , calling it a " party @-@ like song of lust and desire " and has " an insanely catchy chorus " . The Scotsman critic Fiona Sheperd wrote that the song has " the most resounding chorus on the album " . Mike Wass of Idolator gave it a mix review , writing it is " another inoffensive adventure that scores extra points for quoting lyrics from ' Lady Marmalade ' " , however it " lacks the big pop hook need to wreak havoc on the charts " . Writing on behalf of The New York Times , Jon Caramanica called it " gauche and aesthetically vulgar in the way Ms. Aguilera once proudly was " .
Andrew Hampp of Billboard was mixed , writing that , " Sadly , the second @-@ verse reference to ' Lady Marmalade ' remains one of the few moments of fun on this otherwise tepid track " . Michael Gallucci of PopCrush called it " a faceless dance track built around another solid beat " , but also commenting , " Aguilera 's insistence on singing part of the song with Lionel Richie 's ' All Night Long ( All Night ) ' island accent is totally misguided " . Sam Hine of Popjustice called it " pop filler " and " it prompts his headache to really kick in " . Several critics compared " Around the World " to songs performed by Barbadian recording artist Rihanna . Kitty Empire of The Observer called it a " come @-@ hither tune " , also writing that it is a " Rihanna @-@ copping " . T 'cha Dunlevy , a writer for the Montreal Gazette , agreed with EMpire 's sentiments , calling it " a blatant Rihanna ripoff " . Annie Zaleschi of The A.V. Club echoed the same thought , calling it a " Rihanna reject " .
= = Credits and personnel = =
Recording
Vocals recorded at The Red Lips Room , Beverly Hills , California
Personnel
Songwriting – Christina Aguilera , Dwanye Chin @-@ Quee , Jason Gilbert , Ali Tamposi
Production – Dwayne " Supa Dups " Chin @-@ Quee , Jason " JG " Gilbert ( co @-@ producer )
Vocal recording – Oscar Ramirez
Credits adapted from the liner notes of Lotus , RCA Records .
= = Charts = =
Upon the release of Lotus , " Around the World " debuted on the South Korean International download singles chart at number 158 during the week of November 11 to 17 , 2012 , due to digital download sales of 1 @,@ 958 .
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= The Sound of Silence ( Grey 's Anatomy ) =
" The Sound of Silence " is the ninth episode , serving as a mid @-@ season premiere of the twelfth season of the American medical drama television series Grey 's Anatomy , and is the 254th overall episode , which aired on ABC on February 11 , 2016 . The episode was written by Stacy McKee and directed by Denzel Washington . At the time of its initial release , the episode was watched by 8 @.@ 28 million viewers and received critical acclaim with the television critics praising Washington 's directing , Ellen Pompeo 's performance , and Stacy McKee ’ s writing .
Grey 's Anatomy centers around a group of physicians struggling to balance their professional lives with their personal lives . " The Sound of Silence " revolves around Meredith Grey ( Pompeo ) who is brutally attacked by a patient , and sustains numerous injuries . The doctors of Grey Sloan Memorial rush to help her recover from the injuries and remain by her side in the harrowing aftermath . Further storylines include the aftermath of Alex Karev ( Justin Chambers ) proposing to his girlfriend Jo Wilson ( Camilla Luddington ) and Jackson Avery serving divorce papers to his wife April Kepner ( Sarah Drew ) .
= = Plot = =
" The Sound of Silence " opens with Dr. Meredith Grey ( Ellen Pompeo ) teaching her anatomy class . The episode jumps back to Meredith , Maggie , and Alex as they are carpooling to work , stuck in a traffic jam that turns out to be the result of a road accident . Upon arrival at the hospital , the doctors get to work treating the people who were injured in accident . Meredith is working with Dr. Penny Blake ( Samantha Sloyan ) and Dr. Ben Warren ( Jason George ) on Lou , a patient who needs a neurological consult . Ben asks Dr. Amelia Shepherd ( Caterina Scorsone ) , but she chooses to assist Dr. Owen Hunt ( Kevin McKidd ) instead , because of her previous fight with Meredith . Meanwhile , Meredith is left alone with the patient . The patient becomes violent as the result of post @-@ seizure hyperaggression and assaults Meredith , leaving her battered and barely conscious on the floor .
Penny finds Meredith and calls for help . The doctors rush to save Meredith 's life , in the face of her injuries . As Dr. Richard Webber ( James Pickens Jr . ) , Dr. April Kepner ( Sarah Drew ) , Ben , Dr. Callie Torres ( Sara Ramirez ) , Owen , Dr. Maggie Pierce ( Kelly McCreary ) , Dr. Jackson Avery ( Jesse Williams ) and Dr. Alex Karev ( Justin Chambers ) address the injuries , Meredith realizes she is unable to speak . They soon discover that she 's lost her hearing as a result of the beating she endured . The episode then draws into silence as it 's shown from Meredith 's perspective , who is unable to hear , or speak . Her jaw is wired shut and she relies on her other senses to interpret the situation .
Alex visits Meredith during her recovery and attempts to cheer her up . Alex realizes Meredith ’ s hearing has returned after she laughs at one of his jokes . Later Dr. Miranda Bailey ( Chandra Wilson ) informs Meredith that Lou underwent surgery and was discharged . He 's asked to see her to apologize , but Meredith refuses . Dr. Arizona Robbins ( Jessica Capshaw ) helps her prepare for a visit with her children . On arriving they are terrified when their mother in the condition and leave . Meredith has a panic attack , and Penny steps up to help , removing the wires holding her jaw shut . Jackson reprimands Penny for jeopardising the healing process .
Amelia visits Meredith to apologize for her prior behavior and discuss her sobriety . Amelia confides in Meredith that she is scared to lose her , but Meredith responds that she is not ready to forgive her . Webber takes Meredith out for some fresh air , and gives her a talk about the power of forgiveness . He encourages her to forgive Amelia , Penny , Derek , and most importantly herself . She agrees to meet Lou . He introduces his wife and two daughters and then offers a sincere apology for what happened . Meredith , still unable to speak , takes his hand as a way of conveying her forgiveness .
After Meredith finally heals from her injuries and is discharged from the hospital , Alex helps her get settled back at home . She thanks him for his support , but points out that Dr. Jo Wilson ( Camilla Luddington ) loves him and needs him more than she does . In the final scenes , Meredith reunites with her kids .
= = Production = =
Running for approximately 43 minutes , the episode was written by Stacy McKee and directed by Denzel Washington . The episode featured the songs " My Girl " , " I Surrender " . In October 2015 , it was announced by TVLine that two @-@ time Academy Awards winner Washington was to direct the ninth episode of the season , which would be Washington 's first time at directing television . He had previously directed the films Antwone Fisher and The Great Debaters . The table read for this episode took place on October 14 , 2015 and shooting began on October 20 . Before the release of the episode a video was leaked from the set where Washington could be seen passing behind Chandra Wilson , as she pushes Pompeo around in a wheelchair , wearing full arm and leg casts . The video substantiated Washington ’ s involvement with the show and speculated Meredith ’ s injuries . "
During the winter hiatus , Lesley Goldberg of The Hollywood Reporter confirmed Giacomo Gianniotti ’ s promotion to series regular over the winter hiatus . He had first appeared as Dr. Andrew DeLuca towards the end of Season 11 as a part of the new set of interns at the hospital .
The episode was heavily advertised and hyped by the ABC network before its release . In the preview of the show 's return , Meredith is suffering from a long list of wounds , ranging from bruising on both her left chest and left knee to collapsed veins . In a sneak @-@ peek clip from the episode , a patient is seen attacking Meredith , but it wasn 't disclosed why the patient went after the Grey Sloan surgeon . The Daily Beast wrote , " Footage of Ellen Pompeo 's Dr. Meredith Grey being beat up by a patient and left for dead on a hospital room floor has been promoted with the admirable aggression of , well , a network promoting an event episode . There 's a cheapness to stunt TV , sure . But there 's also a crass beauty to it . "
Pompeo spoke with Entertainment Weekly about the episode and said , “ It ’ s for sure the [ best ] thing I ’ ve ever done on the show . " On working with Washington she said , " We ’ ve never had anybody of his caliber come and direct our show ever . His charisma , he changes the energy in the room completely . Everybody is just at the top of their game . [ He ’ s ] amazing . Let ’ s just say I ’ m a huge fan . It ’ s a total dream come true . ” In an interview with Entertainment Weekly , executive producer Shonda Rhimes called the episode “ extraordinary and very , very powerful , ” noting the hour “ puts us on a path for the beginning of the second half of the season when it comes to Meredith ’ s evolution . "
= = Reception = =
= = = Ratings = = =
" The Sound of Silence " was originally broadcast on February 11 , 2016 on American Broadcasting Company ( ABC ) in the United States . It served as the mid @-@ season premiere for the twelfth season of the show . On its initial release the episode was watched by a total of 8 @.@ 28 million viewers and scored a 2 @.@ 4 / 8 in the key 18 @-@ 49 demographic in the Nielsen ratings , which was a decrease from the previous episode " Things We Lost in the Fire " watched by 8 @.@ 50 million viewers and received a 2 @.@ 5 / 8 ratings / share The episode was ranked 17th in overall viewership rank and 6th in 18 @-@ 49 demographic . The episode was the third @-@ most watched drama of the night .
= = = Critical Reception = = =
The episode received critical acclaim , with critics highlighting Ellen Pompeo 's performance , Washington 's direction and McKee 's writing . TV Line gave Pompeo 's performance the most praise , called it " visceral " and wrote , " If a picture really says a thousand words , this review is superfluous : Any image ' we publish of Pompeo ’ s stricken face from this week ’ s Grey ’ s will tell you all you need to know about her " Praising McKee the site called the episode a " stunner " . The site added , " We long ago gave up predicting what the Emmy Awards will do . But we will still say that , if there ’ s any justice , Pompeo ’ s transcendent work ought to get the leading lady at very least the nomination for which she is so long overdue . "
Maggie Fremont of Vulture described Pompeo as giving the same kind of " powerhouse performance " seen in all the time times " Shonda continues to throw horrible situations at Meredith " . Gwen Inhat of The A.V. Club praising both Pompeo and Washington called them the , " saving grace " from being a typical Meredith martyr episide . She added that Washington , " hit it out of the park " , and called Pompeo , the key player saying that , " Told only from her perspective , it ’ s a powerhouse episode for her . " Janalen Samson of BuddyTV highlighted Pompeo and deemed her as " excellent " , while calling the episode a " showcase for her " .
Allanah Faherty of Moviepilot called the episode an " emotional roller coaster " and added that it was " the perfect return to the series " . She also lauded Pompeo 's performance saying , " Ellen Pompeo is an absolute pro at pulling at our heart strings . " Ashley Bissette Sumerel of TV Fanatic rated the episode 4 / 5 and praised the character development of Grey , " it still stands as a unique story that allows Meredith 's character to continue to develop . " She added that episode as a stand @-@ alone , " was really phenomenal " and that the ten minutes of silence from the episode blew her mind . She praised Pompeo saying , " Please give Ellen Pompeo an Emmy ! " Spoiler TV also lauded the episode calling it " a worthy and effective mid season opener " , praising Pompeo 's " frighteningly realistic job " , Justin Chambers 's " most sensitive performance " , and adding that McKee was at the " writing helm " .
Ariana Bacle also praised the episode when she wrote in Entertainment Weekly labeling it as " a damn good hour " . She added that Meredith , " has gone through so much that she ’ s earned an entire hour of TV completely focused on just her . " Furthermore , the site praised Washington noting the portion of the episode , that goes on in complete silence as seen through Meredith ’ s point of view , calling it " especially powerful because of the lack of sound " . Lauren Hoffman from Cosmopolitan lauded the episode for its " amazingly effective storytelling " and enjoyed the chemistry between Meredith and Alex . She further wrote that , " if nothing else , Grey 's reminds us that there 's no upper limit to the amount of suffering a single person can go through , so just grab your people and get ready to roll with it " Praising Washington she noted that , " Denzel and Grey 's despite being disparate , could bring each other to new creative heights . "
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= The Quatermass Memoirs =
The Quatermass Memoirs is a British radio drama @-@ documentary , originally broadcast in five episodes on BBC Radio 3 in March 1996 . Written by Nigel Kneale , it was born out of his Quatermass series of films and television serials , which had first been broadcast in the 1950s . The idea for the show appeared as BBC radio intended to create a season of programming looking back at the 1950s , and it was the final piece of writing Kneale completed relating to the character .
The show is centered on the character of Professor Bernard Quatermass who , albeit older than in the previous series , is " the same very concerned scientist " but worried about his previous decisions . Andrew Keir , who had played Quatermass in the 1967 Quatermass and the Pit , was chosen to voice the character . Later , Nigel Kneale himself became dismissive of the serial , but critics gave the production relatively positive reviews .
= = Overview = =
The series mixes three different strands : a new monologue by Kneale in which he discusses the genesis and development of the Quatermass serials and their main character ; archival material from the television productions , and from documentary and newsreel coverage of key events of the times in which they were made , such as the Cold War , the advent of nuclear weapons and the embryonic Space Race ; and the dramatised strand , in which the Professor discloses his reasons for reclusion and discusses his demons with a persistent reporter who invades his hermitage ( and ultimately becomes his friend ) . This third element is set several years after the events of the third serial , Quatermass and the Pit ( 1958 – 59 ) , and shortly before those of the fourth and final serial , Quatermass ( 1979 ) . Continuity is maintained with the 1979 serial by presenting Quatermass living in seclusion in the Scottish Highlands , while the final episode reveals that the social collapse foreshadowing the events of the final story has already begun .
= = Production = =
Kneale had brought Quatermass 's story to a close in the 1979 serial Quatermass , and for many years saw no reason to revisit the character . However , in 1995 he was approached by BBC radio producer Paul Quinn with an idea for creating a drama @-@ documentary about the character as part of a season of BBC radio programming looking back at the 1950s . Quinn told Dreamwatch magazine , " For many people who remember the seminal experience of hiding behind the sofa when the Quatermass serials came on the television , Quatermass was the 1950s . His adventures [ ... ] have gone down in popular cultural history . " Kneale was intrigued by the idea , and agreed to write new dramatic material of Quatermass relating his memories which Quinn could then combine with archive clips from the existing episodes of the various Quatermass television serials . Kneale saw the older Quatermass of this new serial as " the same very concerned scientist who is now , in retrospect , horribly worried about what he may have done to the world through his encounters with various lifeforms that were better not contacted " . It was Kneale 's first radio work since he had written the play You Must Listen for the BBC in 1952 , and his first work for the BBC in any medium since the mid @-@ 1970s .
The programme was commissioned in July 1995 , with the original working title of Quatermass and the Ultimate Conspiracy . When Quinn discovered that some of the soundtracks of the Quatermass episodes were considered to be of too poor a quality to use , the idea for the series was re @-@ shaped to add the new elements of Kneale 's monologue and archive news reports . Kneale , however , later denied that any of the news stories which The Quatermass Memoirs suggested had inspired parts of his work had ever been in his mind at the time . He said that he had used a degree of creative licence when " explaining " these apparent inspirations in his monologue sections .
A further problem for Quinn was that none of the actors who had played Quatermass for BBC Television in the 1950s were still alive . This was solved by employing Andrew Keir , who had played Quatermass in the Hammer Film Productions version of Quatermass and the Pit in 1967 , a performance which Kneale had liked . Keir was happy to take the part , but somewhat concerned about only being used as a " link man " and not in a fully dramatic role . The clips that were used from the original BBC episodes were all carefully edited so that the actors playing Quatermass were never heard , and thus the differences between their voices and Keir 's would not confuse the audience . Also in the cast were Emma Gregory as the journalist , Mandy , and Zulema Dene as Quatermass 's housekeeper , Maire .
The five episodes , each of approximately twenty minutes , were broadcast across one week from 4 to 8 March 1996 , as part of The Fifties season of programming . The serial was promoted in listings magazine Radio Times with an article by Kneale about Quatermass and his opinion of other science fiction programmes . Episode one was transmitted at 10.32pm on the Monday ( originally scheduled for 10.05pm but delayed by a live concert broadcast beforehand ) ; episode two at 9.30pm on the Tuesday ; episode three 9.00pm on Wednesday , episode four 10.15pm on Thursday and episode five at 9.40pm on the Friday . The production was made and transmitted in stereo . It was Andrew Keir 's final professional performance ; he died the following year .
The digital radio station BBC7 repeated the series on several occasions from October 2003 . In 2006 it was released on CD by BBC Audio as part of their Classic Radio Sci @-@ Fi range , with cover artwork by Chris Achilleos .
= = Reception = =
Nigel Kneale himself was largely dismissive of the serial in the years following its broadcast ; " God knows it wasn 't a very important sort of thing , " he told his biographer . " The BBC didn 't care tuppence about what they were doing , because they really don 't know what they 're doing , certainly not in radio ... [ Andrew Keir ] must have been pretty ill when this nonsense was going on . "
Reviewing the first episodes of both The Quatermass Memoirs and In the Fifties — another programme running as part of The Fifties season — The Times 's reviewer Peter Barnard was impressed . Despite thinking that such a season of programming was " a necessarily premature commemoration " , he felt that both series had " demonstrated how radio 's better moments often take conventional pegs and hang some original clothing on them " .
The Independent 's radio critic Robert Hanks was unimpressed with Kneale 's script for the dramatic sections , but praised the performance of Andrew Keir in the title role . " Lesser actors would treat Kneale 's downbeat script with a certain detachment , but Keir is prepared to charge even the most banal lines with a terror that 's both a treat and a lesson . " Hanks also felt that The Fifties season as a whole , as demonstrated by The Quatermass Memoirs , had a somewhat misleading focus . " You get the sense that a vogue for science fiction is being interpreted as the spirit of the Fifties , with emphasis being put on a handful of sci @-@ fi films . If you really wanted to read the age through its movies , you 'd have to include Dean Martin and Jerry Lewis , late Ealing and early Norman Wisdom , Marilyn Monroe and Elvis Presley . It 's a lot to accommodate ; perhaps sticking to terror is just less intimidating . "
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= When You Believe =
" When You Believe " is a song from the 1998 DreamWorks musical animated feature The Prince of Egypt . It was written and composed by Stephen Schwartz . A pop single version of " When You Believe " , with additional music and lyrics by writer @-@ producer Babyface , was also recorded for the film by American singers Whitney Houston and Mariah Carey for the film 's end credits and its soundtrack album . Additionally , the song was featured on Houston 's fourth studio album , My Love Is Your Love and Carey 's first compilation album , # 1 's . The original version of the song , featured in the narrative portion of the film , is performed by Sally Dworsky , Michelle Pfeiffer , and a children 's choir . " When You Believe " is described as a big ballad , with meaningful and inspirational lyrics , describing the ability each person has to achieve miracles when they reach out to God and believe .
The song received generally mixed reviews from music critics and experienced moderate success , peaking at number 15 on the Billboard Hot 100 , despite heavy media attention and live promotion . It achieved better charting throughout Europe and other nations , peaking within the top five in Belgium , France , Italy , the Netherlands , Norway , Spain , Sweden , Switzerland and the United Kingdom . " When You Believe " was awarded the Academy Award for Best Original Song at the 71st annual ceremony on March 21 , 1999 . Prior to their performance of the song that night , Schwartz left Babyface 's name off the nomination submission sheet . He felt that because the additions Babyface added to the song were not featured in the actual film version , he did not deserve writing credits . However , while Babyface did not receive the Oscar , Carey and Houston performed his version of the song , because they were more familiar with it than the one in the film . Prior to their performance at the Academy Awards , they sang it on November 26 , 1998 on The Oprah Winfrey Show , promoting the song , as well as both their albums .
The song featured two music videos . The first and most commonly seen video was filmed at Brooklyn Academy of Music performing arts center . The video features both singers , and begins with Houston and Carey performing in a large auditorium , giving the illusion of a concert . Towards the end of the video , clips of the film are projected onto a large screen at the concert , while they belt out the final verse . The alternate video was only released on NBC 's special , When You Believe : Music Inspired by the Prince of Egypt , broadcast on December 13 , 1998 . It features a similar synopsis , with both singers performing on a large stage of an old Egyptian pyramid .
= = Background and recording = =
When Carey compiled her first compilation effort # 1 's , " When You Believe " was included in the track listing . According to Carey , the song was included because she felt it was " a miracle " that she and Houston collaborated on a record . During the development of All That Glitters ( a film Carey was working on at the time , later known as Glitter ) , she had been introduced to DreamWorks co @-@ owner Jeffrey Katzenberg , who asked her if she would record the song " When You Believe " for the soundtrack of the animated film The Prince of Egypt . Houston , on the other hand , was introduced to the project through Kenneth " Babyface " Edmonds , with whom she had been collaborating on her album , My Love Is Your Love . After they were shown the film separately , both became very enthusiastic about participating in the project .
The song was co @-@ written by Stephen Schwartz and Babyface , who also produced the song . Babyface expressed how he went through more than one version of the song and described its production as a beautiful movie ballad , something different from anything he , Carey or Houston had ever previously recorded . In an interview with Vibe , Carey said that she " liked [ the song ] the way it was " . She had characterised it as " a very big ballad but in an inspirational way " and denied speculation that there had been past rivalry or animosity between her and Houston prior to its recording : " I never even really talked to her until this . We never had any issues between us . The media and everybody made it an issue . " In an interview with Ebony , Houston spoke about her relationship with Carey :
I enjoyed working with her very much . Mariah and I got along very great . We had never talked and never sang together before . We just had a chance for camaraderie , singer @-@ to @-@ singer , artist @-@ to @-@ artist , that kind of thing . We just laughed and talked and laughed and talked and sang in between that ... It 's good to know that two ladies of soul can still be friends . We talked about doing other things together , enterprise @-@ wise , which is cool , because she 's got a good , vivid mind , that girl . She 's a smart lady . I really like Mariah .
While the pair continued to express their positive feelings for one another , tabloids began writing the opposite . There were claims that the two bore ill will against each other , and that they had to record the song separately due to constant tension . While media speculation grew as the film 's release date drew near , both singers maintained that they had become close friends , and had only the most positive things to say about each other .
= = Lyrical content = =
The Prince of Egypt is an adaptation of the Biblical story of The Exodus . " When You Believe " is sung in the film by characters Tzipporah and Miriam , and a chorus of people departing from the slavery of Egypt to the Red Sea and the Promised Land . The protagonists of this ballad recall tough times that have caused them to question their own faith : they have prayed for many nights to God , but those prayers have seemed to remain unanswered , and now they wonder if their faith has been only a waste of time . Nevertheless , the main characters realize that although the times may be difficult , their faith should remain strong . The original draft of the song used the lyric " you can do miracles when you believe " , but this seemed to imply that the believer , not God , was responsible for performing miracles ; the lyric was later changed to " there can be miracles when you believe " .
Houston had sung in a church choir while growing up , and Carey had always connected to her faith through music , especially during any difficult times . This song became one of the many reasons that both singers were so interested in the project . They each felt that spreading faith in God was an important and honorable aspect of their career . While describing the song 's lyrics and message , Houston said the following in an interview with ' Ebony :
A powerful ballad ; [ songwriter ] Stephen Schwartz is a genius . You have to be a child of God to understand the depth of this song . Mariah and I did it as we felt it . We both felt very connected to the song because of our background . What can I say ? ( It is ) Just a beautiful song . What a lyric ! I can 't talk about it — just listen to it .
= = Composition = =
Originally , Schwartz composed the film version of " When You Believe " , which was sung in the film by the characters of Tzipporah ( Michelle Pfeiffer ) and Miriam ( Sally Dworsky ) . It featured some different instrumentation from the original , and used a children 's choir as well as some lines in Hebrew . However , in order to give the song a wider radio and pop appeal , Edmonds changed some of the song 's instrumentals and replaced the children 's choir with a gospel one . His version was considered more " commercial " and would make the song " help sell the movie " . Schwartz 's original version was titled " When You Believe " , while Edmonds ' enhanced version was titled " The Prince of Egypt ( When You Believe ) " . " When You Believe " is a slow tempo ballad , which incorporates pop and contemporary R & B genres . Houston and Carey 's parts in the song are written in different keys , both musically and vocally . During the last bridge and chorus , gospel inspired background singers join the song , giving it a " layered sound " while Houston and Carey 's voice switch off belting the bridge . After " When You Believe " was written , Babyface added additional instrumentation , as well as a final bridge .
The song is set in signature common time . Houston 's verses and chorus are written in the key of B minor and features a basic chord progression of A ♭ -G ♭ 1 . Her vocals in the song range from the note of F ♯ 3 to F ♯ 5 . Carey 's chorus are set in the higher key of E major and is set in common time as well . Her vocal range in the song spans from the low note of G3 to the high note of G6 , spanning more octaves than Houston 's voice in the song . The song 's climax rise to the last chorus which is set even higher in the key of F @-@ sharp major . Steve Jones from USA Today called the song a " soaring duet " and felt that the song would be able to appeal to many types of listeners and " cross all genres . "
= = Reception and accolades = =
" When You Believe " received a mixed review from David Browne , an editor from Entertainment Weekly . He gave it a C- , and wrote " [ the song has ] so much sap , maple trees will be jealous . " He called the song 's religious aspect " insipid " and felt its inspirational message felt forced and generic . While Stephen Thomas Erlewine of Allmusic was reviewing Prince Of Egypt OST , he called this duet " unexpected -- and unexpectedly dull . " Paul Verna of Billboard called " When You Believe " a " high @-@ powered " duet , and later highlighted the song while reviewing Houston 's album .
" When You Believe " won the Academy Award for Best Song at the 1999 Academy Awards , and the Broadcast Film Critics Association Award for Best Song at the 4th Critics ' Choice Awards . It was also nominated for Best Original Song ( in a Motion Picture ) at the 1999 Golden Globes , and Best Song Written Specifically for a Motion Picture or Television at the 2000 Grammy Awards .
= = Chart performance = =
The song performed moderately in the United States , despite a performance of The Oprah Winfrey Show and the 71st annual Academy Awards . It peaked at number 15 on the Hot 100 and number three on Billboard 's Adult Contemporary Chart . On March 24 , 1999 , after fluctuating in the US charts , the song was certified gold by the Recording Industry Association of America ( RIAA ) , denoting shipments of over 500 @,@ 000 units . In Canada , the song debuted on the RPM Singles Chart at number 66 on the RPM issue dated December 7 , 1998 , and peaked at number 20 on the chart issue dated January 25 , 1999 . It was present on the chart for a total of ten weeks .
The song performed moderately in Australia , where it entered at number 25 on the ARIA Singles Chart during the week of December 6 , 1998 . It remained on the chart for 14 weeks , spending its last week on the chart at number 50 ; it was certified gold by the Australian Recording Industry Association ( ARIA ) , denoting shipments of over 35 @,@ 000 units . In New Zealand , it peaked at number eight on the singles chart , and spent nine weeks fluctuating in the singles chart . " When You Believe " experienced its highest charting in Europe . In Belgium , it reached number five on the Flanders Ultratop 50 , and peaked at number four and spent 20 weeks on the Wallonian Ultratop 40 . During the week of December 5 , 1998 , " When You Believe " entered the Dutch Top 40 at number fifty @-@ four . The song spent twenty @-@ one weeks on the singles chart and was peaked at number four . Due to strong single sales , the song entered the Finnish Singles Chart at number 10 , however , it only spent one week in the chart . In France , the song entered the French Singles Chart at number 14 on December 5 , 1998 and eventually peaked at number five . After spending 20 weeks fluctuating in the singles chart , it was certified silver by the Syndicat National de l 'Édition Phonographique ( SNEP ) . In Germany , it peaked at number eight on the German Singles Chart and was certified gold by the Bundesverband Musikindustrie , denoting shipments of over 250 @,@ 000 units . The song peaked at number seven in Ireland , where it spent 11 weeks in the Irish Singles Chart .
In Norway , " When You Believe " entered at number three on the VG @-@ lista chart and peaked at number two , spending three consecutive weeks at the position . It was certified platinum by the International Federation of the Phonographic Industry ( IFPI ) and spent 15 weeks on the chart . The song peaked at number two in Sweden and Switzerland , spending 20 and 24 weeks on the singles charts , respectively . The IFPI certified the song platinum in Sweden and gold in Switzerland . " When You Believe " experienced high charting in the United Kingdom . It peaked at number four on the UK Singles Chart during the week of December 19 , 1998 and spent 14 weeks on the chart . As of 2010 , sales of the song in the UK are estimated at 260 @,@ 000 units .
= = Music videos = =
The single 's music video was filmed at the Brooklyn Academy of Music during the fall of 1998 . The video begins with Houston entering a small arena as she begins to sing the song 's first verse . As she finishes her part , Carey appears on the stage as well , performing the second verse and chorus . The video is set in a dark studio accented by Egyptian settings , backdrops , and scenes inspired by The Prince of Egypt . An audience is on hand to emulate a concert @-@ like @-@ setting , cheering on both singers . Occasionally , home video clips of Carey and Houston appear throughout the video , as well as clips of the final moments of the film , during the splitting of the Red Sea . The video ends as the room is illuminated , and the two singers are joined by a large choir . As they complete the song , Carey and Houston receive a standing ovation from the crowd , and exit the studio together , walking side by side as they disappear in the distance . For the video , Carey and Houston both donned similar low @-@ cut black gowns , while Carey sported a long straight hairstyle , and Houston a pixie cut .
The song 's alternate video features a similar synopsis , where Houston begins the song on a large stone altar in the middle of an auditorium . As she finishes her verse , Carey is seen walking up the ramp in the background , joining Houston for her verse . They continue the song together , standing side by side and holding hands . After completing the song , both singer exit the auditorium together as in the first video , simulating two friends enjoying time with each other . Both videos are very similar , only the alternate version does not feature an audience , choir or images , only the duo singing together atop the stone altar . In this version of the video , Houston wears a long brown strapless gown , and features a shoulder length bob haircut . Carey on the other hand , features long cascading curls and dons an olive green gown .
= = Live performances = =
The duo performed the song live on The Oprah Winfrey Show on November 26 , 1998 . Aside from the joint performance , Houston and Carey sang their own singles at the time , " I Learned from the Best " and " I Still Believe " , respectively . Additionally , they sang the song live at the 71st Annual Academy Awards on March 21 , 1999 . Before the performance , they were due to rehearse together a few days before their scheduled appearance . Houston however , called in sick and had to miss the rehearsal . Reportedly , her excuse was not taken well , with academy executives calling it a " bullshit story . " Conti , the academy 's musical arranger , found a young female singer to take Houston 's place , Janis Uhley . Before the performance , Carey walked down the stage in a white top and jeans , while choreographer Debbie Allen led the background singers . As they began the performance , Carey forgot the lyrics and stopped , as Uhley began singing in a " theatricality and gusto " . Her boastful performance was not taken well by the directors , who called it " inappropriate and unnerving " . After she was removed from the stage , a new date was chosen for the rehearsal , one that would accommodate both Houston and Carey .
The next night , after they began the rehearsal , both singers had trouble performing the film version of the song . After hours of practice and confusion , they reached a compromise ; they would sing a mash @-@ up of the film and single versions , which featured an additional bridge and instrumentation by Edmonds . For the awards ceremony on the twenty first , Houston and Carey wore matching white gowns , symbolizing " humbleness and simplicity . " Houston entered the arena , performing her verse , followed by Carey . As the song 's finale drew near , a full gospel choir joined the performance from large suspending golden scaffolding , all wearing large white tunics . After the original was nominated for the Academy Award , Schwartz refused to give Edmonds writing credits in nomination forms submitted to the academy .
= = Charts and certifications = =
= = Cover versions = =
" When You Believe " was performed by American Idol contestant and winner Candice Glover on the twelfth season of the show . A studio recording of the song was also released as a single on iTunes . Glover performed " When You Believe " on American Idol on the " Divas " theme night on April 17 , 2013 . Glover 's performance was met with praise from the show 's judges and it was generally considered the best performance of the night . Rolling Stone wrote that Glover " got judges on their feet " with her " impeccable " performance . Mariah Carey was moved to tears by the performance and complimented Glover for doing the song justice . Nicki Minaj exlaimed at the end of the performance that " And that is how you do a Mariah Carey / Whitney Houston song " . Likewise , Billboard called Glover 's performance " best single showing of the night " and commented on the vocal delivery that " she knows precisely when to hit the sweet spot of a song , building up to that point with masterful restraint " . MTV News commented that Glover " positively slay [ ed ] " the song .
The song was recorded by Irish musical ensmble Celtic Woman and released as a single from their fifth studio album Celtic Woman : Songs from the Heart ( 2010 ) . The song also appears on the Japanese release of their seventh studio album Celtic Woman : Believe ( 2011 ) . The song features vocals from one of the group 's singers Chloë Agnew . In an interview for Chicago Music Magazine , Chloë Agnew described the lyrics of the song as " really incredible " . She stated that " It is a songs that I listen to and wish I had written . It ’ s really so special . I think a lot of people have found strength and hope in the lyrics . It 's been really rewarding to meet and talk to people at our meet and greet events come up and tell me how much that song means to them and how it has helped them " . Irish singer Chloë Agnew recorded the track for her debut album Chloë ( 2002 ) .
= = Leon Jackson version = =
" When You Believe " was recorded by The X Factor winner Leon Jackson in December 2007 . The single was available to download from midnight after the result of the show on December 15 , 2007 , and a CD was rush @-@ released mid @-@ week , on December 19 , 2007 . This is unusual as most new singles are released on a Monday to gain maximum sales for the UK Singles Chart the following Sunday . Exceptions included the previous two X Factor winners whose were singles released in this fashion , in order for them to compete to be the Christmas number @-@ one single , which they all became . A video for the single was made by each of the final four of the series ; Jackson , Rhydian Roberts , Same Difference and Niki Evans . However , only the winner 's version of the song and video was released .
The song ended 2007 as the year 's fourth biggest @-@ selling single in the UK and remained number one into 2008 . However , it only managed to stay in the top 40 for seven weeks , despite being atop the chart for three weeks . It also soon disappeared from the top 100 , and was gone by late February .
= = = Music video = = =
The music video , like previous X Factor winners singles , is very simple , with Jackson singing the song in front of a large projection , with swooping shots of various landscapes behind him . It also features several clips from his time in The X Factor , from his first audition to the moment he was announced the winner and performed his single to close the series . Simon Cowell , Sharon Osbourne , Dannii Minogue , Louis Walsh , Dermot O 'Leary and runner @-@ up Rhydian Roberts all feature within the clips .
= = = Chart performance = = =
On December 23 , 2007 , it debuted at number one on the UK Singles Chart , making it the coveted Christmas number one with sales of over 275 @,@ 000 copies . It stayed at number one for three weeks until it fell down to number five on its fourth week and then fell another ten places to number fifteen in its fifth week . According to The Official Charts Company , the song has sold 506 @,@ 000 copies in the UK as of December 2012 . Additionally , It also spent three weeks at the top of the Irish Singles Chart .
= = = Charts and certifications = = =
= = = = Weekly charts = = = =
= = = = Year @-@ end charts = = = =
= = = = Certifications = = = =
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= Ambulance =
An ambulance is a vehicle for transportation of sick or injured people to , from or between places of treatment for an illness or injury , and in some instances will also provide out of hospital medical care to the patient . The word is often associated with road going emergency ambulances which form part of an emergency medical service , administering emergency care to those with acute medical problems .
The term ambulance does , however , extend to a wider range of vehicles other than those with flashing warning lights and sirens . The term also includes a large number of non @-@ urgent ambulances which are for transport of patients without an urgent acute condition ( see below : Functional types ) and a wide range of urgent and non @-@ urgent vehicles including trucks , vans , bicycles , motorbikes , station wagons , buses , helicopters , fixed @-@ wing aircraft , boats , and even hospital ships ( see below : Vehicle types ) .
The term ambulance comes from the Latin word " ambulare " as meaning " to walk or move about " which is a reference to early medical care where patients were moved by lifting or wheeling . The word originally meant a moving hospital , which follows an army in its movements . During the American Civil War vehicles for conveying the wounded off the field of battle were called ambulance wagons . Field hospitals were still called ambulances during the Franco @-@ Prussian War of 1870 and in the Serbo @-@ Turkish war of 1876 even though the wagons were first referred to as ambulances about 1854 during the Crimean War .
There are other types of ambulance , with the most common being the patient transport ambulance ( sometimes called an ambulette ) . These vehicles are not usually ( although there are exceptions ) equipped with life @-@ support equipment , and are usually crewed by staff with fewer qualifications than the crew of emergency ambulances . Their purpose is simply to transport patients to , from or between places of treatment . In most countries , these are not equipped with flashing lights or sirens . In some jurisdictions there is a modified form of the ambulance used , that only carries one member of ambulance crew to the scene to provide care , but is not used to transport the patient . Such vehicles are called fly @-@ cars . In these cases a patient who requires transportation to hospital will require a patient @-@ carrying ambulance to attend in addition to the fast responder .
= = History = =
The history of the ambulance begins in ancient times , with the use of carts to transport incurable patients by force . Ambulances were first used for emergency transport in 1487 by the Spanish , and civilian variants were put into operation during the 1830s . Advances in technology throughout the 19th and 20th centuries led to the modern self @-@ powered ambulances .
= = Functional types = =
Ambulances can be grouped into types depending on whether or not they transport patients , and under what conditions . In some cases , ambulances may fulfil more than one function ( such as combining emergency ambulance care with patient transport ) .
Emergency ambulance – The most common type of ambulance , which provide care to patients with an acute illness or injury . These can be road @-@ going vans , boats , helicopters , fixed @-@ wing aircraft ( known as air ambulances ) or even converted vehicles such as golf carts .
Patient transport ambulance – A vehicle , which has the job of transporting patients to , from or between places of medical treatment , such as hospital or dialysis center , for non @-@ urgent care . These can be vans , buses or other vehicles .
Response unit – Also known as a fly @-@ car or a [ Quick Response Vehicle ] , which is a vehicle which is used to reach an acutely ill patient quickly , and provide on scene care , but lacks the capacity to transport the patient from the scene . Response units may be backed up by an emergency ambulance which can transport the patient , or may deal with the problem on scene , with no requirement for a transport ambulance . These can be a wide variety of vehicles , from standard cars , to modified vans , motorcycles , pedal cycles , quad bikes or horses . These units can function as a vehicle for officers or supervisors ( similar to a fire chief 's vehicle , but for ambulance services ) . Fire & Rescue services in North America often staff EMTs or Paramedics to their apparatuses to provide medical care without the need to wait for an ambulance .
Charity ambulance – A special type of patient transport ambulance is provided by a charity for the purpose of taking sick children or adults on trips or vacations away from hospitals , hospices or care homes where they are in long term care . Examples include the United Kingdom 's ' Jumbulance ' project . These are usually based on a bus .
Bariatric ambulance – A special type of patient transport ambulance designed for extremely obese patients equipped with the appropriate tools to move and manage these patients .
= = Vehicle types = =
In the US , there are four types of ambulances . There are Type I , Type II , Type III and Type IV . Type I is based upon a heavy truck chassis and is used primarily for Advanced Life Support and rescue work . Type II is a van based ambulance with little modifications except for a raised roof . Its use is for basic life support and transfer of patients . The Type III is a van chassis but with a custom made rear compartment and has the same use as Type I ambulances . Type IV 's are nomenclature for smaller ad hoc patient transfer using smaller utility vehicles where passenger vehicles and trucks would have difficulty in traversing , such as large industrial complexes , commercial venues , and special events with large crowds . These do not , generally , fall under Federal Regulations .
Ambulances can be based on many types of vehicle , although emergency and disaster conditions may lead to other vehicles serving as makeshift ambulances :
Van or pickup truck – A typical ambulance is based on either the chassis of a van ( vanbulance ) or pickup truck . This chassis is then modified to the designs and specifications of the purchaser .
Car / SUV – Used either as a fly @-@ car for rapid response or for patients who can sit , these are standard car models adapted to the requirements of the service using them . Some cars are capable of taking a stretcher with a recumbent patient , but this often requires the removal of the front passenger seat , or the use of a particularly long car . This was often the case with early ambulances , which were converted ( or even serving ) hearses , as these were some of the few vehicles able to accept a human body in a supine position .
Motorcycle – In developed areas , these are used for rapid response in an emergency as they can travel through heavy traffic much faster than a car or van . Trailers or sidecars can make these patient transporting units . See also motorcycle ambulance .
Bicycle – Used for response , but usually in pedestrian @-@ only areas where large vehicles find access difficult . Like the motorcycle ambulance , a bicycle may be connected to a trailer for patient transport , most often in the developing world . See also cycle responder .
All @-@ terrain vehicle ( ATV ) – for example quad bikes ; these are used for response off road , especially at events . ATVs can be modified to carry a stretcher , and are used for tasks such as mountain rescue in inaccessible areas .
Golf cart or Neighborhood Electric Vehicle – Used for rapid response at events or on campuses . These function similarly to ATVs , with less rough terrain capability , but with less noise .
Helicopter – Usually used for emergency care , either in places inaccessible by road , or in areas where speed is of the essence , as they are able to travel significantly faster than a road ambulance . Helicopter and fixed @-@ wing ambulances are discussed in greater detail at air ambulance .
Fixed @-@ wing aircraft – These can be used for either acute emergency care in remote areas ( such as in Australia , with the ' Flying Doctors ' ) , for patient transport over long distances ( e.g. a re @-@ patriation following an illness or injury in a foreign country ) , or transportation between distant hospitals . Helicopter and fixed @-@ wing ambulances are discussed in greater detail at air ambulance .
Boat – Boats can be used to serve as ambulances , especially in island areas or in areas with a large number of canals , such as the Venetian water ambulances . Some lifeboats or lifeguard vessels may fit the description of an ambulance as they are used to transport a casualty .
Ship – Ships can be used as hospital ships , mostly operated by national military services , although some ships are operated by charities . They can meet the definition of ambulances as they provide transport to the sick and wounded ( along with treatment ) . They are often sent to disaster or war zones to provide care for the casualties of these events .
Bus – In some cases , buses can be used for multiple casualty transport , either for the purposes of taking patients on journeys , in the context of major incidents , or to deal with specific problems such as drunken patients in town centres . Ambulance busses are discussed at greater length in their own article .
Trailer – In some instances a trailer , which can be towed behind a self @-@ propelled vehicle can be used . This permits flexibility in areas with minimal access to vehicles , such as on small islands .
Horse and cart – Especially in developing world areas , more traditional methods of transport include transport such as horse and cart , used in much the same way as motorcycle or bicycle stretcher units to transport to a local clinic .
Hospital train – Early hospital trains functioned to carry large numbers of wounded soldiers . Similar to other ambulance types , as Western medicine developed , hospital trains gained the ability to provide treatment . In some rural locations , hospital trains now function as mobile hospitals , traveling by rail from one location to the next , then parking on a siding to provide hospital services to the local population . Hospital trains also find use in disaster response
Fire Engine - Fire services ( especially in North America ) often train Firefighters in emergency medicine and most apparatuses carry at least basic medical supplies . By design , apparatuses cannot transport patients .
= = = Vehicle type gallery = = =
= = Design and construction = =
Ambulance design must take into account local conditions and infrastructure . Maintained roads are necessary for road going ambulances to arrive on scene and then transport the patient to a hospital , though in rugged areas four @-@ wheel drive or all @-@ terrain vehicles can be used . Fuel must be available and service facilities are necessary to maintain the vehicle .
Methods of summoning ( e.g. telephone ) and dispatching ambulances usually rely on electronic equipment , which itself often relies on an intact power grid . Similarly , modern ambulances are equipped with two @-@ way radios or cellular telephones to enable them to contact hospitals , either to notify the appropriate hospital of the ambulance 's pending arrival , or , in cases where physicians do not form part of the ambulance 's crew , to confer with a physician for medical oversight .
Ambulances often have two manufacturers . The first is frequently a manufacturer of light trucks or full @-@ size vans ( or previously , cars ) such as Mercedes @-@ Benz , Nissan , Toyota , or Ford . The second manufacturer ( known as second stage manufacturer ) purchases the vehicle ( which is sometimes purchased incomplete , having no body or interior behind the driver 's seat ) and turns it into an ambulance by adding bodywork , emergency vehicle equipment , and interior fittings . This is done by one of two methods – either coachbuilding , where the modifications are started from scratch and built on to the vehicle , or using a modular system , where a pre @-@ built ' box ' is put on to the empty chassis of the ambulance , and then finished off .
Modern ambulances are typically powered by internal combustion engines , which can be powered by any conventional fuel , including diesel , gasoline or liquefied petroleum gas , depending on the preference of the operator and the availability of different options . Colder regions often use gasoline powered engines , as diesels can be difficult to start when they are cold . Warmer regions may favor diesel engines , as they are thought to be more efficient and more durable . Diesel power is sometimes chosen due to safety concerns , after a series of fires involving gasoline powered ambulances during the 1980s . These fires were ultimately attributed in part to gasoline 's higher volatility in comparison to diesel fuel . The type of engine may be determined by the manufacturer : in the past two decades , Ford would only sell vehicles for ambulance conversion if they are diesel powered . Beginning in 2010 , Ford will sell its ambulance chassis with a gasoline engine in order to meet emissions requirements .
= = = Standards = = =
Many regions have prescribed standards which ambulances should , or must , meet in order to be used for their role . These standards may have different levels which reflect the type of patient which the ambulance is expected to transport ( for instance specifying a different standard for routine patient transport than high dependency ) , or may base standards on the size of vehicle .
For instance , in Europe , the European Committee for Standardization publishes the standard CEN 1789 , which specifies minimum compliance levels across the build of ambulance , including crash resistance , equipment levels , and exterior marking . In the United States , standards for ambulance design have existed since 1976 , where the standard is published by the General Services Administration and known as KKK @-@ 1822 @-@ A. This standard has been revised several times , and is currently in version ' F ' , known as KKK @-@ 1822 @-@ F , although not all states have adopted this version . The National Fire Protection Association has also published a design standard , NFPA 1917 , which some administrations are considering switching to when KKK @-@ 1822 is withdrawn in 2015 .
The move towards standardisation is now reaching countries without a history of prescriptive codes , such as India , which approved its first national standard for ambulance construction in 2013 .
= = = Safety = = =
Ambulances , like other emergency vehicles , are required to operate in all weather conditions , including those during which civilian drivers often elect to stay off the road . Also , the ambulance crew 's responsibilities to their patient often preclude their use of safety devices such as seat belts . Research has shown that ambulances are more likely to be involved in motor vehicle collisions resulting in injury or death than either fire trucks or police cars . Unrestrained occupants , particularly those riding in the patient @-@ care compartment , are particularly vulnerable . When compared to civilian vehicles of similar size , one study found that on a per @-@ accident basis , ambulance collisions tend to involve more people , and result in more injuries . An 11 @-@ year retrospective study concluded in 2001 found that although most fatal ambulance crashes occurred during emergency runs , they typically occurred on improved , straight , dry roads , during clear weather . Furthermore , paramedics are also at risk in ambulances while helping patients , as 27 paramedics died during ambulance trips in the US between 1991 and 2006 .
= = = Equipment = = =
In addition to the equipment directly used for the treatment of patients , ambulances may be fitted with a range of additional equipment which is used in order to facilitate patient care . This could include :
Two @-@ way radio – One of the most important pieces of equipment in modern emergency medical services as it allows for the issuing of jobs to the ambulance , and can allow the crew to pass information back to control or to the hospital ( for example a priority ASHICE message to alert the hospital of the impending arrival of a critical patient . ) More recently many services worldwide have moved from traditional analog UHF / VHF sets , which can be monitored externally , to more secure digital systems , such as those working on a GSM system , such as TETRA .
Mobile data terminal – Some ambulances are fitted with Mobile data terminals ( or MDTs ) , which are connected wirelessly to a central computer , usually at the control center . These terminals can function instead of or alongside the two @-@ way radio and can be used to pass details of jobs to the crew , and can log the time the crew was mobile to a patient , arrived , and left scene , or fulfill any other computer based function .
Evidence gathering CCTV – Some ambulances are now being fitted with video cameras used to record activity either inside or outside the vehicle . They may also be fitted with sound recording facilities . This can be used as a form of protection from violence against ambulance crews , or in some cases ( dependent on local laws ) to prove or disprove cases where a member of crew stands accused of malpractice .
Tail lift or ramp – Ambulances can be fitted with a tail lift or ramp in order to facilitate loading a patient without having to undertake any lifting . This is especially important where the patient is obese or specialty care transports that require large , bulky equipment such as a neonatal incubator or hospital beds . There may also be equipment linked to this such as winches which are designed to pull heavy patients into the vehicle .
Trauma lighting – In addition to normal working lighting , ambulances can be fitted with special lighting ( often blue or red ) which is used when the patient becomes photosensitive .
Air conditioning – Ambulances are often fitted with a separate air conditioning system to serve the working area from that which serves the cab . This helps to maintain an appropriate temperature for any patients being treated , but may also feature additional features such as filtering against airborne pathogens .
Data Recorders – These are often placed in ambulances to record such information as speed , braking power and time , activation of active emergency warnings such as lights and sirens , as well as seat belt usage . These are often used in coordination with GPS units .
= = = Intermediate technology = = =
In parts of the world which lack a high level of infrastructure , ambulances are designed to meet local conditions , being built using intermediate technology . Ambulances can also be trailers , which are pulled by bicycles , motorcycles , tractors , or animals . Animal @-@ powered ambulances can be particularly useful in regions that are subject to flooding . Motorcycles fitted with sidecars ( or motorcycle ambulances ) are also used , though they are subject to some of the same limitations as more traditional over @-@ the @-@ road ambulances . The level of care provided by these ambulances varies between merely providing transport to a medical clinic to providing on @-@ scene and continuing care during transport .
The design of intermediate technology ambulances must take into account not only the operation and maintenance of the ambulance , but its construction as well . The robustness of the design becomes more important , as does the nature of the skills required to properly operate the vehicle . Cost @-@ effectiveness can be a high priority .
= = Appearance and markings = =
Emergency ambulances are highly likely to be involved in hazardous situations , including incidents such as a road traffic collision , as these emergencies create people who are likely to be in need of treatment . They are required to gain access to patients as quickly as possible , and in many countries , are given dispensation from obeying certain traffic laws . For instance , they may be able to treat a red traffic light or stop sign as a yield sign ( ' give way ' ) , or be permitted to break the speed limit . Generally , the priority of the response to the call will be assigned by the dispatcher , but the priority of the return will be decided by the ambulance crew based on the severity of the patient 's illness or injury . Patients in significant danger to life and limb ( as determined by triage ) require urgent treatment by advanced medical personnel , and because of this need , emergency ambulances are often fitted with passive and active visual and / or audible warnings to alert road users .
= = = Passive visual warnings = = =
The passive visual warnings are usually part of the design of the vehicle , and involve the use of high contrast patterns . Older ambulances ( and those in developing countries ) are more likely to have their pattern painted on , whereas modern ambulances generally carry retro @-@ reflective designs , which reflects light from car headlights or torches . Popular patterns include ' checker board ' ( alternate coloured squares , sometimes called ' Battenburg ' , named after a type of cake ) , chevrons ( arrowheads – often pointed towards the front of the vehicle if on the side , or pointing vertically upwards on the rear ) or stripes along the side ( these were the first type of retro @-@ reflective device introduced , as the original reflective material , invented by 3M , only came in tape form ) . In addition to retro @-@ reflective markings , some services now have the vehicles painted in a bright ( sometimes fluorescent ) yellow or orange for maximum visual impact . Fire Department @-@ operated Ambulances are often painted similarly to their apparatuses for ease of identification and the fact that bright red is a very striking color appropriate for this type of vehicle .
Another passive marking form is the word ambulance ( or local language variant ) spelled out in reverse on the front of the vehicle . This enables drivers of other vehicles to more easily identify an approaching ambulance in their rear view mirrors . Ambulances may display the name of their owner or operator , and an emergency telephone number for the ambulance service .
Ambulances may also carry an emblem ( either as part of the passive warning markings or not ) , such as a Red Cross , Red Crescent or Red Crystal ( collective known as the Protective Symbols ) . These are symbols laid down by the Geneva Convention , and all countries signatory to it agree to restrict their use to either ( 1 ) Military Ambulances or ( 2 ) the national Red Cross or Red Crescent society . Use by any other person , organization or agency is in breach of international law . The protective symbols are designed to indicate to all people ( especially combatants in the case of war ) that the vehicle is neutral and is not to be fired upon , hence giving protection to the medics and their casualties , although this has not always been adhered to . In Israel , Magen David Adom , the Red Cross member organization use a red Star of David , but this does not have recognition beyond Israeli borders , where they must use the Red Crystal .
The Star of Life is widely used , and was originally designed and governed by the U.S. National Highway Traffic Safety Administration , because the Red Cross symbol is legally protected by both National and international law . It indicates that the vehicle 's operators can render their given level of care represented on the six pointed star .
Ambulance services that have historical origins such as the Order of St John , the Order of Malta Ambulance Corps and Malteser International often use the Maltese cross to identify their ambulances . This is especially important in countries such as Australia , where St. John Ambulance operate one state and one territory ambulance service , and all of Australia 's other ambulance services use variations on a red Maltese cross .
Fire service operated ambulances may display the Cross of St. Florian ( often incorrectly called a Maltese cross ) as this cross is frequently used as a fire department logo ( St. Florian being the patron saint of firefighters ) .
= = = Active visual warnings = = =
The active visual warnings are usually in the form of flashing lights . These flash in order to attract the attention of other road users as the ambulance approaches , or to provide warning to motorists approaching a stopped ambulance in a dangerous position on the road . Common colours for ambulance warning beacons are blue , red , amber , and white ( clear ) . However the colours may vary by country and sometimes by operator .
There are several technologies in use to achieve the flashing effect . These include flashing a light bulb or LED , flashing or rotating halogen , and strobe lights , which are usually brighter than incandescent lights . Each of these can be programmed to flash singly or in groups , and can be programmed to flash in patterns ( such as a left - > right pattern for use when the ambulance is parked on the left hand side of the road , indicating to other road users that they should move to the right ( away from the ambulance ) ) . Incandescent and LED lights may also be programmed to burn steadily , without flashing , which is required in some provinces .
Emergency lights may be housed in special fittings , such as in a lightbar , or may be hidden in a host light ( such as a headlamp ) by drilling a hole in the host light 's reflector and inserting the emergency light . These hidden lights may not be apparent until they are activated . Additionally , some of the standard lights fitted to an ambulance ( e.g. headlamps , tail lamps ) may be programmed to flash . Flashing headlights ( typically the high beams , flashed alternately ) are known as a wig @-@ wag .
In order to increase safety , it is best practice to have 360 ° coverage with the active warnings , improving the chance of the vehicle being seen from all sides . In some countries , such as the United States , this may be mandatory .
See also Emergency vehicle equipment .
= = = Audible warnings = = =
In addition to visual warnings , ambulances can be fitted with audible warnings , sometimes known as sirens , which can alert people and vehicles to the presence of an ambulance before they can be seen . The first audible warnings were mechanical bells , mounted to either the front or roof of the ambulance . Most modern ambulances are now fitted with electronic sirens , producing a range of different noises which ambulance operators can use to attract more attention to themselves , particularly when proceeding through an intersection or in heavy traffic .
The speakers for modern sirens can be integral to the lightbar , or they may be hidden in or flush to the grill to reduce noise inside the ambulance that may interfere with patient care and radio communications . Ambulances can additionally be fitted with airhorn audible warnings to augment the effectiveness of the siren system .
A recent development is the use of the RDS system of car radios . The ambulance is fitted with a short range FM transmitter , set to RDS code 31 , which interrupts the radio of all cars within range , in the manner of a traffic broadcast , but in such a way that the user of the receiving radio is unable to opt out of the message ( as with traffic broadcasts ) . This feature is built into every RDS radio for use in national emergency broadcast systems , but short range units on emergency vehicles can prove an effective means of alerting traffic to their presence . It is , however , unlikely that this system could replace audible warnings , as it is unable to alert pedestrians , those not using a compatible radio or even have it turned off .
= = Service providers = =
Some countries closely regulate the industry ( and may require anyone working on an ambulance to be qualified to a set level ) , whereas others allow quite wide differences between types of operator .
Government Ambulance Service – Operating separately from ( although alongside ) the fire and police service of the area , these ambulances are funded by local or national government . In some countries , these only tend to be found in big cities , whereas in countries such as Great Britain almost all emergency ambulances are part of a nationwide system under the National Health Service . In Canada ambulance services are normally operated by local municipalities or provincial health agencies as a separate entity from fire or police services .
Fire or Police Linked Service – In countries such as the United States , Japan , Hong Kong and France ambulances can be operated by the local fire or police service , more commonly the fire service due to overlapping calls . This is particularly common in rural areas , where maintaining a separate service is not necessarily cost effective , or by service preference such as in LA where the LAFD prefers to handle all parts of emergency medicine in @-@ house . In some cases this can lead to an illness or injury being attended by a vehicle other than an ambulance , such as a fire truck .
Volunteer Ambulance Service – Charities or non @-@ profit companies operate ambulances , both in an emergency and patient transport function . This may be along similar lines to volunteer fire companies , providing the main service for an area , and either community or privately owned . They may be linked to a voluntary fire department , with volunteers providing both services . There are charities who focus on providing ambulances for the community , or for cover at private events ( sports etc . ) . The Red Cross provides this service across the world on a volunteer basis . ( and in others as a Private Ambulance Service ) , as do other organisations such as St John Ambulance and the Order of Malta Ambulance Corps . These volunteer ambulances may be seen providing support to the full @-@ time ambulance crews during times of emergency . In some cases the volunteer charity may employ paid members of staff alongside volunteers to operate a full @-@ time ambulance service , such in some parts of Australia and in Ireland and New Zealand .
Private Ambulance Service – Normal commercial companies with paid employees , but often on contract to the local or national government . Private companies may provide only the patient transport elements of ambulance care ( i.e. nonurgent or ambulatory transport ) , but in some places , they are contracted to provide emergency care , or to form a ' second tier ' response . In many areas private services cover all emergency transport functions and government agencies do not provide this service . Companies such as Falck , Acadian Ambulance , and American Medical Response are some of the larger companies that provide such services . These organisations may also provide services known as ' Stand @-@ by ' cover at industrial sites or at special events . From April 2011 all private ambulance services in the UK must be Care Quality Commission ( CQC ) registered . Private services in Canada operate non @-@ emergency patient transfers or for private functions only .
Combined Emergency Service – these are full service emergency service agencies , which may be found in places such as airports or large colleges and universities . Their key feature is that all personnel are trained not only in ambulance ( EMT ) care , but as a firefighter and a peace officer ( police function ) . They may be found in smaller towns and cities , where size or budget does not warrant separate services . This multi @-@ functionality allows to make the most of limited resource or budget , but having a single team respond to any emergency .
Hospital Based Service – Hospitals may provide their own ambulance service as a service to the community , or where ambulance care is unreliable or chargeable . Their use would be dependent on using the services of the providing hospital .
Charity Ambulance – This special type of ambulance is provided by a charity for the purpose of taking sick children or adults on trips or vacations away from hospitals , hospices or care homes where they are in long term care . Examples include the UK 's ' Jumbulance ' project .
Company Ambulance – Many large factories and other industrial centres , such as chemical plants , oil refineries , breweries and distilleries , have ambulance services provided by employers as a means of protecting their interests and the welfare of their staff . These are often used as first response vehicles in the event of a fire or explosion .
= = Costs = =
The cost of an ambulance ride may be paid for from several sources , and this will depend on the type of service being provided , by whom , and possibly who to .
Government funded service – The full or the majority of the cost of transport by ambulance is borne by the local , regional , or national government ( through their normal taxation ) .
Privately funded service – Transport by ambulance is paid for by the patient themselves , or through their insurance company . This may be at the point of care ( i.e. payment or guarantee must be made before treatment or transport ) , although this may be an issue with critically injured patients , unable to provide such details , or via a system of billing later on .
Charity funded service – Transport by ambulance may be provided free of charge to patients by a charity , although donations may be sought for services received .
Hospital funded service – Hospitals may provide the ambulance transport free of charge , on the condition that patients use the hospital 's services ( which they may have to pay for ) .
= = Crewing = =
There are differing levels of qualification that the ambulance crew may hold , from holding no formal qualification to having a fully qualified doctor on board . Most ambulance services require at least two crew members to be on every ambulance ( one to drive , and one to attend the patient ) , although response cars may have a sole crew member , possibly backed up by another double @-@ crewed ambulance . It may be the case that only the attendant need be qualified , and the driver might have no medical training . In some locations , an advanced life support ambulance may be crewed by one paramedic and one EMT @-@ Basic .
Common ambulance crew qualifications are :
First responder – A person who arrives first at the scene of an incident , and whose job is to provide early critical care such as cardiopulmonary resuscitation ( CPR ) or using an automated external defibrillator ( AED ) . First responders may be dispatched by the ambulance service , may be passers @-@ by , or may be dispatched to the scene from other agencies , such as the police or fire departments .
Ambulance Driver – Some services employ staff with no medical qualification ( or just a first aid certificate ) whose job is to simply drive the patients from place to place . In some emergency ambulance contexts this term is a pejorative toward qualified providers implying that they perform no function but driving , although it may be acceptable for patient transport or community operations . In some areas , these drivers would survey and study the local network of routes for better performance of service , as some road routes may be blocked , and the driver must know another route to the patient or to the hospital . The driver would gather the local weather and traffic status reports before and in @-@ between emergencies . They may also have training in using the radio and knowing where medical supplies are stored in the ambulance .
Ambulance Care Assistant – Have varying levels of training across the world , but these staff are usually only required to perform patient transport duties ( which can include stretcher or wheelchair cases ) , rather than acute care . Dependent on provider , they may be trained in first aid or extended skills such as use of an AED , oxygen therapy and other lifesaving or palliative skills . They may provide emergency cover when other units are not available , or when accompanied by a fully qualified technician or paramedic .
Emergency Care Assistant / Emergency Care Support Workers – Also known as ECA / ECSW are members of a frontline ambulance that drive the vehicles under both emergency and non @-@ emergency conditions to incidents . Their role is to assist the clinician that they are working with either a Technician or Paramedic in there duties whether that be drawing up drugs , setting up fluids ( but not attaching ) , doing basic observations or performing 12 lead ECG assessments .
Emergency medical technician – Also known as Ambulance Technician . Technicians are usually able to perform a wide range of emergency care skills , such as defibrillation , spinal immobilization , bleeding control , splinting of suspected fractures , assisting the patient with certain medications , and oxygen therapy . Some countries split this term into levels ( such as in the US , where there is EMT @-@ Basic and EMT @-@ Intermediate ) .
Registered nurse ( RN ) – Nurses can be involved in ambulance work dependent on the jurisdiction , and as with doctors , this is mostly as air @-@ medical rescuers often in conjunction with a technician or paramedic . They may bring different skills to the care of the patient , especially those who may be critically ill or injured in locations that do not enjoy close proximity to a high level of definitive care such as trauma , cardiac , or stroke centers .
Paramedic – This is a high level of medical training and usually involves key skills not permissible for technicians , such as cannulation ( and with it the ability to administer a range of drugs such as morphine ) , tracheal intubation and other skills such as performing a cricothyrotomy . Dependent on jurisdiction , the title " paramedic " can be a protected title , and use of it without the relevant qualification may result in criminal prosecution .
Emergency Care Practitioner – This position , sometimes called ' Super Paramedic ' in the media , is designed to bridge the link between ambulance care and the care of a general practitioner . ECPs are already qualified paramedics who have undergone further training , and are trained to prescribe medicines for longer term care , such as antibiotics , as well as being trained in a range of additional diagnostic techniques .
Doctor – Doctors are present on some ambulances – most notably air ambulances – will employ physicians to attend on the ambulances , bringing a full range of additional skills such as use of prescription medicines .
= = Military use = =
Military ambulances have historically included vehicles based on civilian designs and at times also included armored , but unarmed , vehicles ambulances based upon armoured personnel carriers ( APCs ) . In the Second World War vehicles such as the Hanomag Sd Kfz 251 halftrack were pressed into service as ad hoc ambulances , and in more recent times purpose built AFVs such as the U.S. M1133 Medical Evacuation Vehicle serve the exclusive purpose of armored medical vehicles . Civilian based designs may be painted in appropriate colours , depending on the operational requirements ( i.e. camouflage for field use , white for United Nations peacekeeping , etc . ) . For example , the British Royal Army Medical Corps has a fleet of white ambulances , based on production trucks . Military helicopters have also served both as ad hoc and purpose @-@ built air ambulances , since they are extremely useful for MEDEVAC .
Since laws of war demand ambulances be marked with one of the Emblems of the Red Cross not to mount offensive weapons , military ambulances are often unarmed . It is a generally accepted practice in most countries to classify the personnel attached to military vehicles marked as ambulances as non @-@ combatants ; however , this application does not always exempt medical personnel from catching enemy fire — accidental or deliberate . As a result , medics and other medical personnel attached to military ambulances are usually put through basic military training , on the assumption that they may have to use a weapon . The laws of war do allow non @-@ combatant military personnel to carry individual weapons for protecting themselves and casualties . However , not all militaries exercise this right to their personnel .
Recently , Israel has modified a number of its Merkava main battle tanks with ambulance features in order to allow rescue operations to take place under heavy fire in urban warfare . The modifications were made following a failed rescue attempt in which Palestinian gunmen killed two soldiers who were providing aid for a Palestinian woman in Rafah . Since M @-@ 113 armored personnel carriers and regular up @-@ armored ambulances are not sufficiently protected against anti @-@ tank weapons and improvised explosive devices , it was decided to use the heavily armored Merkava tank . Its rear door enables the evacuation of critically wounded soldiers . Israel did not remove the Merkava 's weaponry , claiming that weapons were more effective protection than emblems since Palestinian militants would disregard any symbols of protection and fire at ambulances anyway . For use as ground ambulances and treatment & evacuation vehicles , the United States military currently employs the M113 , the M577 , the M1133 Stryker Medical Evacuation Vehicle ( MEV ) , and the RG @-@ 33 Heavily Armored Ground Ambulance ( HAGA ) as treatment and evacuation vehicles , with contracts to incorporate the newly designed M2A0 Armored Medical Evacuation Vehicle ( AMEV ) , a variant of the M2 Bradley Fighting Vehicle ( formerly known as the ATTV ) .
Some navies operate ocean @-@ going hospital ships to lend medical assistance in high casualty situations like wars or natural disasters . These hospital ships fulfill the criteria of an ambulance ( transporting the sick or injured ) , although the capabilities of a hospital ship are more on par with a Mobile Army Surgical Hospital . In line with the laws of war , these ships can display a prominent Red Cross or Red Crescent to confer protection under the appropriate Geneva convention . However , this designation has not always protected hospital ships from enemy fire .
= = Reuse of retired ambulances = =
When an ambulance is retired , it may be donated or sold to another EMS provider . Alternately , it may be adapted into a storage and transport vehicle for crime scene identification equipment , a command post at community events , or support vehicle , such as a logistics unit . Others are refurbished and resold , or may just have their emergency equipment removed to be sold to private businesses or individuals , who then can use them as small recreational vehicles .
Toronto 's City Council has begun a " Caravan of Hope " project to provide retired Toronto ambulances a second life by donating them to the people of El Salvador . Since the Province of Ontario requires that ambulances be retired after just four and a half years in service in Ontario , the City of Toronto decommissions and auctions 28 ambulances each year .
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= RKO Pictures =
RKO ( Radio @-@ Keith @-@ Orpheum ) Pictures ( also known as RKO Productions , Radio Pictures , RKO Radio Pictures , RKO Teleradio Pictures and , for a short time , RKO Pathé ) was an American film production and distribution company . It was one of the Big Five studios of Hollywood 's Golden Age . The business was formed after the Keith @-@ Albee @-@ Orpheum ( KAO ) vaudeville theatre circuit and Joseph P. Kennedy 's Film Booking Offices of America ( FBO ) studio were brought together under the control of the Radio Corporation of America ( RCA ) in October 1928 . RCA chief David Sarnoff engineered the merger to create a market for the company 's sound @-@ on @-@ film technology , RCA Photophone . By the mid @-@ 1940s , the studio was under the control of investor Floyd Odlum .
RKO has long been celebrated for its series of musicals starring Fred Astaire and Ginger Rogers in the mid @-@ to @-@ late 1930s . Actors Katharine Hepburn and , later , Robert Mitchum had their first major successes at the studio . Cary Grant was a mainstay for years . The work of producer Val Lewton 's low @-@ budget horror unit and RKO 's many ventures into the field now known as film noir have been acclaimed , largely after the fact , by film critics and historians . The studio produced two of the most famous films in motion picture history : King Kong and Citizen Kane .
Maverick industrialist Howard Hughes took over RKO in 1948 . After years of turmoil and decline under his control , Hughes sold the troubled studio to General Tire and Rubber Company in 1955 . The original RKO Pictures ceased production in 1957 and was effectively dissolved two years later . In 1981 , broadcaster RKO General , the corporate heir , revived it as a production subsidiary , RKO Pictures Inc . In 1989 , this business with its few remaining assets , the trademarks and remake rights to many classic RKO films , was sold to new owners , who now operate the small independent company RKO Pictures LLC .
= = Origin of company = =
In October 1927 , Warner Bros. released The Jazz Singer , the first feature @-@ length talking picture . Its success prompted Hollywood to convert from silent to sound film production en masse . The Radio Corporation of America ( RCA ) controlled an advanced optical sound @-@ on @-@ film system , RCA Photophone , recently developed by General Electric . However , its hopes of joining in the anticipated boom in sound movies faced a major hurdle : Warner Bros. and Fox , Hollywood 's other vanguard sound studios , were already financially and technologically aligned with ERPI , a subsidiary of AT & T 's Western Electric division . The industry 's two largest companies , Paramount and Loew 's / MGM , with two other major studios , Universal and First National , were poised to contract with ERPI for sound conversion as well .
Seeking a customer for Photophone , in late 1927 David Sarnoff , then general manager of RCA , approached Joseph P. Kennedy about using the system for Kennedy 's modest @-@ sized studio , Film Booking Offices of America ( FBO ) . Negotiations resulted in General Electric acquiring a substantial interest in FBO — Sarnoff had apparently already conceived of a plan for the company to attain a central position in the film industry , maximizing Photophone revenue . Next on the agenda was securing a string of exhibition venues like those the leading Hollywood production companies owned . Kennedy began investigating the possibility of such a purchase . Around that time , the large Keith @-@ Albee @-@ Orpheum ( KAO ) circuit of theaters , built around the then @-@ fading medium of live vaudeville , was attempting a transition to the movie business . In mid @-@ 1927 , the filmmaking operations of Pathé Exchange and Cecil B. De Mille 's Producers Distributing Corporation ( PDC ) had united under KAO 's control . Early in 1928 , KAO general manager John J. Murdock , who had assumed the presidency of Pathé , turned to Kennedy as an adviser in consolidating the studio with De Mille 's company , PDC . This was the relationship Sarnoff and Kennedy sought .
After an aborted attempt by Kennedy to bring yet another studio that had turned to him for help , First National Pictures , into the Photophone fold , RCA was ready to step back in : the company acquired Kennedy 's stock in both FBO and the KAO theater business . On October 23 , 1928 , RCA announced the creation of the Radio @-@ Keith @-@ Orpheum holding company , with Sarnoff as chairman of the board . Kennedy , who withdrew from his executive positions in the merged companies , kept Pathé separate from RKO and under his personal control . RCA owned the governing stock interest in RKO , 22 percent ; in the early 1930s , RCA 's share of stock in the company rose as high as 60 percent . The company 's production and distribution arm , presided over by former FBO vice @-@ president Joseph I. Schnitzer , was incorporated early in 1929 as Radio Pictures . Looking to get out of the film business the following year , Kennedy arranged in late 1930 for RKO to purchase Pathé from him .
On January 29 , 1931 , Pathé , with its contract players , well @-@ regarded newsreel operation , and Culver Studios along with its associated backlot , located more or less next door to the vastly larger MGM lot was merged into RKO proper as Kennedy sold off the last of his stock in the company he had been instrumental in creating .
= = Golden Age studio = =
= = = Early years = = =
Declaring that it would make only all @-@ talking films , RKO began shooting at the small facility FBO shared with Pathé in New York City while the main FBO studio in Hollywood was technologically refitted . In charge of production was William LeBaron , who had held the same position at FBO . The new company 's two initial releases were musicals : The melodramatic Syncopation premiered on March 29 , 1929 . The comedic Street Girl debuted July 30 . This was billed as RKO 's first " official " production — first to follow the formal incorporation of Radio Pictures , first to be made in Hollywood . A few nonsinging pictures followed , but the studio 's first major hit was again a musical . RKO spent heavily on the lavish Rio Rita , including a number of Technicolor sequences . Opening in September to rave reviews , it was named one of the ten best pictures of the year by Film Daily . Cinema historian Richard Barrios credits it with initiating the " first age of the filmed Broadway musical " . By the end of the year , RKO was making use of an additional production facility — five hundred acres that had been acquired near Encino in the San Fernando Valley as a backlot for exteriors and large @-@ scale standing sets .
RKO released a limited slate of twelve features in its first year ; in 1930 , that figure more than doubled to twenty @-@ nine . Originally organized as the distinct business entities RKO Productions Inc. and RKO Distributing Corp. , by July the studio was making a transition to the new , unified RKO Radio Pictures Inc . Encouraged by Rio Rita 's success , RKO produced several costly musicals incorporating Technicolor sequences , among them Dixiana and Hit the Deck , both scripted and directed , like Rio Rita , by Luther Reed . Following the example of the other major studios , RKO had planned to create its own musical revue , Radio Revels . Promoted as the studio 's most extravagant production to date , it was to be photographed entirely in Technicolor . The project was abandoned , however , as the public 's taste for musicals temporarily subsided . From a total of more than sixty Hollywood musicals in 1929 and over eighty the following year , the number dropped to eleven in 1931 . RKO was left in a bind : it still had a contract with Technicolor to produce two more features with its system . Complicating matters , audiences had come to associate color with the momentarily out @-@ of @-@ favor musical genre due to a glut of such productions from the major Hollywood studios . Fulfilling its obligations , RKO produced two all @-@ Technicolor pictures , The Runaround and Fanny Foley Herself ( both 1931 ) , containing no musical sequences . Neither was a success .
Even as the U.S. economy foundered , RKO had gone on a spending spree , buying up theater after theater to add to its exhibition chain . In October 1930 , the company purchased a 50 percent stake in the New York 's Van Beuren studio , which specialized in cartoons and live shorts . RKO 's production schedule soon surpassed forty features a year , released under the names " Radio Pictures " and , for a short time after the 1931 merger , " RKO Pathé " . Cimarron ( 1931 ) , produced by LeBaron himself , would become the only RKO production to win the Academy Award for Best Picture ; nonetheless , having cost a profligate $ 1 @.@ 4 million to make , it was a money @-@ loser on original domestic release . The most popular RKO star of this pre @-@ Code era was Irene Dunne , who made her debut as the lead in the 1930 musical Leathernecking and was a headliner at the studio for the entire decade . Other major performers included Joel McCrea , Ricardo Cortez , Dolores del Río , and Mary Astor . Richard Dix , Oscar @-@ nominated for his lead performance in Cimarron , would serve as RKO 's standby B @-@ movie star until the early 1940s . The comedy team of Bert Wheeler and Robert Woolsey , often wrangling over ingenue Dorothy Lee , was a bankable mainstay for years . Constance Bennett , Ann Harding , and Helen Twelvetrees came over with Pathé . The Pathé acquisition , though a defensible investment in the long term for its physical facilities , was yet another major expense borne by the fledgling RKO , particularly as Pathé 's stock price had been artificially inflated by some prepurchase finagling . After little more than a year of semiautonomous operation within RKO , Pathé was dissolved as a feature production unit .
= = = Success under Selznick = = =
Exceptions like Cimarron and Rio Rita aside , RKO 's product was largely regarded as mediocre , so in October , 1931 , twenty @-@ nine @-@ year @-@ old David O. Selznick visited Sarnoff in New York and convinced him to replace LeBaron as production chief . As the new studio chief Selznick implemented rigorous cost @-@ control measures , championed the unit production system , which gave the producers of individual movies much greater independence than they had under the prevailing central producer system . " Under the factory system of production you rob the director of his individualism " , said Selznick , " and this being a creative industry that is harmful to the quality of the product made " ( even though Selznick earned a sour reputation for meddling in director output ) . Instituting unit production , he predicted , would also result in cost savings of 30 – 40 percent . To make films under the new system , Selznick recruited prize behind @-@ the @-@ camera personnel , such as director George Cukor and producer / director Merian C. Cooper , and gave producer Pandro S. Berman , aged twenty @-@ six , increasingly important projects . Selznick discovered and signed a young actress who would become a star created by RKO , Katharine Hepburn . Also enlisted was established star John Barrymore for a few memorable performances . From September 1932 on , print advertising for the company 's features displayed the revised name " RKO Radio Pictures " ; the Pathé name was used only for newsreels and documentaries . That same year , the New York City – based corporate headquarters moved into the new RKO Building , an Art Deco skyscraper rising high above RCA controlled Radio City Music Hall that was one of the first Rockefeller Center structures to open .
Selznick worked fifteen months as RKO production chief before resigning over a dispute with new corporate president Merlin Aylesworth , and then moved up to MGM to work for his powerful father @-@ in @-@ law , Louis B. Mayer . One of his last acts at RKO was to approve a screen test for a thirty @-@ three @-@ year @-@ old , balding Broadway song @-@ and @-@ dance man named Fred Astaire . In a memo , Selznick wrote , " I feel , in spite of his enormous ears and bad chin line , that his charm is ... tremendous " . Selznick 's tenure was widely considered a success : In 1931 , before he arrived , the studio had produced forty @-@ two features for $ 16 million in total budgets ( an average cost of $ 380 @,@ 000 per picture ) . In 1932 , under Selznick , forty @-@ one features were made for only $ 10 @.@ 2 million ( an average budget of $ 268 @,@ 000 per feature ) , yet with improvement in polish and popularity . He backed several major successes , including A Bill of Divorcement ( 1932 ) , with Cukor directing Hepburn 's debut , and the monumental King Kong ( 1933 ) — largely Merian Cooper 's brainchild , brought to life by the astonishing special effects work of Willis O 'Brien . Still , shaky finances and excesses that marked the company 's pre @-@ Selznick days had not left RKO in good enough shape to withstand the Depression ; the movie studio sank into receivership in early 1933 , from which it did not emerge until 1940 .
= = = Cooper at the helm = = =
Cooper took over as production head after Selznick 's departure and oversaw two hits starring Hepburn : Morning Glory ( 1933 ) , for which she won her first Oscar , and Little Women ( 1933 ) , director Cukor 's second collaboration with the actress . Among the studio 's in @-@ house productions , the latter was the biggest box @-@ office success of the decade . Ginger Rogers had already made several minor films for RKO when Cooper signed her to a seven @-@ year contract and cast her in the big @-@ budget musical Flying Down to Rio ( 1933 ) . Rogers was paired with Astaire , making his movie debut . Billed fourth and fifth respectively , the picture turned them into stars . Hermes Pan , assistant to the film 's dance director , would become one of Hollywood 's leading choreographers through his subsequent work with Astaire .
Along with Columbia Pictures , RKO became one of the primary homes of the screwball comedy . As film historian James Harvey describes , compared to their richer competition , the two studios were " more receptive to experiment , more tolerant of chaos on the set . It was at these two lesser ' majors ' ... that nearly all the preeminent screwball directors did their important films — [ Howard ] Hawks and [ Gregory ] La Cava and [ Leo ] McCarey and [ George ] Stevens . " The relatively unheralded William A. Seiter directed the studio 's first significant contribution to the genre , The Richest Girl in the World ( 1934 ) . The drama Of Human Bondage ( 1934 ) , directed by John Cromwell , was Bette Davis 's first great success . Stevens 's Alice Adams and director John Ford 's The Informer were each nominated for the 1935 Best Picture Oscar — the Best Director statuette won by Ford was the only one ever given for an RKO production . The Informer 's star , Victor McLaglen , also took home an Academy Award ; he would appear in a dozen movies for the studio over a span of two decades .
Lacking the financial resources of industry leaders MGM , Paramount , Warner Bros. / First National and Fox , RKO turned out many pictures during the era that made up for it with high style in an Art Deco mode , exemplified by such Astaire – Rogers musicals as The Gay Divorcee ( 1934 ) , their first pairing as leads , and Top Hat ( 1935 ) . One of the figures most responsible for this was creative Van Nest Polglase , chief of RKO 's highly regarded design department for almost a decade . Film historian James Naremore has described RKO as " chiefly a designer 's studio . It never had a stable of important actors , writers , or directors , but ... it was rich in artists and special @-@ effects technicians . As a result , its most distinctive pictures contained a strong element of fantasy — not so much the fantasy of horror , which during the thirties was the province of Universal , but the fantasy of the marvelous and adventurous . "
As a group , the studio 's craft divisions were among the strongest in the industry . Costumer Walter Plunkett , who worked with the company from the close of the FBO era through the end of 1939 , was known as the top period wardrobist in the business . Sidney Saunders , innovative head of the studio 's paint department , was responsible for significant progress in rear projection quality . On June 13 , 1935 , RKO premiered the first feature film shot entirely in advanced three @-@ strip Technicolor , Becky Sharp . The movie was coproduced with Pioneer Pictures , founded by Cooper — who departed RKO after two years helming production — and John Hay " Jock " Whitney , who brought in his cousin Cornelius Vanderbilt Whitney ; Cooper had successfully encouraged the Whitneys to purchase a major share of the Technicolor business as well . Though judged by critics a failure as drama , Becky Sharp was widely lauded for its visual brilliance and technical expertise . RKO also employed some of the industry 's leading artists and craftsmen whose work was never seen . From the studio 's earliest days through late 1935 , Max Steiner , regarded by many historians as the most influential composer of the early years of sound cinema , made music for over 100 RKO films . Murray Spivack , head of the studio 's audio special effects department , made important advances in the use of rerecording technology first heard in King Kong .
= = = Briskin and Berman = = =
In October 1935 the ownership team expanded , with financier Floyd Odlum leading a syndicate that bought 50 percent of RCA 's stake in the company ; the Rockefeller brothers , also major stockholders , increasingly became involved in the business . While RKO made a concerted effort to promote Katharine Hepburn 's career , her box office record while at the studio was checkered . Barbara Stanwyck joined the studio 's roster — though Stanwyck would have little success during her few years there while Ann Sothern enjoyed a career boost . Between 1935 and 1937 Miss Sothern was paired five time with Gene Raymond out of her seven RKO films . Then , in 1939 MGM finally found a replacement for the deceased Jean Harlow when they hired Sothern . Cary Grant regularly appeared in RKO films for some years , but was one of the first leading men of the sound era to work extensively as a freelancer , under nonexclusive studio deals .
Soon after the appointment of a new production chief , Samuel J. Briskin , in late 1935 , RKO entered into an important distribution deal with animator Walt Disney ( Van Beuren consequently folded its cartoon operations ) . From 1936 to 1954 , the studio released Disney features and shorts ; Snow White and the Seven Dwarfs ( 1937 ) was the highest grossing movie in the period between The Birth of a Nation ( 1915 ) and Gone with the Wind ( 1939 ) . Following the change in print branding a few years earlier , the opening and closing logos on RKO movies , other than the Pathé nonfiction line , were changed from " Radio Pictures " to " RKO Radio Pictures " in 1936 . In February 1937 , Selznick , now an independent producer , leased RKO 's Culver City studio and Forty Acres backlot . In addition to its central Hollywood studio , RKO productions now revolved around its vast Encino movie ranch . Modern sources state that Briskin 's departure in late 1937 was due to a decline in the quality of RKO 's product , although admitting that the Disney association was beneficial . However , contemporary sources point to a contractual rift between Briskin and Spitz , and Briskin had been offered a three @-@ year contract extension , but had declined .
Pandro Berman — who had filled in on three previous occasions — accepted the position of production chief on a noninterim basis . As it turned out , he would leave the job before the decade 's turn , but his brief tenure resulted in some of the most notable films in studio history , including Gunga Din , with Grant and McLaglen ; Love Affair , starring Dunne and Charles Boyer ; and The Hunchback of Notre Dame ( all 1939 ) . Charles Laughton , who gave a now fabled performance as Quasimodo in the latter , returned periodically to the studio , headlining six more RKO features . For Maureen O 'Hara , who made her American screen debut in the film , it was the first of ten pictures she would make for RKO through 1952 . After co @-@ starring with Ginger Rogers for the eighth time in The Story of Vernon and Irene Castle ( 1939 ) , Fred Astaire departed the studio .
The studio 's B Western star of the period was George O 'Brien , who made eighteen RKO pictures , sixteen between 1938 and 1940 . The Saint in New York ( 1938 ) successfully launched a B detective series featuring the character Simon Templar that would run through 1943 . The Wheeler and Woolsey comedy series ended in 1937 when Woolsey became ill ( he died the following year ) . RKO filled the void by releasing independently produced features such as the Dr. Christian series and the Laurel and Hardy comedy The Flying Deuces ( 1939 ) . The studio soon had its own new B comedy star in Lupe Vélez : The Girl from Mexico ( 1939 ) was followed by seven frantic installments of the Mexican Spitfire series , all featuring Leon Errol , between 1940 and 1943 . The studio 's technical departments maintained their reputation as industry leaders ; Vernon Walker 's special effects unit became famous for its sophisticated use of the optical printer and lifelike matte work , an art that would reach its apex with 1941 's Citizen Kane .
= = = Kane and Schaefer 's troubles = = =
Pan Berman had received his first screen credit in 1925 as a nineteen @-@ year @-@ old assistant director on FBO 's Midnight Molly . He departed RKO in December 1939 after policy clashes with studio president George J. Schaefer , handpicked the previous year by the Rockefellers and backed by Sarnoff . With Berman gone , Schaefer became in effect production chief , though other men — including the former head of the industry censorship board , Joseph I. Breen — nominally filled the role . Schaefer , announcing his philosophy with a new studio slogan , " Quality Pictures at a Premium Price " , was keen on signing up independent producers whose films RKO would distribute . In 1941 , the studio landed one of the most prestigious independents in Hollywood when it arranged to handle Samuel Goldwyn 's productions . The first two Goldwyn pictures released by the studio were highly successful : The Little Foxes , directed by William Wyler and starring Bette Davis , garnered four Oscar nominations , while the Howard Hawks – directed Ball of Fire at last brought Barbara Stanwyck a hit under the RKO banner . However , Schaefer agreed to terms so favorable to Goldwyn that it was next to impossible for the studio to make money off his films . David O. Selznick loaned out his leading contracted director for two RKO pictures in 1941 : Alfred Hitchcock 's Mr. and Mrs. Smith was a modest success and Suspicion a more substantial one , with an Oscar @-@ winning turn by Joan Fontaine .
That May , RKO released Citizen Kane , coproducing with director Orson Welles 's Mercury Productions . While it opened to strong reviews and would go on to be hailed as one of the greatest movies ever made , it lost money at the time and brought down the wrath of the Hearst newspaper chain on RKO . The next year saw the commercial failure of Welles 's The Magnificent Ambersons — like Kane , critically lauded and overbudget — and the expensive embarrassment of his aborted documentary It 's All True . The three Mercury productions combined to drain $ 2 million from the RKO coffers , major money for a corporation that had reported an overall deficit of $ 1 million in 1940 and a nominal profit of a bit more than $ 500 @,@ 000 in 1941 . Many of RKO 's other artistically ambitious pictures were also dying at the box office and it was losing its last exclusive deal with a major star as well . Rogers , after winning an Oscar in 1941 for her performance in the previous year 's Kitty Foyle , held out for a freelance contract like Grant 's ; after 1943 , she would appear in just one more RKO production , thirteen years later . On June 17 , 1942 , Schaefer tendered his resignation . He departed a weakened and troubled studio , but RKO was about to turn the corner . Propelled by the box @-@ office boom of World War II and guided by new management , RKO would make a strong comeback over the next half @-@ decade .
= = = Rebound under Koerner = = =
By the end of June 1942 , Floyd Odlum had taken over a controlling interest in the company via his Atlas Corporation , edging aside the Rockefellers and Sarnoff . Charles Koerner , former head of the RKO theater chain and allied with Odlum , had assumed the title of production chief some time prior to Schaefer 's departure . With Schaefer gone , Koerner could actually do the job . He announced a new corporate motto , " Showmanship In Place of Genius : A New Deal at RKO " , a snipe at Schaefer 's artistic ambitions in general and his sponsorship of Welles in particular . He brought the studio much @-@ needed stability until his death in February 1946 . The change in RKO 's fortunes was virtually immediate : corporate profits rose from $ 736 @,@ 241 in 1942 ( the theatrical division compensating for the studio 's $ 2 @.@ 34 million deficit ) to $ 6 @.@ 96 million the following year . The Rockefellers sold off their stock and , early in 1943 , RCA dispensed with the last of its holdings in the company as well , cutting David Sarnoff 's ties to the studio that was largely his conception . In June 1944 , RKO created a television production subsidiary , RKO Television Corporation , to provide content for the new medium . RKO became the first major studio to produce for television with Talk Fast , Mister , a one @-@ hour drama filmed at RKO @-@ Pathé studios in New York and broadcast by the DuMont network 's New York station , WABD , on December 18 , 1944 . In collaboration with Mexican businessman Emilio Azcárraga Vidaurreta , RKO established Estudios Churubusco in Mexico City in 1945 .
With RKO on increasingly secure ground , Koerner sought to increase its output of handsomely budgeted , star @-@ driven features . However , the studio 's only remaining major stars under anything like extended contracts were Grant , whose services were shared with Columbia Pictures , and O 'Hara , shared with Twentieth Century @-@ Fox . Lacking in @-@ house stars , Koerner and his successors under Odlum arranged with the other studios to loan out their biggest names or signed one of the growing number of freelance performers to short @-@ term , " pay or play " deals . Thus RKO pictures of the mid- and late forties offered Bing Crosby , Henry Fonda , and others who were out of the studio 's price range for extended contracts . John Wayne appeared in 1943 's A Lady Takes a Chance while on loan from Republic Pictures ; he was soon working regularly with RKO , making nine more movies for the studio . Gary Cooper appeared in RKO releases produced by Goldwyn and , later , the startup International Pictures , and Claudette Colbert starred in a number of RKO coproductions . Ingrid Bergman appeared under a variety of hats : on loan out from Selznick in The Bells of St. Mary 's ( 1945 ) , the biggest hit of any in @-@ house RKO production during the 1940s ; in the coproductions Notorious ( 1946 ) and Stromboli ( 1950 ) ; and in the independently produced Joan of Arc ( 1948 ) . Freelancing Randolph Scott appeared in one major RKO release annually from 1943 through 1948 .
In similar fashion , many leading directors made one or more films at RKO during this era , including Alfred Hitchcock once more , with Notorious , and Jean Renoir , with This Land Is Mine ( 1943 ) , reuniting Laughton and O 'Hara , and The Woman on the Beach ( 1947 ) . John Ford 's The Fugitive ( 1947 ) and Fort Apache ( 1948 ) , which appeared right before studio ownership changed hands again , were followed by She Wore a Yellow Ribbon ( 1949 ) and Wagon Master ( 1950 ) ; all four were co @-@ productions between RKO and Argosy Pictures , the company run by Ford and RKO alumnus Merian C. Cooper . Of the directors under long @-@ term contract to RKO in the 1940s , the best known was Edward Dmytryk , who first came to notice with the remarkably profitable Hitler 's Children ( 1943 ) . Shot on a $ 205 @,@ 000 budget placing it in the bottom quartile of Big Five studio productions , it was one of the ten biggest Hollywood hits of the year . Another low @-@ cost war @-@ themed film directed by Dmytryk , Behind the Rising Sun , released a few months later , was similarly profitable .
= = = Focus on B movies = = =
Much more than the other Big Five studios , RKO relied on B pictures to fill up its schedule . Of the thirty @-@ one features released by RKO in 1944 , for instance , ten were budgeted below $ 200 @,@ 000 , twelve were in the $ 200 @,@ 000 to $ 500 @,@ 000 range , and only nine cost more . In contrast , a clear majority of the features put out by the other top four studios were budgeted at over a half a million dollars . A focus on B pictures limited the studio 's financial risk ; while it also limited the potential for reward ( Dmytryk 's extraordinary coups aside ) , RKO had a history of making better profits with its run @-@ of @-@ the @-@ mill and low @-@ cost product than with its A movies . The studio 's low @-@ budget films offered training opportunities for new directors , as well , among them Jacques Tourneur , Mark Robson , Robert Wise , and Anthony Mann . Robson and Wise received their first directing assignments with producer Val Lewton , whose specialized B horror unit also included the more experienced director Jacques Tourneur . The Lewton unit 's moody , atmospheric work — represented by films such as Cat People ( 1942 ) , I Walked with a Zombie ( 1943 ) , and The Body Snatcher ( 1945 ) — is now highly regarded . Richard Dix concluded his lengthy RKO career with the 1943 Lewton production The Ghost Ship . Tim Holt was RKO 's cowboy star of the era , appearing in forty @-@ six B Westerns and more than fifty movies altogether for the studio . In 1940 , Chester Lauck and Norris Goff brought their famous comic characters Lum and Abner from radio to RKO for a six @-@ film run . The Falcon detective series began in 1941 ; the Saint and the Falcon were so similar that Saint creator Leslie Charteris sued RKO . The Falcon was first played by George Sanders , who had appeared five times as the Saint . He bowed out after four Falcon films and was replaced by his brother , Tom Conway . Conway had a nine @-@ film run in the part before the series ended in 1946 . Johnny Weissmuller starred in six Tarzan pictures for RKO between 1943 and 1948 before being replaced by Lex Barker .
Film noir , to which lower budgets lent themselves , became something of a house style at the studio , indeed , the RKO B Stranger on the Third Floor ( 1940 ) is widely seen as initiating noir 's classic period . Its cinematographer , Nicholas Musuraca , who began at FBO in the 1920s and stayed with RKO through 1954 , is a central figure in creating the look of classic noir . Design chief Albert D 'Agostino — another long @-@ termer , who succeeded Van Nest Polglase in 1941 — and art director Walter Keller , along with others in the department , such as art directors Carroll Clark and Jack Okey and set decorator Darrell Silvera , are similarly credited . The studio 's 1940s list of contract players was filled with noir regulars : Robert Mitchum ( who graduated to major star status ) and Robert Ryan each made no fewer than ten film noirs for RKO . Gloria Grahame , Jane Greer , and Lawrence Tierney were also notable studio players in the field . Freelancer George Raft starred in two noir hits : Johnny Angel ( 1945 ) and Nocturne ( 1946 ) . Tourneur , Musuraca , Mitchum , and Greer , along with D 'Agostino 's design group , joined to make the A @-@ budgeted Out of the Past ( 1947 ) , now considered one of the greatest of all film noirs . Nicholas Ray began his directing career with the noir They Live by Night ( 1948 ) , the first of a number of well @-@ received films he made for RKO . A big money maker were the dark and moody Dick Tracy detective film series ; Dick Tracy , Detective ( 1945 ) , Dick Tracy vs. Cueball ( 1946 ) ( as " Filthy Flora " , character actress Esther Howard chewed up the scenery in this one ) , Dick Tracy 's Dilemma ( 1947 ) , and Dick Tracy Meets Gruesome ( 1947 ) , ( RKO wanted to title this feature " Dick Tracy vs Karloff " , but Boris Karloff nixed that idea , even though he did play the part of Gruesome ) .
= = = HUAC and Howard Hughes = = =
RKO , and the movie industry as a whole , had its most profitable year ever in 1946 . A Goldwyn production released by RKO , The Best Years of Our Lives , was the most successful Hollywood film of the decade . But the legal status of the industry 's reigning business model was increasingly being called into doubt : the U.S. Supreme Court ruled in Bigelow v. RKO that the company was liable for damages under antitrust statutes for having denied an independent movie house access to first run films — a common practice among all of the Big Five . With profits at a high point , Floyd Odlum cashed in by selling off about 40 percent of his shares in the company to a group of investment firms . After Koerner 's death , Radio @-@ Keith @-@ Orpheum president N. Peter Rathvon and RKO Radio Pictures president Ned Depinet had exchanged positions , with Depinet moving to the corporate offices in New York and Rathvon relocating to Hollywood and doubling as production chief while a permanent replacement was sought for Koerner . On the first day of 1947 , producer and Oscar @-@ winning screenwriter Dore Schary , who had been working at the studio on loan from Selznick , took over the role .
RKO appeared in good shape to build on its recent successes , but the year brought a number of unpleasant harbingers for all of Hollywood . The British government imposed a 75 percent tax on films produced abroad ; along with similarly confiscatory taxes and quota laws enacted by other countries , this led to a sharp decline in foreign revenues . The postwar attendance boom peaked sooner than expected and television emerged as a competitor for audience interest . Across the board , profits fell — a 27 percent drop for the Hollywood studios from 1946 to 1947 . The phenomenon that would become known as McCarthyism was building strength , and in October , the House Un @-@ American Activities Committee ( HUAC ) began hearings into Communism in the motion picture industry . Two of RKO 's top talents , Dmytryk and producer Adrian Scott , refused to cooperate . As a consequence , they were fired by RKO per the terms of the Waldorf Statement , the major studios ' pledge to " eliminate any subversives " . Scott , Dmytryk , and eight others who also defied HUAC — dubbed the Hollywood Ten — were blacklisted across the industry . Ironically , the studio 's major success of the year was Crossfire , a Scott – Dmytryk film . Odlum concluded it was time to exit the film business , and he put his remaining RKO shares — approximately 25 percent of the outstanding stock — on the market . Before the turn of the year , the Pathé @-@ branded newsreel was sold to Warner Bros. For her performance in The Farmer 's Daughter ( 1947 ) , a coproduction with Selznick 's Vanguard Films , Loretta Young won the Best Actress Oscar the following March . It would turn out to be the last major Academy Award for an RKO picture .
In May 1948 , eccentric aviation tycoon and occasional movie producer Howard Hughes gained control of the company , beating out British film magnate J. Arthur Rank as the buyer of Odlum 's interest . During Hughes 's tenure , RKO suffered its worst years since the early 1930s , as his capricious management style took a heavy toll . Production chief Schary quit almost immediately due to his new boss 's interference and Rathvon soon followed . Within weeks of taking over , Hughes had dismissed three @-@ fourths of the work force ; production was virtually shut down for six months as the conservative Hughes shelved or canceled several of the " message pictures " that Schary had backed . Once shooting picked up again , Hughes quickly became notorious for meddling in minute production matters , particularly the presentation of actresses he favored . All of the Big Five saw their profits dwindle in 1948 — from Fox , down 11 percent , to Loew 's / MGM , down 62 percent — but at RKO they virtually vanished : from $ 5 @.@ 1 million in 1947 to $ 0 @.@ 5 million , a drop of 90 percent . The production @-@ distribution end of the RKO business , now deep in the red , would never make a profit again .
Offscreen , Robert Mitchum 's arrest and conviction for marijuana possession — he would serve two months in jail — was widely assumed to mean career death for RKO 's most promising young star , but Hughes surprised the industry by announcing that his contract was not endangered . Of much broader significance , Hughes decided to get the jump on his Big Five competitors by being the first to settle the federal government 's antitrust suit against the major studios , which had won a crucial Supreme Court ruling in United States v. Paramount Pictures , Inc . Under the consent decree he signed , Hughes agreed to dissolve the old parent company , Radio @-@ Keith @-@ Orpheum Corp. , and split RKO 's production @-@ distribution business and its exhibition chain into two entirely separate corporations — RKO Pictures Corp. and RKO Theatres Corp. — with the obligation to promptly sell off one or the other . While Hughes delayed the divorcement procedure until December 1950 and didn 't actually sell his stock in the theater company for another three years , his decision to acquiesce was one of the crucial steps in the collapse of classical Hollywood 's studio system .
= = = Turmoil under Hughes = = =
While Hughes 's time at RKO was marked by dwindling production and a slew of expensive flops , the studio continued to turn out some well @-@ received films under production chiefs Sid Rogell and Sam Bischoff , though both became fed up with Hughes 's meddling and quit after less than two years . ( Bischoff would be the last man to hold the job under Hughes . ) There were B noirs such as The Window ( 1949 ) , which turned into a hit , and The Set @-@ Up ( 1949 ) , directed by Robert Wise and starring Robert Ryan , which won the Critic 's Prize at the Cannes Film Festival . The Thing from Another World ( 1951 ) , a science @-@ fiction drama coproduced with Howard Hawks 's Winchester Pictures , is seen as a classic of the genre . In 1952 , RKO put out two films directed by Fritz Lang , Rancho Notorious and Clash by Night . The latter was a project of the renowned Jerry Wald – Norman Krasna production team , lured by Hughes from Warner Bros. with great fanfare in August 1950 .
The company also began a close working relationship with Ida Lupino . She starred in two suspense films with Robert Ryan — Nicholas Ray 's On Dangerous Ground ( 1952 , though shooting had been completed two years earlier ) and Beware , My Lovely ( 1952 ) , a coproduction between RKO and Lupino 's company , The Filmakers . Of more historic note , Lupino was Hollywood 's only female director during the period ; of the five pictures The Filmakers made with RKO , Lupino directed three , including her now celebrated The Hitch @-@ Hiker ( 1953 ) . Exposing many moviegoers to Asian cinema for the first time , RKO distributed Akira Kurosawa 's epochal Rashomon in the United States , sixteen months after its original 1950 Japanese release . The only smash hits released by RKO in the 1950s came out during this period , but neither was an in @-@ house production : Goldwyn 's Hans Christian Andersen ( 1952 ) was followed by Disney 's Peter Pan ( 1953 ) .
In early 1952 , Hughes fought off a lawsuit by screenwriter Paul Jarrico , who had been caught up in the latest round of HUAC hearings — Hughes had fired him and removed his name from the credits of a recent release . The studio owner subsequently ordered 100 RKO employees on " leave of absence " while he established a " security office " to oversee an ideological vetting system . " We are going to screen everyone in a creative or executive capacity " , he declared . " The work of Communist sympathizers will not be used . " As more credits were expunged , some in the industry began to question whether Hughes 's hunt for subversives served primarily as a convenient rationale for further curtailing production and trimming expenses .
In September , Hughes and his corporate president , Ned E. Depinet , sold their RKO studio stock to a Chicago @-@ based syndicate with no experience in the movie business . Once Hughes learned that said company had connections to organized crime , he gained near @-@ total control of the studio in February 1953 at a cost of $ 23 @.@ 5 million , becoming the first virtual sole owner of a studio since Hollywood 's pioneer days . The studio 's net loss in 1952 was over $ 10 million , and shooting had taken place for just a single in @-@ house production over the last five months of the year . During the turmoil , Samuel Goldwyn ended his 11 @-@ year @-@ long distribution deal with RKO . Wald and Krasna escaped their contracts and the studio as well . The deal that brought the team to RKO had called for them to produce sixty features over five years ; in just shy of half that time , they succeeded in making four . The RKO Encino movie ranch shut down permanently in 1954 and the property was sold off . Jack Webb 's NBC television series Dragnet was the last project to film on the rundown movie ranch for an episode entitled " The Big Producer " , where the lot played the part of a crumbling " Westside Studios " . In November , Hughes finally fulfilled his obligations under the 1948 consent decree , divesting RKO Theatres ; Albert A. List purchased the controlling interest in the business and renamed it List Industries . Hughes soon found himself the target of no less than five separate lawsuits filed by minority shareholders in RKO , accusing him of malfeasance in his dealings with the Chicago group and a wide array of acts of mismanagement . " RKO 's contract list is down to three actors and 127 lawyers " , quipped Dick Powell .
Looking to forestall the impending legal imbroglio , in early 1954 Hughes offered to buy out all of RKO 's other stockholders . Convinced that the studio was sinking , Walt Disney ended his arrangement with RKO and set up his own distribution firm , Buena Vista Pictures . Virtual , but not quite actual . Floyd Odlum reemerged to block Hughes from acquiring the 95 percent ownership of RKO stock he needed to write off the company 's losses against his earnings elsewhere . Hughes had reneged on his promise to give Odlum first option on buying the RKO theater chain when he divested it and was now paying the price . With negotiations between the two at a stalemate , in July 1955 , Hughes turned around and sold RKO pictures to the General Tire and Rubber Company for $ 25 million . For Hughes , this was the effective end of a quarter @-@ century 's involvement in the movie business . Historian Betty Lasky describes Hughes 's relationship with RKO as a " systematic seven @-@ year rape . "
= = = General Tire and studio 's demise = = =
In taking control of the studio , General Tire restored RKO 's links to broadcasting . General Tire had bought the Yankee Network , a New England regional radio network , in 1943 . In 1950 , it purchased the West Coast regional Don Lee Broadcasting System , and two years later , the Bamberger Broadcasting Service , owner of the WOR TV and radio stations in New York City . The latter acquisition gave General Tire majority control of the Mutual Broadcasting System , one of America 's leading radio networks . General Tire then merged its broadcasting interests into a new division , General Teleradio .
Thomas O 'Neil , son of General Tire 's founder William O 'Neil and chairman of the broadcasting group , saw that the company 's new television stations , indeed all TV outlets , were in need of programming . They sought to acquire the RKO library , but Hughes would not sell to General Tire unless they purchased the studio outright . With the purchase of RKO , the studio 's library was his , and rights to the 742 films to which RKO retained clear title were quickly put up for sale . C & C Television Corp. , a subsidiary of beverage maker Cantrell & Cochrane , won the bidding in December 1955 . It was soon offering the films to independent stations in a package called " MovieTime USA " . RKO Teleradio Pictures — the new company created from the merger of General Teleradio and the RKO studio — retained the broadcast rights for the cities where it owned TV stations . By 1956 , RKO 's classic movies were playing widely on television , allowing many to see such films as Citizen Kane for the first time . The $ 15 @.@ 2 million RKO made on the deal convinced the other major studios that their libraries held profit potential — a turning point in the way Hollywood did business .
The new owners of RKO made an initial effort to revive the studio , hiring veteran producer William Dozier to head production . A needed cash infusion was realized in 1954 when the 89 acre RKO Encino movie ranch was sold off to make way for a new tract home development . During the first half of 1956 , the production facilities were as busy as they had been in a half @-@ decade . RKO Teleradio Pictures released Fritz Lang 's final two American films , While the City Sleeps and Beyond a Reasonable Doubt ( both 1956 ) , but years of mismanagement had driven away many directors , producers , and stars . Other films included Bundle of Joy , a remake of the Ginger Rogers @-@ starring Bachelor Mother which was re @-@ tooled as a vehicle for star couple Eddie Fisher and Debbie Reynolds . Rogers herself would make a film for the new RKO ( The First Traveling Saleslady ) and would later comment that " coming back to RKO was like coming back to a picnic you 've been on last week , and pick up the bones all around and see what the ants have taken from the lunch that you left . " The studio was also saddled with the last of the inflated B movies such as Pearl of the South Pacific ( 1955 ) and The Conqueror ( 1956 ) that enchanted Hughes . The latter , starring John Wayne , was the biggest hit produced at the studio during the decade , but its $ 4 @.@ 5 million in North American rentals did not come close to covering its $ 6 million cost .
After a year and a half without a notable success , General Tire abruptly closed down production at RKO for good at the end of January 1957 , and three productions already in progress were never completed . The Hollywood and Culver City facilities were sold later that year for $ 6 @.@ 15 million to Desilu Productions , owned by Desi Arnaz and Lucille Ball , who had been an RKO contract player from 1935 to 1942 . Desilu would be acquired by Gulf and Western Industries in 1967 and merged into G + W 's other production company , Paramount Pictures ; the former RKO Hollywood studio became home to Paramount Television ( now CBS Television Studios ) , which it remains to this day . The renovated Culver City studio is now owned and operated as an independent production facility . Forty Acres , the Culver City backlot , was razed in the mid @-@ 1970s . List Industries , the former RKO Theatres Corp. , was acquired by Glen Alden Corp. in 1959 . After Glen Alden 's 1967 acquisition of the Stanley Warner theater group , the two chains were merged into RKO – Stanley Warner Theatres . Cinerama purchased the exhibition circuit from Glen Alden in 1971 .
With the closing down of production , RKO also shut its distribution exchanges ; from 1957 forward , remaining pictures were released through other companies , primarily Universal @-@ International . The final RKO film , Verboten ! , a coproduction with director Samuel Fuller 's Globe Enterprises , was released by Columbia Pictures in March 1959 . That same year , " Pictures " was stripped from the corporate identity ; the holding company for General Tire 's broadcasting operation and the few remaining motion picture assets was renamed RKO General . In the words of scholar Richard B. Jewell , " The supreme irony of RKO 's existence is that the studio earned a position of lasting importance in cinema history largely because of its extraordinarily unstable history . Since it was the weakling of Hollywood 's ' majors , ' RKO welcomed a diverse group of individualistic creators and provided them ... with an extraordinary degree of freedom to express their artistic idiosyncrasies .... [ I ] t never became predictable and it never became a factory . "
= = RKO General = =
One of North America 's major radio and television broadcasters from the 1950s through the late 1980s , RKO General traces its roots to the 1943 purchase of the Yankee Network by General Tire . In 1952 , the company united its newly expanded broadcasting interests into a division dubbed General Teleradio . With the tire manufacturer 's acquisition of the RKO film studio in 1955 , its media businesses were brought together under the rubric of RKO Teleradio Pictures . In 1959 , following the breakup of the movie studio , the media division was given the name it would operate under for the next three decades , RKO General . In addition to its broadcasting activities , RKO General was also the holding company for many of General Tire 's ( and , after its parent company 's reorganization , GenCorp 's ) other noncore businesses , including soft @-@ drink bottling , Muzak ( dept. store and elevator piped @-@ in ) music , Video Independent Theatre ( 135 theatres strong ) Circuit , hotel enterprises , and , for seventeen years , the original Frontier Airlines .
The RKO General radio lineup included some of the highest rated , most influential popular music stations in North America . In May 1965 , KHJ ( AM ) in Los Angeles introduced the Boss Radio variation of the top 40 format . The restrictive programming style was soon adopted by many of RKO 's other stations and imitated by non @-@ RKO broadcasters around the country . RKO 's FM station in New York pioneered numerous formats under a variety of call letters , including WOR and WXLO ( " 99X " ) ; in 1983 , as WRKS ( " 98 @.@ 7 Kiss FM " ) , it became one of the first major stations to regularly program rap music . In 1979 , RKO General created the RKO Radio Network , reportedly the first broadcasting web linked via satellite .
The company 's television stations , for the most part non – network affiliated , were known for showing classic films ( both RKO productions and many others ) under the banner of Million Dollar Movie , launched by New York 's WOR @-@ TV in 1954 . In June 1962 , RKO General and Zenith Electronics initiated what became the first extended venture into subscription television service : through early 1969 , Hartford , Connecticut 's WHCT @-@ TV aired movies , sports , classical and pop music concerts , and other live performances without commercials , generating income from descrambler installation and weekly rental fees as well as individual program charges . However , RKO General 's most notable legacy is what may be the longest licensing dispute in television history . It began in 1965 , when General Tire was accused of obliging vendors to buy advertising with one of its stations if they wanted to keep their contracts . More than two decades ' worth of legal actions ensued , eventually forcing GenCorp ( the parent company since 1983 of both General Tire and RKO General ) to sell off its broadcast holdings under FCC pressure . RKO General exited the media business permanently in 1991 .
= = Later incarnations = =
Beginning with 1981 's Carbon Copy , RKO General became involved in the coproduction of a number of feature films and TV projects through a subsidiary created three years earlier , RKO Pictures Inc . In collaboration with Universal Studios , RKO put out five films over the next three years . Though the studio frequently worked with major names — including Burt Reynolds and Dolly Parton in The Best Little Whorehouse in Texas , Jack Nicholson in The Border , and Nastassja Kinski in Cat People ( all 1982 ) — it met with little success . Starting with the Meryl Streep vehicle Plenty ( 1985 ) , RKO took on more projects as sole studio backer . Films such as the erotic thriller Half Moon Street ( 1986 ) and the Vietnam War drama Hamburger Hill ( 1987 ) followed , but production ended as GenCorp underwent a massive reorganization following an attempted hostile takeover . With RKO General dismantling its broadcast business , RKO Pictures Inc . , along with the original RKO studio 's trademark , remake rights , and other remaining assets , was spun off and put up for sale . After a bid by RKO Pictures ' own managers failed , it was acquired in late 1987 by Wesray Capital Corporation — under the control of former U.S. Secretary of the Treasury William E. Simon and Ray Chambers — and linked with their Six Flags amusement parks to form RKO / Six Flags Entertainment Inc .
In 1989 , RKO Pictures , which had produced no films while under Wesray control , was spun off yet again . Actress and Post Cereals heiress Dina Merrill and her husband , producer Ted Hartley , acquired a majority interest and merged the company with their Pavilion Communications . After a brief period as RKO / Pavilion , the business was reorganized as RKO Pictures LLC . With the inaugural RKO production under Hartley and Merrill 's ownership , False Identity ( 1990 ) , the company also stepped into the distribution business . In 1992 , it handled the well @-@ regarded independent production Laws of Gravity , directed by Nick Gomez . RKO 's next significant release came in 1998 with Mighty Joe Young , a remake of a 1949 RKO movie that was itself something of a King Kong redux . In the early 2000s , the company was involved as a coproducer on TV movies and modestly budgeted features at the rate of about one annually . In 2003 , RKO coproduced a Broadway stage version of the 1936 Astaire – Rogers vehicle Swing Time , under the title Never Gonna Dance .
In 2003 , as well , RKO Pictures entered into a legal battle with Wall Street Financial Associates ( WSFA ) . Hartley and Merrill claimed that the owners of WSFA fraudulently induced them into signing an acquisition agreement by concealing their " cynical and rapacious " plans to purchase RKO with the intention only of dismantling it . WSFA sought a preliminary injunction prohibiting RKO 's majority owners from selling their interests in the company to any third parties . The WSFA motion was denied in July 2003 , freeing RKO to deal with another potential purchaser , InternetStudios.com. In 2004 , that planned sale fell through when InternetStudios.com apparently folded . The company 's minimal involvement in new film production continues to focus on its remake rights : Are We Done Yet ? , based on Mr. Blandings Builds His Dream House ( 1948 ) , was released in April 2007 to dismal reviews . Later in the year , RKO launched a horror division , Roseblood Movie Company . As of early 2010 , Roseblood 's mission had expanded , according to the RKO website , to encompass the " popular horror / thriller genre ... youth @-@ oriented feature @-@ length motion pictures that are edgy , sensuous , scary and commercial . " The most recent RKO release are Beyond a Reasonable Doubt ( 2009 ) , a remake of a 1956 RKO film directed by Fritz Lang and A Late Quartet ( 2012 ) . A stage version of Top Hat toured Great Britain in the second half of 2011 . In 2015 RKO released Barely Lethal .
= = Studio library = =
RKO Pictures LLC is the owner of all the trademarks and logos connected with RKO Radio Pictures Inc . , as well as the rights concerning stories , screenplays ( including 800 to 900 unproduced scripts ) , remakes , sequels , and prequels connected with the RKO library . The television , home entertainment , and theatrical distribution rights , however , are in other hands : The U.S. and Canadian theatrical , television — and subsequently , video — rights to the bulk of the RKO film library were sold at auction in 1971 after the holders , TransBeacon ( a corporate descendant of C & C Television ) , went bankrupt . The auctioned rights were split between United Artists and Marian B. Inc . ( MBI ) . In 1984 , MBI created a subsidiary , Marian Pictures Inc . ( MBP ) , to which it transferred its share of the RKO rights . Two years later GenCorp 's subsidiaries , RKO General and RKO Pictures , repurchased the rights then controlled by MBP . In the meantime , United Artists had been acquired by MGM . In 1986 , MGM / UA 's considerable library , including its RKO rights , was bought by Turner Broadcasting System for its new Turner Entertainment division . Ted Turner planned on colorizing the films , but RKO initially filed a lawsuit claiming copyright infringement , which was eventually resolved . In December 1987 , Wesray licensed the worldwide rights to the RKO library to Turner ; they included the films previously distributed by MBP and C & C. In October 1996 , Turner Broadcasting was merged into Time Warner , the parent company of Warner Bros .. Today both Warner Bros. and Turner Entertainment control and distribute the majority of the RKO library in the Americas and Australia , although RKO Pictures still retains the copyright .
International ownership of theatrical , television and home video distribution rights to RKO 's library is divided on a virtual country @-@ by @-@ country basis : In the UK , many of the RKO rights are currently held by Universal Studios . In 1981 , RAI , the public broadcasting service , acquired the Italian rights to the RKO library , which it now shares with Silvio Berlusconi 's Fininvest . In France , the rights are held by Ariès , in Spain are held by a company called Manga Films . The German rights were acquired in 1969 by KirchGruppe on behalf of its KirchMedia division , which went bankrupt in 2002 . EOS Entertainment 's Beta Film purchased many of KirchMedia 's rights in 2004 , and the library is now distributed by Kineos , created in 2005 as a Beta Film – KirchMedia joint venture . In Japan as of 2009 all the RKO films are in the public domain under Japanese copyright law and have been distributed through various distributors .
Howard Hughes retained ownership of The Conqueror and Jet Pilot ; those films are now owned by Universal .
= = RKO Encino Ranch = =
RKO Radio Pictures ' Encino , California movie ranch consisted of 89 acres ( 360 @,@ 000 m2 ) located on the outskirts of the Los Angeles district of Encino , in the San Fernando Valley , near the Los Angeles River and west of Sepulveda Basin Recreation Area on Burbank Boulevard . RKO Radio Pictures purchased this property as a location to film its epic motion picture Cimarron ( 1931 ) , ( winner of three Academy Awards for Best Picture , Best Writing , and Best Art Direction ) . Art Director Max Ree won an Oscar for his creative design of the very first theme sets constructed on the movie ranch , which consisted of a complete Western town and a three @-@ block modern main street built as the fictional Oklahoma town of Osage .
In addition to Cimarron scenery , RKO continued to create a vast array of diverse sets for its ever @-@ expanding movie ranch that included a New York avenue , brownstone street , English row houses , slum district , small town square , residential neighborhood , three working train depots , mansion estate , New England farm , Western ranch , a mammoth medieval City of Paris , European marketplace , Russian village , Yukon mining camp , ocean tank with sky backdrop , Moorish casbah , Mexican outpost , Sahara Desert fort , plaster mountain range diorama , and a football field @-@ sized United States map , which Fred Astaire and Ginger Rogers danced across in The Story of Vernon and Irene Castle ( 1939 ) . Also available were scene docks , carpentry shop , prop storage , greenhouse , and three fully equipped soundstages with an average of more than 11 @,@ 000 square feet each .
A short list of classic movies that contain scenes shot on the RKO Pictures Ranch includes What Price Hollywood ? ( 1932 ) , King Kong ( 1933 ) , Of Human Bondage ( 1934 ) , Becky Sharp ( 1935 ) , Walking on Air ( 1936 ) , Stage Door ( 1937 ) , Kitty Foyle ( 1940 ) , Citizen Kane ( 1941 ) , Cat People ( 1942 ) , Murder , My Sweet ( 1944 ) , Dick Tracy film noir series ( 1945 @-@ 1947 ) , and They Live by Night ( 1948 ) , among others .
In 1953 Dragnet was the last project to film on RKO 's movie ranch for a 1954 NBC broadcast of an episode titled " The Big Producer " in which the crumbling lot played the part of a fictitious " Westside Studio . " Standing sets exhibited on this particular Dragnet program were a cocktail lounge on modern street , a ranch entry gate with a church and house facades ( ' George Bailey ' wrecked his car there during a snow storm in It 's a Wonderful Life in 1946 ) , plaster desert mountain range , ocean tank & sky backdrop used for Sinbad the Sailor ( 1947 ) , Notre Dame de Paris Carre built for The Hunchback of Notre Dame ( 1939 ) , and ( the very first sets ever built on the ranch ) the award @-@ winning Western town from Cimarron ( 1931 ) .
After all those unique themed sets were bulldozed under in 1954 , the ' Encino Village ' subdivision was built on the property with modern home designs by architect Martin Stern , Jr .
= = Logos and historical documentary TV series = =
Most Radio Pictures Inc. and RKO Radio Pictures Inc. films produced between 1929 and 1957 have an opening logo displaying the studio 's famous trademark , the spinning globe and radio tower , nicknamed the " Transmitter . " It was inspired by a two @-@ hundred @-@ foot tower built in Colorado for a giant electrical amplifier , or Tesla coil , created by inventor Nikola Tesla . Orson Welles referred to the design as his " favorite among the old logos , not just because it was so often a reliable portent . ... It reminds us to listen . " The studio 's closing logo , a triangle enclosing a thunderbolt , was also a well @-@ known trademark . Instead of the Transmitter , however , many Disney and Goldwyn films released by the studio originally appeared with colorful versions of the RKO closing logo as part of the main title sequence . For decades , re @-@ releases of these films had Disney / Buena Vista ( Disney RKO films ) , Pixar and MGM / Goldwyn ( Goldwyn films ) logos replacing the RKO insignia , but the originals have been restored in many recent Blu @-@ ray and DVD editions . The Hartley – Merrill RKO Pictures has created new versions of the Transmitter and the closing thunderbolt logo .
In 1986 , the British Broadcasting Company ( BBC ) commissioned the production of a six @-@ hour documentary series on the history of the RKO studios and their films . Edward Asner started as the series host and narrator . Many surviving RKO stars and technical people were interviewed and numerous extended clips from many RKO movies were included . The six @-@ episode series was aired on the PBS network in the late 1980s . No official VHS tapes or DVDs of this series have been released in the American @-@ Canadian NTSC video format , but reasonably decent copies are available on NTSC DVD by various indie distributors made from VHS tapes that were recorded off @-@ the air during their PBS broadcasts .
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= Curtis Granderson =
Curtis Granderson , Jr . ( born March 16 , 1981 ) is an American professional baseball outfielder for the New York Mets of Major League Baseball ( MLB ) . He has also played in MLB for the Detroit Tigers ( 2004 – 2009 ) and the New York Yankees ( 2010 – 2013 ) . He throws right handed and bats left handed . While primarily a center fielder throughout his career , Granderson transitioned to right field in 2014 for the Mets .
Granderson played college baseball at the University of Illinois @-@ Chicago , and was selected by the Tigers in the 2002 MLB draft . He made his MLB debut with the Tigers in 2004 , and signed a contract extension with Detroit in 2008 . After the 2009 season , he was traded to the Yankees . After his contract expired following the 2013 season , he signed a contract with the Mets .
Granderson is a three @-@ time MLB All @-@ Star ( 2009 , 2011 – 2012 ) . He won the Silver Slugger Award in 2011 . Off the field , Granderson is recognized for his commitment to the community through outreach and charity work . Many of his charitable endeavors support inner @-@ city children . He has also served as an ambassador for MLB abroad . Granderson won the Marvin Miller Man of the Year Award in 2009 for his on @-@ field performance and contributions in the community .
= = Early years = =
Granderson grew up in Blue Island , Illinois , a south suburb of Chicago . His father , Curtis , Sr. , was a dean and physical education teacher at Nathan Hale Elementary School in Chicago . His mother , Mary , taught chemistry at Curie Metropolitan High School in Chicago . Granderson 's half @-@ sister , Monica , is an English professor at Jackson State University .
As a child , Granderson grew up a fan of the Atlanta Braves , choosing not to root for the hometown Chicago Cubs because he often rushed home from school to watch Saved by the Bell and was disappointed when a Cubs game was on instead . Granderson attended Thornton Fractional South High School ( T.F. South ) in Lansing , where he played baseball and basketball . During his high school baseball career , Granderson batted .369 with 11 home runs and 88 runs batted in ( RBI ) , and was named an All @-@ State selection his senior year . Granderson wore # 14 at T.F. South , choosing the number because his father wore it while playing softball . T.F. South honored Granderson by retiring his jersey in a December 2011 ceremony .
= = College career = =
Granderson was recruited by a number of college baseball programs , and he chose the University of Illinois @-@ Chicago ( UIC ) , in part because they allowed him to play basketball in addition to baseball . However , Granderson quit basketball two weeks into his freshman year in order to concentrate on baseball .
As a freshman at UIC in 2000 , Granderson led the UIC Flames baseball team with seven home runs and 45 walks . He followed that by hitting .304 as a sophomore , leading the team in runs , home runs , and walks . After his sophomore year , Granderson played in a summer collegiate league for the Mankato Mashers , now known as the MoonDogs , of the Northwoods League , where he batted .328 in 44 games , with eight doubles , two triples , one home run , 17 RBI , 28 runs scored , and 15 stolen bases .
During his junior season at UIC , Granderson batted .483 , second in the nation to Rickie Weeks . Granderson was named Second @-@ Team All @-@ American by Baseball America and USA Today 's Baseball Weekly and a Third @-@ Team Louisville Slugger NCAA Division I All @-@ American . He graduated from UIC with a double major in business administration and business marketing . On February 6 , 2013 Granderson had his number 28 retired by UIC .
= = Professional career = =
= = = Minor leagues = = =
The Detroit Tigers selected Granderson in the third round of the 2002 Major League Baseball draft . The Tigers assigned Granderson to the Oneonta Tigers , their minor league baseball affiliate in Class @-@ A. With Oneonta , Granderson batted .344 in 52 games . Determined to complete his college education , though the fall semester began before the minor league season ended , Granderson made arrangements to begin his senior year at UIC via internet courses .
The Tigers assigned Granderson to the Class @-@ A Advanced Lakeland Tigers in 2003 and the Class @-@ AA Erie Seawolves in 2004 . With the Seawolves , Granderson hit .303 with 21 home runs and 93 RBI . Baseball America named Granderson the Tigers ' minor league player of the year and top prospect after the 2004 season .
Prior to the 2005 season , Baseball America rated Granderson as the 57th best prospect in baseball . Granderson competed for the role as the Tigers ' starting center fielder in 2005 spring training , but the organization decided he needed more seasoning , and assigned him to the Class @-@ AAA Toledo Mud Hens . With Toledo , he hit .290 with 15 home runs , 65 RBIs and 22 stolen bases .
= = = Major leagues = = =
= = = = Detroit Tigers = = = =
= = = = = 2004 – 2005 = = = = =
The Tigers promoted Granderson to the majors for the first time in September 2004 . He made his major league debut on September 13 against the Minnesota Twins . He received his second promotion to the majors in July 2005 , and he appeared in six games . After his third promotion to the majors , in August , he remained in the majors permanently . Granderson had his first career inside @-@ the @-@ park home run on September 15 , a five @-@ hit game September 18 and a walk @-@ off home run on September 26 against the Chicago White Sox .
= = = = = 2006 = = = = =
Granderson became the Tigers starting center fielder for the 2006 season after beating out Nook Logan for the position during spring training . From the start of his major league career in 2004 , Granderson began a 151 @-@ game errorless streak , the longest by a position player to start his career since Dave Roberts went errorless in 205 games . Granderson hit two home runs during the 2006 American League Division Series and one in the 2006 American League Championship Series , but struggled in the 2006 World Series , batting .095 , as the Cardinals defeated the Tigers .
Through June , Granderson ranked first among American League ( AL ) outfielders in triples ( 14 ) , third in doubles ( 22 ) , tied for fourth in runs ( 58 ) and tied for 10th in homers ( 11 ) with a .289 batting average in the 2007 season . Although Granderson was not listed on the 2007 All @-@ Star Game ballot , due to the Tigers ' decision to put Gary Sheffield as an outfielder on the ballot , he still received 376 @,@ 033 write @-@ in votes , the most write @-@ in votes for any player . Granderson was named the AL Player of the Week on July 16 , the first time he had won the award , as he hit .500 ( 8 for 16 ) with two doubles , a triple , and a home run during that week . Granderson slugged .938 , drove in two runs , scored seven runs , and had fifteen total bases during Detroit 's four @-@ game series against the Seattle Mariners .
On August 7 , Granderson became the second player in franchise history to have at least 30 doubles , 15 triples , 15 home runs , and ten stolen bases in a single season when he hit a double in a game against the Tampa Bay Devil Rays . The other Tiger to accomplish this feat was Charlie Gehringer in 1930 . He became the sixth member of baseball 's 20 – 20 – 20 club on September 7 , joining the Kansas City Royals ' George Brett ( 1979 ) , Willie Mays of the New York Giants ( 1957 ) , Cleveland 's Jeff Heath ( 1941 ) , St. Louis ' Jim Bottomley ( 1928 ) , and Frank Schulte of the Chicago Cubs ( 1911 ) . Granderson stole his 20th base of the season on September 9 , joining Mays and Schulte as the only players in major league history to reach 20 doubles , 20 triples , 20 home runs , and 20 stolen bases in a season , a feat accomplished by the Philadelphia Phillies ' Jimmy Rollins 21 days later .
Granderson hit .302 with 23 home runs for the season , and was 26 for 27 in stolen base attempts . He also improved his plate discipline , as he finished seventh in the AL in strikeouts with 141 . He was one of only six batters in the AL to have at least 20 home runs and 20 stolen bases , along with teammate Gary Sheffield , Ian Kinsler , Alex Rodriguez , Grady Sizemore and B. J. Upton .
= = = = = 2007 = = = = =
During the 2007 season , Granderson accumulated 23 triples , which led all of baseball . The American League and Detroit Tigers record is 26 triples , a feat achieved by the all @-@ time triples king , Sam Crawford , in 1914 . Granderson is the first player since 1949 to manage at least 23 in a single season . Only ten of his triples were at home despite the fact Comerica Park has seen more triples since it opened in 2000 than any other ballpark in baseball . Granderson joined the 20 @-@ 20 @-@ 30 @-@ 20 club , having more than 20 triples , 20 home runs , 30 doubles , and 20 stolen bases . The last player to accomplish the feat was Wildfire Schulte in 1911 . Granderson 's 23 triples were as much or more than six entire teams managed in 2007 , the Chicago White Sox , Cincinnati Reds , Los Angeles Angels of Anaheim , Oakland Athletics , Seattle Mariners and St. Louis Cardinals all had no more than 23 team triples .
= = = = = 2008 – 2009 = = = = =
Prior to the start of the 2008 season , the Tigers signed Granderson to a five @-@ year , US $ 30 @.@ 25 million contract with a club option for 2013 . Granderson continued hitting well during the 2008 regular season , finishing with a .280 batting average , 13 triples and 22 home runs . He continued to improve his plate discipline , striking out only 111 times ( versus 141 in 2007 and 174 in 2006 ) and drawing a career @-@ high 71 walks . During August , he hit six triples , including two in consecutive innings during a game against the Texas Rangers .
With the Tigers failing to make the playoffs in 2007 and 2008 , TBS employed Granderson as a commentator alongside Cal Ripken , Jr . , Dennis Eckersley and Frank Thomas for its coverage of the 2007 and 2008 postseasons .
Granderson was chosen to appear in the 2009 MLB All @-@ Star Game . It was his first All Star appearance . In the game , he hit a triple in the top of the 8th inning and scored the winning run .
= = = = New York Yankees = = = =
= = = = = 2010 = = = = =
After the 2009 season , the Tigers began shopping Granderson to other franchises in an effort to reduce their payroll . The Yankees acquired Granderson in a three @-@ team trade on December 9 . In the deal , the Yankees received Granderson while sending Phil Coke and centerfielder Austin Jackson to Detroit . Also , the Arizona Diamondbacks received Yankees pitcher Ian Kennedy and Tigers pitcher Edwin Jackson in return for young pitchers Max Scherzer and Daniel Schlereth , who joined the Tigers .
Granderson hit a home run in his first Yankee at bat on April 4 , 2010 , becoming the twelfth player to do so . Although he missed some games due to a strained groin , Granderson finished the season with 136 games played , a .247 batting average , and 24 home runs . Granderson , who struggled against left @-@ handed pitching throughout his career , also put up subpar numbers against right @-@ handed pitchers , causing Granderson to revamp his swing with the help of hitting coach Kevin Long in August 2010 .
= = = = = 2011 = = = = =
Granderson 's work with Long was credited as a reason for his strong 2011 campaign . Granderson received over 6 @.@ 6 million votes for the 2011 MLB All @-@ Star Game . In August 2011 , Granderson and Mark Teixeira became the first Yankees teammates to hit 30 home runs in 115 games since Roger Maris and Mickey Mantle in 1961 . On August 10 , Granderson hit two home runs against the Los Angeles Angels of Anaheim to tally a career @-@ high 31 home runs . Granderson , Robinson Canó , and Russell Martin all hit grand slams in a game against the Oakland Athletics on August 25 , the first time a team had three grand slams in one game . Granderson was named American League Player of the Month for August 2011 , in which he batted .286 , with a .423 on @-@ base percentage , slugged .657 , hit ten home runs , recorded 29 RBI , and scored 29 runs . He became the first player to record 40 home runs , 10 triples and 25 stolen bases in one season . Granderson finished fourth in balloting for the American League Most Valuable Player Award .
= = = = = 2012 = = = = =
On May 6 , 2012 , Curtis achieved his 1,000th hit against the Kansas City Royals . On August 26 , 2012 , Granderson hit his 200th career home run against the Cleveland Indians . He finished the 2012 season with a .232 batting average , 43 home runs , 106 RBI , and set a new Yankees season record by striking out 195 times .
= = = = = 2013 = = = = =
On October 19 , the Yankees exercised Granderson 's club option for 2013 . Originally worth $ 13 million , it became a $ 15 million option after he placed 4th in the MVP voting in 2011 . In his spring training debut against the Toronto Blue Jays on February 24 , 2013 , Granderson was hit by a pitch from J. A. Happ that fractured his right forearm . He was placed on the 15 @-@ day disabled list to begin the 2013 season . He returned to the Yankees on May 14 . On May 18 , 2013 , Granderson made his first start at right field . May 24 , 2013 , Granderson broke the knuckle of his left pinkie finger after getting hit by Tampa Bay 's Cesar Ramos ' pitch in the 5th inning . He was again placed on the 15 @-@ day disabled list . On May 29 , 2013 , Granderson underwent surgery in which a pin was inserted to the knuckle to stabilize the fracture . On August 2 , 2013 , Granderson was activated from the disabled list . Granderson was limited to only 61 games in 2013 batting .229 with 7 home runs and 15 RBI . He became a free agent for the first time of his career after the season .
= = = = New York Mets = = = =
= = = = = 2014 = = = = =
Granderson agreed to terms with the New York Mets on a four @-@ year contract worth $ 60 million on December 6 , 2013 . Granderson 's salaries were set at $ 13 million in 2014 , $ 16 million in 2015 and 2016 , and $ 15 million in 2017 . The Mets played Granderson as their right fielder . He started 148 games with 130 in right field .
= = = = = 2015 = = = = =
In 2015 , he became the team 's primary leadoff hitter . He went on to lead the team in games played , runs scored , hits , stolen bases , walks , on @-@ base percentage and total bases en route to a National League East division title . In the third game of the National League Division Series , Granderson picked up five RBI – this tied a Mets single game postseason record previously set by Carlos Delgado in the 2006 National League Championship Series , Edgardo Alfonzo in the 1999 NLCS and Rusty Staub in the 1973 World Series . After beating the Los Angeles Dodgers in five games in the NLDS , the Mets went on to sweep the Chicago Cubs in four games in the NLCS and advance to their first World Series since 2000 .
Granderson and Daniel Murphy were the two most productive hitters in the Mets lineup during their 2015 postseason run to the World Series . While Murphy cooled off in the World Series against the Kansas City Royals , Granderson continued to be a consistent threat for the Mets out of the leadoff spot and also had three home runs and five RBIs in that World Series . In Game 1 , after the Royals tied the game in the ninth inning with a home run off Mets closer Jeurys Familia , Granderson made an excellent leaping catch with nobody out in the bottom of the 11th inning , off the bat of the Royals fastest runner Jarrod Dyson , preventing what would have at least been a lead off triple and likely saving the game at the time , though the Royals would go on to win the game anyway in the bottom of the 14th inning on a sacrifice fly by Eric Hosmer . Throughout the series , playing right field , Granderson played the most consistent and solid defense of any Mets fielder .
= = = = = 2016 = = = = =
On May 27 , 2016 , Granderson hit a walk off home run against the Los Angeles Dodgers . He was the first batter up in the bottom of the 9th inning . As of June 16 , 2016 , Granderson had hit 17 lead @-@ off homers since joining the Mets in 2014 , a franchise record .
= = Personal life = =
Granderson is an avid fan of WWE , and attended WrestleMania 23 in Detroit . He considers The Ultimate Warrior , The Undertaker , Junkyard Dog , " Macho Man " Randy Savage , and Hulk Hogan to be his favorite wrestlers . He is also an avid fan of college basketball and of the Kansas Jayhawks .
Off the field , Granderson has served as an ambassador for Major League Baseball International . He has traveled to England , Italy , the Netherlands , France , South Africa , China , New Zealand , South Korea and Japan to promote baseball . In appreciation for his efforts , Commissioner Bud Selig penned a thank @-@ you letter to Granderson which read in part , " There are so many fine young men playing Major League baseball today , but I can think of no one who is better suited to represent our national pastime than you . " He has also served as something of an unofficial baseball ambassador to the African @-@ American community , often participating in and initiating dialogue about the lack of black players at all levels of the sport . When he endorsed Nike , Inc . , Louisville Slugger and Rawlings , he asked them to donate money to his foundation or equipment to inner @-@ city baseball programs rather than pay him .
His foundation , Grand Kids Foundation , has raised money to benefit the educations of inner @-@ city children around the country . Granderson wrote a children 's book , All You Can Be : Dream It , Draw It , Become It ! , which was published in August 2009 . The book is illustrated by students of the New York City public school system . In February 2010 , Granderson represented MLB at a White House function announcing Let 's Move ! , a childhood anti @-@ obesity effort sponsored by First Lady of the United States Michelle Obama . Granderson paid $ 5 million to help UIC build a new baseball stadium in 2013 .
Granderson has been involved in the Major League Baseball Players Association ( MLBPA ) since 2006 . He has taken part in negotiations of the labor contract . Granderson was chosen as the 2009 Marvin Miller Man of the Year by the MLBPA for his off @-@ field work .
In 2011 , Granderson was also voted one of the friendliest players in the Major Leagues , according to a poll conducted by Sports Illustrated to 290 players . Granderson wears his socks high to honor players from the Negro leagues .
= = Publications = =
Granderson , Curtis ( 2009 ) . All You Can Be : Dream It , Draw It , Become It ! . Triumph Books . ISBN 1 @-@ 60078 @-@ 247 @-@ 7 . Retrieved December 13 , 2011 .
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= Pendle witches =
The trials of the Pendle witches in 1612 are among the most famous witch trials in English history , and some of the best recorded of the 17th century . The twelve accused lived in the area around Pendle Hill in Lancashire , and were charged with the murders of ten people by the use of witchcraft . All but two were tried at Lancaster Assizes on 18 – 19 August 1612 , along with the Samlesbury witches and others , in a series of trials that have become known as the Lancashire witch trials . One was tried at York Assizes on 27 July 1612 , and another died in prison . Of the eleven who went to trial – nine women and two men – ten were found guilty and executed by hanging ; one was found not guilty .
The official publication of the proceedings by the clerk to the court , Thomas Potts , in his The Wonderfull Discoverie of Witches in the Countie of Lancaster , and the number of witches hanged together – nine at Lancaster and one at York – make the trials unusual for England at that time . It has been estimated that all the English witch trials between the early 15th and early 18th centuries resulted in fewer than 500 executions ; this series of trials accounts for more than two per cent of that total .
Six of the Pendle witches came from one of two families , each at the time headed by a woman in her eighties : Elizabeth Southerns ( aka Demdike ) , her daughter Elizabeth Device , and her grandchildren James and Alizon Device ; Anne Whittle ( aka Chattox ) , and her daughter Anne Redferne . The others accused were Jane Bulcock and her son John Bulcock , Alice Nutter , Katherine Hewitt , Alice Gray , and Jennet Preston . The outbreaks of witchcraft in and around Pendle may demonstrate the extent to which people could make a living by posing as witches . Many of the allegations resulted from accusations that members of the Demdike and Chattox families made against each other , perhaps because they were in competition , both trying to make a living from healing , begging , and extortion .
= = Religious and political background = =
The accused witches lived in the area around Pendle Hill in Lancashire , a county which , at the end of the 16th century , was regarded by the authorities as a wild and lawless region : an area " fabled for its theft , violence and sexual laxity , where the church was honoured without much understanding of its doctrines by the common people " . The nearby Cistercian abbey at Whalley had been dissolved by Henry VIII in 1537 , a move strongly resisted by the local people , over whose lives the abbey had until then exerted a powerful influence . Despite the abbey 's closure , and the execution of its abbot , the people of Pendle remained largely faithful to their Roman Catholic beliefs and were quick to revert to Catholicism on Queen Mary 's accession to the throne in 1553 .
When Mary 's Protestant half @-@ sister Elizabeth came to the throne in 1558 Catholic priests once again had to go into hiding , but in remote areas such as Pendle they continued to celebrate Mass in secret . In 1562 , early in her reign , Elizabeth passed a law in the form of An Act Against Conjurations , Enchantments and Witchcrafts ( 5 Eliz . I c . 16 ) . This demanded the death penalty , but only where harm had been caused ; lesser offences were punishable by a term of imprisonment . The Act provided that anyone who should " use , practise , or exercise any Witchcraft , Enchantment , Charm , or Sorcery , whereby any person shall happen to be killed or destroyed " , was guilty of a felony without benefit of clergy , and was to be put to death .
On Elizabeth 's death in 1603 she was succeeded by James I. Strongly influenced by Scotland 's separation from the Catholic Church during the Scottish Reformation , James was intensely interested in Protestant theology , focusing much of his curiosity on the theology of witchcraft . By the early 1590s he had become convinced that he was being plotted against by Scottish witches . After a visit to Denmark , he had attended the trial in 1590 of the North Berwick witches , who were convicted of using witchcraft to send a storm against the ship that carried James and his wife Anne back to Scotland . In 1597 he wrote a book , Daemonologie , instructing his followers that they must denounce and prosecute any supporters or practitioners of witchcraft . One year after James acceded to the English throne , a law was enacted imposing the death penalty in cases where it was proven that harm had been caused through the use of magic , or corpses had been exhumed for magical purposes . James was , however , sceptical of the evidence presented in witch trials , even to the extent of personally exposing discrepancies in the testimonies presented against some accused witches .
In early 1612 , the year of the trials , every justice of the peace ( JP ) in Lancashire was ordered to compile a list of recusants in their area , i.e. those who refused to attend the English Church and to take communion , a criminal offence at that time . Roger Nowell of Read Hall , on the edge of Pendle Forest , was the JP for Pendle . It was against this background of seeking out religious nonconformists that , in March 1612 , Nowell investigated a complaint made to him by the family of John Law , a pedlar , who claimed to have been injured by witchcraft . Many of those who subsequently became implicated as the investigation progressed did indeed consider themselves to be witches , in the sense of being village healers who practised magic , probably in return for payment , but such men and women were common in 16th @-@ century rural England , an accepted part of village life .
It was perhaps difficult for the judges charged with hearing the trials – Sir James Altham and Sir Edward Bromley – to understand King James 's attitude towards witchcraft . The king was head of the judiciary , and Bromley was hoping for promotion to a circuit nearer London . Altham was nearing the end of his judicial career , but he had recently been accused of a miscarriage of justice at the York Assizes , which had resulted in a woman being sentenced to death by hanging for witchcraft . The judges may have been uncertain whether the best way to gain the king 's favour was by encouraging convictions , or by " sceptically testing the witnesses to destruction " .
= = Events leading up to the trials = =
One of the accused , Demdike , had been regarded in the area as a witch for fifty years , and some of the deaths the witches were accused of had happened many years before Roger Nowell started to take an interest in 1612 . The event that seems to have triggered Nowell 's investigation , culminating in the Pendle witch trials , occurred on 21 March 1612 .
On her way to Trawden Forest , Demdike 's granddaughter , Alizon Device , encountered John Law , a pedlar from Halifax , and asked him for some pins . Seventeenth @-@ century metal pins were handmade and relatively expensive , but they were frequently needed for magical purposes , such as in healing – particularly for treating warts – divination , and for love magic , which may have been why Alizon was so keen to get hold of them and why Law was so reluctant to sell them to her . Whether she meant to buy them , as she claimed , and Law refused to undo his pack for such a small transaction , or whether she had no money and was begging for them , as Law 's son Abraham claimed , is unclear . A few minutes after their encounter Alizon saw Law stumble and fall , perhaps because he suffered a stroke ; he managed to regain his feet and reach a nearby inn . Initially Law made no accusations against Alizon , but she appears to have been convinced of her own powers ; when Abraham Law took her to visit his father a few days after the incident , she reportedly confessed and asked for his forgiveness .
Alizon Device , her mother Elizabeth , and her brother James were summoned to appear before Nowell on 30 March 1612 . Alizon confessed that she had sold her soul to the Devil , and that she had told him to lame John Law after he had called her a thief . Her brother , James , stated that his sister had also confessed to bewitching a local child . Elizabeth was more reticent , admitting only that her mother , Demdike , had a mark on her body , something that many , including Nowell , would have regarded as having been left by the Devil after he had sucked her blood . When questioned about Anne Whittle ( Chattox ) , the matriarch of the other family reputedly involved in witchcraft in and around Pendle , Alizon perhaps saw an opportunity for revenge . There may have been bad blood between the two families , possibly dating from 1601 , when a member of Chattox 's family broke into Malkin Tower , the home of the Devices , and stole goods worth about £ 1 , equivalent to about £ 100 as of 2008 . Alizon accused Chattox of murdering four men by witchcraft , and of killing her father , John Device , who had died in 1601 . She claimed that her father had been so frightened of Old Chattox that he had agreed to give her 8 pounds ( 3 @.@ 6 kg ) of oatmeal each year in return for her promise not to hurt his family . The meal was handed over annually until the year before John 's death ; on his deathbed John claimed that his sickness had been caused by Chattox because they had not paid for protection .
On 2 April 1612 , Demdike , Chattox , and Chattox 's daughter Anne Redferne , were summoned to appear before Nowell . Both Demdike and Chattox were by then blind and in their eighties , and both provided Nowell with damaging confessions . Demdike claimed that she had given her soul to the Devil 20 years previously , and Chattox that she had given her soul to " a Thing like a Christian man " , on his promise that " she would not lack anything and would get any revenge she desired " . Although Anne Redferne made no confession , Demdike said that she had seen her making clay figures . Margaret Crooke , another witness seen by Nowell that day , claimed that her brother had fallen sick and died after having had a disagreement with Redferne , and that he had frequently blamed her for his illness Based on the evidence and confessions he had obtained , Nowell committed Demdike , Chattox , Anne Redferne and Alizon Device to Lancaster Gaol , to be tried for maleficium – causing harm by witchcraft – at the next assizes .
= = = Meeting at Malkin Tower = = =
The committal and subsequent trial of the four women might have been the end of the matter , had it not been for a meeting organised by Elizabeth Device at Malkin Tower , the home of the Demdikes , held on Good Friday 10 April 1612 . To feed the party , James Device stole a neighbour 's sheep .
Friends and others sympathetic to the family attended , and when word of it reached Roger Nowell , he decided to investigate . On 27 April 1612 , an inquiry was held before Nowell and another magistrate , Nicholas Bannister , to determine the purpose of the meeting at Malkin Tower , who had attended , and what had happened there . As a result of the inquiry , eight more people were accused of witchcraft and committed for trial : Elizabeth Device , James Device , Alice Nutter , Katherine Hewitt , John Bulcock , Jane Bulcock , Alice Gray and Jennet Preston . Preston lived across the border in Yorkshire , so she was sent for trial at York Assizes ; the others were sent to Lancaster Gaol , to join the four already imprisoned there .
Malkin Tower is believed to have been near the village of Newchurch in Pendle , or possibly in Blacko on the site of present @-@ day Malkin Tower Farm , and to have been demolished soon after the trials .
= = Trials = =
The Pendle witches were tried in a group that also included the Samlesbury witches , Jane Southworth , Jennet Brierley , and Ellen Brierley , the charges against whom included child murder and cannibalism ; Margaret Pearson , the so @-@ called Padiham witch , who was facing her third trial for witchcraft , this time for killing a horse ; and Isobel Robey from Windle , accused of using witchcraft to cause sickness .
Some of the accused Pendle witches , such as Alizon Device , seem to have genuinely believed in their guilt , but others protested their innocence to the end . Jennet Preston was the first to be tried , at York Assizes .
= = = York Assizes , 27 July 1612 = = =
Jennet Preston lived in Gisburn , which was then in Yorkshire , so she was sent to York Assizes for trial . Her judges were Sir James Altham and Sir Edward Bromley . Jennet was charged with the murder by witchcraft of a local landowner , Thomas Lister of Westby Hall , to which she pleaded not guilty . She had already appeared before Bromley in 1611 , accused of murdering a child by witchcraft , but had been found not guilty . The most damning evidence given against her was that when she had been taken to see Lister 's body , the corpse " bled fresh bloud presently , in the presence of all that were there present " after she touched it . According to a statement made to Nowell by James Device on 27 April , Jennet had attended the Malkin Tower meeting to seek help with Lister 's murder . She was found guilty and sentenced to death by hanging ; her execution took place on 29 July on the Knavesmire , the present site of York Racecourse .
= = = Lancaster Assizes , 18 – 19 August 1612 = = =
All the other accused lived in Lancashire , so they were sent to Lancaster Assizes for trial , where the judges were once again Altham and Bromley . The prosecutor was local magistrate Roger Nowell , who had been responsible for collecting the various statements and confessions from the accused . Nine @-@ year @-@ old Jennet Device was a key witness for the prosecution , something that would not have been permitted in many other 17th @-@ century criminal trials . However , King James had made a case for suspending the normal rules of evidence for witchcraft trials in his Daemonologie . As well as identifying those who had attended the Malkin Tower meeting , Jennet also gave evidence against her mother , brother , and sister .
Nine of the accused – Alizon Device , Elizabeth Device , James Device , Anne Whittle , Anne Redferne , Alice Nutter , Katherine Hewitt , John Bulcock and Jane Bulcock – were found guilty during the two @-@ day trial and hanged at Gallows Hill in Lancaster on 20 August 1612 ; Elizabeth Southerns died while awaiting trial . Only one of the accused , Alice Grey , was found not guilty .
18 August
Anne Whittle ( Chattox ) was accused of the murder of Robert Nutter . She pleaded not guilty , but the confession she had made to Roger Nowell was read out in court , and evidence against her was presented by James Robinson , who had lived with the Chattox family 20 years earlier . He claimed to remember that Nutter had accused Chattox of turning his beer sour , and that she was commonly believed to be a witch . Chattox broke down and admitted her guilt , calling on God for forgiveness and the judges to be merciful to her daughter , Anne Redferne .
Elizabeth Device was charged with the murders of James Robinson , John Robinson and , together with Alice Nutter and Demdike , the murder of Henry Mitton . Potts records that " this odious witch " suffered from a facial deformity resulting in her left eye being set lower than her right . The main witness against Device was her daughter , Jennet , who was about nine years old . When Jennet was asked to stand up and give evidence against her mother , Elizabeth began to scream and curse her daughter , forcing the judges to have her removed from the courtroom before the evidence could be heard . Jennet was placed on a table and stated that she believed her mother had been a witch for three or four years . She also said her mother had a familiar called Ball , who appeared in the shape of a brown dog . Jennet claimed to have witnessed conversations between Ball and her mother , in which Ball had been asked to help with various murders . James Device also gave evidence against his mother , saying he had seen her making a clay figure of one of her victims , John Robinson . Elizabeth Device was found guilty .
James Device pleaded not guilty to the murders by witchcraft of Anne Townley and John Duckworth . However he , like Chattox , had earlier made a confession to Nowell , which was read out in court . That , and the evidence presented against him by his sister Jennet , who said that she had seen her brother asking a black dog he had conjured up to help him kill Townley , was sufficient to persuade the jury to find him guilty .
19 August
The trials of the three Samlesbury witches were heard before Anne Redferne 's first appearance in court , late in the afternoon , charged with the murder of Robert Nutter . The evidence against her was considered unsatisfactory , and she was acquitted .
Anne Redferne was not so fortunate the following day , when she faced her second trial , for the murder of Robert Nutter 's father , Christopher , to which she pleaded not guilty . Demdike 's statement to Nowell , which accused Anne of having made clay figures of the Nutter family , was read out in court . Witnesses were called to testify that Anne was a witch " more dangerous than her Mother " . But she refused to admit her guilt to the end , and had given no evidence against any others of the accused . Anne Redferne was found guilty .
Jane Bulcock and her son John Bulcock , both from Newchurch in Pendle , were accused and found guilty of the murder by witchcraft of Jennet Deane . Both denied that they had attended the meeting at Malkin Tower , but Jennet Device identified Jane as having been one of those present , and John as having turned the spit to roast the stolen sheep , the centrepiece of the Good Friday meeting at the Demdike 's home .
Alice Nutter was unusual among the accused in being comparatively wealthy , the widow of a tenant yeoman farmer . She made no statement either before or during her trial , except to enter her plea of not guilty to the charge of murdering Henry Mitton by witchcraft . The prosecution alleged that she , together with Demdike and Elizabeth Device , had caused Mitton 's death after he had refused to give Demdike a penny she had begged from him . The only evidence against Alice seems to have been that James Device claimed Demdike had told him of the murder , and Jennet Device in her statement said that Alice had been present at the Malkin Tower meeting . Alice may have called in on the meeting at Malkin Tower on her way to a secret ( and illegal ) Good Friday Catholic service , and refused to speak for fear of incriminating her fellow Catholics . Many of the Nutter family were Catholics , and two had been executed as Jesuit priests , John Nutter in 1584 and his brother Robert in 1600 . Alice Nutter was found guilty .
Katherine Hewitt ( aka Mould @-@ Heeles ) was charged and found guilty of the murder of Anne Foulds . She was the wife of a clothier from Colne , and had attended the meeting at Malkin Tower with Alice Grey . According to the evidence given by James Device , both Hewitt and Grey told the others at that meeting that they had killed a child from Colne , Anne Foulds . Jennet Device also picked Katherine out of a line @-@ up , and confirmed her attendance at the Malkin Tower meeting .
Alice Gray was accused with Katherine Hewitt of the murder of Anne Foulds . Potts does not provide an account of Alice Gray 's trial , simply recording her as one of the Samlesbury witches – which she was not , as she was one of those identified as having been at the Malkin Tower meeting – and naming her in the list of those found not guilty .
Alizon Device , whose encounter with John Law had triggered the events leading up to the trials , was charged with causing harm by witchcraft . Uniquely among the accused , Alizon was confronted in court by her alleged victim , John Law . She seems to have genuinely believed in her own guilt ; when Law was brought into court Alizon fell to her knees in tears and confessed . She was found guilty .
= = The Wonderfull Discoverie of Witches in the Countie of Lancaster = =
Almost everything that is known about the trials comes from a report of the proceedings written by Thomas Potts , the clerk to the Lancaster Assizes . Potts was instructed to write his account by the trial judges , and had completed the work by 16 November 1612 , when he submitted it for review . Bromley revised and corrected the manuscript before its publication in 1613 , declaring it to be " truly reported " and " fit and worthie to be published " .
Although written as an apparently verbatim account , The Wonderfull Discoverie is not a report of what was actually said at the trial but is instead reflecting what happened . Nevertheless , Potts " seems to give a generally trustworthy , although not comprehensive , account of an Assize witchcraft trial , provided that the reader is constantly aware of his use of written material instead of verbatim reports " .
The trials took place not quite seven years after the Gunpowder Plot to blow up the Houses of Parliament in an attempt to kill King James and the Protestant aristocracy had been foiled . It was alleged that the Pendle witches had hatched their own gunpowder plot to blow up Lancaster Castle , although historian Stephen Pumfrey has suggested that the " preposterous scheme " was invented by the examining magistrates and simply agreed to by James Device in his witness statement . It may therefore be significant that Potts dedicated The Wonderfull Discoverie to Thomas Knyvet and his wife Elizabeth ; Knyvet was the man credited with apprehending Guy Fawkes and thus saving the king .
= = Modern interpretation = =
It has been estimated that all the English witch trials between the early 15th and early 18th centuries resulted in fewer than 500 executions , so this one series of trials in July and August 1612 accounts for more than two per cent of that total . Court records show that Lancashire was unusual in the north of England for the frequency of its witch trials . Neighbouring Cheshire , for instance , also suffered from economic problems and religious activists , but there only 47 people were indicted for causing harm by witchcraft between 1589 and 1675 , of whom 11 were found guilty .
Pendle was part of the parish of Whalley , an area covering 180 square miles ( 470 km2 ) , too large to be effective in preaching and teaching the doctrines of the Church of England : both the survival of Catholicism and the upsurge of witchcraft in Lancashire have been attributed to its over @-@ stretched parochial structure . Until its dissolution , the spiritual needs of the people of Pendle and surrounding districts had been served by nearby Whalley Abbey , but its closure in 1537 left a moral vacuum .
Many of the allegations made in the Pendle witch trials resulted from members of the Demdike and Chattox families making accusations against each other . Historian John Swain has said that the outbreaks of witchcraft in and around Pendle demonstrate the extent to which people could make a living either by posing as a witch , or by accusing or threatening to accuse others of being a witch . Although it is implicit in much of the literature on witchcraft that the accused were victims , often mentally or physically abnormal , for some at least , it may have been a trade like any other , albeit one with significant risks . There may have been bad blood between the Demdike and Chattox families because they were in competition with each other , trying to make a living from healing , begging , and extortion . The Demdikes are believed to have lived close to Newchurch in Pendle , and the Chattox family about 2 miles ( 3 @.@ 2 km ) away , near the village of Fence .
= = Aftermath and legacy = =
Altham continued with his judicial career until his death in 1617 , and Bromley achieved his desired promotion to the Midlands Circuit in 1616 . Potts was given the keepership of Skalme Park by James in 1615 , to breed and train the king 's hounds . In 1618 , he was given responsibility for " collecting the forfeitures on the laws concerning sewers , for twenty @-@ one years " . Having played her part in the deaths of her mother , brother , and sister , Jennet Device may eventually have found herself accused of witchcraft . A woman with that name was listed in a group of 20 tried at Lancaster Assizes on 24 March 1634 , although it cannot be certain that it was the same Jennet Device . The charge against her was the murder of Isabel Nutter , William Nutter 's wife . In that series of trials the chief prosecution witness was a ten @-@ year @-@ old boy , Edmund Robinson . All but one of the accused were found guilty , but the judges refused to pass death sentences , deciding instead to refer the case to the king , Charles I. Under cross @-@ examination in London , Robinson admitted that he had fabricated his evidence , but even though four of the accused were eventually pardoned , they all remained incarcerated in Lancaster Gaol , where it is likely that they died . An official record dated 22 August 1636 lists Jennet Device as one of those still held in the prison . These later Lancashire witchcraft trials were the subject of a contemporary play written by Thomas Heywood and Richard Brome , The Late Lancashire Witches .
In modern times the witches have become the inspiration for Pendle 's tourism and heritage industries , with local shops selling a variety of witch @-@ motif gifts . Burnley 's Moorhouse 's produces a beer called Pendle Witches Brew , and there is a Pendle Witch Trail running from Pendle Heritage Centre to Lancaster Castle , where the accused witches were held before their trial . The X43 bus route run by Transdev in Burnley & Pendle has been branded The Witch Way , with some of the vehicles operating on it named after the witches in the trial . Pendle Hill , which dominates the landscape of the area , continues to be associated with witchcraft , and hosts a hilltop gathering every Halloween .
A petition was presented to UK Home Secretary Jack Straw in 1998 asking for the witches to be pardoned , but it was decided that their convictions should stand . Ten years later another petition was organised in an attempt to obtain pardons for Chattox and Demdike . It followed the Swiss government 's pardon earlier that year of Anna Göldi , beheaded in 1782 , thought to be the last person in Europe to be executed as a witch .
= = Literary adaptations and other media = =
William Harrison Ainsworth , a Victorian novelist considered in his day the equal of Dickens , wrote a romanticised account of the Pendle witches published in 1849 . The Lancashire Witches is the only one of his 40 novels never to have been out of print . The British writer Robert Neill dramatised the events of 1612 in his novel Mist over Pendle , first published in 1951 . The writer and poet Blake Morrison treated the subject in his suite of poems Pendle Witches , published in 1996 , and in 2011 poet Simon Armitage narrated a documentary on BBC Four , The Pendle Witch Child .
= = = 2012 anniversary = = =
Events to mark the 400th anniversary of the trials in 2012 included an exhibition , " A Wonderful Discoverie : Lancashire Witches 1612 – 2012 " , at Gawthorpe Hall staged by Lancashire County Council . The Fate of Chattox , a piece by David Lloyd @-@ Mostyn for clarinet and piano , taking its theme from the events leading to Chattox 's demise , was performed by Aquilon at the Chorlton Arts Festival .
A life @-@ size statue of Alice Nutter , by sculptor David Palmer , was unveiled in her home village , Roughlee . In August , a world record for the largest group dressed as witches was set by 482 people who walked up Pendle Hill , on which the date " 1612 " had been installed in 400 @-@ foot @-@ tall numbers by artist Philippe Handford using horticultural fleece . The Bishop of Burnley , the Rt Rev John Goddard , expressed concern about marking the anniversary on the side of the hill .
Publications in 2012 inspired by the trials include two novellas , The Daylight Gate by Jeanette Winterson and Malkin Child by Livi Michael . Blake Morrison published a volume of poetry , A Discoverie of Witches .
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= History of private equity and venture capital =
The history of private equity and venture capital and the development of these asset classes has occurred through a series of boom and bust cycles since the middle of the 20th century . Within the broader private equity industry , two distinct sub @-@ industries , leveraged buyouts and venture capital experienced growth along parallel , although interrelated tracks .
Since the origins of the modern private equity industry in 1946 , there have been four major epochs marked by three boom and bust cycles . The early history of private equity — from 1946 through 1981 — was characterized by relatively small volumes of private equity investment , rudimentary firm organizations and limited awareness of and familiarity with the private equity industry . The first boom and bust cycle , from 1982 through 1993 , was characterized by the dramatic surge in leveraged buyout activity financed by junk bonds and culminating in the massive buyout of RJR Nabisco before the near collapse of the leveraged buyout industry in the late 1980s and early 1990s . The second boom and bust cycle ( from 1992 through 2002 ) emerged from the ashes of the savings and loan crisis , the insider trading scandals , the real estate market collapse and the recession of the early 1990s . This period saw the emergence of more institutionalized private equity firms , ultimately culminating in the massive Dot @-@ com bubble in 1999 and 2000 . The third boom and bust cycle ( from 2003 through 2007 ) came in the wake of the collapse of the Dot @-@ com bubble — leveraged buyouts reach unparalleled size and the institutionalization of private equity firms is exemplified by the Blackstone Group 's 2007 initial public offering .
In its early years through roughly the year 2000 , the history of the private equity and venture capital asset classes is best described through a narrative of developments in the United States as private equity in Europe consistently lagged behind the North American industry . With the second private equity boom in the mid @-@ 1990s and liberalization of regulation for institutional investors in Europe , the emergence of a mature European private equity market has occurred .
= = Pre @-@ history = =
Investors have been acquiring businesses and making minority investments in privately held companies since the dawn of the industrial revolution . Merchant bankers in London and Paris financed industrial concerns in the 1850s ; most notably Crédit Mobilier , founded in 1854 by Jacob and Isaac Pereire , who together with New York @-@ based Jay Cooke financed the United States Transcontinental Railroad .
Later , J. Pierpont Morgan 's J.P. Morgan & Co. would finance railroads and other industrial companies throughout the United States . In certain respects , J. Pierpont Morgan 's 1901 acquisition of Carnegie Steel Company from Andrew Carnegie and Henry Phipps for $ 480 million represents the first true major buyout as they are thought of today .
Due to structural restrictions imposed on American banks under the Glass – Steagall Act and other regulations in the 1930s , there was no private merchant banking industry in the United States , a situation that was quite exceptional in developed nations . As late as the 1980s , Lester Thurow , a noted economist , decried the inability of the financial regulation framework in the United States to support merchant banks . US investment banks were confined primarily to advisory businesses , handling mergers and acquisitions transactions and placements of equity and debt securities . Investment banks would later enter the space , however long after independent firms had become well established .
With few exceptions , private equity in the first half of the 20th century was the domain of wealthy individuals and families . The Vanderbilts , Whitneys , Rockefellers and Warburgs were notable investors in private companies in the first half of the century . In 1938 , Laurance S. Rockefeller helped finance the creation of both Eastern Air Lines and Douglas Aircraft and the Rockefeller family had vast holdings in a variety of companies . Eric M. Warburg founded E.M. Warburg & Co. in 1938 , which would ultimately become Warburg Pincus , with investments in both leveraged buyouts and venture capital .
= = Origins of modern private equity = =
It was not until after World War II that what is considered today to be true private equity investments began to emerge marked by the founding of the first two venture capital firms in 1946 : American Research and Development Corporation . ( ARDC ) and J.H. Whitney & Company .
ARDC was founded by Georges Doriot , the " father of venture capitalism " ( founder of INSEAD and former dean of Harvard Business School ) , with Ralph Flanders and Karl Compton ( former president of MIT ) , to encourage private sector investments in businesses run by soldiers who were returning from World War II . ARDC 's significance was primarily that it was the first institutional private equity investment firm that raised capital from sources other than wealthy families although it had several notable investment successes as well . ARDC is credited with the first major venture capital success story when its 1957 investment of $ 70 @,@ 000 in Digital Equipment Corporation ( DEC ) would be valued at over $ 35 @.@ 5 million after the company 's initial public offering in 1968 ( representing a return of over 500 times on its investment and an annualized rate of return of 101 % ) . Former employees of ARDC went on to found several prominent venture capital firms including Greylock Partners ( founded in 1965 by Charlie Waite and Bill Elfers ) and Morgan , Holland Ventures , the predecessor of Flagship Ventures ( founded in 1982 by James Morgan ) . ARDC continued investing until 1971 with the retirement of Doriot . In 1972 , Doriot merged ARDC with Textron after having invested in over 150 companies .
J.H. Whitney & Company was founded by John Hay Whitney and his partner Benno Schmidt . Whitney had been investing since the 1930s , founding Pioneer Pictures in 1933 and acquiring a 15 % interest in Technicolor Corporation with his cousin Cornelius Vanderbilt Whitney . By far , Whitney 's most famous investment was in Florida Foods Corporation . The company , having developed an innovative method for delivering nutrition to American soldiers , later came to be known as Minute Maid orange juice and was sold to The Coca @-@ Cola Company in 1960 . J.H. Whitney & Company continues to make investments in leveraged buyout transactions and raised $ 750 million for its sixth institutional private equity fund in 2005 .
Before World War II , venture capital investments ( originally known as " development capital " ) were primarily the domain of wealthy individuals and families . One of the first steps toward a professionally managed venture capital industry was the passage of the Small Business Investment Act of 1958 . The 1958 Act officially allowed the U.S. Small Business Administration ( SBA ) to license private " Small Business Investment Companies " ( SBICs ) to help the financing and management of the small entrepreneurial businesses in the United States . Passage of the Act addressed concerns raised in a Federal Reserve Board report to Congress that concluded that a major gap existed in the capital markets for long @-@ term funding for growth @-@ oriented small businesses . Additionally , it was thought that fostering entrepreneurial companies would spur technological advances to compete against the Soviet Union . Facilitating the flow of capital through the economy up to the pioneering small concerns in order to stimulate the U.S. economy was and still is the main goal of the SBIC program today . The 1958 Act provided venture capital firms structured either as SBICs or Minority Enterprise Small Business Investment Companies ( MESBICs ) access to federal funds which could be leveraged at a ratio of up to 4 : 1 against privately raised investment funds . The success of the Small Business Administration 's efforts are viewed primarily in terms of the pool of professional private equity investors that the program developed as the rigid regulatory limitations imposed by the program minimized the role of SBICs . In 2005 , the SBA significantly reduced its SBIC program , though SBICs continue to make private equity investments .
The real growth in Private Equity surged in 1984 to 1991 period when Institutional Investors , e.g. Pension Plans , Foundations and Endowment Funds such as the Shell Pension Plan , the Oregon State Pension Plan , the Ford Foundation and the Harvard Endowment Fund started investing a small part of their trillion dollars portfolios into Private Investments - particularly venture capital and Leverage Buyout Funds
= = Early venture capital and the growth of Silicon Valley ( 1959 – 1981 ) = =
During the 1960s and 1970s , venture capital firms focused their investment activity primarily on starting and expanding companies . More often than not , these companies were exploiting breakthroughs in electronic , medical or data @-@ processing technology . As a result , venture capital came to be almost synonymous with technology finance .
It is commonly noted that the first venture @-@ backed startup was Fairchild Semiconductor ( which produced the first commercially practicable integrated circuit ) , funded in late 1957 by a loan from Sherman Fairchild 's Fairchild Camera with the help Arthur Rock , an early venture capitalist with the firm of Hayden Stone in New York ( which received 20 % of the equity of the newly formed company ) . Another early VC firm was Venrock Associates . Venrock was founded in 1969 by Laurance S. Rockefeller , the fourth of John D. Rockefeller 's six children as a way to allow other Rockefeller children to develop exposure to venture capital investments .
It was also in the 1960s that the common form of private equity fund , still in use today , emerged . Private equity firms organized limited partnerships to hold investments in which the investment professionals served as general partner and the investors , who were passive limited partners , put up the capital . The compensation structure , still in use today , also emerged with limited partners paying an annual management fee of 1 – 2 % and a carried interest typically representing up to 20 % of the profits of the partnership .
An early West Coast venture capital company was Draper and Johnson Investment Company , formed in 1962 by William Henry Draper III and Franklin P. Johnson , Jr . In 1964 Bill Draper and Paul Wythes founded Sutter Hill Ventures , and Pitch Johnson formed Asset Management Company .
The growth of the venture capital industry was fueled by the emergence of the independent investment firms on Sand Hill Road , beginning with Kleiner , Perkins , Caufield & Byers and Sequoia Capital in 1972 . Located in Menlo Park , CA , Kleiner Perkins , Sequoia and later venture capital firms would have access to the burgeoning technology industries in the area . By the early 1970s , there were many semiconductor companies based in the Santa Clara Valley as well as early computer firms using their devices and programming and service companies . Throughout the 1970s , a group of private equity firms , focused primarily on venture capital investments , would be founded that would become the model for later leveraged buyout and venture capital investment firms . In 1973 , with the number of new venture capital firms increasing , leading venture capitalists formed the National Venture Capital Association ( NVCA ) . The NVCA was to serve as the industry trade group for the venture capital industry . Venture capital firms suffered a temporary downturn in 1974 , when the stock market crashed and investors were naturally wary of this new kind of investment fund . It was not until 1978 that venture capital experienced its first major fundraising year , as the industry raised approximately $ 750 million . During this period , the number of venture firms also increased . Among the firms founded in this period , in addition to Kleiner Perkins and Sequoia , that continue to invest actively are AEA Investors , TA Associates , Mayfield Fund , Apax Partners , New Enterprise Associates , Oak Investment Partners and Sevin Rosen Funds .
Venture capital played an instrumental role in developing many of the major technology companies of the 1980s . Some of the most notable venture capital investments were made in firms that include : Tandem Computers , Genentech , Apple Inc . , Electronic Arts , Compaq , Federal Express and LSI Corporation .
= = Early history of leveraged buyouts ( 1955 – 1981 ) = =
= = = McLean Industries and public holding companies = = =
Although not strictly private equity , and certainly not labeled so at the time , the first leveraged buyout may have been the purchase by Malcolm McLean 's McLean Industries , Inc. of Pan @-@ Atlantic Steamship Company in January 1955 and Waterman Steamship Corporation in May 1955 . Under the terms of the transactions , McLean borrowed $ 42 million and raised an additional $ 7 million through an issue of preferred stock . When the deal closed , $ 20 million of Waterman cash and assets were used to retire $ 20 million of the loan debt . The newly elected board of Waterman then voted to pay an immediate dividend of $ 25 million to McLean Industries .
Similar to the approach employed in the McLean transaction , the use of publicly traded holding companies as investment vehicles to acquire portfolios of investments in corporate assets would become a new trend in the 1960s popularized by the likes of Warren Buffett ( Berkshire Hathaway ) and Victor Posner ( DWG Corporation ) and later adopted by Nelson Peltz ( Triarc ) , Saul Steinberg ( Reliance Insurance ) and Gerry Schwartz ( Onex Corporation ) . These investment vehicles would utilize a number of the same tactics and target the same type of companies as more traditional leveraged buyouts and in many ways could be considered a forerunner of the later private equity firms . In fact , it is Posner who is often credited with coining the term " leveraged buyout " or " LBO "
Posner , who had made a fortune in real estate investments in the 1930s and 1940s acquired a major stake in DWG Corporation in 1966 . Having gained control of the company , he used it as an investment vehicle that could execute takeovers of other companies . Posner and DWG are perhaps best known for the hostile takeover of Sharon Steel Corporation in 1969 , one of the earliest such takeovers in the United States . Posner 's investments were typically motivated by attractive valuations , balance sheets and cash flow characteristics . Because of its high debt load , Posner 's DWG would generate attractive but highly volatile returns and would ultimately land the company in financial difficulty . In 1987 , Sharon Steel sought Chapter 11 bankruptcy protection .
Warren Buffett , who is typically described as a stock market investor rather than a private equity investor , employed many of the same techniques in the creation on his Berkshire Hathaway conglomerate as Posner 's DWG Corporation and in later years by more traditional private equity investors . In 1965 , with the support of the company 's board of directors , Buffett assumed control of Berkshire Hathaway . At the time of Buffett 's investment , Berkshire Hathaway was a textile company , however , Buffett used Berkshire Hathaway as an investment vehicle to make acquisitions and minority investments in dozens of the insurance and reinsurance industries ( GEICO ) and varied companies including : American Express , The Buffalo News , the Coca @-@ Cola Company , Fruit of the Loom , Nebraska Furniture Mart and See 's Candies . Buffett 's value investing approach and focus on earnings and cash flows are characteristic of later private equity investors . Buffett would distinguish himself relative to more traditional leveraged buyout practitioners through his reluctance to use leverage and hostile techniques in his investments .
= = = KKR and the pioneers of private equity = = =
The industry that is today described as private equity was conceived by a number of corporate financiers , most notably Jerome Kohlberg , Jr. and later his protégé , Henry Kravis . Working for Bear Stearns at the time , Kohlberg and Kravis along with Kravis ' cousin George Roberts began a series of what they described as " bootstrap " investments . They targeted family @-@ owned businesses , many of which had been founded in the years following World War II and by the 1960s and 1970s were facing succession issues . Many of these companies lacked a viable or attractive exit for their founders as they were too small to be taken public and the founders were reluctant to sell out to competitors , making a sale to a financial buyer potentially attractive . Their acquisition of Orkin Exterminating Company in 1964 is among the first significant leveraged buyout transactions . In the following years , the three Bear Stearns bankers would complete a series of buyouts including Stern Metals ( 1965 ) , Incom ( a division of Rockwood International , 1971 ) , Cobblers Industries ( 1971 ) and Boren Clay ( 1973 ) as well as Thompson Wire , Eagle Motors and Barrows through their investment in Stern Metals . Although they had a number of highly successful investments , the $ 27 million investment in Cobblers ended in bankruptcy .
By 1976 , tensions had built up between Bear Stearns and Kohlberg , Kravis and Roberts leading to their departure and the formation of Kohlberg Kravis Roberts in that year . Most notably , Bear Stearns executive Cy Lewis had rejected repeated proposals to form a dedicated investment fund within Bear Stearns and Lewis took exception to the amount of time spent on outside activities . Early investors included the Hillman Family By 1978 , with the revision of the Employee Retirement Income Security Act regulations , the nascent KKR was successful in raising its first institutional fund with approximately $ 30 million of investor commitments . That year , the firm signed a precedent @-@ setting deal to buy the publicly traded Houdaille Industries , which made industrial pipes , for $ 380 million . It was by far the largest take @-@ private at the time .
Meanwhile , in 1974 , Thomas H. Lee founded a new investment firm to focus on acquiring companies through leveraged buyout transactions , one of the earliest independent private equity firms to focus on leveraged buyouts of more mature companies rather than venture capital investments in growth companies . Lee 's firm , Thomas H. Lee Partners , while initially generating less fanfare than other entrants in the 1980s , would emerge as one of the largest private equity firms globally by the end of the 1990s .
The second half of the 1970s and the first years of the 1980s saw the emergence of several private equity firms that would survive the various cycles both in leveraged buyouts and venture capital . Among the firms founded during these years were : Cinven , Forstmann Little & Company , Welsh , Carson , Anderson & Stowe , Candover , and GTCR .
Management buyouts also came into existence in the late 1970s and early 1980s . One of the most notable early management buyout transactions was the acquisition of Harley @-@ Davidson . A group of managers at Harley @-@ Davidson , the motorcycle manufacturer , bought the company from AMF in a leveraged buyout in 1981 , but racked up big losses the following year and had to ask for protection from Japanese competitors .
= = = Regulatory and tax changes impact the boom = = =
The advent of the boom in leveraged buyouts in the 1980s was supported by three major legal and regulatory events :
Failure of the Carter tax plan of 1977 – In his first year in office , Jimmy Carter put forth a revision to the corporate tax system that would have , among other results , reduced the disparity in treatment of interest paid to bondholders and dividends paid to stockholders . Carter 's proposals did not achieve support from the business community or Congress and were not enacted . Because of the different tax treatment , the use of leverage to reduce taxes was popular among private equity investors and would become increasingly popular with the reduction of the capital gains tax rate .
Employee Retirement Income Security Act of 1974 ( ERISA ) – With the passage of ERISA in 1974 , corporate pension funds were prohibited from holding certain risky investments including many investments in privately held companies . In 1975 , fundraising for private equity investments cratered , according to the Venture Capital Institute , totaling only $ 10 million during the course of the year . In 1978 , the US Labor Department relaxed certain parts of the ERISA restrictions , under the " prudent man rule , " thus allowing corporate pension funds to invest in private equity resulting in a major source of capital available to invest in venture capital and other private equity . Time reported in 1978 that fund raising had increased from $ 39 million in 1977 to $ 570 million just one year later . Additionally , many of these same corporate pension investors would become active buyers of the high yield bonds ( or junk bonds ) that were necessary to complete leveraged buyout transactions .
Economic Recovery Tax Act of 1981 ( ERTA ) – On August 15 , 1981 , Ronald Reagan signed the Kemp @-@ Roth bill , officially known as the Economic Recovery Tax Act of 1981 , into law , lowering of the top capital gains tax rate from 28 percent to 20 percent , and making high risk investments even more attractive .
In the years that would follow these events , private equity would experience its first major boom , acquiring some of the famed brands and major industrial powers of American business .
= = The first private equity boom ( 1982 – 1993 ) = =
The decade of the 1980s is perhaps more closely associated with the leveraged buyout than any decade before or since . For the first time , the public became aware of the ability of private equity to affect mainstream companies and " corporate raiders " and " hostile takeovers " entered the public consciousness . The decade would see one of the largest booms in private equity culminating in the 1989 leveraged buyout of RJR Nabisco , which would reign as the largest leveraged buyout transaction for nearly 17 years . In 1980 , the private equity industry would raise approximately $ 2 @.@ 4 billion of annual investor commitments and by the end of the decade in 1989 that figure stood at $ 21 @.@ 9 billion marking the tremendous growth experienced .
= = = Beginning of the LBO boom = = =
The beginning of the first boom period in private equity would be marked by the well @-@ publicized success of the Gibson Greetings acquisition in 1982 and would roar ahead through 1983 and 1984 with the soaring stock market driving profitable exits for private equity investors .
In January 1982 , former US Secretary of the Treasury William E. Simon , Ray Chambers and a group of investors , which would later come to be known as Wesray Capital Corporation , acquired Gibson Greetings , a producer of greeting cards . The purchase price for Gibson was $ 80 million , of which only $ 1 million was rumored to have been contributed by the investors . By mid @-@ 1983 , just sixteen months after the original deal , Gibson completed a $ 290 million IPO and Simon made approximately $ 66 million . Simon and Wesray would later complete the $ 71 @.@ 6 million acquisition of Atlas Van Lines . The success of the Gibson Greetings investment attracted the attention of the wider media to the nascent boom in leveraged buyouts .
Between 1979 and 1989 , it was estimated that there were over 2 @,@ 000 leveraged buyouts valued in excess of $ 250 million Notable buyouts of this period ( not described elsewhere in this article ) include : Malone & Hyde ( 1984 ) , Wometco Enterprises ( 1984 ) , Beatrice Companies ( 1985 ) , Sterling Jewelers ( 1985 ) , Revco Drug Stores ( 1986 ) , Safeway ( 1986 ) , Southland Corporation ( 1987 ) , Jim Walter Corp ( later Walter Industries , Inc . , 1987 ) , BlackRock ( 1988 ) , Federated Department Stores ( 1988 ) , Marvel Entertainment ( 1988 ) , Uniroyal Goodrich Tire Company ( 1988 ) and Hospital Corporation of America ( 1989 ) .
Because of the high leverage on many of the transactions of the 1980s , failed deals occurred regularly , however the promise of attractive returns on successful investments attracted more capital . With the increased leveraged buyout activity and investor interest , the mid @-@ 1980s saw a major proliferation of private equity firms . Among the major firms founded in this period were : Bain Capital , Chemical Venture Partners , Hellman & Friedman , Hicks & Haas , ( later Hicks Muse Tate & Furst ) , The Blackstone Group , Doughty Hanson , BC Partners , and The Carlyle Group .
Additionally , as the market developed , new niches within the private equity industry began to emerge . In 1982 , Venture Capital Fund of America , the first private equity firm focused on acquiring secondary market interests in existing private equity funds was founded and then , two years later in 1984 , First Reserve Corporation , the first private equity firm focused on the energy sector , was founded .
= = = Venture capital in the 1980s = = =
The public successes of the venture capital industry in the 1970s and early 1980s ( e.g. , DEC , Apple , Genentech ) gave rise to a major proliferation of venture capital investment firms . From just a few dozen firms at the start of the decade , there were over 650 firms by the end of the 1980s , each searching for the next major " home run " . While the number of firms multiplied , the capital managed by these firms increased only 11 % from $ 28 billion to $ 31 billion over the course of the decade .
The growth the industry was hampered by sharply declining returns and certain venture firms began posting losses for the first time . In addition to the increased competition among firms , several other factors impacted returns . The market for initial public offerings cooled in the mid @-@ 1980s before collapsing after the stock market crash in 1987 and foreign corporations , particularly from Japan and Korea , flooded early stage companies with capital .
In response to the changing conditions , corporations that had sponsored in @-@ house venture investment arms , including General Electric and Paine Webber either sold off or closed these venture capital units . Additionally , venture capital units within Chemical Bank ( today CCMP Capital ) and Continental Illinois National Bank ( today CIVC Partners ) , among others , began shifting their focus from funding early stage companies toward investments in more mature companies . Even industry founders J.H. Whitney & Company and Warburg Pincus began to transition toward leveraged buyouts and growth capital investments . Many of these venture capital firms attempted to stay close to their areas of expertise in the technology industry by acquiring companies in the industry that had reached certain levels of maturity . In 1989 , Prime Computer was acquired in a $ 1 @.@ 3 billion leveraged buyout by J.H. Whitney & Company in what would prove to be a disastrous transaction . Whitney 's investment in Prime proved to be nearly a total loss with the bulk of the proceeds from the company 's liquidation paid to the company 's creditors .
Although lower profile than their buyout counterparts , new leading venture capital firms were also formed including Draper Fisher Jurvetson ( originally Draper Associates ) in 1985 and Canaan Partners in 1987 among others .
= = = Corporate raiders , hostile takeovers and greenmail = = =
Although buyout firms generally had different aims and methods , they were often lumped in with the " corporate raiders " who came on the scene in the 1980s . The raiders were best known for hostile bids — takeover attempts that were opposed by management . By contrast , private equity firms generally attempted to strike deals with boards and CEOs , though in many cases in the 1980s they allied with managements that were already under pressure from raiders . But both groups bought companies through leveraged buyouts ; both relied heavily on junk bond financing ; and under both types of owners in many cases major assets were sold , costs were slashed and employees were laid off . Hence , in the public mind , they were lumped together .
Management of many large publicly traded corporations reacted negatively to the threat of potential hostile takeover or corporate raid and pursued drastic defensive measures including poison pills , golden parachutes and increasing debt levels on the company 's balance sheet . Additionally , the threat of the corporate raid would lead to the practice of " greenmail " , where a corporate raider or other party would acquire a significant stake in the stock of a company and receive an incentive payment ( effectively a bribe ) from the company in order to avoid pursuing a hostile takeover of the company . Greenmail represented a transfer payment from a company 's existing shareholders to a third party investor and provided no value to existing shareholders but did benefit existing managers . The practice of " greenmail " is not typically considered a tactic of private equity investors and is not condoned by market participants .
Among the most notable corporate raiders of the 1980s were Carl Icahn , Victor Posner , Nelson Peltz , Robert M. Bass , T. Boone Pickens , Harold Clark Simmons , Kirk Kerkorian , Sir James Goldsmith , Saul Steinberg and Asher Edelman . Carl Icahn developed a reputation as a ruthless corporate raider after his hostile takeover of TWA in 1985 . The result of that takeover was Icahn systematically selling TWA 's assets to repay the debt he used to purchase the company , which was described as asset stripping . In 1985 , Pickens was profiled on the cover of Time magazine as " one of the most famous and controversial businessmen in the U.S. " for his pursuit of Unocal , Gulf Oil and Cities Services . In later years , many of the corporate raiders would be re @-@ characterized as " Activist shareholders " .
Many of the corporate raiders were onetime clients of Michael Milken , whose investment banking firm Drexel Burnham Lambert helped raise blind pools of capital with which corporate raiders could make a legitimate attempt to take over a company and provided high @-@ yield debt financing of the buyouts .
Drexel Burnham raised a $ 100 million blind pool in 1984 for Nelson Peltz and his holding company Triangle Industries ( later Triarc ) to give credibility for takeovers , representing the first major blind pool raised for this purpose . Two years later , in 1986 , Wickes Companies , a holding company run by Sanford Sigoloff raised a $ 1 @.@ 2 billion blind pool .
In 1985 , Milken raised $ 750 million for a similar blind pool for Ronald Perelman which would ultimately prove instrumental in acquiring his biggest target : The Revlon Corporation . In 1980 , Ronald Perelman , the son of a wealthy Philadelphia businessman , and future " corporate raider " having made several small but successful buyouts , acquired MacAndrews & Forbes , a distributor of licorice extract and chocolate that Perelman 's father had tried and failed to acquire 10 years earlier . Perelman would ultimately divest the company 's core business and use MacAndrews & Forbes as a holding company investment vehicle for subsequent leveraged buyouts including Technicolor , Inc . , Pantry Pride and Revlon . Using the Pantry Pride subsidiary of his holding company , MacAndrews & Forbes Holdings , Perelman 's overtures were rebuffed . Repeatedly rejected by the company 's board and management , Perelman continued to press forward with a hostile takeover raising his offer from an initial bid of $ 47 @.@ 50 per share until it reached $ 53 @.@ 00 per share . After receiving a higher offer from a white knight , private equity firm Forstmann Little & Company , Perelman 's Pantry Pride finally was able to make a successful bid for Revlon , valuing the company at $ 2 @.@ 7 billion . The buyout would prove troubling , burdened by a heavy debt load . Under Perelman 's control , Revlon sold four divisions : two were sold for $ 1 billion , its vision care division was sold for $ 574 million and its National Health Laboratories division was spun out to the public market in 1988 . Revlon also made acquisitions including Max Factor in 1987 and Betrix in 1989 later selling them to Procter & Gamble in 1991 . Perelman exited the bulk of his holdings in Revlon through an IPO in 1996 and subsequent sales of stock . As of December 31 , 2007 , Perelman still retains a minority ownership interest in Revlon . The Revlon takeover , because of its well @-@ known brand , was profiled widely by the media and brought new attention to the emerging boom in leveraged buyout activity .
In later years , Milken and Drexel would shy away from certain of the more " notorious " corporate raiders as Drexel and the private equity industry attempted to move upscale .
= = = RJR Nabisco and the Barbarians at the Gate = = =
Leveraged buyouts in the 1980s including Perelman 's takeover of Revlon came to epitomize the " ruthless capitalism " and " greed " popularly seen to be pervading Wall Street at the time . One of the final major buyouts of the 1980s proved to be its most ambitious and marked both a high @-@ water mark and a sign of the beginning of the end of the boom that had begun nearly a decade earlier . In 1989 , KKR closed on a $ 31 @.@ 1 billion takeover of RJR Nabisco . It was , at that time and for over 17 years , the largest leverage buyout in history . The event was chronicled in the book , Barbarians at the Gate : The Fall of RJR Nabisco , and later made into a television movie starring James Garner .
F. Ross Johnson was the President and CEO of RJR Nabisco at the time of the leveraged buyout and Henry Kravis was a general partner at Kohlberg Kravis Roberts . The leveraged buyout was in the amount of $ 25 billion ( plus assumed debt ) , and the battle for control took place between October and November 1988 . KKR would eventually prevail in acquiring RJR Nabisco at $ 109 per share marking a dramatic increase from the original announcement that Shearson Lehman Hutton would take RJR Nabisco private at $ 75 per share . A fierce series of negotiations and horse @-@ trading ensued which pitted KKR against Shearson Lehman Hutton and later Forstmann Little & Co . Many of the major banking players of the day , including Morgan Stanley , Goldman Sachs , Salomon Brothers , and Merrill Lynch were actively involved in advising and financing the parties .
After Shearson Lehman 's original bid , KKR quickly introduced a tender offer to obtain RJR Nabisco for $ 90 per share — a price that enabled it to proceed without the approval of RJR Nabisco 's management . RJR 's management team , working with Shearson Lehman and Salomon Brothers , submitted a bid of $ 112 , a figure they felt certain would enable them to outflank any response by Kravis 's team . KKR 's final bid of $ 109 , while a lower dollar figure , was ultimately accepted by the board of directors of RJR Nabisco . KKR 's offer was guaranteed , whereas the management offer ( backed by Shearson Lehman and Salomon ) lacked a " reset " , meaning that the final share price might have been lower than their stated $ 112 per share . Additionally , many in RJR 's board of directors had grown concerned at recent disclosures of Ross Johnson ' unprecedented golden parachute deal . TIME magazine featured Ross Johnson on the cover of their December 1988 issue along with the headline , " A Game of Greed : This man could pocket $ 100 million from the largest corporate takeover in history . Has the buyout craze gone too far ? " . KKR 's offer was welcomed by the board , and , to some observers , it appeared that their elevation of the reset issue as a deal @-@ breaker in KKR 's favor was little more than an excuse to reject Ross Johnson 's higher payout of $ 112 per share . F. Ross Johnson received $ 53 million from the buyout .
At $ 31 @.@ 1 billion of transaction value , RJR Nabisco was by far the largest leveraged buyouts in history . In 2006 and 2007 , a number of leveraged buyout transactions were completed that for the first time surpassed the RJR Nabisco leveraged buyout in terms of nominal purchase price . However , adjusted for inflation , none of the leveraged buyouts of the 2006 – 2007 period would surpass RJR Nabisco . Unfortunately for KKR , size would not equate with success as the high purchase price and debt load would burden the performance of the investment . It had to pump additional equity into the company a year after the buyout closed and years later , when it sold the last of its investment , it had chalked up a $ 700 million loss .
Interestingly , two years earlier , in 1987 , Jerome Kohlberg , Jr. resigned from Kohlberg Kravis Roberts & Co. over differences in strategy . Kohlberg did not favor the larger buyouts ( including Beatrice Companies ( 1985 ) and Safeway ( 1986 ) and would later likely have included the 1989 takeover of RJR Nabisco ) , highly leveraged transactions or hostile takeovers being pursued increasingly by KKR . The split would ultimately prove acrimonious as Kohlberg sued Kravis and Roberts for what he alleged were improper business tactics . The case was later settled out of court . Instead , Kohlberg chose to return to his roots , acquiring smaller , middle @-@ market companies and in 1987 , he would found a new private equity firm Kohlberg & Company along with his son James A. Kohlberg , at the time a KKR executive . Jerome Kohlberg would continue investing successfully for another seven years before retiring from Kohlberg & Company in 1994 and turning his firm over to his son .
As the market reached its peak in 1988 and 1989 , new private equity firms were founded which would emerge as major investors in the years to follow , including : ABRY Partners , Coller Capital , Landmark Partners , Leonard Green & Partners and Providence Equity Partners .
= = LBO bust ( 1990 – 1992 ) = =
By the end of the 1980s the excesses of the buyout market were beginning to show , with the bankruptcy of several large buyouts including Robert Campeau 's 1988 buyout of Federated Department Stores , the 1986 buyout of the Revco drug stores , Walter Industries , FEB Trucking and Eaton Leonard . Additionally , the RJR Nabisco deal was showing signs of strain , leading to a recapitalization in 1990 that involved the contribution of $ 1 @.@ 7 billion of new equity from KKR . Additionally , in response to the threat of unwelcome LBOs , certain companies adopted a number of techniques , such as the poison pill , to protect them against hostile takeovers by effectively self @-@ destructing the company if it were to be taken over ( these practices are increasingly discredited ) .
= = = The collapse of Drexel Burnham Lambert = = =
Drexel Burnham Lambert was the investment bank most responsible for the boom in private equity during the 1980s due to its leadership in the issuance of high @-@ yield debt . The firm was first rocked by scandal on May 12 , 1986 , when Dennis Levine , a Drexel managing director and investment banker , was charged with insider trading . Levine pleaded guilty to four felonies , and implicated one of his recent partners , arbitrageur Ivan Boesky . Largely based on information Boesky promised to provide about his dealings with Milken , the Securities and Exchange Commission initiated an investigation of Drexel on November 17 . Two days later , Rudy Giuliani , the United States Attorney for the Southern District of New York , launched his own investigation .
For two years , Drexel steadfastly denied any wrongdoing , claiming that the criminal and SEC cases were based almost entirely on the statements of an admitted felon looking to reduce his sentence . However , it was not enough to keep the SEC from suing Drexel in September 1988 for insider trading , stock manipulation , defrauding its clients and stock parking ( buying stocks for the benefit of another ) . All of the transactions involved Milken and his department . Giuliani began seriously considering indicting Drexel under the powerful Racketeer Influenced and Corrupt Organizations Act ( RICO ) , under the doctrine that companies are responsible for an employee 's crimes .
The threat of a RICO indictment , which would have required the firm to put up a performance bond of as much as $ 1 billion in lieu of having its assets frozen , unnerved many at Drexel . Most of Drexel 's capital was borrowed money , as is common with most investment banks and it is difficult to receive credit for firms under a RICO indictment . Drexel 's CEO , Fred Joseph said that he had been told that if Drexel were indicted under RICO , it would only survive a month at most .
With literally minutes to go before being indicted , Drexel reached an agreement with the government in which it pleaded nolo contendere ( no contest ) to six felonies – three counts of stock parking and three counts of stock manipulation . It also agreed to pay a fine of $ 650 million – at the time , the largest fine ever levied under securities laws . Milken left the firm after his own indictment in March 1989 . Effectively , Drexel was now a convicted felon .
In April 1989 , Drexel settled with the SEC , agreeing to stricter safeguards on its oversight procedures . Later that month , the firm eliminated 5 @,@ 000 jobs by shuttering three departments – including the retail brokerage operation .
Meanwhile , the high @-@ yield debt markets had begun to shut down in 1989 , a slowdown that accelerated into 1990 . On February 13 , 1990 after being advised by United States Secretary of the Treasury Nicholas F. Brady , the U.S. Securities and Exchange Commission ( SEC ) , the New York Stock Exchange ( NYSE ) and the Federal Reserve System , Drexel Burnham Lambert officially filed for Chapter 11 bankruptcy protection .
= = = S & L and the shutdown of the Junk Bond Market = = =
In the 1980s , the boom in private equity transactions , specifically leveraged buyouts , was driven by the availability of financing , particularly high @-@ yield debt , also known as " junk bonds " . The collapse of the high yield market in 1989 and 1990 would signal the end of the LBO boom . At that time , many market observers were pronouncing the junk bond market “ finished . ” This collapse would be due largely to three factors :
The collapse of Drexel Burnham Lambert , the foremost underwriter of junk bonds ( discussed above ) .
The dramatic increase in default rates among junk bond issuing companies . The historical default rate for high yield bonds from 1978 to 1988 was approximately 2 @.@ 2 % of total issuance . In 1989 , defaults increased dramatically to 4 @.@ 3 % of the then $ 190 billion market and an additional 2 @.@ 6 % of issuance defaulted in the first half of 1990 . As a result of the higher perceived risk , the differential in yield of the junk bond market over U.S. treasuries ( known as the " spread " ) had also increased by 700 basis points ( 7 percentage points ) . This made the cost of debt in the high yield market significantly more expensive than it had been previously . The market shut down altogether for lower rated issuers .
The mandated withdrawal of savings and loans from the high yield market . In August 1989 , the U.S. Congress enacted the Financial Institutions Reform , Recovery and Enforcement Act of 1989 as a response to the savings and loan crisis of the 1980s . Under the law , savings and loans ( S & Ls ) could no longer invest in bonds that were rated below investment grade . Additionally , S & Ls were mandated to sell their holdings by the end of 1993 creating a huge supply of low priced assets that helped freeze the new issuance market .
Despite the adverse market conditions , several of the largest private equity firms were founded in this period including : Apollo Management , Madison Dearborn and TPG Capital .
= = The second private equity boom and the origins of modern private equity = =
Beginning roughly in 1992 , three years after the RJR Nabisco buyout , and continuing through the end of the decade the private equity industry once again experienced a tremendous boom , both in venture capital ( as will be discussed below ) and leveraged buyouts with the emergence of brand name firms managing multibillion @-@ dollar sized funds . After declining from 1990 through 1992 , the private equity industry began to increase in size raising approximately $ 20 @.@ 8 billion of investor commitments in 1992 and reaching a high @-@ water mark in 2000 of $ 305 @.@ 7 billion , outpacing the growth of almost every other asset class .
= = = Resurgence of leveraged buyouts = = =
Private equity in the 1980s was a controversial topic , commonly associated with corporate raids , hostile takeovers , asset stripping , layoffs , plant closings and outsized profits to investors . As private equity reemerged in the 1990s it began to earn a new degree of legitimacy and respectability . Although in the 1980s , many of the acquisitions made were unsolicited and unwelcome , private equity firms in the 1990s focused on making buyouts attractive propositions for management and shareholders . According to The Economist , “ [ B ] ig companies that would once have turned up their noses at an approach from a private @-@ equity firm are now pleased to do business with them . ” Additionally , private equity investors became increasingly focused on the long term development of companies they acquired , using less leverage in the acquisition . In the 1980s leverage would routinely represent 85 % to 95 % of the purchase price of a company as compared to average debt levels between 20 % and 40 % in leveraged buyouts in the 1990s and the first decade of the 21st century . KKR 's 1986 acquisition of Safeway , for example , was completed with 97 % leverage and 3 % equity contributed by KKR , whereas KKR 's acquisition of TXU in 2007 was completed with approximately 19 % equity contributed ( $ 8 @.@ 5 billion of equity out of a total purchase price of $ 45 billion ) . Additionally , private equity firms are more likely to make investments in capital expenditures and provide incentives for management to build long @-@ term value .
The Thomas H. Lee Partners acquisition of Snapple Beverages , in 1992 , is often described as the deal that marked the resurrection of the leveraged buyout after several dormant years . Only eight months after buying the company , Lee took Snapple Beverages public and in 1994 , only two years after the original acquisition , Lee sold the company to Quaker Oats for $ 1 @.@ 7 billion . Lee was estimated to have made $ 900 million for himself and his investors from the sale . Quaker Oats would subsequently sell the company , which performed poorly under new management , three years later for only $ 300 million to Nelson Peltz 's Triarc . As a result of the Snapple deal , Thomas H. Lee , who had begun investing in private equity in 1974 , would find new prominence in the private equity industry and catapult his Boston @-@ based Thomas H. Lee Partners to the ranks of the largest private equity firms .
It was also in this timeframe that the capital markets would start to open up again for private equity transactions . During the 1990 – 1993 period , Chemical Bank established its position as a key lender to private equity firms under the auspices of pioneering investment banker , James B. Lee , Jr . ( known as Jimmy Lee , not related to Thomas H. Lee ) . By the mid @-@ 1990s , under Jimmy Lee , Chemical had established itself as the largest lender in the financing of leveraged buyouts . Lee built a syndicated leveraged finance business and related advisory businesses including the first dedicated financial sponsor coverage group , which covered private equity firms in much the same way that investment banks had traditionally covered various industry sectors .
The following year , David Bonderman and James Coulter , who had worked for Robert M. Bass during the 1980s completed a buyout of Continental Airlines in 1993 , through their nascent Texas Pacific Group , ( today TPG Capital ) . TPG was virtually alone in its conviction that there was an investment opportunity with the airline . The plan included bringing in a new management team , improving aircraft utilization and focusing on lucrative routes . By 1998 , TPG had generated an annual internal rate of return of 55 % on its investment . Unlike Carl Icahn 's hostile takeover of TWA in 1985 . , Bonderman and Texas Pacific Group were widely hailed as saviors of the airline , marking the change in tone from the 1980s . The buyout of Continental Airlines would be one of the few successes for the private equity industry which has suffered several major failures , including the 2008 bankruptcies of ATA Airlines , Aloha Airlines and Eos Airlines .
Among the most notable buyouts of the mid @-@ to @-@ late 1990s included : Duane Reade ( 1990 ( 1997 ) , Sealy Corporation ( 1997 ) , KinderCare Learning Centers ( 1997 ) , J. Crew ( 1997 ) , Domino 's Pizza ( 1998 ) , Regal Entertainment Group ( 1998 ) , Oxford Health Plans ( 1998 ) and Petco ( 2000 ) .
As the market for private equity matured , so too did its investor base . The Institutional Limited Partner Association was initially founded as an informal networking group for limited partner investors in private equity funds in the early 1990s . However the organization would evolve into an advocacy organization for private equity investors with more than 200 member organizations from 10 countries . As of the end of 2007 , ILPA members had total assets under management in excess of $ 5 trillion with more than $ 850 billion of capital commitments to private equity investments .
= = = The venture capital boom and the Internet Bubble ( 1995 – 2000 ) = = =
In the 1980s , FedEx and Apple Inc. were able to grow because of private equity or venture funding , as were Cisco , Genentech , Microsoft and Avis . However , by the end of the 1980s , venture capital returns were relatively low , particularly in comparison with their emerging leveraged buyout cousins , due in part to the competition for hot startups , excess supply of IPOs and the inexperience of many venture capital fund managers . Unlike the leveraged buyout industry , after total capital raised increased to $ 3 billion in 1983 , growth in the venture capital industry remained limited through the 1980s and the first half of the 1990s increasing to just over $ 4 billion more than a decade later in 1994 .
After a shakeout of venture capital managers , the more successful firms retrenched , focusing increasingly on improving operations at their portfolio companies rather than continuously making new investments . Results would begin to turn very attractive , successful and would ultimately generate the venture capital boom of the 1990s . Former Wharton Professor Andrew Metrick refers to these first 15 years of the modern venture capital industry beginning in 1980 as the " pre @-@ boom period " in anticipation of the boom that would begin in 1995 and last through the bursting of the Internet bubble in 2000 .
The late 1990s were a boom time for the venture capital , as firms on Sand Hill Road in Menlo Park and Silicon Valley benefited from a huge surge of interest in the nascent Internet and other computer technologies . Initial public offerings of stock for technology and other growth companies were in abundance and venture firms were reaping large windfalls . Among the highest profile technology companies with venture capital backing were Amazon.com , America Online , E @-@ bay , Intuit , Macromedia , Netscape , Sun Microsystems and Yahoo ! .
= = The bursting of the Internet Bubble and the private equity crash ( 2000 – 2003 ) = =
The Nasdaq crash and technology slump that started in March 2000 shook virtually the entire venture capital industry as valuations for startup technology companies collapsed . Over the next two years , many venture firms had been forced to write @-@ off large proportions of their investments and many funds were significantly " under water " ( the values of the fund 's investments were below the amount of capital invested ) . Venture capital investors sought to reduce size of commitments they had made to venture capital funds and in numerous instances , investors sought to unload existing commitments for cents on the dollar in the secondary market . By mid @-@ 2003 , the venture capital industry had shriveled to about half its 2001 capacity . Nevertheless , PricewaterhouseCoopers ' MoneyTree Survey shows that total venture capital investments held steady at 2003 levels through the second quarter of 2005 .
Although the post @-@ boom years represent just a small fraction of the peak levels of venture investment reached in 2000 , they still represent an increase over the levels of investment from 1980 through 1995 . As a percentage of GDP , venture investment was 0 @.@ 058 % percent in 1994 , peaked at 1 @.@ 087 % ( nearly 19x the 1994 level ) in 2000 and ranged from 0 @.@ 164 % to 0 @.@ 182 % in 2003 and 2004 . The revival of an Internet @-@ driven environment ( thanks to deals such as eBay 's purchase of Skype , the News Corporation 's purchase of MySpace.com , and the very successful Google.com and Salesforce.com IPOs ) have helped to revive the venture capital environment . However , as a percentage of the overall private equity market , venture capital has still not reached its mid @-@ 1990s level , let alone its peak in 2000 .
= = = Stagnation in the LBO market = = =
Meanwhile , as the venture sector collapsed , the activity in the leveraged buyout market also declined significantly . Leveraged buyout firms had invested heavily in the telecommunications sector from 1996 to 2000 and profited from the boom which suddenly fizzled in 2001 . In that year at least 27 major telecommunications companies , ( i.e. , with $ 100 million of liabilities or greater ) filed for bankruptcy protection . Telecommunications , which made up a large portion of the overall high yield universe of issuers , dragged down the entire high yield market . Overall corporate default rates surged to levels unseen since the 1990 market collapse rising to 6 @.@ 3 % of high yield issuance in 2000 and 8 @.@ 9 % of issuance in 2001 . Default rates on junk bonds peaked at 10 @.@ 7 percent in January 2002 according to Moody 's . As a result , leveraged buyout activity ground to a halt . The major collapses of former high @-@ fliers including WorldCom , Adelphia Communications , Global Crossing and Winstar Communications were among the most notable defaults in the market . In addition to the high rate of default , many investors lamented the low recovery rates achieved through restructuring or bankruptcy .
Among the most affected by the bursting of the internet and telecom bubbles were two of the largest and most active private equity firms of the 1990s : Tom Hicks ' Hicks Muse Tate & Furst and Ted Forstmann 's Forstmann Little & Company . These firms were often cited as the highest profile private equity casualties , having invested heavily in technology and telecommunications companies . Hicks Muse 's reputation and market position were both damaged by the loss of over $ 1 billion from minority investments in six telecommunications and 13 Internet companies at the peak of the 1990s stock market bubble . Similarly , Forstmann suffered major losses from investments in McLeodUSA and XO Communications . Tom Hicks resigned from Hicks Muse at the end of 2004 and Forstmann Little was unable to raise a new fund . The treasure of the State of Connecticut , sued Forstmann Little to return the state 's $ 96 million investment to that point and to cancel the commitment it made to take its total investment to $ 200 million . The humbling of these private equity titans could hardly have been predicted by their investors in the 1990s and forced fund investors to conduct due diligence on fund managers more carefully and include greater controls on investments in partnership agreements .
Deals completed during this period tended to be smaller and financed less with high yield debt than in other periods . Private equity firms had to cobble together financing made up of bank loans and mezzanine debt , often with higher equity contributions than had been seen . Private equity firms benefited from the lower valuation multiples . As a result , despite the relatively limited activity , those funds that invested during the adverse market conditions delivered attractive returns to investors . Meanwhile , in Europe LBO activity began to increase as the market continued to mature . In 2001 , for the first time , European buyout activity exceeded US activity with $ 44 billion of deals completed in Europe as compared with just $ 10 @.@ 7 billion of deals completed in the US . This was a function of the fact that just six LBOs in excess of $ 500 million were completed in 2001 , against 27 in 2000 .
As investors sought to reduce their exposure to the private equity asset class , an area of private equity that was increasingly active in these years was the nascent secondary market for private equity interests . Secondary transaction volume increased from historical levels of 2 % or 3 % of private equity commitments to 5 % of the addressable market in the early years of the new decade . Many of the largest financial institutions ( e.g. , Deutsche Bank , Abbey National , UBS AG ) sold portfolios of direct investments and “ pay @-@ to @-@ play ” funds portfolios that were typically used as a means to gain entry to lucrative leveraged finance and [ [ mergers and acquisitions ] ] assignments but had created hundreds of millions of dollars of losses . Some of the most notable financial institutions to complete publicly disclosed secondary transactions during this period include : Chase Capital Partners ( 2000 ) , National Westminster Bank ( 2000 ) , UBS AG ( 2003 ) , Deutsche Bank ( MidOcean Partners ) ( 2003 ) Abbey National ( 2004 ) and Bank One ( 2004 ) .
= = The third private equity boom and the Golden Age of Private Equity ( 2003 – 2007 ) = =
As 2002 ended and 2003 began , the private equity sector , had spent the previous three two and a half years reeling from major losses in telecommunications and technology companies and had been severely constrained by tight credit markets . As 2003 got underway , private equity began a five @-@ year resurgence that would ultimately result in the completion of 13 of the 15 largest leveraged buyout transactions in history , unprecedented levels of investment activity and investor commitments and a major expansion and maturation of the leading private equity firms .
The combination of decreasing interest rates , loosening lending standards and regulatory changes for publicly traded companies would set the stage for the largest boom private equity had seen . The Sarbanes Oxley legislation , officially the Public Company Accounting Reform and Investor Protection Act , passed in 2002 , in the wake of corporate scandals at Enron , WorldCom , Tyco , Adelphia , Peregrine Systems and Global Crossing among others , would create a new regime of rules and regulations for publicly traded corporations . In addition to the existing focus on short term earnings rather than long term value creation , many public company executives lamented the extra cost and bureaucracy associated with Sarbanes @-@ Oxley compliance . For the first time , many large corporations saw private equity ownership as potentially more attractive than remaining public . Sarbanes @-@ Oxley would have the opposite effect on the venture capital industry . The increased compliance costs would make it nearly impossible for venture capitalists to bring young companies to the public markets and dramatically reduced the opportunities for exits via IPO . Instead , venture capitalists have been forced increasingly to rely on sales to strategic buyers for an exit of their investment .
Interest rates , which began a major series of decreases in 2002 would reduce the cost of borrowing and increase the ability of private equity firms to finance large acquisitions . Lower interest rates would encourage investors to return to relatively dormant high @-@ yield debt and leveraged loan markets , making debt more readily available to finance buyouts . Additionally , alternative investments also became increasingly important as investors focused on yields despite increases in risk . This search for higher yielding investments would fuel larger funds , allowing larger deals , never before thought possible , to become reality .
Certain buyouts were completed in 2001 and early 2002 , particularly in Europe where financing was more readily available . In 2001 , for example , BT Group agreed to sell its international yellow pages directories business ( Yell Group ) to Apax Partners and Hicks , Muse , Tate & Furst for £ 2 @.@ 14 billion ( approximately $ 3 @.@ 5 billion at the time ) , making it then the largest non @-@ corporate LBO in European history . Yell later bought US directories publisher McLeodUSA for about $ 600 million , and floated on London 's FTSE in 2003 .
= = = Resurgence of the large buyout = = =
Marked by the two @-@ stage buyout of Dex Media at the end of 2002 and 2003 , large multibillion @-@ dollar U.S. buyouts could once again obtain significant high yield debt financing and larger transactions could be completed . The Carlyle Group , Welsh , Carson , Anderson & Stowe , along with other private investors , led a $ 7 @.@ 5 billion buyout of QwestDex . The buyout was the third largest corporate buyout since 1989 . QwestDex 's purchase occurred in two stages : a $ 2 @.@ 75 billion acquisition of assets known as Dex Media East in November 2002 and a $ 4 @.@ 30 billion acquisition of assets known as Dex Media West in 2003 . R. H. Donnelley Corporation acquired Dex Media in 2006 . Shortly after Dex Media , other larger buyouts would be completed signaling the resurgence in private equity was underway . The acquisitions included Burger King ( by Bain Capital ) , Jefferson Smurfit ( by Madison Dearborn ) , Houghton Mifflin ( by Bain Capital , the Blackstone Group and Thomas H. Lee Partners ) and TRW Automotive by the Blackstone Group .
In 2006 USA Today reported retrospectively on the revival of private equity :
LBOs are back , only they 've rebranded themselves private equity and vow a happier ending . The firms say this time it 's completely different . Instead of buying companies and dismantling them , as was their rap in the ' 80s , private equity firms … squeeze more profit out of underperforming companies .
But whether today 's private equity firms are simply a regurgitation of their counterparts in the 1980s … or a kinder , gentler version , one thing remains clear : private equity is now enjoying a " Golden Age . " And with returns that triple the S & P 500 , it 's no wonder they are challenging the public markets for supremacy .
By 2004 and 2005 , major buyouts were once again becoming common and market observers were stunned by the leverage levels and financing terms obtained by financial sponsors in their buyouts . Some of the notable buyouts of this period include : Dollarama ( 2004 ) , Toys " R " Us ( 2004 ) , The Hertz Corporation ( 2005 ) , Metro @-@ Goldwyn @-@ Mayer ( 2005 ) and SunGard ( 2005 ) .
= = = Age of the mega @-@ buyout = = =
As 2005 ended and 2006 began , new " largest buyout " records were set and surpassed several times with nine of the top ten buyouts at the end of 2007 having been announced in an 18 @-@ month window from the beginning of 2006 through the middle of 2007 . Additionally , the buyout boom was not limited to the United States as industrialized countries in Europe and the Asia @-@ Pacific region also saw new records set . In 2006 , private equity firms bought 654 U.S. companies for $ 375 billion , representing 18 times the level of transactions closed in 2003 . Additionally , U.S. based private equity firms raised $ 215 @.@ 4 billion in investor commitments to 322 funds , surpassing the previous record set in 2000 by 22 % and 33 % higher than the 2005 fundraising total . However , venture capital funds , which were responsible for much of the fundraising volume in 2000 ( the height of the dot @-@ com bubble ) , raised only $ 25 @.@ 1 billion in 2006 , a 2 % percent decline from 2005 and a significant decline from its peak . The following year , despite the onset of turmoil in the credit markets in the summer , saw yet another record year of fundraising with $ 302 billion of investor commitments to 415 funds .
Among the largest buyouts of this period included : Georgia @-@ Pacific Corp ( 2005 ) , Albertson 's ( 2006 ) , Equity Office Properties ( 2006 ) , Freescale Semiconductor ( 2006 ) , GMAC ( 2006 ) , HCA ( 2006 ) , Kinder Morgan ( 2006 ) , Harrah 's Entertainment ( 2006 ) , TDC A / S ( 2006 ) , Sabre Holdings ( 2006 ) , Travelport ( 2006 ) , Alliance Boots ( 2007 ) , Biomet ( 2007 ) , Chrysler ( 2007 ) , First Data ( 2007 ) and TXU ( 2007 ) .
= = = Publicly traded private equity = = =
Although there had previously been certain instances of publicly traded private equity vehicles , the convergence of private equity and the public equity markets attracted significantly greater attention when several of the largest private equity firms pursued various options through the public markets . Taking private equity firms and private equity funds public appeared an unusual move since private equity funds often buy public companies listed on exchange and then take them private . Private equity firms are rarely subject to the quarterly reporting requirements of the public markets and tout this independence to prospective sellers as a key advantage of going private . Nevertheless , there are fundamentally two separate opportunities that private equity firms pursued in the public markets . These options involved a public listing of either :
A private equity firm ( the management company ) , which provides shareholders an opportunity to gain exposure to the management fees and carried interest earned by the investment professionals and managers of the private equity firm . The most notable example of this public listing was completed by The Blackstone Group in 2007
A private equity fund or similar investment vehicle , which allows investors that would otherwise be unable to invest in a traditional private equity limited partnership to gain exposure to a portfolio of private equity investments .
In May 2006 , Kohlberg Kravis Roberts raised $ 5 billion in an initial public offering for a new permanent investment vehicle ( KKR Private Equity Investors or KPE ) listing it on the Euronext exchange in Amsterdam ( ENXTAM : KPE ) . KKR raised more than three times what it had expected at the outset as many of the investors in KPE were hedge funds that sought exposure to private equity but that could not make long term commitments to private equity funds . Because private equity had been booming in the preceding years , the proposition of investing in a KKR fund appeared attractive to certain investors . KPE 's first @-@ day performance was lackluster , trading down 1 @.@ 7 % and trading volume was limited . Initially , a handful of other private equity firms , including Blackstone , and hedge funds had planned to follow KKR 's lead but when KPE was increased to $ 5 billion , it soaked up all the demand . That , together with the slump of KPE 's shares , caused the other firms to shelve their plans . KPE 's stock declined from an IPO price of € 25 per share to € 18 @.@ 16 ( a 27 % decline ) at the end of 2007 and a low of € 11 @.@ 45 ( a 54 @.@ 2 % decline ) per share in Q1 2008 . KPE disclosed in May 2008 that it had completed approximately $ 300 million of secondary sales of selected limited partnership interests in and undrawn commitments to certain KKR @-@ managed funds in order to generate liquidity and repay borrowings .
On March 22 , 2007 , after nine months of secret preparations , the Blackstone Group filed with the SEC to raise $ 4 billion in an initial public offering . On June 21 , Blackstone sold a 12 @.@ 3 % stake in its ownership to the public for $ 4 @.@ 13 billion in the largest U.S. IPO since 2002 . Traded on the New York Stock Exchange under the ticker symbol BX , Blackstone priced at $ 31 per share on June 22 , 2007 .
Less than two weeks after the Blackstone Group IPO , rival firm Kohlberg Kravis Roberts filed with the SEC in July 2007 to raise $ 1 @.@ 25 billion by selling an ownership interest in its management company . KKR had previously listed its KKR Private Equity Investors ( KPE ) private equity fund vehicle in 2006 . The onset of the credit crunch and the shutdown of the IPO market would dampen the prospects of obtaining a valuation that would be attractive to KKR and the flotation was repeatedly postponed .
Meanwhile , other private equity investors were seeking to realize a portion of the value locked into their firms . In September 2007 , the Carlyle Group sold a 7 @.@ 5 % interest in its management company to Mubadala Development Company , which is owned by the Abu Dhabi Investment Authority ( ADIA ) for $ 1 @.@ 35 billion , which valued Carlyle at approximately $ 20 billion . Similarly , in January 2008 , Silver Lake Partners sold a 9 @.@ 9 % stake in its management company to the California Public Employees ' Retirement System ( CalPERS ) for $ 275 million .
Additionally , Apollo Management completed a private placement of shares in its management company in July 2007 . By pursuing a private placement rather than a public offering , Apollo would be able to avoid much of the public scrutiny applied to Blackstone and KKR . In April 2008 , Apollo filed with the SEC to permit some holders of its privately traded stock to sell their shares on the New York Stock Exchange . In April 2004 , Apollo raised $ 930 million for a listed business development company , Apollo Investment Corporation ( NASDAQ : AINV ) , to invest primarily in middle @-@ market companies in the form of mezzanine debt and senior secured loans , as well as by making direct equity investments in companies . The Company also invests in the securities of public companies .
Historically , in the United States , there had been a group of publicly traded private equity firms that were registered as business development companies ( BDCs ) under the Investment Company Act of 1940 . Typically , BDCs are structured similar to real estate investment trusts ( REITs ) in that the BDC structure reduces or eliminates corporate income tax . In return , REITs are required to distribute 90 % of their income , which may be taxable to its investors . As of the end of 2007 , among the largest BDCs ( by market value , excluding Apollo Investment Corp , discussed earlier ) are : American Capital Strategies ( NASDAQ : ACAS ) , Allied Capital Corp ( NASDAQ : ALD ) , Ares Capital Corporation ( NASDAQ : ARCC ) , Gladstone Investment Corp ( NASDAQ : GAIN ) and Kohlberg Capital Corp ( NASDAQ : KCAP ) .
= = = Secondary market and the evolution of the private equity asset class = = =
In the wake of the collapse of the equity markets in 2000 , many investors in private equity sought an early exit from their outstanding commitments . The surge in activity in the secondary market , which had previously been a relatively small niche of the private equity industry , prompted new entrants to the market , however the market was still characterized by limited liquidity and distressed prices with private equity funds trading at significant discounts to fair value .
Beginning in 2004 and extending through 2007 , the secondary market transformed into a more efficient market in which assets for the first time traded at or above their estimated fair values and liquidity increased dramatically . During these years , the secondary market transitioned from a niche sub @-@ category in which the majority of sellers were distressed to an active market with ample supply of assets and numerous market participants . By 2006 active portfolio management had become far more common in the increasingly developed secondary market and an increasing number of investors had begun to pursue secondary sales to rebalance their private equity portfolios . The continued evolution of the private equity secondary market reflected the maturation and evolution of the larger private equity industry . Among the most notable publicly disclosed secondary transactions ( it is estimated that over two @-@ thirds of secondary market activity is never disclosed publicly ) : CalPERS ( 2008 ) , Ohio Bureau of Workers ' Compensation ( 2007 ) , MetLife ( 2007 ) , Bank of America ( 2006 and 2007 ) , Mellon Financial Corporation ( 2006 ) , American Capital Strategies ( 2006 ) , JPMorgan Chase , Temasek Holdings , Dresdner Bank and Dayton Power & Light .
= = The Credit Crunch and post @-@ modern private equity ( 2007 – 2008 ) = =
In July 2007 , turmoil that had been affecting the mortgage markets , spilled over into the leveraged finance and high @-@ yield debt markets . The markets had been highly robust during the first six months of 2007 , with highly issuer friendly developments including PIK and PIK Toggle ( interest is " Payable In Kind " ) and covenant light debt widely available to finance large leveraged buyouts . July and August saw a notable slowdown in issuance levels in the high yield and leveraged loan markets with only few issuers accessing the market . Uncertain market conditions led to a significant widening of yield spreads , which coupled with the typical summer slowdown led to many companies and investment banks to put their plans to issue debt on hold until the autumn . However , the expected rebound in the market after Labor Day 2007 did not materialize and the lack of market confidence prevented deals from pricing . By the end of September , the full extent of the credit situation became obvious as major lenders including Citigroup and UBS AG announced major writedowns due to credit losses . The leveraged finance markets came to a near standstill . As a result of the sudden change in the market , buyers would begin to withdraw from or renegotiate the deals completed at the top of the market , most notably in transactions involving : Harman International ( announced and withdrawn 2007 ) , Sallie Mae ( announced 2007 but withdrawn 2008 ) , Clear Channel Communications ( 2007 ) and BCE ( 2007 ) .
Additionally , the credit crunch has prompted buyout firms to pursue a new group of transactions in order to deploy their massive investment funds . These transactions have included Private Investment in Public Equity ( or PIPE ) transactions as well as purchases of debt in existing leveraged buyout transactions . Some of the most notable of these transactions completed in the depths of the credit crunch include Apollo Management 's acquisition of the Citigroup Loan Portfolio ( 2008 ) and TPG Capital 's PIPE investment in Washington Mutual ( 2008 ) . According to investors and fund managers , the consensus among industry members in late 2009 was that private equity firms will need to become more like asset managers , offering buyouts as just part of their portfolio , or else focus tightly on specific sectors in order to prosper . The industry must also become better in adding value by turning businesses around rather than pure financial engineering .
= = Responses to private equity = =
= = = 1980s reflections of private equity = = =
Although private equity rarely received a thorough treatment in popular culture , several films did feature stereotypical " corporate raiders " prominently . Among the most notable examples of private equity featured in motion pictures included :
Wall Street ( 1987 ) – The notorious " corporate raider " and " greenmailer " Gordon Gekko , representing a synthesis of the worst features of various famous private equity figures , intends to manipulate an ambitious young stockbroker to take over a failing but decent airline . Although Gekko makes a pretense of caring about the airline , his intentions prove to be to destroy the airline , strip its assets and lay off its employees before raiding the corporate pension fund . Gekko would become a symbol in popular culture for unrestrained greed ( with the signature line , " Greed , for lack of a better word , is good " ) that would be attached to the private equity industry .
Other People 's Money ( 1991 ) – A self @-@ absorbed corporate raider " Larry the Liquidator " ( Danny DeVito ) , sets his sights on New England Wire and Cable , a small @-@ town business run by family patriarch Gregory Peck who is principally interested in protecting his employees and the town .
Pretty Woman ( 1990 ) – Although Richard Gere 's profession is incidental to the plot , the selection of the corporate raider who intends to destroy the hard work of a family @-@ run business by acquiring the company in a hostile takeover and then selling off the company 's parts for a profit ( compared in the movie to an illegal chop shop ) . Ultimately , the corporate raider is won over and chooses not to pursue his original plans for the company .
Two other works were pivotal in framing the image of buyout firms . Barbarians at the Gate , the 1990 best seller about the fight over RJR Nabisco linked private equity to hostile takeovers and assaults on management . A blistering story on the front page of the Wall Street Journal the same year about KKR 's buyout of the Safeway supermarket chain painted a much more damaging picture . The piece , which later won a Pulitzer Prize , began with the suicide of a Safeway worker in Texas who had been laid off and went on to chronicle how KKR had sold off hundreds of stores after the buyout and slashed jobs .
= = = Contemporary reflections of private equity and private equity controversies = = =
Carlyle group featured prominently in Michael Moore 's 2003 film Fahrenheit 9 @-@ 11 . The film suggested that The Carlyle Group exerted tremendous influence on U.S. government policy and contracts through their relationship with the president ’ s father , George H. W. Bush , a former senior adviser to the Carlyle Group . Additionally , Moore cited relationships with the Bin Laden family . The movie quotes author Dan Briody claiming that the Carlyle Group " gained " from September 11 because it owned United Defense , a military contractor , although the firm ’ s $ 11 billion Crusader artillery rocket system developed for the U.S. Army is one of the few weapons systems canceled by the Bush administration .
Over the next few years , attention intensified on private equity as the size of transactions and profile of the companies increased . The attention would increase significantly following a series of events involving The Blackstone Group : the firm 's initial public offering and the birthday celebration of its CEO . The Wall Street Journal observing Blackstone Group 's Steve Schwarzman 's 60th birthday celebration in February 2007 described the event as follows :
The Armory 's entrance hung with banners painted to replicate Mr. Schwarzman 's sprawling Park Avenue apartment . A brass band and children clad in military uniforms ushered in guests . A huge portrait of Mr. Schwarzman , which usually hangs in his living room , was shipped in for the occasion . The affair was emceed by comedian Martin Short . Rod Stewart performed . Composer Marvin Hamlisch did a number from " A Chorus Line . " Singer Patti LaBelle led the Abyssinian Baptist Church choir in a tune about Mr. Schwarzman . Attendees included Colin Powell and New York Mayor Michael Bloomberg . The menu included lobster , baked Alaska and a 2004 Maison Louis Jadot Chassagne Montrachet , among other fine wines .
Schwarzman received a severe backlash from both critics of the private equity industry and fellow investors in private equity . The lavish event which reminded many of the excesses of notorious executives including Bernie Ebbers ( WorldCom ) and Dennis Kozlowski ( Tyco International ) . David Bonderman , the founder of TPG Capital remarked , " We have all wanted to be private – at least until now . When Steve Schwarzman 's biography with all the dollar signs is posted on the web site none of us will like the furor that results – and that 's even if you like Rod Stewart . " As the IPO drew closer , there were moves by a number of congressman and senators to block the stock offering and to raise taxes on private equity firms and / or their partners — proposals many attributed in part to the extravagance of the party .
David Rubenstein 's fears would be confirmed when in 2007 , the Service Employees International Union launched a campaign against private equity firms , specifically the largest buyout firms through public events , protests as well as leafleting and web campaigns . A number of leading private equity executives were targeted by the union members however the SEIU 's campaign was non nearly as effective at slowing the buyout boom as the credit crunch of 2007 and 2008 would ultimately prove to be .
In 2008 , the SEIU would shift part of its focus from attacking private equity firms directly toward the highlighting the role of sovereign wealth funds in private equity . The SEIU pushed legislation in California that would disallow investments by state agencies ( particularly CalPERS and CalSTRS ) in firms with ties to certain sovereign wealth funds . Additionally , the SEIU has attempted to criticize the treatment of taxation of carried interest . The SEIU , and other critics , point out that many wealthy private equity investors pay taxes at lower rates ( because the majority of their income is derived from carried interest , payments received from the profits on a private equity fund 's investments ) than many of the rank and file employees of a private equity firm 's portfolio companies .
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= Matthew Deady =
Matthew Paul Deady ( May 12 , 1824 – March 24 , 1893 ) was a politician and jurist in the Oregon Territory and the state of Oregon of the United States . He served on the Oregon Supreme Court from 1853 to 1859 , at which time he was appointed to the newly created federal court of the state . He remained on this federal trial level court , the United States District Court for the District of Oregon in Portland , Oregon , as the sole judge until his death in 1893 . While on the court he presided over the trial that led to the United States Supreme Court decision of Pennoyer v. Neff concerning personal jurisdiction .
Prior to joining the court , Deady served in the legislature of the Oregon Territory , including time served as the President of the Council , and was elected as President of the Oregon Constitutional Convention in 1857 . A native of the state of Maryland , his first profession was as a blacksmith . He would also spend time as a teacher in both Ohio and Oregon . Deady read law in Ohio and practiced law for a time in that state before immigrating to the Oregon Territory via the Oregon Trail . In Oregon , he helped codify the laws of the state and assisted in the foundation of the Multnomah County Library in Portland . He also was president of the University of Oregon 's board of regents . The university renamed Deady Hall in his honor after his death .
= = Early life = =
Matthew Deady was born near Easton , Talbot County , Maryland , on May 12 , 1824 . His parents were Daniel Deady and the former Mary Ann McSweeny . His father was born in Ireland on September 25 , 1794 , and married McSweeny on June 10 , 1823 . Matthew was the oldest of five children in the family . He began his education at the school where his father was a teacher , remaining at that school until the age of twelve . In 1828 , the family relocated from the Baltimore , Maryland , area to Wheeling Virginia now ( West Virginia ) . The Deadys also lived for brief periods of time in Cincinnati , Ohio , Rodney , Missouri , and Covington , Kentucky .
In Wheeling , his father was employed as a teacher and principal at the Lancasterian Academy . On May 31 , 1834 , his mother died while the family was living in Wheeling . Deady ’ s family was split up , with Matthew sent back to Baltimore for two years . In Baltimore , he lived with an uncle and grandfather while working in a store . Deady then returned to Wheeling to live with his father while attending school and working in a local music shop . In the Spring of 1837 he moved just across the Ohio River to the state of Ohio where his father had purchased a farm in Beaver Township .
Matthew Deady spent the next four years working for his father on the family farm , engaged in manual labor , while also reading extensively in his spare time . On February 17 , 1841 , he left home after a disagreement with his father and moved to Barnesville , Ohio . For four years he lived with the family of John Kelly , working as a blacksmith ’ s apprentice . Beginning in 1843 , Deady attended Barnesville Academy , continuing his education there until four months beyond the time that his blacksmith apprenticeship ended . The apprenticeship had paid for the first six months of school . At the school he earned a certificate that allowed him to become a teacher on July 7 , 1845 , from his instructor Nathan R. Smith .
After graduating , Deady began teaching to pay off a debt incurred for his education , and began to read law . He read law in St. Clairsville , Ohio , under the guidance of judge and former Congressman William Kennon . Deady passed the Ohio bar on October 26 , 1847 , and began practicing law in St. Clairsville at the office of Henry Kennon . He remained there until on April 17 , 1849 , he began his overland journey over the Oregon Trail to the newly created Oregon Territory .
= = Oregon = =
Deady originally was to travel with a government designated Indian agent and the agent 's family . At Fort Leavenworth the agent remained , and Deady continued his journey in the company of a United States Army regiment bound for Fort Vancouver . Taking the Oregon Trail , he arrived where Portland , Oregon , now stands on November 14 , 1849 . The next day he went to neighboring Oregon City , and then a few days later west to Lafayette , Oregon . At that city , the county seat of Yamhill County at that time , the red @-@ haired Deady began teaching as his occupation to make ends meet . He first worked for room and board , but for the second term of the school year he was paid $ 75 per month .
While teaching he was consulted by the county commissioner and helped to set up the courts and laws in Yamhill County . In March 1850 , he began practicing law in Oregon , appearing for three cases before judge Orville C. Pratt held at a local tavern . After receiving payment for his services , he sent $ 100 back to Ohio to Henry Kennon to pay off some debt . That summer he worked for Peter H. Burnett ’ s brother , Elder Glen Burnett , running his store while Burnett was in California acquiring supplies . While working at the store he sold many supplies to the local Native Americans and learned some Chinook jargon from them .
On June 24 , 1852 , Deady married Lucy A. Henderson , with whom he would have three children who survived childbirth . Lucy came to Oregon in 1846 with her parents Robert Henderson and Rhoda Holman from Kentucky . The Deady ’ s children were three sons ; Edward Nesmith ( born 1853 ) , Paul Robert ( born 1856 ) , and Henderson Brooke ( born 1869 ) . Henderson studied medicine , while Paul and Edward became attorneys like their father . Matthew Geoffrey ( born 1860 ) and Mary ( born 1866 ) died at birth .
While practicing law at Lafayette he represented Adam Wimple of neighboring Polk County after Wimple had been charged for murdering his wife . Deady represented him at trial and was to receive as payment Wimple ’ s land claim via his will . Wimple was convicted of the murder and sentenced to death , but was only hung after being recaptured from a jail break . In 1852 , Deady was among many legal minds and politicians in the territory such as Joseph C. Avery and Robert Moore that signed a petition asking Governor John P. Gaines to pardon Nimrod O 'Kelly after O 'Kelly 's controversial conviction for murder . O 'Kelly was eventually spared from the gallows .
= = Political career = =
Deady was elected to the Oregon Territorial Legislature in 1850 , where he represented Yamhill County as a Democrat in the lower chamber House of Representatives . He attended the session held in Oregon City beginning in December , where he met James W. Nesmith and Asahel Bush for the first time . Those three would become influential leaders of the Democratic Party in the Oregon Territory , and later the state of Oregon . Deady was an early member of the Democratic Party in the territory .
During his initial session in the territorial legislature in 1850 , Deady served on the judicial committee and helped draft many of the laws in the territory . The Oregon Territory had just been created by the United States Congress in 1848 , with the territorial government taking control in early 1849 . Following the 1850 to 1851 session , the secretary of the territory , Edward D. Hamilton , asked Deady to assist in publishing the laws passed by the legislature for all previous sessions of the legislative assembly . Deady helped with this process , in what became the first volume of laws published in Oregon .
In 1851 , Deady was elected to the upper chamber Council , and the following session served as President of that chamber . During the 1851 session he served as chairman of the Council ’ s judiciary committee . In all , Deady attended two regular sessions and one special session of the legislature from 1851 to 1853 .
= = = Judicial career = = =
Matthew Deady was then appointed as an associate justice of the Territorial Supreme Court in 1853 by United States President Franklin Pierce . Pierce appointed him to a second term in 1857 . At this time justices of the court also rode circuit , presiding over trials in designated counties in addition to serving as an appellate court judge for the Supreme Court . Deady was assigned to the southern counties of the territory , holding court in each county twice per year .
During this time on the court , in the Spring of 1853 , he moved south to a farm in the Umpqua River valley . After paying a squatter $ 100 for the land on Campas Swale , Deady filed for a land claim under the Donation Land Claim Act and moved the family there in the fall , naming it Fair Oaks . While on the court , he helped to establish the court systems in four of the counties in Southern Oregon , and traveled around 1 @,@ 500 miles ( 2 @,@ 400 km ) each year to hold court . He won election to a full term in 1858 to take effect once Oregon became a state , but resigned before taking office in 1859 .
In 1857 , Deady was elected as a delegate to the Oregon Constitutional Convention . The convention was held in the territorial capital of Salem to prepare the territory for statehood . He became president of the body and was influential in shaping the new state constitution , which outlawed slavery but excluded African @-@ Americans from settling in the new state . Deady successfully advocated for provisions in the document to set six @-@ year terms for judges , four @-@ year terms for state officers , and biennial sessions for the legislature . He also led the southern party , which opposed state education in all forms . During the debates Deady also advocated for discrimination towards Chinese immigrants and Blacks , as well as in favor for slavery in Oregon .
On March 7 , 1859 , he was nominated as U.S. District Judge for the District of Oregon by President James Buchanan . Two days later the United States Senate confirmed the nomination and Deady received his commission to the court that had been created once Oregon became the 33rd state on February 14 , 1859 . Deady held the first session of the court on September 12 , 1859 , in Salem , but had the court relocated to Portland by the start of the September session of 1860 . Deady then moved to Portland where he helped to found the Multnomah County Library . He would serve as president of that organization for a number of years . In Portland , he wrote the articles of incorporation for the city , which became the standard in the state for other cities . At first Portland did not have a courthouse for Deady to use , so he rented two rooms from Benjamin Stark on what is now Water Street until a federal courthouse was built beginning in 1869 . That courthouse was first named the United States Building , and is now named the Pioneer Courthouse , with Deady moving into the building when it was finished in 1875 .
In 1867 , United States Supreme Court justice Stephen Johnson Field assigned Deady to serve as a circuit court judge for the United States circuit court located in San Francisco , California . Deady did the same in 1868 and 1869 since there was no circuit court judge assigned to the West Coast at that time , spending three months in San Francisco each year . This was a common practice during this period , as United States Supreme Court justices still rode circuit , and often assigned federal district court judges to serve on the appellate level circuit courts . The Judiciary Act of 1869 reduced much of this process , as did the Judiciary Act of 1891 that established the current United States courts of appeals with Oregon in the Ninth Circuit . While serving on the district court , Deady served as president of the Board of Regents of the State University ( later University of Oregon ) from 1873 to 1893 . He also designed the university ’ s seal , which is still used by the school .
In 1874 , in a district court case , Deady ruled in favor of Marcus Neff in a lawsuit against Sylvester Pennoyer concerning unpaid legal fees to John H. Mitchell and a sheriff 's auction of Neff 's land to Pennoyer . The case would become the landmark U.S. Supreme Court decision of Pennoyer v. Neff that helped define the law of personal jurisdiction . In 1885 , Deady admitted Mary Leonard to the federal bar , the first woman admitted to practice in Oregon , though the Oregon Supreme Court at first denied her admittance to the state bar on technical grounds . Later that year the Oregon legislature resolved the technical issue in the statute and the state high court admitted Leonard into the state bar .
Among Deady 's work is the General Laws of Oregon , which he compiled and annotated in 1866 . This work consisted of a Code of Civil Procedure , a Penal Code , and a Code of Criminal Procedure . In this role he not only codified existing laws , but also made new laws . Deady often drafted the legislation that led to state statutes , thus playing a crucial role in the lawmaking process in the state of Oregon between 1859 and 1872 . In 1874 , Deady and fellow code commissioner and later U.S. Representative Lafayette Lane updated Deady ’ s earlier compilation of the state ’ s laws . His criminal laws remained largely in effect in Oregon until the legislature revised much of those laws in 1971 . Deady also was the author of the state 's business incorporation act . The act was the first in the country to place all business corporations on the same level by requiring a minimum of three people to incorporate as a business . Regarding Deady 's contributions to Oregon , former Oregon Supreme Court justice and United States Attorney General George Henry Williams said : " No hand has been so strongly and deeply impressed upon the legislative and judicial history of Oregon as that of Judge Deady . "
= = Later years and legacy = =
As a prominent figure in Portland he continually worked to raise funds for the library he supported . He would also rely on financial help from his associates in order to supplement his small salary as a federal judge . This allowed him to keep his personal appearance inline with what was expected of prominent citizens . In contravention to his earlier stances during the Oregon Constitutional Convention , Deady later denounced violence against Chinese Americans during the 1870s and 1880s , even convening a grand jury to examine charging anti @-@ Chinese crowds with criminal acts . These crowds were threatening violence against these minorities in an attempt to expel the immigrants from the state .
In Portland , Deady helped establish the University of Oregon ’ s law school . As the first public law school in the state , the University of Oregon School of Law opened in 1884 with an address by Deady . The school later moved to the main campus in Eugene .
From his work in California , the state bar in that state passed a resolution of thanks for Deady ’ s work . He was also named as a regent to Stanford University by then United States Senator Leland Stanford . Deady gave many public speeches and was a prolific writer on the law and other subjects , in addition to his national reputation in the legal field .
In 1878 , Matthew 's father Daniel died . In October 1892 , he suffered a stroke , but continued to preside over the courtroom . Matthew Paul Deady died in Portland on March 24 , 1893 , at the age of 68 . In 1893 , the first building at the University of Oregon was renamed in Deady 's honor . Built in 1876 , Deady Hall joined the National Register of Historic Places in 1972 and was designated a National Historic Landmark in 1977 . Matthew ’ s wife Lucy died in 1923 , followed by son Henderson in 1933 . The eldest son Edward died in 1914 , with middle son Paul ’ s death coming in 1920 .
Due to continued political pressure from the University of Oregon community , Deady Hall has been the target of a renaming effort . On May 6 , 2016 , President of the University , Michael H. Schill set forth a collection of criteria that will determine Deady 's Hall potential denaming .
= = Works authored = =
Matthew Deady authored more than ten different works in addition to his court opinions .
The Code of Civil Procedure and Other General Statutes of Oregon : Enacted by the Legislative Assembly at the Session Commencing September 8 , A.D. 1862 . With A. C. Gibbs and James K. Kelly . Asahel Bush , State Printer : Salem , Or . ( 1863 ) .
The Organic and Other General Laws of Oregon , Together with the National Constitution and Other Public Acts and Statutes of the United States . 1845 @-@ 1864 . H.L. Pittock , State Printer : Portland . ( 1866 ) .
Reports of Cases Determined in the Circuit and District Courts of the United States of Oregon and California . A.L. Bancroft : San Francisco . ( 1872 ) .
The Organic and Other General Laws of Oregon , Together with the National Constitution and Other Public Acts and Statutes of the United States : 1843 @-@ 1872 . With Lafayette Lane . E. Semple , State Printer : Portland . ( 1874 ) .
History and Progress of Oregon After 1845 : In Continuation of the History of Oregon Before 1845 , as Given in Deady 's Address to the Pioneers at Salem in 1875 . With Hubert Howe Bancroft .
Wallamet or Willamette . G.H. Himes : Portland . ( 1875 ) .
An Address to the Graduating Class of Wallamet University . Geo . H. Himes ' Steam Printing Establishment : Portland . ( 1876 ) .
" Annual Address to the Oregon Pioneer Association . ( 1876 ) .
Oration Delivered at Roseburg . Committee of Arrangements : Roseburg , Or . ( 1877 ) .
An Address to the Graduating Class of the University of Oregon . G.H. Himes : Portland . ( 1878 ) .
The Dallas Methodist Mission Cases . Opinion of the Court . Himes . ( 1879 ) .
" To be or to have " : 1879 : An Address to the Graduating Class of the University of Oregon . Published by order of the Board of Regents : Portland . ( 1879 ) .
Commencement Address Delivered at St. Helen 's Hall , Portland , Oregon . Portland . ( 1880 ) .
Oration Delivered at Portland by Matthew P. Deady ... July 4 , 1885 . A. G. Walling : Portland . ( 1885 ) .
" Towns and cities " : University of Oregon Commencement 1886 Address . Published by order of the Board of Regents : Portland . ( 1886 ) .
Addresses by Matthew P. Deady , U. S. District Judge : Centennial Celebration Washington 's Inauguration , Portland , Oregon , April 30 , 1889 , and Fourth of July , Vancouver , Washington , 1889 . Himes Printing Co . : Portland . ( 1890 ) .
Pharisee Among Philistines : The Diary of Judge Matthew P. Deady , 1871 @-@ 1892 . Oregon Historical Society : Portland . ( 1975 ) .
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= Christopher Nolan =
Christopher Edward Nolan ( / ˈnoʊlən / ; born July 30 , 1970 ) is an English @-@ American film director , screenwriter , and producer . He is one of the highest @-@ grossing directors in history , and among the most successful and acclaimed filmmakers of the 21st century .
Having made his directorial debut with Following ( 1998 ) , Nolan gained considerable attention for his second feature , Memento ( 2000 ) . The acclaim of these independent films gave Nolan the opportunity to make the big @-@ budget thriller Insomnia ( 2002 ) , and the mystery drama The Prestige ( 2006 ) . He found further popular and critical success with the The Dark Knight Trilogy ( 2005 – 2012 ) , Inception ( 2010 ) and Interstellar ( 2014 ) . His nine films have grossed over US $ 4 @.@ 2 billion worldwide and garnered a total of 26 Oscar nominations and seven awards . Nolan has co @-@ written several of his films with his younger brother , Jonathan Nolan , and runs the production company Syncopy Inc. with his wife Emma Thomas .
Nolan 's films are rooted in philosophical , sociological and ethical concepts , exploring human morality , the construction of time , and the malleable nature of memory and personal identity . His body of work is permeated by metafictive elements , temporal shifts , solipsistic perspectives , nonlinear storytelling , practical special effects , and analogous relationships between visual language and narrative elements .
= = Life and career = =
= = = Early life and career beginnings : 1970 – 97 = = =
Nolan was born in London . His English father , Brendan James Nolan , was an advertising executive , and his American mother , Christina ( née Jensen ) , worked as a flight attendant and an English teacher . His childhood was split between London and Chicago , and he has both British and American citizenship . He has an older brother , Matthew , and a younger brother , Jonathan . He began making films at age seven , borrowing his father 's Super 8 camera and shooting short films with his action figures . Growing up , Nolan was a great admirer of Star Wars ( 1977 ) , and around the age of eight he made a stop motion animation homage called Space Wars . His uncle who worked at NASA , building guidance systems for the Apollo rockets , sent him some launch footage . " I re @-@ filmed them off the screen and cut them in , thinking no @-@ one would notice , " Nolan later remarked . From the age of 11 , he aspired to be a professional filmmaker . When Nolan 's family relocated to Chicago during his formative years , he started making films with Adrien and Roko Belic . He has continued his collaboration with the brothers , receiving a credit for his editorial assistance on their Oscar @-@ nominated documentary Genghis Blues ( 1999 ) . Nolan also worked alongside Roko ( and future Pulitzer Prize winner Jeffrey Gettleman ) on documenting a safari across four African countries , organized by the late photojournalist Dan Eldon in the early 1990s .
Nolan was educated at Haileybury and Imperial Service College , an independent school in Hertford Heath , Hertfordshire , and later read English literature at University College London ( UCL ) . He chose UCL specifically for its filmmaking facilities , which comprised a Steenbeck editing suite and 16 mm film cameras . Nolan was president of the Union 's Film Society , and with Emma Thomas ( his girlfriend and future producer ) he screened 35 mm feature films during the school year and used the money earned to produce 16 mm films over the summers . During his college years , Nolan made two short films . The first was the surreal 8 mm Tarantella ( 1989 ) , which was shown on Image Union ( an independent film and video showcase on the Public Broadcasting Service ) . The second was Larceny ( 1995 ) , filmed over a weekend in black and white with a limited cast , crew , and equipment . Funded by Nolan and shot with the society 's equipment , it appeared at the Cambridge Film Festival in 1996 and is considered one of UCL 's best shorts . After graduation , Nolan directed corporate videos and industrial films . He also made a third short , Doodlebug ( 1997 ) , about a man chasing an insect around a flat with a shoe , only to discover when killing it that it is a miniature of himself . During this period of his career , Nolan had little or no success getting his projects off the ground ; he later recalled the " stack of rejection letters " that greeted his early forays into making films , adding " there 's a very limited pool of finance in the UK . To be honest , it 's a very clubby kind of place ... Never had any support whatsoever from the British film industry . "
= = = Breakthrough : 1998 – 2004 = = =
In 1998 Nolan directed his first feature , which he personally funded and filmed with friends . Following depicts an unemployed young writer ( Jeremy Theobald ) who trails strangers through London , hoping they will provide material for his first novel , but is drawn into a criminal underworld when he fails to keep his distance . The film was inspired by Nolan 's experience of living in London and having his flat burgled : " There is an interesting connection between a stranger going through your possessions and the concept of following people at random through a crowd – both take you beyond the boundaries of ordinary social relations " . Following was made on a modest budget of £ 3 @,@ 000 , and was shot on weekends over the course of a year . To conserve film stock , each scene in the film was rehearsed extensively to ensure that the first or second take could be used in the final edit . Co @-@ produced with Emma Thomas and Jeremy Theobald , Nolan wrote , photographed and edited the film himself . Following won several awards during its festival run and was well received by critics ; The New Yorker wrote that it " echoed Hitchcock classics " , but was " leaner and meaner " . On 11 December 2012 , it was released on DVD and Blu @-@ ray as part of the Criterion Collection .
As a result of Following 's success , Nolan was afforded the opportunity to make his breakthrough hit Memento ( 2000 ) . During a road trip from Chicago to Los Angeles , his brother Jonathan pitched the idea for " Memento Mori " , about a man with anterograde amnesia who uses notes and tattoos to hunt for his wife 's murderer . Nolan developed a screenplay that told the story in reverse ; Aaron Ryder , an executive for Newmarket Films , said it was " perhaps the most innovative script I had ever seen " . The film was optioned and given a budget of $ 4 @.@ 5 million . Memento , starring Guy Pearce and Carrie @-@ Anne Moss , premiered in September 2000 at the Venice International Film Festival to critical acclaim . Joe Morgenstern of The Wall Street Journal wrote in his review , " I can 't remember when a movie has seemed so clever , strangely affecting and slyly funny at the very same time . " Basil Smith , in the book The Philosophy of Neo @-@ Noir , draws a comparison with John Locke 's An Essay Concerning Human Understanding which argues that conscious memories constitute our identities , a theme which Nolan explores in the film . The film was a box @-@ office success and received a number of accolades , including Academy Award and Golden Globe Award nominations for its screenplay , Independent Spirit Awards for Best Director and Best Screenplay , and a Directors Guild of America ( DGA ) Award nomination . Memento was considered by numerous critics to be one of the best films of the 2000s .
Impressed by his work on Memento , Steven Soderbergh recruited Nolan to direct the psychological thriller Insomnia ( 2002 ) , starring Academy Award winners Al Pacino , Robin Williams and Hilary Swank . Warner Bros. initially wanted a more seasoned director , but Soderbergh and his Section Eight Productions fought for Nolan , as well as his choice of cinematographer ( Wally Pfister ) and editor ( Dody Dorn ) . With a $ 46 million budget , it was described as " a much more conventional Hollywood film than anything the director has done before " . A remake of the 1997 Norwegian film of the same name , Insomnia is about two Los Angeles detectives sent to a northern Alaskan town to investigate the methodical murder of a local teenager . It received positive reviews from critics and performed well at the box office , earning $ 113 million worldwide . Film critic Roger Ebert praised the film for introducing new perspectives and ideas on the issues of morality and guilt . " Unlike most remakes , the Nolan Insomnia is not a pale retread , but a re @-@ examination of the material , like a new production of a good play . " Erik Skjoldbjærg , the director of the original film , was satisfied with Nolan 's version , calling it a " well crafted , smart film ... with a really good director handling it " . Richard Schickel of Time deemed Insomnia a " worthy successor " to Memento , and " a triumph of atmosphere over a none @-@ too @-@ mysterious mystery . " After Insomnia , Nolan planned a Howard Hughes biographical film starring Jim Carrey . He had written a screenplay , but when he learned that Martin Scorsese was making a Hughes biopic ( 2004 's The Aviator ) he reluctantly tabled his script and moved on to other projects . Having turned down an offer to direct the historical epic Troy ( 2004 ) , Nolan worked on adapting Ruth Rendell 's crime novel The Keys to the Street into a screenplay which he planned to direct for Fox Searchlight Pictures , but eventually left the project citing the similarities to his previous films .
= = = The Dark Knight Trilogy and mainstream success : 2005 – 13 = = =
In early 2003 , Nolan approached Warner Bros. with the idea to make a new Batman film . Fascinated by the character and story , he wanted to make a film grounded in a " relatable " world more reminiscent of a classical drama than a comic @-@ book fantasy . Batman Begins , the biggest project Nolan had undertaken to that point , premiered in June 2005 to both critical acclaim and commercial success . Starring Christian Bale in the title role , along with Michael Caine , Gary Oldman , Morgan Freeman , and Liam Neeson , the film revived the franchise , heralding a trend towards darker films which rebooted ( or retold ) backstories . It tells the origin story of the character from Bruce Wayne 's initial fear of bats , the death of his parents , his journey to become Batman , and his fight against Ra 's al Ghul 's plot to destroy Gotham City . Praised for its psychological depth and contemporary relevance , Kyle Smith of The New York Post called it " a wake @-@ up call to the people who keep giving us cute capers about men in tights . It wipes the smirk off the face of the superhero movie . " Batman Begins was the eighth @-@ highest @-@ grossing film of 2005 in the United States and the year 's ninth @-@ highest @-@ grossing film worldwide . It was nominated for the Academy Award for Best Cinematography and three BAFTA awards . On its 10th anniversary , Forbes published an article describing the film 's influence : " Reboot became part of our modern vocabulary , and superhero origin stories became increasingly en vogue for the genre . The phrase " dark and gritty " likewise joined the cinematic lexicon , influencing our perception of different approaches to storytelling not only in the comic book film genre but in all sorts of other genres as well . "
Before returning to the Batman franchise , Nolan directed , co @-@ wrote and produced The Prestige ( 2006 ) , an adaptation of the Christopher Priest novel about two rival 19th @-@ century magicians . In 2001 , when Nolan was in post @-@ production for Insomnia , he asked his brother Jonathan to help write the script for the film . The screenplay was an intermittent , five @-@ year collaboration between the brothers . Nolan initially intended to make the film as early as 2003 , postponing the project after agreeing to make Batman Begins . Starring Christian Bale and Hugh Jackman in the lead roles , The Prestige received critical acclaim ( including Oscar nominations for Best Cinematography and Best Art Direction ) , and earned over $ 109 million worldwide . With a dark and twisting tale , Roger Ebert described it as " quite a movie — atmospheric , obsessive , almost satanic . " Kenneth Turan of the Los Angeles Times called it an ambitious , unnerving melodrama , noting that the film is about " the price that must be paid for immortality in any creative field , about the risk and sacrifice that superlative magic demands . " Following the release of The Prestige , he was considering to direct a feature film adaptation of the British television series The Prisoner ( 1967 ) , but later dropped out of the project .
In July 2006 Nolan announced that the follow @-@ up to Batman Begins would be called The Dark Knight . Approaching the sequel , Nolan wanted to expand on the noirish quality of the first film by broadening the canvas and taking on " the dynamic of a story of the city , a large crime story ... where you 're looking at the police , the justice system , the vigilante , the poor people , the rich people , the criminals . " Released in 2008 , to great critical acclaim , The Dark Knight has been cited as one of the best films of the 2000s and one of the best superhero films ever made . Manohla Dargis of The New York Times found the film to be of higher artistic merit than many Hollywood blockbusters : " Pitched at the divide between art and industry , poetry and entertainment , it goes darker and deeper than any Hollywood movie of its comic @-@ book kind . " Ebert expressed a similar point of view , describing it as a " haunted film that leaps beyond its origins and becomes an engrossing tragedy . " The film set a number of box @-@ office records during its theatrical run , earning $ 534 @,@ 858 @,@ 444 in North America and $ 469 @,@ 700 @,@ 000 abroad , for a worldwide total of $ 1 @,@ 004 @,@ 558 @,@ 444 . The Dark Knight is the first feature film shot partially in the 15 / 70 mm IMAX format . At the 81st Academy Awards the film was nominated for eight Oscars , winning two : the Academy Award for Best Sound Editing and a posthumous Academy Award for Best Supporting Actor for Heath Ledger . Nolan was recognised by his peers with nominations from the DGA , Writers Guild of America ( WGA ) , and Producers Guild of America ( PGA ) .
After The Dark Knight 's success , Warner Bros. signed Nolan to direct Inception . Nolan also wrote and co @-@ produced the film , described as " a contemporary sci @-@ fi actioner set within the architecture of the mind " . Before being released in theaters , critics like Peter Travers and Lou Lumenick wondered if Nolan 's faith in moviegoers ' intelligence would cost him at the box office . Starring a large ensemble cast led by Leonardo DiCaprio , the film was released on 16 July 2010 , and was a critical and commercial success . Richard Roeper of the Chicago Sun @-@ Times , awarded the film a perfect score of " A + " and called it " one of the best movies of the [ 21st ] century . " Mark Kermode named it the best film of 2010 , stating " Inception is proof that people are not stupid , that cinema is not trash , and that it is possible for blockbusters and art to be the same thing . " Veteran producer John Davis speculated that its success could inspire studios to make more original content ; " I can promise you that heads of studios are already going into production meetings saying we need fresh ideas for summer movies , we want original concepts like Inception that are big and bold enough to carry themselves " . The film ended up grossing over $ 820 million worldwide and was nominated for eight Oscars , including Best Picture ; it won Best Cinematography , Best Sound Mixing , Best Sound Editing and Best Visual Effects . Nolan also received BAFTA , Golden Globe , DGA and PGA Award nominations , as well as a WGA Award for his work on the film . While in post @-@ production on Inception , Nolan gave an interview for These Amazing Shadows ( 2011 ) , a documentary spotlighting film appreciation and preservation by the National Film Registry . He also appeared in Side by Side ( 2012 ) , a documentary about the history , process and workflow of both digital and photochemical film creation .
In 2012 , Nolan directed his third and final Batman film , The Dark Knight Rises . Although he was initially hesitant about returning to the series , he agreed to come back after developing a story with his brother and David S. Goyer which he felt would end the series on a high note . The Dark Knight Rises was released on 20 July 2012 to critical acclaim ; Andrew O 'Hehir of Salon called it " arguably the biggest , darkest , most thrilling and disturbing and utterly balls @-@ out spectacle ever created for the screen " , further describing the work as " auteurist spectacle on a scale never before possible and never before attempted " . Christy Lemire of The Associated Press wrote in her review that Nolan concluded his trilogy in a " typically spectacular , ambitious fashion " , but disliked the " overloaded " story and excessive grimness ; " This is the problem when you 're an exceptional , visionary filmmaker . When you give people something extraordinary , they expect it every time . Anything short of that feels like a letdown . " Like its predecessor it performed well at the box office , becoming the thirteenth film in the world to gross over $ 1 @-@ billion . During a midnight showing of the film at the Century 16 cinema in Aurora , Colorado , a gunman opened fire inside the theater , killing 12 people and injuring 58 others . Nolan released a statement to the press expressing his condolences for the victims of what he described as a senseless tragedy . During story discussions for The Dark Knight Rises in 2010 , Goyer told Nolan of his idea to present Superman in a modern context . Impressed with Goyer 's concept , Nolan pitched the idea for Man of Steel ( 2013 ) to Warner Bros , who hired Nolan to produce and Goyer to write . Nolan offered Zack Snyder to direct the film , based on his stylized adaptations of 300 ( 2007 ) and Watchmen ( 2009 ) and his " innate aptitude for dealing with superheroes as real characters " . Starring Henry Cavill , Amy Adams , Kevin Costner , Russell Crowe and Michael Shannon , Man of Steel grossed more than $ 660 million at the worldwide box office , but garnered a divided critical reaction .
= = = Large @-@ scale epics : 2014 – present = = =
Nolan and Thomas served as executive producers on Transcendence ( 2014 ) , the directorial debut of Nolan 's longtime cinematographer Wally Pfister . Based on a script by Jack Paglen , the film revolves around two scientists who work toward creating a machine that possesses sentience and collective intelligence . Starring Johnny Depp , Rebecca Hall and Paul Bettany , Transcendence was released in theaters on 18 April 2014 to mostly unfavorable reviews . A. A. Dowd of The A.V. Club gave the film a C- rating , pointing out that " [ Pfister ] lacks Nolan 's talent for weaving grand pop spectacle out of cultural anxieties . "
In January 2013 it was announced that Nolan would direct , write and produce a science @-@ fiction film entitled Interstellar . The first drafts of the script were written by Jonathan Nolan , and it was originally to be directed by Steven Spielberg . Based on the scientific theories of renowned theoretical physicist Kip Thorne , the film depicted " a heroic interstellar voyage to the farthest borders of our scientific understanding " . Interstellar starred Matthew McConaughey , Anne Hathaway , Jessica Chastain , Bill Irwin , Michael Caine and Ellen Burstyn , and was notably Nolan 's first collaboration with cinematographer Hoyte van Hoytema . Paramount Pictures and Warner Bros. co @-@ financed and co @-@ distributed the project , released on 5 November 2014 to positive reviews and strong box office results , grossing over $ 670 million worldwide . A. O. Scott wrote , in his review for The New York Times , " Interstellar , full of visual dazzle , thematic ambition ... is a sweeping , futuristic adventure driven by grief , dread and regret . " The film was particularly praised for its scientific accuracy , which led to the publication of two scientific papers and the American Journal of Physics calling for it to be shown in school science lessons . Interstellar was named one of the best films of the year by The American Film Institute ( AFI ) . At the 87th Academy Awards , the film won the Best Visual Effects and received four other nominations — Best Original Score , Best Sound Mixing , Best Sound Editing and Best Production Design . Nolan curated the short film Emic : A Time Capsule From the People of Earth ( 2015 ) . It was specifically inspired by the themes of Interstellar , and " attempts to capture and celebrate the human experience on Earth " .
In 2015 , Nolan 's production company Syncopy formed a joint venture with Zeitgeist Films , to release Blu @-@ ray editions of Zeitgeist 's prestige titles . Their first project was Elena ( 2011 ) from director Andrey Zvyagintsev . As part of a Blu @-@ ray release of the Quay Brothers animated work , Nolan directed the documentary short Quay ( 2015 ) . He also initiated a theatrical tour , showcasing the Quay 's In Absentia , The Comb and Street of Crocodiles . The program and Nolan 's short received critical acclaim , with Indiewire writing in their review that the brothers " will undoubtedly have hundreds , if not thousands more fans because of Nolan , and for that The Quay Brothers in 35mm will always be one of latter 's most important contributions to cinema " . In 2015 , Nolan also joined The Film Foundation 's board of directors , a non @-@ profit organization dedicated to film preservation . On 7 May , it was announced that Nolan and Martin Scorsese had been appointed by the Library of Congress to serve on the National Film Preservation Board ( NFPB ) as DGA representatives . Nolan and Thomas served as executive producers on Batman v Superman : Dawn of Justice ( 2016 ) , the sequel to Man of Steel and the second installment of the DC Extended Universe . Nolan was involved with the production in an " advisory capacity " . The film was a box office success but received mostly negative reviews from critics .
In December 2015 , it was announced that Nolan would direct and produce a film based on World War II , titled Dunkirk , based on his own original screenplay . The film is scheduled to be released on 21 July 2017 . Fionn Whitehead , Tom Hardy , Cillian Murphy , Mark Rylance , Kenneth Branagh , Harry Styles , Jack Lowden and Aneurin Barnard have been confirmed as part of the cast .
= = Filmmaking = =
= = = Style = = =
Regarded an auteur and postmodern filmmaker , Nolan 's visual style often emphasises urban settings , men in suits , muted colors , dialogue scenes framed in wide close @-@ up with a shallow depth of field and modern locations and architecture . He has noted that all of his films are heavily influenced by film noir . Aesthetically , the director favours deep , evocative shadows , documentary @-@ style lighting and natural settings .
Nolan has continuously experimented with metafictive elements , temporal shifts , elliptical cutting , solipsistic perspectives , nonlinear storytelling and the merging of style and form . Discussing The Tree of Life ( 2011 ) , Nolan spoke of Terrence Malick 's work and how it has influenced his own approach to style , " When you think of a visual style , when you think of the visual language of a film , there tends to be a natural separation of the visual style and the narrative elements . But with the greats , whether it 's Stanley Kubrick or Terrence Malick or Hitchcock , what you 're seeing is an inseparable , a vital relationship between the image and the story it 's telling " .
Drawing attention to the intrinsically manipulative nature of the medium , Nolan uses narrative and stylistic techniques ( notably mise en abyme and recursions ) to stimulate the viewer to ask themselves why his films are put together in such ways and why the films provoke particular responses . He often uses editing as a way to represent the characters ' psychological states , merging their subjectivity with that of the audience . For example , in Memento the fragmented sequential order of scenes is to put the audience into a similar experience of Leonard 's defective ability to create new long @-@ term memories . In The Prestige , the series of magic tricks and themes of duality and deception mirror the structural narrative of the film .
The protagonists of Nolan 's films are usually psychologically damaged , obsessively seeking vengeance for the death of a loved one . They are often driven by philosophical beliefs , and their fate is ambiguous . In many of his films the protagonist and antagonist are mirror images of each other , a point which is made to the protagonist by the antagonist . Through these clashings of ideologies , Nolan highlights the ambivalent nature of truth . His writing style incorporates a number of storytelling techniques such as flashbacks , shifting points of view and unreliable narrators . Scenes are often interrupted by the unconventional editing style of cutting away quickly from the money shot ( or nearly cutting off characters ' dialogue ) and crosscutting several scenes of parallel action to build to a climax . Nolan has also stressed the importance of establishing a clear point of view in his films , and makes frequent use of " the shot that walks into a room behind a character , because ... that takes [ the viewer ] inside the way that the character enters " . Nolan uses cinéma @-@ vérité techniques ( such as hand @-@ held camera work ) to convey realism . In an interview at the Film Society of Lincoln Center , he explained his emphasis on realism in The Dark Knight trilogy : " You try and get the audience to invest in cinematic reality . When I talk about reality in these films , it 's often misconstrued as a direct reality , but it 's really about a cinematic reality . "
In collaboration with composer David Julyan , Nolan 's films featured slow and atmospheric scores with minimalistic expressions and ambient textures . In the mid @-@ 2000s , starting with Batman Begins , Nolan began working with Hans Zimmer , who is known for integrating electronic music with traditional orchestral arrangements . With Zimmer , the soundscape in Nolan 's films evolved into becoming increasingly more lush and kinetic . For Interstellar , Zimmer and Nolan wanted to move in a new direction : " We had this sort of conversation about — you know nine years we spent in our Batman world . The textures , the music , and the sounds , and the thing we sort of created has sort of seeped into other people 's movies a bit , so it 's time to reinvent . "
= = = Method = = =
Nolan has described his filmmaking process as a combination of intuition and geometry . " I draw a lot of diagrams when I work . I do a lot of thinking about etchings by Escher , for instance . That frees me , finding a mathematical model or a scientific model . I 'll draw pictures and diagrams that illustrate the movement or the rhythm that I 'm after . " Caltech physicist Kip Thorne compared Nolan 's " deep " intuition to scientists such as Albert Einstein , noting that the director intuitively grasped things non @-@ scientists rarely understand . Nolan deliberately works under a tight schedule during the early stages of the editing process , forcing himself and his editor to work more spontaneously . " I always think of editing as instinctive or impressionist . Not to think too much , in a way , and feel it more . " Nolan also avoids using temp music while cutting his films .
He prefers shooting on film to digital video , and opposes the use of digital intermediates and digital cinematography , which he feels are less reliable and offer inferior image quality to film . In particular , the director advocates for the use of higher @-@ quality , larger @-@ format film stock such as anamorphic 35 mm , VistaVision , 65 mm and IMAX . Nolan uses multi @-@ camera for stunts and single @-@ camera for all the dramatic action , from which he will then watch dailies every night ; " Shooting single @-@ camera means I 've already seen every frame as it 's gone through the gate because my attention isn 't divided to multi @-@ cameras . "
When working with actors , Nolan prefers giving them the time to perform as many takes of a given scene as they want . " I 've come to realize that the lighting and camera setups , the technical things , take all the time , but running another take generally only adds a couple of minutes . ... If an actor tells me they can do something more with a scene , I give them the chance , because it 's not going to cost that much time . It can 't all be about the technical issues . " Gary Oldman praised the director for providing a relaxed atmosphere on set , adding " I 've never seen him raise his voice to anyone " . He also observed that Nolan would give the actors space to " find things in the scene " , and not just give direction for direction 's sake .
Nolan chooses to minimize the amount of computer @-@ generated imagery for special effects in his films , preferring to use practical effects whenever possible , only using CGI to enhance elements which he has photographed in camera . For instance his films Batman Begins , Inception and Interstellar featured 620 , 500 and 850 visual @-@ effects shots , respectively , which is considered minor when compared with contemporary visual @-@ effects epics which may have upwards of 1 @,@ 500 to 2 @,@ 000 VFX shots : " I believe in an absolute difference between animation and photography . However sophisticated your computer @-@ generated imagery is , if it 's been created from no physical elements and you haven 't shot anything , it 's going to feel like animation . There are usually two different goals in a visual effects movie . One is to fool the audience into seeing something seamless , and that 's how I try to use it . The other is to impress the audience with the amount of money spent on the spectacle of the visual effect , and that , I have no interest in " .
Nolan shoots the entirety of his films with one unit , rather than using a second unit for action sequences . In that way Nolan keeps his personality and point of view in every aspect of the film . " If I don 't need to be directing the shots that go in the movie , why do I need to be there at all ? The screen is the same size for every shot ... Many action films embrace a second unit taking on all of the action . For me , that 's odd because then why did you want to do an action film ? " A famously secretive filmmaker , Nolan is also known for his tight security on scripts , even going as far as telling the actors of The Dark Knight Rises the ending of the film verbally to avoid any leaks and also keeping the Interstellar plot secret from his composer Hans Zimmer .
= = = Themes = = =
Nolan 's work explores existential , ethical and epistemological themes such as subjective experience , distortion of memory , human morality , the nature of time , and construction of personal identity . " I 'm fascinated by our subjective perception of reality , that we are all stuck in a very singular point of view , a singular perspective on what we all agree to be an objective reality , and movies are one of the ways in which we try to see things from the same point of view " . Film critic Tom Shone described Nolan 's films as " epistemological thrillers whose protagonists , gripped by the desire for definitive answers , must negotiate mazy environments in which the truth is always beyond their reach . "
His characters are often emotionally disturbed and morally ambiguous , facing the fears and anxieties of loneliness , guilt , jealousy , and greed ; in addition to the larger themes of corruption and conspiracy . By grounding " everyday neurosis – our everyday sort of fears and hopes for ourselves " in a heightened reality , Nolan makes them more accessible to a universal audience . Nolan uses his real @-@ life experiences as an inspiration in his work , " From a creative point of view , the process of growing up , the process of maturing , getting married , having kids , I 've tried to use that in my work . I 've tried to just always be driven by the things that were important to me . " Writing for The Playlist , Oliver Lyttelton singled out parenthood as a signature theme in Nolan 's work , adding ; " the director avoids talking about his private life , but fatherhood has been at the emotional heart of almost everything he 's made , at least from Batman Begins onwards ( previous films , it should be said , pre @-@ dated the birth of his kids ) . " While promoting Interstellar , Jessica Chastain said , " At the heart of it , it 's about love ; it 's about a father and daughter ... I think for Chris , being a father , this story was very close to him . "
Nolan 's most prominent recurring theme is the concept of time . The director has identified that all of his films " have had some odd relationship with time , usually in just a structural sense , in that I have always been interested in the subjectivity of time . " Writing for Film Philosophy , Emma Bell points out that the characters in Inception do not literally time @-@ travel , " rather they escape time by being stricken in it – building the delusion that time has not passed , and is not passing now . They feel time grievously : willingly and knowingly destroying their experience by creating multiple simultaneous existences . " In Interstellar , Nolan explored the laws of physics as represented in Einstein 's theory of general relativity , identifying time as the film 's antagonist . In Nolan 's films reality is often an abstract and fragile concept . Alec Price and M. Dawson of Left Field Cinema , noted that the existential crises of conflicted male figures " struggling with the slippery nature of identity " is a prevalent theme in Nolan 's work . The actual ( or objective ) world is of less importance than the way in which we absorb and remember , and it is this created ( or subjective ) reality that truly matters . " It is solely in the mind and the heart where any sense of permanency or equilibrium can ever be found . " According to film theorist Todd McGowan , these " created realities " also reveal the ethical and political importance of creating fictions and falsehoods . Nolan 's films typically deceive spectators about the events that occur and the motivations of the characters , but they do not abandon the idea of truth altogether . Instead , " They show us how truth must emerge out of the lie if it is not to lead us entirely astray . " McGowan further argues that Nolan is the first filmmaker to devote himself entirely to the illusion of the medium , calling him a Hegelian filmmaker .
The Dark Knight trilogy explored themes of chaos , terrorism , escalation of violence , financial manipulation , utilitarianism , mass surveillance , and class conflicts . Batman 's arc of rising ( philosophically ) from a man to " more than just a man " , is similar to the Nietzschian Übermensch . The films also explore ideas akin to Jean @-@ Jacques Rousseau 's philosophical glorification of a simpler , more @-@ primitive way of life and the concept of general will . Theorist Douglas Kellner saw the series as a critical allegory about the Bush @-@ Cheney era , highlighting the theme of government corruption and failure to solve social problems , as well as the cinematic spectacle and iconography related to 9 / 11 .
In Inception , Nolan was inspired by lucid dreaming and dream incubation . The film 's characters try to embed an idea in a person 's mind without their knowledge , similar to Freud 's theories that the unconscious influences one 's behavior without their knowledge . Most of the film takes place in interconnected dream worlds ; this creates a framework where actions in the real ( or dream ) worlds ripple across others . The dream is always in a state of emergence , shifting across levels as the characters navigate it . Inception , like Memento and The Prestige , uses metaleptic storytelling devices and follows Nolan 's " auteur affinity of converting , moreover , converging narrative and cognitive values into and within a fictional story . " Nolan has said movies are " suited towards addressing paradox , recursiveness , and worlds @-@ within @-@ worlds " .
= = = Influences = = =
Nolan has cited Stanley Kubrick , Terrence Malick , Orson Welles , Fritz Lang , Nicolas Roeg , Sidney Lumet , David Lean , Ridley Scott , Terry Gilliam , and John Frankenheimer as influences . Nolan 's personal favorite films include Blade Runner ( 1982 ) , Star Wars ( 1977 ) , The Man Who Would Be King ( 1975 ) , Lawrence of Arabia ( 1962 ) , Chinatown ( 1974 ) , and 2001 : A Space Odyssey ( 1968 ) . In 2013 , Criterion Collection released a list of Nolan 's ten favorite films from its catalog , which included The Hit ( 1984 ) , 12 Angry Men ( 1957 ) , The Thin Red Line ( 1998 ) , The Testament of Dr. Mabuse ( 1933 ) , Bad Timing ( 1980 ) , Merry Christmas Mr. Lawrence ( 1983 ) , For All Mankind ( 1989 ) , Koyaanisqatsi ( 1982 ) , Mr. Arkadin ( 1955 ) , and Erich von Stroheim 's Greed ( 1924 ) ( unavailable on Criterion ) .
Nolan 's habit for employing non @-@ linear storylines was particularly influenced by the Graham Swift novel Waterland , which he felt " did incredible things with parallel timelines , and told a story in different dimensions that was extremely coherent " . He was also influenced by the visual language of the film Pink Floyd – The Wall ( 1982 ) and the structure of Pulp Fiction ( 1994 ) , stating that he was " fascinated with what Tarantino had done " . Dante 's Inferno , the Labyrinth and the Minotaur served as influences for Inception . For Interstellar he mentioned a number of literary influences , including Flatland by Edwin Abbott Abbott , The Wasp Factory by Iain Banks , and Madeleine L 'Engle 's A Wrinkle in Time . Other influences Nolan has cited include figurative painter Francis Bacon , architect Ludwig Mies van der Rohe , graphic artist M. C. Escher and authors Raymond Chandler , James Ellroy , Jim Thompson , Jorge Luis Borges , and Charles Dickens ( A Tale of Two Cities was a major influence on The Dark Knight Rises ) .
= = Views on the film industry = =
Christopher Nolan is a vocal proponent for the continued use of film stock over digital recording and projection formats , summing up his beliefs as , " I am not committed to film out of nostalgia . I am in favor of any kind of technical innovation but it needs to exceed what has gone before and so far nothing has exceeded anything that 's come before " . Nolan 's major concern is that the film industry 's adoption of digital formats has been driven purely by economic factors as opposed to digital being a superior medium to film , saying : " I think , truthfully , it boils down to the economic interest of manufacturers and [ a production ] industry that makes more money through change rather than through maintaining the status quo . "
Shortly before Christmas of 2011 , Nolan invited several prominent directors , including , Edgar Wright , Michael Bay , Bryan Singer , Jon Favreau , Eli Roth , Duncan Jones and Stephen Daldry , to Universal CityWalk 's IMAX theatre for a private screening of the first six minutes of The Dark Knight Rises , which had been shot on IMAX film and edited from the original camera negative . Nolan used this screening in an attempt to showcase the superiority of the IMAX format over digital , and warn the filmmakers that unless they continued to assert their choice to use film in their productions , Hollywood movie studios would begin to phase out the use of film in favor of digital . Nolan explained ; " I wanted to give them a chance to see the potential , because I think IMAX is the best film format that was ever invented . It 's the gold standard and what any other technology has to match up to , but none have , in my opinion . The message I wanted to put out there was that no one is taking anyone 's digital cameras away . But if we want film to continue as an option , and someone is working on a big studio movie with the resources and the power to insist [ on ] film , they should say so . I felt as if I didn 't say anything , and then we started to lose that option , it would be a shame . When I look at a digitally acquired and projected image , it looks inferior against an original negative anamorphic print or an IMAX one . " In 2015 , Nolan and Tacita Dean invited over 30 representatives from leading American film archives , labs and presenting institutions to participate in an informal summit entitled Reframing the Future of Film at the J. Paul Getty Museum .
Nolan is also an advocate for the importance of films being shown in large screened cinema theaters as opposed to home video formats , as he believes that , " The theatrical window is to the movie business what live concerts are to the music business — and no one goes to a concert to be played an MP3 on a bare stage . "
In 2014 , Christopher Nolan wrote an article for The Wall Street Journal where he expressed concern that as the film industry transitions away from photochemical film towards digital formats , the difference between seeing films in theaters versus on other formats will become trivialized , leaving audiences no incentive to seek out a theatrical experience . Nolan further expressed concern that with content digitized , theaters of the future will be able to track best @-@ selling films and adjust their programming accordingly ; a process that favors large heavily marketed studio films , but will marginalize smaller innovative and unconventional pictures . In order to combat this , Nolan believes the industry needs to focus on improving the theatrical experience with bigger and more beautiful presentation formats that cannot be accessed or reproduced in the home , as well as embracing the new generation of aspiring young innovative filmmakers .
= = Recurring collaborators = =
Emma Thomas has co @-@ produced all of his films ( including Memento , in which she is credited as an associate producer ) . He regularly works with his brother , screenwriter and producer Jonathan Nolan ( creator of Person of Interest and Westworld ) , who describes their working relationship in the production notes for The Prestige : " I 've always suspected that it has something to do with the fact that he 's left @-@ handed and I 'm right @-@ handed , because he 's somehow able to look at my ideas and flip them around in a way that 's just a little bit more twisted and interesting . It 's great to be able to work with him like that " . The brothers have said they always bounce ideas off each other , even when working on separate projects .
The director has worked with screenwriter David S. Goyer on all his comic @-@ book adaptations . Nolan 's former assistant and frequent collaborator , Jordan Goldberg , has executive produced every Nolan @-@ directed film since The Prestige . Wally Pfister was the cinematographer for all of Nolan 's films from Memento to The Dark Knight Rises . He spoke of his relationship with the director : " Mine and Chris ' working relationship is defined , quite simply , by the great respect we have for each other . I 've learned so much from him in terms of him pushing me to find beauty in a simpler method of photography . We 're also very like @-@ minded , we share a sense of humor , and from the beginning I trust his judgement . "
Lee Smith has been Nolan 's editor since Batman Begins , with Dody Dorn editing Memento and Insomnia . David Julyan composed the music for Nolan 's early work , while Hans Zimmer and James Newton Howard provided the music for Batman Begins and The Dark Knight . Zimmer scored The Dark Knight Rises , and has worked with Nolan on his subsequent films . Zimmer has said his creative relationship with Nolan is highly collaborative , and that he views Nolan as " the co @-@ creator of the score " . The director has worked with sound designer Richard King and sound mixer Ed Novick since The Prestige . Nolan has frequently collaborated with special @-@ effects supervisor Chris Corbould , stunt coordinator Tom Struthers first assistant director Nilo Otero , and visual effects supervisor Paul Franklin . Production designer Nathan Crowley has worked with him since Insomnia ( except for Inception ) . Nolan has called Crowley one of his closest and most inspiring creative collaborators . Casting director John Papsidera has worked on all of Nolan 's films , except Following and Insomnia .
Christian Bale , Michael Caine and Cillian Murphy have been frequent collaborators since Batman Begins . Caine is Nolan 's most prolific collaborator , having appeared in six of his films , and is regarded by Nolan to be his " good luck charm " . In return , Caine has described Nolan as " one of cinema 's greatest directors " , comparing him favorably with the likes of David Lean , John Huston and Joseph L. Mankiewicz . Nolan is also known for casting stars from the 1980s in his films , i.e. Rutger Hauer ( Batman Begins ) , Eric Roberts ( The Dark Knight ) , Tom Berenger ( Inception ) , and Matthew Modine ( The Dark Knight Rises ) . Modine said of working with Nolan : " There are no chairs on a Nolan set , he gets out of his car and goes to the set . And he stands up until lunchtime . And then he stands up until they say ' Wrap ' . He 's fully engaged – in every aspect of the film . "
= = Personal life = =
Nolan is married to Emma Thomas , whom he met at University College London when he was 19 . She has worked as a producer on all of his films , and together they founded the production company Syncopy Inc . The couple have four children and reside in Los Angeles . Protective of his private life , he rarely discusses his personal life in interviews .
Nolan prefers not to use a cell phone or an email address , saying " It 's not that I 'm a Luddite and don 't like technology ; I 've just never been interested [ ... ] When I moved to Los Angeles in 1997 , nobody really had cell phones , and I just never went down that path . " He also prohibits use of phones on set .
= = Recognition = =
Having made some of the most influential and popular films of his time , Nolan 's work has been as " intensely embraced , analyzed and debated by ordinary film fans as by critics and film academics " . According to The Wall Street Journal , his " ability to combine box @-@ office success with artistic ambition has given him an extraordinary amount of clout in the industry . " Geoff Andrew of the British Film Institute ( BFI ) and regular contributor to the Sight & Sound magazine , called Nolan " a persuasively inventive storyteller " , singling him out as one of few contemporary filmmakers producing highly personal films within the Hollywood mainstream . He also pointed out that Nolan 's films are as notable for their " considerable technical virtuosity and visual flair " as for their " brilliant narrative ingenuity and their unusually adult interest in complex philosophical questions . " Scott Foundas of Variety declared him " the premier big @-@ canvas storyteller of his generation . "
The filmmaker has been praised by many of his contemporaries , and some have cited his work as influencing their own . Rupert Wyatt , director of Rise of the Planet of the Apes ( 2011 ) , said in an interview that he thinks of Nolan as a " trailblazer ... he is to be hugely admired as a master filmmaker , but also someone who has given others behind him a stick to beat back the naysayers who never thought a modern mass audience would be willing to embrace story and character as much as spectacle " . Michael Mann complimented Nolan for his " singular vision " and called him " a complete auteur " . Nicolas Roeg said of Nolan , " [ His ] films have a magic to them ... People talk about ' commercial art ' and the term is usually self @-@ negating ; Nolan works in the commercial arena and yet there 's something very poetic about his work . " Discussing the difference between art films and big @-@ studio films , Steven Spielberg referred to Nolan 's Dark Knight series as an example of both ; he has described Memento and Inception as " masterworks " . Nolan has also been commended by James Cameron , Guillermo del Toro , Danny Boyle , Wong Kar @-@ Wai , Steven Soderbergh , Sam Mendes , Martin Scorsese , Werner Herzog , Matthew Vaughn , Paul Thomas Anderson , Paul Greengrass , Rian Johnson , and others . Noted film critic Mark Kermode complimented the director for bringing " the discipline and ethics of art @-@ house independent moviemaking " to Hollywood blockbusters , calling him " [ The ] living proof that you don 't have to appeal to the lowest common denominator to be profitable " .
In 2007 , Total Film named Nolan the 32nd greatest director of all time , and in 2012 , The Guardian ranked him # 14 on their list of " The 23 Best Film Directors in the World " The following year , Entertainment Weekly named him the 12th greatest working director , writing that " Nolan is the rare director determined to make you , the moviegoer , walk out of the theater after his film and gasp , ' I 've never seen anything like that before . ' His movies are full of twists and riddles , and even his popcorn fare is stuffed with enough brain candy to fill up a graduate school syllabus . " He was ranked No. 2 on the same list in 2011 . A survey of 17 academics held in 2013 , regarding which filmmakers had been referenced the most in essays and dissertations marked over the last five years , showed that Nolan was the second @-@ most studied director in the UK after Quentin Tarantino and ahead of Alfred Hitchcock , Martin Scorsese and Steven Spielberg . In 2015 , Time featured him as one of the " 100 Most Influential People in the World " .
Nolan 's work has also been recognised as an influence on video games . In 2013 , the official Xbox magazine named Nolan among the 100 most important people in games , writing that " video games have started to look a bit like his films : gritty and complex " .
= = = Awards and honors = = =
As a writer and director of a number of science fiction and action films , Nolan has been honored with awards and nominations from the World Science Fiction Society ( Hugo Awards ) , the Science Fiction and Fantasy Writers of America ( Nebula Awards ) , and the Academy of Science Fiction , Fantasy & Horror Films ( Saturn Awards ) .
Nolan screened Following at the 1999 Slamdance Film Festival , and won the Black & White Award . In 2014 , he received the first @-@ ever Founder 's Award from the Festival . " Throughout his incredible successes , Christopher Nolan has stood firmly behind the Slamdance filmmaking community . We are honored to present him with Slamdance 's inaugural Founder 's Award , " said Slamdance president and co @-@ founder Peter Baxter . At the 2001 Sundance Film Festival , Nolan and his brother Jonathan won the Waldo Salt Screenwriting Award for Memento , and in 2003 , Nolan received the Sonny Bono Visionary Award from the Palm Springs International Film Festival . Festival executive director Mitch Levine said , " Nolan had in his brief time as a feature film director , redefined and advanced the very language of cinema " . He was named an Honorary Fellow of UCL in 2006 ; a title given out to individuals " who have attained distinction in the arts , literature , science , business or public life " .
In 2009 , the director received the Board of the Governors Award from the American Society of Cinematographers . ASC president Daryn Okada said , " Chris Nolan is infused with talent with which he masterfully uses to collaboratively create memorable motion pictures ... his quest for superlative images to tell stories has earned the admiration of our members " . In 2011 , Nolan received the Britannia Award for Artistic Excellence in Directing from the British Academy of Film and Television Arts and the ACE Golden Eddie Filmmaker of the Year Award from American Cinema Editors . That year he also received the Modern Master Award , the highest honor presented by the Santa Barbara International Film Festival . The executive director of the festival Roger Durling stated : " Every one of Nolan 's films has set a new standard for the film community , with Inception being the latest example " . In addition , Nolan was the recipient of the inaugural VES Visionary Award from the Visual Effects Society . In July 2012 he became the youngest director to be honored with a hand @-@ and @-@ footprint ceremony at Grauman 's Chinese Theatre in Los Angeles .
The Art Directors Guild ( ADG ) selected Nolan as the recipient of its Cinematic Imagery Award in 2015 , an honor given to those whose body of work has " richly enhanced the visual aspects of the movie @-@ going experience . " He was selected as the 2015 Class Day speaker at Princeton University . " Nolan , more than a film producer , is a thinker and visionary in our age and we are thrilled to have him deliver the keynote address , " said Class Day co @-@ chair Hanna Kim . Nolan was awarded the Empire Inspiration Award at the 20th Empire Awards . The director was also honored with a retrospective at the Walker Art Center in Minneapolis .
= = Filmography = =
= = = Directorial work = = =
^ I Credited as editor . ^ II Credited as cinematographer . ^ III Credited as composer
= = = Other projects = = =
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= David Morrow ( sports ) =
David K. Morrow is an entrepreneur , businessman , and former lacrosse defenseman . He starred as a member of the Princeton Tigers men 's lacrosse team from 1990 through 1993 . He was a three @-@ time United States Intercollegiate Lacrosse Association ( USILA ) All @-@ American ( two @-@ time first team ) . He is a co @-@ founder of the Major League Lacrosse ( MLL ) and an innovator of the titanium lacrosse stick and hockey stick .
He is the most recent defenseman to earn the NCAA Lacrosse player of the year award and a two @-@ time NCAA Lacrosse defenseman of the year . He was a three @-@ time first team All @-@ Ivy League selection . In his four @-@ year college career , Princeton won the school 's first NCAA tournament Championship , two Ivy League Championships and earned the school 's first four NCAA Men 's Lacrosse Championship tournament invitations . Following college , he represented Team USA in the 1994 and 1998 World Lacrosse Championships and was named to the 1998 All @-@ World Team .
His equipment company , Warrior Sports , is a leading equipment provider to professional , collegiate and interscholastic teams and players . It provides a variety of equipment and has propagated the interest in titanium material for use in lacrosse and ice hockey equipment . He has expanded professional lacrosse from box lacrosse to field lacrosse by co @-@ founding the MLL .
= = Background = =
Morrow was raised in Troy , Michigan , a suburb of Detroit , where his father operated a tubing shop . He was a defenseman in both lacrosse and hockey . He attended Brother Rice High School in the nearby Bloomfield Township in Oakland County .
= = College career = =
In his first year at Princeton , he nearly quit the lacrosse team when he realized that , because of his background , he was behind the other players in his understanding of the game . He felt he might be better off focusing on ice hockey . Princeton head coach Bill Tierney convinced him to use his speed to run with the offensive players and to keep his stick in front of them , which encouraged him to adapt his natural speed to the sport . He earned his first start as a sophomore in 1991 .
In one season , Morrow broke or bent 25 aluminum lacrosse sticks . After tinkering with the lacrosse stick design at his father 's shop , Morrow introduced a titanium version of the stick in the 1992 NCAA Division I Men 's Lacrosse Championship tournament . Morrow scored two goals in the 16 – 14 semifinals victory over North Carolina in the first game using the titanium stick . Princeton went on to win the tournament , its first NCAA national championship . During the 1993 NCAA Division I Men 's Lacrosse Championship tournament , Morrow shut down Loyola 's Kevin Beach , who had 6 goals in the first round game . He was selected to the All @-@ tournament team that year . During his four years , Princeton earned its first four berths in the NCAA Men 's Lacrosse Championship . The 1992 and 1993 teams were undefeated 6 – 0 outright Ivy League champions .
Morrow was a first team USILA All @-@ American Team selection in 1992 and 1993 and a third team selection in 1991 . He was a three @-@ time first team All @-@ Ivy League selection ( 1991 , 1992 and 1993 ) . Morrow is one of only two and the most recent defenseman to earn the Lt. Raymond Enners Award as the NCAA Lacrosse player of the year award . He twice earned the Schmeisser Award ( 1992 , 1993 ) as the NCAA Lacrosse defenseman of the year . Morrow was selected to the NCAA Lacrosse Silver Anniversary team in 1995 . Morrow was drafted by the Philadelphia Wings during the 1994 National Lacrosse League Entry Draft . He won gold medals at the 1994 and 1998 World Lacrosse Championships and was named to the 1998 World Lacrosse Championship All @-@ World team .
= = Professional career = =
In 1991 , one of his father 's customers was attempting to modernize the snowshoe with experimental materials such as titanium . At the time , lacrosse sticks were made of aluminum that could get bent during the game . Morrow was breaking and bending sticks at a rapid rate . Morrow noticed titanium was lighter and more durable than aluminum . Thus , at his father 's suggestion , he incorporated it into the lacrosse stick the following year . A year later , he began his own business , selling his first sticks in February 1993 . In 1993 , he was affiliated with the Philadelphia Wings but became a free agent . Morrow was selected for Team USA that would compete at the 1994 World Lacrosse Championship . After being named to the 1998 All World team following the 1998 World Lacrosse Championship , he retired from competitive lacrosse to focus on the business .
Today , lacrosse sticks by all manufacturers use titanium , and players at all levels use titanium sticks . Morrow 's idea led to his own business venture , Warrior Lacrosse , which is named after the Brother Rice High School Warriors whom he played for in high school . Morrow sold controlling interest of his company to New Balance in January 2004 but continues to be the President and CEO of Warrior Sports . As of 2001 , Warrior and its 50 employees were the official equipment supplier of the U.S. Men 's National Teams program and the MLL . As of 2007 , Warrior Sports held a 40 % market share in the lacrosse industry . The company had several divisions including Warrior Lacrosse , Brine Sports , and Warrior Sports Canada . In 2005 Warrior sports acquired Innovative Hockey and As of 2007 , it had 600 employees and over 150 National Hockey League players using their composite hockey sticks . Warrior sports sponsors over 200 youth programs , tournaments , and camps each year . It also sponsors professional and intercollegiate teams . In addition , the company puts on clinics and demonstrations around the world .
Morrow founded the MLL along with Jake Steinfeld , Timothy Robertson and Jim Davis . He originally served on the prospective league 's advisory committee . In 2001 , Morrow 's newly opened six @-@ team MLL opened as a professional field lacrosse complement to the box lacrosse National Lacrosse League . It opened on June 7 at Homewood Field in Baltimore near the National Lacrosse Hall of Fame . The league has been successful and has been televised on ESPN2 since 2003 . It is under contract to be televised on the network until 2016 .
= = Personal = =
As of March 2007 , he and his wife Christine , who is also a Princeton alumna , had three young children : three @-@ year @-@ old Samantha , two @-@ year @-@ old Kevin and newborn Jessica . Christine Schluter , a member of Princeton 's Class of 1992 , was a geochemist in Boulder , Colorado when she moved to Detroit to work for Morrow .
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= Green and golden bell frog =
The green and golden bell frog ( Litoria aurea ) , also named the green bell frog , green and golden swamp frog and green frog , is a ground @-@ dwelling tree frog native to eastern Australia . Despite its classification and climbing abilities , it does not live in trees and spends almost all of its time close to ground level . It can reach up to 11 cm ( 4 @.@ 5 in ) in length , making it one of Australia 's largest frogs .
Coloured gold and green , the frogs are voracious eaters of insects , but will also eat larger prey , such as worms and mice . Unlike most frogs , they are active at day , although this is mostly to warm in the sun . They tend to be less active in winter except in warmer or wetter periods , and breed in the warmer months . Males reach maturity after around 9 months , while for the larger females , this does not occur until they are two years old . The frogs can engage in cannibalism , and males frequently attack and injure one another if they infringe on one another 's space .
Many populations , particularly in the Sydney region , inhabit areas of infrequent disturbance , such as golf courses , disused industrial land , brick pits , and landfill areas . Though once one of the most common frogs in south @-@ east Australia , the green and golden bell frog has endured major population declines , particularly in highland areas , leading to its current classification as globally vulnerable . Its numbers have continued to fall and are threatened by habitat loss and degradation , pollution , introduced species , and parasites and pathogens , including the chytrid Batrachochytrium dendrobatidis . As most of the remaining populations live on private land , the logistics of the conservation effort can be complicated . Despite the situation in Australia , some frog populations have survived with more success in New Zealand and several other Pacific islands , where it has been introduced . However , unfortunately even in these areas the population of green and golden bell has been rapidly declining in the past few decades .
= = Taxonomy = =
The common name , " green and golden bell frog " , was first adopted by Harold Cogger in his 1975 book Reptiles and Amphibians of Australia . Before this , its common names were " golden frog " and " golden tree frog " . The green and golden bell frog has many physical and behavioural characteristics representative of ranids , hence its original classification as Rana . It has a pointy snout , long legs , and almost complete toe webbing ; the tympanum is large and distinct ; and the overall body shape is similar to many Rana species . Like many frogs in the Rana genus , green and golden bell frogs are mostly aquatic , and only travel over land during periods of rainfall . It was removed from the genus because of anatomical differences with the family Ranidae . The bone and cartilage structural formations of the green and golden bell frog are closest to those of species in the family Hylidae ; it was therefore reclassified .
The green and golden bell frog was first described as Rana aurea by Lesson in 1827 . It has changed classification 20 times ; it was first named Litoria aurea in 1844 by Günther , and changed another 9 times before being named again as Litoria aurea . The specific epithet aurea derived from the Latin aureus for ' golden ' . The species is now classified within the Litoria aurea complex , a closely related group of frogs in the Litoria genus . This complex is scattered throughout Australia : three species occur in south @-@ east Australia , one in northern Australia , and two in Southwest Australia . The complex consists of the green and golden bell frog ( L. aurea ) , growling grass frog ( L. raniformis ) , yellow @-@ spotted bell frog ( L. castanea ) , Dahl 's aquatic frog ( L. dahlii ) , spotted @-@ thighed frog ( L. cyclorhyncha ) and the motorbike frog ( L. moorei ) . The ranges of L. raniformis and L. castanea overlap with the green and golden bell frog ; this , as well as physical similarities , may make it difficult to distinguish between the species , and until 1972 , L. raniformis and the green and golden bell frog were regarded as the same , when electrophoretic studies proved them to be distinct . The tablelands bell frog has not been seen since 1980 and may now be extinct , although the large yellow spots present on its thighs help distinguish it from the green and golden bell frog . The growling grass frog , which is very similar to the green and golden bell frog , can only be readily distinguished by raised bumps on the dorsal surface . It has also been proposed that some populations of L. aurea located near Ulong , New South Wales , be a separate subspecies , L. a. ulongae , but this was not accepted .
Litorea aurea is equally and most closely related to Li. castanes and L. ranaformis . A microcomplement fixation technique using serum albumins has indicated the species closest to L. aurea is L. ranifomis . Albumin immunological distance data suggest no differentiation between the two , and the green and golden bell frog evolutionally separated from the other two species about 1 @.@ 1 million years ago . A 1995 study of protein variations showed four of 19 protein systems had variation and only two had differentiation . Scientists believe the different species can still hybridise , as their distribution areas still overlap , and both L. raniformis and L. aurea have been seen sharing ponds in the Gippsland area of Victoria . However , little evidence of hybridisation actually occurring has been found . Although there have been reports of frogs of mixed appearance in Gippsland , analysis of proteins and sera of the frogs showed two distinct species . Samples in other area of distribution have shown no evidence of hybridisation in spite of cohabitation .
= = Distribution = =
The green and golden bell frog is native to south @-@ eastern Australia . Before its decline in population , its distribution ranged from Brunswick Heads , in northern New South Wales , to East Gippsland , in Victoria , and west to Bathurst , Tumut and the Australian Capital Territory .
The bell frog 's current distribution now ranges from Byron Bay , in northern New South Wales , to East Gippsland , in Victoria ; populations mostly occur along the coast . In New South Wales , it has declined severely in range and abundance since the 1960s , although no similar declines have been reported in Victoria . In New South Wales , it has disappeared from highland areas above 250 m ( 820 ft ) , except for a population in Captains Flat . A study of populations along coastal New South Wales indicated many populations were very small , usually of fewer than 20 adults . According to a 1996 study , six populations of more than 300 frogs are known : two in the Sydney metropolitan area , two in the Shoalhaven , and two in the New South Wales mid @-@ north coast . There are now approximately only 40 sites in total where it is found , most of which are in the Sydney area . The green and golden bell frog has disappeared from an estimated 90 % of its former range . Some specimens were apparently found in Armidale , but it turned out to be a misidentification of L. castanea . The declines in Victoria have been more modest and mostly in at inland areas where habitats have disappeared .
The green and golden bell frog survives in some areas of Sydney , such as the Brickpit at Sydney Olympic Park ( the proposed site for the tennis courts for the 2000 Sydney Olympics ) . When the green and golden bell frog was found there , the tennis courts were built elsewhere , and the population has since been monitored . This frog has become an unofficial mascot for the Homebush Bay area . It has also been introduced to places in Sydney in its natural habitat , without much success .
The green and golden bell frog occurs on three islands off the east coast of Australia : Kooragang and Broughton Islands off Port Stephens , and Bowen Island at Jervis Bay . It was introduced to New Zealand in the 1860s , and it is now common on the part of North Island north of Rotorua . In most places , it is the only frog species in the vicinity . However , recent declines have been reported , suspected to be due to predatory fish . It was also introduced to the Pacific island countries of New Caledonia and Vanuatu in the 19th century , and has since become common there .
No discernible variation in size or appearance in green and golden bell frogs between different geographic areas is found . Fluctuations in size and appearance between different populations are outweighed by variations within the populations themselves . Females are more likely to be found away from breeding sites , while the opposite applies for males . Metamorphlings are divided in roughly equal numbers between males and females , while juvenile frogs are observed less often than their mature counterparts , although scientists are not sure whether this is due to lower abundance or increased reclusiveness .
= = Description = =
The green and golden bell frog is a large , stout frog ; adults range from 4 @.@ 5 to 11 cm ( 1 @.@ 8 to 4 @.@ 3 in ) in length ; typical specimens measure 6 to 8 cm ( 2 @.@ 5 to 3 in ) . The green and golden bell frog is therefore one of the largest Australian frogs . Mature males are generally smaller than mature females , and the colour on their dorsal surfaces differ greatly from females . It may be almost completely green , of shades from dark pea @-@ green to bright emerald , green with metallic , brassy , dull copper @-@ brown , or gold markings ; or almost completely bronze . Generally , females tend to have more green patches than males . During the cooler months ( May – August ) , when the frogs are inactive , colouration may darken almost to black . They can also darken in this way by simply staying in a dark place for a few minutes , and the colour can also change during the frogs ' lifetimes .
A creamy @-@ white or pale yellow stripe , bordered above with gold and below with black , extends from behind the eye , across the typically copper @-@ coloured tympanum to the groin . This stripe rises to form a dorsolateral fold towards the groin . Another stripe of the same colour begins below the eye and continues to the shoulder . The abdomen is cream or white , and has a coarsely granular texture . The legs are green , bronze , or a combination of both , and the inside thigh and groin are blue @-@ green . Mature males develop a yellowish colouration to the vocal sacs on their throats . The tympanum is distinct and ovular in shape , and the species has enlarged toe discs to aid in climbing . As this species is often found in water , the fingers are free from webbing , while the toes are almost completely webbed . When in breeding condition , males develop nuptial pads on their thumbs , which are used to grip females during mating . These are coloured brown during the breeding season , but are inconspicuous and paler during the rest of the year . During the breeding season , females develop a blueish hue on their feet , while males ' legs turn rusty orange .
= = Ecology and behaviour = =
As a member of the tree frog family , the green and golden bell frog spends much time basking in the sun on vegetation , rocks , and reeds , usually near water , or hopping around between such places . Unlike most frog species , it is often active during the day . When handled , this species secretes a slimy acrid mucus , which consists of 17 aurein peptides . Thirteen of these show broad @-@ spectrum antibiotic and anticancer activity . The secretion makes the frog slippery and hard to grip , and is poisonous to some other species of frogs , so it is a useful defensive tool for green and golden bell frogs . Males often fight one another if they come within 1 m of each other , frequently leading to injuries .
The green and golden bell frog has been detected in a wide range of habitats . It is generally associated with coastal swamps , wetlands , marshes , dams , ditches , small rivers , woodlands , and forests , but populations have also been found at former industrial sites ( for instance , the Brickpit ) . It has even been found in human vessels such as bathtubs . The requirements of its habitat have been difficult to determine , for it has been found in a wide range of water bodies except fast @-@ flowing streams . It is most typically found in short @-@ lived freshwater ponds that are still , shallow , unshaded , and unpolluted , and it tends to avoid waters that contain predatory fish , whether native or introduced . However , it is most often found in areas that have been affected by human habitation . The frog prefers water bodies that support emergent vegetation , such as reeds and bullrushes , for basking , and winter habitats consist of available shelters around the breeding site , which can be vegetation , rocks , rubbish , or human debris and discarded building materials . Grassy habitats are usually close at hand to provide suitable terrestrial feeding grounds . It prefers waterways with a substrate of sand , rock , or clay , and can tolerate a wide range of water turbidities , pH and oxygen levels , and temperatures , although these can hamper physical growth . Although its legs provide much grip , the frog does not choose to climb trees or live up them to any significant extent . It spends most of its time within 10 cm of the ground and rarely ventures more than a metre above the ground . The green and golden bell frog also has the ability to sit still for several minutes .
The green and golden bell frog can travel far in a single day or night ; distances of 1 @.@ 0 to 1 @.@ 5 km have been recorded . Tagging experiments have shown that some can move up to 3 km in total , and that some travel several kilometres from the closest breeding habitat . However , the species evidently tends to return to or remain at an identified site , provided the habitat stays appropriate for its needs , or else it will move away . The green and golden bell frog also favours areas with the greatest habitat complexity , and as such , this is a core component of habitat @-@ based strategies to protect the species . In general , the frogs stay within areas of 100 – 700 m2 The frog is well equipped for survival on land . It can rehydrate by absorbing moisture through its ventral skin , and evaporative water loss occurs at a rate , indicative of a watertight skin. very low Some have been observed up to 400 m from the nearest body of water .
During the winter months , the frog tends to be inactive , staying in one place , whereas it moves around during the warmer months to search for food and mating partners . During winter , the frog does become active for brief periods during warm or wet weather . In cold conditions , the frogs are thought to hibernate , based on observations of some being uncovered in a " torpid " state , but this has yet to be proven with rigorous physiological studies . Although the frog is active during the day , this is restricted to leaving its shelter to sunbathe . It tends to not actively feed or forage during the day , hunting insects only if they move into its vicinity .
The green and golden bell frog 's reproduction depends on salinity and water temperature . Salinity affects tadpoles ' development and metamorphosis , and breeding is significantly slowed for ponds that measure 20 ° C ( 68 ° F ) or below . The tadpoles can tolerate salinity levels of six parts per thousand ( ppt ) without any apparent effects , while salinity of 8 ppt or higher decreases growth rates and increases mortality rates . On the other hand , salinity levels of at least 1 – 2 ppt can be beneficial to the green and golden bell frog because this kills pathogens such as the chytrid fungus . The pH of the pond is not found to affect the likelihood of the eggs to hatch for values between 4 and 10 .
= = = Diet and predators = = =
The voracious adults have very broad diets , including insects such as crickets , larvae , mosquito wrigglers , dragonflies , earthworms , cockroaches , flies , and grasshoppers . They are also known to eat freshwater crayfish and slugs , and other frogs , even of the same species . They have a strong tendency for cannibalism , and frequently these in the same enclosure devour each other . Studies and trials in the wild have shown cannibalism also occurs in the wild .
The tadpoles feed on detritus , algae , and bacteria . Tadpoles in more advanced phases of development may show a preference for vegetable matter , but also scavenge or become carnivorous on aquatic life . Captive tadpoles have eaten boiled lettuce and pet food in pellet form . If population density is high , tadpoles have cannibalised one another .
In captivity the green and golden bell frog is known to feed on crickets , fruit flies , maggots , silkworms , domestic flies , beetles , mealworms , larvae , slaters , cockroaches , molluscs , plague locusts , spiders , water snails , earthworms , and mice . A case of a small tiger snake being eaten has also been reported . Captive frogs have a habit of not responding to stationary food items , which has helped to form the belief that the frog will eat most things that move .
The hunting habits of the frogs change depending on their growth phase and thus physical size . Smaller , still @-@ growing green and golden bell frogs tend to hunt small , especially flying , insects , often jumping to catch their prey . Adult frogs appear to show a distinct preference for larger , land @-@ based insects and frogs , although they also eat aquatic prey , such as tadpoles and other aquatic organisms . Recently metamorphosed individuals have also been seen enter to shallow water to capture mosquito wrigglers . The relative proportion that various prey make up in the frog 's diet is not known . In observed studies of captive frogs , they eat less in cooler periods of the year , and frogs in the wild ate less during breeding periods . Younger frogs were also seen to forage longer into the warmer months to build up food stocks than fully matured frogs .
Natural predators include wading birds , such as reef egrets , white @-@ faced herons , white ibises and swamp harriers . Other predators include snakes , skinks , red foxes , tortoises , and eels and other fish , such as redfin perch and European carp , several varieties of gudgeon , and a range of invertebrate predators , such as the large brown mantis . Predation on adult frogs has been recorded for the red @-@ bellied black snake , tiger snake , laughing kookaburra , and sacred kingfisher ; wading birds and other snakes , such as the green tree snake and the copperhead snake , are also believed to be predators of the frog . The relative magnitude of the various predatorial threats to the frog and its tadpoles is not known . Before the frog became rare , and when subsistence lifestyles were more common , it was hunted and eaten by Australian Aborigines . It was also used in dissection demonstrations in biology classes , and caught by humans for feeding pet reptiles .
= = = Reproduction = = =
The green and golden bell frog breeds in the warmer months from October to March , although some cases have been recorded earlier at the end of winter . Reproduction appears to be influenced by geography . More southerly and highland populations appear to have a shorter window for breeding than their more northerly and lowland counterparts . The latter appear commence breeding earlier and end later than the former group . During the breeding season , males call , usually while floating in the water , but sometimes on vegetation at the side of a pond , mainly at night . They do so with a deep growl that has been described as a four @-@ part " walk @-@ walk sound " — likened to the sound of a motorbike changing gears . Males have been found to respond to recordings of the call , and this is why entire groups of males will then call in unison . Males are also more likely to call under certain temperature ranges , 16 – 23 ° C for water temperature , and 14 – 25 ° C in the air . Calling is also more likely immediately after rain has occurred .
Males appear to reach maturity at around 45 – 50 mm , at between 9 and 12 months , and at this size begin to develop a grey to brownish yellow wash beneath the chin . This indicates the development of a vocal sac and thus an ability to commence calling behaviour . Females reach sexual maturity at two years ; those smaller than 65 mm are not seen in amplexus ; this length is not reached until the second season after metamorphosis . The frog is not of a type that only breeds once . Females can shed up to 26 % of their weight when spawning , while males have also been seen to lose weight during breeding , because they are eating less . The weight lost during the breeding season is typically regained from January to September .
Amplexus between the male and female occurs mainly in water , but sometimes at substantial distances away on dry land . Observations of breeding sites have shown the males linger around the courting area for much longer times , while females mostly stay at other places to find food before meeting the males there . During amplexus , the males grab the females near their armpits after climbing on their backs . In the wild , amplexus usually takes between 10 minutes and five days . Artificially induced amplexus in the laboratory has been observed to last 50 hours , but there have been reports of five days . Sometimes , amplexus will not result in eggs being laid .
The frogs may move up to 100 m during amplexus before the female lays her eggs . During the laying of the eggs , the pair of frogs remain in amplexus and the male is assumed to fertilise the eggs with his sperm . Males are also seen to paddle their rear legs during this time , which is speculated to accelerate fertilisation . The egg @-@ laying and fertilisation process takes around five minutes . An average of 5 @,@ 000 eggs are deposited amongst aquatic vegetation in a gelatinous mass ; however , a clump of 11 @,@ 682 has been recorded . The female moves around while depositing , leaving a trail of eggs that sometimes entangles upon itself . Initially , the mass floats , but sinks up to 12 hours after laying , or when disturbed . The eggs are distinct from those of other frog species ; they are 2 – 2 @.@ 5 mm wide upon deposition and are bicoloured , black at one end and white at the other . They immediately begin to expand , quickly reaching around 4 mm across , before sinking . When first laid , they float with the black pointing up , but after sinking , the orientation becomes disordered . Two to five days later , the tadpoles hatch out , but the process can take only a few hours on occasions . The hatching rate varies between 46 and 77 % , and peaks at 22 ° C. Hatching is less likely in acidic waters , although alkaline conditions do not lead to a lower rate compared to neutral conditions . Given the large number of eggs that hatch per female and given the scarcity of mature frogs , tadpole survival rates are believed to be very low .
Upon hatching , the tadpoles are around 2 @.@ 5 – 3 mm in snout @-@ vent length ( SVL ) and about 5 – 6 mm including the tail . Tadpoles in captivity increase exponentially over time in total length ; their SVL increases from about 3 to about 9 mm within five weeks , and it triples again in the next five weeks . In all , the growth rate is 0 @.@ 2 mm per day in the first five weeks . The tadpoles of the green and golden bell frog are large , reaching 80 mm ( 3 @.@ 1 in ) in length , but size varies greatly and most are much shorter . The body is usually as wide across as it is deep . The fin has a yellow tinge and is considerably arched . The musculature is moderate and tapers to a fine point , as does the fin . The body wall is translucent yellow with darker areas over the abdomen . Just before its limbs form , the tadpole begins to develop the greenish colouration of the adult . Tadpoles usually swim within 30 cm of the water surface , or remain stationary at the bottom . They often move together in groups akin to schools of fish .
Towards the end of the tadpole phase , hind legs appear , followed by front limbs , and the phase ends when the front limbs are developed . This normally occurs between October and April due to the breeding season , but tadpoles been observed in the wild throughout the year , suggesting some tadpoles overwinter ; this has been seen to occur for captive tadpoles . The length of the tadpole stage , in the wild and in captivity , is usually between 10 and 12 weeks , but can range from five weeks to a year . The slower @-@ growing tadpoles usually progress during winter , as there is a positive correlation between growth rates and temperatures . Variation in growth rate across pH values of 4 , 7 and 9 was insignificant . In the first four weeks , there was no significant dependence of the growth rate across the 18 – 26 ° C range , but from this point on , growth was significantly hindered at 18 ° C. At the beginning of the metamorphing stage , all limbs are present and developed , along with a tail . During this phase , the tail is resorbed , and the only other visible change is the spiracle closing . Metamorphing tadpoles typically have a SVL of 22 – 28 mm , and will complete metamorphosis between two and 11 months , depending on the temperature of the water and available food . The process is slowed at low temperatures , but generally takes between three and eight days after the tadpole stage is complete . Breeding occurs in a significantly higher proportion of sites where no predatory fish are present , and water bodies are ephemeral rather than permanent . Populations in Victoria , however , have been recorded as breeding in permanent ponds as readily as they do in ephemeral ponds .
Metamorphs resemble the adults and average about 2 @.@ 6 cm ( 1 @.@ 0 in ) in length . Recently metamorphosed frogs have been observed to rapidly leave the breeding site , especially when foraging habitat is nearby , and less so if food is not available away from the area . The tendency to migrate is often attributed to cannibalism practised by larger frogs on those that are still developing . After metamorphosis is complete , the frog is around the same length . The juveniles initially grow rapidly , reaching 45 mm within two months , 50 – 60 mm within half a year , before growth slows. months , and increase in length more slowly after that . Once sexual maturity is reached , the frogs ' physical growth is very slow .
Metamorphs weigh about 2 g , while the largest adults can reach 50 g . Individual frogs can vary substantially in body weight due to changes in the amount of stored fat , recent eating , and egg formation . While it is known to live 10 – 15 years in captivity , the frog 's lifespan in the wild is not well understood .
= = Conservation status = =
The numbers of green and golden bell frogs are estimated to have declined by more than 30 % in the past 10 years . It is listed as globally and nationally vulnerable , and as endangered under the New South Wales Threatened Species Conservation Act , 1995 . Although it is only classified as vulnerable at national level , the National Frog Action Plan classifies the green and golden bell frog as endangered . In contrast to Australia , the frogs are abundant in New Zealand and classified as feral and unprotected .
Many factors are thought to be responsible for the dramatic decline of this species in Australia , including habitat fragmentation , erosion and sedimentation of soil , insecticides and fertilisers contaminating water systems , the introduction of predatory fish , and alteration of drainage regimes . Population declines are closely related to the introduction of the eastern mosquitofish ( Gambusia holbrooki ) , a species native to North America that was introduced to control mosquito larvae . Laboratory studies have demonstrated the eggs and tadpoles of the green and golden bell frog are extremely susceptible to predation by this fish , and in 77 of the 93 sites in New South Wales where the green and golden bell frog was known to have disappeared before 1990 , eastern mosquitofish were found to be present . The frogs have been known to inhabit waters containing the fish , but breeding is rarely successful there , pointing to the fish 's voracious eating of eggs and tadpoles . The fish are not yet present in eastern Victoria , where green and golden bell frog numbers have remained solid , but the fish likely will spread to rivers there , possibly inflicting heavy losses on the frogs .
Other factors thought to affect this species include predation by introduced mammals , such as cats and foxes , changes to water quality at breeding sites , herbicide use , and loss of habitat through the destruction of wetlands . The amphibian chytrid fungus appears to have led to at least some of the decline in numbers , but the relative importance of the various factors is unclear . The frogs may have become more susceptible to chytrid rather than the fungus being more common . The genetic pool of the frogs has been found to be relatively small , attributed to habitat destruction , which has confined the smaller groups of frogs to isolated pockets and increased the incidence of inbreeding . This has led to proposals for frog populations to be mixed by human intervention in an attempt to reduce negative genetic effects and boost survival rates .
The cannibalism of the frog has been speculated to cause its decline in some areas , because the smaller tadpoles can be toxic . Other postulated causes of the decline include increased ultraviolet radiation due to the hole in the ozone layer , global warming , and increased drought . The first theory was tested and the results were inconclusive . Global warming is not thought to be a credible cause , as the extremities of the frog 's range have not changed , while declines in population have occurred in both dry and wetter areas .
The green and golden bell frog has been the subject of much research and monitoring , important to improving its conservation . Research focuses on the development of management measures to keep the introduced mosquitofish under control . These include poisoning the fish , but the waterways are large and trials have given mixed results . Predators of the mosquitofish have also been tried . Other strategies may allow for the development and improvement of suitable habitat , and to increase the reproductive success of the species . Parallel to these measures , community awareness programmes have also been proposed . One difficulty in protecting the frog is that only 20 % of the known populations in New South Wales since 1990 occur in conservation parks . Of the eight populations that occur in conservation parks , only five are wholly located within them and one of these is not breeding . There have been calls for legislation to be introduced to stop habitat degradation on private land to prevent detrimental effects to the frogs . Many proposed developments have been subjected to legal action to protect the habitat , and some communities have started " Friends of the Green and Golden Bell Frog " action groups . As public awareness has increased , documentary and news segments on the deteriorating situation have become more frequent and references to the frog in environmental logos and artworks have increased . The effort to increase public consciousness of the green and golden bell frog has also been aided because its colours are the same as the national colours . Restrictions on logging close to areas inhabited by the frogs have been put in place . As green and golden bell frogs are mostly observed in environments disturbed by humans , targeted environmental interference is seen as a possible means of enhancing habitats .
In 1998 , a captive @-@ breeding program was set up by the herpetofauna staff at Taronga Zoo in Sydney , sponsored by the ASX Frog Focus . The purpose of the program was to help preserve declining populations of green and golden bell frogs in the Sydney region . It involved the captive breeding of wild frogs and releasing large numbers of tadpoles back into the wild , habitat restoration , and monitoring after releases . The program was initially titled " Frog Focus Botany " , as Botany was the original focus site . Thousands of tadpoles were released into a site in Sir Joseph Banks Reserve and postrelease monitoring was done by the local community . It was also the first time that school students had been involved with endangered species monitoring . The program has since branched off into several other areas . Between 1998 and 2004 , tadpoles were released into specially designed ponds and dams on Long Reef Golf Course at Collaroy in northern Sydney , with little success . Although green and golden bell frogs had previously been located in the area , the population had since been lost . Mature male bell frogs are occasionally found there ; however , a permanent breeding population has yet to be established . An attempted reintroduction at Marrickville in inner @-@ Sydney has failed due to chytridiomycosis .
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= Cairanoolithus =
Cairanoolithus is an oogenus of dinosaur egg which is found in Southwestern Europe . The eggs are large ( 15 – 19 centimetres or 5 @.@ 9 – 7 @.@ 5 inches in diameter ) and spherical . Their outer surface is either smooth , or covered with a subdued pattern of ridges interspersed with pits and grooves . Multiple fossil egg clutches are known but the nest structure is unclear .
The parent of Cairanoolithus is probably some kind of non @-@ ornithopod ornithischian , possibly the nodosaurid Struthiosaurus .
The eggs were first named in 1994 , when the two oospecies were classified in distinct oogenera as Cairanoolithus dughii and Dughioolithus roussetensis . They are now considered to belong in a single oogenus , possibly even a single oospecies . Though it has been classified as a megaloolithid , Cairanoolithus is usually placed in its own oofamily , Cairanoolithidae .
= = Description = =
Cairanoolithus eggs are spherical and fairly large , measuring 15 – 19 cm ( 5 @.@ 9 – 7 @.@ 5 in ) in diameter . The outer surface is smooth or covered with a subdued netlike pattern of ridges , interspersed with pits and grooves ( sagenotuberculate ornamentation ) . The eggshells are made up of partially interlocking column @-@ shaped shell units and range from 1 @.@ 10 to 2 @.@ 65 mm ( 0 @.@ 043 to 0 @.@ 104 in ) thick .
Several egg clutches of C. dughii are known , containing as many as 25 fossilized eggs . Unfortunately , taphonomical alterations ( changes during the fossilization process ) make it difficult to determine the original structure of the nest . Cousin ( 2002 ) hypothesized that Cairanoolithus eggs were laid on the surface of the ground , possibly buried beneath a mound of plant matter . Tanaka et al . ( 2015 ) noted that the shell had a high rate of water vapor conductance . Therefore , they concluded that Cairanoolithus nests were covered by organic or inorganic material , similar to modern eggs with high vapor conductance .
= = = Oospecies = = =
Two oospecies of Cairanoolithus have been described :
Cairanoolithus dughii is the type oospecies . At 1 @.@ 57 – 2 @.@ 41 mm ( 0 @.@ 062 – 0 @.@ 095 in ) , its eggshell is slightly thicker than that of C. roussetensis . It has slender , partially fused columnar eggshell units . Their outer surface is almost without ornamentation , and the inner surface is covered with hollows once filled by organic cores . C. dughii 's eggshell exhibits an angusticanaliculate pore system , i.e. its pores are long , narrow , and straight .
Cairanoolithus roussetensis , which was formerly classified in its own oogenus , Dughioolithus , can be distinguished from C. dughii by its thinner eggshell ( measuring 1 @.@ 11 – 1 @.@ 77 mm or 0 @.@ 044 – 0 @.@ 070 in thick ) , its broader eggshell units , and the relative prominence of its ornamentation . Like C. dughii , C. roussetensis typically has an angusticanaliculate pore system , though some specimens have prolatocanaliculate pores , meaning they have variable diameter across their length .
Some authors consider the two oospecies to be synonymous . Cousin ( 2002 ) argued that the differences between them were due to intraspecific variation or due to taphonomy . He also described several eggshell fragments that possibly belong to an additional distinct oospecies of Cairanoolithus , however these specimens were referred to C. roussetensis by Selles and Galobart ( 2015 ) .
= = Classification = =
While it was formerly considered a megaloolithid , Cairanoolithus is now considered to belong its own monotypic oofamily , Cairanoolithidae . It belongs to the dinosauroid @-@ spherulitic basic type , a group including sauropod eggs and ornithischian eggs , but paraphyletically excluding theropod eggs .
The cladistic analysis done by Selles and Galobart in 2015 recovered Cairanoolithus as a sister taxon to the clade of ornithopod eggs Guegoolithus , Spheroolithus , and Ovaloolithus . Therefore , they considered it likely that Cairanoolithus belongs to a non @-@ ornithopod ornithischian dinosaur .
= = = Parentage = = =
Since embryos are unknown in cairanoolithid eggs , the identity of their parent is uncertain . They have long been considered to be eggs of titanosaurs or ornithopods ( like Rhabdodon ) . However , numerous characteristics distinguish Cairanoolithus from sauropod eggs ( oofamilies Megaloolithidae and Faveoloolithidae ) , even though they bear superficial similarities in size and shape . Cairanoolithus 's columnar eggshell units are quite unlike the fan @-@ shaped ones seen in Megaloolithus , Faveoloolithus , or Fusioolithus . Also , its subdued ornamentation contrasts strongly with the heavily sculpted eggshells of sauropod eggs , and it has a different pore system . Eggs of ornithopods ( Spheroolithidae and Ovaloolithidae ) , on the other hand , show much closer similarity to cairanoolithids in ornamentation and pore system . However , ornithopod eggs are typically much smaller , and the crystal structure of their eggshell units is distinct .
The cladistic analysis by Sellés and Galobart in 2015 supported an ornithischian parentage . Late Cretaceous ornithischians from Southwestern Europe are restricted to rhabdodontids and the nodosaurid Struthiosaurus . When Sellés and Galobart analyzed the pelvises of Rhabdodon ( the largest known rhabdodontid ) and Struthiosaurus , they found that Rhabdodon could not have laid eggs as big as Cairanoolithus . On the other hand , even though Struthiosaurus was relatively small , the unique orientation of its ischia would have easily allowed it to lay eggs as large as a 19 cm ( 7 @.@ 5 in ) cairanoolithid egg . However , interpreting Cairanoolithus as the eggs of a nodosaur does raise the question of why Cairanoolithus or similar eggs have not been found in areas with a greater nodosaur abundance .
= = Distribution = =
Cairanoolithus is native to Southwestern Europe , including southern France and northern Iberia . Its fossils date to the late Campanian to early Maastrichtian . They are usually found in the Aix @-@ en @-@ Provence Basin below the Rognac Limestone . C. dughii is from the La Cairanne site in Bouches du Rhône , France , from Roquehautes @-@ Grand Creux and from the Villeveyrac Basin . C. roussetensis is found in the northern part of Iberia and from southern France ( in Rousset Village , Roquehautes @-@ Crete du Marbre , the Villeveyrac Basin , and Argelliers @-@ Montamaud ) .
= = Paleoecology = =
The Late Cretaceous ecosystems of Europe ( which was then an island archipelago ) show complex mixing of taxa originating from Africa , Asia , and North America . In Southwestern Europe , Cairanoolithus co @-@ occurs with numerous other types of fossil eggs ; Megaloolithus is particularly common , but theropod eggs such as Prismatoolithus and the ornithopod egg Guegoolithus are also present . Dinosaur body fossils are also common , including nodosaurids , rhabdodontids , titanosaurs , dromaeosaurids , basal iguanodontians , hadrosaurids , neoceratosaurians , and coelurosaurs . Other vertebrates include bony fish , squamates , cryptodiran turtles , alligatorids , and mammals .
= = History = =
The Aix Basin was first excavated for fossils in 1869 by French paleontologist Philippe Matheron . In the 1950s , Raymond Dughi and Francois Sirugue , a pair of French paleontologists working for the Museum d 'Histoire Naturelle Aix @-@ en @-@ Provence , extensively studied the basin 's fossil eggshells . They divided the eggs they had found into ten different types , but they did not describe them in detail . In the 1970s and 1980s , further work was done by the French paleontologist P. Kerourio and the German paleontologist H. K. Erben .
In M. M. Penner devised one of the early classification schemes for egg fossils in his 1983 doctoral thesis . He was the first to recognize the eggs now named Cairanoolithus as a distinct type ; under his classification scheme , they were called " Group 2 " . In 1994 , French paleontologists M. Vianey @-@ Liaud , P. Mallan , O. Buscail and C. Montgelard described them under the modern parataxonomic system as Cairanoolithus dughii and " Dughioolithus " roussetensis . They did not assign either of them to any oofamily , but both oogenera were classified in the oofamily Megaloolithidae by the Russian paleontologist Konstantin Mikhailov in 1996 . Following further discoveries in 2001 , Géraldine Garcia and Monique Vianey @-@ Liaud synomized the two oogenera . In 2002 , French paleontologist R. Cousin took a step further and synonymized the two oospecies .
In 2012 , the first Cairanoolithus fossils discovered outside of France were first reported by Albert G. Selles in his PhD thesis at Universitat de Barcelona , in which he also proposed that Cairanoolithus be moved into its own oofamily . Three years later , Selles and Angel Galobart published a comprehensive reanalysis of Cairanoolithus , in which they formally named the new oofamily , Cairanoolithidae , to contain Cairanaoolithus . Contrary to Cousin 's conclusions , Selles and Galobart separated the oospecies C. dughii and C. roussetensis . Also , they demonstrated that Cairanoolithus was not the eggs of an ornithopod or sauropod and conjectured that it could be the eggs of a nodosaur .
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= Family in early modern Scotland =
The family in early modern Scotland includes all aspects of kinship and family life , between the Renaissance and the Reformation of the sixteenth century and the beginnings of industrialisation and the end of the Jacobite risings in the mid @-@ eighteenth century in Scotland .
Scottish kinship in this period was agnatic , with descent judged through a common ancestor , helping to create the surname system in the Borders and the clans in the Highlands , with these systems beginning to break down in the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries respectively . There was considerable concern over the safety of children . The abolition of godparents in the Reformation meant that baptism became a mechanism for emphasising the role and responsibilities of fathers . Wet @-@ nurses were used for young children , but in most families mothers took the primary role in bringing up children , while the Kirk emphasised the role of the father for older children . After the Reformation there was an increasing emphasis on education , resulting in the growth of a parish school system , but its effects were limited for the children of the poor and for girls . Most children left home for a period of life @-@ cycle service , as domestic or agricultural servants or as apprentices before marriage .
Marriages were often the subject of careful negotiations , particularly higher in society . Marriage lost its sacramental status at the Reformation and irregular marriage continued to be accepted as valid throughout the period . Women managed the household and might work beside their husbands and , although obedience to husbands was stressed , this may have been limited in practice . Divorce developed after the Reformation and was available for a wider range of causes and accessed by a much larger section of society than in England . Because of high mortality rates widowhood was a relatively common state , and some women acquired independence and status , but others were forced into a marginal existence and remarriage was common . The elaborate funerals and complex system of prayers for the dead that dominated in late Medieval Scotland were removed at the Reformation and simpler services adopted . Burial inside the church was discouraged . As a result separate aisles for the rich and graveyards with stone markers for the majority became common .
= = Kinship = =
Unlike in England , where kinship was predominately cognatic ( derived through both males and females ) , in early modern Scotland kinship was agnatic ( with members of a group sharing a , sometimes fictional , common ancestor through only the male line ) . Women retained the original surname of their family of origin at marriage and marriages were intended to create alliances between kin groups , rather than a new bond of kinship that joined two families together . In the Borders , on both the English and Scottish sides , there were extensive bonds of kinship , often reflected in a common surname . A shared surname has been seen as a " test of kinship " , proving large bodies of kin who could call on each other ’ s support . At the beginning of the period this could help intensify the idea of the feud . Feuds were semi @-@ formalised disputes , often motivated by revenge for past actions against a member of kin . In a surname system large bodies of kin could be counted on to support rival sides , resulting in long @-@ term local warfare , although conflict between members of kin groups also occurred . From the reign of James VI ( r . 1567 – 1625 ) , systems of judicial law were enforced , aided by the Union of Crowns in 1603 that dissolved much of the political significance of the border . The leadership of the heads of the great surnames was largely replaced by the authority of landholding lairds in the seventeenth century and by the early eighteenth century the feud had been almost completely suppressed .
The combination of agnatic kinship and the feudal system , which formalised mutual obligations of service and protection , organised through heritable jurisdictions , has been seen as creating the Highland clan system . The head of a clan was usually the eldest son of the last chief of the most powerful sept or branch . The leading families of a clan formed the fine , often seen as equivalent to Lowland lairds , providing council in peace and leadership in war , and below them were the daoine usisle ( in Gaelic ) or tacksmen ( in Scots ) , who managed the clan lands and collected the rents . Most of the followers of the clan were tenants , who supplied labour to the clan heads and could be called upon to act as soldiers when needed . In the early modern era they usually took the clan name as their surname , turning it into a massive , if often fictive , kin group . Economic change and the imposition of royal justice had begun to undermine the clan system before the eighteenth century , but the process was accelerated after the Jacobite rising of 1745 . Highland dress was banned , clansmen were forcible disarmed , there was the compulsory purchase of heritable jurisdictions , many chiefs were exiled and ordinary clansmen were sent to the colonies as indentured labourers . Within a generation , these factors reduced most clan leaders to the status of simple landholders , without independent military power .
= = Childhood = =
There was considerable concern over the safety of mother and child in birth . Although childbirth was a predominantly female event , with neighbours and midwives in support , the father was often present in or near the birthing chamber to assert , or in the cases of birth outside marriage to admit , his paternity . Before the Reformation , baptism was a means of creating wider spiritual kinship with godparents , but in the reformed Kirk , godparents were abolished and the baptismal ceremony was used primarily as a means of strengthening the " natural " relationship of the child with the parents and to define their roles . This was particularly focused on the father , who would have the primary responsibility for the moral and spiritual education of the child . Among the elite of Highland society , there existed a system of fosterage that created similar links to godparenthood , with children being sent to the households of other major families to facilitate the creation of mutual bonds , that often endured into later life .
Following birth it was common , particularly among richer families , to employ a wet @-@ nurse to care for the child , sometimes living in with the family . Few sources give an insight into the experiences of young children in this period . Some parents played with their children and parents demonstrated grief at their loss . The primary responsibility for bringing up young children fell on the mother . For older children , the major duty of parents was , according to the Kirk , to ensure the spiritual development of the child , with fathers leading daily family prayers , but it is not clear how widely these practices were adopted .
= = Youth and education = =
Historians debate whether early modern individuals experienced a period of youth in the modern sense . For many the early teens were marked by moving away from home to undertake life @-@ cycle service , which was necessary so that they could build up skills and capital that would enable them to marry and create a separate household . Lower down in society boys might be apprenticed to a trade , or become agricultural servants . Girls might go into domestic or agricultural service . For those higher up in society and increasingly for those lower down , this might be after a period of schooling or even university .
The Humanist concern with widening education that had become significant in the Renaissance was shared by Protestant reformers . For boys , in the burghs the old schools were maintained , with the song schools and a number of new foundations becoming reformed grammar schools or ordinary parish schools . There were also large number of unregulated " adventure schools " , which sometimes fulfilled a local needs and sometimes took pupils away from the official schools . At their best , the curriculum included catechism , Latin , French , Classical literature and sports . A series of acts attempted to establish schools in every parish from 1616 . By the late seventeenth century there was a largely complete network of parish schools in the Lowlands , but in the Highlands basic education was still lacking in many areas .
The widespread belief in the limited intellectual and moral capacity of women , vied with a desire , intensified after the Reformation , for women to take personal moral responsibility , particularly as wives and mothers . In Protestantism this necessitated an ability to learn and understand the catechism and even to be able to independently read the Bible , but most commentators , even those that tended to encourage the education of girls , thought they should not receive the same academic education as boys . In the lower ranks of society , they benefited from the expansion of the parish schools system that took place after the Reformation , but were usually outnumbered by boys , often taught separately , for a shorter time and to a lower level . They were frequently taught reading , sewing and knitting , but not writing . Female illiteracy rates based on signatures among female servants were around 90 percent , from the late seventeenth to the early eighteenth centuries and perhaps 85 percent for women of all ranks by 1750 , compared with 35 per cent for men . Among the nobility there were many educated and cultured women , of which Mary , Queen of Scots is the most obvious example .
= = Marriage = =
Lowland Scotland was part of the pattern of late marriage for both men and women ( between the mid and late 20s ) , with a relatively large proportion of the population remaining unmarried . In the Highland and Islands marriage ages may have been lower and more closely resembled Gaelic Ireland . Throughout the period , women could legally marry from the age of 12 and boys from 14 . However , while many girls from the social elite married in their teens , most in the Lowlands only married after a period of life @-@ cycle service , in their twenties . Normally marriage followed handfasting , a period of betrothal , which in the Highlands may have effectively been a period of trial marriage , in which sexual activity may have been accepted as legitimate . Marriages , particularly higher in society , were often political in nature and the subject of complex negotiations over the tocher ( dowry ) . Some mothers took a leading role in negotiating marriages , as Lady Glenorchy did for her children in the 1560s and 1570s . They could also act as matchmakers , finding suitable and compatible partners for others .
In the Middle Ages marriage was a sacrament and the key element in validity was consent . The sacramental status was removed at the Reformation , but the centrality of consent remained . Weddings were often elaborate occasions for public celebration and feasting . Among the poor , the tradition of the penny wedding developed , by which guests contributed to the costs of occasion . There was usually a meal after the ceremony , sometimes followed by music and dancing . These events were strongly discouraged by the Reformed Kirk , particularly in the Lowlands where the Kirk had greatest control , but opposition began to ease from about 1715 to 1725 . Unlike in England , after the Reformation , " Irregular marriage " , without a church ceremony or any residence qualifications , remained valid if promises were made between the couple in front of witnesses . From the 1730s the border settlements of Coldstream Bridge , Lamberton Toll , and most famously Gretna Green , developed local industries in private and rapid marriages for English couples wishing to take advantage of the more flexible Scottish marriage laws , undertaken by individuals who declared themselves marriage priests . This business would expand rapidly after the passage of Lord Hardwicke 's Marriage Act in 1754 , which completely ended irregular marriages in England , but not in Scotland .
While among the wealthy , married women often focused on running the household , lower down in society they also worked with their husbands . In rural Scotland this would have included taking part in all the major agricultural tasks around the farm . They had a particular role as shearers in the harvest , forming most of the reaping team of the bandwin . In the Highlands they may have been even more significant as workers as there is evidence that many men considered agricultural work to be beneath their status and in places they may have formed the majority of the rural workforce . There was a stress on a wife 's duties to her husband and on the virtues of chastity and obedience . How exactly patriarchy worked in practice is difficult to discern . Scottish women in this period had something of a reputation among foreign observers for being forthright individuals , with the Spanish ambassador to the court of James IV ( r . 1488 – 1513 ) noting that they were " absolute mistresses of their houses and even their husbands " .
Before the Reformation , the extensive prohibited degrees of kinship , up to the fourth degree through consanguinity , meant that most noble marriages necessitated a papal dispensation . This could later be used as grounds for annulment if the marriage proved politically or personally inconvenient , although there was no divorce as such . After the mid @-@ sixteenth century the prohibited degrees were reduced to those in Leviticus 13 : 4 – 13 , which limited them to relationships in the second degree of kinship . Separation from bed and board continued to be allowed in exceptional circumstances , usually adultery , and under the Reformed Kirk divorce was allowed on grounds of adultery or desertion . Scotland was one of the first countries to allow desertion as legal grounds for divorce and , unlike England , where divorce necessitated and act of parliament , divorce cases were initiated relatively far down the social scale .
= = Widowhood = =
Given very high mortality rates , women could inherit important responsibilities from their fathers and from their husbands as widows . Evidence from towns indicates that around one in five households were headed by women who often continued to run an existing business interest . In noble society , widowhood created some very wealthy and powerful women . These included Catherine Campbell ( d . 1578 ) , who became the richest widow in the kingdom when her husband , the ninth earl of Crawford , died in 1558 . The twice @-@ widowed Margaret Ker , dowager Lady Yester , was described in 1635 as having " the greatest conjunct fie [ fiefdom ] that any lady hes in Scotland " and she proved the funds for Lady Yester 's Kirk in Edinburgh .
There is evidence of widows engaging in independent economic activity . They can be found keeping schools , brewing ale and trading . Some were highly successful , like Janet Flockhart , an Edinburgh wadwife or moneylender , who had been left a widow with seven children after her third husband 's suicide , and who managed her business affairs so successfully that she had amassed a moveable estate of £ 22 @,@ 000 by her death in the late sixteenth century . The deaths of the two husbands of Mary Erskine ( 1629 – 1708 ) left her with the resources to become a highly successful business woman and philanthropist , founding the Mary Erskine School and the Trades Maiden Hospital in Edinburgh . Lower down the social scale the rolls of poor relief indicate that large numbers of widows with children endured a marginal existence and were particularly vulnerable in times of economic hardship . This may in part explain the relatively high rates of remarriage suggested by the available sources . Many widows needed financial security and widowers often needed heirs or a mother for their children . Although contemporary writers seem to have been generally pessimistic about the step @-@ parent relationships that these remarriages created , the evidence of diaries and autobiographies from the period suggest that they were often highly successful , with many children remembering their step @-@ parents with genuine affection .
= = Death = =
In the late Middle Ages , Scottish people , like most of Catholic Europe , were increasingly concerned with prayers for the dead , necessary to speed passage from Purgatory to Heaven . The upper nobility began to turn from patronage for monasteries to the establishing collegiate churches to pray for them , such as Lord Dummond 's foundation at Innerpeffray in 1508 and Lord Fleming 's re @-@ establishment at Biggar in 1546 . Those lower down in society paid for shrines , priests and masses , leading to a proliferation of altars , clergy and services within existing churches . In the burghs the primary function of craft guilds was to pay for the funerals and masses of their members . By the early sixteenth century St. Mary 's in Dundee had perhaps 48 altars and St Giles ' in Edinburgh over 50 .
After the Reformation , the Mass and Purgatory were rejected by the Kirk , along with the efficacy of good works and prayers for the dead . In place of elaborate processions and masses at a funeral there was a simple service , where the body was taken to its resting place without singing and readings and interred soberly without ceremony . Unlike other reformed churches the Kirk also rejected burial inside the church , which were now seen as unseemly for a house of prayer . This caused friction with traditional rights , particularly of local notables , to be buried with their ancestors . The use of burial aisles , an extension projecting for the main body of the church , almost exclusively used for burial and commemoration , represented a uniquely Scottish solution to this problem . For most ranks in society the kirkyard remained the desired place of burial . From the seventeenth century burials were increasingly marked by gravestones , often including inscriptions that indicated affection for and the virtues of the deceased .
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= Maryland Route 33 =
Maryland Route 33 ( MD 33 ) is a state highway in the U.S. state of Maryland . The state highway runs 23 @.@ 17 mi ( 37 @.@ 29 km ) from Tilghman Island east to Washington Street in Easton . MD 33 connects Easton , the county seat of Talbot County , with all communities on the peninsula that juts west into the Chesapeake Bay between the Miles River and Eastern Bay on the north and the Tred Avon River and Choptank River on the south . The state highway passes through the historic town of Saint Michaels , home of the Chesapeake Bay Maritime Museum , and enters Tilghman Island by passing over Knapps Narrows on the busiest Bascule bridge in the United States .
MD 33 between Easton and Saint Michaels was one of the original state roads outlined by the Maryland State Roads Commission in 1909 . The state highway was constructed between Easton and Claiborne , the terminus of a ferry to Annapolis , in the late 1910s and early 1920s , and was originally designated MD 17 . The portion of the highway between Claiborne and Tilghman Island was constructed as MD 451 in the early 1930s . The state highway was extended north to MD 404 in Matapeake on Kent Island when the western terminus of the ferry from Claiborne was moved to Romancoke in the late 1930s . MD 33 received its present number in a 1940 number swap with present MD 17 . Following the shutdown of the ferry , MD 33 was extended west along MD 451 to Tilghman Island and the Romancoke – Matapeake highway was redesignated MD 8 . In Easton , MD 33 was extended north along Washington Street in the late 1940s and then along Easton Parkway , now MD 322 , in the mid @-@ 1960s , before the eastern terminus returned to its present location in the late 1970s .
= = Route description = =
MD 33 begins at the start of state maintenance 0 @.@ 10 mi ( 0 @.@ 16 km ) south of Wharf Road and Phillips Road on Tilghman Island . The roadway continues south as Black Walnut Point Road , a county highway that leads to the namesake point at the south end of the island . MD 33 heads north through the village of Tilghman Island as two @-@ lane Tilghman Island Road , passing Tilghman Elementary School and many businesses before leaving the island by crossing Knapps Narrows on a single @-@ bascule drawbridge that is the busiest of its type in the United States in terms of bridge openings . Shortly after leaving Tilghman Island , the state highway passes through a mix of forest and farmland , passing the hamlets of Sherwood and Wittman and several pieces of old alignment of the highway . MD 33 curves to the east around the head of Harris Creek and passes through McDaniel before reaching Claiborne Road , which was formerly MD 451 and heads northwest to the village of Claiborne .
MD 33 continues southeast as St. Michaels Road . The state highway passes the northern terminus of MD 579 ( Bozman Neavitt Road ) and around the head of Broad Creek before curving south and passing through the town of Saint Michaels and its namesake historic district . MD 33 is known as Talbot Street within the town , where the highway passes the entrance to the Chesapeake Bay Maritime Museum , marked by the previous drawbridge over Knapps Narrows . The state highway curves to the southeast within the town and continues straight out of town through a mix of farmland and forests until the hamlet of Newcomb , where MD 329 ( Royal Oak Road ) splits to the south towards Royal Oak and Bellevue while MD 33 curves east to cross Oak Creek along the shore of the Miles River . MD 33 continues northeast , collecting the other end of MD 329 before passing a few riverfront subdivisions ahead of the intersection with MD 370 ( Unionville Road ) . Shortly after entering the town limits of Easton , the state highway crosses Tanyard Branch at the intersection with MD 322 ( Easton Parkway ) , a bypass of the town that connects with US 50 in both directions . MD 33 continues east as Bay Street toward downtown Easton , where the highway reaches its eastern terminus at Washington Street .
MD 33 is a part of the National Highway System as a principal arterial from the west town limit of Easton to Washington Street .
= = History = =
The portion of present @-@ day MD 33 between Easton and Saint Michaels was designated one of the original state roads when the Maryland State Roads Commission laid out the original state road system in 1909 . However , the Easton – Saint Michaels road was not considered a necessary component of the system , so construction in its modern form was delayed in favor of the Easton – Wye Mills road . A 2 @-@ mile ( 3 @.@ 2 km ) section of the road between the eastern intersection with MD 329 and MD 370 was paved by 1910 . The first sections of modern MD 33 constructed by the State Roads Commission were between Saint Michaels and Claiborne , which became the terminus of the Claiborne – Annapolis Ferry in 1919 . Sections were completed between the two villages in 1919 and 1920 . A section of the highway was also completed between Easton and the MD 370 intersection in 1920 . The Easton – Claiborne Road was completed in 1924 . When numbers were assigned to certain state highways beginning in 1927 , the road was designated MD 17 .
The next section of present @-@ day MD 33 was constructed between Claiborne and the highway 's present western terminus on Tilghman Island as MD 451 . The sections from Claiborne to a point between Wittman and Sherman and on Tilghman Island were completed around 1930 . The gap between Knapps Narrows and Sherman was filled in 1933 . MD 451 was completed when a new single bascule drawbridge was completed over Knapps Narrows in 1934 . MD 17 was extended from Claiborne across Eastern Bay along Romancoke Road to MD 404 in Matapeake on Kent Island in 1938 . This section was added in response to the replacement of the Claiborne – Annapolis ferry route with a Claiborne – Romancoke route in 1938 , with traffic following the new section of MD 17 to Matapeake to take a second ferry across the Chesapeake Bay to Annapolis . MD 17 switched numbers with MD 33 , the highway connecting Brunswick and Wolfsville in Frederick County that is now MD 17 in 1940 .
After a new , straighter US 213 ( replaced by US 50 in 1949 ) was completed from south of Easton to Wye Mills in 1948 , MD 33 was extended north along Washington Street within Easton to the new bypass . Following the closing of the Claiborne – Romancoke ferry in 1953 , MD 33 and MD 451 switched alignments in 1957 ; MD 33 achieved its present western terminus at Tilghman Island while MD 451 became a short highway from MD 33 to Claiborne . MD 33 between Romancoke and Matapeake was redesignated MD 8 in 1960 . MD 451 was removed from state maintenance in 1998 .
Easton Parkway was constructed as a western bypass of Easton in the 1960s . MD 33 was moved from Washington Street to the part of the bypass north of present MD 33 when that section of Easton Parkway opened in 1965 . MD 322 , which was assigned to the southern part of Easton Parkway , replaced MD 33 on Bay Street between Easton Parkway and Washington Street , the latter of which became a northern extension of MD 565 . In 1978 , MD 322 was assigned to all of Easton Parkway and MD 33 assumed its present eastern terminus . The Knapps Narrows drawbridge was replaced by a new drawbridge in 1998 . The 1934 drawbridge was transferred to the entrance of the Chesapeake Bay Maritime Museum in Saint Michaels .
= = Junction list = =
The entire route is in Talbot County .
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= Siege of Bjelovar Barracks =
The Siege of Bjelovar Barracks , also known by the codename Operation Bilogora ( Croatian : Operacija Bilogora ) , was the blockade and capture of the Yugoslav People 's Army ( JNA ) barracks and other facilities in and around the city of Bjelovar , a part of the JNA 32nd ( Varaždin ) Corps , during the Croatian War of Independence . A general blockade of the JNA facilities in Croatia was ordered on 14 September 1991 , and it continued until 29 September when the JNA garrison was captured by Croatian forces . Its capture occurred one week after the bulk of the 32nd Corps surrendered . It was part of the Battle of the Barracks — an effort by Croatian armed forces to isolate JNA units based at barracks in Croatia , or capture the barracks to provide arms for Croatia 's nascent army .
The fighting resulted in the capture of a substantial stock of weapons , including 78 tanks , 77 infantry fighting vehicles and 13 artillery pieces greater than 100 @-@ millimetre ( 3 @.@ 9 in ) caliber . The clash also caused considerable damage to the city of Bjelovar and its surroundings due to artillery fire and the explosion of an ammunition storage depot on the outskirts of the city . The fighting erupted despite a ceasefire that had been arranged days before , and caused JNA General Veljko Kadijević to withdraw from negotiations regarding the ceasefire 's implementation . He subsequently issued an ultimatum to Croatian authorities , warning against the capture of further JNA facilities .
= = Background = =
In 1990 , ethnic tensions between Serbs and Croats worsened after the electoral defeat of the government of the Socialist Republic of Croatia by the Croatian Democratic Union ( Croatian : Hrvatska demokratska zajednica – HDZ ) . The Yugoslav People 's Army ( Serbian : Jugoslovenska Narodna Armija – JNA ) confiscated Croatia 's Territorial Defence ( Croatian : Teritorijalna obrana – TO ) weapons to minimize resistance . On 17 August , the tensions escalated into an open revolt of the Croatian Serbs , centred on the predominantly Serb @-@ populated areas of the Dalmatian hinterland around Knin ( approximately 60 kilometres ( 37 miles ) north @-@ east of Split ) , parts of the Lika , Kordun , Banovina and eastern Croatia . In January 1991 , Serbia , supported by Montenegro and Serbia 's provinces of Vojvodina and Kosovo , unsuccessfully tried to obtain the Yugoslav Presidency 's approval for a JNA operation to disarm Croatian security forces . The request was denied and a bloodless skirmish between Serb insurgents and Croatian special police in March prompted the JNA itself to ask the Federal Presidency to give it wartime authority and declare a state of emergency . Even though the request was backed by Serbia and its allies , the JNA request was refused on 15 March . Serbian President Slobodan Milošević , preferring a campaign to expand Serbia rather than to preserve Yugoslavia with Croatia as a federal unit , publicly threatened to replace the JNA with a Serbian army and declared that he no longer recognized the authority of the federal Presidency . The threat caused the JNA to abandon plans to preserve Yugoslavia in favour of expansion of Serbia as the JNA came under Milošević 's control . By the end of March , the conflict had escalated with the first fatalities . In early April , leaders of the Serb revolt in Croatia declared their intention to amalgamate the areas under their control with Serbia . These were viewed by the Government of Croatia as breakaway regions .
At the beginning of 1991 , Croatia had no regular army . To bolster its defence , Croatia doubled its police numbers to about 20 @,@ 000 . The most effective part of the Croatian police force was 3 @,@ 000 @-@ strong special police comprising twelve battalions organised along military lines . There were also 9 @,@ 000 – 10 @,@ 000 regionally organised reserve police in 16 battalions and 10 companies , but they lacked weapons . In response to the deteriorating situation , the Croatian government established the Croatian National Guard ( Croatian : Zbor narodne garde – ZNG ) in May by expanding the special police battalions into four all @-@ professional guards brigades . Under Ministry of Defence control and commanded by retired JNA General Martin Špegelj , the four guards brigades comprised approximately 8 @,@ 000 troops . The reserve police , also expanded to 40 @,@ 000 , was attached to the ZNG and reorganised into 19 brigades and 14 independent battalions . The guards brigades were the only units of the ZNG that were fully equipped with small arms ; throughout the ZNG there was a lack of heavier weapons and there was poor command and control structure above the brigade level . The shortage of heavy weapons was so severe that the ZNG resorted to using World War II weapons taken from museums and film studios . At the time , the Croatian weapon stockpile consisted of 30 @,@ 000 small arms purchased abroad and 15 @,@ 000 previously owned by the police . To replace the personnel lost to the guards brigades , a new 10 @,@ 000 @-@ strong special police was established .
= = Prelude = =
The views of the Croatian leadership on how to deal with the JNA 's role in the Croatian Serb revolt gradually evolved between January and September 1991 . Croatian President Franjo Tuđman 's initial plan was to win European Community ( EC ) and United States support , so he dismissed Špegelj 's advice to seize JNA barracks and storage facilities in Croatia in late 1990 . During the Ten @-@ Day War in June and July 1991 , Špegelj once again urged Tuđman to act while the JNA fought Slovenia 's TO . Špegelj 's calls were echoed by Šime Đodan , who succeeded him as Defence Minister in July . Špegelj remained in command of the ZNG .
Tuđman 's initial stance was based on his belief that Croatia could not win a war against the JNA . The ZNG was therefore limited to conducting defensive operations , even though the actions of the JNA appeared to be coordinated with Croatian Serb forces . This impression was reinforced by buffer zones established by the JNA after fighting between Croatian Serb militia and the ZNG . The JNA often intervened after the ZNG had lost territory , leaving the Croatian Serbs in control of areas they had captured before the JNA stepped in . The JNA provided some weapons to the Croatian Serbs , although most of their weaponry was sourced from Serbia 's TO and the Serbian Ministry of Internal Affairs .
In July 1991 , Špegelj and Đodan 's advice was supported by a number of Croatian Parliament members . In response , Tuđman dismissed Đodan the same month he was appointed Defence Minister , and Špegelj resigned his command of the ZNG on 3 August . The deteriorating situation in eastern Croatia , including the JNA expulsion of ZNG troops from Baranja , intermittent fighting around Osijek , Vukovar and Vinkovci , increasing losses and the growing conviction that the JNA were actively supporting the Croatian Serb revolt , forced Tuđman to act . On 22 August , he issued an ultimatum to the federal Yugoslav authorities demanding the withdrawal of the JNA to its barracks by the end of the month . The ultimatum stated that if the JNA failed to comply , Croatia would consider it an army of occupation and take corresponding action . On 1 September , the EC proposed a ceasefire and a peace conference was accepted by the Yugoslav Presidency and by Tuđman , despite his earlier ultimatum . The conference started on 7 September , but only four days later , the Croatian member and chair of the presidency , Stjepan Mesić , ordered the JNA to return to its barracks within 48 hours . This order was motivated by Tuđman 's concern that the conference would drag on while the ZNG lost territory . Even though the order was opposed by other members of the presidency , it gave Croatia justification to openly confront the JNA .
Prime Minister Franjo Gregurić advised Tuđman to implement Špegelj 's plan . According to General Anton Tus , Tuđman ordered the ZNG to capture JNA barracks on 12 September , but rescinded the order the next day . The order was reinstated on 14 September after Tus pleaded with Tuđman to re @-@ authorize action , arguing that the ZNG was running out of time . The same day , the ZNG and the Croatian police blockaded and cut utilities to all JNA facilities it had access to , beginning the Battle of the Barracks . This action comprised blockades of 33 large JNA garrisons in Croatia , and numerous smaller facilities , including border posts , and weapons and ammunition storage depots .
= = Order of battle = =
Since 1988 , the JNA 's Bjelovar garrison had been included in the 32nd Corps , which was headquartered in Varaždin , and was the second largest JNA corps in Croatia . It commanded the 32nd Mechanised Brigade and the 32nd Mixed Artillery Regiment both based in Varaždin , the 32nd Engineer Regiment in Čakovec , the 411th Mixed Antitank Artillery Regiment based in Križevci , the 73rd Motorised Brigade headquartered in Koprivnica , the 265th Mechanised Brigade based in Bjelovar , and the 288th Mixed Antitank Artillery Brigade in Virovitica . The JNA did not have sufficient troops in the area to secure all its facilities , but it was possible that the 5th ( Banja Luka ) Corps units deployed to Okučani might attempt to relieve some of the garrisons . A part of the 265th Mechanised Brigade was deployed to Koprivnica to reinforce the 73rd Motorised Brigade . It consisted of a battalion of tanks and one engineer battalion , and they were relocated to Koprivnica in August 1990 to boost the JNA 's presence in the town . A battlegroup comprising 23 armoured and 14 other vehicles , drawn from the 265th Mechanised Brigade and commanded by Lieutenant Colonel Milan Čeleketić , was deployed to Okučani . It was attached to the 5th Corps on 15 August to prevent Croatian special police from ousting Croatian Serb forces from the town .
Bjelovar also hosted the headquarters of the 28th Partisan Division ( TO ) and one of the division 's brigades . The most significant JNA facility in Bjelovar and its immediate surroundings was the Božidar Adžija Barracks , situated on the western outskirts of the city . The barracks housed Bjelovar garrison headquarters and the bulk of the weaponry of the 265th Mechanised Brigade , and approximately 500 officers and soldiers . There was a JNA non @-@ combat facility in the centre of Bjelovar , protected by a small security detail , a radar base and an anti @-@ aircraft defence communications hub in the village of Zvijerci , adjacent to the settlement of Trojstveni Markovac on the northern outskirts of Bjelovar , and two storage depots . The Logor Depot was used to store tanks and other equipment of the 265th Mechanised Brigade and weapons that had been confiscated from the TO in Bjelovar , and was guarded by approximately 50 troops . The Barutana Depot was used to store ammunition . Unlike the Logor Depot , which was situated in the city itself , the Barutana Depot was located in the Bedenik Forest near Bjelovar .
Croatia established a company @-@ sized special police unit in Bjelovar on 23 February 1991 . Following the deterioration of the situation in western Slavonia , the 105th Brigade of the ZNG was raised in the city , largely equipped with small arms only , and plans for a blockade of the routes in and out of the city were developed . A crisis headquarters was set up to coordinate the defence of the city and the manufacture of weapons in industrial plants which had been modified for their production .
= = Timeline = =
= = = Growing tensions and the blockade = = =
The first significant conflict involving the JNA in the Bjelovar area occurred on 1 September , when 14 JNA officers and soldiers were disarmed at a Croatian checkpoint . The commanding officer of the Bjelovar JNA garrison , Colonel Rajko Kovačević , demanded that the weapons to be returned , however the Croatian forces declined the request , claiming that the weapons had already been sent to Zagreb . Tensions greatly increased after 18 ZNG troops from the 105th Brigade , deployed from Bjelovar , went missing during the Battle of Kusonje on 9 September . The civilian authorities in the city demanded that the JNA provide information on their fate , but the JNA declared it had no knowledge of the matter .
By 22 September , Croatian forces had besieged and captured all major garrisons of the 32nd Corps , except those in Bjelovar and Koprivnica . The JNA garrisons in those two cities were ordered to extract themselves to territory near Okučani that was under the control of the 5th Corps . The Koprivnica @-@ based garrison was ordered to break out to Bjelovar , link up with the 265th Mechanised Brigade , then proceed towards Daruvar via Grubišno Polje . At the same time , the Bjelovar garrison had been blockaded , and its utilities and supplies were cut . Negotiations ensued for the surrender of the garrison , led by the civilian crisis headquarters presided over by Jure Šimić . The negotiations stalled when the JNA demanded that the 265th Mechanised Brigade be allowed to evacuate to Okučani or Bosnia and Herzegovina . At the time , a number of Croatian Serb civilians took refuge in the barracks either fearing for their safety or in order to isolate themselves from the Croatian authorities .
= = = Preparations for attack = = =
Preparations to seize the JNA facilities in Bjelovar took place on 21 – 29 September . These involved the placing of obstacles around the JNA facilities , setting up of artillery and air defence units , and drafting of plans to capture the JNA garrison , codenamed Operation Bilogora . The 1st Battalion of the 105th Brigade was deployed to around the villages of Bedenik and Velika Pisanica , the 2nd Battalion in the village of Narta , and the 3rd Battalion north of Bjelovar , thereby encircling the city . In the city itself , nine battlegroups were deployed to attack armoured units which might attempt a breakout . Air defence systems consisting of two 12 @.@ 7 @-@ millimetre ( 0 @.@ 50 in ) machine guns and two 20 @-@ millimetre ( 0 @.@ 79 in ) anti @-@ aircraft guns were set up in nearby villages . A battery of towed 100 @-@ millimetre ( 3 @.@ 9 in ) T @-@ 12 antitank guns was deployed to the Hrgovljani area . In an attempt to mitigate an overall shortage of anti @-@ tank weapons , 200 Molotov cocktails were sent from Zagreb and three armoured personnel carriers armed with 9M14 Malyutka anti @-@ tank guided missile systems arrived from Virovitica on 23 September . The crisis headquarters was to coordinate all activities of the Croatian armed forces based in Bjelovar , as well as reinforcements received from Varaždin after the JNA garrison based there surrendered , but Colonel Želimir Škarec , a member of the General Staff of the Armed Forces of the Republic of Croatia , was appointed as the commanding officer of the military operation .
Despite the ceasefire agreement signed on 22 September between the JNA and Croatia , which provided for the resumption of supplies to the JNA barracks , the authorities in Bjelovar refused to restore utilities , claiming that the agreement allowed for the supply of JNA officers and soldiers only , but there were also civilians sheltering in the barracks . On 27 September , the Croatian General Staff directed that the garrison be captured on 28 – 30 September . Tus , acting as the Chief of the General Staff , ordered the clandestine killing of extremists before they caused mass killing of civilians or great material damage . According to Tus , this order was based on an assessment that there were extremist JNA officers present in Bjelovar , intent on carrying out such acts .
= = = Capture of the garrison = = =
On the morning of 29 September , the ZNG and Croatian police attacked the JNA facilities in Bjelovar . In response , Kovačević contacted the JNA 5th Military District in Zagreb and requested airstrikes against the city and the ZNG . The sources do not indicate if the requested airstrikes were carried out . The 5th Military District instead pressured the central Croatian authorities to order the ZNG in Bjelovar to observe a comprehensive ceasefire previously agreed between Croatia and the JNA on 22 September . In order to verify the ceasefire , the European Community Monitor Mission ( ECMM ) deployed a monitoring team to the city . However , the authorities in Bjelovar ignored the order they received from the General Staff and stopped the ECMM team before it reached the city . According to Šimić , the move was made after Lieutenant General Petar Stipetić telephoned him and urged him to continue the attack . The authenticity of Šimić 's account of has been disputed by Admiral Davor Domazet @-@ Lošo , who claims it was an attempt to discredit Croatia before the ECMM . At 19 : 00 , the ZNG captured Božidar Adžija Barracks . By that time , all other JNA facilities in and near Bjelovar had been captured .
Before Barutana Depot was captured by the ZNG , one of the four storage structures , containing 1 @,@ 700 tonnes ( 1 @,@ 700 long tons ; 1 @,@ 900 short tons ) of ammunition , was blown up by JNA Major Milan Tepić . The explosion occurred at 10 : 43 , killing Tepić , and eleven ZNG troops who were blockading the depot in Bedenik Forest . The blast knocked down trees in a circle 200 metres ( 660 feet ) wide , caused damage to nearby structures , and could be heard 20 kilometres ( 12 miles ) away . The JNA lost another soldier in the area of the depot , killed by an antitank missile while he was engaging the ZNG using an infantry fighting vehicle gun .
= = Aftermath = =
The JNA suffered 14 killed , and 30 wounded during the siege and capture of the Bjelovar barracks . The ZNG lost 17 dead , and five civilians were killed . There were 70 wounded ZNG troops and civilians combined . The ZNG troops captured 60 JNA officers and 365 soldiers . The captured troops were released on 14 November , in a prisoner exchange between Slavonski Šamac and Bosanski Šamac . Equipment captured by the ZNG included 75 T @-@ 55 and three PT @-@ 76 tanks , nine 122 @-@ millimetre ( 4 @.@ 8 in ) howitzers , four M @-@ 63 Plamen multiple rocket launchers , 77 BVP M @-@ 80 infantry fighting vehicles , small arms previously confiscated from the Bjelovar TO , and weapons of the 1st Brigade of the 28th Partisan Division ( TO ) including 1 @,@ 300 assault rifles and machine guns and approximately 100 trucks . During the fighting , 437 residential structures , 513 apartments , 169 utility structures and 25 public and commercial buildings were damaged or destroyed in Bjelovar and Hrgovljani . The following day , the only remaining major unit of the 32nd Corps — the 73rd Motorised Brigade based in Koprivnica — surrendered to the ZNG .
The capture of the JNA barracks in Bjelovar also affected the ceasefire agreement reached between the JNA and Croatia in Igalo , specifically a provision regarding the lifting of the blockade of the JNA barracks there . Initially there was a dispute between Tuđman and JNA General Veljko Kadijević as to whether it meant achieving normal living conditions in the barracks or complete freedom of movement for the JNA in Croatia . A compromise interpretation was negotiated , only to be dropped by Kadijević specifically because of the events in Bjelovar . On 1 October , Kadijević issued an ultimatum to Croatia threatening destruction of one civilian facility vital to the Croatian population for each military post captured by the ZNG . The ultimatum demonstrated that the JNA considered Croatia enemy territory , rather than part of the country it had a responsibility to protect .
Tepić was considered a hero in Serbia because he preferred to die rather than surrender . He was posthumously awarded the Order of the People 's Hero by the Presidency of Yugoslavia on 19 November 1991 , becoming the last recipient of the order . The authorities in Serbia subsequently painted his actions as heroic , and used him as a model for their soldiers .
In 2005 , authorities in Bjelovar announced they would file war crime charges against two unnamed JNA officers . In 2010 , Šimić was charged with war crimes , specifically the killing of prisoners of war . According to the charges filed by the County Court of Bjelovar , Šimić or several persons directly commanded by him killed Kovačević and two other JNA officers after they surrendered on 29 September . As of 2014 , the trial is in progress . Four other persons were tried on charges of killing of six prisoners of war captured at the Božidar Adžija Barracks . These prisoners , along with one civilian who had been held in custody since 2 September , were taken to the Česma Forest near the village of Malo Korenovo to be shot . The soldiers were killed , but the civilian survived , although he sustained severe injuries . The four accused were acquitted in 2012 . Škarec and Chief of Staff of Bjelovar TO Stjepan Budimski were charged with disobeying the orders issued by the General Staff , and were imprisoned . After spending several months in custody , Škarec and Budimski were released without formal charges . Škarec was discharged from the Croatian armed forces .
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= A Community of Witches =
A Community of Witches : Contemporary Neo @-@ Paganism and Witchcraft in the United States is a sociological study of the Wiccan and wider Pagan community in the Northeastern United States . It was written by American sociologist Helen A. Berger of the West Chester University of Pennsylvania and first published in 1999 by the University of South Carolina Press . It was released as a part of a series of academic books entitled Studies in Comparative Religion , edited by Frederick M. Denny , a religious studies scholar at the University of Chicago .
Berger became interested in studying the Wiccan and Pagan movement in 1986 , when she presented a lecture on the subject at the Boston Public Library . Subsequently becoming acquainted with members of the New England Pagan community , she undertook fieldwork in both a local Wiccan coven , the Circle of Light , and a wider Pagan organisation , the EarthSpirit Community ( ESC ) . In total , Berger underwent 11 years of fieldwork among the Pagan community . Along with ESC founder Andras Corban Arthen , Berger also undertook a " Pagan Census " survey of the U.S. in the mid @-@ 1990s to obtain more data on the country 's Pagan community .
A Community of Witches is based on interviews with more than a hundred practicing Wiccans and Pagans , study of the pre @-@ existing literature on the subject and a national survey of the Pagan community in the U.S. In her work , Berger interprets Wicca as a religion of late modernity , as opposed to postmodernity , and subsequently examines it using the theories of sociologists Anthony Giddens and James A. Beckford . Themes covered include Pagan conceptions of the self , the role of covens and the wider Pagan community , the place of children in the movement and the increasing routinization of Wicca through the foundation of organised churches and clergy .
Academic reviewers were mostly positive , but several raised concerns over Berger 's incorrect use of terminology . Reviewers noted the study 's importance in developing Pagan studies as an academic discipline and helping further the wider sociological investigation into new religious movements in the United States . In the years following the study 's publication , Berger continued to investigate the Pagan community , focusing her interest on the popularity of Wicca among teenagers .
= = Background = =
= = = Paganism and Wicca in the United States = = =
Contemporary Paganism , also referred to as Neo @-@ Paganism , is an umbrella term used to identify a wide variety of modern religious movements , particularly those influenced by or claiming to be derived from the various pagan beliefs of pre @-@ modern Europe . The religion of Pagan Witchcraft , or Wicca , was developed in England during the first half of the 20th century and is one of several Pagan religions . The figure at the forefront of Wicca 's early development was the English occultist Gerald Gardner ( 1884 – 1964 ) , the author of Witchcraft Today ( 1954 ) and The Meaning of Witchcraft ( 1959 ) and the founder of a tradition known as Gardnerian Wicca . Gardnerian Wicca revolved around the veneration of both a Horned God and a Mother Goddess , the celebration of eight seasonally @-@ based festivals in a Wheel of the Year and the practice of magical rituals in groups known as covens . Gardnerianism was subsequently brought to the U.S. in the early 1960s by an English initiate , Raymond Buckland ( 1934 – ) , and his then @-@ wife Rosemary , who together founded a coven in Long Island . In the U.S. , new variants of Wicca developed , including Dianic Wicca , a tradition founded in the 1970s which was influenced by second @-@ wave feminism , emphasized female @-@ only covens , and rejected the veneration of the Horned God . One initiate of both the Dianic and Gardnerian traditions was a woman known as Starhawk ( 1951 – ) who went on to found her own tradition , Reclaiming Wicca . She furthermore published The Spiral Dance : a Rebirth of the Ancient Religion of the Great Goddess ( 1979 ) , a book which helped spread Wicca throughout the U.S.
= = = Academic fieldwork into Wicca = = =
Prior to Berger 's work , several American researchers working in the field of Pagan studies had separately published investigations of the Pagan community in the United States and the United Kingdom . The first of these was the practicing Wiccan , journalist and political activist Margot Adler in her Drawing Down the Moon : Witches , Druids , Goddess @-@ Worshippers , and Other Pagans in America Today , which was first published by Viking Press in 1979 . A second study was produced by the anthropologist Tanya M. Luhrmann in her Persuasions of the Witch 's Craft : Ritual Magic in Contemporary England ( 1989 ) , in which she focused on both a Wiccan coven and several ceremonial magic orders that were then operating in London .
The next academic book to be published based upon fieldwork undertaken in the U.S. Pagan community was Living Witchcraft : A Contemporary American Coven , published by Praeger in 1994 . Living Witchcraft had been co @-@ written by three academics , the sociologist Allen Scarboro , psychologist Nancy Campbell and literary critic Shirley Stave , herself a Wiccan practitioner . It was based upon their fieldwork undertaken in the Ravenwood coven of Atlanta , Georgia , over several months across 1990 and 1991 . At the same time as Scarboro , Campbell and Stave were undertaking their research , the American anthropologist and practicing Wiccan Loretta Orion was also undertaking an investigation into the Pagan movement in the East Coast and Midwest of the United States . Orion 's work was published as Never Again the Burning Times : Paganism Revisited by Waveland Press in 1995 , although would be heavily criticized in published reviews written by both Luhrmann and T.O. Beidelman , both of whom were of the opinion that Orion 's Pagan beliefs had clouded her critical interpretation . 1997 then saw the publication of Witchcraft and Paganism in Australia , authored by the anthropologist Lynne Hume .
= = = Berger and her research = = =
Helen Berger , then a lecturer in sociology at the West Chester University of Pennsylvania , had initially become involved in the study of the Pagan movement in preparation for a series of public lectures that she gave at the Boston Public Library in October 1986 . Based on the subject of the historical witch trials that took place in New England during the Early Modern period , she devoted the final lecture in the series to an examination of the contemporary Pagan Witches , or Wiccans , then living in the area . Having yet to perform the sociological investigation that would culminate in A Community of Witches , Berger gained her information for this lecture from the information published in the works of Margot Adler , Starhawk and Marcello Truzzi , and also from a singular interview that she had carried out with a woman who was " peripherally associated " with Paganism . After the lecture , several audience members approached Berger to identify themselves as practicing Wiccans , and it was through them that she came into contact with the New England Pagan community . Three of the Wiccans at the lecture invited Berger to " participate as a researcher " as they founded their own coven , the Circle of Light , and she attended their weekly meetings and festival celebrations for the next two years .
At the first open Pagan ritual that she attended , Berger met Andras Corban Arthen , the founder of the EarthSpirit Community ( ESC ) , a Pagan organization open to non @-@ Wiccans which she joined after paying the annual membership fee of $ 30 . Attending many of the ESC 's open rituals and festivals , she was introduced to a " diverse group " of Wiccans and other Pagans , and developed a contact base in the community . Berger and Arthen subsequently embarked on a project entitled " The Pagan Census " in an attempt to gain sociological data from the Pagan community across the U.S. Receiving funding from the Faculty Development Fund at West Chester University , Berger was aided in this project by over 15 students who helped her to code and enter data for the survey . Together , Berger and Arthen wrote and distributed their survey through Wiccan and Pagan organizations across the country , as well as in journals , on the internet and at festivals . The duo received over 2000 responses , providing Berger with one of her main sources of information .
Throughout her 11 @-@ year period of fieldwork , Berger had to use snowball sampling to retrieve her data on the Pagan community , something that she attributed to the " secrecy of groups and practitioners " . She conducted formal interviews with over 40 practicing Pagans , and over 60 others instead were informally interviewed during conversations at Pagan events , following which Berger recorded their responses in her fieldnotes . She participated in rituals with ten different Wiccan covens , two of which were all @-@ female covens , and the other eight of which were mixed @-@ gender in structure , but all of whom assembled in the Northeastern United States . Accepting that this regional focus might affect her results , she supplemented her fieldwork by reading literature on Paganism from across the country , concluding that " the differences among groups and practitioners within the United States are less important than the similarities . " Unlike the sociologists Margot Adler and Loretta Orion , both of whom had been or became Pagans whilst studying the movement , Berger stated that she had not joined the religion , thereby remaining an " outsider " throughout her research , but had made many friends within the Pagan community .
A Community of Witches was a part of a series of books entitled ' Studies in Comparative Religion ' that were published by the University of South Carolina Press , and edited by Frederick M. Denny . In Denny 's preface to the book , he remarked that it " adds significantly to the steadily growing scholarly literature " on the subject of Wicca and contemporary Paganism , being of " considerable use for our understanding of how other new religious communities are sustaining and developing themselves in the unprecedented rich tapestry of American religious pluralism . "
= = Synopsis = =
Starting with a preface in which Berger explains how she first began studying the Wiccan and Pagan community of New England , Berger opens the main part of her book with a description of a Wiccaning which she attended . Proceeding to introduce both the Wiccan religion and her theoretical approach , Berger explains the British sociologist James A. Beckford 's approach to the religions of late modernity as well as Anthony Giddens ' theoretical approaches to modernism .
In the second chapter , " The Magical Self " , Berger examines the ways in which Wiccans in the U.S. understand themselves , looking at sociological ideas about self @-@ identity and utilising them in her analysis of Wiccan rituals that deal with the transformation of the self . She moves on to look at concepts of gender in the Wiccan community , both for men and women and among homosexuals . The third chapter , entitled " The Coven : Perfect Love , Perfect Trust " , provides an explanation of the coven system within Wicca , and the ways in which friendships are built and collapse amongst coven members , and the extent to which covens imitate family structures .
Chapter four , " A Circle within a Circle : The Neo @-@ Pagan Community " , looks at the wider community beyond the coven structure , interpreting it through theoretical ideas about community in late modernity . Moving on , Berger looks at ideas of community memory and community building amongst U.S. Pagans , before examining the manner in which some Pagans engage in both emancipatory politics and life politics . The fifth chapter , entitled " The Next Generation " , is devoted to the place of children within the Pagan community , and deals with ideas of rites of passage , attitudes towards children 's sexuality and the extent to which children are involved in rituals .
The sixth chapter , " The Routinization of Creativity " , looks at the relationship between Wicca and routinization , and examines how the anti @-@ authoritarian ethos of the religion has been in part eroded through the creation of Pagan organisations like the EarthSpirit Community and the Circle Sanctuary , which have purchased land and led to the development of a paid clergy . Finally , Berger concludes her work with a round @-@ up of her study , and muses on the possible future for Wicca in the United States .
= = Arguments = =
= = = Wicca as a religion of late modernity = = =
Whereas the sociologist Loretta Orion had believed that contemporary Paganism was a postmodern movement , in A Community of Witches , Berger argued against this , instead considering Wicca to be a religion of late modernity . In supporting this position , Berger turned to the work of the British sociologist of religion , James A. Beckford ( 1942 – ) , who in his book Religion and Advanced Industrial Society ( 1989 ) had argued that many new religious movements reflect the characteristics of late modernity by challenging traditional definitions of religion , sharing a holistic worldview and emphasising the development and transformation of the self . Berger stated that while " Wicca is not specifically mentioned by Beckford , it does fit the model of New Age religions that he is analyzing . " Whilst accepting that elements of postmodernism can be found within Wicca , Berger argued that the religion does not " signify an epistemological break with Enlightenment thought " , and that as such it was intrinsically late modernist in structure ; as she related , the " emphasis on globalism , the belief in personal and social transformation , and the use of noninstrumental rationality place Wicca firmly within the Enlightenment tradition . "
Berger 's choice of " framework for understanding Wicca within the context of late modernity " was that of structuration , a theory put forward by the English sociologist and political theorist Anthony Giddens ( 1938 – ) in his book The Constitution of Society ( 1984 ) . Structuration theory maintains that both structure and agency influence human beings in their choices ; the former refers to the recurrent patterned arrangements which influence or limit the choices and opportunities available for an individual , whilst the latter refers to the capacity of individuals to act independently and to make their own free choices . Berger argued that whilst the beliefs and practices of Wiccans were " in part determined by social factors , such as class , race and gender " , at the same time these Wiccans exerted a level of control and self @-@ determination over their lives " both by the very act of becoming a Witch and through the self @-@ conscious use of rituals to create a persona . "
= = = Wicca as a result of globalism = = =
Berger was of the opinion that Wicca 's " development and spread " could be seen as " an outgrowth of globalism " . As evidence , she noted that the religion had been created by modern westerners adopting elements from a variety of " older and geographically disparate religious practices " in order to fashion their new faith , something which she believed was only possible in a globalised world .
= = = The future of Wicca = = =
Whereas Mary Jo Neitz ( 1991 ) and Nancy J. Finley ( 1991 ) had both argued that ultimately , it would be the feminist @-@ orientated , female @-@ only form of Wicca found in the Dianic tradition that would grow to become dominant in the United States , Berger disagreed , arguing that " inclusive groups " , meaning those traditions who welcome both men and women into their covens , " will ultimately prove to be more significant . " She believed that this was in part because they " are more likely to include and fully involve children in their practices " , something which she saw as having the likely " greatest impact " on the future of Wicca in the United States . In Berger 's view , these children born into the faith would act as " maintainers of their families ' practice " , replacing the role that had formerly been played by neophytes in the community .
= = Reception and recognition = =
= = = Academic reviews = = =
In a review published in the Review of Religious Research journal , Stephen D. Glazier of the University of Nebraska described A Community of Witches as an " important study " which had " many virtues and few faults . " Glazier commended it as an improvement on earlier sociological studies of contemporary Paganism , which in his opinion had dwelt on " personal experiences " and acted as something of " proselytizers for Neo @-@ Pagan beliefs and practices . " He furthermore praised Berger for " maintaining a high degree of theoretical sophistication " while still " remaining accessible for the average reader " . He also expressed several criticisms , for instance noting that Berger had used the terms " Wiccan " and " Neo @-@ Pagan " interchangeably , even though they have different meanings , something that he felt might confuse some of the book 's readers .
In her review of A Community of Witches published in the Sociology of Religion journal , Frances Kostarelos of the Governors State University commented positively on Berger 's work , describing it as " an invaluable theoretical and descriptive account of Wicca " that is also " a fine example of ethnographic research and writing . " Stefanie von Schnurbein of the University of Chicago described A Community of Witches as " an exciting and important approach to the study of contemporary neopaganism " in her review published in The Journal of Religion . Schnurbein believed that Berger " has an intimate knowledge of her field and makes creative and interesting use of contemporary sociological theory " but that a " discussion of the vivid cultural and theoretical controversies around gender and sexuality would have added to the theoretical value of Berger 's book . "
Writing in the Contemporary Sociology journal , Tanice G. Foltz of Indiana University Northwest described A Community of Witches as " Well organized , clearly written , and aimed at an academic audience " . Believing it to be a " valuable addition to the existing scholarship on witchcraft " , Foltz did highlight some problems with the work , wishing that it had included an " in @-@ depth analysis " of her Pagan Census survey and noting that it erroneously used the terms " Neo @-@ Paganism " , " Witchcraft " and " Wicca " interchangeably . In her review for the Journal for the Scientific Study of Religion , Mary Jo Neitz of the University of Missouri was more critical , arguing that Berger had generalised information from the north @-@ eastern U.S. and claimed that it was applicable for the Pagan community across the entire country , something which Neitz felt was counter to her " own observations of Wicca . "
= = = Wider recognition = = =
A Community of Witches was awarded the A List Exceptional Books of 1999 Award . It was also mentioned by Canadian religious studies scholar Barbara Jane Davy in her 2007 work , Introduction to Pagan Studies , during which she listed the books on Pagan Studies that had then seen publication .
= = Berger 's later work = =
The publication of A Community of Witches did not signal the end of Berger 's studies on the subject of American Paganism , and over the following several years she would publish several more volumes detailing her work in this area . In 2003 , she co @-@ authored a book delving deeper into the results of the Pagan Census that she had undertaken with Andras Corban Arthen . Entitled Voices from the Pagan Census : A National Survey of Witches and Neo @-@ Pagans in the United States , it was co @-@ written with Leigh S. Shaffer , a fellow professor of sociology at West Chester University , and also with Evan A. Leach , then an associate professor of management at West Chester . Like A Community of Witches , Voices from the Pagan Census was published by the University of South Carolina Press in their series on ' Studies in Comparative Religion ' , and in his preface to the book , the series editor Frederick M. Denny referred to it as the " sequel " to Berger 's earlier work .
In their preface , Berger , Leach and Shaffer discussed the Pagan Census and how it had been used in producing A Community of Witches ; they noted that at the time Berger had originally written the book , " the rest of the data had not been completely processed , cleaned , and analyzed . Unlike that book , which relied primarily on her ethnographic research in the northeastern United States and an analysis of journals , books , and newsletters written by Neo @-@ Pagans , this one is based primarily on the survey data . "
In 2005 , the University of Pennsylvania published an edited anthology entitled Witchcraft and Magic in the New World : North America in the Twentieth Century , which had been edited by Berger . In 2007 , Berger 's third book was published , Teenage Witches : Magical Youth and the Search for the Soul , which had been co @-@ written with Douglas Ezzy , a senior lecturer in sociology at the University of Tasmania in Australia .
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= Camille Saint @-@ Saëns =
Charles @-@ Camille Saint @-@ Saëns ( French : [ ʃaʁl kamij sɛ ̃ sɑ ̃ s ] ; 9 October 1835 – 16 December 1921 ) was a French composer , organist , conductor and pianist of the Romantic era . His best @-@ known works include Introduction and Rondo Capriccioso ( 1863 ) , the Second Piano Concerto ( 1868 ) , the First Cello Concerto ( 1872 ) , Danse macabre ( 1874 ) , the opera Samson and Delilah ( 1877 ) , the Third Violin Concerto ( 1880 ) , the Third ( " Organ " ) Symphony ( 1886 ) and The Carnival of the Animals ( 1886 ) .
Saint @-@ Saëns was a musical prodigy , making his concert debut at the age of ten . After studying at the Paris Conservatoire he followed a conventional career as a church organist , first at Saint @-@ Merri , Paris and , from 1858 , La Madeleine , the official church of the French Empire . After leaving the post twenty years later , he was a successful freelance pianist and composer , in demand in France , mainland Europe , Britain , and the Americas .
As a young man , Saint @-@ Saëns was enthusiastic for the most modern music of the day , particularly that of Schumann , Liszt and Wagner , although his own compositions were generally within a conventional classical tradition . He was a scholar of musical history , and remained committed to the structures worked out by earlier French composers . This brought him into conflict in his later years with composers of the impressionist and dodecaphonic schools of music ; although there were neoclassical elements in his music , foreshadowing works by Stravinsky and Les Six , he was often regarded as a reactionary in the years before and after his death .
Saint @-@ Saëns held only one teaching post , at the École de Musique Classique et Religieuse in Paris , and remained there for less than five years . It was nevertheless important in the development of French music : his students included Gabriel Fauré , among whose own later pupils was Maurice Ravel . Both of them were strongly influenced by Saint @-@ Saëns , whom they revered as a genius .
= = Life and career = =
= = = Early life = = =
Saint @-@ Saëns was born in Paris , the only child of Jacques @-@ Joseph @-@ Victor Saint @-@ Saëns ( 1798 – 1835 ) , an official in the French Ministry of the Interior , and Françoise @-@ Clémence , née Collin . Victor Saint @-@ Saëns was of Norman ancestry , and his wife was from an Haute @-@ Marne family ; their son , born in the Rue du Jardinet in the 6th arrondissement of Paris , and baptised at the nearby church of Saint @-@ Sulpice , always considered himself a true Parisian . Less than two months after the christening , Victor Saint @-@ Saëns died of consumption on the first anniversary of his marriage . The young Camille was taken to the country for the sake of his health , and for two years lived with a nurse at Corbeil , 29 kilometres ( 18 mi ) to the south of Paris .
When Saint @-@ Saëns was brought back to Paris he lived with his mother and her widowed aunt , Charlotte Masson . Before he was three years old he displayed perfect pitch and enjoyed picking out tunes on the piano . His great @-@ aunt taught him the basics of pianism , and when he was seven he became a pupil of Camille @-@ Marie Stamaty , a former pupil of Friedrich Kalkbrenner . Stamaty required his students to play while resting their forearms on a bar situated in front of the keyboard , so that all the pianist 's power came from the hands and fingers rather than the arms , which , Saint @-@ Saëns later wrote , was good training . Clémence Saint @-@ Saëns , well aware of her son 's precocious talent , did not wish him to become famous too young . The music critic Harold C. Schonberg wrote of Saint @-@ Saëns in 1969 , " It is not generally realized that he was the most remarkable child prodigy in history , and that includes Mozart . " The boy gave occasional performances for small audiences from the age of five , but it was not until he was ten that he made his official public debut , at the Salle Pleyel , in a programme that included Mozart 's Piano Concerto in B ♭ ( K450 ) , and Beethoven 's Third Piano Concerto . Through Stamaty 's influence , Saint @-@ Saëns was introduced to the composition professor Pierre Maleden and the organ teacher Alexandre Pierre François Boëly . From the latter he acquired a lifelong love of the music of Bach , which was then little known in France .
As a schoolboy Saint @-@ Saëns was outstanding in many subjects . In addition to his musical prowess , he distinguished himself in the study of French literature , Latin and Greek , divinity , and mathematics . His interests included philosophy , archaeology and astronomy , of which , particularly the last , he remained a talented amateur in later life .
In 1848 , at the age of thirteen , Saint @-@ Saëns was admitted to the Paris Conservatoire , France 's foremost music academy . The director , Daniel Auber , had succeeded Luigi Cherubini in 1842 , and brought a more relaxed regime than that of his martinet predecessor , though the curriculum remained conservative . Students , even outstanding pianists like Saint @-@ Saëns , were encouraged to specialise in organ studies , because a career as a church organist was seen to offer more opportunities than that of a solo pianist . His organ professor was François Benoist , whom Saint @-@ Saëns considered a mediocre organist but a first @-@ rate teacher ; his pupils included Adolphe Adam , César Franck , Charles Alkan , Louis Lefébure @-@ Wély and Georges Bizet . In 1851 Saint @-@ Saëns won the Conservatoire 's top prize for organists , and in the same year he began formal composition studies . His professor was a protégé of Cherubini , Fromental Halévy , whose pupils included Charles Gounod and Bizet .
Saint @-@ Saëns 's student compositions included a symphony in A major ( 1850 ) and a choral piece , Les Djinns ( 1850 ) , to a poem by Victor Hugo . He competed for France 's premier musical award , the Prix de Rome , in 1852 but was unsuccessful . Auber believed that the prize should have gone to Saint @-@ Saëns , considering him to have more promise than the winner , Léonce Cohen , who made little mark during the rest of his career . In the same year Saint @-@ Saëns had greater success in a competition organised by the Société Sainte @-@ Cécile , Paris , with his Ode à Sainte @-@ Cécile , for which the judges unanimously voted him the first prize . The first piece the composer acknowledged as a mature work and gave an opus number was Trois Morceaux for harmonium ( 1852 ) .
= = = Early career = = =
On leaving the Conservatoire in 1853 , Saint @-@ Saëns accepted the post of organist at the ancient Parisian church of Saint @-@ Merri near the Hôtel de Ville . The parish was substantial , with 26 @,@ 000 parishioners ; in a typical year there were more than two hundred weddings , the organist 's fees from which , together with fees for funerals and his modest basic stipend , gave Saint @-@ Saëns a comfortable income . The organ , the work of François @-@ Henri Clicquot , had been badly damaged in the aftermath of the French Revolution and imperfectly restored . The instrument was adequate for church services but not for the ambitious recitals that many high @-@ profile Parisian churches offered . With enough spare time to pursue his career as a pianist and composer , Saint @-@ Saëns composed what became his opus 2 , the Symphony in E ♭ ( 1853 ) . This work , with military fanfares and augmented brass and percussion sections , caught the mood of the times in the wake of the popular rise to power of Napoleon III and the restoration of the French Empire . The work brought the composer another first prize from the Société Sainte @-@ Cécile .
Among the musicians who were quick to spot Saint @-@ Saëns 's talent were the composers Gioachino Rossini , Hector Berlioz and Franz Liszt , and the influential singer Pauline Viardot , who all encouraged him in his career . In early 1858 Saint @-@ Saëns moved from Saint @-@ Merri to the high @-@ profile post of organist of La Madeleine , the official church of the Empire ; Liszt heard him playing there and declared him the greatest organist in the world .
Although in later life he had a reputation for outspoken musical conservatism , in the 1850s Saint @-@ Saëns supported and promoted the most modern music of the day , including that of Liszt , Robert Schumann and Richard Wagner . Unlike many French composers of his own and the next generation , Saint @-@ Saëns , for all his enthusiasm for and knowledge of Wagner 's operas , was not influenced by him in his own compositions . He commented , " I admire deeply the works of Richard Wagner in spite of their bizarre character . They are superior and powerful , and that is sufficient for me . But I am not , I have never been , and I shall never be of the Wagnerian religion . "
= = = 1860s : Teacher and growing fame = = =
In 1861 Saint @-@ Saëns accepted his only post as a teacher , at the École de Musique Classique et Religieuse , Paris , which Louis Niedermeyer had established in 1853 to train first @-@ rate organists and choirmasters for the churches of France . Niedermeyer himself was professor of piano ; when he died in March 1861 , Saint @-@ Saëns was appointed to take charge of piano studies . He scandalised some of his more austere colleagues by introducing his students to contemporary music , including that of Schumann , Liszt and Wagner . His best @-@ known pupil , Gabriel Fauré , recalled in old age :
After allowing the lessons to run over , he would go to the piano and reveal to us those works of the masters from which the rigorous classical nature of our programme of study kept us at a distance and who , moreover , in those far @-@ off years , were scarcely known . ... At the time I was 15 or 16 , and from this time dates the almost filial attachment ... the immense admiration , the unceasing gratitude I [ have ] had for him , throughout my life . "
Saint @-@ Saëns further enlivened the academic regime by writing , and composing incidental music for , a one @-@ act farce performed by the students ( including André Messager ) . He conceived his best @-@ known piece , The Carnival of the Animals , with his students in mind , but did not finish composing it until 1886 , more than twenty years after he left the Niedermeyer school .
In 1864 Saint @-@ Saëns caused some surprise by competing a second time for the Prix de Rome . Many in musical circles were puzzled by his decision to enter the competition again , now that he was establishing a reputation as a soloist and composer . He was once more unsuccessful . Berlioz , one of the judges , wrote :
We gave the Prix de Rome the other day to a young man who wasn 't expecting to win it and who went almost mad with joy . We were all expecting the prize to go to Camille Saint @-@ Saëns , who had the strange notion of competing . I confess I was sorry to vote against a man who is truly a great artist and one who is already well known , practically a celebrity . But the other man , who is still a student , has that inner fire , inspiration , he feels , he can do things that can 't be learnt and the rest he 'll learn more or less . So I voted for him , sighing at the thought of the unhappiness that this failure must cause Saint @-@ Saëns . But , whatever else , one must be honest .
According to the musical scholar Jean Gallois , it was apropos of this episode that Berlioz made his well @-@ known bon mot about Saint @-@ Saëns , " He knows everything , but lacks inexperience " ( " Il sait tout , mais il manque d 'inexpérience " ) . The winner , Victor Sieg , had a career no more notable than that of the 1852 winner , but Saint @-@ Saëns 's biographer Brian Rees speculates that the judges may " have been seeking signs of genius in the midst of tentative effort and error , and considered that Saint @-@ Saëns had reached his summit of proficiency " . The suggestion that Saint @-@ Saëns was more proficient than inspired dogged his career and posthumous reputation . He himself wrote , " Art is intended to create beauty and character . Feeling only comes afterwards and art can very well do without it . In fact , it is very much better off when it does . " The biographer Jessica Duchen writes that he was " a troubled man who preferred not to betray the darker side of his soul " . The critic and composer Jeremy Nicholas observes that this reticence has led many to underrate the music ; he quotes such slighting remarks as " Saint @-@ Saëns is the only great composer who wasn 't a genius " , and " Bad music well written " .
While teaching at the Niedermeyer school Saint @-@ Saëns put less of his energy into composing and performing , but after he left in 1865 he pursued both aspects of his career with vigour . In 1867 his cantata Les noces de Prométhée beat more than a hundred other entries to win the composition prize of the Grande Fête Internationale in Paris , for which the jury included Auber , Berlioz , Gounod , Rossini and Giuseppe Verdi . In 1868 he premiered the first of his orchestral works to gain a permanent place in the repertoire , his Second Piano Concerto . Playing this and other works he became a noted figure in the musical life of Paris and other cities in France and abroad during the 1860s .
= = = 1870s : War , marriage and operatic success = = =
In 1870 , concerned at the dominance of German music and the lack of opportunity for young French composers to have their works played , Saint @-@ Saëns and Romain Bussine , professor of singing at the Conservatoire , discussed the founding of a society to promote new French music . Before they could take the proposal further , the Franco @-@ Prussian War broke out . Saint @-@ Saëns served in the National Guard during the war . During the brief but bloody Paris Commune that followed , his superior at the Madeleine , the Abbé Deguerry , was murdered by rebels ; Saint @-@ Saëns was fortunate to escape to temporary exile in England . With the help of George Grove and others he supported himself while there , giving recitals . Returning to Paris in 1871 , he found that anti @-@ German sentiments had considerably enhanced support for the idea of a pro @-@ French musical society . The Société Nationale de Musique , with its motto , " Ars Gallica " , was established in February 1871 , with Bussine as president , Saint @-@ Saëns as vice @-@ president and Henri Duparc , Fauré , Franck and Jules Massenet among its founder @-@ members .
As an admirer of Liszt 's innovative symphonic poems , Saint @-@ Saëns enthusiastically adopted the form ; his first " poème symphonique " was Le Rouet d 'Omphale ( 1871 ) , premiered at a concert of the Sociéte Nationale in January 1872 . In the same year , after more than a decade of intermittent work on operatic scores , Saint @-@ Saëns finally had one of his operas staged . La princesse jaune ( " The Yellow Princess " ) , a one @-@ act , light romantic piece , was given at the Opéra @-@ Comique , Paris in June . It ran for five performances .
Throughout the 1860s and early 1870s , Saint @-@ Saëns had continued to live a bachelor existence , sharing a large fourth @-@ floor flat in the Rue du Faubourg Saint @-@ Honoré with his mother . In 1875 he surprised many by marrying . The groom was approaching forty and his bride was nineteen ; she was Marie @-@ Laure Truffot , the sister of one of the composer 's pupils . The marriage was not a success . In the words of the biographer Sabina Teller Ratner , " Saint @-@ Saëns 's mother disapproved , and her son was difficult to live with " . Saint @-@ Saëns and his wife moved to the Rue Monsieur @-@ le @-@ Prince , in the Latin Quarter ; his mother moved with them . The couple had two sons , both of whom died in infancy . In 1878 , the elder , André , aged two , fell from a window of the flat and was killed ; the younger , Jean @-@ François , died of pneumonia six weeks later , aged six months . Saint @-@ Saëns and Marie @-@ Laure continued to live together for three years , but he blamed her for André 's accident ; the double blow of their loss effectively destroyed the marriage .
For a French composer of the 19th century , opera was seen as the most important type of music . Saint @-@ Saëns 's younger contemporary and rival , Massenet , was beginning to gain a reputation as an operatic composer , but Saint @-@ Saëns , with only the short and unsuccessful La princesse jaune staged , had made no mark in that sphere . In February 1877 , he finally had a full @-@ length opera staged . His four @-@ act " drame lyricque " , Le timbre d 'argent ( " The Silver Bell " ) , to Jules Barbier 's and Michel Carré 's libretto , reminiscent of the Faust legend , had been in rehearsal in 1870 , but the outbreak of war halted the production . The work was eventually presented by the Théâtre Lyrique company of Paris ; it ran for eighteen performances .
The dedicatee of the opera , Albert Libon , died three months after the premiere , leaving Saint @-@ Saëns a large legacy " to free him from the slavery of the organ of the Madeleine and to enable him to devote himself entirely to composition " . Saint @-@ Saëns , unaware of the imminent bequest , had resigned his position shortly before his friend died . He was not a conventional Christian , and found religious dogma increasingly irksome ; he had become tired of the clerical authorities ' interference and musical insensitivity ; and he wanted to be free to accept more engagements as a piano soloist in other cities . After this he never played the organ professionally in a church service , and rarely played the instrument at all . He composed a requiem in memory of his friend , which was performed at Saint @-@ Sulpice to mark the first anniversary of Libon 's death ; Charles @-@ Marie Widor played the organ and Saint @-@ Saëns conducted .
In December 1877 , Saint @-@ Saëns had a more solid operatic success , with Samson et Dalila , his one opera to gain and keep a place in the international repertoire . Because of its biblical subject , the composer had met many obstacles to its presentation in France , and through Liszt 's influence the premiere was given at Weimar in a German translation . Although the work eventually became an international success it was not staged at the Paris Opéra until 1892 .
Saint @-@ Saëns was a keen traveller . From the 1870s until the end of his life he made 179 trips to 27 countries . His professional engagements took him most often to Germany and England ; for holidays , and to avoid Parisian winters which affected his weak chest , he favoured Algiers and various places in Egypt .
= = = 1880s : International figure = = =
Saint @-@ Saëns was elected to the Institut de France in 1881 , at his second attempt , having to his chagrin been beaten by Massenet in 1878 . In July of that year he and his wife went to the Auvergnat spa town of La Bourboule for a holiday . On 28 July he disappeared from their hotel , and a few days later his wife received a letter from him to say that he would not be returning . They never saw each other again . Marie Saint @-@ Saëns returned to her family , and lived until 1950 , dying near Bordeaux at the age of ninety @-@ five . Saint @-@ Saëns did not divorce his wife and remarry , nor did he form any later intimate relationship with a woman . Rees comments that although there is no firm evidence , some biographers believe that Saint @-@ Saëns was more attracted to his own sex than to women . After the death of his children and collapse of his marriage , Saint @-@ Saëns increasingly found a surrogate family in Fauré and his wife , Marie , and their two sons , to whom he was a much @-@ loved honorary uncle . Marie told him , " For us you are one of the family , and we mention your name ceaselessly here . "
In the 1880s Saint @-@ Saëns continued to seek success in the opera house , an undertaking made the more difficult by an entrenched belief among influential members of the musical establishment that it was unthinkable that a pianist , organist and symphonist could write a good opera . He had two operas staged during the decade , the first being Henry VIII ( 1883 ) commissioned by the Paris Opéra . Although the libretto was not of his choosing , Saint @-@ Saëns , normally a fluent , even facile composer , worked at the score with unusual diligence to capture a convincing air of 16th @-@ century England . The work was a success , and was frequently revived during the composer 's lifetime . When it was produced at Covent Garden in 1898 , The Era commented that though French librettists generally " make a pretty hash of British history " , this piece was " not altogether contemptible as an opera story " .
The open @-@ mindedness of the Société Nationale had hardened by the mid @-@ 1880s into a dogmatic adherence to Wagnerian methods favoured by Franck 's pupils , led by Vincent d 'Indy . They had begun to dominate the organisation and sought to abandon its " Ars Gallica " ethos of commitment to French works . Bussine and Saint @-@ Saëns found this unacceptable , and resigned in 1886 . Having long pressed the merits of Wagner on a sometimes sceptical French public , Saint @-@ Saëns was now becoming worried that the German 's music was having an excessive impact on young French composers . His increasing caution towards Wagner developed in later years into stronger hostility , directed as much at Wagner 's political nationalism as at his music .
By the 1880s Saint @-@ Saëns was an established favourite with audiences in England , where he was widely regarded as the greatest living French composer . In 1886 the Philharmonic Society of London commissioned what became one of his most popular and respected works , the Third ( " Organ " ) Symphony . It was premiered in London at a concert in which Saint @-@ Saëns appeared as conductor of the symphony and as soloist in Beethoven 's Fourth Piano Concerto , conducted by Sir Arthur Sullivan . The success of the symphony in London was considerable , but was surpassed by the ecstatic welcome the work received at its Paris premiere early the following year . Later in 1887 Saint @-@ Saëns 's " drame lyrique " Proserpine opened at the Opéra @-@ Comique . It was well received and seemed to be heading for a substantial run when the theatre burnt down within weeks of the premiere and the production was lost .
In December 1888 Saint @-@ Saëns 's mother died . He felt her loss deeply , and was plunged into depression and insomnia , even contemplating suicide . He left Paris and stayed in Algiers , where he recuperated until May 1889 , walking and reading but unable to compose .
= = = 1890s : Marking time = = =
During the 1890s Saint @-@ Saëns spent much time on holiday , travelling overseas , composing less and performing more infrequently than before . A planned visit to perform in Chicago fell through in 1893 . He wrote one opera , the comedy Phryné ( 1893 ) , and together with Paul Dukas helped to complete Frédégonde ( 1895 ) an opera left unfinished by Ernest Guiraud , who died in 1892 . Phryné was well received , and prompted calls for more comic operas at the Opéra @-@ Comique , which had latterly been favouring grand opera . His few choral and orchestral works from the 1890s are mostly short ; the major concert pieces from the decade were the single movement fantasia Africa ( 1891 ) and his Fifth ( " Egyptian " ) Piano Concerto , which he premiered at a concert in 1896 marking the fiftieth anniversary of his début at the Salle Pleyel in 1846 . Before playing the concerto he read out a short poem he had written for the event , praising his mother 's tutelage and his public 's long support .
Among the concerts that Saint @-@ Saëns undertook during the decade was one at Cambridge in June 1893 , when he , Bruch and Tchaikovsky performed at an event presented by Charles Villiers Stanford for the Cambridge University Musical Society , marking the award of honorary degrees to all three visitors . Saint @-@ Saëns greatly enjoyed the visit , and even spoke approvingly of the college chapel services : " The demands of English religion are not excessive . The services are very short , and consist chiefly of listening to good music extremely well sung , for the English are excellent choristers " . His mutual regard for British choirs continued for the rest of his life , and one of his last large @-@ scale works , the oratorio The Promised Land , was composed for the Three Choirs Festival of 1913 .
= = = 1900 – 21 : Last years = = =
In 1900 , after ten years without a permanent home in Paris , Saint @-@ Saëns took a flat in the rue de Courcelles , not far from his old residence in the rue du Faubourg Saint @-@ Honoré . This remained his home for the rest of his life . He continued to travel abroad frequently , but increasingly often to give concerts rather than as a tourist . He revisited London , where he was always a welcome visitor , went to Berlin , where until the First World War , he was greeted with honour , and travelled in Italy , Spain , Monaco and provincial France . In 1906 and 1909 he made highly successful tours of the US , as a pianist and conductor . In New York on his second visit he premiered his " Praise ye the Lord " for double choir , orchestra and organ , which he composed for the occasion .
Despite his growing reputation as a musical reactionary , Saint @-@ Saëns was , according to Gallois , probably the only French musician who travelled to Munich to hear the premiere of Mahler 's Eighth Symphony in 1910 . Nonetheless , by the 20th century Saint @-@ Saëns had lost much of his enthusiasm for modernism in music . Though he strove to conceal it from Fauré , he did not understand or like the latter 's opera Pénélope ( 1913 ) , of which he was the dedicatee . In 1917 Francis Poulenc , at the beginning of his career as a composer , was dismissive when Ravel praised Saint @-@ Saëns as a genius . By this time , various strands of new music were emerging with which Saint @-@ Saëns had little in common . His classical instincts for form put him at odds with what seemed to him the shapelessness and structure of the musical impressionists , led by Debussy . Nor did the theories of Arnold Schönberg 's dodecaphony commend themselves to Saint @-@ Saëns :
There is no longer any question of adding to the old rules new principles which are the natural expression of time and experience , but simply of casting aside all rules and every restraint . " Everyone ought to make his own rules . Music is free and unlimited in its liberty of expression . There are no perfect chords , dissonant chords or false chords . All aggregations of notes are legitimate . " That is called , and they believe it , the development of taste .
Holding such conservative views , Saint @-@ Saëns was out of sympathy – and out of fashion – with the Parisian musical scene of the early 20th century , fascinated as it was with novelty . It is often said that he walked out , scandalised , from the premiere of Vaslav Nijinsky and Igor Stravinsky 's ballet The Rite of Spring in 1913 . In fact , according to Stravinsky , Saint @-@ Saëns was not present on that occasion , but at the first concert performance of the piece the following year he expressed the firm view that Stravinsky was insane .
When a group of French musicians led by Saint @-@ Saëns tried to organise a boycott of German music during the First World War , Fauré and Messager dissociated themselves from the idea , though the disagreement did not affect their friendship with their old teacher . They were privately concerned that their friend was in danger of looking foolish with his excess of patriotism , and also his growing tendency to denounce in public the works of rising young composers , as in his condemnation of Debussy 's En blanc et noir ( 1915 ) : " We must at all costs bar the door of the Institut against a man capable of such atrocities ; they should be put next to the cubist pictures . " His determination to block Debussy 's candidacy for election to the Institut was successful , and caused bitter resentment from the younger composer 's supporters . Saint @-@ Saëns 's response to the neoclassicism of Les Six was equally uncompromising : of Darius Milhaud 's polytonal symphonic suite Protée ( 1919 ) he commented , " fortunately , there are still lunatic asylums in France " .
Saint @-@ Saëns gave what he intended to be his farewell concert as a pianist in Paris in 1913 , but his retirement was soon in abeyance as a result of the war , during which he gave many performances in France and elsewhere , raising money for war charities . These activities took him across the Atlantic , despite the danger from German warships .
In November 1921 Saint @-@ Saëns gave a recital at the Institut for a large invited audience ; it was remarked that his playing was as vivid and precise as ever , and that his personal bearing was admirable for a man of eighty @-@ six . He left Paris a month later for Algiers , with the intention of wintering there , as he had long been accustomed to do . While there he died without warning of a heart attack on 16 December 1921 . His body was taken back to Paris , and after a state funeral at the Madeleine he was buried at the Cimetière de Montparnasse . Heavily veiled , in an inconspicuous place among the mourners from France 's political and artistic élite , was his widow , Marie @-@ Laure , whom he had last seen in 1881 .
= = Music = =
In the early years of the 20th century , the anonymous author of the article on Saint @-@ Saëns in Grove 's Dictionary of Music and Musicians wrote :
Saint @-@ Saëns is a consummate master of composition , and no one possesses a more profound knowledge than he does of the secrets and resources of the art ; but the creative faculty does not keep pace with the technical skill of the workman . His incomparable talent for orchestration enables him to give relief to ideas which would otherwise be crude and mediocre in themselves ... his works are on the one hand not frivolous enough to become popular in the widest sense , nor on the other do they take hold of the public by that sincerity and warmth of feeling which is so convincing .
Although a keen modernist in his youth , Saint @-@ Saëns was always deeply aware of the great masters of the past . In a profile of him written to mark his eightieth birthday , the critic D C Parker wrote , " That Saint @-@ Saëns knows Rameau ... Bach and Handel , Haydn and Mozart , must be manifest to all who are familiar with his writings . His love for the classical giants and his sympathy with them form , so to speak , the foundation of his art . "
Less attracted than some of his French contemporaries to the continuous stream of music popularised by Wagner , Saint @-@ Saëns often favoured self @-@ contained melodies . Though they are frequently , in Ratner 's phrase , " supple and pliable " , more often than not they are constructed in three- or four @-@ bar sections , and the " phrase pattern AABB is characteristic " . An occasional tendency to neoclassicism , influenced by his study of French baroque music , is in contrast with the colourful orchestral music more widely identified with him . Grove observes that he makes his effects more by characterful harmony and rhythms than by extravagant scoring . In both of those areas of his craft he was normally content with the familiar . Rhythmically , he inclined to standard double , triple or compound metres ( although Grove points to a 5 / 4 passage in the Piano Trio and another in 7 / 4 in the Polonaise for two pianos ) . From his time at the Conservatoire he was a master of counterpoint ; contrapuntal passages crop up , seemingly naturally , in many of his works .
= = = Orchestral works = = =
The authors of the 1955 The Record Guide , Edward Sackville @-@ West and Desmond Shawe @-@ Taylor write that Saint @-@ Saëns 's brilliant musicianship was " instrumental in drawing the attention of French musicians to the fact that that there are other forms of music besides opera . " In the 2001 edition of Grove 's Dictionary , Ratner and Daniel Fallon , analysing Saint @-@ Saëns 's orchestral music rate the unnumbered Symphony in A ( c . 1850 ) as the most ambitious of the composer 's juvenilia . Of the works of his maturity , the First Symphony ( 1853 ) is a serious and large @-@ scale work , in which the influence of Schumann is detectable . The " Urbs Roma " Symphony ( 1856 ) in some ways represents a backward step , being less deftly orchestrated , and " thick and heavy " in its effect . Ratner and Fallon praise the Second Symphony ( 1859 ) as a fine example of orchestral economy and structural cohesion , with passages that show the composer 's mastery of fugal writing . The best known of the symphonies is the Third ( 1886 ) which , unusually , has prominent parts for piano and organ . It opens in C minor and ends in C major with a stately chorale tune . The four movements are clearly divided into two pairs , a practice Saint @-@ Saëns used elsewhere , notably in the Fourth Piano Concerto ( 1875 ) and the First Violin Sonata ( 1885 ) . The work is dedicated to the memory of Liszt , and uses a recurring motif treated in a Lisztian style of thematic transformation .
Saint @-@ Saëns 's four symphonic poems follow the model of those by Liszt , though , in Sackville @-@ West 's and Shawe @-@ Taylor 's view , without the " vulgar blatancy " to which the earlier composer was prone . The most popular of the four is Danse macabre ( 1874 ) depicting skeletons dancing at midnight . Saint @-@ Saëns generally achieved his orchestral effects by deft harmonisation rather than exotic instrumentation , but in this piece he featured the xylophone prominently , representing the rattling bones of the dancers . Le Rouet d 'Omphale ( 1870 ) was composed soon after the horrors of the Commune , but its lightness and delicate orchestration give no hint of recent tragedies . Rees rates Phaëton ( 1873 ) as the finest of the symphonic poems , belying the composer 's professed indifference to melody , and inspired in its depiction of the mythical hero and his fate . A critic at the time of the premiere took a different view , hearing in the piece " the noise of a hack coming down from Montmartre " rather than the galloping fiery horses of Greek legend that inspired the piece . The last of the four symphonic poems , La jeunesse d 'Hercule ( " Hercules 's Youth " , 1877 ) was the most ambitious of the four , which , Harding suggests , is why it is the least successful . In the judgment of the critic Roger Nichols these orchestral works , which combine striking melodies , strength of construction and memorable orchestration " set new standards for French music and were an inspiration to such young composers as Ravel " .
Saint @-@ Saëns wrote a one @-@ act ballet , Javot ( 1896 ) , the score for the film L 'assassinat du duc de Guise ( 1908 ) , and incidental music to a dozen plays between 1850 and 1916 . Three of these scores were for revivals of classics by Molière and Racine , for which Saint @-@ Saëns 's deep knowledge of French baroque scores was reflected in his scores , in which he incorporated music by Lully and Charpentier .
= = = Concertante works = = =
Saint @-@ Saëns was the first major French composer to write piano concertos . His First , in D ( 1858 ) , in conventional three @-@ movement form , is not well known , but the Second , in G minor ( 1868 ) is one of his most popular works . The composer experimented with form in this piece , replacing the customary sonata form first movement with a more discursive structure , opening with a solemn cadenza . The scherzo second movement and presto finale are in such contrast with the opening that the pianist Zygmunt Stojowski commented that the work " begins like Bach and ends like Offenbach " . The Third Piano Concerto , in E ♭ ( 1869 ) has another high @-@ spirited finale , but the earlier movements are more classical , the texture clear , with graceful melodic lines . The Fourth , in C minor ( 1875 ) is probably the composer 's best @-@ known piano concerto after the Second . It is in two movements , each comprising two identifiable sub @-@ sections , and maintains a thematic unity not found in the composer 's other piano concertos . According to some sources it was this piece that so impressed Gounod that he dubbed Saint @-@ Saëns " the Beethoven of France " ( other sources base that distinction on the Third Symphony ) . The Fifth and last piano concerto , in F major , was written in 1896 , more than twenty years after its predecessor . The work is known as the " Egyptian " concerto ; it was written while the composer was wintering in Luxor , and incorporates a tune he heard Nile boatmen singing .
The First Cello Concerto , in A minor ( 1872 ) is a serious although animated work , in a single continuous movement with an unusually turbulent first section . It is among the most popular concertos in the cello repertory , much favoured by Pablo Casals and later players . The Second , in D minor ( 1902 ) , like the Fourth Piano Concerto , consists of two movements each subdivided into two distinct sections . It is more purely virtuosic than its predecessor : Saëns @-@ Saëns commented to Fauré that it would never be as popular as the First because it was too difficult . There are three violin concertos ; the first to be composed dates from 1858 but was not published until 1879 , as the composer 's Second , in C major . The First , in A , was also completed in 1858 . It is a short work , its single 314 @-@ bar movement lasting less than a quarter of an hour . The Second , in conventional three @-@ movement concerto form , is twice as long as the First , and is the least popular of the three : the thematic catalogue of the composer 's works lists only three performances in his lifetime . The Third , in B minor , written for Pablo Sarasate , is technically challenging for the soloist , although the virtuoso passages are balanced by intervals of pastoral serenity . It is by some margin the most popular of the three violin concertos , but Saint @-@ Saëns 's best @-@ known concertante work for violin and orchestra is probably the Introduction and Rondo Capriccioso , in A minor , Op. 28 , a single @-@ movement piece , also written for Sarasate , dating from 1863 . It changes from a wistful opening to a swaggering main theme , described as faintly sinister by the critic Gerald Larner , who goes on , " After a multi @-@ stopped cadenza ... the solo violin makes a breathless sprint through the coda to the happy ending in A major " .
= = = Operas = = =
Discounting his collaboration with Dukas in the completion of Guiraud 's unfinished Frédégonde , Saint @-@ Saëns wrote twelve operas , two of which are opéras comiques . During the composer 's lifetime his Henry VIII became a repertory piece ; since his death only Samson et Dalila has been regularly staged , although according to Schonberg , Ascanio ( 1890 ) is considered by experts to be a much finer work . The critic Ronald Crichton writes that for all his experience and musical skill , Saint @-@ Saëns " lacked the ' nose ' of the theatre animal granted , for example , to Massenet who in other forms of music was his inferior . " In a 2005 study , the musical scholar Steven Huebner contrasts the two composers : " Saint @-@ Saëns obviously had no time for Massenet 's histrionics " . Saint @-@ Saëns 's biographer James Harding comments that it is regrettable that the composer did not attempt more works of a light @-@ hearted nature , on the lines of La princesse jaune , which Harding describes as like Sullivan " with a light French touch " .
Although most of Saint @-@ Saëns 's operas have remained neglected , Crichton rates them as important in the history of French opera , as " a bridge between Meyerbeer and the serious French operas of the early 1890s " . In his view , the operatic scores of Saint @-@ Saëns have , in general , the strengths and weaknesses of the rest of his music – " lucid Mozartian transparency , greater care for form than for content ... There is a certain emotional dryness ; invention is sometimes thin , but the workmanship is impeccable . " Stylistically , Saint @-@ Saëns drew on a range of models . From Meyerbeer he drew the effective use of the chorus in the action of a piece ; for Henry VIII he included Tudor music he had researched in London ; in La princesse jaune he used an oriental pentatonic scale ; from Wagner he derived the use of leitmotifs , which , like Massenet , he used sparingly . Huebner observes that Saint @-@ Saëns was more conventional than Massenet so far as through composition is concerned , more often favouring discrete arias and ensembles , with less variety of tempo within individual numbers . In a survey of recorded opera Alan Blyth writes that Saint @-@ Saëns " certainly learned much from Handel , Gluck , Berlioz , the Verdi of Aida , and Wagner , but from these excellent models he forged his own style . "
= = = Other vocal music = = =
From the age of six and for the rest of his life Saint @-@ Saëns composed mélodies , writing more than 140 . He regarded his songs as thoroughly and typically French , denying any influence from Schubert or other German composers of Lieder . Unlike his protégé Fauré , or his rival Massenet , he was not drawn to the song cycle , writing only two during his long career – Mélodies persanes ( " Persian Songs " , 1870 ) and Le Cendre rouge ( " The Red Ash Tree " , 1914 , dedicated to Fauré ) . The poet whose works he set most often was Victor Hugo ; others included Alphonse de Lamartine , Pierre Corneille , Amable Tastu , and , in eight songs , Saint @-@ Saëns himself : among his many non @-@ musical talents he was an amateur poet . He was highly sensitive to word setting , and told the young composer Lili Boulanger that to write songs effectively musical talent was not enough : " you must study the French language in depth ; it is indispensable . " Most of the mélodies are written for piano accompaniment , but a few , including " Le lever du soleil sur le Nil " ( " Sunrise over the Nile " , 1898 ) and " Hymne à la paix " ( " Hymn to Peace " , 1919 ) , are for voice and orchestra . His settings , and chosen verses , are generally traditional in form , contrasting with the free verse and less structured forms of a later generation of French composers , including Debussy .
Saint @-@ Saëns composed more than sixty sacred vocal works , ranging from motets to masses and oratorios . Among the larger @-@ scale compositions are the Requiem ( 1878 ) and the oratorios Le déluge ( 1875 ) and The Promised Land ( 1913 ) with an English text by Hermann Klein . He was proud of his connection with British choirs , commenting , " One likes to be appreciated in the home , par excellence , of oratorio . " He wrote a smaller number of secular choral works , some for unaccompanied choir , some with piano accompaniment and some with full orchestra . In his choral works , Saint @-@ Saëns drew heavily on tradition , feeling that his models should be Handel , Mendelssohn and other earlier masters of the genre . In Klein 's view , this approach was old @-@ fashioned , and the familiarity of Saint @-@ Saëns 's treatment of the oratorio form impeded his success in it .
= = = Solo keyboard = = =
Nichols comments that although as a famous pianist Saint @-@ Saëns wrote for the piano throughout his life , " this part of his oeuvre has made curiously little mark " . Nichols excepts the Étude en forme de valse ( 1912 ) , which he observes still attracts pianists eager to display their left @-@ hand technique . Although Saint @-@ Saëns was dubbed " the French Beethoven " , and his Variations on a Theme of Beethoven in E ♭ ( 1874 ) is his most extended work for unaccompanied piano , he did not emulate his predecessor in composing piano sonatas . He is not known even to have contemplated writing one . There are sets of bagatelles ( 1855 ) , études ( two sets – 1899 and 1912 ) and fugues ( 1920 ) , but in general Saint @-@ Saëns 's works for the piano are single short pieces . In addition to established forms such as the song without words ( 1871 ) and the mazurka ( 1862 , 1871 and 1882 ) popularised by Mendelssohn and Chopin , respectively , he wrote descriptive pieces such as " Souvenir d 'Italie " ( 1887 ) , " Les cloches du soir " ( " Evening bells " , 1889 ) and " Souvenir d 'Ismaïlia " ( 1895 ) .
Unlike his pupil , Fauré , whose long career as a reluctant organist left no legacy of works for the instrument , Saint @-@ Saëns published a modest number of pieces for organ solo . Some of them were written for use in church services – " Offertoire " ( 1853 ) , " Bénédiction nuptiale " ( 1859 ) , " Communion " ( 1859 ) and others . After he left the Madeleine in 1877 Saint @-@ Saëns wrote ten more pieces for organ , mostly for concert use , including two sets of preludes and fugues ( 1894 and 1898 ) . Some of the earlier works were written to be played on either the harmonium or the organ , and a few were primarily intended for the former .
= = = Chamber = = =
Saint @-@ Saëns wrote more than forty chamber works between the 1840s and his last years . One of the first of his major works in the genre was the Piano Quintet ( 1855 ) . It is a straightforward , confident piece , in a conventional structure with lively outer movements and a central movement containing two slow themes , one chorale @-@ like and the other cantabile . The Septet ( 1880 ) , for the unusual combination of trumpet , two violins , viola , cello , double bass and piano , is a neoclassical work that draws on 17th @-@ century French dance forms . At the time of its composition Saint @-@ Saëns was preparing new editions of the works of baroque composers including Rameau and Lully .
In Ratner 's view , the most important of Saint @-@ Saëns 's chamber works are the sonatas : two for violin , two for cello , and one each for oboe , clarinet and bassoon , all seven with piano accompaniment . The First Violin Sonata dates from 1885 , and is rated by Grove 's Dictionary as one of the composer 's best and most characteristic compositions . The Second ( 1896 ) signals a stylistic change in Saint @-@ Saëns 's work , with a lighter , clearer sound for the piano , characteristic of his music from then onwards . The First Cello Sonata ( 1872 ) was written after the death of the composer 's great @-@ aunt , who had taught him to play the piano more than thirty years earlier . It is a serious work , in which the main melodic material is sustained by the cello over a virtuoso piano accompaniment . Fauré called it the only cello sonata from any country to be of any importance . The Second ( 1905 ) is in four movements , and has the unusual feature of a theme and variations as its scherzo .
The woodwind sonatas are among the composer 's last works . Ratner writes of them , " The spare , evocative , classical lines , haunting melodies , and superb formal structures underline these beacons of the neoclassical movement . " Gallois comments that the Oboe Sonata begins like a conventional classical sonata , with an andantino theme ; the central section has rich and colourful harmonies , and the molto allegro finale is full of delicacy , humour and charm with a form of tarantella . For Gallois the Clarinet Sonata is the most important of the three : he calls it " a masterpiece full of impishness , elegance and discreet lyricism " amounting to " a summary of the rest " . The work contrasts a " doleful threnody " in the slow movement with the finale , which " pirouettes in 4 / 4 time " , in a style reminiscent of the 18th century . The same commentator calls the Bassoon Sonata " a model of transparency , vitality and lightness " , containing humorous touches but also moments of peaceful contemplation .
The composer 's most famous work , The Carnival of the Animals ( 1887 ) , although far from a typical chamber piece , is written for eleven players , and is considered by Grove 's Dictionary to be part of Saint @-@ Saëns 's chamber output . Grove rates it as " his most brilliant comic work , parodying Offenbach , Berlioz , Mendelssohn , Rossini , his own Danse macabre and several popular tunes " . He forbade performances of it during his lifetime , concerned that its frivolity would damage his reputation as a serious composer .
= = = Recordings = = =
Saint @-@ Saëns was a pioneer in recorded music . In June 1904 The Gramophone Company of London sent its producer Fred Gaisberg to Paris to record Saint @-@ Saëns as accompanist to the mezzo @-@ soprano Meyriane Héglon in arias from Ascanio and Samson et Dalila , and as soloist in his own piano music , including an arrangement of sections of the Second Piano Concerto ( without orchestra ) . Saint @-@ Saëns made more recordings for the company in 1919 .
In the early days of the LP record , Saint @-@ Saëns 's works were patchily represented on disc . The Record Guide ( 1955 ) lists one recording apiece of the Third Symphony , Second Piano Concerto and First Cello Concerto , alongside several versions of Danse Macabre , The Carnival of the Animals , the Introduction and Rondo Capriccioso and other short orchestral works . In the latter part of the 20th century and the early 21st , many more of the composer 's works were released on LP and later CD and DVD . The 2008 Penguin Guide to Recorded Classical Music contains ten pages of listings of Saint @-@ Saëns works , including all the concertos , symphonies , symphonic poems , sonatas and quartets . Also listed are an early Mass , collections of organ music , and choral songs . A recording of twenty @-@ seven of Saint @-@ Saëns 's mélodies was released in 1997 .
With the exception of Samson et Dalila the operas have been sparsely represented on disc . A recording of Henry VIII was issued on CD and DVD in 1992 . Hélène was released on CD in 2008 . There are several recordings of Samson et Dalilah , under conductors including Sir Colin Davis , Georges Prêtre , Daniel Barenboim and Myung @-@ Whun Chung .
= = Honours and reputation = =
Saint @-@ Saëns was made a Chevalier of the Legion of Honour in 1867 and promoted to Officier in 1884 , and Grand Croix in 1913 . Foreign honours included the British Royal Victorian Order ( CVO ) in 1902 , and honorary doctorates from the universities of Cambridge ( 1892 ) and Oxford ( 1907 ) .
In its obituary notice , The Times commented :
The death of M. Saint @-@ Saëns not only deprives France of one of her most distinguished composers ; it removes from the world the last representative of the great movements in music which were typical of the 19th century . He had maintained so vigorous a vitality and kept in such close touch with present @-@ day activities that , though it had become customary to speak of him as the doyen of French composers , it was easy to forget the place he actually took in musical chronology . He was only two years younger than Brahms , was five years older than Tchaikovsky , six years older than Dvořák , and seven years older than Sullivan . He held a position in his own country 's music certain aspects of which may be fitly compared with each of those masters in their own spheres .
In a short poem , " Mea culpa " , published in 1890 Saint @-@ Saëns accused himself of lack of decadence , and commented approvingly on the excessive enthusiasms of youth , lamenting that such things were not for him . An English commentator quoted the poem in 1910 , observing , " His sympathies are with the young in their desire to push forward , because he has not forgotten his own youth when he championed the progressive ideals of the day . " The composer sought a balance between innovation and traditional form . The critic Henry Colles , wrote , a few days after the composer 's death :
In his desire to maintain " the perfect equilibrium " we find the limitation of Saint @-@ Saëns 's appeal to the ordinary musical mind . Saint @-@ Saëns rarely , if ever , takes any risks ; he never , to use the slang of the moment , " goes off the deep end " . All his greatest contemporaries did . Brahms , Tchaikovsky , and even Franck , were ready to sacrifice everything for the end each wanted to reach , to drown in the attempt to get there if necessary . Saint @-@ Saëns , in preserving his equilibrium , allows his hearers to preserve theirs .
Grove concludes its article on Saint @-@ Saëns with the observation that although his works are remarkably consistent , " it cannot be said that he evolved a distinctive musical style . Rather , he defended the French tradition that threatened to be engulfed by Wagnerian influences and created the environment that nourished his successors " .
Since the composer 's death writers sympathetic to his music have expressed regret that he is known by the musical public for only a handful of his scores such as The Carnival of the Animals , the Second Piano Concerto , the Organ Symphony , Samson et Dalila , Danse macabre and the Introduction and Rondo Capriccioso . Among his large output , Nicholas singles out the Requiem , the Christmas Oratorio , the ballet Javotte , the Piano Quartet , the Septet for trumpet , piano and strings , and the First Violin Sonata as neglected masterpieces . In 2004 , the cellist Steven Isserlis said , " Saint @-@ Saens is exactly the sort of composer who needs a festival to himself ... there are Masses , all of which are interesting . I 've played all his cello music and there isn 't one bad piece . His works are rewarding in every way . And he 's an endlessly fascinating figure . "
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= Hurricane Danielle ( 2004 ) =
Hurricane Danielle was the first of several Cape Verde @-@ type hurricane to form during the 2004 Atlantic hurricane season . Danielle was the fourth named storm and third hurricane of the season . Danielle formed on August 13 , 2004 in the far eastern Atlantic Ocean and remained over the central Atlantic , peaking as a strong Category 2 hurricane on August 16 before weakening over cooler waters ; becoming a remnant low on August 21 and dissipating on August 24 . Danielle never approached land , although it briefly threatened the Azores as it made the northerly turn . As a result , there was no impact caused by the storm .
= = Meteorological history = =
Hurricane Danielle began as a vigorous tropical wave over Africa . As the wave emerged into the Atlantic , it quickly became more organized due to favorable conditions , including low wind shear . The circulation consolidated and spawned Tropical Depression Four on the morning of August 13 south @-@ southeast of the Cape Verde islands . The system was over somewhat cooler water at first with sea surface temperatures around 79 ° F ( 26 ° C ) ; however , the low shear environment allowed the depression to continue to organize . Late that evening , the system strengthened into Tropical Storm Danielle .
As Danielle tracked westward into the open Atlantic early on August 14 , the storm encountered warmer water southwest of Cape Verde and began to gradually intensify , becoming a moderate tropical storm with 50 mph ( 85 km / h ) winds that morning . At that point , a bout of rapid intensification began to take place , and the storm was upgraded to Hurricane Danielle that evening as an eye began to form . Over a 24 ‑ hour period ending in the morning of August 15 , the pressure fell from 1004 to 978 mbar and the winds increased to 90 mph ( 145 km / h ) , making it a high @-@ end Category 1 hurricane on the Saffir @-@ Simpson hurricane scale .
Danielle levelled off somewhat in intensity after that round of rapid intensification , only gradually strengthening afterward due to structural changes in the storm related to the small wind field relative to the size of the eye . Nonetheless , Danielle became a Category 2 hurricane on the afternoon of August 15 as it approached the subtropical ridge which blocked the continued westward movement . Beginning late on August 15 , at about 35 ° W , Danielle began to recurve to the northwest and eventually north while continuing to gradually strengthen . Early on August 16 , the recurvature became more pronounced , and Danielle turned abruptly northward in the central Atlantic Ocean as an upper @-@ level trough opened up a large break in the ridge . That movement took it along the eastern side of the subtropical ridge , preventing Danielle from moving any farther west and becoming any threat to North America or the Caribbean . While moving northwest , Danielle strengthened a bit more , reaching its peak intensity of 110 mph ( 175 km / h ) , just under Category 3 intensity , on the afternoon of August 16 .
The northward movement also sent Danielle into somewhat increased shear , which allowed it to begin to weaken . However , the weakening was gradual at first as the waters remained fairly warm . The abrupt northerly turn meant that , for a while on August 17 , the Azores were threatened by Danielle in the long @-@ range forecast , as a weakened tropical storm or extratropical cyclone . Danielle weakened to a Category 1 hurricane on the evening of August 17 as shear continued to increase . Danielle began to turn to the northeast early on August 18 , and at that point , the weakening trend accelerated . Some of the deep convection was being removed from the system due to wind shear , and that morning , Danielle weakened to a tropical storm . The rapid weakening trend continued that afternoon , and Danielle weakened to a low @-@ end tropical storm with 45 mph ( 75 km / h ) winds late that evening . However , the intensity levelled off early on August 19 and Danielle remained a tropical storm for the next couple days over moderately warm water of around 78 ° F ( just under 26 ° C ) while south @-@ southwest of the Azores .
Intermittent deep convection continued to fire up , keeping the storm afloat for the next day and turning it away from the Azores . Danielle also changed direction and meandered slightly to the northwest , away from the Azores , due to very weak steering currents . After holding on as a minimal tropical storm , Danielle finally lost its deep convection due to high upper @-@ level vertical shear and was downgraded to a tropical depression on the afternoon of August 20 . The depression turned once again to the north , and continued to lose organization over cooler water . It degenerated into a remnant low on the afternoon of August 21 as the convection was completely sheared away from the center of Danielle . The remnant low remained in the open ocean , remaining devoid of any deep convection , until August 24 when it dissipated west @-@ southwest of the Azores .
= = Impact , naming , and records = =
Hurricane Danielle did not have any impact on land and no damage or fatalities were reported . No ships were reported to have come into contact with Danielle . When Danielle became a tropical storm at 24 @.@ 8 ° W , it was the farthest east that a storm had received a name since Hurricane Alberto in the 2000 Atlantic hurricane season .
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= Characters of the Final Fantasy Type @-@ 0 universe =
Final Fantasy Type @-@ 0 , an action role @-@ playing game developed and published by Square Enix in 2011 , revolves around a war between four nations in the world of Orience . An episodic companion game , Final Fantasy Agito , was released in 2014 . Type @-@ 0 was re @-@ released internationally in 2015 as a high @-@ definition remaster for PlayStation 4 and Xbox One . The main protagonists are Class Zero , a group of students at the magical academy in Rubrum . The story is told through two new members of Class Zero : Machina Kunagiri and Rem Tokimiya . The main character of Agito is a player @-@ created cadet at the Rubrum magical academy . The world and characters were designed by Yusuke Naora , Yusaku Nakaaki and Tetsuya Nomura . Their stories were created by Hajime Tabata , Hiroki Chiba and Sarah Obake .
The main characters are the twelve members of Class Zero : Ace , Deuce , Trey , Cater , Cinque , Sice , Seven , Eight , Nine , Jack , Queen and King . Alongside them are Machina Kunagiri and Rem Tokimiya , old friends who are assigned to Class Zero shortly after the events of the game begin . A guest character is Kurasame Susaya , Class Zero 's tutor and a veteran warrior . Other major characters include Arecia Al @-@ Rashia , head of the Rubrum Academy 's magical department and a key figure in Orience 's lore ; Cid Aulstyne , the leader of Milites Empire and the game 's main antagonist ; and Joker and Tiz , two characters who observe the events of the games .
The concept , which was set within the mythos of the Fabula Nova Crystallis subseries , was for a much darker scenario than other Final Fantasy games . The main cast were designed by Nomura and Naora , while side characters were handled by Nakaaki . Multiple pieces of merchandise and additional media have been created around the characters , including trading cards and multiple manga . They have been the subject of positive reviews in Japan and import reviews : the main praise has gone to their interactions and writing , while the main criticism was difficulties arising from handling the large cast . Western reviews were also generally positive about the character portrayals , but there were criticisms about dialogue , character interactions , and the quality of the localization .
= = Concept and creation = =
The original scenario and concept of Final Fantasy Type @-@ 0 , originally a mobile title named Final Fantasy Agito XIII , was conceived by Hajime Tabata . He wished for a group @-@ driven story as he felt that a single playable character would not be able to properly convey the scope and themes of the story . Because Tabata wanted to show a history of survival told from the point of view of young people caught in a war , it was decided to set the story during a war between four nations . Much of the original story , which mainly revolved about defying the gods , was drawn from popular anime and manga and did not survive . After the platform change to PlayStation Portable , Tabata adopted a story @-@ telling style similar to a documentary film : a direct inspiration for this was Centuries of Picture , a documentary series broadcast on NHK . Alongside that , multiple war films were used as inspiration . Type @-@ 0 's script was written by Hiroki Chiba and Sarah Okabe . During the rough draft stage , elements such as extra plot points involving Khalia Chival , a boss fight with Arecia , and a main plot thread involving Joker and Tiz were planned . Most of these elements were cut from the final product , meaning elements such as Joker and Tiz 's role needed to be included in written texts found in @-@ game so they were not left hanging . The deaths of Class Zero were planned from an early stage , and to emphasize the state of the world , a large number of the supporting cast were killed off near the end . Tabata wanted to create a story depicting different fates for Type @-@ 0 's characters , and this decision was supported by both staff members and fans of the original . He also implemented the ability for players to decide the course of the story , which was to have been included in the Type @-@ 0 when it was still known as Agito XIII . Final Fantasy Agito was given a more upbeat atmosphere when compared to Type @-@ 0 , although dark and more dramatic moments were still present . The story grew out of what Tabata originally envisioned for Type @-@ 0 .
The setting of Type @-@ 0 was written around the Fabula Nova Crystallis subseries , which also includes Final Fantasy XIII and Final Fantasy XV . The mythos involves how humans are manipulated and controlled by the world 's deities . The crystals of Type @-@ 0 's world were the equivalent of the fal 'Cie , demigods serving these deities . Originally , the crystals were to have been called " fal 'Cie " . The characters Arecia , Gala and Diva were also created to fill the roles of fal 'Cie . The approach taken to the incorporation of the mythos was that the world of Orience was part of a shared universe that also contained the worlds of XIII and XV rather than a standalone existence . As opposed to XIII , which told a story directly related to the mythos ' deities , Type @-@ 0 focused on the human side of the story , depicting the deities ' role in world events from a historical standpoint . A key element carried directly from the mythos is the l 'Cie , humans chosen by servants of the world 's deities to fulfill a pre @-@ determined task called a " Focus " . Tabata neglected including elements from the Fabula Nova Crystallis mythos until approximately halfway through the process . Chiba and Obake were the ones responsible for including the elements in the storyline , as well as including the cyclic nature of the game 's world to help communicate some aspects of the mythos : originally disliked by Tabata , he later said that it suited the game due to the heavy eastern influences .
= = = Character design = = =
The characters were designed by regular Final Fantasy designer Tetsuya Nomura , art director Yusuke Naora , co @-@ art director Yusaku Nakaaki , and sub @-@ character designer Roberto Ferrari . Naora asked Nomura to contribute to the character designs . Naora and Nomura did the main cast , while Nakaaki and Ferrari handled secondary characters . Each player character was initially given a basic design trait drawn by Nomura . The design was gradually expanded upon during the creative process , working to avoid making them appear similar . Part of this was giving each character a unique weapon : Deuce 's flute and Ace 's cards were the most difficult to realize from a technical standpoint . After the world and setting were created , the characters ' personalities and traits were finalized : for each character , the team planned how each character originated and the events which happened around them . The main cast 's naming system , based on playing cards , was chosen because the team liked the idea . Nomura came up with the idea of having fourteen characters , with thirteen main characters and a " Joker " . This idea , originally created for Agito XIII , carried over into Type @-@ 0 . The characters were made of various heights and builds to emphasize both the game 's realism and the characters being teenagers .
While portraying the bonds between the members of Class Zero , and between them and their summoned monsters , along with the game 's themes of death and war , Naora drew inspiration from when he saw a cat killed by a car surrounded by other cats . Nomura was in charge of choosing the voice cast , which featured several well @-@ known voice actors . When listening to the samples and picking the actors , Nomura focused on whether they could successfully project the characters ' personalities . The actors and actresses helped define the characters , adding individual touches during voice recording sessions . Sayoko Hoshino acted as the game 's character texture artist . Originally , she was going to put in black voids where a female character 's panties would have been due to hardware limitations . However the staff realized that the players would be looking at the backs of characters a lot , so Hoshino designed panties for each female character and worked with the staff to incorporate them into the character models .
After Type @-@ 0 's release , Tabata resurrected his initial concept for a mobile game as the prequel Agito . Hoshino became the title 's art director . As with Type @-@ 0 , one of the areas she focused on was the female characters ' underwear . The characters ' facial animations were done using Silicon Studio 's Motion Portrait middleware . For Type @-@ 0 HD , the characters ' original gameplay models were replaced with updated versions of the original cutscene models due to the latter 's higher detail . Due to this higher detail , the cutscene models looked older than the gameplay models , so they needed adjustments to look more like the original models . Their appearances were also adjusted to look more " charming " . The game 's graphical upgrade was only partially done for the game 's characters due to time constraints : while the main cast were given the most attention , secondary characters such as Kurasame received less work .
= = Playable characters = =
Class Zero ( 0組 , Kurasu Zero ) are the main protagonists and playable cast of Type @-@ 0 , later revealed to have been chosen for their potential to become saviors referred to as Agito , a group of people created to force open the barrier between the mortal world and the Unseen Realm . Each member of Class Zero also appears in Agito , although the others are in different classes while Ace remains a member of Class Zero . They can also be summoned into battle to assist the Cadet . In Type @-@ 0 , Machina and Rem were recently transferred to Class Zero but not fully classed with the rest of the group . During their battle with the Rursan Arbiter , Class Zero are fatally wounded , and during their final moments , they imagine their possible post @-@ war lives . Their deaths are instrumental in convincing Arecia to free Orience from its cycle of war .
= = = Ace = = =
Ace ( エース , Ēsu ) is a cool @-@ headed youth who is one of the first members of Class Zero , able to use cards and with knowledge of magic and warfare . He is one of the few in Orience to be able to sense the raw emotions of the dead and mourn them . He was also a friend of Machina 's brother Izana . In Agito , Ace remains a member of Class Zero . First introduced after saving the Cadet from a monster attack , he remains a close ally throughout the game 's events . In Agito 's second cycle , Ace is chosen to become the Rursan Arbiter and is defeated by the Cadet and the chosen representatives of Agito . Ace is voiced by Jonathon McClendon in English and Yūki Kaji in Japanese .
= = = Other Class Zero Members = = =
While they are members of Class Zero in Type @-@ 0 , they appear in other classes during the events of Agito .
Deuce ( デュース , Dyūsu ) , the flute @-@ wielding member of the Class . In Agito , she is a member of Class Fourth . She is voiced by Bryce Hitchcock in English and Kana Hanazawa in Japanese .
Trey ( トレイ , Torei ) , the Class ' archer . In Agito , he is a member of Class Eleventh . Trey is voiced by Matthew Mercer in English and Yūichi Nakamura in Japanese .
Cater ( ケイト , Keito ) , one of the two gun @-@ wielding members of the Class , bearing a magic @-@ infused handgun . Through the course of the game , she experiences the highest amount of deja vu , due to her having gone through the cycle of history more times than the others . In Agito , she is a member of Class Tenth . Cater is voiced by Kristen Klabunde in English and Minori Chihara in Japanese .
Cinque ( シンク , Shinku ) , the mace @-@ wielding member of the Class . In Agito , she is a member of Class Third . Cinque is voiced by Cristina Valenzuela in English and Aki Toyosaki in Japanese .
Sice ( サイス , Saisu ) , the scythe @-@ wielding member of the Class . In Agito , she is a member of Class Sixth . Sice is voiced by Corri English in English and Miyuki Sawashiro in Japanese .
Seven ( セブン , Sebun ) , the chain whip @-@ wielding member of the Class . In Agito , she is a member of Class Seventh . Seven is voiced by Najarra Townsend in English and Mayuko Aoki in Japanese .
Eight ( エイト , Eito ) , the martial artist of the Class . In Agito , he is a member of Class Fifth . Eight is voiced by Jeff Fischer in English and Miyu Irino in Japanese .
Nine ( ナイン , Nain ) , the spearman of the Class . In Agito , he is a member of Class Second . Tabata called Nine his favorite character due to his straightforward manner and personality . Nine is voiced by Orion Acaba in English and Daisuke Ono in Japanese .
Jack ( ジャック , Jakku ) , the katana @-@ wielding member of the Class . In Agito , he is a member of Class Twelfth . Jack is voiced by Cameron Covell in English and Kenichi Suzumura in Japanese .
Queen ( クィーン , Kuīn ) , the swordswoman of the Class . In Agito , she is a member of Class First . Queen is voiced by Heather Hogan in English and Ami Koshimizu in Japanese .
King ( キング , Kingu ) , the second gun @-@ wielding member of the Class , bearing twin pistols . In Agito , he is a member of Class Ninth . King is voiced by Mike Vaughn in English and Tomokazu Sugita in Japanese .
= = = Machina Kunagiri = = =
Machina Kunagiri ( マキナ ・ クナギリ , Makina Kunagiri ) is the thirteenth member of Class Zero and acts as one of the game 's narrators . During the events of Type @-@ 0 , Machina became a Milites l 'Cie and was forced to kill Rem before joining her in crystal stasis . He is later revived by Arecia to rebuild Orience once the crystals are removed . In Agito , he is a member of Class Second . Machina is voiced by Bryce Papenbrook in English and Hiroshi Kamiya in Japanese .
= = = Rem Tokimiya = = =
Rem Tokimiya ( レム ・ トキミヤ , Remu Tokimiya ) is the fourteenth member of Class Zero and acts as one of the game 's narrators . During the events of Type @-@ 0 , as Finis begins , Rem becomes a Vermillion Bird l 'Cie and is fatally wounded by Machina before entering crystal stasis and later being revived by Arecia to rebuild Orience once the crystals are removed . In Agito , she is a member of Class Seventh . Rem is voiced by Peyton McCormick in English and Ryoko Shiraishi in Japanese .
= = = Cadet = = =
The player @-@ customized Cadet ( 候補生 , Kōho @-@ sei ) is the playable character of Final Fantasy Agito . The Cadet 's gender , appearance , equipment and other aspects are chosen by the player before the game starts . The Cadet is first encountered when they are saved by Ace from a beast attack , and thereafter become part of Rubrum 's general effort to fight against the Milites Empire . Their final appearance is at the end of Orience 's second cycle , where Tiz and Joker wish them well and vow to free Orience from its cycle .
= = Supporting characters = =
= = = Kurasame Susaya = = =
Kurasame Susaya ( クラサメ ・ スサヤ ) is Class Zero 's mentor and a guest character in battle . He is accompanied by a tonberry , a recurring monster in the Final Fantasy series . In earlier years , he was friends with Kazusa and Emina , and his performance on the battlefield earned him the moniker " Reaper of the Icy Blade " ( 氷剣の死神 , Hitsurugi no Shinigami ) . A betrayal left his lower face permanently scarred , and he wears a mask to hide it . Kurasame is voiced by Robbie Daymond in English and Takahiro Sakurai in Japanese .
= = = Arecia Al @-@ Rashia = = =
Arecia Al @-@ Rashia ( アレシア ・ アルラシア , Areshia Arurashia ) is the one who established Class Zero . Though she appears human , Arecia is a being who serves the deity Pulse and is responsible for the creation of Orience 's crystals . Arecia 's purpose was to use the powerful souls among Class Zero to locate Etro 's Gate in an endless cycle of conflict , but the events of Type @-@ 0 have Arecia end the experiment and depart to points unknown . Before she leaves , she frees Machina and Rem from crystal stasis . Arecia is voiced by Eliza Jane Schneider in English and Atsuko Tanaka in Japanese .
= = = Joker and Tiz = = =
Joker ( ジョーカー , Jōkā ) and Tiz ( ティス , Tisu ) are supporting characters in Type @-@ 0 . The two are unofficial members of Class Zero , acting as Arecia 's agents . As revealed in Agito , their respective real names are Lean Hampelmann ( リーン ・ ハンペルマン , Rīn Hanperuman ) and Tohno Mahoroha ( トオノ ・ マホロハ , Toono Mahoroha ) : Lean was allied with the Milites Empire as a scientist , while Tohno is an antisocial student at Akademeia . During the events of the final chapter of Orience 's second cycle , Arecia chooses them to be her immortal agents , retaining their memories of each cycle . During Type @-@ 0 , Tiz decides to use the accumulated memories of Orience 's dead to convince Arecia to abandon the experiment . Joker is voiced by Adam McArthur in English and Kōki Uchiyama in Japanese , while Tiz is voiced by Chelsea Ricketts in English and Hitomi Terakado in Japanese .
= = = Cid Aulstyne = = =
Cid Aulstyne ( シド ・ オールドスタイン , Shido Ōrudosutain ) is Imperial Marshal of the Milites army , having become the empire 's acting leader and the main antagonist of Type @-@ 0 and Agito . Seeing his people 's prayers to the White Tiger Crystal go unanswered , he decided to oust the crystals and others related to the world 's deities , bringing Orience under the rule of humans . Enacting a coup d 'état against the Militesi Emperor , Cid appointed himself as the ruler of the Empire and took control of the White Tiger Crystal . When Tempus Finis arrives , Cid is confronted by Gala and chosen as the Rursan Arbiter , the being who carries out Gala 's will . In a futile attempt to thwart Gala 's plan , Cid kills himself . Resurrected by Gala as the Rursan Arbiter , he acts as the game 's final antagonist , and is finally defeated by Class Zero . Cid is voiced by Steven Blum in English and Shuichiro Moriyama in Japanese .
= = = Gala and Diva = = =
Gala ( ガーラ , Gāra ) and Diva ( ディーヴァ , Dīva ) are minor characters related to the lore of Orience . Gala is a servant of the deity Lindzei , he is the leader of the Lulusath Army : whenever the balance between Orience 's nations is disrupted , he summons his army to slaughter the population . After Arecia abandons the experiment , he falls into a coma . He remains unnamed in the game , being referred to as " the Masked Man " , but is named in the Ultimania guide book . Diva is the main narrator of Final Fantasy Type @-@ 0 . Like Arecia and Gala , she is a being created by the world 's deities : her duty is to watch over the world and record the events of each cycle . Diva is voiced by Fleur Saville in English and Maaya Sakamoto in Japanese .
= = = Miyu Kagerohi = = =
Miyu Kagerohi ( ミユウ ・ カゲロヒ , Miyuu Kagerohi ) is a supporting character from Final Fantasy Agito . A member of Class Second , she is the representative for the cadets in the Vermillion Peristyrium . Her true identity , as revealed with the coming of Tempus Finis , is Myuria ( ミューリア , Myūria ) , a servant of Gala who oversees the Lulusath Army . Her defeat signals the coming of Tempus Finis , as the first cycle is deemed a failure . She later appears at the end of the second cycle , pondering with Arecia whether to continue with the experiment . She is voiced by Haruka Tomatsu in Japanese . Miyu as Myuria appears in concept art for Type @-@ 0 , but she was cut from the game .
= = Other characters = =
= = = Dominion of Rubrum = = =
Khalia Chival VI ( カリヤ ・ シバル６世 , Kariya Shibaru Rokusei ) is a supporting character . He is the ruler of the Dominion of Rubrum and the 174th Director of the Vermillion Peristylium . Unlike most of the population of Orience , he is aware of both the nature of the crystals and Arecia 's true form . Khalia is voiced by William Bassett in English and Iemasa Kayumi in Japanese .
Izana Kunagiri ( イザナ ・ クナギリ ) is a minor supporting character and Machina 's brother . Before the events of Type @-@ 0 , he was the keeper of the Peristylium chocobo pens and a good friend of Ace . During the assault on the Vermillion Peristylium by Milites , he was sent through the midst of the battle on a mission by Arecia , causing his death . The circumstances behind his death eventually alienate Machina from Class Zero . Izana is voiced by Jason Spisak in English and Keiji Fujiwara in Japanese .
The Cranberry Knights ( クランベリーナイツ , Kuranberii Naitsu ) are a group of thirteen moogles . In the world of Orience , the word " moogle " stands for Military Operation Organization Guidance Logistics Expert . One moogle is assigned to each class in the Peirstyrium . The one assigned to Class Zero , Moglin , gives the group missions across Orience ( the game 's version of side quests ) . In Agito , a moogle accompanies the Cadet through the Peirstyrium . Chiba was initially to have put in a sequence involving all members of the Knights , but he forgot . Moglin is voiced by Ariel Winter in English and Sumire Morohoshi in Japanese .
Emina Hanaharu ( エミナ ・ ハナハル ) is a minor supporting character . A supervisor of Peristylium cadets , she was a friend of Kurasame and Kazusa during her time as a student . Over the course of the game , it is revealed that she is a spy from Milites who betrayed her handlers after growing to love the people of the academy . She is arrested by the forces of Rubrum as a potential spy and it is implied that she was executed for espionage . Emina is voiced by Ali Hillis in English and Rie Tanaka in Japanese .
Kazusa Futahito ( カヅサ ・ フタヒト ) is a minor supporting character . A schoolfriend of Kurasame and Emina , he is a scientific researcher at the Vermillion Peirstyrium . Multiple times , he uses Class Zero to further his work , much to Kurasame 's annoyance . After Kurasame 's death , he uses a machine to recall memories of him , but neither Emina or Kazusa can remember him any more . He is one of the few senior Peristylium staff to survive Finis and help in Orience 's reconstruction . Kazusa was scenario writer 's Sarah Obake 's favorite character in Type @-@ 0 . He is voiced by Joel Johnstone in English and Akira Ishida in Japanese .
Caetuna ( セツナ , Setsuna ) is a l 'Cie of Rubrum and a minor supporting character . The oldest and one of the most powerful l 'Cie in Orience , she specializes in summoning magic . During Rubrum 's battle against the united forces of Milites and Concordia , she is deployed in a decisive battle to use her summoning skills . She summons the Verboten Eidolon Alexander with the help of sacrificed energy from Kurasame and other students . The summoning costs all of them , including Caetuna , their lives . Caetuna is voiced by Erin Cotrell in English and Marina Inoue in Japanese .
Zhuyu Voghfau Byot ( シュユ ・ ヴォーグフォウ ・ ビョウト , Shuyu Vōgufō Byōto ) is a supporting character in Type @-@ 0 . Often referred to as " Lord Zhuyu " , he is a l 'Cie of the Vermillion Bird crystal . During his time serving the crystal , he has been gradually losing his memories : to try to maintain some link to his past , he continues to wear his old Peristyrium uniform . Zhuyu is voiced by Marc Worden in English and Hiroki Tōchi in Japanese .
Naghi Minatsuchi ( ナギ ・ ミナツチ ) : A bandana @-@ wearing aloof cadet from Class Ninth who is a self @-@ proclaimed idol and member of the Intelligence Club . He is voiced by Daniel Robaire in English and Shōtarō Morikubo in Japanese .
Carla Ayatsugi ( カルラ ・ アヤツギ , Karura Ayatsugi ) : A fiery merchant girl from Class Second who offers items and information for outrageous prices . Because of her good grades , she is popular among the faculty . She is voiced by Danielle Judovits in English Aya Hirano in Japanese .
Quon Yobatz ( クオン ・ ヨバツ , Kuon Yobatsu ) : A magic researcher from Class Third who has no interest for common spells and is constantly looking for the ultimate magic . He is voiced by Chris Carmack in English Ryōtarō Okiayu in Japanese .
Mutsuki Chiharano ( ムツキ ・ チハラノ ) : Though Class Twelfth 's genius inventor , her paranoia and skill in bomb making make her dangerous to even her peers . She is voiced by Cassandra Morris in English and Marika Matsumoto in Japanese .
Ryid Uruk ( リィド ・ ウルク , Riddo Uruku ) : A member of Class Fifth , he is part Lorican on his mother 's side and is the grandson of Enkidu . Due to his mixed heritage , he is destined to lose the ability to wield magic . He trains every day to use his strength to protect others . He is voiced by Travis Willingham in English Masahiro Kobayashi in Japanese .
= = = Milites Empire = = =
Qator Bashar ( カトル ・ バシュタル , Katoru Bashutaru ) is a secondary antagonist . Second @-@ in @-@ command of the Milites Army , he is fiercely loyal to Cid . His primary weapon and means of transport is Gabriel , a flying magitek armor . He often takes part in battles , and consequently fights Class Zero . During Rubrum 's final assault on Milites , Qator fights Class Zero again , but sacrifices himself to save Milites when he finds out an Ultima bomb is hidden inside Gabriel . Qator is voiced by Mark Hanson in English and Hideo Ishikawa in Japanese .
Qun 'mi Tru 'e ( クンミ ・ トゥルーエ , Kunmi Turūe ) is a minor antagonist . A new l 'Cie of the White Tiger crystal , she is given control of the Crystal Jammer mounted on the magitek armor Dainsleif . She faces off against Class Zero , and narrowly escapes after Dainsleif is destroyed . During a later mission , she is trapped in stone , managing to transfer her l 'Cie powers to Machina before entering crystal stasis . Qun 'mi is voiced by Aimée Castle in English and Megumi Toyoguchi in Japanese .
Nimbus ( ニンブス , Ninbusu ) is a minor antagonist . A l 'Cie of the White Tiger crystal , he has been in its service for a hundred years and has lost all purpose in life apart from obeying its commands . During Rubrum 's efforts to repulse Milites , Nimbus and Zhuyu do battle , completely destroying a region of Rubrum . After bringing Cid to Pandaemonium , Nimbus vanishes to points unknown it is implied that , after the crystals lose power , he dies . Nimbus is voiced by Kyle Hebert in English and Junichi Suwabe in Japanese .
= = = Kingdom of Concordia = = =
Andoria Kaya Tranka Fam Forturio ( アンドリア ・ カヤ ・ トランカ ・ ファム ・ フォーチュリオ ) , often simply called " Queen Andoria " , is the ruler of Concordia . In an effort to stop the war , she evokes the Fabula Pact , forcing a ceasefire . During the peace talks , Andoria is assassinated by Militessi and Concordian conspirators , resulting in Class Zero being framed for her murder . Andoria is voiced by Catherine Taber in English and Megumi Hayashibara .
Claes Celestia Misca Sancest ( クラエス ・ ホシヒメ ・ ミスカ ・ サンセスト , Kuraesu Hoshihime Misuka Sansesuto ) , often just called " Celestia " , is a supporting character in Type @-@ 0 , being a l 'Cie of the Azure Dragon crystal . Celestia is voiced by Kim Mai Guest in English and Nana Mizuki in Japanese .
The king of Concordia ( 蒼龍王 , Sōryū @-@ ō , lit . Blue Dragon King ) is a supporting character in Type @-@ 0 . Appointed after Andoria 's death as part of a Milites puppet regime , he is a proud and selfish man who puts his own agenda before the welfare of Concordia . The king is voiced by Piotr Michael in English and Jun Fukuyama in Japanese .
= = = Lorican Alliance = = =
Gilgamesh ( ギルガメッシュ , Girugamesshu ) is a supporting character and minor antagonist in Final Fantasy Type @-@ 0 . Originally the king of the Lorican Alliance , he became a l 'Cie of the Black Tortoise crystal and consequently began losing his memories , eventually forgetting his duty to the crystal . Gilgamesh is voiced by Keith Szarabajka in English and Kazuya Nakai in Japanese .
Enkidu ( エンキドゥ , Enkidu ) is a minor supporting character in Final Fantasy Type @-@ 0 . A childhood friend of and guide for Gilgamesh , he is a l 'Cie of the Black Tortoise crystal . Enkidu is voiced by Liam O 'Brien in English and Hiroshi Shirokuma in Japanese .
= = Cultural impact = =
= = = Merchandise = = =
Characters from the game , including Ace , Mog , Machina and other members of Class Zero , appeared in the fourth series of releases for the Final Fantasy Trading Card Game . On November 2011 , a manga adaptation of Type @-@ 0 began serialization . It is illustrated by Takatoshi Shiozawa and published in Young Gangan magazine . The manga has been collected into a tankōbon volume and was released on April 21 , 2012 . An English translation was released with the Collector 's Edition of Type @-@ 0 HD in March 2015 , exclusive to Square Enix 's website . Another manga titled Final Fantasy Type @-@ 0 Side Story : Reaper of the Icy Blade ( ファイナルファンタジー零式外伝 氷剣の死神 , Fainaru Fantajī Reishiki Gaiden Hyouken no Shinigami ) . The manga is also illustrated by Shiozawa , supervised by Tetsuya Nomura and published in Young Gangan magazine from April 2012 . The manga ended in January 2014 , with a bonus chapter being published in February . It was later released in five compiled volumes . Yen Press will begin distribution of the manga in the west in July 2015 . A novel adaptation titled Final Fantasy Type @-@ 0 : Change the World -The Answer- ( ファイナルファンタジー零式 Change the World -The Answer- ) has been released by Square Enix on April 21 , 2012 . A second novel adaptation titled Final Fantasy Type @-@ 0 : Change the World 2 -The Penultimate Truth- ( ファイナルファンタジー零式 Change the World 2 巻 -最後から二番目の真実- ) was released by Square Enix on June 28 , 2012 . The novels depict an alternate version of Type @-@ 0 's story .
= = = Reception = = =
The characters of Type @-@ 0 have so far received positive reception from video game critics in both local and import reviews . One of the reviewers for Famitsu magazine said that the large amount of characters made the game " a very different [ Final Fantasy ] . " RPG Site 's Erren Van Duine was very impressed , saying that certain character interactions were " handled excellently and you really get a sense of specific character motivations because of it . " He also praised the sympathetic portrayal of Cid Aulstyne , and stated that the game had " so many great moments , [ the player will ] have to experience each little detail for [ themselves ] . Heath Hindman , writing for PlayStation Lifestyle , called the characters " pretty strong overall " , although she cited some scenes where various characters ' inclusion felt like a necessity rather than a useful element to be a fault .
Western reception of the characters has been mixed to positive . IGN 's Meghan Sullivan said that the story 's focus on young cadets sent into battle " reminder that it ’ s the young who die in war , and who are the first to be forgotten . " She also praised the comedic side characters , which helped strike a balance with the serious story . Game Informer 's Matt Miller was fairly critical , saying that the abundance of main characters hampered character development , and found conversations " stilted and melodramatic " . Alexa Ray Corriae of GameSpot was pleased with the main cast , enjoyed the romance between Rem and Machina , and praised the reactions of non @-@ playable characters around the Peristylium to Class Zero 's achievements during the story . Her main criticism was that she found the supporting cast fell short as the player often needed to remember faces only briefly seen before . Becky Cunningham of GamesRadar said that Class Zero 's incerations with the story 's political intrigues and interpersonal drama " make a story worth experiencing . " GameTrailers ' Michael Damiani felt that the character 's " awkward " dialogue hampered the otherwise intriguing story , saying that the script relied too much on the player accepting leaps in logic on a character 's say @-@ so .
Mollie L Patterson of Electronic Gaming Monthly enjoyed the game 's fresh take on the high school setting so common in Japanese media , while PC Gamer 's Samuel Roberts found the size of the cast hindered the story and compared the experience to a low @-@ quality anime series . RPGamer 's Michael A Cunningham enjoyed the characters despite being shallow , with him saying Machina and Rem had the best development out of the main cast . Destructoid 's Chris Carter said that , as with other Final Fantasy games , players would find favorites among the characters , and was entertained by the conflict between classes and classmates , which worked in the school setting . Most of the reviewers made mixed to negative comments on the quality of the localization ; Sullivan drew attention to Nine 's incongruous addition of " yo " and " hey " to his sentences , Cunngingham found the experience better when she switched to the Japanese voice track , while Cunningham appresiated the effort put into the translation while finding the final product inconsistent with the new platforms . The exception was Cartar , who said that the English cast " do a great job " .
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= Center for Class Action Fairness =
The Center for Class Action Fairness ( CCAF ) is a Washington , D.C.-based public @-@ interest law firm , founded by Ted Frank in June 2009 to represent consumers dissatisfied with their counsel in class actions and class action settlements . It is a 501 ( c ) ( 3 ) organization .
According to The American Lawyer , as of March 2011 , the CCAF had filed objections to 17 settlements , with eight objections pending in federal district courts , and had been successful on six of them . The CCAF has objected to settlements throughout the United States , particularly in cases where class action lawyers receive cash payments but the plaintiff class receives only discount coupons for further products and services from the defendant company . It has distanced itself from other firms that make money by holding up class action settlements until they themselves are paid off . The CCAF has raised objections to class action settlements involving the Grand Theft Auto " Hot Coffee " minigame , Honda Civic Hybrids , Apple backdating , A.G. Edwards , Bluetooth headsets , and the Cobell Indian Trust .
= = Background = =
Ted Frank was inspired to establish the Center from his success in objecting to the class action settlement in the Grand Theft Auto consumer fraud case where class members would have received under $ 30 @,@ 000 while the attorneys were asking for $ 1 million .
In June 2009 , Frank founded the public @-@ interest non @-@ profit law firm Center for Class Action Fairness ( CCAF ) to represent consumers dissatisfied with their counsel in class actions and class action settlements . The firm is described by Frank as " a " guerrilla " operation with a shoestring budget " . CCAF was initially a project of Donors Trust , a nonprofit donor @-@ advised fund , which paid him as an independent contractor to manage the project , relying on donors from charitable foundations and independent individuals to fund it . To date , the CCAF has accepted only about 40 percent of the requests it has received to object to a settlement and Frank has said that if it is a good settlement or close enough to the line , he wouldn 't " risk creating bad precedent . " As of 2010 , the CCAF has three staff attorneys , including Frank .
The CCAF has distanced itself from other firms , sometimes called " professional objectors " , that make money by holding up class action settlements until they themselves are paid off , Whereas that practice has been criticized as doing to class action lawyers what class action lawyers are doing to companies , one commentator said that CCAF appears to be doing so as a matter of principle . According to The American Lawyer , as of March 2011 , the CCAF had filed objections to 17 settlements , with eight objections pending in federal district courts , and had been successful on six of them .
= = Cause = =
Founder Ted Frank has said that " the whole reason I started this is because there is a high probability of district courts rubber @-@ stamping settlements . I think these are very bad settlements that the [ 9th U.S. Circuit Court of Appeals ] will provide guidance for when judges should or shouldn ’ t approve settlements . ” He has also said " the class action landscape has long included some “ professional settlement objectors ” who target large cases in hopes of extracting a percentage of the attorney fees as a reward . But that doesn ’ t solve the problem . The niche isn ’ t being filled unless you find somebody crazy like me who is willing to spend dozens of hours of his own time and hundreds of dollars of his own money to make a claim he can ’ t benefit from . " Frank said in an objection in a case at the Court of the United States District Court Northern District of Ohio of the CCAF , " while the Center focuses on bringing objections to unfair class action settlements , it makes no effort to engage in quid pro quo settlements to extort attorneys , and has never settled an objection . The Center analyses complaints from consumers aggrieved by class actions settlement notices to determine whether a settlement is objectionable under the law because it favors attorneys over class members . "
Among CCAFs cases are those challenging an emerging trend known as cy @-@ près . Created by American courts in the 1970s as a mechanism to distribute funds to stand @-@ in organizations and causes in cases in which it would be impractical to distribute class action settlement funds directly to the entire class of plaintiffs , the practice has been criticized from time to time for redirecting funds that would otherwise go to the parties to the case . In one case , CCAF challenged a settlement that would have directed $ 2 @.@ 5 million out of a total $ 16 @.@ 5 million settlement Apple Inc. was to pay to shareholders for backdating employee stock option grants , to unrelated law school programs on corporate governance . According to Frank , in March 2010 , two attorneys from the Kabateck Brown Kellner firm published an op ed in the Los Angeles Daily Journal attacking the litigation against impermissible cy pres awards as part of a " corporate " campaign . Frank firmly stated on the Manhattan Institute run website Point of Law.com that the " Center for Class Action Fairness has never taken a dollar of for @-@ profit corporate money . "
CCAF has objected to settlements throughout the United States , in cases where class action lawyers receive cash payments but the plaintiff class receives only discount coupons for further products and services from the defendant company . CCAF argues in those cases that few of the coupons are ever used , so the actual payment to plaintiffs is much lower than the stated amounts . In 2010 , CCAF successfully objected to a coupon settlement in a Central District of California class action alleging consumer fraud in the sale of Honda Civic Hybrids ; the settlement would have provided $ 2 @.@ 95 million in attorneys ' fees , but only coupons to the class . Frank and the CCAF 's position against coupon settlements was expressed in his written objection to the case in which he stated that they often do not provide meaningful compensation to class members , they often fail to disgorge ill @-@ gotten gains from the defendant , and they often require class members to do future business with the defendant in order to receive compensation .
= = Notable cases = =
The CCAF recently lost its appeal in the Online @-@ DVD Rental Antitrust Litigation case , initially filed in the Northern District of California and appealed to the United States Court of Appeals for the Ninth Circuit . The CCAF had objected to the amount of attorneys ' fees awarded by the district court , but the district court judge overruled the objections and awarded the attorneys ' fees requested . The appeal to the circuit court was met with disfavor and the award of attorneys ' fees was affirmed . Theodore H. Frank et al. v. Netflix Inc. et al . , case number 12 @-@ 15705 , in the U.S. Court of Appeals for the Ninth Circuit .
Frank , at his own expense , traveled to New York and filed a successful objection to the proposed class action settlement in the Grand Theft Auto consumer fraud case where class members who had bought a Grand Theft Auto computer game with a hidden , sexually explicit easter egg would have received less than $ 30 @,@ 000 , while the plaintiffs ' attorneys would have received $ 1 million in legal fees . Spurred by complaints about excessive sexual content in the game , class action attorneys sued its makers , Take Two Interactive Software . Although the software giant had received only $ 27 @,@ 000 in claims from irate consumers , it agreed to a settlement in which the plaintiffs ’ lawyers themselves would collect $ 1 million . The CCAF 's case succeeded and the settlement was halted .
In January 2010 , the CCAF , representing its client Dan Greenberg , successfully filed an objection to the original settlement in the Lonardo v. Travelers Indemnity case in the U.S. District Court for the Northern District of Ohio , which reduced the $ 6 @.@ 6 million attorneys ’ fee request by $ 2 million , with the class members receiving $ 4 @.@ 8 million instead of $ 2 @.@ 8 million . In February 2010 , CCAF successfully objected to a coupon settlement in a Central District of California class action alleging consumer fraud in the sale of Honda Civic Hybrids ; the settlement would have provided $ 2 @.@ 95 million in attorneys ' fees , but only coupons to the class . Frank was reported to have said " coupons are nearly worthless because so few of the intended beneficiaries will find it worthwhile to fill in all the necessary paperwork . " The CCAF has also been involved in the case surrounding the allegations of email spamming by Ameritrade in 2009 . The case brought Frank before Northern District of California Chief Judge Vaughn Walker , where he challenged the fairness of a TD Ameritrade settlement , which consists of coupons for antivirus software . Frank " argued that the court should not award , or should at least limit , the requested $ 1 @.@ 87 million in attorney fees . " Judge Walker rejected the Ameritrade settlement in October 2009 .
Later in 2010 , Frank and the CCAF , citing American Law Institute guidelines on cy @-@ près , objected to Apple 's settlement of a securities class action over their backdating , arguing that giving money to third parties affiliated with the class counsel instead of to the class was a breach of fiduciary duty . Frank stated that " the magnitude of the settlement compared to the original claims demonstrates that it is an extortionate nuisance settlement , being made because it would cost more to defend the suit than to pay the attorneys to go away . " In response to CCAF 's objection , the parties amended the settlement by reallocating the $ 2 @.@ 5 million originally proposed as cy @-@ près to class members ; the court awarded CCAF attorneys ' fees for their role in winning $ 2 @.@ 5 million for the class .
In April 2011 , Frank and the CCAF filed an objection to the $ 3 @.@ 4 billion taxpayer funded Cobell Indian Trust settlement , which the federal government had agreed to in December 2009 , which had established a $ 1 @.@ 5 billion Trust Accounting and Administration Fund and a $ 1 @.@ 9 billion Trust Land Consolidation Fund to buy fractionated land interests . Under the agreed settlement , a maximum of $ 99 @.@ 9 million had been allocated for the lawyers fees but they had demanded $ 223 million . Acting on behalf of Kimberly Craven , a Sisseton @-@ Wahpeton Ovate tribe member , Frank argued that the case was about pure greed , stating that it included " an outrageous fee request that has resulted in bipartisan criticism " and that the Class Counsel were " more interested in maximizing their personal recovery than the interests of the class . "
The CCAF filed a lengthy brief in Missouri in May 2011 challenging a settlement which gave lawyers who sued A.G. Edwards $ 21 million in fees for negotiating an agreement that provided a total of $ 6 million for some customers and three annual coupons valued at $ 8 @.@ 22 apiece for the rest . St. Louis Judge Angela T. Quigless of the Missouri Court of Appeals rejected the case , ruling that “ in cases involving complex litigation or in the class action context , a one @-@ third contingent fee award is not unreasonable . ”
In August 2011 , the CCAF won a case at a federal appeals court in California in which they objected to class action settlements and attorneys ' fees in litigation regarding Bluetooth headsets . The original case over the headsets had been filed when lawyers had noticed news articles about potential hearing loss and headsets and filed suits on behalf of millions of Motorola and Plantronics customers . The prior settlement would have effectively paid consumers nothing but given the lawyers who negotiated the pact $ 850 @,@ 000 in fees , amended by Frank and his firm . Frank regards the case as a milestone in his fight to prevent abuses . Frank also unsuccessfully filed an objection to a settlement in an antitrust case against Sirius XM Radio , which provided nothing for the plaintiffs , but a 100 percent payout of $ 13 million for the attorneys . Judge Harold Baer , Jr. ruled on 24 August that the settlement terms " demonstrate sufficient fairness , adequacy and reasonableness " and rejected Frank 's claims . Frank vowed to appeal , saying " you don 't like to lose , but it 's a good case to take to the appellate court . " In June 2010 , the CCAF filed an objection on behalf of four class members to the Dewey v. Volkswagen , Water Ingress Settlement where attorneys were asking for over $ 23 million for recovering an $ 8 million reimbursement fund for a small subset of the class . The case is still pending .
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= Annie ( Norwegian singer ) =
Anne Lilia Berge Strand ( born 21 November 1977 ) , better known by her stage name Annie , is a Norwegian singer , songwriter , record producer and DJ . Annie began her recording career in 1999 with the underground hit single " The Greatest Hit " and gained international acclaim , particularly from music bloggers , for her debut album Anniemal ( 2004 ) .
= = Biography = =
After completing secondary school , Annie started DJing in Bergen , where she met house producer and soon @-@ to @-@ be boyfriend Tore Kroknes . In 1999 , Annie and Kroknes released the single " The Greatest Hit " , which sold out in two days and became popular in Norwegian and British nightclubs . Before Annie and Kroknes could release an album , Kroknes died from a congenital heart defect in 2001 . Annie went on to sign a record deal with Britain 's 679 Recordings in 2003 , releasing her debut album Anniemal in 2004 , for which she received widespread critical acclaim and several Norwegian music awards .
Annie has been praised for her unique , " indie " style of electropop and synthpop music and has been described as " a pop singer with credibility , an indie artist with one eye on the dancefloor " , and " the Kylie it 's cool to like " . Annie describes her music as " pop with strange edges " .
Annie released her second studio album , Don 't Stop , on the Smalltown Supersound label on 19 October 2009 . Annie currently lives in Berlin .
= = Early life = =
Annie was born in 1977 Trondheim , Norway and was raised in the coastal town of Kristiansand . Annie 's father , a church organ player , died of cancer when Annie was 7 . After a series of moves , Annie and her mother , a teacher of English and religion , moved to Norway 's second largest city Bergen when Annie was 13 . By this time , Annie sang in choirs .
At age 16 , Annie and a group of friends formed Suitcase , an indie rock band . Suitcase only performed once , before a panel of judges for a music competition where they did not reach the finals . A few years after Suitcase 's inception , Annie left the band when " the other members wanted to make trip hop . "
Annie attended secondary school until around 1997 , when she began to DJ around Bergen , getting acquainted with members of the Bergen music scene . During this time she met producer Mikal Tellé , owner of the Bergen @-@ based Tellé record label , and Norwegian house producer Tore Andreas Kroknes , known professionally as DJ Erot .
= = Music career = =
= = = 1999 – 2002 : " Greatest Hit " = = =
Annie and Kroknes became romantically involved , and began to collaborate musically . Annie 's talent for writing melodies and vocals worked well with Kroknes 's production skills . Annie launched her solo singing career in 1999 with the single " Greatest Hit " . The song was recorded after Annie played Madonna 's song " Everybody " for Kroknes , who was experiencing a creative block at the time . Kroknes sampled the song , and Annie started to sing a melody to it . They recorded and released the song under the Tellé label . The song saw a limited release of 500 7 @-@ inch singles , which sold out in two days . " Greatest Hit " became an underground club hit in Norway and Britain , and Annie received offers for record contracts . Annie reflects that she and Kroknes had recorded the song " for fun " , but with the success of the single , Annie says , " I realized that I could actually make a living out of this . "
Annie and Kroknes made plans to release an album and began recording " I Will Get On " in 2000 . However , Kroknes , who was born with a degenerative heart condition , fell ill near the end of 2000 and was hospitalized repeatedly . In April 2001 , Kroknes died of complications from his heart condition at the age of 23 . Annie told Clubbing Magazine :
" After that , I was so depressed I just wasn 't able to do anything . I stayed at home , away from everyone , completely in my own world . I wanted to make the album with Tore — that was the plan . After he died I just didn 't think I had the heart . But then I thought , ' Right , you 're really depressed now but you have to make this album . Tore would be quite pissed off if you just stopped doing anything . ' "
After a hiatus from music , Annie returned to DJing and songwriting in late 2001 , running a club night called Pop Till You Drop at the Agora nightclub in Bergen with DJ friend Fröken Blytt . Among the music acts booked for Pop Till You Drop were Peaches , DJ Adam Mac , and Finnish DJ Timo Kaukolampi of Op : l Bastards . Annie later DJed at Kaukolampi 's own night club in Helsinki and lent her vocals to some Op : l Bastards tracks .
= = = 2003 – 05 : Anniemal = = =
Annie was signed to British label 679 Recordings in March 2003 . Annie recorded the track " Kiss Me " with Kaukolampi , and was approached by Richard X to record vocals for the track " Just Friends " on Richard X Presents His X @-@ Factor Vol . 1 , released in August 2003 . In return , he and Hannah Robinson co @-@ wrote " Chewing Gum " and " Me Plus One " for Annie . Annie and Richard X continued to work together , releasing the single " Chewing Gum " in Annie 's name in September 2004 . The track was named single of the week by NME soon after its release , and charted in the UK at number 25 .
Later that year , Annie released her debut CD Anniemal , collaborating with Timo Kaukolampi , Richard X , and fellow Norwegians Röyksopp . The album featured " The Greatest Hit " , " Chewing Gum " , and the album 's second single " Heartbeat " . The song , produced by Röyksopp , was voted number one on Pitchfork Media 's Top 50 Singles of 2004 list , before the song was officially released . " Chewing Gum " held the number @-@ eleven spot on that same list . " Heartbeat " was remixed by Canadian electronic duo MSTRKRFT in 2005 .
In 2005 , Annie won several awards for her work , including Best Pop Album and Best Newcomer at the Norwegian Alarm Awards . " Chewing Gum " had also been nominated for Song of the Year . In addition , Annie won the Best Newcomer award at the prestigious Spellemannprisen . Annie 's 5 February performance at the Alarm Awards was one of the first live performances of her solo career .
Annie toured around the world in 2005 to promote Anniemal , including a brief stint opening for Saint Etienne , to whom she had sent a demo tape while still in Suitcase in 1996 . Annie performed at sold out club venues in the United States in 2005 , and returned to the US later that year .
In 2005 , Annie released a DJ mix album as part of ! K7 's DJ @-@ Kicks series . Around this time , she began a record label called Totally , with Timo Kaukolampi , and planned to release a 12 " single with Datarock . She also provided vocals for the Teddybears track " Yours to Keep " as well as the Ercola track " Follow Me " , and re @-@ recorded her songs " Chewing Gum " and " Heartbeat " in Simlish for The Sims 2 : Nightlife 's Danish and Norwegian localisations .
= = = 2006 – 10 : Don 't Stop = = =
In January 2007 , Annie signed an international deal with Island Records , owned by Universal Music Group . She had planned to release her second album , Don 't Stop , in September 2008 , preceded by the Richard X @-@ produced single " I Know UR Girlfriend Hates Me " , after she finished touring on the Popjustice Wonky Pop Tour . In November 2008 , Annie announced that due to internal problems within the label , she had decided to part ways with Island Records ; in interviews following the eventual release of Don 't Stop , Annie explained that her original A & R agent at the label , Nick Gatfield , left to join EMI UK , and Annie left the label because her new agent was not enthusiastic about her work . Although this left her second album 's future uncertain , she retained legal control over the songs she recorded during her contracted period with the label . Verdens Gang suggested that the split with the label was precipitated by the poor chart performance of " I Know UR Girlfriend Hates Me " , which charted at number fifty @-@ four in the UK . Don 't Stop leaked in its original incarnation in 2008 .
After her departure from Island Records , Annie released a new single , " Anthonio " , via producer Richard X 's Pleasure Masters label in May 2009 . The song tells the story of a holiday affair between Annie and the title character ; Annie described the song as " the ultimate summer track " .
In August 2009 , Pitchfork announced that Don 't Stop would be released via independent label Smalltown Supersound and Annie 's own label Totally Records . It came out in the UK on 19 October 2009 and in the US on 17 November . Don 't Stop includes collaborations with former collaborators Richard X and Timo Kaukolampi , as well as British producers Xenomania and Paul Epworth . The album 's release was preceded by two digital singles : " Songs Remind Me of You " , a Richard X production , and " My Love Is Better " , which was produced by Xenomania and features guitar from Alex Kapranos of Franz Ferdinand . The latter initially featured backing vocals by British pop group Girls Aloud , but their record label intervened .
Annie co @-@ wrote Mini Viva 's debut single " Left My Heart in Tokyo " , released in September 2009 and produced by Xenomania .
= = = 2010 – present : The A & R EP / Endless Vacation EP = = =
In October 2010 , Xenomania 's News Blog reported that Annie was back in the studio recording her follow up to 2009 's " Don 't Stop " . Annie started recording in August 2010 with Brian Higgins at Xenomania 's studios in Kent , England . During 2010 , she also contributed vocals to the song " Crazy for You " by New York electro duo Designer Drugs ( who remixed her track " Anthonio " ) for their debut album Hardcore / Softcore , released on February 2011 and to " Alien Summer " by French producer The Toxic Avenger , for their album Angst released on 18 May 2011 . By the second half of 2011 , Annie began working on The Night Within Us ! , an EP that was slated for an early 2012 release . The Skatebard @-@ produced title track and soon @-@ to @-@ be single " The Night Within " , is the theme song for an homonymous short film by Hildegunn Waerness and part of an interdisciplinary project by Norwegian artist Bjarne Melgaard . The installation and set of paintings , exhibited on the Guido W. Baudach gallery in Berlin from 26 November 2011 to 25 February 2012 , are based on the lyrics and theme of the song , which " deal with love and loss " , and capture " the existential need for human tenderness , trust and partnership on one hand , and the painful realisation of lies , deceit and abandonment " , all of which have been somewhat present on Melgaard 's work . A video has been done for the song , based almost entirely on the exhibition .
Annie released the single " Tubestops and Lonely Hearts " on April 26 , 2013 . The track is a " song for the dance floor , " and is , " inspired by the rave scene in Bergen . "
The A & R EP was released on July 29 , 2013 , and features the single " Back Together " .
On February 7 , 2014 Annie released " Russian Kiss " , a song with Bjarne Melgaard and Richard X , which condemns Russia 's homophobic laws .
On August 20 and 21 , 2014 , Annie was a guest member of the jury on Idol Norway .
On October 16 , 2015 , Annie released an EP entitled Endless Vacation .
= = Personal life = =
Annie currently lives in Berlin , where she moved after being evicted from the apartment in Bergen she was living in because it was going to be turned into a hotel . She owned a cat named Joey , whom she named after both Joey Ramone and Joey McIntyre of New Kids on the Block . Joey died on 29 January 2010 . Annie is an avid reader and follows global politics . She is friends with musician Peaches . Her musical influences include Madonna , Saint Etienne , the Pet Shop Boys , and Kate Bush . She has a green belt in karate .
= = Discography = =
= = = Studio albums = = =
Anniemal ( 2004 )
Don 't Stop ( 2009 )
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= Nancy Cartwright =
Nancy Jean Cartwright ( born October 25 , 1957 ) is an American voice actress , film and television actress , and comedian . She is known for her long @-@ running role as Bart Simpson on the animated television series The Simpsons . Cartwright also voices other characters for the show , including Nelson Muntz , Ralph Wiggum , Todd Flanders , Kearney , and Database .
Cartwright was born in Dayton , Ohio . Cartwright moved to Hollywood in 1978 and trained alongside voice actor Daws Butler . Her first professional role was voicing Gloria in the animated series Richie Rich , which she followed with a starring role in the television movie Marian Rose White ( 1982 ) and her first feature film , Twilight Zone : The Movie ( 1983 ) .
After continuing to search for acting work , in 1987 Cartwright auditioned for a role in a series of animated shorts about a dysfunctional family that was to appear on The Tracey Ullman Show . Cartwright intended to audition for the role of Lisa Simpson , the middle child ; when she arrived at the audition , she found the role of Bart — Lisa 's brother — to be more interesting . Matt Groening , the series ' creator , allowed her to audition for Bart and offered her the role on the spot . She voiced Bart for three seasons on The Tracey Ullman Show , and in 1989 , the shorts were spun off into a half @-@ hour show called The Simpsons . For her subsequent work as Bart , Cartwright received a Primetime Emmy Award for Outstanding Voice @-@ Over Performance in 1992 and an Annie Award for Best Voice Acting in the Field of Animation in 1995 .
Cartwright has voiced numerous animated characters , including Chuckie Finster in Rugrats and All Grown Up ! ( the former of which was previously held by Christine Cavanaugh ) , Rufus in Kim Possible , Mindy in Animaniacs , Margo Sherman in The Critic and Chip in The Kellys . In 2000 , she published her autobiography , My Life as a 10 @-@ Year @-@ Old Boy , and four years later adapted it into a one @-@ woman play .
= = Early life = =
Cartwright was born in Dayton , Ohio , on October 25 , 1957 , the fourth of Frank and Miriam Cartwright 's six children . She grew up in Kettering , Ohio , and discovered her talent for voices at an early age . While in the fourth grade , she won a school @-@ wide speech competition with her performance of Rudyard Kipling 's How the Camel Got His Hump . Cartwright attended Fairmont West High School , and participated in the school 's theater and marching band . She regularly entered public speaking competitions , placing first in the " Humorous Interpretation " category at the National District Tournament two years running . The judges often suggested to her that she should perform cartoon voices . Cartwright graduated from high school in 1976 and accepted a scholarship from Ohio University . She continued to compete in public speaking competitions ; during her sophomore year , she placed fifth in the National Speech Tournament 's exposition category with her speech " The Art of Animation " .
In 1976 , Cartwright landed a part @-@ time job doing voice @-@ overs for commercials on WING radio in Dayton . A representative from Warner Bros. Records visited WING and later sent Cartwright a list of contacts in the animation industry . One of these was Daws Butler , known for voicing characters such as Huckleberry Hound , Snagglepuss , Elroy Jetson and Yogi Bear . Cartwright called him , and left a message in a Cockney accent on his answering machine . Butler immediately called her back and agreed to be her mentor . He mailed her a script and instructed her to send him a tape recording of herself reading it . Once he received the tape , Butler critiqued it and sent her notes . For the next year they continued in this way , completing a new script every few weeks . Cartwright described Butler as " absolutely amazing , always encouraging , always polite " .
Cartwright returned to Ohio University for her sophomore year , but transferred to the University of California , Los Angeles ( UCLA ) so she could be closer to Hollywood and Butler . Her mother , Miriam , died late in the summer of 1978 . Cartwright nearly changed her relocation plans but , on September 17 , 1978 , " joylessly " left for Westwood , Los Angeles .
= = Career = =
= = = Early career = = =
While attending UCLA , which did not have a public speaking team , Cartwright continued training as a voice actress with Butler . She recalled , " every Sunday I 'd take a 20 @-@ minute bus ride to his house in Beverly Hills for a one @-@ hour lesson and be there for four hours ... They had four sons , they didn 't have a daughter and I kind of fitted in as the baby of the family . " Butler introduced her to many of the voice actors and directors at Hanna @-@ Barbera . After she met the director Gordon Hunt , he asked her to audition for a recurring role as Gloria in Richie Rich . She received the part , and later worked with Hunt on several other projects . At the end of 1980 , Cartwright signed with a talent agency and landed a lead role in a pilot for a sitcom called In Trouble . Cartwright described the show as " forgettable , but it jump @-@ started my on @-@ camera career " . She graduated from UCLA in 1981 with a degree in theater . During the summer , Cartwright worked with Jonathan Winters as part of an improvisation troupe at Kenyon College in Gambier , Ohio .
Returning to Los Angeles , Cartwright won the lead role in the television movie Marian Rose White . Janet Maslin , a critic for The New York Times , described Cartwright as " a chubby , lumbering , slightly cross @-@ eyed actress whose naturalness adds greatly to the film 's impact " . Cartwright replied by sending Maslin a letter insisting she was not cross @-@ eyed , and included a photograph . Later , Cartwright auditioned for the role of Ethel , a girl who becomes trapped in a cartoon world in the third segment of Twilight Zone : The Movie . She met with director Joe Dante and later described him as " a total cartoon buff , and once he took a look at my resume and noticed Daws Butler 's name on it , we were off and running , sharing anecdotes about Daws and animation . After about twenty minutes , he said , ' considering your background , I don 't see how I could cast anyone but you in this part ! ' " It was her first role in a feature film . The segment was based on The Twilight Zone television series episode " It 's a Good Life " , which was later parodied in The Simpsons episode " Treehouse of Horror II " ( 1992 ) .
Cartwright continued to do voice work for projects including Pound Puppies , Popeye and Son , Snorks , My Little Pony and Saturday Supercade . She joined a " loop group " , and recorded vocals for characters in the background of films , although in most cases the sound was turned down so that very little of her voice was heard . She did minor voice @-@ over work for several films , including The Clan of the Cave Bear ( 1986 ) , Silverado ( 1985 ) , Sixteen Candles ( 1984 ) , Back to the Future Part II ( 1989 ) and The Color Purple ( 1985 ) . The most notable of these was a role in Who Framed Roger Rabbit ( 1988 ) as a shoe that was " dipped " in acid . She described it as her first " off @-@ screen death scene " , and worked to correctly convey the emotion involved .
In 1985 , she auditioned for a guest spot as Cynthia in Cheers . The audition called for her to say her line and walk off the set . Cartwright decided to take a chance on being different and continued walking , leaving the building and returning home . The production crew was confused , but she received the part . In search of more training as an actress , Cartwright joined a class taught by Hollywood coach Milton Katselas . He recommended that Cartwright study La Strada , a 1956 Italian film starring Giulietta Masina and directed by Federico Fellini . She began performing " every imaginable scene " from La strada in her class and spent several months trying to secure the rights to produce a stage adaptation . She visited Italy with the intention of meeting Fellini and requesting his permission in person . Although they never met , Cartwright kept a journal of the trip and later wrote a one @-@ woman play called In Search of Fellini , partially based on her voyage . The play was co @-@ written by Peter Kjenaas , and Cartwright won a Drama @-@ Logue Award after performing it in Los Angeles in 1995 . In a 1998 interview , she stated her intention to make it into a feature film .
= = = The Simpsons = = =
Cartwright is best known for her role as Bart Simpson on the long @-@ running animated television show The Simpsons . On March 13 , 1987 , Nancy Cartwright auditioned for a series of animated shorts about a dysfunctional family that was to appear on The Tracey Ullman Show , a sketch comedy program . Cartwright originally intended to audition for the role of Lisa Simpson , the eldest daughter . After arriving at the audition , she found that Lisa was simply described as the middle child and at the time did not have much personality . Cartwright became more interested in the role of Bart , described as " devious , underachieving , school @-@ hating , irreverent , [ and ] clever " . Creator Matt Groening let her try out for Bart , and gave her the job on the spot . Bart 's voice came naturally to Cartwright , as she had previously used elements of it in My Little Pony , Snorks , and Pound Puppies . Cartwright describes Bart 's voice as easy to perform compared with other characters . The recording of the shorts was often primitive ; the dialog was recorded on a portable tape deck in a makeshift studio above the bleachers on the set of the The Tracey Ullman Show . Cartwright , the only cast member to have been professionally trained in voice acting , described the sessions as " great fun " . However , she wanted to appear in the live @-@ action sketches and occasionally showed up for recording sessions early , hoping to be noticed by a producer .
In 1989 , the shorts were spun off into a half @-@ hour show on the Fox network called The Simpsons . Bart quickly became the show 's breakout personality and one of the most celebrated characters on television — his popularity in 1990 and 1991 was known as " Bartmania " . Bart was described as " television 's brightest new star " by Mike Boone of The Gazette and was named 1990 's " entertainer of the year " by Entertainment Weekly . Despite Bart 's fame , however , Cartwright remained relatively unknown . During the first season of The Simpsons , Fox ordered Cartwright not to give interviews , because they did not want to publicize the fact that Bart was voiced by a woman . Cartwright 's normal speaking voice is said to have " no obvious traces of Bart " , and she believes her role is " the best acting job in the world " , since she is rarely recognized in public . When she is recognized and asked to perform Bart 's voice in front of children , Cartwright refuses because it " freaks [ them ] out " . Bart 's catchphrase " Eat My Shorts " was an ad @-@ lib by Cartwright in one of the original table readings , referring to an incident from her high school days . Once while performing , members of the Fairmont West High School marching band switched their chant from the usual " Fairmont West ! Fairmont West ! " to the irreverent " Eat my shorts ! " Cartwright felt it appropriate for Bart , and improvised the line ; it became a popular catchphrase on the show .
Cartwright voices several other characters on the show , including Nelson Muntz , Ralph Wiggum , Todd Flanders , Kearney and Database . She first voiced Nelson in the episode " Bart the General " ( season one , 1990 ) . The character was to be voiced by Dana Hill , but Hill missed the recording session and Cartwright was given the role . She developed Nelson 's voice on the spot and describes him as " a throat @-@ ripper " . Ralph Wiggum had originally been voiced by Jo Ann Harris , but Cartwright was assigned to voice the character in " Bart the Murderer " ( season three , 1991 ) . Todd Flanders , the only voice for which Cartwright used another source , is based on Sherman ( voiced by Walter Tetley ) , the boy from Peabody 's Improbable History , a series of shorts aired on The Rocky and Bullwinkle Show .
Cartwright received a Primetime Emmy Award for Outstanding Voice @-@ Over Performance in 1992 for her performance as Bart in the episode " Separate Vocations " and an Annie Award in 1995 for Best Voice Acting in the Field of Animation . Bart was named one of the 100 most important people of the 20th century by Time , and in 2000 , Bart and the rest of the Simpson family were awarded a star on the Hollywood Walk of Fame , located at 7021 Hollywood Boulevard .
Until 1998 , Cartwright was paid $ 30 @,@ 000 per episode . During a pay dispute in 1998 , Fox threatened to replace the six main voice actors , and made preparations for casting new actors . The dispute was resolved , however , and Cartwright received $ 125 @,@ 000 per episode until 2004 , when the voice actors demanded $ 360 @,@ 000 an episode . A compromise was reached after a month , and Cartwright 's pay rose to $ 250 @,@ 000 per episode . Salaries were re @-@ negotiated in 2008 with the voice actors receiving approximately $ 400 @,@ 000 per episode . Three years later , with Fox threatening to cancel the series unless production costs were cut , Cartwright and the other cast members accepted a 25 percent pay cut , down to just over $ 300 @,@ 000 per episode .
= = = Further career = = =
In addition to her work on The Simpsons , Cartwright has voiced many other characters on several animated series , including Chuckie Finster in Rugrats and All Grown Up ! , Margo Sherman in The Critic , Mindy in Animaniacs and Rufus the naked mole @-@ rat in Kim Possible . For the role of Rufus , Cartwright researched mole @-@ rats extensively , and became " a font of useless trivia " . She was nominated for a Daytime Emmy Award for Outstanding Performer in an Animated Program in 2004 for her work on the show . In 2001 , Cartwright took over the Rugrats role of Chuckie Finster when Christine Cavanaugh retired . Cartwright describes Rufus and Chuckie as her two most difficult voices : " Rufus because my diaphragm gets a workout while trying to utilize the 18 vocal sounds a mole makes . Chuckie because ... he 's an asthmatic with five personalities rolled into one — plus I have to do the voice the way [ Cavanaugh ] did it for 10 years . " Other television shows that have used her voice work include Galaxy High ; God , the Devil and Bob ; Goof Troop ; Mike , Lu & Og ; The Replacements ; Pinky and the Brain and Timberwolf . Cartwright has appeared on camera in numerous television shows and films , including Fame , Empty Nest , The Fresh Prince of Bel @-@ Air , Flesh and Blood , Godzilla and 24 .
In 2000 , Cartwright published her autobiography , My Life as a 10 @-@ Year @-@ Old Boy . The book details her career ( particularly her experiences as the voice of Bart ) and contains stories about life behind the scenes of The Simpsons . Laura A. Bischoff of the Dayton Daily News commented that the book was the " ultimate insider 's guide to The Simpsons " . Critics complained that the book lacked interesting stories and was aimed mostly at fans of The Simpsons rather than a general audience .
Cartwright adapted My Life as a 10 @-@ Year @-@ Old Boy into a one @-@ woman play in 2004 . Cartwright has performed it at a variety of venues , including the August 2004 Edinburgh Festival Fringe in Scotland . The play received modest reviews , including criticism for a lack of inside stories about The Simpsons , and its " overweeningly upbeat " tone . David Chatterton of The British Theatre Guide described the show as " interesting and entertaining , but not really a ' must see ' even for Simpsons fans " .
Cartwright has shown an interest in stock car racing and as of 2007 was seeking a NASCAR license . In 2001 , she founded a production company called SportsBlast and created an online animated series called The Kellys . The series is focused on racing ; Cartwright voices a seven @-@ year @-@ old named Chip Kelly .
= = Personal life = =
Cartwright met writer Warren Murphy on her birthday in 1988 and married him two months later . In her book , she describes Murphy as her " personal laugh track " . The couple had two children , Lucy and Jack , before divorcing in 2002 .
Cartwright was raised a Roman Catholic but joined the Church of Scientology in 1991 . She has said that before becoming involved with the church she was depressed that she did not have a " committed relationship " , and wanted to get married and have children . She " thought that maybe [ she ] could find a relationship by going to a church " . Cartwright attended a barbecue at a friend 's house and noticed that all of the attendees were Scientologists with " thriving careers " . Cartwright began reading the works of L. Ron Hubbard and found solace in a chapter about shedding the pain of loss . She said later , " I felt he was talking directly to me , I said to myself , ' I want to stop that feeling . ' " Cartwright was awarded Scientology 's Patron Laureate Award after she donated $ 10 million , almost twice her annual salary , to the Church in 2007 .
Cartwright actively supports many nonprofit organizations , including Famous Fone Friends , the Make @-@ A @-@ Wish Foundation , and Scientology @-@ related The Way to Happiness Foundation . She is co @-@ founder of " Happy House " , a non @-@ profit organization dedicated to building ' better ' families and distributing Scientology @-@ based literature , based on The Way to Happiness Foundation and is a contributor to ASIFA @-@ Hollywood 's Animation Archive Project . In September 2007 , Cartwright received the Make @-@ a @-@ Wish Foundation 's Wish Icon Award " for her tremendous dedication to the Foundation 's fundraising and wish @-@ fulfillment efforts " . In 2005 , Cartwright created a scholarship at Fairmont High School " designed to aid Fairmont [ graduates ] who dream of following in her footsteps and studying speech , debate , drama or music " at Ohio University . In 2005 , Cartwright was given the title of Honorary Mayor of Northridge , California ( a neighborhood of Los Angeles ) by the Northridge Chamber of Commerce .
In 2007 , Cartwright was in a relationship with contractor Stephen Brackett . They planned to get married in spring 2008 . Brackett was the President and Treasurer of Brackett Construction in Hollywood , California ; the construction company was founded in 1987 and had $ 8 @.@ 5 million in sales in 2009 . He was a fellow member of Scientology , reaching the Operating Thetan level of OT V in Scientology , in 1989 . He died in May 2009 . According to The Monterey County Herald , Brackett leaped off the Bixby Creek Bridge in Big Sur , California . Law enforcement stated , " friends and relatives of Brackett said he was despondent because of financial troubles with his business " . In September 2010 , it was announced Cartwright was being sued by the executives of American Safety Casualty Insurance Company over a policy covering refurbishment work Stephen Brackett failed to finish before his death . The lawsuit sought $ 260 @,@ 000 from Cartwright , who the company claims was guarantor for the policy but has refused to cover the expenses . The lawsuit also alleges Brackett diverted contract funds to the Church of Scientology .
In January 2009 , Cartwright used Bart 's voice in an automated telephone message to Scientologists , inviting them to an event in Hollywood , California . She opened the message in Bart 's voice , saying " Yo , what 's happenin ' man , this is Bart Simpson [ laugh ] " , then used her normal voice in most of the remaining message . In a 2000 interview , Cartwright explained that a character 's voice is copyrighted and she can use Bart 's voice in public but cannot record original dialogue without approval . Al Jean , executive producer of The Simpsons , said that the calls had not been " authorized by us " , while The Simpsons creator Matt Groening commented that the issue had been " blown up beyond what was intended " .
= = Filmography = =
= = = Film = = =
= = = Television = = =
= = = Video games = = =
= = = Music videos = = =
= = = Theme park = = =
= = Awards = =
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= Jeopardy ! =
Jeopardy ! is an American television game show created by Merv Griffin . The show features a quiz competition in which contestants are presented with general knowledge clues in the form of answers , and must phrase their responses in the form of questions . The original daytime version debuted on NBC on March 30 , 1964 , and aired until January 3 , 1975 . A weekly nighttime syndicated edition aired from September 1974 to September 1975 , and a revival , The All @-@ New Jeopardy ! , ran on NBC from October 1978 to March 1979 . The current version , a daily syndicated show produced by Sony Pictures Television , premiered on September 10 , 1984 and is still airing , making it by far the program 's most successful incarnation .
Both NBC versions and the weekly syndicated version were hosted by Art Fleming . Don Pardo served as announcer until 1975 , and John Harlan announced for the 1978 – 79 show . Since its inception , the daily syndicated version has featured Alex Trebek as host and Johnny Gilbert as announcer .
With 7 @,@ 000 episodes aired , the daily syndicated version of Jeopardy ! has won a record 31 Daytime Emmy Awards and is the only post @-@ 1960 game show to be honored with the Peabody Award . In 2013 , the program was ranked No. 45 on TV Guide 's list of the 60 greatest shows in American television history . Jeopardy ! has also gained a worldwide following with regional adaptations in many other countries . The daily syndicated series ' 32nd season premiered on September 14 , 2015 .
= = Gameplay = =
Three contestants each take their place behind a lectern , with the returning champion occupying the leftmost lectern ( from the viewer 's perspective ) . The contestants compete in a quiz game comprising three rounds : Jeopardy ! , Double Jeopardy ! , and Final Jeopardy ! . The material for the questions covers a wide variety of topics , including history and current events , the sciences , the arts , popular culture , literature , and languages . Category titles often feature puns , wordplay , or shared themes , and the host will regularly remind contestants of topics or place emphasis on category themes before the start of the round .
= = = First two rounds = = =
The Jeopardy ! and Double Jeopardy ! rounds each feature six categories , each of which contains five clues , which are ostensibly valued by difficulty . The dollar values of the clues increased over time . On the original Jeopardy ! series , clue values in the first round ranged from $ 10 to $ 50 . On The All @-@ New Jeopardy ! , they ranged from $ 25 to $ 125 . The current series ' first round originally ranged from $ 100 to $ 500 , and were doubled to $ 200 to $ 1 @,@ 000 on November 26 , 2001 . On the Super Jeopardy ! specials , clues were valued in points rather than in dollars , and ranged in the first round from 200 to 1 @,@ 000 points .
The Jeopardy ! round begins when the returning champion selects a clue , which may be from any position on the game board . The clue is revealed and read aloud by the host , after which any contestant may ring @-@ in using a hand @-@ held signaling device . The first contestant to ring @-@ in successfully is prompted to provide a response to the clue , phrased in the form of a question . For example , if a contestant were to select " Presidents for $ 200 " , the resulting clue could be " This ' Father of Our Country ' didn 't really chop down a cherry tree " , to which the correct response would be " Who is / was George Washington ? " ( Contestants are free to phrase the response in the form of any question ; the traditional phrasing of " who is / are " for people or " what is / are " for things or words is almost always used . ) If the contestant responds correctly , the clue 's dollar value is added to the contestant 's score , and they may select a new clue from the board . An incorrect response , or a failure to respond within five seconds , deducts the clue 's value from the contestant 's score and allows the other contestants the opportunity to ring @-@ in and respond . If no contestant responds correctly , the host gives the correct response ; the " last correct questioner " chooses the next clue .
From the premiere of the original Jeopardy ! until the end of the first season of the current syndicated series , contestants were allowed to ring @-@ in as soon as the clue was revealed . Since September 1985 , contestants are required to wait until the clue is read before ringing @-@ in . To accommodate the rule change , lights were added to the game board ( unseen by home viewers ) to signify when it is permissible for contestants to signal ; attempting to signal before the light goes on locks the contestant out for half of a second . The change was made to allow the home audience to play along with the show more easily and to keep an extremely fast contestant from potentially dominating the game . In pre @-@ 1985 episodes , a buzzer would sound when a contestant signaled ; according to Trebek , the buzzer was eliminated because it was " distracting to the viewers " and sometimes presented a problem when contestants rang in while Trebek was still reading the clue . Contestants who are visually impaired or blind are given a card with the category names printed in Braille before each round begins , and an audible tone is played after the clue has been read aloud .
The second round , Double Jeopardy ! , features six new categories of clues . Clue values are doubled from the Jeopardy ! round ( except in Super Jeopardy ! , where Double Jeopardy ! values ranged from 500 to 2 @,@ 500 points ) . The contestant with the least money at the end of the Jeopardy ! round makes the first selection in Double Jeopardy ! ; if there is a tie , the tied contestant standing at the leftmost lectern selects first .
A " Daily Double " is hidden behind one clue in the Jeopardy ! round , and behind two in Double Jeopardy ! The name and inspiration were taken from a horse racing term . Only the contestant who uncovers a Daily Double may respond to that clue and need not use his / her signaling device to do so . Before the clue is revealed , the contestant must declare a wager , from a minimum of $ 5 to a maximum of his / her entire score ( known as a " true Daily Double " ) or the highest clue value available in the round , whichever is greater . A correct response adds the value of the wager to the contestant 's score , while an incorrect response deducts it . Whether or not the contestant responds correctly , he or she maintains control of the board .
During the Jeopardy ! round , except in response to the Daily Double clue , contestants are not penalized for forgetting to phrase their response in the form of a question , although the host will remind contestants to watch their phrasing in future responses . In the Double Jeopardy ! round and in the Daily Double in the Jeopardy ! round , the phrasing rule is followed more strictly , with a response not phrased in the form of a question counting as wrong if it is not re @-@ phrased immediately . If it is determined that a previous response was wrongly ruled to be correct or incorrect , the scores are adjusted at the first available opportunity . If , after a game is over , a ruling change is made that would have significantly altered the outcome of the game , the affected contestant ( s ) are invited back to compete on a future show .
Contestants who finish Double Jeopardy ! with $ 0 or a negative score are automatically eliminated from the game at that point and awarded the third place prize . On at least one episode hosted by Art Fleming , all three contestants finished Double Jeopardy ! with $ 0 or less , and as a result , no Final Jeopardy ! round was played . During Celebrity Jeopardy ! games , contestants with a $ 0 or negative score are given $ 1 @,@ 000 for the Final Jeopardy ! round .
= = = Final Jeopardy ! = = =
The Final Jeopardy ! round features a single clue . At the end of the Double Jeopardy ! round , the host announces the Final Jeopardy ! category , and a commercial break follows . During the break , barriers are placed between the contestant lecterns , and each contestant makes a final wager between $ 0 and his / her entire score . Contestants enter their wagers using a light pen to write on an electronic display on their lectern . After the break , the Final Jeopardy ! clue is revealed and read by the host . The contestants have 30 seconds to write their responses on the electronic display , while the show 's iconic " Think ! " music plays in the background . In the event that either the display or the pen malfunctions , contestants can use an index card and a marker to manually write their response and wager . Visually impaired or blind contestants use a Braille keyboard to type in a wager and response .
Contestants ' responses are revealed in order of their pre @-@ Final Jeopardy ! scores , from lowest to highest . A correct response adds the amount of the contestant 's wager to his / her score , while a miss , failure to respond , or failure to phrase the response as a question ( even if correct ) deducts it . The contestant with the highest score at the end of the round is that day 's winner . If there is a tie for second place , consolation prizes are awarded based on the scores going into the Final Jeopardy ! round . If all three contestants finish with $ 0 , no one returns as champion for the next show , and based on scores going into the Final Jeopardy ! round , the two contestants who were first and second will receive the second @-@ place prize , and the contestant in third will receive the third @-@ place prize .
= = = Winnings = = =
The top scorer ( s ) in each game retain the value of their winnings in cash , and return to play in the next match . Non @-@ winners receive consolation prizes . Since May 16 , 2002 , consolation prizes have been $ 2 @,@ 000 for the second @-@ place contestant ( s ) and $ 1 @,@ 000 for the third @-@ place contestant . Since the show does not generally provide airfare or lodging for contestants , cash consolation prizes alleviate contestants ' financial burden . An exception is provided for returning champions who must make several flights to Los Angeles .
Before 1984 , all three contestants received their winnings in cash ( contestants who finished with $ 0 or a negative score received consolation prizes ) . This was changed in order to make the game more competitive , and avoid the problem of contestants who would stop participating in the game , or avoid wagering in Final Jeopardy ! , rather than risk losing the money they had already won . From 1984 to 2002 , non @-@ winning contestants on the Trebek version received vacation packages and merchandise , which were donated by manufacturers as promotional consideration . The current cash consolation prize is provided by Aleve .
= = = Returning champions = = =
The winner of each episode returns to compete against two new contestants on the next episode . Originally , a contestant who won five consecutive days retired undefeated and was guaranteed a spot in the Tournament of Champions ; the five @-@ day limit was eliminated at the beginning of season 20 on September 8 , 2003 .
Ties for first place following Final Jeopardy ! are broken with a tie @-@ breaker clue , resulting in only a single champion being named , keeping their winnings , and returning to compete in the next show . Previously , if two or all three contestants tied for first place , they were declared " co @-@ champions " , and each retained his or her winnings and returned on the following episode . A tie occurred on the January 29 , 2014 episode when Arthur Chu , leading at the end of Double Jeopardy ! , wagered to tie challenger Carolyn Collins rather than winning ; Chu followed Jeopardy ! College Champion Keith Williams 's advice to wager for the tie to increase the leader 's chances of winning . A three @-@ way tie for first place has only occurred once on the Trebek version , on March 16 , 2007 , when Scott Weiss , Jamey Kirby , and Anders Martinson all ended the game with $ 16 @,@ 000 .
If no contestant finishes Final Jeopardy ! with a positive total , there is no winner . This has happened on several episodes , most recently on January 18 , 2016 . Three new contestants appear on the next episode . A triple zero has also occurred twice in tournament play ( 1990 Seniors and 2013 Teen ) , and also once in a Celebrity Week episode in 1998 . In Celebrity play , the full first , second , and third place prize money for charities is given based on the score before the round . In tournament play , an additional high scoring non @-@ winner will advance to the next round .
Special considerations have been given for contestants who were unable to return as champion because of circumstances beyond their control , especially when there is a considerable time between taping of episodes . This occurred for the first time in season 25 , when Priscilla Ball , who won on January 16 , 2009 , was unable to attend the taping of the next episode because of illness ; as a result , three new contestants appeared on the next episode . Ball returned as a co @-@ champion to play on the episode airing April 9 , 2009 . On the episode aired December 21 , 2015 , the returning champion , Claudia Corriere , could not return as champion because of a job offered in the weeks between tapings , so three new contestants played that day as well . Corriere returned as a co @-@ champion on the January 18 , 2016 episode , but was eliminated in a three @-@ way loss .
Typically , the two challengers participate in a backstage draw to determine lectern positions . In all situations with three new contestants , the draw will also determine who will take the champion 's position and select first to start the game .
= = = Variations for tournament play = = =
Tournaments generally run for 10 consecutive episodes and feature 15 contestants . The first five episodes , the quarter @-@ finals , feature three new contestants each day . The winners of these five games , and the four highest scoring non @-@ winners ( " wild cards " ) , advance to the semi @-@ finals , which run for three days . The winners of these three games advance to play in a two @-@ game final match , in which the scores from both games are combined to determine the overall standings . This format has been used since the first Tournament of Champions in 1985 and was devised by Trebek himself .
If there is a tie for the final wild card position , the non @-@ winner that advances will be based on the same regulations as two contestants who tie for second ; the tie @-@ breaker is the contestant 's score after the Double Jeopardy ! round , and if further tied , the score after the Jeopardy ! round determines the contestant who advances as the wild card . In the rare case after the first round of the tournament , fewer than four non @-@ winners have a positive score to advance to the second round , then the contestants who have a zero score after Final Jeopardy ! will be ranked in the same procedure .
If two or more contestants have the same positive score at the end of match ( first round , semi @-@ final game , or end of a two @-@ game final ) , a one @-@ clue tiebreaker is used . The tied contestants are given a category , and then the clue . The first contestant to ring @-@ in and respond correctly becomes that game 's winner . Contestants are not eliminated for providing an incorrect response , and cannot win by default . If it takes multiple attempts to determine a winner , only the final clue will air .
If none of the contestants in a quarter @-@ final or semi @-@ final game end with a positive score , all three are provisionally eliminated and an additional wild card contestant advances instead . This occurred in the quarter @-@ finals of the 1991 Seniors Tournament and the semi @-@ finals of the 2013 Teen Tournament .
If a finalist finishes Double Jeopardy ! with a $ 0 or negative score on either day , that contestant is eliminated from Final Jeopardy ! as usual for that leg of the two @-@ legged tie only , and their score for that leg is recorded as $ 0 . If any game of the finals ends in which no finalist finishes with a positive score , all scores for that day are recorded as $ 0 . If , at the end of the finals , no finalist finishes with a positive score after combining the totals from the first and second games , the one @-@ clue tiebreaker is played .
= = Conception and development = =
In a 1964 Associated Press profile released shortly before the original Jeopardy ! series premiered , Merv Griffin offered the following account of how he created the quiz show :
My wife Julann just came up with the idea one day when we were in a plane bringing us back to New York from Duluth . I was mulling over game show ideas , when she noted that there had not been a successful " question and answer " game on the air since the quiz show scandals . Why not do a switch , and give the answers to the contestant and let them come up with the question ? She fired a couple of answers to me : " 5 @,@ 280 " – and the question of course was " How many feet in a mile ? " . Another was " 79 Wistful Vista " ; that was Fibber and Mollie McGee 's address . I loved the idea , went straight to NBC with the idea , and they bought it without even looking at a pilot show .
Griffin 's first conception of the game used a board comprising ten categories with ten clues each , but after finding that this board could not easily be shown on camera , he reduced it to two rounds of thirty clues each , with five clues in each of six categories . He originally intended the show to require grammatically correct phrasing ( e.g. , only accepting " Who is ... " for a person ) , but after finding that grammatical correction slowed the game down , he decided that the show should instead accept any correct response that was in question form . Griffin discarded his initial title for the show , What 's the Question ? , when skeptical network executive Ed Vane rejected his original concept of the game , claiming , " It doesn 't have enough jeopardies . "
Jeopardy ! was not the first game show to give contestants the answers and require the questions . That format had previously been used by the Gil Fates @-@ hosted program CBS Television Quiz , which aired from July 1941 until May 1942 .
= = Personnel = =
= = = Hosts and announcers = = =
The first three versions of the show were hosted by Art Fleming . Don Pardo served as announcer for the original NBC version and weekly syndicated version , but when NBC 's revival The All @-@ New Jeopardy ! launched in 1978 , Pardo 's announcing duties were taken over by John Harlan .
Alex Trebek has served as host of the daily syndicated version since it premiered in 1984 , except when he switched places with Wheel of Fortune host Pat Sajak as an April Fool 's joke on the episode aired April 1 , 1997 . His most recent contract renewal , from March 2015 , takes his tenure through the 2017 – 18 season . In the daily syndicated version 's first pilot , from 1983 , Jay Stewart served as the show 's announcer , but Johnny Gilbert took over the role when that version was picked up as a series and has held it since then .
= = = Clue Crew = = =
The Jeopardy ! Clue Crew , introduced on September 24 , 2001 , is a team of roving correspondents who appear in videos , recorded around the world , to narrate some clues . Explaining why the Clue Crew was added to the show , executive producer Harry Friedman said , " TV is a visual medium , and the more visual we can make our clues , the more we think it will enhance the experience for the viewer . "
Following the initial announcement of auditions for the team , over 5 @,@ 000 people applied for Clue Crew posts . The original Clue Crew members were Cheryl Farrell , Jimmy McGuire , Sofia Lidskog , and Sarah Whitcomb . Lidskog departed the Clue Crew in 2004 to become an anchor on the high school news program Channel One News , and a search was held to replace her in early 2005 . The winners were Jon Cannon and Kelly Miyahara , who formally joined the crew starting in season 22 , which premiered on September 12 , 2005 . Farrell continued to record clues for episodes aired as late as October 2008 , and Cannon continued to appear until July 2009 .
The Clue Crew has traveled to 280 cities worldwide , spanning all 50 of the United States and 44 other countries . In addition to appearing in Jeopardy ! clue videos , the team 's members also travel to meet fans of the show and future contestants . Occasionally , they visit schools to showcase the educational game Classroom Jeopardy ! Miyahara also serves as announcer for the Sports Jeopardy ! spin @-@ off series .
= = = Production staff = = =
Robert Rubin served as the producer of the original Jeopardy ! series for most of its run , and later became its executive producer . Following Rubin 's promotion , the line producer was Lynette Williams .
Griffin was the daily syndicated version 's executive producer until his retirement in 2000 . Trebek served as producer as well as host until 1987 , when he began hosting NBC 's Classic Concentration for the next four years . At that time , he handed producer duties to George Vosburgh , who had formerly produced The All @-@ New Jeopardy ! . In the 1997 – 98 season , Vosburgh was succeeded as producer by Harry Friedman , Lisa Finneran , and Rocky Schmidt . Beginning in 1999 , Friedman became executive producer , and Gary Johnson became the show 's new third producer . In the 2006 – 07 season , Deb Dittmann and Brett Schneider became the producers , and Finneran , Schmidt , and Johnson were promoted to supervising producers .
The original Jeopardy ! series was directed at different times by Bob Hultgren , Eleanor Tarshis , and Jeff Goldstein . Dick Schneider , who directed episodes of The All @-@ New Jeopardy ! , returned as director for the Trebek version 's first eight seasons . Since 1992 , the show has been directed by Kevin McCarthy , who had previously served as associate director under Schneider .
The current version of Jeopardy ! employs nine writers and five researchers to create and assemble the categories and clues . Billy Wisse and Michele Loud , both longtime staff members , are the editorial producer and editorial supervisor , respectively . Previous writing and editorial supervisors have included Jules Minton , Terrence McDonnell , Harry Eisenberg , and Gary Johnson .
The show 's production designer is Naomi Slodki . Previous art directors have included Henry Lickel , Dennis Roof , Bob Rang , and Ed Flesh ( who also designed sets for other game shows such as The $ 25 @,@ 000 Pyramid , Name That Tune , and Wheel of Fortune ) .
= = Production = =
The daily syndicated version of Jeopardy ! is produced by Sony Pictures Television ( previously known as Columbia TriStar Television , the successor company to original producer Merv Griffin Enterprises ) . The copyright holder is Jeopardy Productions , which , like SPT , operates as a subsidiary of Sony Pictures Entertainment . The rights to distribute the program on television in the United States are owned by CBS Television Distribution , which absorbed original distributor King World Productions in 2007 .
The original Jeopardy ! series was taped in Studio 6A at NBC Studios at 30 Rockefeller Plaza in New York City , and The All @-@ New Jeopardy ! was taped in Studio 3 at NBC 's Burbank Studios at 3000 West Alameda Avenue in Burbank , California . The Trebek version was initially taped at Metromedia Stage 7 , KTTV @-@ TV , on Sunset Boulevard in Hollywood , but moved its production facilities to Hollywood Center Studios ' Stage 9 in 1985 . After the final shows of season 10 were recorded on February 15 , 1994 , the Jeopardy ! production facilities were moved to Sony Pictures Studios ' Stage 10 on Washington Boulevard in Culver City , California , where the show has been recorded ever since .
= = = Set = = =
Various technological and aesthetic changes have been made to the Jeopardy ! set over the years . The original game board was exposed from behind a curtain and featured clues printed on cardboard pull cards which were revealed as contestants selected them . The All @-@ New Jeopardy ! ' s game board was exposed from behind double @-@ slide panels and featured flipping panels with the dollar amount on one side and the clue on the other . When the Trebek version premiered in 1984 , the game board used individual television monitors for each clue within categories . The original monitors were replaced with larger and sleeker ones in 1991 . In 2006 , these monitors were discarded in favor of a nearly seamless projection video wall , which was replaced in 2009 with 36 high @-@ definition flat @-@ panel monitors manufactured by Sony Electronics .
From 1985 to 1997 , the sets were designed to have a background color of blue for the Jeopardy ! round and red for the Double Jeopardy ! and Final Jeopardy ! rounds . At the beginning of season 8 in 1991 , a brand new set was introduced that resembled a grid . On the episode aired November 11 , 1996 , two months after the start of season 13 , Jeopardy ! introduced the first of several sets designed by Naomi Slodki , who intended the set to resemble " the foyer of a very contemporary library , with wood and sandblasted glass and blue granite " .
Shortly after the start of season 19 in 2002 , the show switched to yet another new set , which was given slight modifications when Jeopardy ! and sister show Wheel of Fortune transitioned to high @-@ definition broadcasting in 2006 . During this time , the show began to feature virtual tours of the set on its official web site . The various HD improvements for Jeopardy ! and Wheel represented a combined investment of approximately $ 4 million , 5 @,@ 000 hours of labor , and 6 miles ( 9 @.@ 7 km ) of cable . Both shows had been shot using HD cameras for several years before beginning to broadcast in HD . On standard @-@ definition television broadcasts , the shows continue to be displayed with an aspect ratio of 4 : 3 .
In 2009 , Jeopardy ! updated its set once again . The new set debuted with special episodes taped at the 42nd annual International CES technology trade show , hosted at the Las Vegas Convention Center in Winchester ( Las Vegas Valley ) , Nevada , and became the primary set for Jeopardy ! when the show began taping its 26th season , which premiered on September 14 , 2009 . It was significantly remodeled when season 30 premiered in September 2013 .
= = = Theme music = = =
Since the debut of Jeopardy ! in 1964 , several different songs and arrangements have served as the theme music for the show , most of which were composed by Griffin . The main theme for the original Jeopardy ! series was " Take Ten " , composed by Griffin 's wife Julann . The All @-@ New Jeopardy ! opened with " January , February , March " and closed with " Frisco Disco " , both of which were composed by Griffin himself .
The best @-@ known theme song on Jeopardy ! is " Think ! " , originally composed by Griffin under the title " A Time for Tony " , as a lullaby for his son . " Think ! " has always been used for the 30 @-@ second period in Final Jeopardy ! when the contestants write down their responses , and since the syndicated version debuted in 1984 , a rendition of that tune has been used as the main theme song . " Think ! " has become so popular that it has been used in many different contexts , from sporting events to weddings . Griffin estimated that the use of " Think ! " had earned him royalties of over $ 70 million throughout his lifetime . " Think ! " led Griffin to win the Broadcast Music , Inc . ( BMI ) President 's Award in 2003 , and during GSN 's 2009 Game Show Awards special , it was named " Best Game Show Theme Song " . In 1997 , the main theme and Final Jeopardy ! recordings of " Think ! " were rearranged by Steve Kaplan , who served as the show 's music director until his December 2003 death . In 2008 , Chris Bell Music and Sound Design overhauled the Jeopardy ! music package for the show 's 25th anniversary .
= = = Audition process = = =
Prospective contestants of the original Jeopardy ! series called the show 's office in New York to arrange an appointment and to preliminarily determine eligibility . They were briefed and auditioned together in groups of ten to thirty individuals , participating in both a written test and mock games . Individuals who were successful at the audition were invited to appear on the program within approximately six weeks .
Auditioning for the current version of the show begins with a written exam , comprising fifty questions in total . This exam is administered online periodically , as well as being offered at regional contestant search events . Since season 15 ( 1998 – 99 ) , the show has used a Winnebago recreational vehicle called the " Jeopardy ! Brain Bus " to conduct regional events throughout the United States and Canada . Participants who correctly answer at least 35 out of 50 questions advance in the audition process and are invited to compete in mock games . Those who are approved are notified at a later time and invited to appear on the show .
In 2016 , producers disallowed Canadians from applying online , citing new Canadian privacy rules regarding personal information on the Internet . Trebek confirmed this to The Ottawa Citizen in an interview . Neither named a particular law or regulation , and The Toronto Star was unable to discern the exact problem .
= = Broadcast history = =
The original Jeopardy ! series premiered on NBC on March 30 , 1964 , and by the end of the 1960s was the second @-@ highest @-@ rated daytime game show , behind only The Hollywood Squares . The show was successful until 1974 , when Lin Bolen , then NBC 's Vice President of Daytime Programming , moved the show out of the noontime slot where it had been located for most of its run , as part of her effort to boost ratings among the 18 – 34 female demographic . After 2 @,@ 753 episodes , the original Jeopardy ! series ended on January 3 , 1975 ; to compensate Griffin for its cancellation , NBC purchased Wheel of Fortune , another show that he had created , and premiered it the following Monday . A syndicated edition of Jeopardy ! , distributed by Metromedia and featuring many contestants who were previously champions on the original series , aired in the primetime during the 1974 – 75 season . The NBC daytime series was later revived as The All @-@ New Jeopardy ! , which premiered on October 2 , 1978 and aired 108 episodes , ending on March 2 , 1979 ; this revival featured significant rule changes , such as progressive elimination of contestants over the course of the main game , and a bonus round instead of Final Jeopardy !
The daily syndicated version debuted on September 10 , 1984 , and was launched in response to the success of the syndicated version of Wheel and the installation of electronic trivia games in pubs and bars . This version of the program has met with greater success than the previous incarnations ; it has outlived 300 other game shows and become the second most popular game show in syndication ( behind Wheel ) , averaging 25 million viewers per week . The show 's most recent renewal , in April 2015 , extends it through the 2017 – 18 season .
Jeopardy ! has spawned versions in many foreign countries throughout the world , including Canada , the United Kingdom , Germany , Sweden , Russia , Denmark , Israel , and Australia . The American syndicated version of Jeopardy ! is also broadcast throughout the world , with international distribution rights handled by CBS Studios International .
Three spin @-@ off versions of Jeopardy ! have been created . Rock & Roll Jeopardy ! debuted on VH1 in 1998 and ran until 2001 ; the show centered around post @-@ 1950s popular music trivia and was hosted by Jeff Probst . Jep ! , which aired on GSN during the 1998 – 99 season , was a special children 's version hosted by Bob Bergen and featured various rule changes from the original version . Sports Jeopardy ! , a sports @-@ themed version hosted by Dan Patrick , premiered in 2014 on the Crackle digital service and eventually moved to the cable sports network NBCSN in 2016 .
= = = Archived episodes = = =
Only a small number of episodes of the first three Jeopardy ! versions survive . From the original NBC daytime version , archived episodes mostly consist of black @-@ and @-@ white kinescopes of the original color videotapes . Various episodes from 1967 , 1971 , 1973 , and 1974 are listed among the holdings of the UCLA Film and Television Archive . The 1964 " test episode " , Episode No. 2 @,@ 000 ( from February 21 , 1972 ) , and a June 1975 episode of the weekly syndicated edition exist at the Paley Center for Media . Incomplete paper records of the NBC @-@ era games exist on microfilm at the Library of Congress . GSN holds The All @-@ New Jeopardy ! ' s premiere and finale in broadcast quality , and aired the latter on December 31 , 1999 , as part of its " Y2Play " marathon . The UCLA Archive holds a copy of a pilot taped for CBS in 1977 , and the premiere exists among the Paley Center 's holdings .
GSN , which , like Jeopardy ! , is an affiliate of Sony Pictures Television , has rerun ten seasons since the channel 's launch in 1994 . Copies of 43 Trebek @-@ hosted syndicated Jeopardy ! episodes aired between 1989 and 2004 have been collected by the UCLA Archive , and the premiere and various other episodes are included in the Paley Center 's collection .
= = Reception = =
Jeopardy ! has won a record 31 Daytime Emmy Awards since 1984 . The show holds the record for the Daytime Emmy Award for Outstanding Game / Audience Participation Show , with fourteen awards won in that category . Another five awards have been won by Trebek for Outstanding Game Show Host . Twelve other awards were won by the show 's directors and writers in the respective categories of Outstanding Direction for a Game / Audience Participation Show and Outstanding Special Class Writing before these categories were removed in 2006 . On June 17 , 2011 , Trebek shared the Lifetime Achievement Award with Sajak at the 38th Annual Daytime Emmy Awards ceremony . The following year , the show was honored with a Peabody Award for its role in encouraging , celebrating , and rewarding knowledge ; as such , it holds the distinction of being the only game show since 1960 to win the Peabody Award .
In its April 17 – 23 , 1993 issue , TV Guide named Jeopardy ! the best game show of the 1970s as part of a celebration of its 40th anniversary . In January 2001 , the magazine ranked the show number 2 on its " 50 Greatest Game Shows " list — second only to The Price Is Right . It would later rank Jeopardy ! number 45 on its list of the 60 Best TV Series of All Time , calling it " habit @-@ forming " and saying that the program " always makes [ its viewers ] feel smarter " . Also in 2013 , the show ranked number 1 on TV Guide 's list of the 60 Greatest Game Shows . In the summer of 2006 , the show was ranked number 2 on GSN 's list of the 50 Greatest Game Shows of All Time , second only to Match Game .
A hall of fame honoring Jeopardy ! was added to the Sony Pictures Studios tour on September 20 , 2011 . It features the show 's Emmy Awards as well as retired set pieces , classic merchandise , video clips , photographs , and other memorabilia related to Jeopardy ! ' s history .
= = Tournaments and other events = =
= = = Regular events = = =
Starting in 1985 , the show has held an annual Tournament of Champions featuring the top fifteen champions who have appeared on the show since the last tournament . The top prize awarded to the winner was originally valued at $ 100 @,@ 000 , and increased to $ 250 @,@ 000 in 2003 . Other regular tournaments include the Teen Tournament , with a $ 75 @,@ 000 top prize ; the College Championship , in which undergraduate students from American colleges and universities compete for a $ 100 @,@ 000 top prize ; and the Teachers Tournament , where educators compete for a $ 100 @,@ 000 top prize . Each tournament runs for ten consecutive episodes in a format devised by Trebek himself , consisting of five quarter @-@ final games , three semifinals , and a final consisting of two games with the scores totaled . Winners of the College Championship and Teachers Tournament are invited to participate in the Tournament of Champions .
Non @-@ tournament events held regularly on the show include Celebrity Jeopardy ! , in which celebrities and other notable individuals compete for charitable organizations of their choice ; and Kids Week , a special competition for school @-@ age children aged 10 through 12 .
= = = Special events = = =
Three International Tournaments , held in 1996 , 1997 , and 2001 , featured one @-@ week competitions among champions from each of the international versions of Jeopardy ! . Each of the countries that aired their own version of the show in those years could nominate a contestant . The format was identical to the semifinals and finals of other Jeopardy ! tournaments . In 1996 and 1997 , the winner received $ 25 @,@ 000 ; in 2001 , the top prize was doubled to $ 50 @,@ 000 . The 1997 tournament was recorded in Stockholm on the set of the Swedish version of Jeopardy ! , and is significant for being the first week of Jeopardy ! episodes to be taped in a foreign country .
There have been a number of special tournaments featuring the greatest contestants in Jeopardy ! history . The first of these " all @-@ time best " tournaments , Super Jeopardy ! , aired in the summer of 1990 on ABC , and featured 37 top contestants from the previous seasons of the Trebek version and one notable champion from the original Jeopardy ! series competing for a top prize of $ 250 @,@ 000 . In 1993 , that year 's Tournament of Champions was followed by a Tenth Anniversary Tournament conducted over five episodes . In May 2002 , to commemorate the Trebek version 's 4,000th episode , the show invited fifteen champions to play for a $ 1 million prize in the Million Dollar Masters tournament , which took place at Radio City Music Hall in New York City . The Ultimate Tournament of Champions aired in 2005 and pitted 145 former Jeopardy ! champions against each other , with two winners moving on to face Ken Jennings in a three @-@ game final for $ 2 @,@ 000 @,@ 000 , the largest prize in the show 's history ; overall , the tournament spanned 15 weeks and 76 episodes , starting on February 9 and ending on May 25 . In 2014 , Jeopardy ! commemorated the 30th anniversary of the Trebek version with a Battle of the Decades tournament , in which 15 champions apiece from the first , second , and third decades of Jeopardy ! ' s daily syndicated history competed for a grand prize of $ 1 @,@ 000 @,@ 000 .
In November 1998 , Jeopardy ! traveled to Boston to reassemble 12 past Teen Tournament contestants for a special Teen Reunion Tournament . In 2008 , the 25th season began with reuniting 15 contestants from the first two Kids Weeks to compete in a special reunion tournament of their own . During the next season ( 2009 – 10 ) , a special edition of Celebrity Jeopardy ! , called the Million Dollar Celebrity Invitational , was played in which twenty @-@ seven contestants from past celebrity episodes competed for a grand prize of $ 1 @,@ 000 @,@ 000 for charity ; the grand prize was won by Michael McKean .
The IBM Challenge aired February 14 – 16 , 2011 , and featured IBM 's Watson computer facing off against Ken Jennings and Brad Rutter in a two @-@ game match played over three shows . This was the first man @-@ vs.-machine competition in Jeopardy ! ' s history . Watson won both the first game and the overall match to win the grand prize of $ 1 million , which IBM divided between two charities ( World Vision International and World Community Grid ) . Jennings , who won $ 300 @,@ 000 for second place , and Rutter , who won the $ 200 @,@ 000 third @-@ place prize , both pledged to donate half of their winnings to charity . The competition brought the show its highest ratings since the Ultimate Tournament of Champions .
= = Record holders = =
Jeopardy ! ' s record for the longest winning streak is held by Ken Jennings , who competed on the show from June 2 through November 30 , 2004 , winning 74 matches before being defeated by Nancy Zerg in his 75th appearance . He amassed $ 2 @,@ 520 @,@ 700 over his 74 wins and a $ 2 @,@ 000 second @-@ place prize in his 75th appearance . At the time , he held the record as the highest money @-@ winner ever on American game shows , and his winning streak increased the show 's ratings and popularity to the point where it became TV 's highest @-@ rated syndicated program . Jennings later won the $ 500 @,@ 000 second @-@ place prize in the Ultimate Tournament of Champions , the $ 300 @,@ 000 second @-@ place prize in the IBM Challenge , and the $ 100 @,@ 000 second @-@ place prize in the Battle of the Decades .
The highest @-@ earning all @-@ time Jeopardy ! contestant is Brad Rutter , who has won a cumulative total of $ 4 @,@ 355 @,@ 102 . He became an undefeated champion in 2000 and later won an unprecedented four Jeopardy ! tournaments : the 2001 Tournament of Champions , the 2002 Million Dollar Masters Tournament , the 2005 Ultimate Tournament of Champions , and the 2014 Battle of the Decades . Rutter broke Jennings 's record for all @-@ time game show winnings when he defeated Jennings and Jerome Vered in the Ultimate Tournament of Champions finals . Jennings regained the record through appearances on various other game shows , culminating in an appearance on Are You Smarter than a 5th Grader ? on October 10 , 2008 . In 2014 , Rutter regained the title after winning $ 1 @,@ 000 @,@ 000 in the Battle of the Decades , defeating Jennings and Roger Craig in the finals .
Craig is the holder of the all @-@ time record for single @-@ day winnings on Jeopardy ! . On the episode that aired September 14 , 2010 , he amassed a score of $ 47 @,@ 000 after the game 's first two rounds , then wagered and won an additional $ 30 @,@ 000 in the Final Jeopardy ! round , finishing with $ 77 @,@ 000 . The previous single @-@ day record of $ 75 @,@ 000 had been set by Jennings .
The record @-@ holder among female contestants on Jeopardy ! — in both number of games and total winnings — is Julia Collins , who amassed $ 429 @,@ 100 over 21 games between April 21 and June 2 , 2014 . She won $ 428 @,@ 100 in her 20 games as champion , plus $ 1 @,@ 000 for finishing third in her twenty @-@ first game . Collins also achieved the second @-@ longest winning streak on the show , behind Jennings . The streak , which was interrupted in May by the Battle of the Decades , was broken by Brian Loughnane .
The highest one @-@ day score in a Celebrity Jeopardy ! tournament was achieved by comedian Andy Richter during a first round game of the 2009 – 10 season 's " Million Dollar Celebrity Invitational " , in which he finished with $ 68 @,@ 000 for his selected charity , the St. Jude Children 's Research Hospital .
Three contestants on the Trebek version have won a game with the lowest amount possible ( $ 1 ) . The first was U.S. Air Force Lieutenant Colonel Darryl Scott , on the episode that aired January 19 , 1993 ; the second was Benjamin Salisbury , on a Celebrity Jeopardy ! episode that aired April 30 , 1997 ; and the third was Brandi Chastain , on the Celebrity Jeopardy ! episode that aired February 9 , 2001 .
= = Other media = =
= = = Portrayals and parodies = = =
Jeopardy ! has been featured in a number of films , television shows and books over the years , mostly with one or more characters participating as contestants , or viewing and interacting with the game show from their own homes .
On " Questions and Answers " , a season 7 episode of The Golden Girls aired February 8 , 1992 , Dorothy Zbornak ( Bea Arthur ) auditions for Jeopardy ! , but despite her excellent show of knowledge , she is rejected by a contestant coordinator who feels that America would not root for her . In a dream sequence , Dorothy competes against roommate Rose Nylund ( Betty White ) and neighbor Charlie Deitz ( David Leisure ) , in a crossover from Empty Nest . Trebek and Griffin appear as themselves in the dream sequence , and Gilbert provides a voice @-@ over .
A 1988 episode of Mama 's Family titled " Mama on Jeopardy ! " features the titular Mama , Thelma Harper ( Vicki Lawrence ) , competing on the show after her neighbor and friend Iola Boylan ( Beverly Archer ) is rejected . For most of the game the questions given by Mama are incorrect , but she makes a miraculous comeback near the end and barely qualifies for Final Jeopardy ! Her final question given is also incorrect , but she finishes in second place by $ 1 and wins a trip to Hawaii for herself and her family . Again , Trebek guest stars and Gilbert provides a voice @-@ over .
In the Cheers episode " What Is ... Cliff Clavin ? " ( 1990 ) , the titular mailman , portrayed by John Ratzenberger , appears on the show and racks up an impressive $ 22 @,@ 000 going into the Final Jeopardy ! round , well ahead of his competitors . Despite having a total that his competitors cannot reach in Final Jeopardy ! , Cliff risks all of his winnings on the final clue , which is revealed to be " Archibald Leach , Bernard Schwartz and Lucille LeSueur " ( the real names of Cary Grant , Tony Curtis , and Joan Crawford , respectively ) . Cliff 's response , " Who are three people who 've never been in my kitchen ? " , is deemed incorrect , and he leaves with no money .
In " I Take Thee Quagmire " , a season 4 episode of Family Guy aired March 12 , 2006 , Mayor Adam West appears as a contestant on Jeopardy ! . He spells Trebek 's name backwards ( as " Kebert Xela " ) , " sending him back " to the fifth dimension , in reference to when Mister Mxyzptlk , a nemesis to DC Comics ' Superman , is sent to the fifth dimension when someone makes him say his own name backwards .
Trebek appears as himself on " Miracle on Evergreen Terrace " , a season 9 episode of The Simpsons in which Marge Simpson appears on a fictional version of the show , but performs very poorly , leaving with – $ 5 @,@ 200 .
From 1996 to 2002 and again in 2005 , 2009 , and 2015 , Saturday Night Live featured a recurring Celebrity Jeopardy ! sketch in which Trebek , portrayed by Will Ferrell , has to deal with the constant taunts of antagonists such as Sean Connery ( played by Darrell Hammond ) and Burt Reynolds ( Norm Macdonald ) , the latter of which insists on being called " Turd Ferguson " .
Jeopardy ! is featured in a subplot of the 1992 film White Men Can 't Jump , in which Gloria Clemente ( Rosie Perez ) attempts to pass the show 's auditions . She succeeds , and ends up appearing on the show , winning over $ 14 @,@ 000 .
Other films and television series in which Jeopardy ! has been portrayed over the years include The ' Burbs , Die Hard , Men in Black , Rain Man , Charlie 's Angels , Dying Young , The Education of Max Bickford , The Bucket List , Groundhog Day , and Finding Forrester .
In the David Foster Wallace short story " Little Expressionless Animals " , first published in The Paris Review and later reprinted in Wallace 's collection Girl with Curious Hair , a character competes and wins on every Jeopardy ! game for three years ( a total of 700 episodes ) , using her winnings to pay for the care of her autistic brother .
The Ellen 's Energy Adventure attraction at Epcot 's Universe of Energy pavilion features a dream sequence in which Ellen DeGeneres plays a Jeopardy ! game entirely focused on energy .
Fleming makes a cameo appearance reprising his role as host of Jeopardy ! in the 1982 film Airplane II : The Sequel .
The music video " I Lost on Jeopardy " , a parody of Greg Kihn 's 1983 hit song " Jeopardy " , was released by " Weird Al " Yankovic in 1984 , a few months before Trebek 's version debuted ; the video featured cameos from Fleming , Pardo , Kihn , and Dr. Demento .
= = = Merchandise = = =
Over the years , the Jeopardy ! brand has been licensed for various products . From 1964 through 1976 , Milton Bradley issued annual board games based on the original Fleming version . The Trebek version has been adapted into board games released by Pressman Toy Corporation , Tyco Toys , and Parker Brothers . In addition , Jeopardy ! has been adapted into a number of video games released on various consoles and handhelds spanning multiple hardware generations , starting with a Nintendo Entertainment System game released in 1987 . The show has also been adapted for personal computers , Facebook , Twitter , Android , and the Roku Channel Store .
A DVD titled Jeopardy ! : An Inside Look at America 's Favorite Quiz Show , released by Sony Pictures Home Entertainment on November 8 , 2005 , features five memorable episodes of the Trebek version ( the 1984 premiere , Jennings ' final game , and the three finals matches of the Ultimate Tournament of Champions ) and three featurettes discussing the show 's history and question selection process . Other products featuring the Jeopardy ! brand include a collectible watch , a series of daily desktop calendars , and various slot machine games for casinos and the Internet .
= = = Internet = = =
Jeopardy ! ' s official website , active as early as 1998 , receives over 400 @,@ 000 monthly visitors . The website features videos , photographs , and other information related to each week 's contestants , as well as mini @-@ sites promoting remote tapings and special tournaments . As the show changes its main title card and corresponding graphics with every passing season , the Jeopardy ! website is re @-@ skinned to reflect the changes , and the general content of the site ( such as online tests and promotions , programming announcements , " spotlight " segments , photo galleries , and downloadable content ) is regularly updated to align with producers ' priorities for the show . In its 2012 " Readers Choice Awards " , About.com praised the official Jeopardy ! website for featuring " everything [ visitors ] need to know about the show , as well as some fun interactive elements " , and for having a humorous error page .
In November 2009 , Jeopardy ! launched a viewer loyalty program called the " Jeopardy ! Premier Club " , which allowed home viewers to identify Final Jeopardy ! categories from episodes for a chance to earn points , and play a weekly Jeopardy ! game featuring categories and clues from the previous week 's episodes . Every three months , contestants were selected randomly to advance to one of three quarterly online tournaments ; after these tournaments were played , the three highest scoring contestants would play one final online tournament for the chance to win $ 5 @,@ 000 and a trip to Los Angeles to attend a taping of Jeopardy ! The Premier Club was discontinued by July 2011 .
There is an unofficial Jeopardy ! fansite known as the " J ! Archive " ( j @-@ archive.com ) , which transcribes games from throughout Jeopardy ! ' s daily syndicated history . In the archive , episodes are covered by Jeopardy ! -style game boards with panels which , when hovered over with a mouse , reveal the correct response to their corresponding clues and the contestant who gave the correct response . The site makes use of a " wagering calculator " that helps potential contestants determine what amount is safest to bet during Final Jeopardy ! , and an alternative scoring method called " Coryat scoring " that disregards wagering during Daily Doubles or Final Jeopardy ! and gauges one 's general strength at the game . The site 's main founding archivist is Robert Knecht Schmidt , a student from Cleveland , Ohio , who himself appeared as a Jeopardy ! contestant in March 2010 . Before J ! Archive , there was an earlier Jeopardy ! fansite known as the " Jeoparchive " , created by season 19 contestant Ronnie O 'Rourke , who managed and updated the site until Jennings ' run made her disillusioned with the show .
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= Pascal and Maximus =
Pascal and Maximus are a pair of fictional characters who first appear in Walt Disney Pictures ' 50th animated feature film Tangled ( 2010 ) as supporting characters , and subsequently star in its short Tangled Ever After ( 2012 ) . Created by directors Nathan Greno and Byron Howard , both characters are voiced by American actor Frank Welker in Tangled ; in Tangled Ever After , Welker reprises his role as Pascal while Greno replaces the actor as Maximus . A comedic chameleon and horse duo , Pascal and Maximus serve as sidekicks to main characters Rapunzel and Flynn Rider , respectively .
In Tangled , Pascal resides alongside Rapunzel in Mother Gothel 's tower , while Maximus is a police horse originally trained to arrest Flynn Rider before he befriends him at Rapunzel 's insistence . In Tangled Ever After , Pascal and Maximus appear as ring bearers at Rapunzel and Flynn 's wedding . When they lose the couple 's wedding rings , the duo frantically attempts to retrieve them . Greno and Howard created Pascal in order to provide the lonely , isolated Rapunzel with a friend to talk to . Feeling that a reptile would compliment Rapunzel 's quirky personality , the directors ultimately decided to make the character a chameleon as opposed to a traditional woodland creature . Meanwhile , Maximus was originally conceived as a very serious horse based on actor Tommy Lee Jones until the animators decided to make him a funnier and more likeable character . The unusual decision to make Pascal and Maximus non @-@ speaking characters with Welker providing them with realistic sound effects was inspired by the performances of silent film actors Charlie Chaplin and Buster Keaton .
Both individually and as a comedic duo , Pascal and Maximus have garnered universal acclaim from film critics , who referred to the characters scene stealers – British magazine SFX dubbed Maximus the film 's breakout star while The Age hailed the character as the funniest horse in film history – in addition to praising the fact that both characters are refreshingly funny , expressive and charismatic without the use of dialogue . Additionally , several film critics preferred Pascal and Maximus to the film 's couple .
= = Development = =
= = = Conception = = =
Filmmaker Walt Disney himself had first attempted to adapt the Brothers Grimm fairy tale " Rapunzel " into a feature @-@ length animated film during the 1930s . However , Disney eventually abandoned the project because the story was considered too " small . " When first approached to direct Tangled in 2008 , directors Nathan Greno and Byron Howard decided that it would be best to update the story " for a modern audience . " The directors soon discovered " that the problem with having a prison character [ like Rapunzel ] ... is that they don 't have anyone to talk to . " Howard explained that because Rapunzel is incapable of having a conversation with Mother Gothel , the isolated , incarcerated heroine " needed someone to relate to . " Unwilling to default to using the traditional " boring , ordinary side @-@ kick , " Greno and Howard created Pascal , conceiving the character as a chameleon because Rapunzel is , according to Greno , " a rough @-@ and @-@ tumble girl . " Howard explained that " what we wanted to do is something fresh , something different . This girl , she 's not a dainty , precious girl ... So what would she have ? ... She 's going to have a lizard . " Additionally , Howard believed that a reptile would compliment and suit Rapunzel 's personality best , describing the character as " a quirky pet for a quirky young woman . "
Maximus was originally conceived by Howard as the " ultimate super @-@ cop " , jokingly dubbing the character " the Tommy Lee Jones of horses " . Attempting to make Maximus feel like a " fresh " character , the filmmakers researched several historical horses from both animated and live @-@ action films in order to ensure that the character was unique and different enough from his predecessors . Greno explained that " Maximus ... could have easily slipped into the category of , ' Oh , I 've seen that before . ' " To prevent this , the filmmakers referenced " a board with photos of all the different animated horses that had been done " . Howard explained that Maximus was originally conceived as a " pretty serious " character , but eventually developed into a funnier and more likeable horse as the animators continued to draw him with dog @-@ like attributes . Both Pascal and Maximus , who according to the Austin American @-@ Statesman are responsible for providing the film with the majority of its comic relief , were eventually written into the film by screenwriter Dan Fogelman . Analyzing the characters ' roles in the film , HitFix observed that " There 's a simplicity to it all that I admire , and you throw in a few anthropomorphized animals so everyone laughs a lot , and that 's the Disney recipe " . One critic wrote about Maximus :
" Horses have played a key role in armies and police forces around the world for hundreds of years , but Maximus is clearly one of a kind . Fearless in the face of danger , relentless in pursuit , and possessed of a nose befitting a bloodhound , this equine super @-@ sleuth won 't let anything stop him getting his man . "
= = = Characterization = = =
Considered rare for Disney animals , Pascal and Maximus do not speak . The idea to make Pascal and Maximus mute was inspired by the performances of actors Charlie Chaplin and Buster Keaton in Silent films . Identifying themselves as " huge fans " of Chaplin , Greno and Howard suggested that it would be a good idea to have a character like the actor featured in the film . Additionally , the directors explained in an interview with Orange that Pascal and Maximus ' silence was also inspired by the roles of Princess Aurora 's animal friends in Disney 's Sleeping Beauty ( 1959 ) , following the film 's rules and guidelines that even though they do not talk , they remain " very expressive " nonetheless and " act and understand without words . " Maximus particularly " belongs to the grand tradition of Disney creatures that are full of personality even though they don 't talk . " One film critic observed that Pascal and Maximus " have personalities all their own , making use of techniques harkening back to the silent era " . Howard explained that " Pantomime acting is a great challenge for our animators " because , according to animator Jin Kim , Pascal and Maximus both " had to be funny without speech " , forcing the animators to exaggerate their emotions and facial expressions . The Chicago Sun @-@ Times observed that " Pascal ... doesn 't speak , but manages to convey himself with eye rolls and changes of color . " Both animals ' sound effects are provided by American actor Frank Welker .
Pascal 's supervising animator Lino DiSalvo told the Los Angeles Times that at one point the animators " weren 't getting enough entertainment out of Pascal . " DiSalvo elaborated , " originally , he was very realistic . He moved like a real chameleon , " which in turn depicted him as very " cold . " By exaggerating the character 's shape and face , the animators eventually " amped [ him ] up " in order to make him funnier . The name " Pascal " was borrowed from a pet chameleon owned by Tangled animator Kellie Lewis . During production , Lewis ' other pet chameleon and Pascal 's mate hatched six eggs , in turn making Pascal a father . In tribute to Pascal , the directors included a " Chameleon Babies " credit in the film 's closing credits , parodying the more traditional " Production babies " credit , while Lewis herself received a " Chameleon Wrangler " credit .
Discussing the likelihood a Tangled sequel , Howard explained to the Los Angeles Times " We don 't want to do a sequel for the sake of sequels ... The story has to be worth telling . " Because the original film " buttons up " well , the directors wanted to avoid simply creating a movie wedding featuring Rapunzel and Flynn because " that 's not entertainment " , so Greno and Howard conceived a funny story about Pascal and Maximus instead , providing the animators and writers with " an opportunity to do a lot of slapstick " that was mostly absent in Tangled . Wanting the film " to be a movie for everyone " , the directors " figured out a way to give [ the audience ] exactly what they wanted , so there is a beautiful grand wedding in the short , but what happens pretty quickly , those two goofballs Maximus and Pascal lose the wedding rings ... It turned into this big , zany , cartoony , fun , action @-@ packed short . " In the short , Pascal and Maximus encounter " a trail of comical chaos that includes flying lanterns , a flock of doves , a wine barrel barricade and a very sticky finale " .
= = Appearances = =
= = = Tangled = = =
Pascal and Maximus first appear in Tangled ( 2010 ) . Introduced as the pet and best friend of Rapunzel , Pascal is a chameleon who lives with Rapunzel in Mother Gothel 's secluded tower . Although Rapunzel pretends to be happy living in isolation under Gothel 's strict , controlling parenting , Pascal refuses to hide his discontent . Meanwhile , Maximus and thief Flynn Rider share a bitter animosity ; a police horse , Maximus is determined to arrest Flynn Rider for stealing a crown . Seeking refuge from Maximus , Flynn hides in Gothel 's tower where he is quickly incapacitated by Rapunzel , and he and Pascal immediately adopt a love @-@ hate relationship . Determined to see the mysterious " floating lights " in time for her eighteenth birthday , Rapunzel agrees to return Flynn 's crown to him only after he escorts her to safely to the kingdom . Meanwhile , Maximus , who continues his search for Flynn , inadvertently tips off Gothel that Rapunzel , on whose magical hair she relies to stay alive , has left the tower accompanied by Flynn . With her life in danger , she desperately pursues them .
When Maximus eventually catches up with Rapunzel , Flynn and Pascal , the horse attempts to apprehend Flynn only to be charmed by Rapunzel , who convinces him to leave Flynn alone until they have arrived at their destination while Pascal ensures that the two maintain a healthy relationship . In the kingdom , Flynn , Rapunzel and Pascal embark on a canoe ride to see the floating lights , revealed to be lanterns , up @-@ close , while Maximus is forced to wait ashore as there is not enough room for him . In a friendly gesture , Flynn gives him a bag of apples . Realizing that he is falling in love with Rapunzel , Flynn attempts to hand off the crown he was promised to the Stabbington Brothers , two colleagues of his , only to be kidnapped and handed over to the police . Mistaking this for abandonment , Rapunzel is taken back to the tower by Gothel , who has caught up with them .
Maximus manages to help an imprisoned Flynn about to be hanged for his crimes escape from the dungeon and races him to Gothel 's tower , where he is stabbed . However , Rapunzel eventually heals Flynn after he cuts her hair , which in turn destroys Gothel , and they live happily every after Pascal and Maximus move to Corona with them ; Maximus is eventually knighted , becoming Captain of the Guards and eliminates crime in the kingdom .
= = = Tangled Ever After = = =
Tangled Ever After ( 2012 ) is set shortly after the events of the first film . In the short , Pascal and Maximus are ring bearers at Rapunzel and Flynn Rider 's wedding . When Maximus suffers a reaction from one of the flower petals Pascal is sprinkling along the aisle , Maximus sneezes and the rings are propelled off the pillow on which he is carrying the rings ; the fly through a window in the chapel and into the city streets . Pascal and Maximus discreetly sneak out of the chapel to retrieve them in time for Rapunzel and Flynn to exchange them . Pascal and Maximus encounter several obstacles and hindrances in their attempt , eventually crashing into a tar factor upon retrieving the rings from a flock of flying doves . Completely soiled , Pascal and Maximus finally return to the chapel and return the rings , only to cause the wedding cake to roll out the door .
= = = Miscellaneous = = =
Both Pascal and Maximus appear in the Nintendo DS version of Tangled : The Video Game ( 2010 ) . While playing mostly as Rapunzel , players are allowed to " interact with Flynn , Pascal , and Maximus " , according to Nintendo.com. The video game includes a minigame inspired by Pascal entitled " Pascal 's Colors / Melody Match " .
= = Reception = =
= = = Critical response = = =
Pascal and Maximus have garnered widespread universal acclaim from film critics , who greeted both characters with nearly equal praise but generally reviewed Maximus more enthusiastically . Citing both characters as " right on the money , " Jonathan Crocker of Total Film described Maximus as " A horse ... who thinks he 's John McClane . " Kerry Lengel of The Arizona Republic enthused , " In true Disney fashion , two of the most memorable characters are animals : Pascal ... and Maximus , a barrel @-@ chested horse with the tracking skills of a bloodhound and a sense of duty straight out of Gilbert and Sullivan . " The Chicago Tribune 's Michael Phillips wrote that both characters are " Very funny , very noble " and " lovely supporting character [ s ] . " Peter Travers of Rolling Stone admitted to having " fell hard " for Maximus and Pascal . Similarly , Lindsey Ward of Canoe.ca predicted Tangled Ever After , writing , " Kids and adults alike will also fall for Rapunzel 's trusty chameleon sidekick Pascal and palace horse Maximus -- whose hilarious role as Flynn 's foe @-@ turned @-@ BFF might just earn him his own spin @-@ off . " The Globe and Mail 's Jennie Punter hailed them as " characters that only Disney animators could so memorably portray . " Writing for the Miami Herald , Rene Rodriguez described both characters as " terrific , " while Alison Gang of U @-@ T San Diego called them " hilarious . " David Edelstein of Vulture.com admitted that he " can 't help liking a movie with chameleon reaction shots . " Joe Neumaier of the Daily News appreciated the fact that although " There are laughs involving ... Rapunzel 's silent chameleon sidekick ... directors Nathan Greno and Byron Howard keep the tale grounded . " Observing the way in which animal sidekicks have become " Disney animation staples , " Doris Toumarkine of Film Journal International wrote that Pascal is " cute @-@ as @-@ can @-@ be , " likening the character to Jiminy Cricket from Disney 's Pinocchio ( 1940 ) . Matt Brunson of Creative Loafing wrote that Pascal " is likely to charm the adults , further designating Tangled as silky @-@ smooth entertainment . " Norman Wilner of Now wrote that " the best performance is a silent one delivered by ... Maximus , a guardsman 's horse clearly modelled on Tommy Lee Jones in The Fugitive – but funnier . " Describing the character as " marvelously bothered , " Michelle Orange of Movieline wrote that Maximus is " given a nuanced fidelity and expressive agility so precise that it seems more human than human . " Cynthia Fuchs of PopMatters called Maximus " magnificent . " Empire 's Helen O 'Hara wrote that Maximus is a " comic scene @-@ stealer and police horse extraordinaire . " While Ian Berriman of SFX dubbed Maximus the film 's " breakout star , " The Age 's Jim Schembri hailed the character as " the funniest horse in film history . " Sandra Hall of The Sydney Morning Herald labelled Maximus " The de facto star of ... Tangled " who " possesses the strength of Hercules , the nose of an airport sniffer dog and the crankiness of Harrison Ford . "
According to Greno and Howard , the decision to make Pascal and Maximus non @-@ speaking characters has been appreciated by both critics and audiences alike , explaining , " We 've gotten so many compliments about him and Pascal ... and so many people saying : ' Thank you for not making them talk . ' " Hailing Pascal and Maximus as " delightful supporting characters who continue yet another Disney custom without saying a word of dialogue " , Leonard Martin of Indiewire compared Pascal to a " comic Greek chorus " while dubbing Maximus " an extraordinarily expressive equine adversary ... who earns many of the movie 's biggest laughs . Similarly , The Wall Street Journal 's Joe Morgenstern wrote , " No one voices Maximus ... but he steals every scene he 's in " , while calling Pascal " endearing " . The Quad @-@ City Times ' Linda Cook reviewed , " it 's fun to watch the animal sidekicks express themselves , not through words , but facial expressions and body movements . The critters provide much of the comedy " , while Steve Persall of the Tampa Bay Times penned , " No talking animals here , although when they 're as amusing as a loyal chameleon and a horse who 's partly bloodhound and cop @-@ flick action hero , they don 't need to speak " , joking that the Brothers Grimm " probably wouldn 't object . " ABC Online " like [ d ] the way the animals were used " , explaining , " They don 't talk ... it really is funny " , accrediting this to executive producer John Lasseter 's influence on the film . Criticizing the script 's " abundant chatter , " Justin Chang of Variety commended the filmmaker 's " shrewd decision to have the animal sidekicks ... express themselves without the benefit of speech . " Similarly , Richard Corliss of Time wrote that both characters " radiate plenty of personality without speaking . "
Critics who were generally less positive in their opinions of Tangled and its main characters Rapunzel and Flynn Rider were otherwise impressed by Pascal and Maximus ' performances . The Liverpool Echo 's Catherine Jones felt that " Pascal and Maximus shamelessly scene @-@ steal from the human characters " , while Chris Tookey of the Daily Mail wrote , " The enjoyable visual gags generally come from the two animal sidekicks " . The Illinois Times ' Chuck Koplinski wrote , " Throw in two animal sidekicks – wily horse Maximus and protective chameleon Pascal – and you have a film that , while not as moving as the Pixar movies , is a satisfying lark . " TV Guide opined that although " There 's nothing particularly innovative about Dan Fogelman 's screenplay " , the author wrote that " a cute animal sidekick ... extend [ s ] to the visual aspects of the film " . Similarly , Simon Reynolds of Digital Spy wrote , " This ride 's a familiar one , but with humourous ( sic ) sidekicks such as horse @-@ who @-@ thinks @-@ he 's @-@ a @-@ dog Maximus and chameleon Pascal , it 's thoroughly enjoyable . " Although Dave White of Movies.com strongly panned Tangled , he dubbed Pascal and Maximus the film 's " Most Memorable Cliché " , writing that the characters " are better than the movie deserves . " White continued , " they both steal scene after scene from the Cream of Wheat @-@ like main characters " , concluding , " I kept wishing I was watching a movie about just them . " The Independent 's Anthony Quinn , who was ambivalent towards the film , admitted that Pascal and Maximus " provide some chuckles . " Similarly , Tom Huddleston of Time Out wrote , " With two such bland heroes , it 's good that plenty of attention is paid to the supporting characters , notably ... a bad tempered but loveable horse " , while Todd Hertz of Christianity Today called Maximus " a more complex , multi @-@ dimensional character than some movies ' leads " . Despite calling the film " bland " , the Houston Chronicle 's Amy Biancolli called Maximus a " stone cool " character . Tyler Hanley Palo Alto Weekly , however , praised the entire ensemble as a whole , calling Rapunzel , Flynn , Pascal and Maximus " a thoroughly enjoyable quartet . " In a lone lukewarm review , James Berardinelli of ReelViews called Pascal " among the least recognizable animal sidekicks ( although he possesses amusing mannerisms ) . "
In 2013 , M Magazine ranked Maximus the sixth best Disney sidekick , while Pascal was ranked eighth . In 2014 , BuzzFeed organized a list of the " Definitive Ranking of Disney Sidekicks " , ranking Pascal and Maximus fourth and fourteenth , respectively . Author Jemima Skelley described Pascal as " The most badass chameleon there ever was " while hailing Maximus as " The fiercest horse you 've probably ever seen . " Unranked , Glamour slightly preferred Pascal to Maximus in the magazine 's article " Our Favorite Disney Animals of All Time " .
= = = Merchandise = = =
Tom Huddleston of Total Film predicted that the popularity of Pascal and Maximus , combined with the success of Tangled , would ultimately provide Disney with promising merchandising opportunities , describing the characters as " tie @-@ in toys you just pre @-@ ordered in your head , " while Keith Uhlich of Time Out called them " action @-@ figure ready . " Pascal 's likeness has since been adapted into a wide variety of items , including toys , decorations and ornaments , costumes , clothing , jewellery and cosmetics , as demonstrated by the Disney Store 's website . In much of the film 's merchandise , Pascal is included alongside Rapunzel , namely play sets ; The Rapunzel Tangled Figure Play Set features miniature figurines of both Pascal and Maximus in addition to Rapunzel , Flynn Rider and Mother Gothel . However , merchandise inspired by Maximus remains less common . The character 's likeness has , however , been adapted into a plush toy .
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= Charles Lloyd ( Australian general ) =
Major General Charles Edward Maurice Lloyd , CBE ( 2 February 1899 – 31 May 1956 ) was a senior officer in the Australian Army . Lloyd graduated from the Royal Military College , Duntroon in 1918 as a regular officer in the artillery and subsequently served in a range of staff and regimental positions in the inter @-@ war years . He later saw service in the Second World War , during which he held senior staff and administrative positions in the Middle East , the Netherlands East Indies , Papua and Australia . Later he worked as a newspaper executive , as chief of several United Nations agencies , and in private enterprise . Lloyd died in 1956 .
= = Early life = =
Charles Lloyd was born on 2 February 1899 at South Fremantle , Western Australia , the second and only surviving child of Thomas Edward Lloyd , a postmaster , and his wife Edith , née Lock . His parents separated in 1901 and two years later his father committed suicide . He was subsequently raised by his mother who worked as a telephone attendant at Coolgardie , and then in Fremantle from 1909 . Lloyd was educated at Beaconsfield , Fremantle Boys ' Central and Perth Modern schools .
= = Military career = =
Entering the Australian Army in 1915 , Lloyd graduated from the Royal Military College , Duntroon in December 1918 as a regular officer in the artillery , too late to see action during the First World War . Lloyd was nicknamed " Gaffer " by the other cadets due to his serious demeanor , and Gavin Long considered him among the " ablest " of the group of officers that joined the Staff Corps at that time . He was appointed as a lieutenant in the Australian Imperial Force upon completing his training at Duntroon and embarked from Sydney in January 1919 , being sent to the United Kingdom and later posted to France . Returning to the Permanent Military Force as the AIF was demobilised , he later completed his training serving with the British Army in England and India in 1919 – 20 .
Lloyd married Sybil Drummond in Melbourne on 31 December 1921 . He subsequently held junior staff and regimental postings in Australia during the 1920s , at the same time studying law at the University of Sydney . His next postings included various adjutant and quartermaster roles at battery and brigade level in the 2nd and 3rd Military Districts . Later he attended Staff College , Camberley , in the United Kingdom during 1932 – 33 . Next he was appointed Brigade Major of the 4th Divisional Artillery in Melbourne in 1934 , and was promoted to major in 1937 . He was posted to the Directorate of Artillery at Army Headquarters in Melbourne from 1938 to 1939 .
Following the outbreak of the Second World War , Lloyd was seconded to the Second Australian Imperial Force ( 2nd AIF ) for overseas service . He held administrative posts in the 6th Division and I Australian Corps in the Middle East during 1940 , but was transferred before the 6th Division went into combat for the first time . In December that year , ranked colonel , he was posted to the 9th Division as the senior operational officer , serving as chief of staff to Major General Sir Leslie Morshead . In March , the 9th Division moved into the Western Desert , where they were to finalise their training and prepare to join the British advance through Libya . The landing of German forces around Tripoli in April forced the British and Commonwealth armies into withdrawal from Benghazi as the Afrika Korps arrived to reinforce the Italians in North Africa . The Axis forces subsequently began to advance west towards the strategic port of Tobruk . During the Siege of Tobruk which followed , Lloyd saw action between April and October 1941 , until the Australian units were relieved by British forces . Following the evacuation of the 9th Division from Tobruk by sea , Lloyd then served as chief liaison officer at AIF Headquarters , Middle East .
Departing the Middle East in late January 1942 , Lloyd was promoted to brigadier and flew to Batavia in the Netherlands East Indies , where elements of the 2nd AIF had been diverted to whilst returning from the Middle East in order to meet the Japanese threat following their initial attacks against British Commonwealth and US forces in the Pacific in December 1941 . He subsequently filled a senior staff posting in General Sir Archibald Wavell 's ABDA Command during its brief existence , holding the position of Deputy Intendant @-@ General with the temporary rank of major general between January and February 1942 . Rising from major to major general in less than two @-@ and @-@ a @-@ half years , he became the youngest general officer in the Australian Army at the age of 42 . In this role he acted as Wavell 's chief administrative officer ; however , he advocated to the Australian high command against British proposals for I Corps remain in Java , which he believed was unsound and likely result in its loss given the precarious tactical situation there , and that it should instead be returned to Australia to be concentrated for operations against the Japanese elsewhere . Ultimately while a few Australian units were landed in Java , where they were inevitably captured in the fighting that followed , the bulk of the 6th and 7th Divisions were returned to Australia following pressure from the Australian government .
Following the Netherlands East Indies campaign , Lloyd returned to Australia in April 1942 and reverted to the rank of brigadier . He was subsequently appointed Director of Staff Duties at Land Headquarters ( LHQ ) in July . In September he was briefly posted to I Corps in Papua as Brigadier General Staff under Lieutenant General Sir Sydney Rowell . In February 1943 , Lloyd was promoted again to major general and appointed Adjutant General at LHQ by the Commander @-@ in @-@ Chief , General Sir Thomas Blamey , remaining in this position until 1946 . Blamey had reportedly been " dissatisfied " with the performance of the previous Adjutant General , Major General Victor Stantke , and appointed Lloyd to rejuvenate the office . Leaving the full @-@ time army , he transferred to the inactive reserve in February 1946 . Described by Chester Wilmot as " one of the ablest staff officers and most colourful characters of the AIF " , and by Wavell as " a staff officer of great quality " , during his service Lloyd had been appointed a Commander of the Order of the British Empire ( 1941 ) and was mentioned in despatches three times ( 1941 – 42 ) .
= = Later life = =
In 1946 , Lloyd became a senior executive of the Argus & Australasian newspaper , before unsuccessfully seeking Liberal Party pre @-@ selection for a seat in Federal parliament the same year . In 1948 , he was appointed as a member of the government committee that reported on the administration of the British Commonwealth Occupation Force in Japan . His later work included postings as chief of the United Nations Refugee Organisation in Australia and New Zealand ( 1948 – 51 ) , and Chief of Mission of the United Nations Korean Reconstruction Agency ( 1951 – 53 ) . On return to Australia he took up a position as vice @-@ chairman of Navcot ( Aust . ) Pty Ltd , a private enterprise which was involved in shipping refugees from Europe as part of the post @-@ war immigration program . Whilst visiting relatives in Western Australia , Lloyd died of jaundice in the Repatriation General Hospital , in Hollywood , Perth , on 31 May 1956 and was buried in Karrakatta Cemetery . He was survived by his wife , daughter and two sons .
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= Spongiforma thailandica =
Spongiforma thailandica is a species of fungus in the Boletaceae family , genus Spongiforma . The stemless sponge @-@ like species , first described in 2009 , was found in Khao Yai National Park in central Thailand , where it grows in soil in old @-@ growth forests . The rubbery fruit body , which has a strong odor of coal @-@ tar similar to Tricholoma sulphureum , consists of numerous internal cavities lined with spore @-@ producing tissue . Phylogenetic analysis suggests the species is closely related to the Boletaceae genera Porphyrellus and Strobilomyces .
= = Taxonomy and phylogeny = =
The species was first described scientifically in 2009 by E. Horak , T. Flegel and D.E. Desjardin , based on specimens collected in July 2002 in Khao Yai National Park , central Thailand , and roughly three years later in the same location . Prior to this , the species had been mentioned in a 2001 Thai publication as an unidentified species of Hymenogaster . Phylogenetic analysis of ribosomal DNA sequences shows that Spongiforma is sister ( sharing a common ancestor ) to the genus Porphyrellus . The next most closely related genus is Strobilomyces . All three genera are members of the Boletaceae family , and in the Boletineae , one of several lineages of Boletales recognized taxonomically at the level of suborder .
The genus name Spongiforma refers to the sponge @-@ like nature of the fruit body , while the specific epithet thailandica denotes the country in which the species is found .
= = Description = =
The fruit body of Spongiforma thailandica is relatively large , up to 10 cm ( 3 @.@ 9 in ) in diameter by 4 to 7 cm ( 1 @.@ 6 to 2 @.@ 8 in ) tall , and pale brownish @-@ gray to brown or reddish @-@ brown . It is sponge @-@ like and rubbery — if water is squeezed out it will assume its original shape . The surface has irregular , relatively large cavities ( locules ) , 2 – 20 mm ( 0 @.@ 08 – 0 @.@ 8 in ) in diameter , lined with fertile ( spore @-@ producing ) tissue . The mushrooms do not have a stem , but rather a columella — a small internal structure at the base of the fruit body , resembling a column , extending up into the fruit body . The columella has dimensions of 10 – 15 mm tall by 8 – 10 mm diameter ( at the apex ) by 3 – 4 mm ( at the base ) , and it is attached to copious , fine white rhizomorphs . Fruit bodies have a strong odor of coal tar or burnt rubber ( likened to Tricholoma sulphureum ) . The mushroom tissue turns purple when a drop of 3 – 10 % potassium hydroxide is applied .
In mass , the spores appear to be brown to reddish @-@ brown in color . Viewed with a microscope , they are amygdaliform ( almond @-@ shaped ) , and typically measure 10 – 11 @.@ 5 by 5 @.@ 5 – 7 µm . The basidia ( spore @-@ bearing cells ) are cylindrical to roughly club @-@ shaped , four @-@ spored , with dimensions of 25 – 32 by 6 @.@ 5 – 9 @.@ 5 μm . They have straight sterigmata ( slender extensions that attach to the spores ) up to 9 @.@ 5 μm long . The cystidia ( large , sterile cells in the hymenium ) are cylindrical to roughly club @-@ shaped , thin @-@ walled , and measure 25 – 48 by 5 – 10 μm . They are inamyloid , meaning they will not absorb iodine when stained with Melzer 's reagent . The cystidia are plentiful on the edges of the locules , and occasional among the basidia . The hymenophore is made of interwoven branched hyphae that are arranged in a roughly parallel fashion . These thin @-@ walled cylindrical hyphae have inflated septa ( intracellular partitions ) , and are gelatinous , hyaline ( translucent ) and inamyloid . The subhymenium ( the tissue layer immediately under the hymenium ) is made of inflated hyphae that are hyaline , inamyloid , thin @-@ walled , and non @-@ gelatinous , measuring 9 – 20 by 9 – 14 μm .
The fruit bodies vaguely resemble those of the species Gymnopaxillus nudus , found in Australia growing in association with Eucalyptus . However , Gymnopaxillus fruit bodies grow underground , lack a strong odor , do not stain purple with potassium hydroxide , and have longer spores , typically 11 – 16 µm .
= = Habitat and distribution = =
Spongiforma thailandica was found growing on the ground in an old growth forest in Khao Yai National Park ( Nakhon Nayok Province , Thailand ) , at an elevation of about 750 meters ( 2 @,@ 460 ft ) . The fungus is thought to grow in a mycorrhizal association with Shorea henryana and Dipterocarpus gracilis .
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= Wotton ( Metropolitan Railway ) railway station =
Wotton railway station was a small station in Buckinghamshire , England , built by the Duke of Buckinghamshire in 1871 . Part of a private horse @-@ drawn tramway designed to carry freight from and around his lands in Buckinghamshire , Wotton station was intended to serve the Duke 's home at Wotton House and the nearby village of Wotton Underwood . In 1872 the line was extended to the nearby town of Brill , converted to passenger use , equipped with steam locomotives , and renamed the Brill Tramway . In the 1880s , it was proposed to extend the line to Oxford , but the operation of the line was instead taken over by London 's Metropolitan Railway .
Although situated in an unpopulated area , Wotton station was relatively well used . It saw the highest passenger numbers of any station on the line other than the terminus at Brill railway station and the junction with the main line to London at Quainton Road railway station , and it also carried large quantities of milk from the area 's dairy farms . In 1906 the Great Western and Great Central Joint Railway ( commonly known as the Alternative Route ) was opened , crossing the Brill Tramway at Wotton . Although the lines were not connected , a station ( also named Wotton ) was built on the new line very near the existing Wotton station ; the two stations shared a stationmaster .
In 1933 the Metropolitan Railway , which leased the line , was taken into public ownership and became the Metropolitan line of London Transport . As a consequence , despite being a small rural station 49 miles ( 79 km ) by train from the City of London , Wotton became a station on the London Underground . Frank Pick , the Chief Executive of the London Passenger Transport Board , aimed to abandon freight operations on the London Underground network , and saw no way in which the more distant parts of the former Metropolitan Railway could ever become viable passenger routes . As a result , all passenger services north of Aylesbury were withdrawn between 1935 and 1936 ; the last trains on the Brill Tramway ran on 30 November 1935 . The line then reverted to the descendants of the Duke of Buckingham , but having no funds and no rolling stock they were unable to operate it . On 2 April 1936 , the line 's entire infrastructure , including Wotton station , was sold for scrap at auction . Except for a small building which once housed the Brill Tramway 's forge , all the station buildings at Wotton have been demolished .
= = Wotton Tramway = =
On 23 September 1868 , the small Aylesbury and Buckingham Railway ( A & BR ) opened , linking the Great Western Railway 's station at Aylesbury to the London and North Western Railway 's Oxford to Bletchley line at Verney Junction . On 1 September 1894 , London 's Metropolitan Railway ( MR ) reached Aylesbury , and shortly afterwards connected to the A & BR line , with local MR services running to Verney Junction from 1 April 1894 . Through trains from the MR 's London terminus at Baker Street began on 1 January 1897 .
Richard Plantagenet Campbell Temple @-@ Nugent @-@ Brydges @-@ Chandos @-@ Grenville , 3rd Duke of Buckingham and Chandos , had long had an interest in railways , and had served as Chairman of the London and North Western Railway from 1852 until 1861 . In the early 1870s , he decided to build a light railway to transport freight from his estates in Buckinghamshire to the A & BR 's line at Quainton Road . As the proposed line was to run on land owned by the Duke and by the Winwood Charity Trust , who consented to its construction , the line did not need Parliamentary approval and construction could begin immediately .
The first stage of the route , known as the Wotton Tramway , was a 4 @-@ mile ( 6 @.@ 4 km ) line from Quainton Road via Wotton to a coal siding at Kingswood , opened on 1 April 1871 . Intended for use by horse trams only , the line was built with longitudinal sleepers , to reduce the risk of horses tripping .
= = = Extension to Brill and conversion to passenger use = = =
Residents of the nearby town of Brill lobbied the Duke for the introduction of passenger services on the line . This led to an upgrading and extension of the line from Wotton , via the original terminus of the tramway system at Wood Siding , to a new terminus at the foot of Brill Hill , north of the hilltop town of Brill itself . The new Brill railway station opened in March 1872 . In addition to freight trains which ran as and when required , two mixed trains per day ran in each direction . The Duke bought two Aveling and Porter traction engines modified to work as locomotives , each with a top speed of 8 miles per hour ( 13 km / h ) , although a speed limit of 5 miles per hour ( 8 km / h ) was enforced . With the extension to Brill opened , the line began to be referred to as the Brill Tramway .
In 1889 the Duke of Buckingham died , and in 1894 the trustees of his estate set up the Oxford & Aylesbury Tramroad Company ( O & ATC ) with the intention of extending the line from Brill to Oxford , but the extension beyond Brill was never built . Rail services from London to Oxford were very poor at this time ; despite being an extremely roundabout route , had the connection from Quainton Road to Oxford been built it would have been the shortest route between Oxford and the City of London .
The Metropolitan Railway leased the Brill Tramway from 1 December 1899 , and from then on the MR ( the Metropolitan line of the London Underground from July 1933 ) operated all services on the line , although the line continued to be owned by the O & ATC . Throughout the operation of the Brill Tramway the track and stations remained in the ownership of the Oxford & Aylesbury Tramroad Company ; the MR had an option to purchase the line outright , but it was never taken up .
= = Structures and sidings = =
Wotton station was situated in open countryside , about one mile ( 1 @.@ 6 km ) from the nearest settlement of Wotton Underwood , which in 1871 had a population of around 220 . Roughly halfway between the line 's terminus at Brill and the junction with the main line at Quainton Road , the station marked the official midpoint of the line for operating purposes . When more than one locomotive was in operation on the line , the Tramway operated a token signalling system using colour @-@ coded staffs ; drivers on the section between Quainton Road and Wotton were obliged to carry a blue staff ; those between Wotton and Brill ( and the Kingswood siding ) a red staff . The station was situated on a sharp curve ; had the extension to Oxford been built , the station would have needed to have been resited to accommodate longer and faster trains .
The original station was a crude earth bank 6 inches ( 150 mm ) high , held in place by wooden planks , but it was later rebuilt . The station was equipped with a short level platform , and a small 25 @-@ foot ( 7 @.@ 6 m ) square goods shed . The main users of the goods facilities appear to have been the local dairy farms ; in the 1880s , prior to the transfer to Metropolitan Railway operation , Wotton station was handling from 45 @,@ 000 to 60 @,@ 000 gallons ( 200 @,@ 000 to 270 @,@ 000 l ; 54 @,@ 000 to 72 @,@ 000 US gal ) of milk each year . The passenger station building itself was a wooden hut with an iron roof , 24 feet ( 7 @.@ 3 m ) long by 10 feet 9 inches ( 3 @.@ 28 m ) wide , including a waiting room , a booking office and male and female toilet facilities . Until the early 20th century the station porter was required to keep a three @-@ gallon kettle on the boil for foot warmers , should the passengers require them . A pair of small cottages were built near the station to house Tramway employees .
A small siding immediately west of the station originally led to a stable , which housed the Tramway 's horses . After the line 's mechanisation in 1872 the stables were closed , and the siding served a small cattle pen .
= = = Church Siding = = =
Slightly to the west of the station was a junction with a 1 mile 57 chain ( 1 mile 1 @,@ 300 yards ; 1 @.@ 8 km ) spur line known as Church Siding , which ran through Wotton Underwood to the hamlet of Kingswood . This spur line served two coal merchants , and never officially carried passengers ; it was never upgraded to carry locomotives and remained worked by horses throughout its existence . ( The siting of the coal bay at Kingswood was controversial , as it was inconveniently sited and built on low ground prone to flooding . The Duke and the line 's surveyor had disagreed on the best location for the depot ; to resolve the matter the Duke had thrown his hat in the air and the coal bay was built where the hat landed . ) The spur to Kingswood was abandoned in about 1915 , although a short stub , running between the Brill Tramway and the Duke of Buckingham 's home at Wotton House , remained open for occasional goods traffic until the line was closed .
= = = Great Western and Great Central Joint Railway = = =
On 2 April 1906 , the Great Western and Great Central Joint Railway , commonly known as the Alternative Route , opened to passengers . The new line linked Ashendon Junction on the Chiltern Main Line to the Great Central Railway at Grendon Underwood , a short distance northwest of Quainton Road . The Alternative Route crossed the Brill Tramway on a bridge at Wotton , and another station , also named " Wotton " , was built on the embankment immediately to the south of the existing Wotton station . Although the lines did not connect , a temporary siding was built from the Brill Tramway onto the new embankment , and used for the transport of construction materials and the removal of spoil from the works during the building of the new line . The two Wotton stations were very close together , and the same stationmaster was responsible for both stations .
= = Passenger services = =
From 1872 to 1894 the station was served by two passenger trains per day in each direction , and from 1895 to 1899 the number was increased to three per day . Following the 1899 transfer of services to the Metropolitan Railway , the station was served by four trains per day until closure in 1935 . Limited by poor quality locomotives and ungraded , cheaply laid track which followed the contours of the hills , and stopping at three intermediate stations between Wood Siding and Quainton Road to pick up and set down goods , passengers and livestock , trains ran very slowly ; in 1887 trains took between 35 and 45 minutes to travel from Wotton to Brill , and around an hour from Wotton to the junction station with the main line at Quainton Road .
Improvements to the line carried out at the time of the transfer to the Oxford & Aylesbury Tramroad , and the use of the MR 's better quality rolling stock , reduced the journey time from Wotton to Brill and Quainton Road to around 10 minutes and 25 minutes respectively . Serving a lightly populated area , Wotton railway station saw little passenger use , although it was the most @-@ used station on the line other than Brill itself and the junction station at Quainton Road ; in 1932 , the last year of private operation , the station saw 2 @,@ 648 passenger journeys earning a total of £ 144 ( about £ 9 @,@ 000 in 2016 ) in passenger receipts .
= = Withdrawal of services = =
On 1 July 1933 the Metropolitan Railway , along with London 's other underground railways aside from the short Waterloo & City Railway , was taken into public ownership as part of the newly formed London Passenger Transport Board ( LPTB ) . Thus , despite it being 45 miles ( 72 km ) and over two hours travel from the City of London , Wotton formally became a London Underground station , although in common with all other Metropolitan line stations north of Aylesbury it was never shown on the tube map . Frank Pick , Managing Director of the Underground Group from 1928 and the Chief Executive of the LPTB , aimed to move the network away from freight services and saw the lines beyond Aylesbury via Quainton Road to Brill and Verney Junction as having little future as financially viable passenger routes , concluding that over £ 2 @,@ 000 ( about £ 130 @,@ 000 in 2016 ) would be saved by closing the Brill Tramway .
With Pick wanting to abandon freight services and seeing no future for the extremities of the former Metropolitan Railway as passenger routes , the LPTB decided to abandon all passenger services beyond Aylesbury . All services on the Brill Tramway were officially withdrawn on 1 December 1935 , with the last trains running on 30 November . While services were withdrawn completely from the Brill Tramway , the LPTB considered the Verney Junction branch as having a use as a freight line and as a diversionary route , and continued to maintain the line and to operate freight services until 6 September 1947 .
= = Closure = =
Following the withdrawal of London Transport services the Metropolitan Railway 's lease was voided and the railway and stations reverted to the control of the Oxford & Aylesbury Tramroad Company . With no funds and no rolling stock of its own the O & ATC was unable to operate the line , and on 2 April 1936 the entire infrastructure of the line was sold at auction . Wotton station building sold for £ 5 10s ( about £ 340 in 2016 ) , the platform for £ 2 5s ( about £ 140 in 2016 ) , and the cattle pen for 11s ( about £ 30 in 2016 ) .
Wotton station on the Alternative Route , which had passed from the ownership of the Great Central Railway to the London and North Eastern Railway , remained open ( albeit little used and served by only two trains per day in each direction ) until 7 December 1953 , when the line was abandoned . All buildings of the Brill Tramway station at Wotton were subsequently demolished , other than a small building which had once housed the Tramway 's forge , which was left derelict . The bridge that had formerly carried the Alternative Route was demolished in 1970 , and the former Great Central Railway station on the Alternative Route was converted to a private house .
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= Pudendal nerve =
The pudendal nerve is the main nerve of the perineum . It carries sensation from the external genitalia of both sexes and the skin around the anus and perineum , as well the motor supply to various pelvic muscles , including the male or female external urethral sphincter and the external anal sphincter . If damaged , most commonly by childbirth , lesions may cause sensory loss or fecal incontinence . The nerve may also be temporarily blocked as part of an anaesthetic procedure .
The pudendal canal is also known by the eponymous term " Alcock 's canal " , after Benjamin Alcock , an Irish anatomist who documented the canal in 1836 .
= = Structure = =
The pudendal nerve is paired , meaning there are two nerves , one on the left and one on the right side of the body . Each is formed as three roots immediately converge above the upper border of the sacrotuberous ligament and the coccygeus muscle . The three roots become two cords when the middle and lower root join to form the lower cord , and these in turn unite to form the pudendal nerve proper just proximal to the sacrospinous ligament . The three roots are derived from the ventral rami of the second , third , and fourth sacral spinal nerves , with the primary contribution coming from the fourth .
The pudendal nerve passes between the piriformis muscle and coccygeus ( ischiococcygeus ) muscles and leaves the pelvis through the lower part of the greater sciatic foramen . It crosses over the lateral part of the sacrospinous ligament and reenters the pelvis through the lesser sciatic foramen . After reentering the pelvis , it accompanies the internal pudendal artery and internal pudendal vein upwards and forwards along the lateral wall of the ischiorectal fossa , being contained in a sheath of the obturator fascia termed the pudendal canal , along with the internal pudendal blood vessels .
Inside the pudendal canal , the nerve divides into branches , first giving off the inferior rectal nerve , then the perineal nerve , before continuing as the dorsal nerve of the penis ( in males ) or the dorsal nerve of the clitoris ( in females ) .
= = = Nucleus = = =
The nerve is a major branch of the sacral plexus , with fibers originating in Onuf 's nucleus in the sacral region of the spinal cord .
= = = Variation = = =
The pudendal nerve may vary in its origins . For example , the pudendal nerve may actually originate off of the sciatic nerve . Consequently , damage to the sciatic nerve can affect the pudendal nerve as well . Sometimes dorsal rami of the first sacral nerve contribute fibers to the pudendal nerve , and even more rarely S5 .
= = Function = =
The pudendal nerve has both motor and sensory functions . It does not carry parasympathetic fibers , but does carry sympathetic fibers .
The pudendal nerve supplies sensation to the penis in males and the clitoris in females , through the branches dorsal nerve of penis and dorsal nerve of clitoris . The posterior scrotum in males and the labia in females are also supplied , via the posterior scrotal nerves ( males ) or posterior labial nerves ( females ) . The pudendal nerve is one of several nerves supplying sensation to these areas . Branches also supply sensation to the anal canal . By providing sensation to the penis and the clitoris , the pudendal nerve is responsible for the afferent component of penile erection and clitoral erection . It is also responsible for ejaculation .
Branches also innervate muscles of the perineum and pelvic floor ; namely the bulbospongiosus and ischiocavernosus muscles , the levator ani muscle ( including the Iliococcygeus , pubococcygeus , puborectalis and either pubovaginalis in females or pubourethralis in males ) , the external anal sphincter ( via the inferior anal branch ) , and male or female external urethral sphincter .
As it functions to innervate the external urethral sphincter it is responsible for the tone of the sphincter mediated via acetylcholine release . This means that during periods of increased acetylcholine release the skeletal muscle in the external urethral sphincter contracts , causing urinary retention . Whereas in periods of decreased acetylcholine release the skeletal muscle in the external urethral sphincter relaxes , allowing voiding of the bladder to occur . ( Clarification : Unlike the internal sphincter muscle , the external sphincter is made of skeletal muscle , therefore it is under voluntary control of the somatic nervous system . )
= = Clinical significance = =
= = = Anesthesia = = =
A pudendal nerve block , also known as a saddle nerve block , is a local anesthesia technique used in a obstetric procedure to anesthetize the perineum during labor . In this procedure , an anesthetic agent such as lidocaine is injected through the inner wall of the vagina about the pudendal nerve .
= = = Damage = = =
The pudendal nerve can be compressed or stretched , resulting in temporary or permanent neuropathy . Irreversible nerve injury may occur when nerves are stretched by 12 % or more of their normal length . If the pelvic floor is over @-@ stretched , acutely ( e.g. prolonged or difficult childbirth ) or chronically ( e.g. chronic straining during defecation caused by constipation ) , the pudendal nerve is vulnerable to stretch @-@ induced neuropathy . Pudendal nerve entrapment , also known as Alcock canal syndrome , is very rare and is associated with professional cycling . Systemic diseases such as diabetes and multiple sclerosis can damage the pudendal nerve via demyelination or other mechanisms . A pelvic tumor ( most notably a large sacrococcygeal teratoma ) , or surgery to remove the tumor , can also cause permanent damage .
Unilateral pudendal nerve neuropathy inconsistently causes fecal incontinence in some , but not others . This is because crossover innervation of the external anal sphincter occurs in some individuals .
= = = Imaging = = =
The pudendal nerve is difficult to visualize on routine CT or MR imaging , however under CT guidance , a needle may be placed adjacent to the pudendal neurovascular bundle . The ischial spine , an easily identifiable structure on CT , is used as the level of injection . A spinal needle is advanced via the gluteal muscles and advanced within several millimeters of the ischial spine . Contrast ( X @-@ ray dye ) is then injected , highlighting the nerve in the canal and allowing for confirmation of correct needle placement . The nerve may then be injected with cortisone and local anesthetic to confirm and also treat chronic pain of the external genitalia ( known as vulvodynia in females ) , pelvic and anorectal pain .
= = = = Nerve latency testing = = = =
The time taken for a muscle supplied by the pudendal nerve to contract in response to an electrical stimulus applied to the sensory and motor fibers can be quantified . Increased conduction time ( terminal motor latency ) signifies damage to the nerve . 2 stimulating electrodes and 2 measuring electrodes are mounted on the examiner 's gloved finger ( " St Mark 's electrode " ) .
= = History = =
The term pudendal comes from Latin pudenda , meaning external genitals , derived from pudendum , meaning " parts to be ashamed of " . The pudendal canal is also known by the eponymous term " Alcock 's canal " , after Benjamin Alcock , an Irish anatomist who documented the canal in 1836 . Alcock documented the existence of the canal and pudendal nerve in a contribution about iliac arteries in Robert Bentley Todd 's " The Cyclopaedia of Anatomy and Physiology " .
= = Additional images = =
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= Symphony No. 3 ( Górecki ) =
The Symphony No. 3 , Op. 36 , also known as the Symphony of Sorrowful Songs ( Polish : Symfonia pieśni żałosnych ) , is a symphony in three movements composed by Henryk Górecki in Katowice , Poland , between October and December 1976 . The work is indicative of the transition between Górecki 's dissonant earlier manner and his more tonal later style . It was premièred on 4 April 1977 , at the Royan International Festival , with Stefania Woytowicz as soprano and Ernest Bour as conductor .
A solo soprano sings Polish texts in each of the three movements . The first is a 15th @-@ century Polish lament of Mary , mother of Jesus , the second a message written on the wall of a Gestapo cell during World War II , and the third a Silesian folk song of a mother searching for her son killed by the Germans in the Silesian uprisings . The first and third movements are written from the perspective of a parent who has lost a child , and the second movement from that of a child separated from a parent . The dominant themes of the symphony are motherhood and separation through war .
Until 1992 , Górecki was known only to connoisseurs , primarily as one of several composers responsible for the postwar Polish music renaissance . That year , Elektra @-@ Nonesuch released a recording of the 24 @-@ year @-@ old symphony that topped the classical charts in Britain and the United States . To date , it has sold more than a million copies , vastly exceeding the expected lifetime sales of a typical symphonic recording by a 20th @-@ century composer . This success , however , has not generated similar interest in Górecki 's other works .
= = Background = =
Despite a political climate that was unfavorable to modern art ( often denounced as " formalist " by the communist authorities ) , post @-@ war Polish composers enjoyed an unprecedented degree of compositional freedom following the establishment of the Warsaw Autumn festival in 1956 . Górecki had won recognition among avant @-@ garde composers for the experimental , dissonant and serialist works of his early career ; he became visible on the international scene through such modernist works as Scontri , which was a success at the 1960 Warsaw Autumn , and his First Symphony , which was awarded a prize at the 1961 Paris Youth Bienniale . Throughout the 1960s , he continued to form acquaintanceships with other experimental and serialist composers such as Pierre Boulez and Karlheinz Stockhausen .
During the 1970s , Górecki began to distance himself from the serialism and extreme dissonance of his earlier work , and his Third Symphony , like the preceding choral pieces Euntes ibant et flebant ( Op. 32 , 1972 ) and Amen ( Op. 35 , 1975 ) , starkly rejects such techniques . The lack of harmonic variation in Górecki 's Third Symphony , and its reliance on repetition , marked a stage in Górecki 's progression towards the harmonic minimalism and the simplified textures of his more recent work . Because of the religious nature of many of his works during this period , critics and musicologists often align him with other modernist composers who began to explore radically simplified musical textures , tonality , and melody , and who also infused many of their works with religious significance . Like @-@ minded composers , such as Arvo Pärt and John Tavener , are frequently grouped with Górecki under the term " holy minimalism , " although none of the composers classified as such has admitted to common influences .
= = Composition = =
In 1973 , Górecki approached the Polish folklorist Adolf Dygacz in search of traditional melodies to incorporate in a new work . Dygacz presented four songs which had been recorded in the Silesia region in south @-@ western Poland . Górecki was impressed by the melody " Where has he gone , my dear young son ? " ( Kajże się podzioł mój synocek miły ? ) , which describes a mother 's mourning for a son lost in war , and probably dates from the Silesian Uprisings of 1919 – 21 . Górecki had heard a version of the song in the 1960s and had not been impressed by the arrangement , but the words and the melody of Dygacz 's new version made a lasting impression on him . He said " for me , it is a wonderfully poetic text . I do not know if a ' professional ' poet would create such a powerful entity out of such terse , simple words . It is not sorrow , despair or resignation , or the wringing of hands : it is just the great grief and lamenting of a mother who has lost her son . "
Later that year , Górecki learned of an inscription scrawled on the wall of a cell in a German Gestapo prison in the town of Zakopane , which lies at the foot of the Tatra mountains in southern Poland . The words were those of 18 @-@ year @-@ old Helena Wanda Błażusiakówna , a highland woman incarcerated on 25 September 1944 . It read O Mamo , nie placz , nie . Niebios Przeczysta Królowo , Ty zawsze wspieraj mnie ( Oh Mamma do not cry , no . Immaculate Queen of Heaven , you support me always ) . The composer recalled , " I have to admit that I have always been irritated by grand words , by calls for revenge . Perhaps in the face of death I would shout out in this way . But the sentence I found is different , almost an apology or explanation for having got herself into such trouble ; she is seeking comfort and support in simple , short but meaningful words " . He later explained , " In prison , the whole wall was covered with inscriptions screaming out loud : ' I 'm innocent ' , ' Murderers ' , ' Executioners ' , ' Free me ' , ' You have to save me ' — it was all so loud , so banal . Adults were writing this , while here it is an eighteen @-@ year @-@ old girl , almost a child . And she is so different . She does not despair , does not cry , does not scream for revenge . She does not think about herself ; whether she deserves her fate or not . Instead , she only thinks about her mother : because it is her mother who will experience true despair . This inscription was something extraordinary . And it really fascinated me . "
Górecki now had two texts : one from a mother to her son , the other from a daughter to her mother . While looking for a third that would continue the theme , he decided on a mid @-@ 15th century folk song from the southern city of Opole . Its text contains a passage in which the Virgin Mary speaks to her Son dying on the cross : " O my son , beloved and chosen , Share your wounds with your mother ... " ( Synku miły i wybrany , rozdziel z matką swoje rany ... ) . Górecki said , " this text was folk @-@ like , anonymous . So now I had three acts , three persons ... Originally , I wanted to frame these texts with an introduction and a conclusion . I even chose two verses ( 5 and 6 ) from Psalm 93 / 94 in the translation by Wujek : ' They humiliated Your people , O Lord , and afflicted Your heritage , they killed the widow and the passer @-@ by , murdered the orphans . ' " However , he rejected this format because he believed the structure would position the work as a symphony " about war " . Górecki sought to transcend such specifics , and instead structured the work as three independent laments .
= = Instrumentation and score = =
The symphony is constructed around simple harmonies , set in a neo @-@ modal style which makes use of the medieval musical modes , but does not adhere strictly to medieval rules of composition . A performance typically lasts about 54 minutes . Ronald Blum describes the piece as " mournful , like Mahler , but without the bombast of percussion , horns and choir , just the sorrow of strings and the lone soprano " . The work consists of three elegiac movements , each marked Lento to indicate their slow tempi . Strings dominate the musical textures and the music is rarely loud — the dynamics reach fortissimo in only a few bars .
The symphony is scored for solo soprano , four flutes ( two players doubling on piccolos ) , four clarinets in B ♭ , two bassoons , two contrabassoons , four horns in F , four trombones , harp , piano and strings . Górecki specifies exact complements for the string forces : 16 first violins , 16 second violins , 12 violas , 12 cellos , and 8 double basses . For most of the score , these are in turn divided into two parts , each notated on a separate staff . Thus the string writing is mainly in ten different parts , on ten separate staves . In some sections some of these parts are divided even further into separate parts , which are written on the same staff , so that ten staves are still used for a greater number of parts .
Unusually , the score omits oboes , English horns , bass clarinets , and trumpets . The bassoons , contrabassoons , and trombones play only in the first movement , and only for a few bars ( bassoons and contrabassoons : 339 – 342 and 362 – 369 ; trombones : 343 – 348 and 367 – 369 ) .
The musicologist Adrian Thomas notes that the symphony lacks dissonance outside of modal inflections ( that is , occasional use of pitches that fall outside the mode ) , and that it does not require nonstandard techniques or virtuosic playing . Thomas further observes that " there is no second @-@ hand stylistic referencing , although if predecessors were to be sought they might be found , distantly removed , in the music of composers as varied as Bach , Schubert , Tchaikovsky , and even Debussy . "
= = = Lento — Sostenuto tranquillo ma cantabile = = =
Typically 27 minutes in duration , the first movement equals the combined length of the second and third movements , and is based on a late @-@ 15th century lament of Mary from the Lysagora Songs collection of the Holy Cross Monastery ( Św . Krzyż Monastery ) in the Świętokrzyskie Mountains . Comprising three thematic sections , the movement opens with a canon based on a 24 @-@ bar theme , which is repeated several times . The canon begins in 2 parts ; then , for each repetition of the theme , an extra part is added , until the canon is in eight parts ( with the top two parts doubled at the octave , making for ten voices total ) , using a 24 @-@ bar melody in the Aeolian mode on E. It begins with the double basses , 2nd part , with each succeeding entry occurring one measure later ( i.e. , a new entry begins every 25 measures ) , each starting a diatonic fifth above the last . That means that each appearance of the melody in a new part is in a different mode , in this order :
Aeolian on E ( double basses , 2nd part )
Phrygian on B ( double basses , 1st part )
Locrian on F ♯ ( cellos , 2nd part )
Lydian on C ( cellos , 1st part )
Ionian on G ( violas , 2nd part )
Mixolydian on D ( violas , 1st part )
Dorian on A ( 2nd violins , 2nd part )
Aeolian on E ( 1st violins , 2nd part )
After the 8 @-@ part canon is played , it is repeated , with the 1st parts of the 1st and 2nd violins ( silent up to this point ) doubling the other violin parts an octave higher .
After that , the canon continues , but the voices gradually drop out one by one , from the lowest upwards ; but the instruments in question , instead of falling silent , double a higher voice that is still playing . Eventually the canon ends , with all the strings ( except the double basses ) ending on a single note , E4 .
The soprano enters on the same note in the second section and builds to a climax on the final word , at which point the strings enter forcefully with the climax of the opening canon . The third section of the movement ( Lento — Cantabile semplice ) is a long dénouement , another canon based on the same melody in the opening canon ; but this time it starts with 8 parts ( the top two doubled in octaves ) , and the voices drop out , one by one , from high to low , leaving the movement to end with the second double basses playing the melody alone once more .
= = = Lento e largo — Tranquillissimo = = =
The nine @-@ minute second movement is for soprano , clarinets , horns , harp , piano , and strings , and contains a libretto formed from the prayer to the Virgin Mary inscribed by Blazusiakówna on the cell wall in Zakopane . According to the composer , " I wanted the second movement to be of a highland character , not in the sense of pure folklore , but the climate of Podhale ... I wanted the girl 's monologue as if hummed ... on the one hand almost unreal , on the other towering over the orchestra . "
The movement opens with a folk drone , A – E , and a melodic fragment , E – G ♯ – F ♯ , which alternate with sudden plunges to a low B ♭ – D ♭ dyad . Thomas describes the effect as " almost cinematic ... suggest [ ing ] the bright open air of the mountains " . As the soprano begins to sing , her words are supported by the orchestra until she reaches a climaxing top A ♭ . The movement is resolved when the strings hold a chord without diminuendo for nearly one and a half minutes . The final words of the movement are the first two lines of the Polish Ave Maria , sung twice on a repeated pitch by the soprano .
= = = Lento — Cantabile @-@ semplice = = =
The tempo of the third movement is similar to that of the previous two , and subtle changes in dynamism and mode make it more complex and involving than it may at first appear . With a duration of approximately seventeen minutes , it comprises three verses in A minor and , like the first movement , is constructed from evolving variations on a simple motif . The melody is established in the opening verse , and the second and third verses revisit the cradling motifs of the second movement . As in the second movement , the motifs are built up from inversions of plain triads and seventh chords stretching across several octaves . As the soprano sings the final words , the key changes to a pure diatonic A major which accompanies , in writer David Ellis 's words , the " ecstatic final stanza " :
O sing for him / God 's little song @-@ birds / Since his mother cannot find him .
And you , God 's little flowers / May you blossom all around / that my son may sleep a happy sleep .
The orchestra returns to A minor before a final postlude in A major . In Górecki 's own words : " Finally there came that unvarying , persistent , obstinate ' walczyk ' [ on the chord of A ] , sounding well when played piano , so that all the notes were audible . For the soprano , I used a device characteristic of highland singing : suspending the melody on the third [ C ♯ ] and descending from the fifth to the third while the ensemble moves stepwise downward [ in sixths ] " .
= = Interpretation = =
The symphony was dedicated to Górecki 's wife Jadwiga Rurańska . When asked why , Górecki responded , " Who was I supposed to dedicate it to ? " He never sought to explain the symphony as a response to a political or historical event . Instead , he maintained that the work is an evocation of the ties between mother and child . Górecki was commissioned to write music in response to the Holocaust in the 1960s but was unable to finish any of the pieces he started for that purpose . While Górecki stated that for many years he sought to produce a work specifically in response to Auschwitz , he resisted that interpretation of the symphony , which he preferred to be viewed in a wider context . Other critics have attempted to interpret the symphony in spiritual terms , an approach which Górecki also dismissed . Still others have suggested that the symphony can be understood as a compendium of Polish history :
The symphony alludes to each of the main historical and political developments in Poland 's history from the 14th century to 1976 , the year of its composition . What is more , each of the three movements appears to represent a different age . . . and [ they are ] chronologically contiguous . The composer seems to have created three separate and discrete " chapters " in his summary of Poland 's history .
Górecki said of the work , " Many of my family died in concentration camps . I had a grandfather who was in Dachau , an aunt in Auschwitz . You know how it is between Poles and Germans . But Bach was a German too — and Schubert , and Strauss . Everyone has his place on this little earth . That 's all behind me . So the Third Symphony is not about war ; it 's not a Dies Irae ; it 's a normal Symphony of Sorrowful Songs . "
= = Critical and cultural reception = =
Górecki 's Symphony No. 3 was written in 1976 , when Górecki was , in the words of the music critic Jane Perlez , " a fiery figure , fashionable only among a small circle of modern @-@ music aficionados " . The 1977 world première at the Royan Festival , Ernest Bour conducting , was reviewed by six western critics , all of them harshly dismissive . Heinz Koch , writing for Musica , said that the symphony " drags through three old folk melodies ( and nothing else ) for an endless 55 minutes " . Górecki himself recalled that , at the premiere , he sat next to a " prominent French musician " ( Górecki did not name names , though it was probably Pierre Boulez ) , who , after hearing the twenty @-@ one repetitions of an A @-@ major chord at the end of the symphony , loudly exclaimed " Merde ! "
The symphony was first recorded in Poland in 1978 by the soprano Stefania Woytowicz . It was deemed a masterpiece by Polish critics , although , during the late 1970s and early 1980s , recordings and performances of the work were widely criticised by the press outside Poland . The symphony drew hostility from critics who felt that Górecki had moved too far away from the established avant @-@ garde style and was , according to Dietmar Polaczek ( writing for Österreichische Musikzeitschrift ) , " simply adding to the decadent trash that encircled the true pinnacles of avant @-@ gardism " .
In 1985 , the French filmmaker Maurice Pialat featured a section of the third movement in the ending credits of his movie Police . When the work was later repackaged as a " soundtrack album " , it sold well . Although Gorecki 's name was featured prominently on the front cover , the sleeve notes on the back provided precious little information about the work , and Górecki 's name appeared in smaller type than those of the main actors . In the mid @-@ 1980s , British industrial music group Test Dept used the symphony as a backdrop for video collages during their concerts , recasting the symphony as a vehicle for the band 's sympathy with the Polish Solidarity movement , which Górecki also supported ( his 1981 piece Miserere was composed in part as a response to government opposition of Solidarity trade unions ) . During the late 1980s , the symphony received increasing airplay on US and British classical radio stations , notably Classic FM . The fall of communism helped to spread the popularity of Polish music generally , and by 1990 the symphony was being performed in major cities such as New York , London and Sydney . A 1991 recording with the London Sinfonietta , conducted by David Zinman and featuring the soloist Dawn Upshaw , was released in 1992 by the Elektra imprint Nonesuch Records . Within two years , the recording had sold more than 700 @,@ 000 copies worldwide ; the recording climbed to number 6 on the mainstream UK album charts , and while it did not appear on the US Billboard 200 , it stayed at the top of the US classical charts for 38 weeks and stayed on for 138 weeks . The Zinman / Upshaw recording has sold over a million copies . It probably counts as the best selling contemporary classical record of all time .
The writer Michael Steinberg described the symphony 's success as essentially a phenomenon of the compact disc , and while live performances are still given , they do not always sell out . Some critics , wondering at the sudden success of the piece nearly two decades after its composition , suggest that it resonated with a particular mood in the popular culture at the time . Stephen Johnson , writing in A guide to the symphony , wondered whether the commercial success of the work was " a flash in the pan " or would turn out to have lasting significance . In 1998 , the critic Michael Steinberg asked , " [ are people ] really listening to this symphony ? How many CD buyers discover that fifty @-@ four minutes of very slow music with a little singing in a language they don 't understand is more than they want ? Is it being played as background music to Chardonnay and brie ? " Steinberg compared the success of Górecki 's symphony to the Doctor Zhivago phenomenon of 1958 : " Everybody rushed to buy the book ; few managed actually to read it . The appearance of the movie in 1965 rescued us all from the necessity . " Górecki was as surprised as anyone else at the recording 's success , and later speculated that " perhaps people find something they need in this piece of music … . Somehow I hit the right note , something they were missing . Something , somewhere had been lost to them . I feel that I instinctively knew what they needed . "
At least a dozen recordings were issued in the wake of the success of the Nonesuch recording , and the work enjoyed significant exposure in a number of artistic media worldwide . The work was repeatedly used by filmmakers in the 1990s and onwards to elicit a sense of pathos or sorrow , including as an accompaniment to a plane crash in Peter Weir 's Fearless ( 1993 ) , in the soundtrack to Paolo Sorrentino 's La grande bellezza ( film ) ( 2013 ) , in Terrence Malick 's To the Wonder and in the soundtrack to Julian Schnabel 's Basquiat ( 1996 ) . An art gallery in Santa Fe , New Mexico opened an exhibit in 1995 dedicated entirely to visual art inspired by the piece . In 1995 German rock band Faust used the symphony in a music concrete piece " Eroberung Der Stille Teil 1 " which can be found on their " Rien " CD . The second movement , " Lento e largo " , is used in the documentary Chernobyl Heart .
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= USS McDougal ( DD @-@ 54 ) =
USS McDougal ( Destroyer No. 54 / DD @-@ 54 ) was an O 'Brien @-@ class destroyer built for the United States Navy prior to the American entry into World War I. The ship was the second U.S. Navy vessel named in honor of David Stockton McDougal , a U.S. Navy officer notable for his leadership during an 1863 battle off Japan while in command of Wyoming .
McDougal was laid down by Bath Iron Works of Bath , Maine , in July 1913 and launched in April 1914 . The ship was a little more than 305 feet ( 93 m ) in length , just over 31 feet ( 9 @.@ 4 m ) abeam , and had a standard displacement of 1 @,@ 020 long tons ( 1 @,@ 040 t ) . She was armed with four 4 @-@ inch ( 102 mm ) guns and had eight 21 @-@ inch ( 533 mm ) torpedo tubes . McDougal was powered by a pair of steam turbines that propelled her at up to 29 knots ( 54 km / h ) .
After her June 1914 commissioning , McDougal sailed off the east coast and in the Caribbean . She was one of seventeen destroyers sent out to rescue survivors from five victims of German submarine U @-@ 53 off the Lightship Nantucket in October 1916 , and carried 6 crewmen from a sunken Dutch cargo ship to Newport , Rhode Island . After the United States entered World War I in April 1917 , McDougal was part of the first U.S. destroyer squadron sent overseas . Patrolling the Irish Sea out of Queenstown , Ireland , McDougal made several unsuccessful attacks on U @-@ boats , and rescued survivors of ships sunk by the German craft . After a collision with a British cargo ship in February 1918 , McDougal was under repair until mid @-@ July , and afterwards , operated out of Brest , France .
Upon returning to the United States after the war , McDougal conducted operations with the destroyers of the Atlantic Fleet until August 1919 , when she was placed in reserve , still in commission . After a brief stint of operations in mid 1921 , she was placed in reserve until she was decommissioned at Philadelphia in May 1922 . In June 1924 , Ericsson was transferred to the United States Coast Guard to help enforce Prohibition as a part of the " Rum Patrol " . She operated under the name USCGC McDougal ( CG @-@ 6 ) until May 1933 , when she was returned to the Navy . In November she dropped her name to free it for a new destroyer of the same name , becoming known only as DD @-@ 54 . She was struck for the Naval Vessel Register in July 1934 and sold for scrapping in August .
= = Design and construction = =
McDougal was authorized in March 1913 as the fourth of six ships of the O 'Brien class , which was an improved version of the Cassin @-@ class destroyers authorized in 1911 . Construction of the vessel was awarded to Bath Iron Works of Bath , Maine , which laid down her keel on 29 July 1913 . On 22 April 1914 , McDougal was launched by sponsor Miss Marguerite S. LeBreton , granddaughter of the Commander David Stockton McDougal , the ship 's namesake . The ship was the first U.S. Navy ship named for McDougal , notable for his leadership during an 1863 battle off Japan while in command of Wyoming . As built , the destroyer was 305 feet 6 inches ( 93 @.@ 12 m ) in length , 31 feet 1 inch ( 9 @.@ 47 m ) abeam , and drew 9 feet 6 inches ( 2 @.@ 90 m ) . The ship had a standard displacement of 1 @,@ 020 long tons ( 1 @,@ 040 t ) and displaced 1 @,@ 171 long tons ( 1 @,@ 190 t ) when fully loaded .
McDougal had two Zoelly steam turbines that drove her two screw propellers , and an additional triple @-@ expansion steam engine connected to one of the propeller shafts for cruising purposes . Four oil @-@ burning White @-@ Forster boilers powered the engines , which could generate 17 @,@ 000 shaft horsepower ( 13 @,@ 000 kW ) , moving the ship at the design speed of 29 knots ( 54 km / h ) . During her acceptance trials in May 1914 , McDougal averaged 31 @.@ 02 knots ( 57 @.@ 45 km / h ) in a 15 @-@ minute run , but topped out at 33 @.@ 7 knots ( 62 @.@ 4 km / h ) for a 4 @-@ nautical @-@ mile ( 7 @.@ 4 km ) , top @-@ speed run .
McDougal 's main battery consisted of 4 × 4 in ( 100 mm ) / 50 caliber Mark 9 guns , with each gun weighing in excess of 6 @,@ 100 pounds ( 2 @,@ 800 kg ) . The guns fired 33 @-@ pound ( 15 kg ) armor @-@ piercing projectiles at 2 @,@ 900 feet per second ( 880 m / s ) . At an elevation of 20 ° , the guns had a range of 15 @,@ 920 yards ( 14 @,@ 560 m ) .
McDougal was also equipped with eight 21 @-@ inch ( 533 mm ) torpedo tubes . The General Board of the United States Navy had called for two anti @-@ aircraft guns for the O 'Brien @-@ class ships , as well as provisions for laying up to 36 floating mines . From sources , it is unclear if these recommendations were followed for McDougal or any of the other ships of the class .
= = Early career = =
USS McDougal was commissioned into the United States Navy on 16 June 1914 at Boston under the temporary command of Lieutenant , junior grade , John H. Hoover ; Lieutenant Commander Leigh C. Palmer assumed command on 27 July . After a shakedown cruise , McDougal began duty with the Torpedo Flotilla , Atlantic Fleet . Prior to America ’ s entry into World War I , she operated out of New York and Newport , Rhode Island , and carried out maneuvers and tactical exercises along the east coast .
In early April 1915 , McDougal and destroyer Parker were temporarily assigned to patrol near the New York Quarantine Station . There were concerns by Dudley Field Malone , the local port collector , that some of the interned German steamships at New York might try to slip out during a heavy snowstorm . While onboard on McDougal during one of these patrols , Malone discovered what The New York Times termed a " widespread conspiracy " intended to supply British warships outside U.S. territorial waters , in violation of the American neutrality in World War I.
She cruised to the Caribbean and took part in fleet war games between January and May 1916 , and in addition served intermittently with the Neutrality patrol . In May , she was declared the " champion smokeless vessel " of the U.S. Navy by The Christian Science Monitor after she was able to steam at 30 knots ( 56 km / h ) for four hours without betraying her position by smoke . In June , The Washington Post reported that she was damaged during maneuvers off Cape Ann , and had to put in to the Boston Navy Yard for leak repairs .
At 05 : 30 on Sunday , 8 October 1916 , wireless reports came in of a German submarine stopping ships near the Lightship Nantucket , off the eastern end of Long Island . After an SOS from the British steamer West Point was received at about 12 : 30 , Rear Admiral Albert Gleaves ordered McDougal and other destroyers at Newport to attend to survivors . According to a firsthand account of the events by Nathan Levy , a quartermaster on McDougal , published on 22 October in The New York Times , the destroyer steamed the 100 nautical miles ( 190 km ) distance to the lightship in three @-@ and @-@ a @-@ half hours , arriving after German submarine U @-@ 53 had stopped the Holland America Line cargo ship Blommersdijk and the British passenger ship Stephano . As Rose had done with three other ships U @-@ 53 had sunk earlier in the day , he gave passengers and crew aboard Blommersdijk and Stephano adequate time to abandon the ships . After sinking Blommersdijk with two torpedoes , Rose focused his attention on Stephano , having to signal McDougal and Benham to ask that the two destroyers move farther away so that he could sink the British ship . Six American destroyers witnessed U @-@ 53 sink the liner with her deck gun . In total , 226 survivors from U @-@ 53 's five victims were rescued by the destroyer flotilla ; McDougal rescued 6 of Blommersdijk 's men .
McDougal returned to the Caribbean for exercises during the first three months of 1917 , and then returned to New York and Newport to prepare for distant service .
= = World War I = =
Soon after the United States declared war on Germany on 6 April 1917 , McDougal departed for Europe as a part of the first U.S. destroyer division sent overseas during the war . Steaming with Wadsworth , the division 's flagship , under the command of Joseph K. Taussig , McDougal , Porter , Davis , Conyngham , and Wainwright departed New York on 24 April and arrived at Queenstown , Ireland , on 4 May and began patrolling the southern approaches to the Irish Sea the next day . McDougal patrolled off the Irish coast , escorting convoys of merchant ships and troop transports , searching for German submarines , and performing rescue operations for ships sunk . When British ship Manchester Miller was torpedoed and sunk by U @-@ 66 on 5 June 1917 , McDougal sped to her assistance and rescued 33 survivors .
On 8 September , as McDougal escorted a convoy off the southwest coast of England , she detected a surfaced submarine in the early morning hours and gave chase at full speed . The U @-@ boat submerged about 500 yards ( 460 m ) ahead of the closing destroyer , and McDougal dropped two depth charges which brought an oil slick to the surface . According to the Dictionary of American Naval Fighting Ships , McDougal 's actions prevented an attack on the convoy and resulted in " probable damage " to the submarine .
On 4 February 1918 , McDougal and the British cargo ship Glenmorag collided in the Irish Sea . The destroyer made her way to Liverpool and underwent repairs that lasted until mid @-@ July . Upon reentering service , McDougal was transferred to Brest to serve as an escort for convoys approaching the French port .
= = Postwar = =
Following the signing of the Armistice on 11 November 1918 , which ended all fighting , McDougal remained in French waters for a time . Crewmen aboard McDougal helped raise money to provide a Thanksgiving dinner for 150 " poor children " of Brest on 28 November , Thanksgiving Day in the United States . When President Woodrow Wilson arrived at Brest on George Washington just over two weeks later , the destroyer served as part of that transport 's escort into the harbor . On 21 December , McDougal departed Brest 21 December with Destroyer Division 7 and reached New York 8 January 1919 .
McDougal resumed duty along the east coast and , during May , provided part of the comprehensive at @-@ sea support as U.S. Navy seaplanes undertook the historic first aerial crossing of the Atlantic . After completing exercises in the Caribbean , she was placed in commission , in reserve at New York on 7 August . She was laid up in reduced commission at Philadelphia and Charleston , South Carolina , in the years that followed . She was reactivated for training in New England waters during the summer of 1921 , but returned to Philadelphia , where she was decommissioned on 26 May 1922 .
= = United States Coast Guard career = =
On 17 January 1920 , Prohibition was instituted by law in the United States . Soon , the smuggling of alcoholic beverages along the coastlines of the United States became widespread and blatant . The Treasury Department eventually determined that the United States Coast Guard simply did not have the ships to constitute a successful patrol . To cope with the problem , President Calvin Coolidge in 1924 authorized the transfer from the Navy to the Coast Guard of twenty old destroyers that were in reserve and out of commission . McDougal was activated and acquired by the Coast Guard on 7 June 1924 . Designated CG @-@ 6 , McDougal was commissioned on 28 May 1925 , and joined the " Rum Patrol " to aid in the attempt to enforce prohibition laws .
In August 1929 , McDougal and Tampa were dispatched to locate and sink the steamer Quimistan , which had been reported as abandoned and on fire in the Atlantic 1 @,@ 100 nautical miles ( 2 @,@ 000 km ) east of Norfolk , Virginia . In April 1933 , McDougal was one of the Coast Guard ships deployed to search for the U.S. Navy airship Akron when it crashed into the Atlantic on the night of 3 / 4 April . Later that same month , McDougal was dispatched to help the Italian steamer Voluntas when she had requested assistance on the 23rd , but was recalled when Voluntas rescinded the call for help .
After nearly eight years of Coast Guard service , McDougal was decommissioned at Philadelphia on 26 May 1933 and returned to the custody of the U.S. Navy on 30 June . On 1 November 1933 , she dropped the name McDougal to free it for a new destroyer of the same name , becoming known only as DD @-@ 54 . The ship was struck from the Naval Vessel Register on 5 July 1934 , and , on 22 August , was sold for scrapping in accordance with the London Naval Treaty for the limitation of naval armaments .
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= Fourteenth Amendment to the United States Constitution =
The Fourteenth Amendment ( Amendment XIV ) to the United States Constitution was adopted on July 9 , 1868 , as one of the Reconstruction Amendments . The amendment addresses citizenship rights and equal protection of the laws , and was proposed in response to issues related to former slaves following the American Civil War . The amendment was bitterly contested , particularly by Southern states , which were forced to ratify it in order for them to regain representation in Congress . The Fourteenth Amendment , particularly its first section , is one of the most litigated parts of the Constitution , forming the basis for landmark decisions such as Roe v. Wade ( 1973 ) regarding abortion , Bush v. Gore ( 2000 ) regarding the 2000 presidential election , and Obergefell v. Hodges ( 2015 ) regarding same @-@ sex marriage . The amendment limits the actions of all state and local officials , including those acting on behalf of such an official .
The amendment 's first section includes several clauses : the Citizenship Clause , Privileges or Immunities Clause , Due Process Clause , and Equal Protection Clause . The Citizenship Clause provides a broad definition of citizenship , overruling the Supreme Court 's decision in Dred Scott v. Sandford ( 1857 ) , which had held that Americans descended from African slaves could not be citizens of the United States . The Privileges or Immunities Clause has been interpreted in such a way that it does very little .
The Due Process Clause prohibits state and local government officials from depriving persons of life , liberty , or property without legislative authorization . This clause has also been used by the federal judiciary to make most of the Bill of Rights applicable to the states , as well as to recognize substantive and procedural requirements that state laws must satisfy .
The Equal Protection Clause requires each state to provide equal protection under the law to all people within its jurisdiction . This clause was the basis for Brown v. Board of Education ( 1954 ) , the Supreme Court decision that precipitated the dismantling of racial segregation , and for many other decisions rejecting irrational or unnecessary discrimination against people belonging to various groups .
The second , third , and fourth sections of the amendment are seldom litigated . However , the second section 's reference to " rebellion and other crime " has been invoked as a constitutional ground for felony disenfranchisement . The fifth section gives Congress the power to enforce the amendment 's provisions by " appropriate legislation " . However , under City of Boerne v. Flores ( 1997 ) , Congress 's enforcement power may not be used to contradict a Supreme Court interpretation of the amendment .
= = Text = =
Section 1 . All persons born or naturalized in the United States , and subject to the jurisdiction thereof , are citizens of the United States and of the State wherein they reside . No State shall make or enforce any law which shall abridge the privileges or immunities of citizens of the United States ; nor shall any State deprive any person of life , liberty , or property , without due process of law ; nor deny to any person within its jurisdiction the equal protection of the laws .
Section 2 . Representatives shall be apportioned among the several States according to their respective numbers , counting the whole number of persons in each State , excluding Indians not taxed . But when the right to vote at any election for the choice of electors for President and Vice President of the United States , Representatives in Congress , the Executive and Judicial officers of a State , or the members of the Legislature thereof , is denied to any of the male inhabitants of such State , being twenty @-@ one years of age , and citizens of the United States , or in any way abridged , except for participation in rebellion , or other crime , the basis of representation therein shall be reduced in the proportion which the number of such male citizens shall bear to the whole number of male citizens twenty @-@ one years of age in such State .
Section 3 . No person shall be a Senator or Representative in Congress , or elector of President and Vice President , or hold any office , civil or military , under the United States , or under any State , who , having previously taken an oath , as a member of Congress , or as an officer of the United States , or as a member of any State legislature , or as an executive or judicial officer of any State , to support the Constitution of the United States , shall have engaged in insurrection or rebellion against the same , or given aid or comfort to the enemies thereof . But Congress may , by a vote of two @-@ thirds of each House , remove such disability .
Section 4 . The validity of the public debt of the United States , authorized by law , including debts incurred for payment of pensions and bounties for services in suppressing insurrection or rebellion , shall not be questioned . But neither the United States nor any State shall assume or pay any debt or obligation incurred in aid of insurrection or rebellion against the United States , or any claim for the loss or emancipation of any slave ; but all such debts , obligations and claims shall be held illegal and void .
Section 5 . The Congress shall have power to enforce , by appropriate legislation , the provisions of this article .
= = Adoption = =
= = = Proposal by Congress = = =
In the final years of the American Civil War and the Reconstruction Era that followed , Congress repeatedly debated the rights of black former slaves freed by the 1863 Emancipation Proclamation and the 1865 Thirteenth Amendment , the latter of which had formally abolished slavery . Following the passage of the Thirteenth Amendment by Congress , however , Republicans grew concerned over the increase it would create in the congressional representation of the Democratic @-@ dominated Southern States . Because the full population of freed slaves would now be counted for determining congressional representation , rather than the three @-@ fifths previously mandated by the Three @-@ Fifths Compromise , the Southern States would dramatically increase their power in the population @-@ based House of Representatives , regardless of whether the former slaves were allowed to vote . Republicans began looking for a way to offset this advantage , either by protecting and attracting votes of former slaves , or at least by discouraging their disenfranchisement .
In 1865 , Congress passed what would become the Civil Rights Act of 1866 , guaranteeing citizenship without regard to race , color , or previous condition of slavery or involuntary servitude . The bill also guaranteed equal benefits and access to the law , a direct assault on the Black Codes passed by many post @-@ war states . The Black Codes attempted to return ex @-@ slaves to something like their former condition by , among other things , restricting their movement , forcing them to enter into year @-@ long labor contracts , prohibiting them from owning firearms , and preventing them from suing or testifying in court .
Although strongly urged by moderates in Congress to sign the bill , President Andrew Johnson vetoed it on March 27 , 1866 . In his veto message , he objected to the measure because it conferred citizenship on the freedmen at a time when 11 out of 36 states were unrepresented in the Congress , and that it discriminated in favor of African @-@ Americans and against whites . Three weeks later , Johnson 's veto was overridden and the measure became law . Despite this victory , even some Republicans who had supported the goals of the Civil Rights Act began to doubt that Congress really possessed constitutional power to turn those goals into laws . The experience also encouraged both radical and moderate Republicans to seek Constitutional guarantees for black rights , rather than relying on temporary political majorities .
Over 70 proposals for an amendment were drafted . In late 1865 , the Joint Committee on Reconstruction proposed an amendment stating that any citizens barred from voting on the basis of race by a state would not be counted for purposes of representation of that state . This amendment passed the House , but was blocked in the Senate by a coalition of Radical Republicans led by Charles Sumner , who believed the proposal a " compromise with wrong " , and Democrats opposed to black rights . Consideration then turned to a proposed amendment by Representative John A. Bingham of Ohio , which would enable Congress to safeguard " equal protection of life , liberty , and property " of all citizens ; this proposal failed to pass the House . In April 1866 , the Joint Committee forwarded a third proposal to Congress , a carefully negotiated compromise that combined elements of the first and second proposals as well as addressing the issues of Confederate debt and voting by ex @-@ Confederates . The House of Representatives passed House Resolution 127 , 39th Congress several weeks later and sent to the Senate for action . The resolution was debated and several amendments to it were proposed . Amendments to Sections 2 , 3 and 4 were adopted on June 8 , 1866 and the modified resolution passed by a 33 to 11 vote . The House agreed to the Senate amendments on June 13 by a 138 @-@ 36 vote . A concurrent resolution requesting the President to transmit the proposal to the executives of the several states was passed by both houses of Congress on June 18 .
The Radical Republicans were satisfied that they had secured civil rights for blacks , but were disappointed that the amendment would not also secure political rights for blacks , in particular the right to vote . For example , Thaddeus Stevens , a leader of the disappointed Radical Republicans , said : " I find that we shall be obliged to be content with patching up the worst portions of the ancient edifice , and leaving it , in many of its parts , to be swept through by the tempests , the frosts , and the storms of despotism . " Abolitionist Wendell Phillips called it a " fatal and total surrender " . This point would later be addressed by the Fifteenth Amendment .
= = = Ratification by the states = = =
Ratification of the amendment was bitterly contested . State legislatures in every formerly Confederate state , with the exception of Tennessee , refused to ratify it . This refusal led to the passage of the Reconstruction Acts . Ignoring the existing state governments , military government was imposed until new civil governments were established and the Fourteenth Amendment was ratified . It also prompted Congress to pass a law on March 2 , 1867 , requiring that a former Confederate state must ratify the Fourteenth Amendment before " said State shall be declared entitled to representation in Congress " .
The first twenty @-@ eight states to ratify the Fourteenth Amendment were :
Connecticut – June 30 , 1866
New Hampshire – July 6 , 1866
Tennessee – July 18 , 1866
New Jersey – September 11 , 1866 ( Rescinded ratification – February 20 , 1868 / March 24 , 1868 ; re @-@ ratified – April 23 , 2003 )
Oregon – September 19 , 1866 ( Rescinded ratification – October 16 , 1868 ; re @-@ ratified – April 25 , 1973 )
Vermont – October 30 , 1866
New York – January 10 , 1867
Ohio – January 11 , 1867 ( Rescinded ratification – January 13 , 1868 ; re @-@ ratified – March 12 , 2003 )
Illinois – January 15 , 1867
West Virginia – January 16 , 1867
Michigan – January 16 , 1867
Minnesota – January 16 , 1867
Kansas – January 17 , 1867
Maine – January 19 , 1867
Nevada – January 22 , 1867
Indiana – January 23 , 1867
Missouri – January 25 , 1867
Pennsylvania – February 6 , 1867
Rhode Island – February 7 , 1867
Wisconsin – February 13 , 1867
Massachusetts – March 20 , 1867
Nebraska – June 15 , 1867
Iowa – March 16 , 1868
Arkansas – April 6 , 1868
Florida – June 9 , 1868
North Carolina – July 4 , 1868 ( After rejection – December 14 , 1866 )
Louisiana – July 9 , 1868 ( After rejection – February 6 , 1867 )
South Carolina – July 9 , 1868 ( After rejection – December 20 , 1866 )
On July 20 , 1868 , Secretary of State William H. Seward certified that the amendment had become part of the Constitution on July 9 , 1868 , if withdrawals of ratification by New Jersey and Ohio were ineffective . The following day , Congress adopted and transmitted to the Department of State a concurrent resolution declaring the Fourteenth Amendment to be a part of the Constitution and directing the Secretary of State to promulgate it as such . Both New Jersey and Ohio were named in the congressional resolution as having ratified the amendment . Their inclusion as ratifying states by Congress goes to the merits of rescinding a ratification after it has been affirmed , and of approving a ratification after it has been rejected . It would appear that Congress has determined both have no impact on the ratification process – see Coleman v. Miller . Accordingly , Seward issued an unconditional certificate of ratification , dated July 28 , 1868 , declaring that the Fourteenth Amendment had been duly ratified by the requisite three @-@ fourths of the states . During the preceding week , two additional states had ratified the amendment , which left no doubt that the amendment had indeed become operational .
The Fourteenth Amendment was subsequently ratified :
Alabama – July 13 , 1868
Georgia – July 21 , 1868 ( After rejection – November 9 , 1866 )
Virginia – October 8 , 1869 ( after rejection – January 9 , 1867 )
Mississippi – January 17 , 1870
Texas – February 18 , 1870 ( after rejection – October 27 , 1866 )
Delaware – February 12 , 1901 ( after rejection – February 8 , 1867 )
Maryland – April 4 , 1959 ( after rejection – March 23 , 1867 )
California – May 6 , 1959
Kentucky – March 30 , 1976 ( after rejection – January 8 , 1867 )
Since Ohio and New Jersey re @-@ ratified the Fourteenth Amendment in 2003 , all U.S. states that existed during Reconstruction have ratified the amendment .
= = Citizenship and civil rights = =
= = = Background = = =
Section 1 of the amendment formally defines United States citizenship and also protects various civil rights from being abridged or denied by any state or state actor . Abridgment or denial of those civil rights by private persons is not addressed by this amendment ; the Supreme Court held in the Civil Rights Cases ( 1883 ) that the amendment was limited to " state action " and , therefore , did not authorize the Congress to outlaw racial discrimination by private individuals or organizations ( though Congress can sometimes reach such discrimination via other parts of the Constitution ) . U.S. Supreme Court Justice Joseph P. Bradley commented in the Civil Rights Cases that " individual invasion of individual rights is not the subject @-@ matter of the [ 14th ] Amendment . It has a deeper and broader scope . It nullifies and makes void all state legislation , and state action of every kind , which impairs the privileges and immunities of citizens of the United States , or which injures them in life , liberty or property without due process of law , or which denies to any of them the equal protection of the laws . "
The Radical Republicans who advanced the Thirteenth Amendment hoped to ensure broad civil and human rights for the newly freed people — but its scope was disputed before it even went into effect . The framers of the Fourteenth Amendment wanted these principles enshrined in the Constitution to protect the new Civil Rights Act from being declared unconstitutional by the Supreme Court and also to prevent a future Congress from altering it by a mere majority vote . This section was also in response to violence against black people within the Southern States . The Joint Committee on Reconstruction found that only a Constitutional amendment could protect black people 's rights and welfare within those states .
This first section of the amendment has been the most frequently litigated part of the amendment , and this amendment in turn has been the most frequently litigated part of the Constitution .
= = = Citizenship Clause = = =
The Citizenship Clause overruled the Supreme Court 's Dred Scott decision that black people were not citizens and could not become citizens , nor enjoy the benefits of citizenship . Some members of Congress voted for the Fourteenth Amendment in order to eliminate doubts about the constitutionality of the Civil Rights Act of 1866 , or to ensure that no subsequent Congress could later repeal or alter the main provisions of that Act . The Civil Rights Act of 1866 had granted citizenship to all persons born in the United States if they were not subject to a foreign power , and this clause of the Fourteenth Amendment constitutionalized this rule .
There are varying interpretations of the original intent of Congress and of the ratifying states , based on statements made during the congressional debate over the amendment , as well as the customs and understandings prevalent at that time . Some of the major issues that have arisen about this clause are the extent to which it included Native Americans , its coverage of non @-@ citizens legally present in the United States when they have a child , whether the clause allows revocation of citizenship , and whether the clause applies to illegal immigrants .
Historian Eric Foner , who has explored the question of U.S. birthright citizenship to other countries and argues that :
Many things claimed as uniquely American — a devotion to individual freedom , for example , or social opportunity — exist in other countries . But birthright citizenship does make the United States ( along with Canada ) unique in the developed world . [ ... ] Birthright citizenship is one expression of the commitment to equality and the expansion of national consciousness that marked Reconstruction . [ ... ] Birthright citizenship is one legacy of the titanic struggle of the Reconstruction era to create a genuine democracy grounded in the principle of equality .
= = = = Native Americans = = = =
During the original congressional debate over the amendment Senator Jacob M. Howard of Michigan — the author of the Citizenship Clause — described the clause as having the same content , despite different wording , as the earlier Civil Rights Act of 1866 , namely , that it excludes Native Americans who maintain their tribal ties and " persons born in the United States who are foreigners , aliens , who belong to the families of ambassadors or foreign ministers . " According to historian Glenn W. LaFantasie of Western Kentucky University , " A good number of his fellow senators supported his view of the citizenship clause . " Others also agreed that the children of ambassadors and foreign ministers were to be excluded .
Senator James Rood Doolittle of Wisconsin asserted that all Native Americans were subject to United States jurisdiction , so that the phrase " Indians not taxed " would be preferable , but Senate Judiciary Committee Chairman Lyman Trumbull and Howard disputed this , arguing that the federal government did not have full jurisdiction over Native American tribes , which govern themselves and make treaties with the United States . In Elk v. Wilkins ( 1884 ) , the clause 's meaning was tested regarding whether birth in the United States automatically extended national citizenship . The Supreme Court held that Native Americans who voluntarily quit their tribes did not automatically gain national citizenship . The issue was resolved with the passage of the Indian Citizenship Act of 1924 , which granted full U.S. citizenship to indigenous peoples .
= = = = Children born to citizens of other countries = = = =
The Fourteenth Amendment provides that children born in the United States become American citizens regardless of the citizenship of their parents . At the time of the amendment 's passage , three Senators , including Trumbull , the author of the Civil Rights Act , as well as President Andrew Johnson , asserted that both the Civil Rights Act and the Fourteenth Amendment would confer citizenship on such children at birth ; however , Senator Edgar Cowan of Pennsylvania had a definitively contrary opinion . These congressional remarks applied to non @-@ citizens lawfully present in the United States , as the problem of unauthorized immigration did not exist in 1866 , and some scholars dispute whether the Citizenship Clause applies to unauthorized immigrants , although the law of the land continues to be based on the standard interpretation . Congress during the 21st century has occasionally discussed revising the clause to reduce the practice of " birth tourism " , in which a pregnant foreign national gives birth in the United States for purposes of the child 's citizenship .
The clause 's meaning with regard to a child of legal immigrants was tested in United States v. Wong Kim Ark ( 1898 ) . The Supreme Court held that under the Fourteenth Amendment , a man born within the United States to Chinese citizens who have a permanent domicile and residence in the United States and are carrying on business in the United States — and whose parents were not employed in a diplomatic or other official capacity by a foreign power — was a citizen of the United States . Subsequent decisions have applied the principle to the children of foreign nationals of non @-@ Chinese descent .
= = = = Loss of citizenship = = = =
Loss of national citizenship is possible only under the following circumstances :
Fraud in the naturalization process . Technically , this is not loss of citizenship but rather a voiding of the purported naturalization and a declaration that the immigrant never was a citizen of the United States .
Voluntary relinquishment of citizenship . This may be accomplished either through renunciation procedures specially established by the State Department or through other actions that demonstrate desire to give up national citizenship .
For much of the country 's history , voluntary acquisition or exercise of a foreign citizenship was considered sufficient cause for revocation of national citizenship . This concept was enshrined in a series of treaties between the United States and other countries ( the Bancroft Treaties ) . However , the Supreme Court repudiated this concept in Afroyim v. Rusk ( 1967 ) , as well as Vance v. Terrazas ( 1980 ) , holding that the Citizenship Clause of the Fourteenth Amendment barred the Congress from revoking citizenship . However , Congress can revoke citizenship that it had previously granted to a person not born in the United States .
= = = Privileges or Immunities Clause = = =
The Privileges or Immunities Clause , which protects the privileges and immunities of national citizenship from interference by the states , was patterned after the Privileges and Immunities Clause of Article IV , which protects the privileges and immunities of state citizenship from interference by other states . In the Slaughter @-@ House Cases ( 1873 ) , the Supreme Court concluded that the Constitution recognized two separate types of citizenship — " national citizenship " and " state citizenship " — and the Court held that the Privileges or Immunities Clause prohibits states from interfering only with privileges and immunities possessed by virtue of national citizenship . The Court concluded that the privileges and immunities of national citizenship included only those rights that " owe their existence to the Federal government , its National character , its Constitution , or its laws . " The Court recognized few such rights , including access to seaports and navigable waterways , the right to run for federal office , the protection of the federal government while on the high seas or in the jurisdiction of a foreign country , the right to travel to the seat of government , the right to peaceably assemble and petition the government , the privilege of the writ of habeas corpus , and the right to participate in the government 's administration . This decision has not been overruled and has been specifically reaffirmed several times . Largely as a result of the narrowness of the Slaughter @-@ House opinion , this clause subsequently lay dormant for well over a century .
In Saenz v. Roe ( 1999 ) , the Court ruled that a component of the " right to travel " is protected by the Privileges or Immunities Clause :
Despite fundamentally differing views concerning the coverage of the Privileges or Immunities Clause of the Fourteenth Amendment , most notably expressed in the majority and dissenting opinions in the Slaughter @-@ House Cases ( 1873 ) , it has always been common ground that this Clause protects the third component of the right to travel . Writing for the majority in the Slaughter @-@ House Cases , Justice Miller explained that one of the privileges conferred by this Clause " is that a citizen of the United States can , of his own volition , become a citizen of any State of the Union by a bona fide residence therein , with the same rights as other citizens of that State . " ( emphasis added )
Justice Miller actually wrote in the Slaughter @-@ House Cases that the right to become a citizen of a state ( by residing in that state ) " is conferred by the very article under consideration " ( emphasis added ) , rather than by the " clause " under consideration .
In McDonald v. Chicago ( 2010 ) , Justice Clarence Thomas , while concurring with the majority in incorporating the Second Amendment against the states , declared that he reached this conclusion through the Privileges or Immunities Clause instead of the Due Process Clause . Randy Barnett has referred to Justice Thomas 's concurring opinion as a " complete restoration " of the Privileges or Immunities Clause .
= = = Due Process Clause = = =
The Due Process Clause of the Fourteenth Amendment applies only against the states , but it is otherwise textually identical to the Due Process Clause of the Fifth Amendment , which applies against the federal government ; both clauses have been interpreted to encompass identical doctrines of procedural due process and substantive due process . Procedural due process is the guarantee of a fair legal process when the government tries to interfere with a person 's protected interests in life , liberty , or property , and substantive due process is the guarantee that the fundamental rights of citizens will not be encroached on by government . The Due Process Clause of the Fourteenth Amendment also incorporates most of the provisions in the Bill of Rights , which were originally applied against only the federal government , and applies them against the states .
= = = = Substantive due process = = = =
Beginning with Allgeyer v. Louisiana ( 1897 ) , the Court interpreted the Due Process Clause as providing substantive protection to private contracts , thus prohibiting a variety of social and economic regulation ; this principle was referred to as " freedom of contract " . Thus , the Court struck down a law decreeing maximum hours for workers in a bakery in Lochner v. New York ( 1905 ) and struck down a minimum wage law in Adkins v. Children 's Hospital ( 1923 ) . In Meyer v. Nebraska ( 1923 ) , the Court stated that the " liberty " protected by the Due Process Clause
[ w ] ithout doubt ... denotes not merely freedom from bodily restraint but also the right of the individual to contract , to engage in any of the common occupations of life , to acquire useful knowledge , to marry , establish a home and bring up children , to worship God according to the dictates of his own conscience , and generally to enjoy those privileges long recognized at common law as essential to the orderly pursuit of happiness by free men .
However , the Court did uphold some economic regulation , such as state Prohibition laws ( Mugler v. Kansas , 1887 ) , laws declaring maximum hours for mine workers ( Holden v. Hardy , 1898 ) , laws declaring maximum hours for female workers ( Muller v. Oregon , 1908 ) , and President Woodrow Wilson 's intervention in a railroad strike ( Wilson v. New , 1917 ) , as well as federal laws regulating narcotics ( United States v. Doremus , 1919 ) . The Court repudiated , but did not explicitly overrule , the " freedom of contract " line of cases in West Coast Hotel v. Parrish ( 1937 ) .
In Poe v. Ullman ( 1961 ) , dissenting judge John Marshall Harlan II adopted a broad view of the " liberty " protected by the Fourteenth Amendment Due Process clause :
[ T ] he full scope of the liberty guaranteed by the Due Process Clause cannot be found in or limited by the precise terms of the specific guarantees elsewhere provided in the Constitution . This `liberty ' is not a series of isolated points pricked out in terms of the taking of property ; the freedom of speech , press , and religion ; the right to keep and bear arms ; the freedom from unreasonable searches and seizures ; and so on . It is a rational continuum which , broadly speaking , includes a freedom from all substantial arbitrary impositions and purposeless restraints , . . . and which also recognizes , what a reasonable and sensitive judgment must , that certain interests require particularly careful scrutiny of the state needs asserted to justify their abridgment .
This broad view of liberty was adopted by the Supreme Court in Griswold v. Connecticut ( for further information see below ) . Although the " freedom of contract " described above has fallen into disfavor , by the 1960s , the Court had extended its interpretation of substantive due process to include other rights and freedoms that are not enumerated in the Constitution but that , according to the Court , extend or derive from existing rights . For example , the Due Process Clause is also the foundation of a constitutional right to privacy . The Court first ruled that privacy was protected by the Constitution in Griswold v. Connecticut ( 1965 ) , which overturned a Connecticut law criminalizing birth control . While Justice William O. Douglas wrote for the majority that the right to privacy was found in the " penumbras " of various provisions in the Bill of Rights , Justices Arthur Goldberg and John Marshall Harlan II wrote in concurring opinions that the " liberty " protected by the Due Process Clause included individual privacy .
The right to privacy was the basis for Roe v. Wade ( 1973 ) , in which the Court invalidated a Texas law forbidding abortion except to save the mother 's life . Like Goldberg 's and Harlan 's concurring opinions in Griswold , the majority opinion authored by Justice Harry Blackmun located the right to privacy in the Due Process Clause 's protection of liberty . The decision disallowed many state and federal abortion restrictions , and it became one of the most controversial in the Court 's history . In Planned Parenthood v. Casey ( 1992 ) , the Court decided that " the essential holding of Roe v. Wade should be retained and once again reaffirmed . "
In Lawrence v. Texas ( 2003 ) , the Court found that a Texas law against same @-@ sex sexual intercourse violated the right to privacy . In Obergefell v. Hodges ( 2015 ) , the Court ruled that the fundamental right to marriage included same @-@ sex couples being able to marry .
= = = = Procedural due process = = = =
When the government seeks to burden a person 's protected liberty interest or property interest , the Supreme Court has held that procedural due process requires that , at a minimum , the government provide the person notice , an opportunity to be heard at an oral hearing , and a decision by a neutral decision maker . For example , such process is due when a government agency seeks to terminate civil service employees , expel a student from public school , or cut off a welfare recipient 's benefits .
The Court has also ruled that the Due Process Clause requires judges to recuse themselves in cases where the judge has a conflict of interest . For example , in Caperton v. A.T. Massey Coal Co . ( 2009 ) , the Court ruled that a justice of the Supreme Court of Appeals of West Virginia had to recuse himself from a case involving a major contributor to his campaign for election to that court .
= = = = Incorporation = = = =
While many state constitutions are modeled after the United States Constitution and federal laws , those state constitutions did not necessarily include provisions comparable to the Bill of Rights . In Barron v. Baltimore ( 1833 ) , the Supreme Court unanimously ruled that the Bill of Rights restrained only the federal government , not the states . However , the Supreme Court has subsequently held that most provisions of the Bill of Rights apply to the states through the Due Process Clause of the Fourteenth Amendment under a doctrine called " incorporation . "
Whether incorporation was intended by the amendment 's framers , such as John Bingham , has been debated by legal historians . According to legal scholar Akhil Reed Amar , the framers and early supporters of the Fourteenth Amendment believed that it would ensure that the states would be required to recognize the same individual rights as the federal government ; all of these rights were likely understood as falling within the " privileges or immunities " safeguarded by the amendment .
By the latter half of the 20th century , nearly all of the rights in the Bill of Rights had been applied to the states . The Supreme Court has held that the amendment 's Due Process Clause incorporates all of the substantive protections of the First , Second , Fourth , Fifth ( except for its Grand Jury Clause ) and Sixth Amendments and the Cruel and Unusual Punishment Clause of the Eighth Amendment . While the Third Amendment has not been applied to the states by the Supreme Court , the Second Circuit ruled that it did apply to the states within that circuit 's jurisdiction in Engblom v. Carey . The Seventh Amendment right to jury trial in civil cases has been held not to be applicable to the states , but the amendment 's Re @-@ Examination Clause applies not only to federal courts , but also to " a case tried before a jury in a state court and brought to the Supreme Court on appeal . "
= = = Equal Protection Clause = = =
The Equal Protection Clause was created largely in response to the lack of equal protection provided by law in states with Black Codes . Under Black Codes , blacks could not sue , give evidence , or be witnesses . They also were punished more harshly than whites . In 1880 , the Supreme Court stated in Strauder v. West Virginia that the Equal Protection Clause was
designed to assure to the colored race the enjoyment of all the civil rights that under the law are enjoyed by white persons , and to give to that race the protection of the general government , in that enjoyment , whenever it should be denied by the States .
The Clause mandates that individuals in similar situations be treated equally by the law . Although the text of the Fourteenth Amendment applies the Equal Protection Clause only against the states , the Supreme Court , since Bolling v. Sharpe ( 1954 ) , has applied the Clause against the federal government through the Due Process Clause of the Fifth Amendment under a doctrine called " reverse incorporation . "
In Yick Wo v. Hopkins ( 1886 ) , the Supreme Court has clarified that the meaning of " person " and " within its jurisdiction " in the Equal Protection Clause would not be limited to discrimination against African Americans , but would extend to other races , colors , and nationalities such as ( in this case ) legal aliens in the United States who are Chinese citizens :
These provisions are universal in their application to all persons within the territorial jurisdiction , without regard to any differences of race , of color , or of nationality , and the equal protection of the laws is a pledge of the protection of equal laws .
Persons " within its jurisdiction " are entitled to equal protection from a state . Largely because the Privileges and Immunities Clause of Article IV has from the beginning guaranteed the privileges and immunities of citizens in the several states , the Supreme Court has rarely construed the phrase " within its jurisdiction " in relation to natural persons . In Plyler v. Doe ( 1982 ) , where the Court held that aliens illegally present in a state are within its jurisdiction and may thus raise equal protection claims the Court explicated the meaning of the phrase " within its jurisdiction " as follows : " [ U ] se of the phrase " within its jurisdiction " confirms the understanding that the Fourteenth Amendment 's protection extends to anyone , citizen or stranger , who is subject to the laws of a State , and reaches into every corner of a State 's territory . " The Court reached this understanding among other things from Senator Howard , a member of the Joint Committee of Fifteen , and the floor manager of the amendment in the Senate . Senator Howard was explicit about the broad objectives of the Fourteenth Amendment and the intention to make its provisions applicable to all who " may happen to be " within the jurisdiction of a state :
The last two clauses of the first section of the amendment disable a State from depriving not merely a citizen of the United States , but any person , whoever he may be , of life , liberty , or property without due process of law , or from denying to him the equal protection of the laws of the State . This abolishes all class legislation in the States and does away with the injustice of subjecting one caste of persons to a code not applicable to another . ... It will , if adopted by the States , forever disable every one of them from passing laws trenching upon those fundamental rights and privileges which pertain to citizens of the United States , and to all person who may happen to be within their jurisdiction . [ emphasis added by the U.S. Supreme Court ]
The relationship between the Fifth and Fourteenth Amendments was addressed by Justice Field in Wong Wing v. United States ( 1896 ) . He observed with respect to the phrase " within its jurisdiction " : " The term ' person , ' used in the Fifth Amendment , is broad enough to include any and every human being within the jurisdiction of the republic . A resident , alien born , is entitled to the same protection under the laws that a citizen is entitled to . He owes obedience to the laws of the country in which he is domiciled , and , as a consequence , he is entitled to the equal protection of those laws . ... The contention that persons within the territorial jurisdiction of this republic might be beyond the protection of the law was heard with pain on the argument at the bar — in face of the great constitutional amendment which declares that no State shall deny to any person within its jurisdiction the equal protection of the laws . "
The Supreme Court also decided whether foreign corporations are also within the jurisdiction of a state , ruling that a foreign corporation which sued in a state court in which it was not licensed to do business to recover possession of property wrongfully taken from it in another state was within the jurisdiction and could not be subjected to unequal burdens in the maintenance of the suit . When a state has admitted a foreign corporation to do business within its borders , that corporation is entitled to equal protection of the laws but not necessarily to identical treatment with domestic corporations .
In Santa Clara County v. Southern Pacific Railroad ( 1886 ) , the court reporter included a statement by Chief Justice Morrison Waite in the decision 's headnote :
The court does not wish to hear argument on the question whether the provision in the Fourteenth Amendment to the Constitution , which forbids a State to deny to any person within its jurisdiction the equal protection of the laws , applies to these corporations . We are all of the opinion that it does .
This dictum , which established that corporations enjoyed personhood under the Equal Protection Clause , was repeatedly reaffirmed by later courts . It remained the predominant view throughout the twentieth century , though it was challenged in dissents by justices such as Hugo Black and William O. Douglas . Between 1890 and 1910 , Fourteenth Amendment cases involving corporations vastly outnumbered those involving the rights of blacks , 288 to 19 .
In the decades following the adoption of the Fourteenth Amendment , the Supreme Court overturned laws barring blacks from juries ( Strauder v. West Virginia , 1880 ) or discriminating against Chinese Americans in the regulation of laundry businesses ( Yick Wo v. Hopkins , 1886 ) , as violations of the Equal Protection Clause . However , in Plessy v. Ferguson ( 1896 ) , the Supreme Court held that the states could impose segregation so long as they provided similar facilities — the formation of the " separate but equal " doctrine .
The Court went even further in restricting the Equal Protection Clause in Berea College v. Kentucky ( 1908 ) , holding that the states could force private actors to discriminate by prohibiting colleges from having both black and white students . By the early 20th century , the Equal Protection Clause had been eclipsed to the point that Justice Oliver Wendell Holmes , Jr. dismissed it as " the usual last resort of constitutional arguments . "
The Court held to the " separate but equal " doctrine for more than fifty years , despite numerous cases in which the Court itself had found that the segregated facilities provided by the states were almost never equal , until Brown v. Board of Education ( 1954 ) reached the Court . In Brown the Court ruled that even if segregated black and white schools were of equal quality in facilities and teachers , segregation was inherently harmful to black students and so was unconstitutional . Brown met with a campaign of resistance from white Southerners , and for decades the federal courts attempted to enforce Brown 's mandate against repeated attempts at circumvention . This resulted in the controversial desegregation busing decrees handed down by federal courts in various parts of the nation . In Parents Involved in Community Schools v. Seattle School District No. 1 ( 2007 ) , the Court ruled that race could not be the determinative factor in determining to which public schools parents may transfer their children .
In Plyler v. Doe ( 1982 ) the Supreme Court struck down a Texas statute denying free public education to illegal immigrants as a violation of the Equal Protection Clause of the Fourteenth Amendment because discrimination on the basis of illegal immigration status did not further a substantial state interest . The Court reasoned that illegal aliens and their children , though not citizens of the United States or Texas , are people " in any ordinary sense of the term " and , therefore , are afforded Fourteenth Amendment protections .
In Hernandez v. Texas ( 1954 ) , the Court held that the Fourteenth Amendment protects those beyond the racial classes of white or " Negro " and extends to other racial and ethnic groups , such as Mexican Americans in this case . In the half @-@ century following Brown , the Court extended the reach of the Equal Protection Clause to other historically disadvantaged groups , such as women and illegitimate children , although it has applied a somewhat less stringent standard than it has applied to governmental discrimination on the basis of race ( United States v. Virginia ( 1996 ) ; Levy v. Louisiana ( 1968 ) . )
The Supreme Court ruled in Regents of the University of California v. Bakke ( 1978 ) that affirmative action in the form of racial quotas in public university admissions was a violation of Title VI of the Civil Rights Act of 1964 ; however , race could be used as one of several factors without violating of the Equal Protection Clause or Title VI . In Gratz v. Bollinger ( 2003 ) and Grutter v. Bollinger ( 2003 ) , the Court considered two race @-@ conscious admissions systems at the University of Michigan . The university claimed that its goal in its admissions systems was to achieve racial diversity . In Gratz , the Court struck down a points @-@ based undergraduate admissions system that added points for minority status , finding that its rigidity violated the Equal Protection Clause ; in Grutter , the Court upheld a race @-@ conscious admissions process for the university 's law school that used race as one of many factors to determine admission . In Fisher v. University of Texas ( 2013 ) , the Court ruled that before race can be used in a public university 's admission policy , there must be no workable race @-@ neutral alternative . In Schuette v. Coalition to Defend Affirmative Action ( 2014 ) , the Court upheld the constitutionality of a state constitutional prohibition on the state or local use of affirmative action .
Reed v. Reed ( 1971 ) , which struck down an Idaho probate law favoring men , was the first decision in which the Court ruled that arbitrary gender discrimination violated the Equal Protection Clause . In Craig v. Boren ( 1976 ) , the Court ruled that statutory or administrative sex classifications had to be subjected to an intermediate standard of judicial review . Reed and Craig later served as precedents to strike down a number of state laws discriminating by gender .
Since Wesberry v. Sanders ( 1964 ) and Reynolds v. Sims ( 1964 ) , the Supreme Court has interpreted the Equal Protection Clause as requiring the states to apportion their congressional districts and state legislative seats according to " one man , one vote " . The Court has also struck down redistricting plans in which race was a key consideration . In Shaw v. Reno ( 1993 ) , the Court prohibited a North Carolina plan aimed at creating majority @-@ black districts to balance historic underrepresentation in the state 's congressional delegations .
The Equal Protection Clause served as the basis for the decision in Bush v. Gore ( 2000 ) , in which the Court ruled that no constitutionally valid recount of Florida 's votes in the 2000 presidential election could be held within the needed deadline ; the decision effectively secured Bush 's victory in the disputed election . In League of United Latin American Citizens v. Perry ( 2006 ) , the Court ruled that House Majority Leader Tom DeLay 's Texas redistricting plan intentionally diluted the votes of Latinos and thus violated the Equal Protection Clause .
= = = State actor doctrine = = =
Individual liberties guaranteed by the United States Constitution protect , with exception of the Thirteenth Amendment 's ban on slavery , not against actions by private persons or entities , but only against actions by government officials . Regarding the Fourteenth Amendment , the Supreme Court ruled in Shelley v. Kraemer ( 1948 ) : " [ T ] he action inhibited by the first section of the Fourteenth Amendment is only such action as may fairly be said to be that of the States . That Amendment erects no shield against merely private conduct , however discriminatory or wrongful . " The court added in Civil Rights Cases ( 1883 ) : " It is State action of a particular character that is prohibited . Individual invasion of individual rights is not the subject matter of the amendment . It has a deeper and broader scope . It nullifies and makes void all State legislation , and State action of every kind , which impairs the privileges and immunities of citizens of the United States , or which injures them in life , liberty , or property without due process of law , or which denies to any of them the equal protection of the laws . "
Vindication of federal constitutional rights are limited to those situations where there is " state action " meaning action of government officials who are exercising their governmental power . In Ex parte Virginia ( 1880 ) , the Supreme Court found that the prohibitions of the Fourteenth Amendment " have reference to actions of the political body denominated by a State , by whatever instruments or in whatever modes that action may be taken . A State acts by its legislative , its executive , or its judicial authorities . It can act in no other way . The constitutional provision , therefore , must mean that no agency of the State , or of the officers or agents by whom its powers are exerted , shall deny to any person within its jurisdiction the equal protection of the laws . Whoever , by virtue of public position under a State government , deprives another of property , life , or liberty , without due process of law , or denies or takes away the equal protection of the laws , violates the constitutional inhibition ; and as he acts in the name and for the State , and is clothed with the State 's power , his act is that of the State . "
There are however instances where people are the victims of civil @-@ rights violations that occur in circumstances involving both government officials and private actors . In the 1960s , the United States Supreme Court adopted an expansive view of state action opening the door to wide @-@ ranging civil @-@ rights litigation against private actors when they act as state actors ( i.e. , acts done or otherwise " sanctioned in some way " by the state ) . The Court found that the state action doctrine is equally applicable to denials of privileges or immunities , due process , and equal protection of the laws .
The critical factor in determining the existence of state action is not governmental involvement with private persons or private corporations , but " the inquiry must be whether there is a sufficiently close nexus between the State and the challenged action of the regulated entity so that the action of the latter may be fairly treated as that of the State itself . " " Only by sifting facts and weighing circumstances can the nonobvious involvement of the State in private conduct be attributed its true significance . "
The Supreme Court asserted that plaintiffs must establish not only that a private party " acted under color of the challenged statute , but also that its actions are properly attributable to the State . [ ... ] " " And the actions are to be attributable to the State apparently only if the State compelled the actions and not if the State merely established the process through statute or regulation under which the private party acted . "
The rules developed by the Supreme Court for business regulation are that ( 1 ) the " mere fact that a business is subject to state regulation does not by itself convert its action into that of the State for purposes of the Fourteenth Amendment , " and ( 2 ) " a State normally can be held responsible for a private decision only when it has exercised coercive power or has provided such significant encouragement , either overt or covert , that the choice must be deemed to be that of the State . "
= = Apportionment of representation in House of Representatives = =
Section 2 altered the way each state 's representation in the House of Representatives is determined . It counts all residents for apportionment , overriding Article I , Section 2 , Clause 3 of the Constitution , which counted only three @-@ fifths of each state 's slave population .
Section 2 also reduces a state 's apportionment if it wrongfully denies any adult male 's right to vote . However , this part of Section 2 was not enforced , and so Southern States continued to use pretexts to prevent many blacks from voting until the passage of the Voting Rights Act of 1965 . Abolitionist leaders criticized the amendment 's failure to specifically prohibit the states from denying people the right to vote on the basis of race . Section 2 protects the right to vote only of adult males , not adult females , making it the only provision of the Constitution to explicitly discriminate on the basis of sex . Section 2 was condemned by women 's suffragists , such as Elizabeth Cady Stanton and Susan B. Anthony , who had long seen their cause as linked to that of black rights . The separation of black civil rights from women 's civil rights split the two movements for decades .
Some have argued that Section 2 was implicitly repealed by the Fifteenth Amendment , but the Supreme Court acknowledged the provisions of Section 2 in some later decisions . For example , in Richardson v. Ramirez ( 1974 ) , the Court cited Section 2 as justifying the states disenfranchising felons . In Hunter v. Underwood ( 1985 ) , a case involving disenfranchising black misdemeanants , the Supreme Court concluded that the Tenth Amendment cannot save legislation prohibited by the subsequently enacted Fourteenth Amendment . More specifically the Court concluded that laws passed with a discriminatory purpose are not excepted from the operation of the Equal Protection Clause by the " other crime " provision of Section 2 . The Court held that Section 2 " was not designed to permit the purposeful racial discrimination [ ... ] which otherwise violates [ Section ] 1 of the Fourteenth Amendment . "
= = Participants in rebellion = =
Section 3 prohibits the election or appointment to any federal or state office of any person who had held any of certain offices and then engaged in insurrection , rebellion or treason . However , a two @-@ thirds vote by each House of the Congress can override this limitation . In 1898 , the Congress enacted a general removal of Section 3 's limitation . In 1975 , the citizenship of Confederate general Robert E. Lee was restored by a joint congressional resolution , retroactive to June 13 , 1865 . In 1978 , pursuant to Section 3 , the Congress posthumously removed the service ban from Confederate president Jefferson Davis .
Section 3 was used to prevent Socialist Party of America member Victor L. Berger , convicted of violating the Espionage Act for his anti @-@ militarist views , from taking his seat in the House of Representatives in 1919 and 1920 .
= = Validity of public debt = =
Section 4 confirmed the legitimacy of all public debt appropriated by the Congress . It also confirmed that neither the United States nor any state would pay for the loss of slaves or debts that had been incurred by the Confederacy . For example , during the Civil War several British and French banks had lent large sums of money to the Confederacy to support its war against the Union . In Perry v. United States ( 1935 ) , the Supreme Court ruled that under Section 4 voiding a United States bond " went beyond the congressional power . "
The debt @-@ ceiling crises of 2011 and 2013 raised the question of what is the President 's authority under Section 4 . Some , such as legal scholar Garrett Epps , fiscal expert Bruce Bartlett and Treasury Secretary Timothy Geithner , have argued that a debt ceiling may be unconstitutional and therefore void as long as it interferes with the duty of the government to pay interest on outstanding bonds and to make payments owed to pensioners ( that is , Social Security and Railroad Retirement Act recipients ) . Legal analyst Jeffrey Rosen has argued that Section 4 gives the President unilateral authority to raise or ignore the national debt ceiling , and that if challenged the Supreme Court would likely rule in favor of expanded executive power or dismiss the case altogether for lack of standing . Erwin Chemerinsky , professor and dean at University of California , Irvine School of Law , has argued that not even in a " dire financial emergency " could the President raise the debt ceiling as " there is no reasonable way to interpret the Constitution that [ allows him to do so ] " . Jack Balkin , Knight Professor of Constitutional Law at Yale University , opined that like Congress the President is bound by the Fourteenth Amendment , for otherwise he could violate any part of the amendment at will . Because the President must obey the Section 4 requirement not to put the validity of the public debt into question , Balkin argued that President Obama is obliged " to prioritize incoming revenues to pay the public debt : interest on government bonds and any other ' vested ' obligations . What falls into the latter category is not entirely clear , but a large number of other government obligations — and certainly payments for future services — would not count and would have to be sacrificed . This might include , for example , Social Security payments . "
= = Power of enforcement = =
Section 5 , also known as the Enforcement Clause of the Fourteenth Amendment , enables Congress to pass laws enforcing the amendment 's other provisions . In the Civil Rights Cases ( 1883 ) , the Supreme Court interpreted Section 5 narrowly , stating that " the legislation which Congress is authorized to adopt in this behalf is not general legislation upon the rights of the citizen , but corrective legislation " . In other words , the amendment authorizes Congress to pass laws only to combat violations of the rights protected in other sections .
In Katzenbach v. Morgan ( 1966 ) , the Court upheld Section 4 ( e ) of the Voting Rights Act of 1965 , which prohibits certain forms of literacy requirements as a condition to vote , as a valid exercise of Congressional power under Section 5 to enforce the Equal Protection Clause . The Court ruled that Section 5 enabled Congress to act both remedially and prophylactically to protect the rights guaranteed by the amendment . However , in City of Boerne v. Flores ( 1997 ) , the Court narrowed Congress 's enforcement power , holding that Congress may not enact legislation under Section 5 that substantively defines or interprets Fourteenth Amendment rights . The Court ruled that legislation is valid under Section 5 only if there is a " congruence and proportionality " between the injury to a person 's Fourteenth Amendment right and the means Congress adopted to prevent or remedy that injury .
= = Selected Supreme Court cases = =
= = = Citizenship = = =
= = = Privileges or immunities = = =
= = = Incorporation = = =
= = = Substantive due process = = =
= = = Equal protection = = =
= = = Felon disenfranchisement = = =
1974 : Richardson v. Ramirez
1985 : Hunter v. Underwood
= = = Power of enforcement = = =
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= Pisa @-@ class cruiser =
The Pisa class consisted of three armored cruisers built in Italy in the first decade of the 20th century . Two of these were for the Royal Italian Navy ( Regia Marina ) and the third was sold to the Royal Hellenic Navy and named Georgios Averof . This ship served as the Greek flagship for the bulk of her active career and participated in the Balkan Wars of 1912 – 13 , fighting in two battles against the Ottoman Navy . She played a minor role in World War II after escaping from Greece during the German invasion in early 1941 . Influenced by communist agitators , her crew mutinied in 1944 , but it was suppressed without any bloodshed . Georgios Averof returned to Greece after the German evacuation in late 1944 and became a museum ship in 1952 . She is the only surviving armored cruiser in the world .
The two Italian ships participated in the Italo @-@ Turkish War of 1911 – 12 during which they supported ground forces in Libya with naval gunfire and helped to occupy towns in Libya and islands in the Dodecanese . They played a minor role in World War I after a submarine sank Amalfi shortly after Italy joined the war in 1915 . Her sister ship , Pisa , became a training ship after the war and was broken up for scrap in 1937 .
= = Design and description = =
The Pisa class was designed in 1904 by Italian engineer Giuseppe Orlando , who attempted to replicate on a smaller scale the armament and armor of the Regina Elena @-@ class battleships then entering the service of the Regia Marina . The Italians classified large armored cruisers like the Pisas as second @-@ class battleships . For ships of their displacement , they were considered to have been heavily armed , but inferior to battlecruisers , a type introduced during their lengthy construction time .
The Pisa @-@ class ships had a length between perpendiculars of 130 meters ( 426 ft 6 in ) and an overall length of 140 @.@ 5 meters ( 460 ft 11 in ) . They had a beam of 21 meters ( 68 ft 11 in ) and a draft of 7 @.@ 1 meters ( 23 ft 4 in ) . The ships displaced 9 @,@ 832 metric tons ( 9 @,@ 677 long tons ) at normal load , and 10 @,@ 401 – 10 @,@ 600 metric tons ( 10 @,@ 237 – 10 @,@ 433 long tons ) at deep load . The Pisa class had a complement of 32 officers and 652 to 655 enlisted men .
= = = Propulsion = = =
The ships were powered by two vertical triple @-@ expansion steam engines , each driving one propeller shaft using steam supplied by 22 Belleville boilers . Designed for a maximum output of 20 @,@ 000 indicated horsepower ( 15 @,@ 000 kW ) and a speed of 22 @.@ 5 knots ( 41 @.@ 7 km / h ; 25 @.@ 9 mph ) , both ships handily exceeded this , reaching speeds of 23 @.@ 47 – 23 @.@ 6 knots ( 43 @.@ 47 – 43 @.@ 71 km / h ; 27 @.@ 01 – 27 @.@ 16 mph ) during their sea trials from 20 @,@ 260 – 20 @,@ 808 ihp ( 15 @,@ 108 – 15 @,@ 517 kW ) . They had a cruising range of about 2 @,@ 500 nautical miles ( 4 @,@ 600 km ; 2 @,@ 900 mi ) at a speed of 12 knots ( 22 km / h ; 14 mph ) and 1 @,@ 400 nautical miles ( 2 @,@ 600 km ; 1 @,@ 600 mi ) at a speed of 21 knots ( 39 km / h ; 24 mph ) .
= = = Armament = = =
The main armament of the two Italian Pisa @-@ class ships consisted of four Cannone da 254 / 45 V Modello 1906 guns in hydraulically powered , twin @-@ gun turrets fore and aft of the superstructure . The 254 mm ( 10 @.@ 0 in ) gun fired 217 – 224 @-@ kilogram ( 478 – 494 lb ) armor @-@ piercing ( AP ) projectiles at a muzzle velocity of 869 meters per second ( 2 @,@ 850 ft / s ) . The Royal Hellenic Navy preferred smaller 234 mm ( 9 @.@ 2 in ) guns purchased from Britain for Georgios Averof , but the ship was otherwise armed nearly identically to her half @-@ sisters . The 380 @-@ pound ( 170 kg ) shell of the Elswick Pattern ' H ' gun was fired at a muzzle velocity of 2 @,@ 770 feet per second ( 840 m / s ) .
The Italian ships mounted eight Cannone da 190 / 45 V Modello 1906 in four hydraulically powered twin @-@ gun turrets , two in each side amidships , as their secondary armament . These Vickers 190 mm ( 7 @.@ 5 in ) guns fired 91 @-@ kilogram ( 201 lb ) AP shells at 850 – 870 m / s ( 2 @,@ 789 – 2 @,@ 853 ft / s ) . The Elswick Pattern ' B ' 7 @.@ 5 @-@ inch guns aboard Georgios Averof used 90 @.@ 7 @-@ kilogram ( 200 lb ) AP shells which were fired at muzzle velocities of 844 m / s ( 2 @,@ 770 ft / s ) .
For defense against torpedo boats , all three ships mounted 16 Vickers quick @-@ firing ( QF ) Cannone da 76 / 40 V Modello 1908 guns . This gun fired a 6 @.@ 5 @-@ kilogram ( 14 lb ) projectile at a muzzle velocity of 930 meters per second ( 3 @,@ 100 ft / s ) . The ships were also fitted with eight ( Pisa and Amalfi ) or four ( Georgios Averof ) QF Cannone da 47 / 40 V Modello 1908 guns . The two Italian ships were equipped with three submerged 450 mm ( 17 @.@ 7 in ) torpedo tubes while those of Georgios Averof were 457 mm ( 18 @.@ 0 in ) in diameter .
During World War I , Pisa 's 76 and 47 mm guns were replaced by twenty 76 / 40 guns ; six of these were anti @-@ aircraft ( AA ) guns while Georgios Averof received one additional 76 mm AA gun . During her 1925 refit , the latter ship had her light armament changed to four 76 mm low @-@ angle guns , two 76 mm AA guns , four 47 mm low @-@ angle guns and five 40 mm AA guns .
= = = Protection = = =
All three ships were protected by an armored belt that was 200 mm ( 7 @.@ 9 in ) thick amidships and reduced to 90 mm ( 3 @.@ 5 in ) at the bow and stern . The armored deck was 51 mm ( 2 @.@ 0 in ) thick . The conning tower armor was 180 mm ( 7 @.@ 1 in ) thick . The 254 mm gun turrets were protected by 160 mm ( 6 @.@ 3 in ) of armour while the 190 mm turrets had 140 mm ( 5 @.@ 5 in ) .
= = Ships = =
= = Careers = =
Two of the three Pisa @-@ class armored cruisers were originally built for the Regia Marina . The third ship was built on speculation and was sold to Greece and completed as Georgios Averof , named after a wealthy Greek businessman who had left a sizeable legacy for the increase of the Greek Navy in his will . The ship participated in the Coronation Fleet Review for King George V of the United Kingdom in 1911 shortly after commissioning . She served in the Balkan Wars and was instrumental in the Greek victories over the Ottoman Empire in the Battles of Elli and Lemnos during the First Balkan War . During World War I , Georgios Averof did not see much active service , as Greece was neutral during the first years of the war . After the Noemvriana riots of 1916 , she was seized by the French to ensure that she could do nothing against the Enente . After the war 's end , the ship participated in the Greco @-@ Turkish War of 1919 – 22 and helped in the evacuation of the refugees after the Greek Army 's defeat . In 1925 – 27 Georgios Averof was reconstructed in France and rearmed .
The ship was seized by rebels during the failed 1935 Greek coup d 'état attempt and was present at the 1935 Silver Jubilee Fleet Review for King George V. During World War II , the ship escaped to Egypt after the Allied defense began to collapse in 1941 during the Battle of Greece . She performed convoy escort and patrolling duties in the Indian Ocean until the end of 1942 . Her crew mutinied in early 1944 under the influence of communist sympathizers of the ELAN . The mutiny was suppressed and she ferried the Greek government @-@ in @-@ exile to Athens in late 1944 . She was decommissioned in 1952 and is now preserved as a museum ship in Faliron Bay near Athens . Georgios Averof is the only armored cruiser still in existence .
Pisa and Amalfi both participated in the Italo @-@ Turkish War of 1911 – 12 , during which Pisa supported the occupations of Tobruk , Libya and several islands in the Dodecanese while Amalfi briefly blockaded Tripoli and supported the occupation of Derna , Libya . The sisters came together in 1912 and they bombarded the fortifications defending the entrance to the Dardanelles in July . After the end of the war , Amalfi escorted the Italian king and queen on the royal yacht to Germany and Sweden during a 1913 visit .
After Amalfi was sunk by the submarine U @-@ 26 ( actually the Imperial German submarine SM UB @-@ 14 flying the Austro @-@ Hungarian flag ) on 7 July 1915 , Pisa 's activities were limited by the threat of submarine attack , although the ship did participate in the bombardment of Durazzo , Albania in late 1918 . After the war she became a training ship and was stricken from the Navy List in 1937 before being scrapped .
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= 55 Cancri d =
55 Cancri d ( abbreviated 55 Cnc d ) , also named Lipperhey , is an extrasolar planet in a long @-@ period orbit around the Sun @-@ like star 55 Cancri A. Located at a similar distance from its star as Jupiter is from our Sun , it is the fifth and outermost known planet in its planetary system . 55 Cancri d was discovered on June 13 , 2002 .
In July 2014 the International Astronomical Union launched a process for giving proper names to certain exoplanets and their host stars . The process involved public nomination and voting for the new names . In December 2015 , the IAU announced the winning name was Lippershey for this planet . The winning name was submitted by the Royal Netherlands Association for Meteorology and Astronomy of the Netherlands . It honors the spectacle maker and telescope pioneer Hans Lippershey . In January 2016 , in recognition that his actual name was Lipperhey ( with Lippershey an error introduced in the 19th century ) , the exoplanet name was corrected to Lipperhey by the IAU and that name was submitted to the official sites that keep track of astronomical information .
= = Discovery = =
Like the majority of known extrasolar planets , 55 Cancri d was detected by observing changes in its star 's radial velocity . This was achieved by making sensitive measurements of the Doppler shift of the star 's spectrum . At the time of discovery , 55 Cancri A was already known to possess one planet ( 55 Cancri b ) , however there was still a drift in the radial velocity measurements which was unaccounted @-@ for .
In 2002 , further measurements revealed the presence of a long @-@ period planet in an orbit at around 5 AU from the star . The same measurements also indicated the presence of another inner planet , designated 55 Cancri c .
= = Orbit and mass = =
When 55 Cancri d was discovered , it was thought to be on a fairly low eccentricity orbit similar to Jupiter in the Solar System , though the orbital elements were not well determined . As more data were collected , the best @-@ fit solution for this planet turned out to be highly eccentric , more so than any of the planets in the Solar System . In 2008 , after a complete orbit of this planet had been observed , the true orbit was revealed , indicating that as had been originally suspected , the planet 's 14 year orbit was in fact near @-@ circular , located about 5 @.@ 77 AU from the star .
A limitation of the radial velocity method used to discover 55 Cancri d is that only a lower limit on the planet 's mass can be obtained . In the case of 55 Cancri d , this lower limit was around 3 @.@ 835 times the mass of Jupiter . In 2004 , astrometric measurements with the Fine Guidance Sensors on the Hubble Space Telescope suggest that the planet 's orbit is inclined by around 53 ° with respect to the plane of the sky . If this measurement is confirmed , it implies that the planet 's true mass is 25 % greater than the lower limit , at around 4 @.@ 8 Jupiter masses ; and it will not be coplanar with the innermost planets e and b ( both 85 ° ) .
= = Characteristics = =
Given the planet 's high mass , the planet is a gas giant with no solid surface . Since the planet has only been detected indirectly , parameters such as its radius , composition , and temperature are unknown .
Assuming a composition similar to that of Jupiter and that the planet 's atmosphere is close to chemical equilibrium , it is predicted that 55 Cancri d is covered in a layer of water clouds : the planet 's internal heat probably keeps it too warm to form the ammonia @-@ based clouds that are typical of Jupiter . Its surface gravity is likely to be about 4 to 5 times stronger than Jupiter , or about 10 to 15 times that of Earth which is because the radius of the planet is unlikely to be much more than Jupiter 's and is probably slightly smaller than Jupiter due to the high metal content in the parent star .
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= American bullfrog =
The American bullfrog ( Lithobates catesbeianus or Rana catesbeiana ) , often simply known as the bullfrog in Canada and the United States , is an amphibious frog , a member of the family Ranidae , or “ true frogs ” . This frog has an olive green back and sides blotched with brownish markings and a whitish belly spotted with yellow or grey . The upper lip is often bright green and males have yellow throats . It inhabits large , permanent water bodies , such as swamps , ponds , and lakes , where it is usually found along the water 's edge . The male bullfrog defends a territory during the breeding season . His call is reminiscent of the roar of a bull , which gives the frog its common name . This frog is native to southern and eastern parts of the United States and Canada , but has been widely introduced across other parts of North , Central and South America , Western Europe , and parts of Asia , and in some areas is regarded as an invasive species .
The bullfrog is harvested for use as food in North America and in several countries into which it has been introduced . It is also cultured in controlled environments , though this is a difficult and not always successful undertaking . Some international trade in frog legs occurs for human consumption . Bullfrogs are used in biology classes in schools for dissection and are sometimes kept as pets .
= = Taxonomy = =
Some authorities use the scientific name , Lithobates catesbeiana , although others prefer Rana catesbeiana . A systematic review of the Holaractic true frogs in 2016 used Rana catesbeiana , as does AmphibiaWeb , an online compendium of amphibian names and information available at http : / / amphibiaweb.org / .
= = Etymology = =
The specific name , catesbeiana ( feminine ) or catesbeianus ( masculine ) , is in honor of English naturalist Mark Catesby .
= = Description = =
The dorsal ( upper ) surface of the bullfrog has an olive @-@ green basal color , either plain or with a mottling and banding of grayish @-@ brown . The ventral ( under ) surface is off @-@ white blotched with yellow or gray . There is often a marked contrast in color between the green upper lip and the pale lower lip . The teeth are tiny and are useful only in grasping . The eyes are prominent with brown irises and horizontal almond @-@ shaped pupils . The tympani ( eardrums ) are easily seen just behind the eyes and the dorsolateral folds of skin end close to them . The limbs are blotched or banded with gray . The forelegs are short and sturdy and the hind legs long . The front toes are not webbed , but the back toes have webbing between the digits with the exception of the fourth toe which is unwebbed .
Bullfrogs are sexually dimorphic , with males being smaller than females and having yellow throats . Males have tympani larger than their eyes , whereas the tympani in females are about the same size as the eyes . Bullfrogs measure about 3 @.@ 6 to 6 in ( 9 to 15 cm ) from snout to vent . They grow fast in the first eight months of life , typically increasing in weight from 5 to 175 g ( 0 @.@ 18 to 6 @.@ 17 oz ) , and large mature individuals can weigh up to 500 g ( 1 @.@ 1 lb ) . In some cases bullfrogs have been recorded as attaining 800 g ( 1 @.@ 8 lb ) and measuring up to 8 in ( 20 cm ) in length .
= = Distribution = =
The bullfrog is native to eastern North America . Its natural range extends from the Atlantic Coast to as far west as Oklahoma and Kansas . It is not found on offshore islands near Cape Cod and is largely absent from Florida , Colorado , Nebraska , South Dakota , and Minnesota . It has been introduced into Nantucket island , Arizona , Utah , other parts of Colorado and Nebraska , Nevada , California , Oregon , Washington , and Hawaii . In these states , it is considered to be an invasive species and there is concern that it may outcompete native species of amphibians and upset the ecological balance . It is very common in California , where it is believed to pose a threat to the California red @-@ legged frog and is considered to be a factor in the decline of that vulnerable species .
Other countries into which the bullfrog has been introduced include Mexico , the western half of Canada , Cuba , Jamaica , Italy , the Netherlands , and France . It is also found in Argentina , Brazil , Uruguay , Venezuela , Colombia , China and Japan . The reasons for introducing the bullfrog to these countries have included their intentional release , either to provide a source of food or as biological control agents , the escape of frogs from breeding establishments , and the escape or release of frogs kept as pets . Conservationists are concerned the bullfrog is relatively immune to the fungal infection chytridiomycosis and as it invades new territories , it may assist the spread of this lethal disease to more susceptible native species of frog .
= = Breeding behavior = =
The bullfrog breeding season typically lasts two to three months . A study of bullfrogs in Michigan showed the males arriving at the breeding site in late May or early June , and remaining in the area into July . The territorial males that occupy sites are usually spaced some 3 to 6 m ( 9 @.@ 8 to 19 @.@ 7 ft ) apart and call loudly . At least three different types of calls have been noted in male bullfrogs under different circumstances . These distinctive calls include territorial calls made as threats to other males , advertisement calls made to attract females , and encounter calls which precede combat .
The bullfrogs have a prolonged breeding season , with the males continuously engaging in sexual activity throughout . Males are present at the breeding pond for longer periods than females during the entire season , increasing their chances of multiple matings . The sex ratio is typically skewed toward males . Conversely , females have brief periods of sexual receptivity during the season . In one study , female sexual activity typically lasted for a single night and mating did not occur unless the females initiated the physical contact . Males only clasp females after they have indicated their willingness to mate . This finding refutes previous claims that a male frog will clasp any proximate female with no regard to whether the female has consented .
These male and female behaviors cause male @-@ to @-@ male competition to be high within the bullfrog population and sexual selection for the females to be an intense process . Kentwood Wells postulated leks , territorial polygyny , and harems are the most likely classifications for the bullfrog mating system . Leks would be a valid description because males congregate to attract females , and the females arrive to the site for the purpose of copulation . In a 1980 study on bullfrogs in New Jersey , the mating system was classified as resource @-@ defense polygyny . The males defended territories within the group and demonstrated typical physical forms of defense .
= = = Choruses = = =
Male bullfrogs aggregate into groups called choruses . The male chorus behavior is analogous to the lek formation of birds , mammals , and other vertebrates . Choruses are dynamic , forming and remaining associated for a few days , breaking down temporarily , and then forming again in a new area with a different group of males . Male movement has experimentally been noted to be dynamic . In the Michigan study , the choruses were described as “ centers of attraction ” in which their larger numbers enhanced the males ’ overall acoustical displays . This is more attractive to females and also attractive to other sexually active males . Choruses in this study were dynamic , constantly forming and breaking up . New choruses were formed in other areas of the site . Males moved around and were highly mobile within the choruses .
A review of multiple studies on bullfrogs and other anurans noted male behavior within the groups changes according to the population density of the leks . At higher population densities , leks are favored due to the difficulty in defending individual territories among a large population of males . This variance causes differences in how females choose their mates . When the male population density is low and males maintain clearer , more distinct territories , female choice is mostly determined by territory quality . When male population density is higher , females depend on other cues to select their mates . These cues include the males ’ positions within the chorus and differences in male display behaviors among other determinants . Social dominance within the choruses is established through challenges , threats , and other physical displays . Older males tend to acquire more central locations while younger males were restricted to the periphery .
Chorus tenure is the number of nights that a male participates in the breeding chorus . One study distinguishes between chorus tenure and dominant tenure . Dominant tenure is more strictly defined as the amount of time a male maintains a dominant status . Chorus tenure is restricted due to increased risk of predation , lost foraging opportunities , and higher energy consumption . Calling is postulated to be energetically costly to anurans in general . Energy is also expended through locomotion and aggressive interactions of male bullfrogs within the chorus .
= = = Aggressive behavior = = =
To establish social dominance within choruses , bullfrogs demonstrate various forms of aggression , especially through visual displays . Posture is a key factor in establishing social position and threatening challengers . Territorial males have inflated postures while nonterritorial males remain in the water with only their heads showing . For dominant ( territorial ) males , their elevated posture reveals their yellow @-@ colored throats . When two dominant males encounter each other , they engage in a wrestling bout . The males have their venters clasped , each individual in an erect position rising to well above water level . The New Jersey study noted the males would approach each other to within a few centimeters and then tilt back their heads , displaying their brilliantly colored gular sacs . The gular is dichromatic in bullfrogs , with dominant and fitter males displaying yellow gulars . The New Jersey study also reported low posture with only the head exposed above the water surface was typical of subordinate , or nonterritorial males , and females . High posture was demonstrated by territorial males , which floated on the surface of the water with their lungs inflated , displaying their yellow gulars . Males optimize their reproductive fitness in a number of ways . Early arrival at the breeding site , prolonged breeding with continuous sexual activity throughout the season , ownership of a centrally located territory within the chorus , and successful movement between the dynamically changing choruses are all common ways for males to maintain dominant , or territorial , status within the chorus . Older males have greater success in all of these areas than younger males . Some of the males display a more inferior role , termed by many researchers as the silent male status . These silent males adopt a submissive posture , sit near resident males and make no attempt to displace them . The silent males do not attempt to intercept females but are waiting for the territories to become vacant . This has also been called the alternate or satellite male strategy .
= = Growth and development = =
After selecting a male , the female deposits eggs in his territory . During the mating grasp , or amplexus , the male rides on top of the female , grasping her just behind her fore limbs . The female chooses a site in shallow water among vegetation , and lays a batch of up to 20 @,@ 000 eggs , and the male simultaneously releases sperm , resulting in external fertilization . The eggs form a thin , floating sheet which may cover an area of 0 @.@ 5 to 1 m2 ( 5 @.@ 4 to 10 @.@ 8 sq ft ) . The embryos develop best at water temperatures between 24 and 30 ° C ( 75 and 86 ° F ) and hatch in three to five days . If the water temperature rises above 32 ° C ( 90 ° F ) , developmental abnormalities occur , and if it falls below 15 ° C ( 59 ° F ) , normal development ceases . Newly hatched tadpoles show a preference for living in shallow water on fine gravel bottoms . This may reflect a lesser number of predators in these locations . As they grow , they tend to move into deeper water . The tadpoles initially have three pairs of external gills and several rows of labial teeth . They pump water through their gills by movements of the floor of their mouths , trapping bacteria , single @-@ celled algae , protozoans , pollen grains , and other small particles on mucus in a filtration organ in their pharanges . As they grow , they begin to ingest larger particles and use their teeth for rasping . They have downward @-@ facing mouths , deep bodies , and tails with broad dorsal and ve ntral fins .
Time to metamorphosis ranges from a few months in the southern part of the range to three years in the north where the colder water slows development . Maximum lifespan in the wild is estimated to be eight to ten years , but one frog lived for almost sixteen years in captivity .
= = Feeding = =
Bullfrogs are voracious , opportunistic , ambush predators that prey on any small animal they can overpower and stuff down their throats . Bullfrog stomachs have been found to contain rodents , small reptiles , amphibians , crayfish , birds , and bats , as well as the many invertebrates , such as insects , which are the usual food of ranid frogs . These studies revealed the bullfrog 's diet to be unique among North American ranids in the inclusion of a large percentage of aquatic animals , such as fish , tadpoles , ram 's horn snails , and dytiscid beetles . Bullfrogs can capture large , strong prey because of the powerful grip of their jaws after the initial ranid tongue strike . The bullfrog is able to make allowance for light refraction at the water @-@ air interface by striking at a position posterior to the target 's perceived location . The comparative ability of bullfrogs to capture submerged prey , compared to that of the green frog , leopard frog , and wood frog ( L. clamitans , L. pipiens , and L. sylvaticus , respectively ) was also demonstrated in laboratory experiments .
Prey motion elicits feeding behavior . First , if necessary , the frog performs a single , orienting bodily rotation ending with the frog aimed towards the prey , followed by approaching leaps , if necessary . Once within striking distance , the bullfrog begins its feeding strike , which consists of a ballistic lunge ( eyes closed as during all leaps ) that ends with the mouth opening . At this stage , the fleshy , mucous @-@ coated tongue is extended towards the prey , often engulfing it , while the jaws continue their forward travel to close ( bite ) just as the tongue is retracted . Large prey that do not fit entirely into the mouth are stuffed in with the hands . In laboratory observations , bullfrogs taking mice usually swam underwater with prey in mouth , apparently with the advantageous result of altering the mouse 's defense from counter @-@ attack to struggling for air . Asphyxiation is the most likely cause of death of endothermic ( warm @-@ blooded ) prey .
= = = Biomechanical background of tongue projection = = =
Ballistic tongue projection of the related leopard frog is possible due to the presence of elastic structures that allow storage and subsequent release of elastic recoil energy . This is what accounts for the tongue projecting with higher power output that would develop by muscular action alone . Also , such mechanism relieves the tongue ’ s musculature from physiological constraints such as limited peak power output - mechanical efficiency and thermal dependence by uncoupling the activation of the depressor mandibulae ’ s contractile units from actual muscular movement . In other words , the kinematic parameters developed by contribution of the elastic structures differ from those developed by muscular projection , accounting for the difference in velocity , power output and thermal dependence .
= = Jumping - " Catch Mechanism " = =
= = = Definition = = =
Bullfrogs are able to jump distances ten times their body length thanks to the ability of activating muscular contractile units prior to extension of the plantaris muscle . In this process , sarcomeric contraction generates strain in elastic structures such as tendons , which in turn “ catch ” the energy generated by the strain . Such is subsequently released as the plantaris actively stretched during jumping , adding to the energy generated by muscular action alone , and thus generating supramaximal powers that will allow the bullfrog to jump great distances . Thus , the catch mechanism relies on elastic structures acting as muscle power amplifiers thanks to their ability of absorbing elastic strain energy and retaining it for later explosive release during jumping .
= = = Advantages = = =
The fact that the catch mechanism relies on elastic structures used as power amplifiers implies a series of conditions much convenient for the bullfrog . Sonomicrometry and electromyographic recordings of the plantaris muscle corroborate a relationship between presence of muscle @-@ tendon units and decreasing , variable gearing . By supplying additional work output through the coupling of elastic strain energy , elastic structures relieve the musculature from the need of shortening at velocities that would otherwise hinder the amount of force generated and thus , the magnitude of power output . This is also aided by a decreasing gearing , which makes it possible for the bullfrog to generate the desired velocity of movement by relieving the plantaris from strennous shortening velocities , achieving the velocity desired by slower , forceful contractions . Like in the case of its ballistic tongue projection , elastic structures in the plantaris muscle also confer it thermal independence . Studies show that jumping peak power output and mechanical efficiency of high elevation frogs of the families Hyla , Eleutherodactylus , Colostethus and Atelopus , which achieve these at temperatures as low as 5oC , are not statistically different from those achieved by tropical Bufo frogs at 35oC .
= = Ecology = =
Bullfrogs are an important item of prey to many birds ( especially large herons ) , North American river otters ( Lontra canadensis ) , predatory fish , and occasionally other amphibians . Predators of American bullfrogs once in their adult stages can range from 150 g ( 5 @.@ 3 oz ) belted kingfishers ( Megaceryle alcyon ) to 1 @,@ 100 pound American alligators ( Alligator mississippiensis ) . The eggs and larvae are unpalatable to many salamanders and fish , but the high levels of activity of the tadpoles may make them more noticeable to a predator not deterred by their unpleasant taste . Humans hunt bullfogs as game and consume their legs . Adult frogs try to escape by splashing and leaping into deep water . A trapped individual may squawk or emit a piercing scream , which may surprise the attacker sufficiently for the frog to escape . An attack on one bullfrog is likely to alert others in the vicinity to danger and they will all retreat into the safety of deeper water . Bullfrogs may be at least partially resistant to the venom of copperhead ( Agkistrodon contortrix ) and cottonmouth ( Agkistrodon piscivorus ) snakes , though these species are known natural predators of bullfrogs as are northern water snakes ( Nerodia sipedon ) .
= = Human use = =
The American bullfrog provides a food source , especially in the Southern and some areas of the Midwestern United States . The traditional way of hunting them is to paddle or pole silently by canoe or flatboat in ponds or swamps at night ; when the frog 's call is heard , a light is shone at the frog which temporarily inhibits its movement . The frog will not jump into deeper water as long as it is approached slowly and steadily . When close enough , the frog is gigged with a multiple @-@ tined spear and brought into the boat . Bullfrogs can also be stalked on land , by again taking great care not to startle them . In some states , breaking the skin while catching them is illegal , and either grasping gigs or hand capture are used . The only parts normally eaten are the rear legs , which resemble small chicken drumsticks and can be cooked in similar ways .
Commercial bullfrog culture in near @-@ natural enclosed ponds has been attempted , but is fraught with difficulties . Although pelleted feed is available , the frogs will not willingly consume artificial diets , and providing sufficient live prey is challenging . Disease also tends to be a problem even when great care is taken to provide sanitary conditions . Other challenges to be overcome may be predation , cannibalism , and low water quality . The frogs are large , have powerful leaps , and inevitably escape after which they may wreak havoc among the native frog population . Countries that export bullfrog legs include Belgium , the Netherlands , Mexico , Bangladesh , Japan , China , Taiwan and Indonesia . Most of these frogs are caught from the wild , but some are captive @-@ reared . The United States is a net importer of frog legs .
The American bullfrog is used as a specimen for dissection in many schools across the world . It is the state amphibian of Missouri , Ohio , and Oklahoma .
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= Music of Madagascar =
The highly diverse and distinctive music of Madagascar has been shaped by the musical traditions of Southeast Asia , Africa , Arabia , England , France and the United States as successive waves of settlers have made the island their home . Traditional instruments reflect these widespread origins : the mandoliny and kabosy owe their existence to the introduction of the guitar by early Arab or European seafarers , the ubiquitous djembe originated in mainland Africa and the valiha — the bamboo tube zither considered the national instrument of Madagascar — directly evolved from an earlier form of zither carried with the first Austronesian settlers on their outrigger canoes .
Malagasy music can be roughly divided into three categories : traditional , contemporary and popular music . Traditional musical styles vary by region and reflect local ethnographic history . For instance , in the Highlands , the valiha and more subdued vocal styles are emblematic of the Merina , the predominantly Austronesian ethnic group that has inhabited the area since at least the 15th century , whereas among the southern Bara people , who trace their ancestry back to the African mainland , their a cappella vocal traditions bear close resemblance to the polyharmonic singing style common to South Africa . Foreign instruments such as the acoustic guitar and piano have been adapted locally to create uniquely Malagasy forms of music . Contemporary Malagasy musical styles such as the salegy or tsapika have evolved from traditional styles modernized by the incorporation of electric guitar , bass , drums and synthesizer . Many Western styles of popular music , including rock , gospel , jazz , reggae , hip @-@ hop and folk rock , have also gained in popularity in Madagascar over the later half of the 20th century .
Music in Madagascar has served a variety of sacred and profane functions . In addition to its performance for entertainment or personal creative expression , music has played a key part in spiritual ceremonies , cultural events and historic and contemporary political functions . By the late 19th century , certain instruments and types of music became primarily associated with specific castes or ethnic groups , although these divisions have always been fluid and are continually evolving .
= = Traditional music = =
Malagasy music is highly melodic and distinguishes itself from many traditions of mainland Africa by the predominance of chordophone relative to percussion instruments . Musical instruments and vocal styles found in Madagascar represent a blend of widespread commonalities and highly localized traditions . A common vocal style among the Merina and Betsileo of the Highlands , for instance , does not preclude differences in the prevalence of particular instrument types ( the valiha among the Merina , and the marovany and kabosy among the Betsileo ) . Similarly , the practice of tromba ( entering a trance state , typically induced by music ) is present on both the western and eastern coasts of the island but the vocal styles or instruments used in the ceremony will vary regionally . Music in Madagascar tends toward major keys and diatonic scales , although coastal music makes frequent use of minor keys , most likely due to early Arab influences at coastal ports of call . Malagasy music has served a wide range of social , spiritual and mundane functions across the centuries .
= = = Vocal traditions = = =
Vocal traditions in Madagascar are most often polyharmonic ; southern vocal styles bear strong resemblance to South African singing ( as exemplified by groups such as Salala or Senge ) , whereas Highland harmonies , strongly influenced in the past two hundred years by European church music , are more reminiscent of Hawaiian or other Polynesian vocal traditions . In the Highlands , and particularly in the 19th century , vocal performance by large groups called antsa was favored , while in the south and western coastal regions singing was performed with more elaborate ornamentation and in small groups . Musical performance in Madagascar has often been associated with spiritual functions . Music is a key component in achieving a trance state in tromba ( or bilo ) spiritual rituals practiced in several regions of the island , as it is believed that each spirit has a different preferred piece of music . The association between music and ancestors is so strong on the eastern coast that some musicians will put rum , cigarettes or other valued objects inside an instrument ( through the tone hole , for instance ) as an offering to the spirits to receive their blessings . Similarly , music has long been central to the famadihana ceremony ( periodic reburial of ancestors ' shroud @-@ wrapped mortal remains ) .
= = = Musical instruments = = =
Instruments in Madagascar were brought to the island by successive waves of settlers from across the Old World . Over 1500 years ago , the earliest settlers from Indonesia brought the oldest and most emblematic instruments , including the tube zither ( valiha ) which evolved into a box form ( marovany ) distinct to the island . Later settlers from the Arabian peninsula and the eastern coast of Africa contributed early lutes , whistles and other instruments that were incorporated into local musical traditions by the mid @-@ 16th century . The influence of instruments and musical styles from France and Great Britain began to have a significant impact on music in Madagascar by the 19th century .
= = = = Chordophones = = = =
The most emblematic instrument of Madagascar , the valiha , is a bamboo tube zither very similar in form to those used traditionally in Indonesia and the Philippines . The valiha is considered the national instrument of Madagascar . It is typically tuned to a diatonic mode to produce complex music based on harmonic , parallel thirds accompanied by a melodic bass line . The strings are traditionally cut and raised from the fibrous surface of the bamboo tube itself , although a contemporary form also exists that instead uses bicycle brake cables for strings to give the instrument a punchier sound .
Strings may be plucked with the fingernails , which are allowed to grow longer for this purpose . The instrument was originally used for rituals and for creative artistic expression alike . However , beginning in the mid @-@ 19th century , playing the instrument became the prerogative of the Merina aristocracy to such an extent that possessing long fingernails became symbolic of nobility . While the tubular valiha is the most emblematic form of the instrument most likely due to its popularization by the 19th century Merina aristocracy , other forms of the instrument exist across the island . In the region around the eastern port city of Toamasina , for instance , valiha used in tromba ceremonies may take a rectangular box form called marovany . While some regions construct their marovany from wood , near Toamasina the box is constructed of metal sheeting with much thicker and heavier strings that produce a different sound from the bamboo and bicycle cable valiha of the Highlands .
The kabosy ( or kabosa ) is a four to six @-@ stringed simple guitar common in the southern Highlands moving toward the east , particularly among the Betsimisaraka and Betsileo ethnic groups . The soundbox , which is typically square or rectangular today , was originally circular in form , first made from a tortoise shell and later from wood carved into a rounded shape . Mandolina and gitara are the Antandroy names of a popular Southern chordophone similar to the kabosy but with nylon fishing line for strings and five or seven movable frets that facilitate modification of the instrument 's tuning .
The jejy voatavo is a chordophone that traditionally has two sisal strings , three frets and a calabash resonator , although modern versions may have as many as eleven or thirteen strings , typically made of steel . A maximum of four of these are strung over the frets , while the rest are strung lengthwise down the sides of the neck and are strummed with the fingers in accompaniment to the primary melody which is played with a bow . This more elaborate jejy voatavo is especially popular among the Betsileo of the southern Highlands and the Betsimisaraka of the southeast , who play it in accompaniment to their sung epic poems , called rija . In 19th @-@ century Highlands society under the Kingdom of Imerina , the jejy voatavo was considered to be a slave instrument which only mature men were permitted to play . The lokanga , an evolved jejy with the sound box carved to resemble a three @-@ stringed fiddle , is popular among the Southern Antandroy and Bara ethnic groups . The simplest form of instrument in this family is the jejy lava ( musical bow ) , believed to have been brought to Madagascar by settlers from mainland Africa .
The piano was introduced to the royal Merina court in the early 19th century by envoys of the London Missionary Society , and soon afterward , local musicians began creating their own compositions for piano based on valiha technique . Piano compositions reached their peak with the Kalon 'ny Fahiny style in the 1920s and 1930s before declining in the 1940s . Today , the compositions of this period by pianist theatrical composers like Andrianary Ratianarivo ( 1895 – 1949 ) and Naka Rabemananatsoa ( 1892 – 1952 ) form part of the canon of classical Malagasy music and feature in the repertoire of Malagasy students of piano .
When the modern acoustic guitar was first popularized in Madagascar , it was adopted by the lower classes who were inspired by the Kalon 'ny Fahiny piano style but for whom the purchase of a costly piano was out of reach . Early guitarists adapted the piano style ( itself based on valiha style ) to this novel stringed instrument to create a genre that came to be known as ba @-@ gasy . Soon afterward , the guitar was widely disseminated throughout the island , producing an explosion of regionally distinctive Malagasy guitar styles inspired by the music played on local traditional instruments . Finger picking is the favored technique and guitarists frequently experiment with original tunings to obtain the desired range . One of the most common tunings drops the sixth string from E to C and the fifth string from A to G , thereby enabling the guitarist to capture a range approximating that of a vocal choir . The Malagasy acoustic guitar style has been internationally promoted by such artists as Erick Manana and pioneering Bara artist Ernest Randrianasolo ( better known by his stage name D 'Gary ) , who blends the rhythms of tsapiky with innovative open tunings to approximate the sounds of the lokanga , valiha and marovany .
= = = = Aerophones = = = =
The sodina , an end @-@ blown flute , is believed to be one of the oldest instruments on the island . There exists the more common and well @-@ known short sodina , about a foot long with six finger holes and one for the thumb , and another similar end @-@ blown flute over two feet long with three holes at the far end . Both are open @-@ ended and are played by blowing diagonally across the near opening . The master of sodina performance , Rakoto Frah , was featured on the 1000 Malagasy franc ( 200 ariary ) banknote after independence in 1960 and his death on September 29 , 2001 prompted national mourning .
The conch shell ( antsiva or angaroa ) is a similarly ancient instrument believed to have been brought over by early Indonesian settlers . Mainly played by men , it features a lateral blow hole in the Polynesian style and is typically reserved for ritual or spiritual uses rather than to create music for entertainment . The fipple flute is a simple aerophone brought to Madagascar after 1000 CE by immigrants from Africa .
The two @-@ octave diatonic accordion ( gorodo ) , popular across Madagascar , is believed to have been imported by French colonists after 1896 . In the 20th century , the instrument was commonly performed during tromba spirit possession ceremonies in a style called renitra . In the 1970s , the renitra was incorporated for the performance of electrified salegy music . This accordion style was also integrated into the performance of tsapika , while also inspiring the style used by the guitarists in these bands . Although today the sound of the accordion is most often replicated by a synthesizer in salegy or tsapika bands due to the expense and rarity of the instrument , accordions continue to hold a privileged place in the performance of tromba ceremonial music . Artists like half @-@ brothers Lego and Rossy have gained success as accordion players . Régis Gizavo brought the contemporary style of renitra to the world music scene , winning several international awards for his accordion performance .
A variety of European aerophones were introduced in the 19th century under the Merina monarchy . These most notably include bugles ( bingona ) and clarinets ( mainty kely ) , and less frequently the trombone or oboe ( anjomara ) . Their use today is largely restricted to the Highlands and the hira gasy or mpilalao bands that perform at famadihana ( reburials ) , circumcisions and other traditional celebrations . Metal and wood harmonicas are also played .
= = = = Membranophones = = = =
Various types of membranophones , traditionally associated with solemn occasions , are found throughout the island . In the Highlands , European bass drums ( ampongabe ) and snare drums introduced in the 19th century have replaced an earlier drum ( ampongan ’ ny ntaolo ) traditionally beat to accentuate the discourse of a mpikabary speaker during a hira gasy or other formal occasions where the oratory art of kabary is practiced . Only men can play the ampongabe , while women and men may both play the smaller langoroana drum . The hazolahy ( " male wood " ) drum produces the deepest sound and is reserved for the most significant occasions such as famadihana , circumcision ceremonies and the ancient festival of the royal bath .
= = = = Idiophones = = = =
Bamboo shakers ( kaiamba ) filled with seeds are integral to the performance of tromba on the eastern coast of the island , although modern items such as empty insecticide tins or sweetened condensed milk cans filled with pebbles increasingly take the place of traditional bamboo . Shakers of this sort are used throughout Madagascar , commonly in conjunction with tromba and other ceremonies . During the slave trade era , another idiophone — a scraper called the tsikadraha — was popularized in Madagascar after being imported there from Brazil where it is known as a caracacha .
Early forms of xylophone such as the atranatrana are found throughout the island and are believed to have come across with the original Indonesian settlers . The earliest of these is played uniquely by a pair of women , one of whom sits with her legs outstretched together and the bars of the xylophone resting across her legs rather than on a separate resonator box . Each woman strikes the atranatrana with a pair of sticks , one keeping the beat while the second plays a melody . The xylophone bars range from five to seven in number and are made of differing lengths of a rot @-@ resistant wood called hazomalagny . A similar xylophone called katiboky is still played in the southwest among the Vezo and Bara ethnic groups .
= = Contemporary music = =
Contemporary music comprises modern @-@ day compositions that have their roots in traditional musical styles and have been created for entertainment purposes , typically with the intent of eventual mass dissemination via cassette , compact disc , radio or internet . Modern forms of Malagasy music may incorporate such innovations as amplified or imported instruments ( particularly electric guitar , bass guitar , synthesizer and drum kit ) , blend the sounds of new and traditional instruments or use traditional instruments in innovative ways . As contemporary artists adapt their musical heritage to today 's market , they manage to preserve the melodic , chordophone @-@ dominated sound that distinguishes traditional Malagasy music from the more percussion @-@ heavy traditions of mainland Africa .
= = = Highlands = = =
In the 1950s and 1960s , a variety of bands in the Highlands ( in the area between and around Antananarivo and Fianarantsoa ) were performing covers of European and American hits or adapting mainland African tunes for local audiences . Madagascar got its first supergroup in the 1970s with Mahaleo , whose members blended traditional Malagasy sounds with soft rock to enormous and enduring success . Rossy emerged as a superstar shortly afterward , adapting the instrumentation , rhythms and vocal styles of the hira gasy to create a distinctly Malagasy radio @-@ friendly sound . His open and enthusiastic support for then @-@ President Didier Ratsiraka assured his band regular performances in association with Presidential functions , and his band came to define the Ratsiraka epoch for many .
Other important contemporary musicians from the Highlands include Justin Vali and Sylvestre Randafison , both valiha virtuosos ; Rakoto Frah , who could play two sodina simultaneously ; Solo Miral , featuring guitar played in the style of a valiha ; Tarika , a Malagasy fusion band based in England ; Olombelona Ricky , a highly accomplished solo vocalist , and Samoëla , a roots artist whose blunt social and political critiques propelled his group to popularity .
= = = Coastal styles = = =
Distinct contemporary forms of music , rooted in local musical traditions , have emerged in the coastal regions since the 1960s . Chief among these are two up @-@ tempo dance music styles that have become especially popular across Madagascar and have achieved crossover success : salegy , a 6 / 8 style that originated in the northwest around Mahajanga and Antsiranana , and tsapika , a 4 / 4 style centered in the southwest between Toliara and Betroka . Other key coastal styles include basesa of Diego @-@ Suarez and the northeast coast as popularized by Mika sy Davis , kilalaky of Morondava and the southwestern interior performed by such groups as Rabaza , mangaliba of the southern Anosy region , kawitry of the northeast as popularized by Jerry Marcoss , the southern beko polyharmonic tradition performed by bands like Senge and Terakaly , and kwassa @-@ kwassa and sega music from neighboring Reunion Island and Mauritius .
Salegy : Salegy today , as it has been popularized by originators like Jaojoby and Mily Clément or relative newcomers Ninie Doniah , Wawa , Vaiavy Chila or Dr. J.B. and the Jaguars , is a funky , energetic form of dance music dominated by ringing electric guitars , accordion ( real or synthesized ) , and call @-@ and @-@ response polyphonic vocals , propelled by heavy electric bass and a driving percussion section typically including a drum kit , djembe and shakers . Salegy represents an electrified version of the antsa musical style that was traditionally performed at Betsimisaraka and Tsimihety rituals as performed by Mama Sana .
In addition to their commonalities in tempo , vocal style , and tendency toward minor keys ( which some attribute to an Arab influence , and which stands in contrast to the major key dominance of Highland music ) , the salegy shares the antsa 's structure in that it always features a middle section called the folaka ( " broken " ) which is primarily instrumental — voice serves only to urge on more energetic dancing — and during which the vocalists ( and the audience ) will launch into intricate polyrhythmic hand @-@ clapping to the beat of the music .
Tsapika : Like the salegy , tsapika ( or tsapiky ) is an energetic form of dance music that originated from the traditional music of the southwestern region around Toliara and that has recently been adapted to contemporary instruments such as electric guitar , bass guitar and drum kit . Generally even more rapid than the salegy , this 4 / 4 form of music features a guitar performance style inspired by traditional marovany compositions , but the influence of South African township music is evident in both the guitars and polyharmonic vocals , often performed by female singers who repeat variations on a short refrain throughout the song . Tsapika music is performed at all manner of ceremonial occasion in the South , whether a birthday celebration , community party , or funeral . While salegy had risen to national popularity by the mid @-@ 1980s ( some would argue the 1970s ) , tsapika only truly began to garner a similar level of widespread appreciation by the mid @-@ 1990s . It was not until the 2000 release of the " Tulear Never Sleeps " compilation album that the genre achieved international exposure on a major label . This compilation , however , showcases " traditional " tsapika , such as might have more commonly been performed in rural villages twenty years ago , rather than the amplified , synthesized and remixed style in heavy rotation on radio stations performed by national stars like Tearano , Terakaly , Jarifa , and Mamy Gotso .
There are many more regional styles of contemporary music that have yet to achieve the level of national recognition attained by salegy and tsapika just as there are many nationally and internationally acclaimed musicians who draw upon the musical traditions of the coastal regions in their compositions . Of note are Hazolahy ( a largely acoustic roots band from the Southeast that plays mangaliba ) , D 'Gary ( an acclaimed acoustic guitarist from the inland South near Betroka ) , and Toto Mwandjani ( who popularized Congolese ndombolo @-@ style guitar , and whose band performs a fusion of Central / East African and Malagasy dance styles ) .
= = = Popular music = = =
A wide range of foreign music styles have been popularized in Madagascar , including French chanson performed by artists such as Poopy , reggae , gospel music , and pop rock performed by bands such as Green and AmbondronA . Jazz has been popularized by artists such as Nicolas Vatomanga . Malagasy hip hop broke into the mainstream in the mid @-@ nineties and has since skyrocketed to popularity through artists such as Da Hopp and 18 @,@ 3 . More recently bands like Oladad are experimenting with the fusion of hip @-@ hop and traditional Malagasy musical styles and instruments .
= = Performance of Malagasy music = =
Music has long served a variety of secular and sacred purposes in Madagascar . Song may accompany daily tasks , provide entertainment , preserve history or communicate social and political messages . Music is likewise integral to the experience of spiritual ritual among many ethnic and religious groups on the island .
= = = Secular performance = = =
Among some ethnic groups music would help advance a repetitive or arduous task . Geo Shaw , a missionary to Madagascar in the 19th century , described observing Betsileo and Merina serfs singing in the rice fields , " timing the music to the movements of their bodies , so that at each accented note they plant a stalk . " Similarly , songs may accompany the paddling of dugout canoes on long journeys . Music may also accompany another form of entertainment , such as songs chanted by female spectators at matches of moraingy , a traditional form of full @-@ body wrestling popular in coastal regions .
The preservation of oral history may be achieved through musical performance in Madagascar . Among the Betsileo , for instance , oral histories are retold through a form of musical performance called the rija , which in its current form may represent a combination of the original , single @-@ verse rija and an epic poem called the isa . The Betsileo rija is performed by two men who each play a jejy while singing very loudly with a strained pitch in the soprano range . The structure of the song is complex and , unlike other Malagasy musical styles , parallel thirds are not predominant in the harmony . Other Southern ethnic groups also perform simplified variations of the rija featuring for example a solo musician who strums rather than fiddles his accompanying instrument and sings at a lower , more natural pitch . While the Betsileo rija can address diverse themes , those performed by other southern groups are almost always praise songs recalling a favorably memorable event .
Endogenous musical styles may also serve as a form of artistic expression , as in the highly syncopated ba @-@ gasy genre of Imerina . The ba @-@ gasy emerged in conjunction with the French introduction of operetta and the subsequent rise of Malagasy theater at the Theatre Municipale d 'Isotry beginning in the late 1910s . The vocal style used in ba @-@ gasy is characterized by female use of angola , a vocal ornamentation delivered in a nasal tone , offset by the fasiny ( tenor ) and rapid @-@ moving beno ( baritone ) line sung by the men . Ba @-@ gasy inspired the musical duet style Kaolon 'ny Fahiny , popularized in Imerina during the final two decades of the colonial period , in which the ba @-@ gasy vocal sensibilities are applied to love themes and accompanied by a syncopated composition for piano or occasionally guitar .
Musical performance in the Highlands took on a distinctly political and educative role through the hira gasy ( hira : song ; gasy : Malagasy ) . The hira gasy is a day @-@ long spectacle of music , dance , and a stylized form of traditional oratory known as kabary performed by a troupe or as a competition between two or more troupes . While the origins of the hira gasy are uncertain , oral history attributes its modern form to 18th century Merina king Andrianampoinimerina , who reportedly employed musicians to gather the public together for royal speeches and announcements ( kabary ) and to entertain them as they labored on public works projects such as building dikes to irrigate the rice paddies surrounding Antananarivo . Over time , these musicians formed independent troupes who used and continue to use the non @-@ threatening performance format to explore sensitive social and political themes in the public arena .
The hira gasy troupes of today are remnants of a tradition of court musicians that persisted through the end of the 19th century . Under Queen Ranavalona III , the final monarch in the Merina dynasty , there were three official groups of state musicians : one for the queen , one for her prime minister , and another for the city of Antananarivo . The queen 's troupe consisted of over 300 musicians . Until slavery was abolished , musicians in these groups were members of the slave class ( andevo ) directed by a Hova ( free Merina ) . Each year at Christmas , the directors of each group would arrange a performance before the queen of a new original composition ; the queen would select a winner among the three . While court musicians ( and therefore the earliest hira gasy troupes ) originally performed using traditional instruments - namely the sodina , jejy voatavo and drums - over the course of the 19th century the increasing European influence led court musicians and hira gasy troupes alike to make increasing use of foreign instruments such as violins , clarinets , trombones and trumpets . The tradition of the court musician died out with the abolition of the monarchy in Madagascar after French colonization , but the hira gasy tradition has continued to thrive .
Musical styles from abroad have been merged with pre @-@ existing Malagasy musical traditions to create distinctly Malagasy sounds with foreign roots . An example of this is the Afindrafindrao , a tune based on the French quadrille that was popularized in the Malagasy court in the 19th century . A specific form of partner dance accompanies this piece , in which dancers will form a long chain of male @-@ female pairs with the woman at the front of each pair , both facing forward holding each other 's hands while advancing to the rhythm of the music . From its origins as a courtly dance , the afindrafindrao today is a quintessentially Malagasy tradition performed at the beginning of a social event or concert to kick off the festivities .
= = = Sacred performance = = =
Music is a common element of spiritual ritual and ceremonies throughout the island . For instance , members of hira gasy troupes are traditionally invited to perform at the famadihana reburial ceremonies of central Madagascar . In coastal regions , music is crucial to helping a medium enter a trance state during a tromba ritual . While in a trance , the medium is possessed by an ancestral spirit . Each spirit is believed to prefer a particular tune or style of music and will not enter the medium unless the suitable piece of music is performed at the ceremony .
British missionaries of the London Missionary Society ( LMS ) arrived in Antananarivo in 1820 during the reign of King Radama I. The subsequent spread of Christianity in Madagascar was coupled with the introduction of solfège as missionaries developed Malagasy @-@ language hymns for their nascent church . The first wave of missionaries was obliged to depart Madagascar under Ranavalona I in 1836 , but the hymns they developed became anthems for early Malagasy converts persecuted under the Queen 's traditionalist policies . In 1871 , an LMS missionary ( J. Richardson ) improved the rhythm and harmony of these original hymns , which were considerably influenced by European musical styles such as quadrilles and waltzes . Originally , church music was performed by slaves seated in groups of four to five at the front of the church . By the 1870s a more European congregational style had been adopted with all members of the church rising to their feet to sing together .
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= History of the Han dynasty =
The Han dynasty ( 206 BCE – 220 CE ) , founded by the peasant rebel leader Liu Bang ( known posthumously as Emperor Gaozu ) , was the second imperial dynasty of China . It followed the Qin dynasty ( 221 – 206 BCE ) , which had unified the Warring States of China by conquest . Interrupted briefly by the Xin dynasty ( 9 – 23 CE ) of Wang Mang , the Han dynasty is divided into two periods : the Western Han ( 206 BCE – 9 CE ) and the Eastern Han ( 25 – 220 CE ) . These appellations are derived from the locations of the capital cities Chang 'an and Luoyang , respectively . The third and final capital of the dynasty was Xuchang , where the court moved in 196 CE during a period of political turmoil and civil war .
The Han dynasty ruled in an era of Chinese cultural consolidation , political experimentation , relative economic prosperity and maturity , and great technological advances . There was unprecedented territorial expansion and exploration initiated by struggles with non @-@ Chinese peoples , especially the nomadic Xiongnu of the Eurasian Steppe . The Han emperors were initially forced to acknowledge the rival Xiongnu Chanyus as their equals , yet in reality the Han was an inferior partner in a tributary and royal marriage alliance known as heqin . This agreement was broken when Emperor Wu of Han ( r . 141 – 87 BCE ) launched a series of military campaigns which eventually caused the fissure of the Xiongnu Federation and redefined the borders of China . The Han realm was expanded into the Hexi Corridor of modern Gansu province , the Tarim Basin of modern Xinjiang , modern Yunnan and Hainan , modern northern Vietnam , modern North Korea , and southern Outer Mongolia . The Han court established trade and tributary relations with rulers as far west as the Arsacids , to whose court at Ctesiphon in Mesopotamia the Han monarchs sent envoys . Buddhism first entered China during the Han , spread by missionaries from Parthia and the Kushan Empire of northern India and Central Asia .
From its beginning , the Han imperial court was threatened by plots of treason and revolt from its subordinate kingdoms , the latter eventually ruled only by royal Liu family members . Initially , the eastern half of the empire was indirectly administered through large semi @-@ autonomous kingdoms which pledged loyalty and a portion of their tax revenues to the Han emperors , who ruled directly over the western half of the empire from Chang 'an . Gradual measures were introduced by the imperial court to reduce the size and power of these kingdoms , until a reform of the middle 2nd century BCE abolished their semi @-@ autonomous rule and staffed the kings ' courts with central government officials . Yet much more volatile and consequential for the dynasty was the growing power of both consort clans ( of the empress ) and the eunuchs of the palace . In 92 CE , the eunuchs entrenched themselves for the first time in the issue of the emperors ' succession , causing a series of political crises which culminated in 189 CE with their downfall and slaughter in the palaces of Luoyang . This event triggered an age of civil war as the country became divided by regional warlords vying for power . Finally , in 220 CE , the son of an imperial chancellor and king accepted the abdication of the last Han emperor , who was deemed to have lost the Mandate of Heaven according to Dong Zhongshu 's ( 179 – 104 BCE ) cosmological system that intertwined the fate of the imperial government with Heaven and the natural world . Following the Han , China was split into three states : Cao Wei , Shu Han , and Eastern Wu ; these were reconsolidated into one empire by the Jin dynasty ( 265 – 420 CE ) .
= = Fall of Qin and Chu @-@ Han contention = =
= = = Collapse of Qin = = =
The Zhou dynasty ( c . 1050 – 256 BCE ) had established the State of Qin in Western China as an outpost to breed horses and act as a defensive buffer against nomadic armies of the Rong , Qiang , and Di peoples . After conquering six Warring States ( i.e. Han , Zhao , Wei , Chu , Yan , and Qi ) by 221 BCE , the King of Qin , Ying Zheng , unified China under one empire divided into 36 centrally @-@ controlled commanderies . With control over much of China proper , he affirmed his enhanced prestige by taking the unprecedented title huangdi ( 皇帝 ) , or ' emperor ' , known thereafter as Qin Shi Huang ( i.e. the first emperor of Qin ) . Han @-@ era historians would accuse his regime of employing ruthless methods to preserve his rule .
Qin Shi Huang died of natural causes in 210 BCE . In 209 BCE the conscription officers Chen Sheng and Wu Guang , leading 900 conscripts through the rain , failed to meet an arrival deadline ; the Standard Histories claim that the Qin punishment for this delay would have been execution . To avoid this , Chen and Wu started a rebellion against Qin , known as the Dazexiang Uprising , but they were thwarted by the Qin general Zhang Han in 208 BCE ; both Wu and Chen were subsequently assassinated by their own soldiers . Yet by this point others had rebelled , among them Xiang Yu ( d . 202 BCE ) and his uncle Xiang Liang ( 項梁 / 项梁 ) , men from a leading family of the Chu aristocracy . They were joined by Liu Bang , a man of peasant origin and supervisor of convicts in Pei County . Mi Xin , grandson of King Huai I of Chu , was declared King Huai II of Chu at his powerbase of Pengcheng ( modern Xuzhou ) with the support of the Xiangs , while other kingdoms soon formed in opposition to Qin . Despite this , in 208 BCE Xiang Liang was killed in a battle with Zhang Han , who subsequently attacked Zhao Xie the King of Zhao at his capital of Handan , forcing him to flee to Julu , which Zhang put under siege . However , the new kingdoms of Chu , Yan , and Qi came to Zhao 's aid ; Xiang Yu defeated Zhang at Julu and in 207 BCE forced Zhang to surrender .
While Xiang was occupied at Julu , King Huai II sent Liu Bang to capture the Qin heartland of Guanzhong with an agreement that the first officer to capture this region would become its king . In late 207 BCE , the Qin ruler Ziying , who had claimed the reduced title of King of Qin , had his chief eunuch Zhao Gao killed after Zhao had orchestrated the deaths of Chancellor Li Si in 208 BCE and the second Qin emperor Qin Er Shi in 207 BCE . Liu Bang gained Ziying 's submission and secured the Qin capital of Xianyang ; persuaded by his chief advisor Zhang Liang ( d . 189 BCE ) not to let his soldiers loot the city , he instead sealed up its treasury .
= = = Contention with Chu = = =
The Standard Histories allege that when Xiang Yu arrived at Xianyang two months later in early 206 BCE , he looted it , burned it to the ground , and had Ziying executed . In that year , Xiang Yu offered King Huai II the title of Emperor Yi of Chu and sent him to a remote frontier where he was assassinated ; Xiang Yu then assumed the title Hegemon @-@ King of Western Chu ( 西楚霸王 ) and became the leader of a confederacy of 18 kingdoms . At the Feast at Hong Gate , Xiang Yu considered having Liu Bang assassinated , but Liu , realizing that Xiang was considering killing him , escaped during the middle of the feast . In a slight towards Liu Bang , Xiang Yu carved Guanzhong into three kingdoms with former Qin general Zhang Han and two of his subordinates as kings ; Liu Bang was granted the frontier Kingdom of Han in Hanzhong , where he would pose less of a political challenge to Xiang Yu .
In the summer of 206 BCE , Liu Bang heard of Emperor Yi 's fate and decided to rally some of the new kingdoms to oppose Xiang Yu , leading to a four @-@ year war known as the Chu – Han contention . Liu initially made a direct assault against Pengcheng and captured it while Xiang was battling another king who resisted him — Tian Guang ( 田廣 ) the King of Qi — but his forces collapsed upon Xiang 's return to Pengcheng ; he was saved by a storm which delayed the arrival of Chu 's troops , although his father Liu Zhijia ( 劉執嘉 ) and wife Lü Zhi were captured by Chu forces . Liu barely escaped another defeat at Xingyang , but Xiang Yu was unable to pursue him because Liu Bang induced Ying Bu ( 英布 ) , the King of Huainan , to rebel against Xiang . After Liu Bang occupied Chenggao along with a large Qin grain storage , Xiang threatened to kill Liu 's father if he did not surrender , but Liu did not give in to Xiang 's threats .
With Chenggao and his food supplies lost , and with Liu Bang 's general Han Xin ( d . 196 BCE ) having conquered Zhao and Qin to Chu 's north , in 203 BCE Xiang Yu offered to release Liu Bang 's relatives from captivity and split China into political halves : the west would belong to Han and the east to Chu . Although Liu accepted the truce , it was short @-@ lived , and in 202 BCE at Gaixia in modern Anhui , the Han forces forced Xiang Yu to flee from his fortified camp in the early morning with only 800 cavalry , pursued by 5 @,@ 000 Han cavalry . After several bouts of fighting , Xiang Yu became surrounded at the banks of the Yangzi River , where he committed suicide . Liu Bang took the title of emperor , and is known to posterity as Emperor Gaozu of Han ( r . 202 – 195 BCE ) .
= = Reign of Gaozu = =
= = = Consolidation , precedents , and rivals = = =
Emperor Gaozu initially made Luoyang his capital , but then moved it to Chang 'an ( near modern Xi 'an , Shaanxi ) due to concerns over natural defences and better access to supply routes . Following Qin precedent , Emperor Gaozu adopted the administrative model of a tripartite cabinet ( formed by the Three Excellencies ) along with nine subordinate ministries ( headed by the Nine Ministers ) . Despite Han statesmen 's general condemnation of Qin 's harsh methods and Legalist philosophy , the first Han law code compiled by Chancellor Xiao He in 200 BCE seems to have borrowed much from the structure and substance of the Qin code ( excavated texts from Shuihudi and Zhangjiashan in modern times have reinforced this suspicion ) .
From Chang 'an , Gaozu ruled directly over 13 commanderies ( increased to 16 by his death ) in the western portion of the empire . In the eastern portion , he established 10 semi @-@ autonomous kingdoms ( Yan , Dai , Zhao , Qi , Liang , Chu , Huai , Wu , Nan , and Changsha ) that he bestowed to his most prominent followers to placate them . Due to alleged acts of rebellion and even alliances with the Xiongnu — a northern nomadic people — by 196 BCE Gaozu had replaced nine of them with members of the royal family .
According to Michael Loewe , the administration of each kingdom was " a small @-@ scale replica of the central government , with its chancellor , royal counsellor , and other functionaries . " The kingdoms were to transmit census information and a portion of their taxes to the central government . Although they were responsible for maintaining an armed force , kings were not authorized to mobilize troops without explicit permission from the capital .
Wu Rui ( 吳芮 ) , King of Changsha , was the only remaining king not of the Liu clan . When Wu Rui 's great @-@ grandson Wu Zhu ( 吳著 ) or Wu Chan ( 吳產 ) died heirless in 157 BCE , Changsha was transformed into an imperial commandery and later a Liu family principality . South of Changsha , Gaozu sent Lu Jia ( 陸賈 ) as ambassador to the court of Zhao Tuo to acknowledge the latter 's sovereignty over Nanyue ( Vietnamese : Triệu Dynasty ; in modern Southwest China and northern Vietnam ) .
= = = Xiongnu and Heqin = = =
The Qin general Meng Tian had forced Toumen , the Chanyu of the Xiongnu , out of the Ordos Desert in 215 BCE , but Toumen 's son and successor Modu Chanyu built the Xiongnu into a powerful empire by subjugating many other tribes . By the time of Modu 's death in 174 BCE , the Xiongnu domains stretched from what is now northeast China and Mongolia to the Altai and Tian Shan mountain ranges in Central Asia . The Chinese feared incursions by the Xiongnu under the guise of trade and were concerned that Han @-@ manufactured iron weapons would fall into Xiongnu hands . Gaozu thus enacted a trade embargo against the Xiongnu . To compensate the Chinese border merchants of the northern kingdoms of Dai and Yan for lost trade , he made them government officials with handsome salaries . Outraged by this embargo , Modu Chanyu planned to attack Han . When the Xiongnu invaded Taiyuan in 200 BCE and were aided by the defector King Xin of Hán ( 韓 / 韩 , not to be confused with the ruling Hàn 漢 dynasty , or the general Han Xin ) , Gaozu personally led his forces through the snow to Pingcheng ( near modern Datong , Shanxi ) . In the ensuing Battle of Baideng , Gaozu 's forces were heavily surrounded for seven days ; running short of supplies , he was forced to flee .
After this defeat , the court adviser Liu Jing ( 劉敬 , originally named Lou Jing [ 婁敬 ] ) convinced the emperor to create a peace treaty and marriage alliance with the Xiongnu Chanyu called the heqin agreement . By this arrangement established in 198 BCE , the Han hoped to modify the Xiongnu 's nomadic values with Han luxury goods given as tribute ( silks , wine , foodstuffs , etc . ) and to make Modu 's half @-@ Chinese successor a subordinate to grandfather Gaozu . The exact amounts of annual tribute as promised by Emperor Gaozu given to the Xiongnu in the 2nd century BCE shortly after the defeat are unknown . In 89 BCE , however , Hulugu Chanyu ( 狐鹿姑 ) ( r . 95 – 85 BCE ) requested a renewal of the heqin agreement with the increased amount of annual tribute at 400 @,@ 000 L ( 11 @,@ 350 U.S. bu ) of wine , 100 @,@ 000 L ( 2 @,@ 840 U.S. bu ) of grain , and 10 @,@ 000 bales of silk ; thus previous amounts would have been less than these figures .
Although the treaty acknowledged both huangdi and chanyu as equals , Han was in fact the inferior partner since it was forced to pay tribute to appease the militarily powerful Xiongnu . Emperor Gaozu was initially set to give his only daughter to Modu , but under the opposition of Empress Lü , Emperor Gaozu made a female relative princess and married her to Modu . Until the 130s BCE , the offering of princess brides and tributary items scarcely satisfied the Xiongnu , who often raided Han 's northern frontiers and violated the 162 BCE treaty that established the Great Wall as the border between Han and Xiongnu .
= = Empress Dowager Lü 's rule = =
= = = Emperor Hui = = =
When Ying Bu rebelled in 195 BCE , Emperor Gaozu personally led the troops against Ying and received an arrow wound which allegedly led to his death the following year . His heir apparent Liu Ying took the throne and is posthumously known as Emperor Hui of Han ( r . 195 – 188 BCE ) . Shortly afterwards Gaozu 's widow Lü Zhi , now empress dowager , had Liu Ruyi , a potential claimant to the throne , poisoned and his mother , the Consort Qi , brutally mutilated . When the teenage Emperor Hui discovered the cruel acts committed by his mother , Loewe says that he " did not dare disobey her . "
Hui 's brief reign saw the completion of the defensive city walls around the capital Chang 'an in 190 BCE ; these brick and rammed earth walls were originally 12 m ( 40 ft ) tall and formed a rough rectangular ground plan ( with some irregularities due to topography ) ; their ruins still stand today . This urban construction project was completed by 150 @,@ 000 conscript laborers . Emperor Hui 's reign saw the repeal of old Qin laws banning certain types of literature and was characterized by a cautious approach to foreign policy , including the renewal of the heqin agreement with the Xiongnu and Han 's acknowledgment of the independent sovereignty of the Kings of Donghai and Nanyue .
= = = Regency and downfall of the Lü clan = = =
Since Emperor Hui did not sire any children with his empress Zhang Yan , after his death in 188 BCE , Lü Zhi , now grand empress dowager and regent , chose his successor from among his sons with other consorts . She first placed Emperor Qianshao of Han ( r . 188 – 184 BCE ) on the throne , but then removed him for another puppet ruler Emperor Houshao of Han ( r . 184 – 180 BCE ) . She not only issued imperial edicts during their reigns , but she also appointed members of her own clan as kings against Emperor Gaozu 's explicit prohibition ; other clan members became key military officers and civil officials .
The court under Lü Zhi was not only unable to deal with a Xiongnu invasion of Longxi Commandery ( in modern Gansu ) in which 2 @,@ 000 Han prisoners were taken , but it also provoked a conflict with Zhao Tuo , King of Nanyue , by imposing a ban on exporting iron and other trade items to his southern kingdom . Proclaiming himself Emperor Wu of Nanyue ( 南越武帝 ) in 183 BCE , Zhao Tuo attacked the Han Kingdom of Changsha in 181 BCE . He did not rescind his rival imperial title until the Han ambassador Lu Jia again visited Nanyue 's court during the reign of Emperor Wen .
After Empress Dowager Lü 's death in 180 BCE , it was alleged that the Lü clan plotted to overthrow the Liu dynasty , and Liu Xiang the King of Qi ( Emperor Gaozu 's grandson ) rose against the Lüs . Before the central government and Qi forces engaged each other , the Lü clan was ousted from power and destroyed by a coup led by the officials Chen Ping and Zhou Bo ( 周勃 ) at Chang 'an . Although Liu Xiang had resisted the Lüs , he was passed over to become emperor because he had mobilized troops without permission from the central government and because his mother ' s family possessed the same ambitious attitude as the Lüs . Consort Bo , the mother of Liu Heng , King of Dai , was considered to possess a noble character , so her son was chosen as successor to the throne ; he is known posthumously as Emperor Wen of Han ( r . 180 – 157 BCE ) .
= = Reign of Wen and Jing = =
= = = Reforms and policies = = =
During the " Rule of Wen and Jing " ( the era named after Emperor Wen and his successor Emperor Jing ( r . 157 – 141 BCE ) , the Han Empire witnessed greater economic and dynastic stability , while the central government assumed more power over the realm . In an attempt to distance itself from the harsh rule of Qin , the court under these rulers abolished legal punishments involving mutilation in 167 BCE , declared eight widespread amnesties between 180 – 141 BCE , and reduced the tax rate on households ' agricultural produce from one @-@ fifteenth to one @-@ thirtieth in 168 BCE . It was abolished altogether the following year , but reinstated at the rate of one @-@ thirtieth in 156 BCE .
Government policies were influenced by the proto @-@ Daoist Huang @-@ Lao ( 黃老 ) ideology , a mix of political and cosmological precepts given patronage by Wen 's wife Empress Dou ( d . 135 BCE ) , who was empress dowager during Jing 's reign and grand empress dowager during the early reign of his successor Emperor Wu ( r . 141 – 87 BCE ) . Huang @-@ Lao , named after the mythical Yellow Emperor and the 6th @-@ century @-@ BCE philosopher Laozi , viewed the former as the founder of ordered civilization ; this was unlike the Confucians , who gave that role to legendary sage kings Yao and Shun . Han imperial patrons of Huang @-@ Lao sponsored the policy of " nonaction " or wuwei ( 無為 ) ( a central concept of Laozi 's Daodejing ) , which claimed that rulers should interfere as little as possible if administrative and legal systems were to function smoothly . The influence of Huang @-@ Lao doctrines on state affairs became eclipsed with the formal adoption of Confucianism as state ideology during Wu 's reign and the later view that Laozi , not the Yellow Emperor , was the originator of Daoist practices .
From 179 – 143 BCE , the number of kingdoms was increased from eleven to twenty @-@ five and the number of commanderies from nineteen to forty . This was not due to a large territorial expansion , but because kingdoms that had rebelled against Han rule or failed to produce an heir were significantly reduced in size or even abolished and carved into new commanderies or smaller kingdoms .
= = = Rebellion of Seven States = = =
When Liu Xian ( 劉賢 ) , the heir apparent of Wu , once made an official visit to the capital during Wen 's reign , he played a board game called liubo with then crown prince Liu Qi , the future Emperor Jing . During a heated dispute , Liu Qi threw the game board at Liu Xian , killing him . This outraged his father Liu Pi ( 劉濞 ) , the King of Wu and a nephew of Emperor Gaozu 's , who was nonetheless obliged to claim allegiance to Liu Qi once he took the throne .
Still bitter over the death of his son and fearful that he would be targeted in a wave of reduction of kingdom sizes that Emperor Jing carried out under the advice of Imperial Counselor Chao Cuo ( d . 154 BCE ) , the King of Wu led a revolt against Han in 154 BCE as the head of a coalition with six other rebelling kingdoms : Chu , Zhao , Jiaoxi , Jiaodong , Zaichuan , and Jinan , which also feared such reductions . However , Han forces commanded by Zhou Yafu were ready and able to put down the revolt , destroying the coalition of seven states against Han . Several kingdoms were abolished ( although later reinstated ) and others significantly reduced in size . Emperor Jing issued an edict in 145 BCE which outlawed the independent administrative staffs in the kingdoms and abolished all their senior offices except for the chancellor , who was henceforth reduced in status and appointed directly by the central government . His successor Emperor Wu would diminish their power even further by abolishing the kingdoms ' tradition of primogeniture and ordering that each king had to divide up his realm between all of his male heirs .
= = = Relations with the Xiongnu = = =
In 177 BCE , the Xiongnu Wise King of the Right raided the non @-@ Chinese tribes living under Han protection in the northwest ( modern Gansu ) . In 176 BCE , Modu Chanyu sent a letter to Emperor Wen informing him that the Wise King , allegedly insulted by Han officials , acted without the Chanyu 's permission and so he punished the Wise King by forcing him to conduct a military campaign against the nomadic Yuezhi . Yet this event was merely part of a larger effort to recruit nomadic tribes north of Han China , during which the bulk of the Yuezhi were expelled from the Hexi Corridor ( fleeing west into Central Asia ) and the sedentary state of Loulan in the Lop Nur salt marsh , the nomadic Wusun of the Tian Shan range , and twenty @-@ six other states east of Samarkand were subjugated to Xiongnu hegemony . Modu Chanyu 's implied threat that he would invade China if the heqin agreement was not renewed sparked a debate in Chang 'an ; although officials such as Chao Cuo and Jia Yi ( d . 169 BCE ) wanted to reject the heqin policy , Emperor Wen favored renewal of the agreement . Modu Chanyu died before the Han tribute reached him , but his successor Laoshang Chanyu ( 174 – 160 BCE ) renewed the heqin agreement and negotiated the opening of border markets . Lifting the ban on trade significantly reduced the frequency and size of Xiongnu raids , which had necessitated tens of thousands of Han troops to be stationed at the border . However , Laoshang Chanyu and his successor Junchen Chanyu ( 車臣 ) ( r . 160 – 126 BCE ) continued to violate Han 's territorial sovereignty by making incursions despite the treaty . While Laoshang Chanyu continued the conquest of his father by driving the Yuezhi into the Ili River valley , the Han quietly built up its strength in cavalry forces to later challenge the Xiongnu .
= = Reign of Wu = =
= = = Confucianism and government recruitment = = =
Although Emperor Gaozu did not ascribe to the philosophy and system of ethics attributed to Confucius ( fl . 6th century BCE ) , he did enlist the aid of Confucians such as Lu Jia and Shusun Tong ( 叔孫通 ) ; in 196 BCE he established the first Han regulation for recruiting men of merit into government service , which Robert P. Kramer calls the " first major impulse toward the famous examination system . " Emperors Wen and Jing appointed Confucian academicians to court , yet not all academicians at their courts specialized in what would later become orthodox Confucian texts . For several years after Liu Che took the throne in 141 BCE ( known posthumously as Emperor Wu ) , the Grand Empress Dowager Dou continued to dominate the court and did not accept any policy which she found unfavorable or contradicted Huang @-@ Lao ideology . After her death in 135 BCE , a major shift occurred in Chinese political history .
After Emperor Wu called for the submission of memorial essays on how to improve the government , he favored that of the official Dong Zhongshu ( 179 – 104 BCE ) , a philosopher whom Kramers calls the first Confucian " theologian " . Dong 's synthesis fused together the ethical ideas of Confucius with the cosmological beliefs in yin and yang and Five Elements or Wuxing by fitting them into the same holistic , universal system which governed heaven , earth , and the world of man . Moreover , it justified the imperial system of government by providing it its place within the greater cosmos . Reflecting the ideas of Dong Zhongshu , Emperor Wu issued an edict in 136 BCE that abolished academic chairs other than those focused on the Confucian Five Classics . In 124 BCE Emperor Wu established the Imperial University , at which the academicians taught 50 students ; this was the incipient beginning of the civil service examination system refined in later dynasties . Although sons and relatives of officials were often privileged with nominations to office , those who did not come from a family of officials were not barred from entry into the bureaucracy . Rather , education in the Five Classics became the paramount prerequisite for gaining office ; as a result , the Imperial University was expanded dramatically by the 2nd century CE when it accommodated 30 @,@ 000 students . With Cai Lun 's ( d . 121 CE ) invention of the papermaking process in 105 CE , the spread of paper as a cheap writing medium from the Eastern Han period onwards increased the supply of books and hence the number of those who could be educated for civil service .
= = = War against the Xiongnu = = =
The death of Empress Dou also marked a significant shift in foreign policy . In order to address the Xiongnu threat and renewal of the heqin agreement , Emperor Wu called a court conference into session in 135 BCE where two factions of leading ministers debated the merits and faults of the current policy ; Emperor Wu followed the majority consensus of his ministers that peace should be maintained . A year later , while the Xiongnu were busy raiding the northern border and waiting for Han 's response , Wu had another court conference assembled . The faction supporting war against the Xiongnu was able to sway the majority opinion by making a compromise for those worried about stretching financial resources on an indefinite campaign : in a limited engagement along the border near Mayi , Han forces would lure Junchen Chanyu over with gifts and promises of defections in order to quickly eliminate him and cause political chaos for the Xiongnu . When the Mayi trap failed in 133 BCE ( Junchen Chanyu realized he was about to fall into a trap and fled back north ) , the era of heqin @-@ style appeasement was broken and the Han court resolved to engage in full @-@ scale war .
Leading campaigns involving tens of thousands of troops , in 127 BCE the Han general Wei Qing ( d . 106 BCE ) recaptured the Ordos Desert region from the Xiongnu and in 121 BCE Huo Qubing ( d . 117 BCE ) expelled them from the Qilian Mountains , gaining the surrender of many Xiongnu aristocrats . At the Battle of Mobei in 119 BCE , generals Wei and Huo led the campaign to the Khangai Mountains where they forced the chanyu to flee north of the Gobi Desert . The maintenance of 300 @,@ 000 horses by government slaves in thirty @-@ six different pasture lands was not enough to satisfy the cavalry and baggage trains needed for these campaigns , so the government offered exemption from military and corvée labor for up to three male members of each household who presented a privately bred horse to the government .
= = = Expansion and colonization = = =
After Xiongnu 's King Hunye surrendered to Huo Qubing in 121 BCE , the Han acquired a territory stretching from the Hexi Corridor to Lop Nur , thus cutting the Xiongnu off from their Qiang allies . New commanderies were established in the Ordos as well as four in the Hexi Corridor — Jiuquan , Zhangyi , Dunhuang , and Wuwei — which were populated with Han settlers after a major Qiang @-@ Xiongnu allied force was repelled from the region in 111 BCE . By 119 BCE , Han forces established their first garrison outposts in the Juyan Lake Basin of Inner Mongolia , with larger settlements built there after 110 BCE . Roughly 40 % of the settlers at Juyan came from the Guandong region of modern Henan , western Shandong , southern Shanxi , southern Hebei , northwestern Jiangsu , and northwestern Anhui . After Hunye 's surrender , the Han court moved 725 @,@ 000 people from the Guandong region to populate the Xinqinzhong ( 新秦中 ) region south of the bend of the Yellow River . In all , Emperor Wu 's forces conquered roughly 4 @.@ 4 million km2 ( 1 @.@ 7 million mi2 ) of new land , by far the largest territorial expansion in Chinese history . Self @-@ sustaining agricultural garrisons were established in these frontier outposts to support military campaigns as well as secure trade routes leading into Central Asia , the eastern terminus of the Silk Road . The Han @-@ era Great Wall was extended as far west as Dunhuang and sections of it still stand today in Gansu , including thirty Han beacon towers and two fortified castles .
= = = Exploration , foreign trade , war and diplomacy = = =
Starting in 139 BCE , the Han diplomat Zhang Qian traveled west in an unsuccessful attempt to secure an alliance with the Da Yuezhi ( who were evicted from Gansu by the Xiongnu in 177 BCE ) ; however , Zhang 's travels revealed entire countries which the Chinese were unaware of , the remnants of the conquests of Alexander the Great ( r . 336 – 323 BCE ) . When Zhang returned to China in 125 BCE , he reported on his visits to Dayuan ( Fergana ) , Kangju ( Sogdiana ) , and Daxia ( Bactria , formerly the Greco @-@ Bactrian Kingdom which was subjugated by the Da Yuezhi ) . Zhang described Dayuan and Daxia as agricultural and urban countries like China , and although he did not venture there , described Shendu ( the Indus River valley of Northwestern India ) and Anxi ( Arsacid territories ) further west . Envoys sent to these states returned with foreign delegations and lucrative trade caravans ; yet even before this , Zhang noted that these countries were importing Chinese silk . After interrogating merchants , Zhang also discovered a southwestern trade route leading through Burma and on to India . The earliest known Roman glassware found in China ( but manufactured in the Roman Empire ) is a glass bowl found in a Guangzhou tomb dating to the early 1st century BCE and perhaps came from a maritime route passing through the South China Sea . Likewise , imported Chinese silk attire became popular in the Roman Empire by the time of Julius Caesar ( 100 – 44 BCE ) .
After the heqin agreement broke down , the Xiongnu were forced to extract more crafts and agricultural foodstuffs from the subjugated Tarim Basin urban centers . From 115 – 60 BCE the Han and Xiongnu battled for control and influence over these states , with the Han gaining , from 108 – 101 BCE tributary submission of Loulan , Turpan , Bügür , Dayuan ( Fergana ) , and Kangju ( Sogdiana ) . The farthest @-@ reaching and most expensive invasion was Li Guangli 's four @-@ year campaign against Fergana in the Syr Darya and Amu Darya valleys ( modern Uzbekistan and Kyrgyzstan ) . Historian Laszlo Torday ( 1997 ) asserts that Fergana threatened to cut off Han 's access to the Silk Road , yet historian Sima Qian ( d . 86 BCE ) downplayed this threat by asserting that Li 's mission was really a means to punish Dayuan for not providing tribute of prized Central Asian stallions .
To the south , Emperor Wu assisted King Zhao Mo in fending off an attack by Minyue ( in modern Fujian ) in 135 BCE . After a pro @-@ Han faction was overthrown at the court of Nanyue , Han naval forces conquered Nanyue in 111 BCE during the Han – Nanyue War , bringing areas of modern Guangdong , Guangxi , Hainan Island , and northern Vietnam under Han control . Emperor Wu also launched an invasion into the Dian Kingdom of Yunnan in 109 BCE , subjugating its king as a tributary vassal , while later Dian rebellions in 86 BCE and 83 BCE , 14 CE ( during Wang Mang 's rule ) , and 42 – 45 CE were quelled by Han forces . Wu sent an expedition into what is now North Korea in 128 BCE , but this was abandoned two years later . In 108 BCE , another expedition established four commanderies there , only two of which ( i.e. Xuantu Commandery and Lelang Commandery ) remained after 82 BCE . Although there was some violent resistance in 108 BCE and irregular raids by Goguryeo and Buyeo afterwards , Chinese settlers conducted peaceful trade relations with native Koreans who lived largely independent of ( but were culturally influenced by ) the sparse Han settlements .
= = = Economic reforms = = =
To fund his prolonged military campaigns and colonization efforts , Emperor Wu turned away from the " nonaction " policy of earlier reigns by having the central government commandeer the private industries and trades of salt mining and iron manufacturing by 117 BCE . Another government monopoly over liquor was established in 98 BCE , but the majority consensus at a court conference in 81 BCE led to the breaking up of this monopoly . The mathematician and official Sang Hongyang ( d . 80 BCE ) , who later became Imperial Counselor and one of many former merchants drafted into the government to help administer these monopolies , was responsible for the ' equable transportation ' system that eliminated price variation over time from place to place . This was a government means to interfere in the profitable grain trade by eliminating speculation ( since the government stocked up on grain when cheap and sold it to the public at a low price when private merchants demanded higher ones ) . This along with the monopolies were criticized even during Wu 's reign as bringing unnecessary hardships for merchants ' profits and farmers forced to rely on poor @-@ quality government @-@ made goods and services ; the monopolies and equable transportation did not last into the Eastern Han Era ( 25 – 220 CE ) .
During Emperor Wu 's reign , the poll tax for each minor aged three to fourteen was raised from 20 to 23 coins ; the rate for adults remained at 120 . New taxes exacted on market transactions , wheeled vehicles , and properties were meant to bolster the growing military budget . In 119 BCE a new bronze coin weighing five shu ( 3 @.@ 2 g / 0 @.@ 11 oz ) — replacing the four shu coin — was issued by the government ( remaining the standard coin of China until the Tang dynasty ) , followed by a ban on private minting in 113 BCE . Earlier attempts to ban private minting took place in 186 and 144 BCE , but Wu 's monopoly over the issue of coinage remained in place throughout the Han ( although its stewardship changed hands between different government agencies ) . From 118 BCE to 5 CE , the Han government minted 28 billion coins , an average of 220 million a year .
= = Latter half of Western Han = =
= = = Regency of Huo Guang = = =
Emperor Wu 's first wife , Empress Chen Jiao , was deposed in 130 BCE after allegations that she attempted witchcraft to help her produce a male heir . In 91 BCE , similar allegations were made against Emperor Wu 's Crown Prince Liu Ju , the son of Emperor Wu 's second wife Empress Wei Zifu . Prince Liu Ju , in fear of Emperor Wu 's believing the false allegations , began a rebellion in Chang 'an which lasted for five days , while Emperor Wu was away at his quiet summer retreat of Ganquan ( 甘泉 ; in modern Shaanxi ) , . After Liu Ju 's defeat , both he and Empress Wei committed suicide .
Eventually , due to his good reputation , Huo Qubing 's half @-@ brother Huo Guang was entrusted by Wu to form a triumvirate regency alongside ethnically Xiongnu Jin Midi ( d . 86 BCE ) and Shangguan Jie ( 上官桀 ) ( d . 80 BCE ) over the court of his successor , the child Liu Fuling , known posthumously as Emperor Zhao of Han ( r . 87 – 74 BCE ) . Jin Midi died a year later and by 80 BCE Shangguan Jie and Imperial Counselor Sang Hongyang were executed when they were accused of supporting Emperor Zhao 's older brother Liu Dan ( 劉旦 ) the King of Yan as emperor ; this gave Huo unrivaled power . However , he did not abuse his power in the eyes of the Confucian establishment and gained popularity for reducing Emperor Wu 's taxes .
Emperor Zhao died in 74 BCE without a successor , while the one chosen to replace him on July 18 , his nephew Prince He of Changyi , was removed on August 14 after displaying a lack of character or capacity to rule . Prince He 's removal was secured with a memorial signed by all the leading ministers and submitted to Empress Dowager Shangguan for approval . Liu Bingyi ( Liu Ju 's grandson ) was named Emperor Xuan of Han ( r . 74 – 49 BCE ) on September 10 . Huo Guang remained in power as regent over Emperor Xuan until he died of natural causes in 68 BCE . Yet in 66 BCE the Huo clan was charged with conspiracy against the throne and eliminated . This was the culmination of Emperor Xuan 's revenge after Huo Guang 's wife had poisoned his beloved Empress Xu Pingjun in 71 BCE only to have her replaced by Huo Guang 's daughter Empress Huo Chengjun ( the latter was deposed in September 66 BCE ) . Liu Shi , son of Empress Xu , succeeded his father as Emperor Yuan of Han ( r . 49 – 33 BCE ) .
= = = Reforms and frugality = = =
During Emperor Wu 's reign and Huo Guang 's regency , the dominant political faction was the Modernist Party . This party favored greater government intervention in the private economy with government monopolies over salt and iron , higher taxes exacted on private business , and price controls which were used to fund an aggressive foreign policy of territorial expansion ; they also followed the Qin dynasty approach to discipline by meting out more punishments for faults and less rewards for service . After Huo Guang 's regency , the Reformist Party gained more leverage over state affairs and policy decisions . This party favored the abolishment of government monopolies , limited government intervention in the private economy , a moderate foreign policy , limited colonization efforts , frugal budget reform , and a return to the Zhou dynasty ideal of granting more rewards for service to display the dynasty 's magnanimity . This party 's influence can be seen in the abolition of the central government 's salt and iron monopolies in 44 BCE , yet these were reinstated in 41 BCE , only to be abolished again during the 1st century CE and transferred to local administrations and private entrepreneurship . By 66 BCE the Reformists had many of the lavish spectacles , games , and entertainments installed by Emperor Wu to impress foreign dignitaries cancelled on the grounds that they were excessive and ostentatious .
Spurred by alleged signs from Heaven warning the ruler of his incompetence , a total of eighteen general amnesties were granted during the combined reigns of Emperor Yuan ( Liu Shi ) and Emperor Cheng of Han ( r . 37 @-@ 3 BCE , Liu Ao 劉驁 ) . Emperor Yuan reduced the severity of punishment for several crimes , while Cheng reduced the length of judicial procedures in 34 BCE since they were disrupting the lives of commoners . While the Modernists had accepted sums of cash from criminals to have their sentences commuted or even dropped , the Reformists reversed this policy since it favored the wealthy over the poor and was not an effective deterrent against crime .
Emperor Cheng made major reforms to state @-@ sponsored religion . The Qin dynasty had worshipped four main legendary deities , with another added by Emperor Gaozu in 205 BCE ; these were the Five Powers , or Wudi ( 五帝 ) . In 31 BCE Emperor Cheng , in an effort to gain Heaven 's favor and bless him with a male heir , halted all ceremonies dedicated to the Five Powers and replaced them with ceremonies for the supreme god Shangdi , who the kings of Zhou had worshipped .
= = = Foreign relations and war = = =
The first half of the 1st century BCE witnessed several succession crises for the Xiongnu leadership , allowing Han to further cement its control over the Western Regions . The Han general Fu Jiezi assassinated the pro @-@ Xiongnu King of Loulan in 77 BCE . The Han formed a coalition with the Wusun , Dingling , and Wuhuan , and the coalition forces inflicted a major defeat against the Xiongnu in 72 BCE . The Han regained its influence over the Turpan Depression after defeating the Xiongnu at the Battle of Jushi in 67 BCE . In 65 BCE Han was able to install a new King of Kucha ( a state north of the Taklamakan Desert ) who would be agreeable to Han interests in the region . The office of the Protectorate of the Western Regions , first given to Zheng Ji ( d . 49 BCE ) , was established in 60 BCE to supervise colonial activities and conduct relations with the small kingdoms of the Tarim Basin .
After Zhizhi Chanyu ( r . 56 – 36 BCE ) had inflicted a serious defeat against his rival brother and royal contender Huhanye Chanyu ( 呼韓邪 ) ( r . 58 – 31 BCE ) , Huhanye and his supporters debated whether to request Han aid and become a Han vassal . He decided to do so in 52 BCE . Huhanye sent his son as a hostage to Han and personally paid homage to Emperor Xuan during the 51 BCE Chinese New Year celebration . Under the advocacy of the Reformists , Huhanye was seated as a distinguished guest of honor and rich rewards of 5 kg ( 160 oz t ) of gold , 200 @,@ 000 cash coins , 77 suits of clothes , 8 @,@ 000 bales of silk fabric , 1 @,@ 500 kg ( 3 @,@ 300 lb ) of silk floss , and 15 horses , in addition to 680 @,@ 000 L ( 19 @,@ 300 U.S. bu ) of grain sent to him when he returned home .
Huhanye Chanyu and his successors were encouraged to pay further trips of homage to the Han court due to the increasing amount of gifts showered on them after each visit ; this was a cause for complaint by some ministers in 3 BCE , yet the financial consequence of pampering their vassal was deemed superior to the heqin agreement . Zhizhi Chanyu initially attempted to send hostages and tribute to the Han court in hopes of ending the Han support of Huhanye , but eventually turned against Han . Subsequently , the Han general Chen Tang and Protector General Gan Yanshou ( 甘延壽 / 甘延寿 ) , acting without explicit permission from the Han court , killed Zhizhi at his capital of Shanyu City ( in modern Taraz , Kazakhstan ) in 36 BCE . The Reformist Han court , reluctant to award independent missions let alone foreign interventionism , gave Chen and Gan only modest rewards . Despite the show of favor , Huhanye was not given a Han princess ; instead , he was given the Lady Wang Zhaojun , one of the Four Beauties of ancient China . This marked a departure from the earlier heqin agreement , where a Chinese princess was handed over to the Chanyu as his bride .
= = Wang Mang 's usurpation = =
= = = Wang Mang seizes control = = =
The long life of Empress Wang Zhengjun ( 71 BCE – 13 CE ) , wife of Emperor Yuan and mother to Emperor Cheng , ensured that her male relatives would be appointed one after another to the role of regent , officially known as Commander @-@ in @-@ Chief . Emperor Cheng , who was more interested in cockfighting and chasing after beautiful women than administering the empire , left much of the affairs of state to his relatives of the Wang clan . On November 28 , 8 BCE Wang Mang ( 45 BCE – 23 CE ) , a nephew of Empress Dowager Wang , became the new General @-@ in @-@ Chief . However , when Emperor Ai of Han ( r . 7 – 1 BCE , Liu Xin ) took the throne , his grandmother Consort Fu ( Emperor Yuan 's concubine ) became the leading figure in the palace and forced Wang Mang to resign on August 27 , 7 BCE , followed by his forced departure from the capital to his marquessate in 5 BCE .
Due to pressure from Wang 's supporters , Emperor Ai invited Wang Mang back to the capital in 2 BCE . A year later Emperor Ai died of illness without a son . Wang Mang was reinstated as regent over Emperor Ping of Han ( r . 1 BCE – 6 CE , Liu Jizi ) , a first cousin of the former emperor . Although Wang had married his daughter to Emperor Ping , the latter was still a child when he died in 6 CE . In July of that year , Grand Empress Dowager Wang confirmed Wang Mang as acting emperor ( jiahuangdi 假皇帝 ) and the child Liu Ying as his heir to succeed him , despite the fact that a Liu family marquess had revolted against Wang a month earlier , followed by others who were outraged that he was assuming greater power than the imperial Liu family . These rebellions were quelled and Wang Mang promised to hand over power to Liu Ying when he reached his majority . Despite promises to relinquish power , Wang initiated a propaganda campaign to show that Heaven was sending signals that it was time for Han 's rule to end . On January 10 , 9 CE he announced that Han had run its course and accepted the requests that he proclaim himself emperor of the Xin dynasty ( 9 – 23 CE ) .
= = = Traditionalist reforms = = =
Wang Mang had a grand vision to restore China to a fabled golden age achieved in the early Zhou dynasty , the era which Confucius had idealized . He attempted sweeping reforms , including the outlawing of slavery and institution of the King 's Fields system in 9 CE , nationalizing land ownership and allotting a standard amount of land to each family . Slavery was reestablished and the land reform regime was cancelled in 12 CE due to widespread protest .
The historian Ban Gu ( 32 – 92 CE ) wrote that Wang 's reforms led to his downfall , yet aside from slavery and land reform , historian Hans Bielenstein points out that most of Wang 's reforms were in line with earlier Han policies . Although his new denominations of currency introduced in 7 CE , 9 CE , 10 CE , and 14 CE debased the value of coinage , earlier introductions of lighter @-@ weight currencies resulted in economic damage as well . Wang renamed all the commanderies of the empire as well as bureaucratic titles , yet there were precedents for this as well . The government monopolies were rescinded in 22 CE because they could no longer be enforced during a large @-@ scale rebellion against him ( spurred by massive flooding of the Yellow River ) .
= = = Foreign relations under Wang = = =
The half @-@ Chinese , half @-@ Xiongnu noble Yituzhiyashi ( 伊屠智牙師 ) , son of Huhanye Chanyu and Wang Zhaojun , became a vocal partisan for Han China within the Xiongnu realm ; Bielenstein claims that this led conservative Xiongnu nobles to anticipate a break in the alliance with Han . The moment came when Wang Mang assumed the throne and demoted the Chanyu to a lesser rank ; this became a pretext for war . During the winter of 10 – 11 CE , Wang amassed 300 @,@ 000 troops along the northern border of Han China , a show of force which led the Xiongnu to back down . Yet when raiding continued , Wang Mang had the princely Xiongnu hostage held by Han authorities executed . Diplomatic relations were repaired when Xian ( 咸 ) ( r . 13 – 18 CE ) became the chanyu , only to be soiled again when Huduershi Chanyu ( 呼都而尸 ) ( r . 18 – 46 CE ) took the throne and raided Han 's borders in 19 CE .
The Tarim Basin kingdom of Yanqi ( Karasahr , located east of Kucha , west of Turpan ) rebelled against Xin authority in 13 CE , killing Han 's Protector General Dan Qin ( 但欽 ) . Wang Mang sent a force to retaliate against Karasahr in 16 CE , quelling their resistance and ensuring that the region would remain under Chinese control until the widespread rebellion against Wang Mang toppled his rule in 23 CE . Wang also extended Chinese influence over Tibetan tribes in the Kokonor region and fended off an attack in 12 CE by Goguryeo ( an early Korean state located around the Yalu River ) in the Korean peninsula . However , as the widespread rebellion in China mounted from 20 – 23 CE , the Koreans raided Lelang Commandery and Han did not reassert itself in the region until 30 CE .
= = Restoration of the Han = =
= = = Natural disaster and civil war = = =
Before 3 CE , the course of the Yellow River had emptied into the Bohai Sea at Tianjin , but the gradual buildup of silt in its riverbed — which raised the water level each year — overpowered the dikes built to prevent flooding and the river split in two , with one arm flowing south of the Shandong Peninsula and into the East China Sea . A second flood in 11 CE changed the course of the northern branch of the river so that it emptied slightly north of the Shandong Peninsula , yet far south of Tianjin . With much of the southern North China Plain inundated following the creation of the Yellow River 's southern branch , thousands of starving peasants who were displaced from their homes formed groups of bandits and rebels , most notably the Red Eyebrows . Wang Mang 's armies tried to quell these rebellions in 18 and 22 CE but failed .
Liu Yan ( d . 23 CE ) , a descendant of Emperor Jing , led a group of rebelling gentry groups from Nanyang who had Yan 's third cousin Liu Xuan ( 劉玄 ) accept the title Emperor Gengshi of Han ( r . 23 – 25 ) on March 11 , 23 CE . Liu Xiu , a brother of Liu Yan and future Emperor Guangwu of Han ( r . 25 – 57 CE ) , distinguished himself at the Battle of Kunyang on July 7 , 23 CE when he relieved a city sieged by Wang Mang 's forces and turned the tide of the war . Soon afterwards , Emperor Gengshi had Liu Yan executed on grounds of treason and Liu Xiu , fearing for his life , resigned from office as Minister of Ceremonies and avoided public mourning for his brother ; for this , the emperor gave Liu Xiu a marquessate and a promotion as general .
Gengshi 's forces then targeted Chang 'an , but a local insurgency broke out in the capital , sacking the city on October 4 . From October 4 – 6 Wang Mang made a last stand at the Weiyang Palace only to be killed and decapitated ; his head was sent to Gengshi 's headquarters at Wan ( i.e. , Nanyang ) before Gengshi 's armies even reached Chang 'an on October 9 . Emperor Gengshi settled Luoyang as his new capital where he invited Red Eyebrows leader Fan Chong ( 樊崇 ) to stay , yet Gengshi granted him only honorary titles , so Fan decided to flee once his men began to desert him . Gengshi moved the capital back to Chang 'an in 24 CE , yet in the following year the Red Eyebrows defeated his forces , appointed their own puppet ruler Liu Penzi , entered Chang 'an and captured the fleeing Gengshi who they demoted as King of Changsha before killing him .
= = = Reconsolidation under Guangwu = = =
While acting as a commissioner under Emperor Gengshi , Liu Xiu gathered a significant following after putting down a local rebellion ( in what is now Hebei province ) . He claimed the Han throne himself on August 5 , 25 CE and occupied Luoyang as his capital on November 27 . Before he would eventually unify the empire , there were 11 others who claimed the title of emperor . With the efforts of his officers Deng Yu and Feng Yi , Guangwu forced the wandering Red Eyebrows to surrender on March 15 , 27 CE , resettling them at Luoyang , yet had their leader Fan Chong executed when a plot of rebellion was revealed .
From 26 – 30 CE , Guangwu defeated various warlords and conquered the Central Plain and Shandong Peninsula in the east . Allying with the warlord Dou Rong ( 竇融 ) of the distant Hexi Corridor in 29 CE , Guangwu nearly defeated the Gansu warlord Wei Xiao ( 隗囂 / 隗嚣 ) in 32 CE , seizing Wei 's domain in 33 CE . The last adversary standing was Gongsun Shu ( 公孫述 ) , whose base was at Chengdu in modern Sichuan . Although Guangwu 's forces successfully burned down Gongsun 's fortified pontoon bridge stretching across the Yangzi River , Guangwu 's commanding general Cen Peng ( 岑彭 ) was killed in 35 CE by an assassin sent by Gongsun Shu . Nevertheless , Han General Wu Han ( d . 44 CE ) resumed Cen 's campaign along the Yangzi and Min rivers and destroyed Gongsun 's forces by December 36 CE .
Since Chang 'an is located west of Luoyang , the names Western Han ( 202 BCE – 9 CE ) and Eastern Han ( 25 – 220 CE ) are accepted by historians . Luoyang 's 10 m ( 32 ft ) tall eastern , western , and northern walls still stand today , although the southern wall was destroyed when the Luo River changed its course . Within its walls it had two prominent palaces , both of which existed during Western Han , but were expanded by Guangwu and his successors . While Eastern Han Luoyang is estimated to have held roughly 500 @,@ 000 inhabitants , the first known census data for the whole of China , dated 2 CE , recorded a population of nearly 58 million . Comparing this to the census of 140 CE ( when the total population was registered at roughly 48 million ) , there was a significant migratory shift of up to 10 million people from northern to southern China during Eastern Han , largely because of natural disasters and wars with nomadic groups in the north . Population size fluctuated according to periodically updated Eastern @-@ Han censuses , but historian Sadao Nishijima notes that this does not reflect a dramatic loss of life , but rather government inability at times to register the entire populace .
= = = Policies under Guangwu , Ming , Zhang , and He = = =
Scrapping Wang Mang 's denominations of currency , Emperor Guangwu reintroduced Western Han 's standard five shu coin in 40 CE . Making up for lost revenue after the salt and iron monopolies were canceled , private manufacturers were heavily taxed while the government purchased its armies ' swords and shields from private businesses . In 31 CE he allowed peasants to pay a military substitution tax to avoid conscription into the armed forces for a year of training and year of service ; instead he built a volunteer force which lasted throughout Eastern Han . He also allowed peasants to avoid the one @-@ month corvée duty with a commutable tax as hired labor became more popular . Wang Mang had demoted all Han marquesses to commoner status , yet Guangwu made an effort from 27 CE onwards to find their relatives and restore abolished marquessates .
Emperor Ming of Han ( r . 57 – 75 CE , Liu Yang ) reestablished the Office for Price Adjustment and Stabilization and the price stabilization system where the government bought grain when cheap and sold it to the public when private commercial prices were high due to limited stocks . However , he canceled the prize stabilization scheme in 68 CE when he became convinced that government hoarding of grain only made wealthy merchants even richer . With the renewed economic prosperity brought about by his father 's reign , Emperor Ming addressed the flooding of the Yellow River by repairing various dams and canals . On April 8 , 70 CE , an edict boasted that the southern branch of the Yellow River emptying south of the Shandong Peninsula was finally cut off by Han engineering . A patron of scholarship , Emperor Ming also established a school for young nobles aside from the Imperial University .
Emperor Zhang of Han ( r . 75 – 88 CE , Liu Da ) faced an agrarian crisis when a cattle epidemic broke out in 76 CE . In addition to providing disaster relief , Zhang also made reforms to legal procedures and lightened existing punishments with the bastinado , since he believed that this would restore the seasonal balance of yin and yang and cure the epidemic . To further display his benevolence , in 78 CE he ceased the corvée work on canal works of the Hutuo River running through the Taihang Mountains , believing it was causing too much hardship for the people ; in 85 CE he granted a three @-@ year poll tax exemption for any woman who gave birth and exempted their husbands for a year . Unlike other Eastern Han rulers who sponsored the New Texts tradition of the Confucian Five Classics , Zhang was a patron of the Old Texts tradition and held scholarly debates on the validity of the schools . Rafe de Crespigny writes that the major reform of the Eastern Han period was Zhang 's reintroduction in 85 CE of an amended Sifen calendar , replacing Emperor Wu 's Taichu calendar of 104 BCE which had become inaccurate over two centuries ( the former measured the tropical year at 365 @.@ 25 days like the Julian Calendar , while the latter measured the tropical year at 365385 ⁄ 1539 days and the lunar month at 2943 ⁄ 81 days ) .
Emperor He of Han ( r . 88 – 105 CE , Liu Zhao ) was tolerant of both New Text and Old Text traditions , though orthodox studies were in decline and works skeptical of New Texts , such as Wang Chong 's ( 27 – c . 100 CE ) Lunheng , disillusioned the scholarly community with that tradition . He also showed an interest in history when he commissioned the Lady Ban Zhao ( 45 – 116 CE ) to use the imperial archives in order to complete the Book of Han , the work of her deceased father and brother . This set an important precedent of imperial control over the recording of history and thus was unlike Sima Qian 's far more independent work , the Records of the Grand Historian ( 109 – 91 BCE ) . When plagues of locusts , floods , and earthquakes disrupted the lives of commoners , Emperor He 's relief policies were to cut taxes , open granaries , provide government loans , forgive private debts , and resettle people away from disaster areas . Believing that a severe drought in 94 CE was the cosmological result of injustice in the legal system , Emperor He personally inspected prisons . When he found that some had false charges levelled against them , he sent the Prefect of Luoyang to prison ; rain allegedly came soon afterwards .
= = = Foreign relations and split of the Xiongnu realm = = =
The Vietnamese Trưng Sisters led an uprising in the Red River Delta of Jiaozhi Commandery in 40 CE . Guangwu sent the elderly general Ma Yuan ( ~ 14 BCE – 49 CE ) , who defeated them in 42 – 43 CE . The sisters ' native Dong Son drums were melted down and recast into a large bronze horse statue presented to Guangwu at Luoyang .
Meanwhile , Huduershi Chanyu was succeeded by his son Punu ( 蒲奴 ) in 46 CE , thus breaking Huhanye 's orders that only a Xiongnu ruler 's brother was a valid successor ; Huduershi 's nephew Bi ( 比 ) was outraged and in 48 CE was proclaimed a rival Chanyu . This split created the Northern Xiongnu and Southern Xiongnu , and like Huhanye before him , Bi turned to the Han for aid in 50 CE . When Bi came to pay homage to the Han court , he was given 10 @,@ 000 bales of silk fabrics , 2 @,@ 500 kg ( 5 @,@ 500 lb ) of silk , 500 @,@ 000 L ( 14 @,@ 000 U.S. bu ) of rice , and 36 @,@ 000 head of cattle . Unlike in Huhanye 's time , however , the Southern Xiongnu were overseen by a Han Prefect who not only acted as an arbiter in Xiongnu legal cases , but also monitored the movements of the Chanyu and his followers who were settled in Han 's northern commanderies in Shanxi , Gansu , and Inner Mongolia . Northern Xiongnu attempts to enter Han 's tributary system were rejected .
Following Xin 's loss of the Western Territories , the Kingdom of Yarkand looked after the Chinese officials and families stranded in the Tarim Basin and fought the Xiongnu for control over it . Emperor Guangwu , preoccupied with civil wars in China , simply granted King Kang of Yarkand an official title in 29 CE and in 41 CE made his successor King Xian a Protector General ( later reduced to the honorary title of " Great General of Han " ) . Yarkand overtaxed its subjects of Khotan , Turpan , Kucha , and Karasahr , all of which decided to ally with the Northern Xiongnu . By 61 CE Khotan had conquered Yarkand , yet this led to a war among the kingdoms to decide which would be the next hegemon . The Northern Xiongnu took advantage of the infighting , conquered the Tarim Basin , and used it as a base to stage raids into Han 's Hexi Corridor by 63 CE . In that year , the Han court opened border markets for trade with the Northern Xiongnu in hopes to appease them .
Yet Han sought to reconquer the Tarim Basin . At the Battle of Yiwulu in 73 CE , Dou Gu ( d . 88 CE ) reached as far as Lake Barkol when he defeated a Northern Xiongnu chanyu and established an agricultural garrison at Hami . Although Dou Gu was able to evict the Xiongnu from Turpan in 74 CE , when the Han appointed Chen Mu ( d . 75 CE ) as the new Protector General of the Western Regions , the Northern Xiongnu invaded the Bogda Mountains while their allies Karasarh and Kucha killed Chen Mu and his troops . The Han garrison at Hami was forced to withdraw in 77 CE ( and was not reestablished until 91 CE ) . The next Han expedition against the Northern Xiongnu was led in 89 CE by Dou Xian ( d . 92 CE ) ; at the Battle of Ikh Bayan , Dou 's forces chased the Northern Chanyu into the Altai Mountains , allegedly killing 13 @,@ 000 Xiongnu and accepting the surrender of 200 @,@ 000 Xiongnu from 81 tribes .
After Dou sent 2 @,@ 000 cavalry to attack the Northern Xiongnu base at Hami , he was followed by the initiative of the general Ban Chao ( d . 102 CE ) , who earlier installed a new king of Kashgar as a Han ally . When this king turned against him and enlisted the aid of Sogdiana in 84 CE , Ban Chao arranged an alliance with the Kushan Empire ( of modern North India , Pakistan , Afghanistan , and Tajikistan ) , which put political pressure on Sogdiana to back down ; Ban later assassinated King Zhong of Kashgar . Since Kushan provided aid to Ban Chao in quelling Turpan and sent tribute and hostages to Han , its ruler Vima Kadphises ( r. c . 90 – c . 100 CE ) requested a Chinese princess bride ; when this was rejected in 90 CE , Kushan marched 70 @,@ 000 troops to Wakhan against Ban Chao . Ban used scorched earth tactics against Kushan , forcing them to request food supplies from Kucha . When Kushan messengers were intercepted by Ban , Kushan was forced to withdraw . In 91 CE , Ban was appointed as Protector General of the Western Regions , an office he filled until 101 CE .
Tributary gifts and emissaries from the Arsacid Empire , then under Pacorus II of Parthia ( r . 78 – 105 CE ) , came to the Han in 87 CE , 89 CE , and 101 CE bringing exotic animals such as ostriches and lions . When Ban Chao dispatched his emissary Gan Ying in 97 CE to reach Daqin ( the Roman Empire ) , he did not reach farther than a " large sea " , perhaps the Persian Gulf . However , from oral accounts Gan was able to describe Rome as having hundreds of walled cities , a postal delivery network , the submission of dependent states , and a system of government where the Roman " king " ( i.e. consul ) is " not a permanent figure but is chosen as the man most worthy . " Elephants and rhinoceroses were also presented as gifts to the Han court in 94 CE and 97 CE by a king in what is now Burma . The first known diplomatic mission from a ruler in Japan came in 57 CE ( followed by another in 107 CE ) ; a golden seal of Emperor Guangwu 's was even discovered in 1784 in Chikuzen Province . The first mentioning of Buddhism in China was made in 65 CE , when the Chinese clearly associated it with Huang @-@ Lao Daoism . Emperor Ming had the first Buddhist temple of China — the White Horse Temple — built at Luoyang in honor of two foreign monks : Jiashemoteng ( 迦葉摩騰 ) ( Kāśyapa Mātanga ) and Zhu Falan ( 竺法蘭 ) ( Dharmaratna the Indian ) . These monks allegedly translated the Sutra of Forty @-@ two Chapters from Sanskrit into Chinese , although it is now proven that this text was not translated into Chinese until the 2nd century CE .
= = = Court , kinsmen , and consort clans = = =
Besides his divorcing Guo Shengtong in 41 CE to install his original wife Empress Yin Lihua as empress instead , there was little drama with imperial kinsmen at Guangwu 's court , as Empress Guo was made a queen dowager and her son , the former heir apparent , was demoted to the status of a king . However , trouble with imperial kinsmen turned violent during Ming 's reign . In addition to exiling his half @-@ brother Liu Ying ( d . 71 CE , committed suicide ) after Liu Ying allegedly used witchcraft to curse him , Emperor Ming also targeted hundreds of others with similar charges ( of using occult omens and witchcraft ) resulting in exile , torture for gaining confessions , and execution . This trend of persecution did not end until Emperor Zhang took the throne , who was for the most part generous towards his brothers and called back many to the capital who had been exiled by Ming .
Of greater consequence for the dynasty , however , was Emperor He 's coup of 92 CE in which eunuchs made their first significant involvement in court politics of Eastern Han . Emperor Zhang had upheld a good relationship with his titular mother and Ming 's widow , the humble Empress Dowager Ma ( d . 79 CE ) , but Empress Dowager Dou ( d . 97 CE ) , the widow of Emperor Zhang , was overbearing towards Emperor He ( son of Emperor Zhang and Consort Liang ) in his early reign and , concealing the identity of his natural mother from him , raised He as her own after purging the Liang family from power . In order to put He on the throne , Empress Dowager Dou had even demoted the crown prince Liu Qing ( 78 – 106 CE ) as a king and forced his mother , Consort Song ( d . 82 CE ) to commit suicide . Unwilling to yield his power to the Dou clan any longer , Emperor He enlisted the aid of palace eunuchs led by Zheng Zhong ( d . 107 CE ) to overthrow the Dou clan on charges of treason , stripping them of titles , exiling them , forcing many to commit suicide , and had the Empress Dowager placed under house arrest .
= = Middle age of Eastern Han = =
= = = Empress Deng Sui , consort families , and eunuchs = = =
Empress Deng Sui ( d . 121 CE ) , widow to Emperor He , became empress dowager in 105 CE and thus had the final say in appointing He 's successor ( since he had appointed none ) ; she placed his infant son Liu Long on the throne , later known as Emperor Shang of Han ( r . 105 – 106 ) . When the latter died at only age one , she placed his young nephew Liu Hu ( Liu Qing 's son ) on the throne , known posthumously as Emperor An of Han ( r . 106 – 125 CE ) , bypassing Emperor He 's other son Liu Sheng ( 劉勝 ) . With a young ruler on the throne , Empress Deng was the de facto ruler until her death , since her brother Deng Zhi 's ( 鄧騭 ) brief occupation as the General @-@ in @-@ Chief ( 大將軍 ) from 109 – 110 CE did not in fact make him the ruling regent . With her death on April 17 , 121 CE , Emperor An accepted the charge of eunuchs Li Run ( 李閏 ) and Jiang Jing ( 江京 ) that she had plotted to overthrow him ; on June 3 he charged the Deng clan with treason and had them dismissed from office , stripped of title , reduced to commoner status , exiled to remote areas , and drove many to commit suicide .
The Yan clan of Empress Yan Ji ( d . 126 CE ) , wife of Emperor An , and the eunuchs Jiang Jing and Fan Feng ( 樊豐 ) pressured Emperor An to demote his nine @-@ year @-@ old heir apparent Liu Bao to the status of a king on October 5 , 124 CE on charges of conspiracy , despite protests from senior government officials . When Emperor An died on April 30 , 125 CE the Empress Dowager Yan was free to choose his successor , Liu Yi ( grandson of Emperor Zhang ) , who is known as Emperor Shao of Han . After the child died suddenly in 125 CE , the eunuch Sun Cheng ( d . 132 CE ) made a palace coup , slaughtering the opposing eunuchs , and thrust Liu Bao on the throne , later to be known as Emperor Shun of Han ( r . 125 – 144 CE ) ; Sun then put Empress Dowager Yan under house arrest , had her brothers killed , and the rest of her family exiled to Vietnam .
Emperor Shun had no sons with Empress Liang Na ( d . 150 CE ) , yet when his son Liu Bing briefly took the throne in 145 CE , the mother of the latter , Consort Yu , was in no position of power to challenge Empress Dowager Liang . After the child Emperor Zhi of Han ( r . 145 – 146 CE ) briefly sat on the throne , Empress Dowager Liang and her brother Liang Ji ( d . 159 CE ) , now regent General @-@ in @-@ Chief , decided that Liu Zhi , known posthumously as Emperor Huan of Han ( r . 146 – 168 CE ) , should take the throne , as he was betrothed to their sister Liang Nüying . When the younger Empress Liang died in 159 CE , Liang Ji attempted to control Emperor Huan 's new favorite Consort Deng Mengnü ( later empress ) ( d . 165 CE ) . When she resisted Liang Ji had her brother @-@ in @-@ law killed , prompting Emperor Huan to use eunuchs to oust Liang Ji from power ; the latter committed suicide when his residence was surrounded by imperial guards . Emperor Huan died with no official heir , so his third wife Empress Dou Miao ( d . 172 CE ) , now the empress dowager , had Liu Hong , known posthumously as Emperor Ling of Han ( r . 168 – 189 CE ) , take the throne .
= = = Reforms and policies of middle Eastern Han = = =
To mitigate the damage caused by a series of natural disasters , Empress Dowager Deng 's government attempted various relief measures of tax remissions , donations to the poor , and immediate shipping of government grain to the most hard @-@ hit areas . Although some water control works were repaired in 115 CE and 116 CE , many government projects became underfunded due to these relief efforts and the armed response to the large @-@ scale Qiang people 's rebellion of 107 – 118 CE . Aware of her financial constraints , the Empress Dowager limited the expenses at banquets , the fodder for imperial horses who weren 't pulling carriages , and the amount of luxury goods manufactured by the imperial workshops . She approved the sale of some civil offices and even secondary marquess ranks to collect more revenue ; the sale of offices was continued by Emperor Huan and became extremely prevalent during Emperor Ling 's reign .
Emperor An continued similar disaster relief programs that Empress Dowager Deng had implemented , though he reversed some of her decisions , such as a 116 CE edict requiring officials to leave office for three years of mourning after the death of a parent ( an ideal Confucian more ) . Since this seemed to contradict Confucian morals , Emperor An 's sponsorship of renowned scholars was aimed at shoring up popularity among Confucians . Xu Shen ( 58 – 147 CE ) , although an Old Text scholar and thus not aligned with the New Text tradition sponsored by Emperor An , enhanced the emperor 's Confucian credentials when he presented his groundbreaking dictionary to the court , the Shuowen Jiezi .
Financial troubles only worsened in Emperor Shun 's reign , as many public works projects were handled at the local level without the central government 's assistance . Yet his court still managed to supervise the major efforts of disaster relief , aided in part by a new invention in 132 CE of a seismometer by the court astronomer Zhang Heng ( 78 – 139 CE ) who used a complex system of a vibration @-@ sensitive swinging pendulum , mechanical gears , and falling metal balls to determine the direction of earthquakes hundreds of kilometers ( miles ) away . Shun 's greatest patronage of scholarship was repairing the now dilapidated Imperial University in 131 CE , which still operated as a pathway for young gentrymen to enter civil service . Officials protested against the enfeoffment of eunuch Sun Cheng and his associates as marquesses , with further protest in 135 CE when Shun allowed the sons of eunuchs to inherit their fiefs , yet the larger concern was over the rising power of the Liang faction .
To abate the unseemly image of placing child emperors on the throne , Liang Ji attempted to paint himself as a populist by granting general amnesties , awarding people with noble ranks , reducing the severity of penalties ( the bastinado was no longer used ) , allowing exiled families to return home , and allowing convicts to settle on new land in the frontier . Under his stewardship , the Imperial University was given a formal examination system whereby candidates would take exams on different classics over a period of years in order to gain entrance into public office . Despite these positive reforms , Liang Ji was widely accused of corruption and greed . Yet when Emperor Huan overthrew Liang by using eunuch allies , students of the Imperial University took to streets in the thousands chanting the names of the eunuchs they opposed in one of the earliest student protests in history .
After Liang Ji was overthrown , Huan distanced himself from the Confucian establishment and instead sought legitimacy through a revived imperial patronage of Huang @-@ Lao Daoism ; this renewed patronage of Huang @-@ Lao was not continued after his reign . As the economy worsened , Huan built new hunting parks , imperial gardens , palace buildings , and expanded his harem to house thousands of concubines . The gentry class became alienated by Huan 's corrupt government dominated by eunuchs and many refused nominations to serve in office , since current Confucian beliefs dictated that morality and personal relationships superseded public service . Emperor Ling hosted much less concubines than Huan , yet Ling left much of the affairs of state to his eunuchs . Instead , Ling busied himself play @-@ acting as a traveling salesman with concubines dressed as market vendors or dressing in military costume as the ' General Supreme ' for his parading Army of the Western Garden .
= = = Foreign relations and war of middle Eastern Han = = =
The Eastern @-@ Han court colonized and periodically reasserted the Chinese military presence in the Western Regions only as a means to combat the Northern Xiongnu . Han forces were expelled from the Western Regions first by the Xiongnu between 77 – 90 CE and then by the Qiang between 107 – 122 CE . In both of these periods , the financial burdens of reestablishing and expanding western colonies , as well as the liability of sending financial aid requested by Tarim @-@ Basin tributary states , were viewed by the court as reasons to forestall the reopening of foreign relations in the region .
At the beginning of Empress Dowager Deng 's regency , the Protector General of the Western Regions Ren Shang ( d . 118 CE ) was besieged at Kashgar . Although he was able to break the siege , he was recalled and replaced before the Empress Dowager began to withdraw forces from the Western Regions in 107 CE . However , a transitional force was still needed . The Qiang people , who had been settled by the Han government in southeastern Gansu since Emperor Jing 's reign , would aid Han in this withdrawal . Throughout Eastern Han , the Qiang often revolted against Han authority after Han border officials robbed them of goods and even women and children . A group of Qiang people conscripted to reinforce the Protector General during his withdrawal decided instead to mutiny against him . Their revolt in the northwestern province of Liang ( 涼州 ) was put down in 108 CE , but it spurred a greater Qiang rebellion that would last until 118 CE , cutting off Han 's access to Central Asia . The Qiang problem was exacerbated in 109 CE by a combined Southern Xiongnu , Xianbei , and Wuhuan rebellion in the northeast . The total monetary cost for putting down the Qiang rebellion in Liang province was 24 million cash ( out of an average of 220 million cash minted annually ) , while the people of three entire commanderies within eastern Liang province and one commandery within Bing province were temporarily resettled in 110 CE .
Following general Ban Yong 's reopening of relations with the Western Regions in 123 CE , two of the Liang province commanderies were reestablished in 129 CE , only to be withdrawn again a decade later . Even after eastern Liang province ( comprising modern southeastern Gansu and Ningxia ) was resettled , there was another massive rebellion there in 184 CE , instigated by Han Chinese , Qiang , Xiongnu , and Yuezhi rebels . Yet the Tarim @-@ Basin states continued to offer tribute and hostages to China into the final decade of Han , while the agricultural garrison at Hami was not gradually abandoned until after 153 CE .
Of perhaps greater consequence for the Han dynasty and future dynasties was the ascendance of the Xianbei people . They filled the vacuum of power on the vast northern steppe after the Northern Xiongnu were defeated by Han and fled to the Ili River valley ( in modern Kazakhstan ) in 91 CE . The Xianbei quickly occupied the deserted territories and incorporated some 100 @,@ 000 remnant Xiongnu families into their new federation , which by the mid 2nd century CE stretched from the western borders of the Buyeo Kingdom in Jilin , to the Dingling in southern Siberia , and all the way west to the Ili River valley of the Wusun people . Although they raided Han in 110 CE to force a negotiation of better trade agreements , the later leader Tanshihuai ( 檀石槐 ) ( d . 180 CE ) refused kingly titles and tributary arrangements offered by Emperor Huan and defeated Chinese armies under Emperor Ling . When Tanshihuai died in 180 CE , the Xianbei Federation largely fell apart , yet it grew powerful once more during the 3rd century CE .
After being introduced in the 1st century CE , Buddhism became more popular in China during the 2nd century CE . The Parthian monk An Shigao traveled from Parthia to China in 148 CE and made translations of Buddhists works on the Hinayana and yoga practices which the Chinese associated with Daoist exercises . The Kushan monk Lokaksema from Gandhara was active in China from 178 – 198 CE , translated the Perfection of Wisdom , Shurangama Sutra , and Pratyutpanna Sutra , and introduced to China the concepts of Akshobhya Buddha , Amitābha Buddha ( of Pure Land Buddhism ) , and teachings about Manjusri . In 166 CE , Emperor Huan made sacrifices to Laozi and the Buddha . In that same year , the Book of Later Han records that Romans reached China from the maritime south and presented gifts to Huan 's court , claiming they represented Roman emperor Marcus Aurelius Antoninus ( Andun 安敦 ) ( r . 161 – 180 CE ) . Crespigny speculates that they were Roman merchants , not diplomats .
= = Decline of Eastern Han = =
= = = Partisan Prohibitions = = =
In 166 CE , the official Li Ying ( 李膺 ) was accused by palace eunuchs of plotting treason with students at the Imperial University and associates in the provinces who opposed the eunuchs . Emperor Huan was furious , arresting Li and his followers , who were only released from prison the following year due to pleas from the General @-@ in @-@ Chief Dou Wu ( d . 168 CE ) ( Emperor Huan 's father @-@ in @-@ law ) . However , Li Ying and hundreds of his followers were proscribed from holding any offices and were branded as partisans ( 黨人 ) .
After Emperor Huan 's death , at the urging of the Grand Tutor ( 太傅 ) Chen Fan ( 陳蕃 ) ( d . 168 CE ) , Dou Wu presented a memorial to the court in June 168 CE denouncing the leading eunuchs as corrupt and calling for their execution , but Empress Dowager Dou refused the proposal . This was followed by a memorial presented by Chen Fan calling for the heads of Hou Lan ( d . 172 CE ) and Cao Jie ( d . 181 CE ) , and when this too was refused Dou Wu took formal legal action which could not be ignored by the court . When Shan Bing , a eunuch associate of Chen and Dou 's , gained a forced confession from another eunuch that Cao Jie and Wang Fu ( 王甫 ) plotted treason , he prepared another damning written memorial on the night of October 24 – 25 which the opposing eunuchs secretly opened and read . Cao Jie armed Emperor Ling with a sword and hid him with his wet nurse , while Wang Fu had Shan Bing killed and Empress Dowager Dou incarcerated so that the eunuchs could use the authority of her seal .
Chen Fan entered the palace with eighty followers and engaged in a shouting match with Wang Fu , yet Chen was gradually surrounded , detained , and later trampled to death in prison that day ( his followers were unharmed ) . At dawn , the general Zhang Huan ( 張奐 ) , misled by the eunuchs into believing that Dou Wu was committing treason , engaged in a shouting match with Dou Wu at the palace gates , but as Dou 's followers slowly deserted him and trickled over to Zhang 's side , Dou was forced to commit suicide . In neither of these confrontations did any actual physical fighting break out .
With Dou Wu eliminated and the Empress Dowager under house arrest , the eunuchs renewed the proscriptions against Li Ying and his followers ; in 169 CE they had hundreds more officials and students prohibited from serving office , sent their families into exile , and had Li Ying executed . The eunuchs barred potential enemies from court , sold and bartered offices , and infiltrated the military command . Emperor Ling even referred to eunuchs Zhao Zhong and Zhang Rang as his " mother " and " father " ; the latter two had so much influence over the emperor that they convinced him not to ascend to the top floors of tall towers in the capital , which was an effort to conceal from him the enormous mansions that the eunuchs built for themselves . Although the partisan prohibitions were extended to hundreds more in 176 CE ( including the distant relatives of those earlier proscribed ) , they were abolished in 184 CE with the outbreak of the Yellow Turban Rebellion , largely because the court feared the gentry — bitter from their banishment from office — would join the rebel cause .
= = = Yellow Turban Rebellion = = =
In 142 CE , Zhang Daoling founded the Five Pecks of Rice religious society in Sichuan . After claiming to have seen the deified Laozi as a holy prophet who appointed him as his earthly representative known as the Celestial Master , Zhang created a highly organized , hierarchical Daoist movement which accepted only pecks of rice and no money from its lay followers . In 184 CE , the Five Pecks of Rice under Zhang Lu staged a rebellion in Sichuan and set up a theocratic Daoist state that endured until 215 CE .
Like the Five Pecks of Rice , the Yellow Turban Daoists of the Yellow and Huai River regions also built a hierarchical church and believed that illness was the result of personal sins needing confessions . The Yellow Turbans became a militant organization that challenged Han authority by claiming they would bring about a utopian era of peace . Zhang Jue , renowned faith @-@ healer and leader of the Yellow Turbans , and his hundreds of thousands of followers , designated by the yellow cloth that they wrapped around their foreheads , led a rebellion across eight provinces in 184 CE . They had early successes against imperial troops but by the end of 184 CE the Yellow Turban leadership — including Zhang — had been killed . Smaller groups of Yellow Turbans continued to revolt in the following years ( until the last large group was incorporated into the forces of Chancellor Cao Cao in 192 CE ) , yet Crespigny asserts that the rebellion 's impact on the fall of Han was less consequential than events which transpired in the capital following the death of Emperor Ling on May 13 , 189 CE . However , Patricia Ebrey points out that many of the generals who raised armies to quell the rebellion never disbanded their forces and used them to amass their own power outside of imperial authority .
= = = Downfall of the eunuchs = = =
He Jin ( d . 189 CE ) , half @-@ brother to Empress He ( d . 189 CE ) , was given authority over the standing army and palace guards when appointed as General @-@ in @-@ Chief during the Yellow Turban Rebellion . Shortly after Empress He 's son Liu Bian , known later as Emperor Shao of Han , was put on the throne , the eunuch Jian Shi plotted against He Jin , was discovered , and executed on May 27 , 189 CE ; He Jin thus took over Jian 's Army of the Western Garden . Yuan Shao ( d . 202 CE ) , then an officer in the Army of the Western Garden , plotted with He Jin to overthrow the eunuchs by secretly ordering several generals to march towards the capital and forcefully persuade the Empress Dowager He to hand over the eunuchs . Yuan had these generals send in petition after petition to the Empress Dowager calling for the eunuchs ' dismissal ; Mansvelt Beck states that this " psychological war " finally broke the Empress Dowager 's will and she consented . However , the eunuchs discovered this and used Empress Dowager He 's mother Lady Wuyang and her brother He Miao ( 何苗 ) , both of whom were sympathetic to the eunuchs , to have the order rescinded . On September 22 , the eunuchs learned that He Jin had a private conversation with the Empress Dowager about executing them . They sent message to He Jin that the Empress Dowager had more words to share with him ; once he sat down in the hall to meet her , eunuchs rushed out of hiding and beheaded He Jin . When the eunuchs ordered the imperial secretaries to draft an edict dismissing Yuan Shao , the former asked for He Jin 's permission , so the eunuchs showed them He Jin 's severed head .
However , the eunuchs became besieged when Yuan Shao attacked the Northern Palace and his brother Yuan Shu ( d . 199 CE ) attacked the Southern Palace , breaching the gate and forcing the eunuchs to flee to the Northern Palace by the covered passageway connecting both . Zhao Zhong was killed on the first day and the fighting lasted until September 25 when Yuan Shao finally broke into the Northern Palace and purportedly slaughtered two thousand eunuchs . However , Zhang Rang managed to flee with Emperor Shao and his brother Liu Xie to the Yellow River , where he was chased down by the Yuan family troops and committed suicide by jumping into the river and drowning .
= = = Coalition against Dong Zhuo = = =
Dong Zhuo ( d . 192 CE ) , General of the Van ( under Huangfu Song ) who marched on to Luoyang under Yuan Shao 's request , saw the capital in flames from a distance and heard that Emperor Shao was wandering in the hills nearby . When Dong approached Emperor Shao , the latter became frightened and unresponsive yet his brother Liu Xie explained to Dong what had happened . The ambitious Dong took over effective control of Luoyang and forced Yuan Shao to flee the capital on September 26 . Dong was made Excellency of Works ( 司空 ) , one of the Three Excellencies . Despite protests , Dong had Emperor Shao demoted as the Prince of Hongnong on September 28 while elevating his brother Liu Xie as emperor , later known as Emperor Xian of Han ( r . 189 – 220 CE ) . Empress Dowager He was poisoned to death by Dong Zhuo on September 30 , followed by the Prince of Hongnong on March 3 , 190 CE .
Yuan Shao , once he left the capital , led a coalition of commanders , former officials , and soldiers of fortune to challenge Dong Zhuo . No longer viewing Luoyang as a safehaven , Dong burned the city to the ground and forced the imperial court to resettle at Chang 'an in May 191 CE . In a conspiracy headed by the Minister over the Masses , Wang Yun ( d . 192 CE ) , Dong was killed by his adopted son Lü Bu ( d . 198 CE ) . Dong 's subordinates then killed Wang and forced Lü to flee , throwing Chang 'an into chaos .
Emperor Xian fled Chang 'an in 195 CE and returned to Luoyang by August 196 CE . Meanwhile , the empire was being carved into eight spheres of influence , each ruled by powerful commanders or officials : in the northeast there was Yuan Shao and Cao Cao ( 155 – 220 CE ) ; south of them was Yuan Shu , located just southeast of the capital ; south of this was Liu Biao ( d . 208 CE ) in Jing ; Sun Ce ( d . 200 CE ) controlled the southeast ; in the southwest there was Liu Zhang ( d . 219 CE ) and Zhang Lu ( d . 216 CE ) located just north of him in Hanzhong ; the southern Liang Province was inhabited by the Qiang people and various rebel groups . Although prognostication fueled speculation over the dynasty 's fate , these warlords still claimed loyalty to Han , since the emperor was still at the pinnacle of a cosmic @-@ religious system which ensured his political survival .
= = = Rise of Cao Cao = = =
Cao Cao , a Commandant of Cavalry during the Yellow Turban Rebellion and then Colonel in the Army of the Western Garden by 188 CE , was Governor of Yan Province ( modern western Shandong and eastern Henan ) in 196 CE when he took the emperor from Luoyang to his headquarters at Xuchang . Yuan Shu declared his own Zhong Dynasty ( 仲朝 ) in 197 CE , yet this bold move earned him the desertion of many of his followers , dying penniless in 199 CE after attempting to offer his title to Yuan Shao . Gaining more power after defeating Gongsun Zan ( d . 199 ) , Yuan Shao regretted not seizing the emperor when he had the chance and decided to act against Cao . The confrontation culminated in Cao Cao 's victory at the Battle of Guandu in 200 CE , forcing Yuan to retreat to his territory . After Yuan Shao died in 202 CE , his sons fought over his inheritance , allowing Cao Cao to eliminate Yuan Tan ( 173 – 205 CE ) and drive his brothers Yuan Shang and Yuan Xi to seek refuge with the Wuhuan people . Cao Cao asserted his dominance over the northeast when he defeated the Wuhuan led by Tadun at the Battle of White Wolf Mountain in 207 CE ; the Yuan brothers fled to Gongsun Kang ( d . 221 CE ) in Liaodong , but the latter killed them and sent their heads to Cao Cao in submission .
When there was speculation that Liu Bei ( 161 – 223 CE ) , a scion of the imperial family who was formerly in the service of Cao Cao , was planning to take over the territory of the now ill Liu Biao in 208 CE , Cao Cao forced Liu Biao 's son to surrender his father 's land . Expecting Cao Cao to turn on him next , Sun Quan ( 182 – 252 CE ) , who inherited the territory of his brother Sun Ce in 200 CE , allied with Liu Bei and faced Cao Cao 's naval force in 208 CE at the Battle of Chibi . This was a significant defeat for Cao Cao which ensured the continued disunity of China during the Three Kingdoms ( 220 – 265 CE ) .
= = = Fall of the Han = = =
When Cao Cao moved Emperor Xian to Xuchang in 196 CE , he took the title of Excellency of Works as Dong Zhuo had before him . In 208 CE , Cao abolished the three most senior offices , the Three Excellencies , and instead recreated two offices , the Imperial Counselor and Chancellor ; he occupied the latter post . Cao was enfeoffed as the Duke of Wei in 213 CE , had Emperor Xian divorce Empress Fu Shou in 214 CE , and then had him marry his daughter as Empress Cao Jie in 215 CE . Finally , Cao took the title King of Wei in 216 CE , violating the rule that only Liu family members could become kings , yet he never deposed Emperor Xian . After Cao Cao died in 220 CE , his son Cao Pi ( 186 – 226 CE ) inherited the title King of Wei and gained the uneasy allegiance of Sun Quan ( while Liu Bei at this point had taken over Liu Zhang 's territory of Yi Province ) . With debates over prognostication and signs from heaven showing the Han had lost the Mandate of Heaven , Emperor Xian agreed that the Han dynasty had reached its end and abdicated to Cao Pi on December 11 , 220 CE , thus creating the state of Cao Wei , soon to oppose Shu Han in 221 CE and Eastern Wu in 229 CE .
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= Green Lantern ( Six Flags Great Adventure ) =
Green Lantern is a steel stand @-@ up roller coaster located at Six Flags Great Adventure in Jackson Township , New Jersey . Green Lantern stands 155 feet ( 47 m ) tall and features a top speed of 63 miles per hour ( 101 km / h ) . The 4 @,@ 155 @-@ foot @-@ long ( 1 @,@ 266 m ) ride features five inversions and a duration of approximately 21 ⁄ 2 minutes . The ride was manufactured by Swiss firm Bolliger & Mabillard . Green Lantern is fairly similar to Mantis , another stand @-@ up coaster at Cedar Point , but taller , faster , and featuring two more inversions .
The ride originally operated at Six Flags Kentucky Kingdom in Louisville , Kentucky from 1997 to 2009 , where it was known as Chang . Upon opening in 1997 , it set world records for this type of coaster in height , drop , speed , length and number of inversions . The introduction of the ride caused Kentucky Kingdom to achieve record attendance levels . After Six Flags abandoned Kentucky Kingdom in 2009 , the ride was relocated to Six Flags Great Adventure . The ride debuted in 2011 as Green Lantern , replacing the former Great American Scream Machine roller coaster .
= = History = =
= = = Chang ( 1997 – 2009 ) = = =
Chang ( " long " in Mandarin Chinese ) opened at Six Flags Kentucky Kingdom on April 4 , 1997 , setting world records for this type of coaster in height , drop , speed , length and number of inversions . When it debuted , Chang had a yellow track and supports . The ride was constructed by Martin & Vleminckx . Around 1999 , its track was painted lime green and the support columns violet . In early @-@ 2006 the track was returned to its original yellow , while the supports were painted blue . Six Flags originally announced that the ride would have a Batman theme , along with its T2 coaster . T2 was expected to be known as " Batman : The Ride " and Chang " Riddler 's Revenge " , but those plans were later canceled .
Chang was removed over the weekend of September 19 , 2009 to expand Splashwater Kingdom , but the proposal for the expansion was scrapped , while Six Flags later announced plans to dispose of its Kentucky Kingdom property . The removal of Chang and the closure of Six Flags Kentucky Kingdom caused the owners of the park land ( the Kentucky State Fair Board ) to sue Six Flags for ownership of the rides . Kentucky Kingdom is now open under new operators as of May 24 , 2014 .
= = = Green Lantern ( 2011 – present ) = = =
In 2010 , parts from Chang reportedly appeared at Six Flags Great America . The ride was planned to be moved to Six Flags Great America in 2011 ; the park obtained approval to exceed the 125 @-@ foot ( 38 m ) height limit imposed on the park , but plans were later canceled in favor of a water park expansion .
On July 5 , 2010 Six Flags Great Adventure announced that its Great American Scream Machine would close on July 18 to make way for a new attraction the following year , sparking rumors that Chang would move there in 2011 . Although Six Flags did not confirm the speculation , a first look at the park 's new @-@ ride layout from the Jackson Township zoning board meeting was posted on the JTown Magazine website and the layout was identical to that of Chang .
On September 16 , Six Flags Great Adventure announced that it would open a Green Lantern @-@ themed roller coaster in 2011 . The specifications released for the new ride matched those of Chang . As part of the relocation , the ride would receive technical renovations and a new coat of paint .
Footers were poured for the ride in December 2010 , with track installation beginning the following month . In January 2011 , construction of the lift hill was completed . In April 2011 the final pieces of track were put in place .
On May 19 , Green Lantern soft @-@ opened to a select group of season @-@ pass holders , media and families from Children 's Miracle Network . The ride opened to the public on May 25 .
= = Characteristics = =
= = = Location = = =
Green Lantern is located in the Boardwalk section of the park . Green Lantern is the third roller coaster to occupy this plot of land , following the Sarajevo Bobsled ( which ran at Great Adventure from 1984 – 1988 before moving to Six Flags Great America and Great Escape ) and the Great American Scream Machine ( an Arrow Dynamics looping coaster which had occupied this area from 1989 to 2010 ) . Like the Great American Scream Machine , the infield of Green Lantern is covered with gravel . The coaster also reuses the Scream Machine 's queue area building .
= = = Manufacturer = = =
Green Lantern is Six Flags Great Adventure 's fifth Bolliger & Mabillard roller coaster , joining Batman : The Ride , Bizarro , Nitro and Superman : Ultimate Flight . The coaster is the park 's second standup coaster ; the first was a smaller coaster manufactured by Intamin , Shockwave , which operated from 1990 to 1992 . Shockwave had also been installed at Six Flags Magic Mountain , preceding Riddler 's Revenge .
= = = Theme = = =
As its name suggests , Green Lantern is themed for the DC Comics character of the same name . The theme was chosen to coincide with the Green Lantern film scheduled for release in 2011 . The track is painted green , with the exception of the yellow vertical loop . The second corkscrew was originally the track section which was going to be yellow , but it was decided to switch the scheme to the first loop . The loop is yellow because Green Lantern 's enemy is the yellow Parallax . In June 2011 , a Parallax cutout with clutching arms through which the train passes was placed at the bottom of the first drop . The ride 's queue area features a series of comic @-@ book @-@ style boards relating the story of Hal Jordan ( the Green Lantern ) and the Green Lantern Corps .
= = = Trains = = =
Green Lantern currently operates with two steel @-@ and @-@ fiberglass trains . Each train has seven cars with four seats in a single row , for a total of 28 riders . Riders are secured by an over @-@ the @-@ shoulder harness . Although Green Lantern is a stand @-@ up roller coaster , there is a small bicycle seat on which riders can lean .
= = Ride experience = =
The first section of Green Lantern is basically a mirrored version of Rougarou , a roller coaster at Cedar Point in Ohio . Leaving the station , the train starts by climbing the 155 @-@ foot @-@ tall ( 47 m ) chain lift hill , on which the Green Lantern oath is played over loudspeakers along the steps . At the top , the train goes through a pre @-@ drop before making a slightly @-@ banked 180 ° turnaround . After this , the train goes down a 144 feet ( 44 m ) drop into a 121 @.@ 6 @-@ foot @-@ tall ( 37 @.@ 1 m ) vertical loop . Out of the loop , the track rises to the right into a 103 @.@ 8 @-@ foot @-@ tall ( 31 @.@ 6 m ) diving loop , hugging the first drop of Superman : Ultimate Flight . Riders then rise into a diving turnaround over the station , and the train enters a right @-@ leaning 72 @-@ foot @-@ tall ( 22 m ) inclined loop . After a small hill , the train then rises to the left into the mid @-@ course brake run . It then drops into a right corkscrew , turning right and weaving through the diving loop . The track then makes a ground @-@ hugging left turn and enters a low , second right corkscrew . After a right turn the train makes a final , 180 ° left turn into the final brake run before returning to the station . Green Lantern is 4 @,@ 155 feet ( 1 @,@ 266 m ) long , with a ride taking about 21 ⁄ 2 minutes to complete .
= = Records = =
At its opening , Chang claimed the record for the tallest vertical loop of any roller coaster in the world . At the time , it was the world 's tallest , fastest and longest stand @-@ up coaster . It also claimed records for the largest drop and the most inversions on a stand @-@ up roller coaster . All of these records had eclipsed those set by Mantis , which opened at Cedar Point in 1996 . In 1998 Riddler 's Revenge opened at Six Flags Magic Mountain , and Chang surrendered its titles .
= = Reception = =
After Chang 's 1997 opening at Six Flags Kentucky Kingdom , the park saw a rise in attendance to a record of more than one million visitors . The previous record of about 730 @,@ 000 was set in 1996 . Although the ride was Kentucky Kingdom 's marquee attraction , in Mitch Hawker 's worldwide Best Roller Coaster Poll Chang peaked at 47 in 1999 . The ride 's ranking in subsequent polls is shown in the following table :
After the ride 's relocation to Six Flags Great Adventure , Brady MacDonald of the Los Angeles Times ranked it 8 of the park 's 13 roller coasters . Mekado Murphy of The New York Times highlighted the different forces at play on a stand @-@ up roller coaster , compared with a traditional one : " Other coasters create pressure mostly in your upper body ; Green Lantern creates pressure in your legs , making them a much more active part of the experience " . Both JTown Magazine and The Star @-@ Ledger interviewed a number of park guests and coaster enthusiasts when the Green Lantern opened ; all gave favorable reviews .
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= 2006 Westchester County tornado =
The 2006 Westchester County tornado was the strongest and largest tornado in the history of Westchester County , New York . It touched down there on July 12 , 2006 and traveled 13 miles ( 21 km ) into southwestern Connecticut during a 33 @-@ minute span through two states . The tornado touched down at 3 : 30 p.m. EDT ( 19 : 30 UTC ) on the shore of the Hudson River before becoming a waterspout and traveling 3 mi ( 5 km ) across the river . Coming ashore , the tornado entered Westchester County and struck the town of Sleepy Hollow at F1 intensity . After passing through the town , it intensified into an F2 tornado and grew to almost a quarter of a mile ( 400 m ) in diameter . The tornado continued through the county , damaging numerous structures , until it crossed into Connecticut at 4 : 01 p.m. EDT ( 20 : 01 UTC ) . Not long after entering the state , it dissipated in the town of Greenwich at 4 : 03 p.m. EDT ( 20 : 03 UTC ) . When the tornado entered Westchester County , it was the eighth known tornado to either touch down or enter the county since 1950 .
Two barns and a warehouse were destroyed , and a large stained @-@ glass window was shattered . Numerous homes and businesses were damaged and thousands of trees were uprooted . There were no fatalities and only six minor injuries were associated with the storm . The cost of damages was estimated at $ 12 @.@ 1 million .
= = Meteorological synopsis = =
On July 12 a supercell thunderstorm developed over eastern New Jersey in association with a surface low @-@ pressure area in southwestern Ontario . Daytime heating in the Tri @-@ State Region led to moderate instability , a key factor in the development of showers and thunderstorms . With conditions favorable for the development of a tornado , the Storm Prediction Center issued a tornado watch at 12 : 40 p.m. EDT ( 16 : 40 UTC ) . A strong thunderstorm developed around 2 : 00 p.m. EDT ( 18 : 00 UTC ) which produced a funnel cloud near Carlstadt at around 2 : 45 p.m. EDT ( 18 : 45 UTC ) , although no damage was associated with the funnel . That same storm intensified and developed into a supercell as it crossed into New York . About 15 minutes later , a tornado warning was issued for southern Rockland and Westchester counties which would remain in effect until 4 : 15 p.m. EDT ( 21 : 15 UTC ) . At around 3 : 30 p.m. EDT ( 19 : 30 UTC ) , an F1 tornado touched down near Grand View @-@ on @-@ Hudson along the Hudson River in Rockland County . The 100 yard ( 91 m ) wide tornado touched down on a dock before becoming a waterspout as it took a 3 mi ( 4 @.@ 8 km ) path across the river . The tornado passed near the Tappan Zee Bridge before crossing into Westchester County . Upon entering Westchester , it was the eighth tornado ever recorded in the county .
The tornado hit the town of Sleepy Hollow , New York , around 3 : 37 p.m. EDT ( 19 : 37 UTC ) ; two minutes later , a 58 mph ( 93 km / h ) wind gust was reported along the periphery of the tornado . As the tornado neared New York State Route 9A , it intensified to F2 status , generating winds up to 157 mph ( 253 km / h ) , and struck the California Closet Warehouse . At the time , the tornado was estimated to be 300 yd ( 274 m ) wide and was the strongest tornado ever recorded in Westchester County . Shortly after , it weakened back to F1 intensity . Minor damage was reported through the Kensico Reservoir in Valhalla as the tornado neared the New York – Connecticut border . The track length through Westchester County was measured at around 8 mi ( 13 km ) . After crossing the state border into Fairfield County , Connecticut , it weakened further before lifting at 4 : 03 p.m EDT ( 20 : 03 UTC ) in Greenwich after traveling 2 mi ( 3 @.@ 2 km ) in Connecticut . Another brief touchdown may have occurred shortly after near the Merritt Parkway . Overall , the tornado tracked across a total of 13 mi ( 21 km ) through two states over a period over 33 minutes .
= = Impact = =
The tornado took a path through Rockland , Westchester , and Fairfield counties , downing or uprooting thousands of trees and damaging several structures , including significant structural damage to the California Closets warehouse . Six minor injuries were also reported . In all , the tornado inflicted $ 12 @.@ 1 million in damage .
Minor damage was reported in Rockland County . One dock and one boat were damaged by the tornado . After crossing the Hudson River , the tornado entered Westchester County , where the worst of the damage took place . It struck the town of Sleepy Hollow , damaging roofs and tearing the siding off numerous homes and businesses . A 10 foot ( 3 m ) tall stained @-@ glass window in the St. Teresa of Avila Church was shattered . Afterwards , the town of Pocantico Hills was struck as the tornado intensified to F2 intensity . Several trees were uprooted and two barns were destroyed . The California Closet Warehouse suffered severe structural damage ; two concrete walls were destroyed . An interior staircase , which employees used as a shelter , collapsed causing four injuries . Concrete blocks from the building were blown about , some of which struck cars in a nearby parking lot . A nearby Comfort Inn had part of its roof torn off . After a tornado warning was issued , a school near the warehouse was evacuated .
As the tornado crossed New York State Route 9A , it picked up a state trooper car and flipped it several times before it fell to the ground ; the officer inside suffered only minor injuries . Moving towards the east @-@ northeast , the tornado struck the towns of Mount Pleasant and Hawthorne , damaging numerous trees and causing minor structural damage . Damage along the Saw Mill River Parkway prompted officials to shut down a section of the highway near Mount Pleasant . Trees fell on streets and railroad tracks , halting Metro @-@ North Railroad service and creating major traffic delays . After passing by the Kensico Reservoir in Valhalla , the tornado crossed into Connecticut , where it knocked down numerous power lines , cutting power to about 10 @,@ 000 residences in the county . In all , six people sustained minor injuries and damages amounted to $ 10 @.@ 1 million .
The weakening tornado ended its duration in Fairfield County , Connecticut , in the town of Greenwich . Thousands of trees were either uprooted or snapped along the tornado 's 2 mi ( 3 @.@ 2 km ) path through the state . Minor damage was inflicted upon several structures . The tornado left 1 @,@ 700 residences in Greenwich without power and blocked six roads . Most of the damage was concentrated to the northwestern corner of the town . Damages in the state totaled to $ 2 million .
= = Aftermath = =
In the wake of the tornado , the mayor of Sleepy Hollow declared a village @-@ wide state of emergency . Two hundred emergency personnel responded to the storm . Consolidated Edison ( conEdison ) crews were sent out to repair downed power lines and clear roads . By the next night , power was restored to all but 600 of the previous 10 @,@ 000 residences without power in Westchester . Westchester County opened its Emergency Operations Center after the storm to respond to the event . Two days after the storm , many of the roads had been cleared and power was fully restored . A recreational path in Tarrytown , New York , was not expected to be open for another two weeks due to numerous fallen trees . Metro @-@ North Railroad suspended trains on the Upper Harlem line until 5 : 00 p.m. EDT ( 21 : 00 UTC ) for the removal of debris on the tracks . During the time the rails were shut down , southbound passengers were transported by bus . All trains were back on schedule by 7 : 00 p.m. EDT ( 23 : 00 UTC ) .
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= Inside No. 9 =
Inside No. 9 is a British dark comedy anthology television programme written by Reece Shearsmith and Steve Pemberton and produced by the BBC . The first series was broadcast between 5 February and 12 March 2014 on BBC Two , and a second series aired from 26 March to 29 April 2015 . Each half @-@ hour episode is a self @-@ contained story with new characters and a new setting , and all star at least one ( usually both ) of Pemberton and Shearsmith . Aside from the writers , each episode has a new cast , allowing Inside No. 9 to attract a number of well @-@ known actors . The stories are linked only by the fact that each takes place at a number 9 , whether this is a suburban house , a gothic mansion or a barn . Pemberton and Shearsmith took inspiration for Inside No. 9 from an episode of Psychoville , a previous project , which was filmed in a single room . This episode was , in turn , inspired by Alfred Hitchcock 's Rope . Inside No. 9 was also a reaction to Psychoville , which featured a long overarching story realised over multiple series .
Themes and tone varied from episode @-@ to @-@ episode , but all have elements of comedy and horror . The first series contained six episodes . " Sardines " concerns a game of sardines at an engagement party . " A Quiet Night In " , an episode almost entirely free of dialogue , follows a pair of hapless burglars breaking into a modernist house . In " Tom & Gerri " , an aspiring novelist invites a homeless man into his flat . " Last Gasp " sees a popstar die while blowing up a balloon at a sick child 's birthday party . In " The Understudy " , an understudy in a West End production of Macbeth longs for the lead role . The series 's final episode was " The Harrowing " , a gothic horror story in which a schoolgirl housesits a mansion belonging to a brother and sister . An online @-@ only episode composed of cinemagraphs , " The Inventors " , was also released by the BBC , but was not written by Pemberton and Shearsmith . The second series also contained six episodes . " La Couchette " follows a group of passengers on a French sleeper carriage , while " The 12 Days of Christine " tells the story of a young woman 's life . " The Trial of Elizabeth Gadge " is a period piece concerning a witch trial in a 17th @-@ century village . " Cold Comfort " follows a number of characters working at a crisis hotline call centre . " Nana 's Party " involves family secrets being revealed during a grandmother 's birthday party . The final episode , " Séance Time " , begins with a young woman visiting a medium . A third series has been commissioned .
Inside No. 9 as a whole has been very well received by critics , who have praised the humour and creativity of the scripts , as well as the talent of the featured actors . The programme was variously described as " never less @-@ than @-@ captivating " and " consistently compelling " . Inside No. 9 won the Sketch and Comedy prize at the 35th annual Banff World Media Festival Rockie Awards , and was nominated for the Best TV Sitcom prize at the 2014 Freesat Awards , the Broadcast Award for Best Original Programme , and at the 2014 British Comedy Awards for both the Best New Comedy Programme and the Best Comedy Drama . However , sympathetic critics have suggested that the programme may be an acquired taste ; despite generally high acclaim , some journalists were highly critical of Inside No. 9 , and the viewing figures were comparatively low . The first series was released on DVD on 17 March 2014 , with a second series DVD being released on 4 May 2015 .
= = Format = =
Inside No. 9 is an anthology series , with each episode featuring a new story , with a new setting and new characters . Episodes last around half an hour , with the self @-@ contained story reaching a conclusion . The stories are linked only by the fact that each takes place in number 9 , be that a mansion , a dressing room or a flat . Every episode stars at least one of Shearsmith or Pemberton , and normally both . Each episode is effectively a short play , and could easily be performed on stage . Most episodes take place in real @-@ time , following half an hour in the lives of the characters .
As is typical of Reece Shearsmith and Steve Pemberton 's work , the scripts address dark topics , with , for instance , the first episode touching upon incest , child sexual abuse and murder . The plotlines make use of twists and surprises of various sorts , though in some cases the surprise is the lack of twist . In an interview , Pemberton said that " there is always a desire to wrong @-@ foot the viewer . That 's what you strive to do " . The tone varies episode @-@ by @-@ episode . For example , while gothic horror was a major component in one case , other times slapstick comedy was used extensively ; the humour , however , is typically dark and British . The episodes generally begin with scenes of " utter banality " , before the darker elements are revealed . Inside No. 9 is somewhat more grounded and realistic than the writers ' previous work , such as Psychoville and The League of Gentlemen . Pemberton said that they decided not to mix the worlds of Inside No. 9 and their previous work , but nonetheless include the occasional reference ; for example , a character called " Ollie " is mentioned in one Inside No. 9 episode , and the writers imagined that this was Ollie Plimsoles of Legz Akimbo , a character from The League of Gentlemen . Despite the various episodes featuring unrelated plots and characters , one reviewer said that they are all linked " by a mercurial synthesis of morbid comedy , wicked social commentary and a genuine creepiness " .
= = Production and development = =
In 2012 , after the cancellation of their Psychoville , writers Steve Pemberton and Reece Shearsmith were commissioned to produce two series for the BBC by controllers Janice Hadlow and Cheryl Taylor , partially in response to Sky beginning to produce comedy . At the time , it was unclear whether this would be two series of Inside No. 9 , then known by the working title Happy Endings , or a series of Inside No. 9 and a series of some other programme . Inside No. 9 was to be produced by a BBC team , which was later revealed to be David Kerr ( director ) , Jon Plowman ( executive producer ) and Adam Tandy ( producer ) .
Pemberton and Shearsmith took inspiration for Inside No. 9 from " David and Maureen " , episode 4 of the first series of Psychoville , which was in turn inspired by Alfred Hitchcock 's Rope . This episode took place entirely in a single room , and was filmed in only two shots . The writers were keen to explore other stories in this bottle episode or TV play format , and Inside No. 9 allowed them to do this . At the same time , the concept of Inside No. 9 was a " reaction " to Psychoville , with Shearsmith saying that the two of them had " been so involved with labyrinthine over @-@ arcing , we thought it would be nice to do six different stories with a complete new house of people each week . That 's appealing , because as a viewer you might not like this story , but you 've got a different one next week . " Elsewhere , Shearsmith explained that the pair returned to writing macabre stories as they " always feel slightly unfulfilled if [ they ] write something that 's purely comedic , [ as ] it just feels too frivolous and light " . During the filming Inside No. 9 , Shearsmith professed excitement to be working on the programme , saying that " [ b ] eing in the middle of filming a third series of Psychoville would be utterly depressing " . Pemberton and Shearsmith aimed for a simpler experience with Inside No. 9 than they had experienced with Psychoville , describing " Sardines " , Inside No. 9 's first episode , by saying that it was " just about some good actors in a wardrobe with a good story . "
The anthology series is currently a rare genre for British television programmes . Previous horror anthologies include Tales of the Unexpected , The Twilight Zone and Alfred Hitchcock Presents ; while these would sometimes utilise comedic elements , they are more prominent in Inside No. 9 . Murder Most Horrid followed a similar format , but was far more comedic than horrific . Other anthology @-@ like series on British television include Seven of One and Comedy Playhouse , though these programmes lacked horror elements , and , unlike Inside No. 9 , served as pilots for potential series . For Pemberton , the 1970s and 1980s were " full of " anthology shows ; other examples included Play for Today , Beasts and Armchair Thriller . More recently , anthologies have become less popular with television executives , but the writers hope that they may be able to contribute to a " renaissance " for the genre . According to journalist and broadcaster Mark Lawson , this is because anthologies can fail to motivate viewers to stay with a series , and , further , new sets and casts must be paid for each episode , meaning that a six @-@ part anthology series will generally be more expensive than a six @-@ part series in a more standard format . For Lawson , Inside No. 9 was able to overcome these problems through the " pleasing coherence " offered by the fact each episode was set in a number 9 , and " the wit and inventiveness " of the opening episodes , which could sufficiently engage viewers . Pemberton and Shearsmith had originally considered alternative ways to link the stories , such as all the settings having a shared post man , but then decided that such a strong relationship between stories was not needed .
Inspiration and production varied from instalment to instalment , and each was filmed separately , taking less than a week per episode . After Shearsmith and Pemberton had decided that each episode would be about confinement , and having written some of the later episodes , they were inspired by a wardrobe in their working space for " Sardines " . The writers were keen to see how confined they could make the characters , aiming to induce feelings of claustrophobia in viewers . The anthology format allowed Pemberton and Shearsmith to revisit prior ideas , which is what they did with " A Quiet Night In " and " Tom & Gerri " . The former was inspired by the writers ' efforts to include a long segment without dialogue in an episode of Psychoville . Both episodes followed break @-@ ins . The Pinteresque " Tom & Gerri " was based upon a play written by Pemberton and Shearsmith while the pair were living together and job seeking . The setting was based upon their own flat , while the character Tom 's development evoked the experience of job @-@ hunting . " Last Gasp " was inspired by a person Pemberton had seen on Multi @-@ Coloured Swap Shop who collected jars of air , as well as the death of Michael Jackson and the death of Amy Winehouse . " The Understudy " , the plot of which is partially based upon and concerns Macbeth , took longer to write than any other episode ; the writers rewrote the script several times , as they were unsure of whether the characters should be amateur or professional actors . " The Harrowing " was the writers ' attempt to produce a gothic horror episode . They made use of more horror tropes than previous episodes , but the setting allowed them to include modern elements .
The BBC ordered a second series of Inside No. 9 before the first episode had aired . The second series was written in 2014 , and then filmed from the end of 2014 into early 2015 . The writers were permitted two sets for the second series , and so a fake train compartment and a fake flat ( for " La Couchette " and " The 12 Days of Christine " respectively ) were built at Twickenham Studios . The other episodes were filmed on location ; for example , " The Trial of Elizabeth Gadge " was filmed in a barn at the Chiltern Open Air Museum . David Kerr was unable to stay on as director for the second series . Guillem Morales and Dan Zeff each took on directorial duties for two episodes , and Pemberton and Shearsmith , in addition to continuing to write and star in the episodes , jointly directed the other two . The writers had hoped to direct for some time , and this represented a good opportunity to make their directorial debut . While writing for the series , the pair did not know which episodes they would be directing ; in an interview , Shearsmith said that the pair had considered directing episodes in which they did not appear much , but scheduling concerns left them with " Cold Comfort " and " Nana 's Party " ; the episodes feature the writers quite heavily .
The six episodes of the second series derived inspiration from a variety of sources . " La Couchette " aimed to explore the intimacy of sleeper carriages ; specifically , the unusual problems associated with sleeping in close proximity to strangers . " The 12 Days of Christine " follows a woman over the course of 12 years , with scenes displaying key moments in her life . " The Trial of Elizabeth Gadge " was inspired by genuine witch trials , some transcripts of which Pemberton and Shearsmith had read as part of the writing process . " Cold Comfort " began with the idea of a call centre , and was filmed in the style of a CCTV feed . With " Nana 's Party " , the writers aimed for a feeling of suburban darkness , reminiscent of the work of Alan Ayckbourn . " Séance Time " began with the idea of a séance , an idea the writers had wanted to explore for some time .
A third series was commissioned in October 2015 by the BBC . Pemberton has said that he would be interested in an online spin @-@ off , perhaps called No. 9A , with less experienced comedy writers . In an interview , he said " The format has so many opportunities and can incorporate so many styles , as long as you stick to the small cast , single location constraint . I think it 's really important to bring through fresh voices . "
= = Episodes = =
= = = Series 1 ( 2014 ) = = =
= = = = Online episode = = = =
A special online @-@ only episode of Inside No. 9 , " The Inventors " , was launched by the BBC on 12 February 2014 . " The Inventors " stars Tom Verall and Dan Renton Skinner as brothers who lost their mother in the Great Storm of 1987 . The story is told through a series of cinemagraphs with dialogue . The episode is interactive , advancing only with input from the viewer . " The Inventors " was developed by media agency Kanoti , and produced by Jon Aird , who had previously produced BAFTA @-@ winning online content for Psychoville , with executive producer Will Saunders . It was directed by Martin Stirling .
= = = Series 2 ( 2015 ) = = =
= = Cast = =
As each episode of Inside No. 9 features new characters , the writers were able to attract actors who may have been unwilling to commit to an entire series . The writers ' reputation also helped attract writers , with journalist David Chater saying that they " have developed such a track record over the years that many of the finest actors in the country jump at the chance to appear in their dark imaginings " . The fact that Pemberton and Shearsmith only played a single character in each story was a change for them ; in The League of Gentlemen , the pair have played some 30 characters each , while , in Psychoville , they had played around five each . Though Pemberton and Shearsmith generally starred in each episode , they did not necessarily take on the main roles . Shearsmith explained this by saying that they " didn 't write this for us to be in . We wrote the stories first then thought , could we be in them ? "
= = = Series 1 = = =
= = = Series 2 = = =
= = Distribution = =
The first series of Inside No. 9 was shown in the UK on BBC Two ( and BBC Two HD ) between 5 February and 12 March 2014 . It was aired in Australia on BBC First , premiering on 5 January 2015 . The second series aired in the UK from 26 March to 29 April 2015 , and aired in Australia from 27 July 2015 .
The first series was released on DVD on 17 March 2014 . In addition to the six episodes , the DVD featured the making of feature " Inside Inside No. 9 " , including unseen interviews with Pemberton , Shearsmith and Kerr , and a photo gallery with previously unreleased photos . Published by 2 Entertain , the DVD was rated 18 by the British Board of Film Classification . To publicise the DVD , the writers appeared at the Oxford Street , London , branch of HMV for a signing event on 20 March . The DVD was reviewed by David Upton for webzine PopMatters , who gave the main feature an 8 / 10 rating , and the extras a 5 / 10 rating , and Ben Walsh for The Independent , who gave the DVD overall 4 / 5 . Phelim O 'Neill , reviewing the release for The Guardian , described the boxset as " very lendable " , suggesting that it would help Inside No. 9 reach a wider audience . South African newspapers The Sunday Times and The Star both published positive reviews of the DVD , with The Star 's anonymous review saying the DVD " makes a great prezzie for cynics , so if you know any lawyers or journalists ... " . The second series was released on DVD on 4 May 2015 . A review in the Leicester Mercury awarded it four out of five stars .
= = Reception and performance = =
= = = Critical response = = =
Many critics responded very positively to Inside No. 9 . After the final episode , comedic critic Bruce Dessau said on his website that the series " really set an early benchmark to beat for comedy of the year . It has been consistently compelling as each week we entered an entirely different world . " On the same day , David Chater , writing in The Times , said of the series as a whole that " [ i ] t 's hard to know which to admire more – the rich and perverse imaginations of Steve Pemberton and Reece Shearsmith or the extraordinary range of acting talent that has brought this strange and memorable series to life . " Chater had previously described " A Quiet Night In " , the second episode of Inside No. 9 , as " the funniest , cleverest , most imaginative and original television I have seen for as long as I can remember – one of those fabulous programmes where time stands still and the world around you disappears " . Mark Jones ( The Guardian ) considered the whole series , saying that the Inside No. 9 was " never less @-@ than @-@ captivating " , while a review in the Liverpool Echo described every episode as " intriguing and lovingly @-@ crafted " , though it was felt that the first three episodes were stronger than the latter three . In December 2014 , Metro television critic Keith Watson named Inside No. 9 the twentieth best television programme of 2014 , and in January 2015 , Daily Star Sunday columnist Garry Bushell named Inside No. 9 the best comedy TV programme of 2014 .
Writing before Inside No. 9 was televised , broadcaster and journalist Mark Lawson suggested that , among anthology series , the programme possessed " the potential to be remembered as a singular achievement " . Commending both the acting and writing of Inside No. 9 , New Statesman television critic Rachel Cooke offered a positive verdict of the programme after seeing the first half of the series . Cooke expressed particular admiration of Pemberton and Shearsmith 's ability to squeeze " perfectly formed narratives – characters with proper backstories , scenarios that are complicated and unwind relatively slowly – into just 30 minutes " . Also writing mid @-@ series , journalist Gareth Lightfoot called Inside No. 9 " hands down the best , freshest thing on [ television ] at the moment " in the Evening Gazette , though he doubted whether it could truly be considered comedy .
Donal Lynch , of Irish newspaper the Sunday Independent , suggested that , like the previous work of Pemberton and Shearsmith , Inside No. 9 may be something of " a cult hit / acquired taste " . Barry Didcock , of The Herald , expressed a similar sentiment , calling Inside No. 9 " probably the most Marmitey programme on television " . The Times published a response to a complaint received from a viewer , who was unhappy with Chater 's positive reviews of Inside No. 9 , suggesting that " A Quiet Night In " was more traumatic than humorous . Sam Wollaston , television critic for The Guardian , noted that humour is extremely personal , and though he could appreciate much about Inside No. 9 , he had never liked Pemberton and Shearsmith 's work : " I 'm sure I 'll be crucified – probably quite rightly – but I don 't love Inside No 9 . " Some tabloid columnists also expressed dissatisfaction with the programme . Virginia Blackburn , of the Daily Express , wrote a highly critical review of " Last Gasp " . Blackburn considered Inside No. 9 an example of the weakness of contemporary television comedy , saying that the episode is " not funny , it 's not clever and is so utterly , irredeemably , naffly silly that it ends up being incredibly irritating and nothing else " . Another journalist unimpressed was the Daily Mirror columnist Kevin O 'Sullivan , who dismissed the programme by saying simply " BBC2 's alleged comedy Inside No. 9 : didn 't even smile " .
Cooke observed the difficulty in reviewing Inside No. 9 as a whole due to the fact that each episode is different from the last . " Sardines " was commended for its cast and acting , as well as the scripting , but critics had a mixed response to the twist ending . " A Quiet Night In " was a change in approach , relying on physical comedy , but it was well received as funny , and inventive . " Tom & Gerri " was less comedic but darker than previous episodes ; critics commended the plot , but disagreed about the portrayal of mental illness in the episode . Less horrific than other episodes in the series , " Last Gasp " dealt with themes of celebrity culture and fandom , and was considered a weaker instalment . Critics called " The Understudy " a " return to form " . While it was based upon Macbeth , a knowledge of the play was not necessary for enjoyment , and the plot 's divergence from the play was praised . " The Harrowing " was the most horrific episode of the series , and was considered genuinely scary by critics .
= = = Viewing figures = = =
Despite the generally positive reception among critics and viewers , the viewing figures for the series were poor . The average viewing figures for the series were 904 @,@ 000 people , or 4 @.@ 9 % of the audience , lower than the slot average of 970 @,@ 000 ( 5 @.@ 1 % of the audience ) . The series had a strong start , with 1 @.@ 1 million viewers , which was 5 @.@ 6 % of the audience , watching " Sardines " . The series low was the fifth episode , " The Understudy " , which attracted 720 @,@ 000 viewers ( 4 @.@ 1 % of the audience ) .
= = = Awards and nominations = = =
Thanks to their work on Inside No. 9 , Pemberton and Shearsmith jointly won the 2014 / 2015 Royal Television Society Programme award for best comedy performance . The other nominees were Harry Enfield , for his performance in Harry and Paul 's Story of the Twos , and Sarah Hadland , for her performance in The Job Lot . The pair were also jointly nominated for the 2015 British Academy Television Craft Award for comedy writer for their work on Inside No. 9 , but lost to Mackenzie Crook for his work on Detectorists . Arthur Matthews and Matt Berry ( Toast of London ) and Mathew Baynton and James Corden ( The Wrong Mans ) were the other nominees . The following year , Guillem Morales was nominated for the Television Craft Award for Breakthrough Talent for his work on " The 12 Days of Christine " , but lost to Michaela Coel , who wrote Chewing Gum . The other nominees were D. C. Moore ( Not Safe for Work ) and Marcus Plowright ( Muslim Drag Queens ) .
At the 2013 / 2014 Royal Television Society Craft and Design Awards , Lisa Cavalli @-@ Green was nominated for the " Make Up Design – Drama " award for her work on Inside No. 9 , but lost to Davy Jones , for his work on In the Flesh . Loz Schiavo ( Peaky Blinders ) was the other nominee . Due in part to her role in " The Harrowing " , Aimee @-@ Ffion Edwards was shortlisted for WalesOnline 's " Daffta " award for best actress , but lost to Eve Myles . The Dafftas celebrate Welsh television talent and prizes are awarded based on a public vote .
Inside No. 9 itself won the Sketch and Comedy prize at the 35th annual Banff World Media Festival Rockie Awards . The other nominees were Do I Have to Take Care of Everything ? , It 's a Date , Tiny Plastic Men , Gangsta Granny and The Revolution Will Be Televised . In response to the nomination , Shearsmith tweeted that he was " [ t ] hrilled " , joking that the programme was " in ' Comedy ' . I knew it was one " . Inside No. 9 was also nominated for Best TV Sitcom at the 2014 Freesat Awards , which celebrate the best of free British television . The programme lost to BBC2 's The Wrong Mans , as determined by a panel made up of television experts and commentators . The other nominees were Birds of a Feather , Mrs. Brown 's Boys and Toast of London . In November 2014 , it was announced that Inside No. 9 had been shortlisted for the 2015 Broadcast Award for Best Original Programme . The other nominees were Crackanory , Glasgow Girls , Release the Hounds , Suspects and The Island with Bear Grylls . At the award ceremony in London on 4 February 2015 , Glasgow Girls was granted the award , but Inside No. 9 was highly commended . Inside No. 9 won the TV award at the 2015 Chortle Awards . The programme was longlisted for the Best Comedy prize in the 2015 TV Choice Awards .
At the 2014 British Comedy Awards , Inside No. 9 was nominated in the Best New Comedy Programme and the Best Comedy Drama categories . In the former category , it lost to Toast of London . The other nominees were The Wrong Mans and Man Down . In the latter category , it lost to Rev , and the other nominees were The Wrong Mans and Uncle . For Chater ( The Times ) , the comedy drama category was the strongest of the awards , but for Ben Williams ( Time Out ) , Inside No. 9 should have won . Writing in The Independent , journalist Alice Jones said she was " sorry to see the relentlessly innovative Inside No 9 go unrewarded " .
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= Mama ( Spice Girls song ) =
" Mama " is a song by British pop group Spice Girls . It was written by the Spice Girls , Matt Rowe and Richard Stannard , and produced by Rowe and Stannard for the group 's debut album Spice , released in November 1996 . " Mama " is a pop ballad that features instrumentation from keyboards , a rhythm guitar , a cello , and a violin , and its lyrics deal with the difficulties in relationships between mothers and daughters that appear during adolescence .
It was released as a double A @-@ side with " Who Do You Think You Are " , and became the official single of the 1997 Comic Relief . Its Big TV ! directed music video , featured the group singing to an audience of children and their own mothers . Despite receiving mixed reviews from music critics , " Mama " was commercially successful . Released as the album 's fourth single in March 1997 , it became their fourth consecutive number @-@ one single in the United Kingdom , which made the Spice Girls the first act in UK chart history to have its first four singles reach number one . It was certified platinum by the British Phonographic Industry ( BPI ) . The single performed well internationally , reaching the top ten in many European countries and New Zealand , and the top fifteen in Australia .
= = Writing and inspiration = =
" Mama " was written by the Spice Girls with songwriting partners Matt Rowe and Richard Stannard . In an interview about the writing process between the group and the duo , Rowe credits Mel B as the one who came up with the song 's concept . During the writing process , each member wrote a small verse in a different corner of the recording studio , while the chorus was finished around the piano with a guitar . Then , the producers added a gospel choir filled with the group 's harmonies at the end of the song . Brown explained the song 's inspiration on the book Real Life : Real Spice The Official Story :
We wrote ' Mama ' when I was going through a bad phase with my mum . The sentiments are really that your mum 's probably the best friend that you 've got . Whether she 's an over @-@ protective mother or a bit of a landmine , she probably knows you better than yourself in some ways .
In the same book , Melanie C further elaborated : " ' Mama 's all about how you 're such a cow to your mum when you 're going through that rebellious teenage stage . Then when you get a bit older , you realise that whatever she was doing , she was only doing it for your own good . And you think : ' God , I was really horrible . ' " " Mama " was released in the UK and Ireland as a double A @-@ side along with " Who Do You Think You Are " in March 1997 , timed not only for the Comic Relief telethon , but also for Mothering Sunday .
= = Composition = =
" Mama " is a pop ballad , written in the key of F minor , it is set in the time signature of common time and moves at a moderate tempo of 100 beats per minute . The song is constructed in a verse @-@ chorus form , with a bridge before the third chorus , and its instrumentation comes from keyboards , a rhythm guitar , a cello , and a violin .
It opens with an instrumental introduction , with a chord progression of D ♭ – E ♭ – Fm – E ♭ / G – A ♭ , that is used in the entire song . Bunton and Brown sing the first and second verse respectively . The bridge and third chorus follow . Then a choir , arranged by Mark Beswick , supplements the group during the last part of the song . " Mama " ends with the group repeating the chorus until the song gradually fades out . Lyrically , the song deals with the difficulties in the relationships between mothers and teenagers that appears during the adolescence , and it was dedicated to the group 's mothers .
= = Reception = =
= = = Critical response = = =
" Mama " received mixed reviews from music critics . The Daily Mirror criticised the song saying " Yuk ! We don 't want our Spice Girls sweet , ta very much . They should concentrate on the raunch and let Daniel O 'Donnell take care of the mums . " Dev Sherlock of Yahoo ! Music Radio called it a " glossy ballad that would do Mariah Carey proud " . Edna Gundersen of the USA Today said that their album Spice " is assembly @-@ line dance @-@ pop " , adding that " only the funky ' Say You 'll Be There ' and touchingly cornball ' Mama ' hint at depth " .
In a review of their album Spice , Ken Tucker from Entertainment Weekly called it " a fearlessly corny ballad " , and added that it " will likely keep them from being one @-@ hit wonders in America " . Melissa Ruggieri of the Richmond Times @-@ Dispatch said that in the song , the girls " are sunny vocalists who harmonize with perfumey sweetness when called upon " . Daniel Incognito of Sputnikmusic said that in " Mama " the group " sing with heartfelt emotion " , and added that " their somewhat amateurish singing is brought up and pushed along by the production crew , harmonising nicely into a stirring pop hook " .
= = = Chart performance = = =
" Mama " was released in the UK as a double A @-@ side single with " Who Do You Think You Are " on 3 March 1997 . It debuted on the UK Singles Chart at number one , with sales of 248 @,@ 000 copies , becoming the group 's fourth consecutive chart @-@ topper . This achievement made the Spice Girls the first act in UK chart history to have its first four singles reach number one , breaking the record set by Gerry & The Pacemakers , Frankie Goes to Hollywood , Jive Bunny and the Mastermixers , and Robson & Jerome with three number ones each . It spent three weeks at number one , nine weeks in the top forty , fifteen weeks in the top seventy @-@ five , and sold 672 @,@ 577 copies in total , earning a platinum certification by the British Phonographic Industry ( BPI ) .
" Mama " was commercially successful in Europe . It peaked at number three on the Eurochart Hot 100 , and performed similarly in other European charts . It became the group 's third number @-@ one single in Ireland , and peaked inside the top ten in Belgium ( both the Flemish and French charts ) , Germany , the Netherlands , Sweden , and Switzerland . " Mama " was released as a standalone single in Austria , Finland , and Italy . In Austria , it was released on 23 March 1997 , debuting on the Ö3 Austria Top 40 at number thirty @-@ one . It peaked at number one in its ninth week , and remained fifteen weeks on the chart .
In Oceania , its commercial performance was generally positive , though not as overwhelming as their three first singles . In New Zealand , it debuted on 23 March 1997 at number ten , while their three first singles were slowly descending from the chart . It peaked at number six and stayed fifteen weeks on the chart . In Australia , it did not perform as well as their previous releases . On 27 July 1997 , it debuted on the singles chart at number thirteen , but was unable to reach a higher position and dropped off the chart after fourteen weeks .
= = Music video = =
The music video for " Mama " was directed in February 1997 by Big TV ! , and filmed in a studio in Ealing , London . It features the group singing to an audience of children and their own mothers . The video alternated between this scenes and shots of actors playing young versions of the Spice Girls doing various things all together , such as playing and practicing singing and dancing , though none of the group 's members grew up together . It also shows each mother of the girls holding a picture of their daughter .
About the shoot , Victoria Beckham commented : " It took such a long time to film the ' Mama ' video , but it was nice that our mums were there and could see what we 're doing . It 's good , because they were actually knackered at the end of the day and I said to my mum : ' Ha ! Now you know how I feel every day ! " Geri Halliwell commented : " I found it a bit bizarre bringing my mum to work with me on the ' Mama ' video . You know : ' This is what I do — come and do it , too . ' If you worked in Sainsbury 's , you wouldn 't get your mum to sit with you on the till " .
= = Live performances = =
The song was performed many times on television , including An Audience with ... , Live & Kicking , Top of the Pops , the 1997 Prince 's Trust Gala , and the 1997 Comic Relief . In October 1997 , the group performed it as the thirteenth song of their first live concert at the Abdi İpekçi Arena in Istanbul , Turkey . The performance was broadcast on Showtime in a pay @-@ per @-@ view event titled Spice Girls In Concert Wild ! . However , the VHS and DVD release of the concert , Girl Power ! Live in Istanbul , does not include the performance . The song was also used during the climax of their 1997 film , Spice World . In the scene , the group performs " Mama " at London 's Royal Albert Hall , surrounded by the media and thousands of fans . The scene was included as a bonus performance in the VHS and DVD release of the movie .
The group have performed the song on their three tours , the Spiceworld Tour , the Christmas In Spiceworld Tour , and the Return of the Spice Girls . It remained in the group 's live set after Halliwell 's departure at the end of the European leg of the Spiceworld Tour . The performance at the tour 's final concert can be found on the video : Spice Girls Live at Wembley Stadium , filmed in London , on 20 September 1998 . During the Return of the Spice Girls tour , " Mama " was performed as the second song from the show 's fifth segment . All five girls stood together holding hands to perform it , while the LED screens in the background showed photos of their mothers holding baby pictures of the group , and a montage of them and their children . For the British shows , fifty young girls from the Capital Children 's Choir dressed in white came out from a platform and lined the stage against the backdrop screens to sing with the Spice Girls . During some of the shows , the group brought their children onstage .
= = Formats and track listings = =
These are the formats and track listings of major single releases of " Mama " :
= = Credits and personnel = =
Published by Windswept Pacific Music Ltd / PolyGram Music Publishing Ltd .
= = Charts and certifications = =
= = = Weekly charts = = =
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= Virginia House =
Virginia House is a manor house on a hillside overlooking the James River in the Windsor Farms neighborhood of Richmond , Virginia , United States .
The house was constructed from the materials of the sixteenth @-@ century Warwick Priory in Warwickshire , England , and shipped over and reassembled , completed several months before the stock market crash of 1929 . Virginia House is in the Tudor architectural style but incorporates a range of designs from other English houses and has modern facilities such as ten baths and central heating .
Virginia House was built by Alexander and Virginia Weddell , salvaging many materials from the Priory and other old English manor houses and adding further elegant English and Spanish antiques , oriental carpets , silks , and silver . Today Virginia House is operated by the Virginia Historical Society as a house museum , although it largely remains as it was in the 1940s during the Weddells ’ tenancy . Immediately to the west of the property is Agecroft Hall .
= = History = =
The façade of Virginia House was originally located on the grounds of the former Augustinian Priory of the Holy Sepulcher of Jerusalem ( Warwick Priory ) in Warwick , England , founded in 1109 . In 1536 , at the Dissolution of the Monasteries , the priory was shut down and the land later bought by a politician named Thomas Hawkins alias Fisher , during the reign of Edward VI . Fisher demolished most of the monastic buildings and erected the house which he named " Hawk 's Nest , " set among gardens . He entertained Elizabeth I at the house . The property was bought in 1709 by Henry Wise , Royal Gardener to Queen Anne . In the mid @-@ nineteenth century , it was purchased by the Lloyds Bank family who put the manor up for sale at auction in 1925 .
The auction of the Warwick Priory was to take place on September 23 , 1925 , and was described in the catalogue as a " Highly Important Unreserved Demolition Sale " offering such items as " rare old oak doors , large quantity of floor boards , the whole of the joists and other timbers , and enormous quantities of excellent brick , sandstone , old oak and other beams , timbers and girders " . Alexander W. Weddell , a wealthy American diplomat and his wife Virginia Chase Steedman , however , offered a lump sum of £ 3 @,@ 500 for the entire remaining structure and secured a deal before it was held . The purchase by the Americans caused an outrage in the British press and the Weddells were heavily frowned on given that the heritage property was to be demolished . The objection to the purchase was also backed by a member of the House of Commons who proposed that the sale be invalidated in order to prevent this " act of vandalism " . However , it was rejected and important persons in Britain gradually learned what their intentions were , and on April 13 , 1926 , another member , F.G. Rye , sent a letter to Alexander Weddell saying , " Had you not stepped in and bought the materials of the partially demolished structure , they would have been lost for all time , whereas now they will be utilized in the erection of a new building . "
The Tudor mansion was dismantled , but concerned that the stone would swiftly disintegrate during the demolition phase , Weddell 's advisers ordered that a small explosive device be triggered off in the centre of the house and to salvage the remaining stones . However , the explosion had the effect of splitting the walls intact meaning that much of the building could be salvaged and shipped to the United States . The first shipments arrived in Richmond , Virginia in early 1926 , but were soaked in seawater and had to be dried in a barn for up to six months . From the very beginning , the Weddells planned on deeding the house to the Virginia Historical Society and to allocate the west wing of the structure as a museum once it was rebuilt in Virginia . The Weddells also intended the structure to become the society 's new headquarters .
Virginia House was constructed in the Windsor Farms neighborhood of Richmond by the General Contracting firm of Allen J. Saville , Inc . , although several different architects were employed during the rebuilding . Foundation work began on November 6 , 1925 and the structure was officially turned over to the Weddells on January 1 , 1929 . The total cost of the construction of Virginia House was $ 236 @,@ 968 @.@ 83 , with an additional $ 15 @,@ 000 spent on buying the lot .
The Weddells lived at Virginia House until their deaths in a train accident in 1948 . The house became the permanent residence of the historic society . On June 13 , 1990 , Virginia House was listed on the National Register of Historic Places , due to it being considered " a noteworthy representative of a peculiar residential building type prevalent in the late @-@ nineteenth and early- twentieth @-@ century period of American architecture . "
= = Structure = =
= = = Exterior = = =
Virginia House is a large , asymmetrical , two @-@ story long rectangular stone building with massive sandstone walls , small medieval windows , characterized by two high Dutch gables that date to the 1620 remodeling of the Thomas Hawkins @-@ era Priory in Warwickshire , England . The adjacent cross @-@ gable roofs and crenelated balustrade over the carriage entrance provide a horizontal cross @-@ axis on either side of the gabled central bays . Two rear ells of the house project into the garden terrace , one of them containing the two @-@ story cathedral @-@ ceilinged library , and the other a drawing room and the master bedroom wing . Polygonal bays and oriel windows project from the north and south sides with heavy perimeter walls constructed of recycled sandstone . Over a window on the west side of the north elevation of Virginia house is a copy of a coat of arms commemorating the visit of Queen Elizabeth I to the Priory in England in 1572 . The original coat of arms is currently on display inside . The leaded @-@ glass , quarrel @-@ paned casement windows widely used in Virginia House also salvage authentic crown glass dating from the sixteenth to the nineteenth century from the English priory . The interior of the property is richly embellished with oak furnishings .
Although many stones and materials were salvaged and used to rebuild the Hawkins priory in Virginia , the reconstructed house incorporated other designs and influences . Following the acquisition of the property , the Weddells hired chief architect Henry Grant Morse and scouted the English countryside , surveying properties and considering various designs they could incorporate into the rebuilding process . As a result , the reconstruction is not a replica of the original building . The west wing of the house is actually a replica of Sulgrave Manor , a small manor house in Northamptonshire , England , which once belonged to Lawrence Washington , an ancestor of America 's first president , George Washington . However , the center of the house is a reproduction of the original Warwickshire priory and uses the curvilinear gables , strapwork design , and balustrades that the English commonly adapted from the Low Countries in the early seventeenth century . The east wing of the house , however , is based on Wormleighton Manor , a Spencer @-@ Churchill family estate in England .
The original boundary of Virginia House property , recorded in the Clerk 's Office of the Circuit Court of the County of Henrico , Virginia , is described as lot 9 , Block 41 , Windsor Farms , in the plan of Windsor Farms made by Allen J. Saville , Inc . , dated September 15 , 1926 . In 1928 , Virginia Weddell requested that a two @-@ story porch be added to expand the master bedroom suite and to build a second @-@ floor sunroom . This was constructed in January 1932 by the contracting firm of Claiborne and Taylor , and was designed again by Henry Morse using Briar Hill sandstone . Further developments were made in the 1930s . On May 29 , 1935 , a shipment of Cotswold Stone Roofing Slate arrived from England , thicker , heavier and lighter in color than Virginia Buckingham Slate , and were used to emphasize the height of the steep roof . On April 14 , 1936 , an adjacent 7 @.@ 77 @-@ acre ( 31 @,@ 400 m2 ) lot was purchased to accommodate an expansive landscape plan .
In 1941 , Virginia Weddell hired architect William Lawrence Bottomley and purchased antique stone columns from the Spanish Duke of the Infantado to reconstruct an ancient Spanish loggia on the southwest elevation of the house . Bottomley was able to incorporate the existing parapets , finials and pierced railings and posts from the north library bay windows into the loggia design , with a ceiling reconstructed from a sixteenth @-@ century house on the grounds of a manor in Knole , Kent , England . Wall tiles were used which tindicated use of gunpowder on the original property . Bottomley , however , was quite critical of his work and believed his loggia was too symmetrical and lacking in the quality of picturesqueness and romance that the rest of the house displayed and proposed an octagonal stairway be added on the outside corner of the loggia . However , his idea was rejected by the Weddells , and it was completed in 1946 . Bottomley was paid $ 10 @,@ 764 and received a ten percent commission for his drawings and construction .
= = = Interior = = =
The interior to Virginia House is elegant with oak furnishings and an assortment of English and Spanish antiques , oriental carpets , silks , and silverware . The first floor consists mainly of large , elaborate rooms , intended for social meetings and to house the functions and exhibits of the Virginia Historical Society . The second floor was restricted and used for the living quarters of the Weddells and their staff although it features a large library , intended to function as the boardroom and research facility of the Virginia Historical Society .
The main entrance hall is a grand , high ceilinged room using oak paneling salvaged from the Warwick Priory . The ornate , " L " shaped staircase is actually a reconstruction of the original sixteenth @-@ century staircase of the priory repurchased from an antique shop in London and includes an acanthus leaf newel cap and overscaled newel posts in its design . The floor in the entrance hall is fashioned from a composite made up of terracotta , asphalt and wood shavings known as zenitherm , with tiles arranged in an irregular rectangular formation . The room beyond the entrance hall also uses oak paneling , but uses materials derived from another English manor house in Warwickshire . The floor is made of wide @-@ plank oak and has a fifteenth @-@ century stained glass oval window in the south wall using leaded glass from the Warwick Priory . A Tudor rose motif is located on the plaster ceiling , and the Weddells hired Italian artisans to complete it in 1925 @-@ 26 . Adjacent to this room to the east is a smaller drawing room , this time with heraldic reliefs on the plaster ceiling and featuring a cylindrical Florentine soapstone fireplace .
The rear hall again uses old oak high paneling and has small six by nine inch oil portraits of Renaissance figures . Freestanding Corinthian columns in the hallway form an ornamental gateway and stained glass doors at the end enter the rear porch arcade . The dining room was furnished with oak from Redbourn Manor in Hertfordshire which was bought later and has an imposing Portland stone fireplace positioned midway in the room . The floor is made of old re @-@ sawn pegged oak and the Tudor rose ceiling motif is repeated in the room . The gallery room is located in the northwest corner of the house , furnished with vertical oak paneling and a zenitherm floor which was to be used for the exhibition of artwork and historic artifacts from the Virginia Historical Society collection . In the southeast wing of the house is the Sulgrave Room , a reproduction of the great hall from the Washington family 's Sulgrave Manor . The fireplace mantel is made of an oak beam , once used at the original priory . Heavy oak timbers are used to construct the open beam ceiling in this room , with mottled plaster walls .
The grand second floor library room is also of major note , with a high cathedralesque ceiling and a grand conference table previously used for board meetings by the Virginia Historical Society . Again , as with the Sulgrave Room , the mantelpiece is made from the Hawkins manor oak and is notably carved with an Old English inscription that reads , " O ye fyre and heate bless ye the Lord . " Behind the library panelling is a secret hidden passage , added at Alexander Weddell 's request , leading to his private study . The rest of the second floor consists of living quarters and bathrooms , including many rooms of staff of the Virginia Historical Society and Virginia Weddell 's bedroom , bath , and study .
= = Gardens = =
Virginia House is set in carefully planned landscape gardens , which contain a diversity of plants and plantings . Virginia Weddell hired the noted landscape architect Charles Gillette in 1927 , and over some twenty years he built more than 8 acres ( 32 @,@ 000 m2 ) of scenic gardens containing close to 1 @,@ 000 types of ornamental plants — from formal spring displays to wisteria , roses , and sprawling hydrangea that drape balconies and garden rails . The first phase of the plan was to create an informal Tudor @-@ style garden on the original 1 @-@ acre ( 4 @,@ 000 m2 ) site that the Weddells purchased for the house site , using a steeply sloping southern hillside by creating interconnecting cascading ponds , flagstone walkways and terraced garden beds . In 1932 , the second phase reworked the original concept by overlaying a cross @-@ axis and planting further beds for flowers such as tulips and iris . The third phase of the plan took place in 1939 , when the Weddells purchased a large adjacent piece of land on the southern side of the house down towards the James River . Gillette extensively planted grass and positioned evergreens in an asymmetrical pattern which he believed would demonstrate a romantic mirroring of the rambling architecture of the house . As of 1990 , Gillette 's original blueprints and notes are preserved in a collection at the Fiske Kimball Fine Arts Library at the University of Virginia . Garden Week tours are held in Virginia House gardens in the spring , attracting thousands of visitors annually .
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= Yelp =
Yelp is an American multinational corporation headquartered in San Francisco , California . It develops , hosts and markets Yelp.com and the Yelp mobile app , which publish crowd @-@ sourced reviews about local businesses , as well as the online reservation service SeatMe and online food @-@ delivery service Eat24 . The company also trains small businesses in how to respond to reviews , hosts social events for reviewers , and provides data about businesses , including health inspection scores .
Yelp was founded in 2004 by former PayPal employees , Russel Simmons and Jeremy Stoppelman . Yelp grew quickly and raised several rounds of funding . By 2010 it had $ 30 million in revenues and the website had published more than 4 @.@ 5 million crowd @-@ sourced reviews . From 2009 – 2012 , Yelp expanded throughout Europe and Asia . In 2009 it entered several negotiations with Google for a potential acquisition . Yelp became a public company in March 2012 and became profitable for the first time two years later . As of 2016 , Yelp.com has 135 million monthly visitors and 95 million reviews . The company 's revenues come from businesses advertising .
According to BusinessWeek , Yelp has a complicated relationship with small businesses . Criticism regarding Yelp focus on the legitimacy of reviews , public statements of Yelp manipulating and blocking reviews in order to increase ad spending , as well as concerns regarding the privacy of reviewers .
= = Company history = =
= = = Origins ( 2004 – 2009 ) = = =
Two former PayPal employees , Jeremy Stoppelman and Russel Simmons , founded Yelp at a business incubator , MRL Ventures , in 2004 . Stoppelman and Simmons conceived the initial idea for Yelp as an email @-@ based referral network , after Stoppelman caught the flu and had a difficult time finding an online recommendation for a local doctor . The co @-@ founders ' former colleague from PayPal and founder of MRL Ventures , Max Levchin , provided $ 1 million in initial funding . MRL co @-@ founder David Galbraith , who instigated the local services project based on user reviews , came up with the name " Yelp " . According to Fortune Magazine , Yelp 's initial email @-@ based system was " convoluted " . The idea was rejected by investors and did not attract users beyond the cofounders ' friends and family . Usage data showed that users were not answering requests for referrals , but were using the " Real Reviews " feature , which allowed them to write reviews unsolicited .
According to the San Francisco Chronicle , " the site 's popularity soared " after it was re @-@ designed in late 2005 . Yelp raised $ 5 million in funding in 2005 from Bessemer Ventures and $ 10 million in November 2006 from Benchmark Capital . The number of reviewers on the site grew from 12 @,@ 000 in 2005 , to 100 @,@ 000 in 2006 . By the summer of 2006 , the site had one million monthly visitors . It raised $ 15 million in funding from DAG Ventures in February 2008 . In 2010 , Elevation Partners invested $ 100 million ; $ 75 million was spent on purchasing equity from employees and investors , while $ 25 million was invested in sales staff and expansion . Yelp grew from six million monthly visitors in 2007 to 16 @.@ 5 million in 2008 and from 12 to 24 cities during the same time period . By 2009 , the site had 4 @.@ 5 million reviews . By 2010 , Yelp 's revenues were estimated to be $ 30 million and it employed 300 people .
= = = Private company ( 2009 – 2011 ) = = =
Yelp introduced a site for the United Kingdom in January 2009 and one for Canada that August . The first non @-@ English Yelp site was introduced in France in 2010 ; users had the option to read and write content in French or English . From 2010 to 2011 , Yelp launched several more sites , in Austria , Germany , Spain and the Netherlands . International website traffic doubled during the same time period . An Australian website went live in November 2011 . It was supported through a partnership with Telstra , which provided one million initial business listings , and was initially glitchy . Yelp had a presence in 20 countries by the end of 2012 , including Turkey and Denmark . Yelp 's first site in Asia was introduced in September 2012 in Singapore , which was followed by Japan in 2014 .
In December 2009 , Google entered into negotiations with Yelp to acquire the company , but the two parties failed to reach an agreement . According to The New York Times , Google offered more than $ 500 million , but the deal fell through after Yahoo offered $ 1 billion . Tech Crunch reported that Google refused to match Yahoo 's offer . Both offers were later abandoned following a disagreement between Yelp 's management and board of directors about the offers . In June 2015 , Yelp published a study alleging Google was altering search results to benefit its own online services .
Yelp began a service called Yelp Deals in April 2011 , but by August it cut back on Deals due to increased competition and market saturation . That September , the Federal Trade Commission investigated Yelp 's allegations that Google was using Yelp web content without authorization and that Google 's search engine algorithms favored Google Places over similar services provided by Yelp . In a January 2014 agreement , Google was not subject to anti @-@ trust litigation from the FTC , but did have to allow services like Yelp the ability to opt out of having their data scraped and used on Google 's websites .
= = = Public entity ( 2011 – present ) = = =
In November 2011 , Yelp filed for an initial public offering ( IPO ) with the Securities Exchange Commission . On March 2 , 2012 , the company 's stock began public trading on the New York Stock Exchange at a share price of $ 15 , valuing the company at $ 898 million . In 2012 , Yelp agreed to acquire its largest European rival , Qype , for $ 50 million . The following year , CEO Jeremy Stoppelman reduced his salary to $ 1 . Yelp acquired the start @-@ up online reservation company SeatMe for $ 12 @.@ 7 million in cash and company stock in 2013 . Yelp 's second quarter 2013 revenue of $ 55 million " exceeded expectations " , but the company was not yet profitable .
In 2012 / 13 , Yelp moved into its new corporate headquarters , occupying nearly 150 @,@ 000 square feet on 12 floors of 140 New Montgomery ( the former PacBell building ) in San Francisco .
The company was profitable for the first time in the second quarter of 2014 , as a result of increasing ad spending by business owners and possibly from changes in Google 's local search algorithm . It is dubbed as Google Pigeon , which helped authoritative local directory sites like Yelp and TripAdvisor , in getting more visibility . Over the course of the year , Yelp websites were launched in Mexico , Japan and Argentina . Also in 2014 , Yelp expanded in Europe through the acquisitions of German @-@ based restaurant review site Restaurant @-@ Kritik and French @-@ based CityVox .
In early February 2015 Yelp announced it was buying Eat24 , an online food @-@ ordering service , for $ 134 million .
In late 2015 , a " Public Services & Government " section was introduced to Yelp and the General Services Administration began encouraging government agencies to create and monitor official government pages . For example , the Transportation Security Administration created official TSA Yelp pages . Later that year Yelp began experimenting in San Francisco with consumer alerts that were added to pages about restaurants with poor hygiene scores in government inspections . Research conducted by the Boston Children 's Hospital found that Yelp reviews with keywords associated with food poisoning correlates strongly with poor hygiene at the restaurant . Researchers at Columbia University used data from Yelp to identify three previously unreported restaurant @-@ related food poisoning outbreaks .
= = Features = =
Yelp 's website , Yelp.com , is a crowd @-@ sourced local business review and social networking site . Its user community is primarily active in major metropolitan regions . The site has pages devoted to individual locations , such as restaurants or schools , where Yelp users can submit a review on their products or services using a one to five star rating system . Businesses can also update contact information , hours and other basic listing information or add special deals . In addition to writing reviews , users can react to reviews , plan events or discuss their personal lives . According to Sterling Market Intelligence , Yelp is " one of the most important sites on the Internet . " It has 132 million monthly visitors and 57 million reviews . As of 2010 , Yelp had an established user @-@ base in 33 cities .
85 percent of small businesses listed on the site have a rating of three stars or better , but some negative reviews are very personal or extreme . Many reviews are written in an entertaining or creative manner . Users can give a review a " thumbs @-@ up " if it is " useful , funny or cool . " Each day a " Review of the Day " is determined based on a vote by users .
As of 2012 , 45 percent of Yelp searches are done from a mobile device . The Yelp iPhone app was introduced in December 2008 . In August 2009 , Yelp released an update to the iPhone app with a hidden Easter Egg augmented reality feature called Monocle , which allowed users looking through their iPhone camera to see Yelp data on businesses seen through the camera . Check @-@ in features were added in 2010 .
Yelp users can make restaurant reservations in Yelp through OpenTable , a feature added in June 2010 . In 2013 , features to have food ordered and delivered were added to Yelp as well as the ability to view hygiene inspection scores and make appointments at spas . Yelp 's content was integrated into the mapping and directions app of Apple 's September 2012 release of iOS 6 . Yelp also has features for finding local businesses offering special deals to Yelp users .
In March 2014 , Yelp added features for ordering and scheduling manicures , flowers , golf and legal consultations , among other things , through Yelp . In October 2014 , the company , working in collaboration with hotel search site Hipmunk , added features to book hotels through Yelp .
= = = Features for businesses = = =
Yelp added the ability for business owners to respond to reviews in 2008 . Businesses can respond privately by messaging the reviewer or publicly on their profile page . In some cases , Yelp users that had a bad experience have updated their reviews more favorably due to the businesses ' efforts to make it right . In other cases disputes between reviewers and business owners have led to harassment and physical altercations . The system has led to criticisms that business owners can bribe reviewers with free food or discounts to increase their rating , though Yelp users say this rarely occurs . A business owner can " claim " a profile , which allows them to respond to reviews and see traffic reports . Businesses can also offer discounts to Yelp users that visit often using the " check in " feature . In 2014 , Yelp released an app for business owners to respond to reviews and manage their profiles from a mobile device . Business owners can also flag reviews to be removed , if they violate Yelp 's content guidelines .
Yelp 's revenues come from selling ads and sponsored listings to small businesses . As of 2010 , Yelp has 150 salespeople . Advertisers can pay to have their listing appear at the top of search results , or feature ads on the pages of their competitors . As of 2013 , advertising revenue was growing at a rate of 77 % per year . Yelp will only allow businesses with at least a three @-@ star rating to sign up for advertising . Originally a sponsored " favorite review " could place a positive review above negative ones , but Yelp stopped offering this option in 2010 in an effort to deter misconceptions that advertisers were able to marginalize negative reviews for pay .
= = Relationship with businesses = =
A Harvard Business School study published in 2011 found that each " star " in a Yelp rating affected the business owner 's sales by 5 – 9 percent . A 2012 study by two Berkeley economists found that an increase from 3 @.@ 5 to 4 stars on Yelp resulted in a 19 percent increase in the chances of the restaurant being booked during peak hours . A 2014 survey of 300 small business owners done by Yodle found that 78 percent were concerned about negative reviews . Also , 43 percent of respondents said they felt online reviews were unfair , because there is no verification that the review is written by a legitimate customer .
= = = Astroturfing = = =
As Yelp became more influential , the practice of fake reviews written by competitors or business owners became more prevalent . A study from Harvard professor Michael Luca analyzed 316 @,@ 415 reviews in Boston and found that fake reviews rose from 6 % of the site 's reviews in 2006 to 20 % in 2014 . Yelp 's own review filter identifies 25 percent of reviews as suspicious .
Yelp has a proprietary algorithm that attempts to evaluate whether a review is authentic and filters @-@ out reviews that it believes are not based on a patron 's actual personal experiences , as required by the site 's Terms of Use . The review filter was first developed two weeks after the site was founded and the company saw their " first obviously fake reviews . " Filtered reviews are moved into a special area and not counted towards the businesses ' star @-@ rating . The filter sometimes filters legitimate reviews , leading to complaints from business owners . New York Attorney General Eric T. Schneiderman said Yelp has " the most aggressive " astroturfing filter out of the crowd @-@ sourced websites it looked into . Yelp has also been criticized for not disclosing how the filter works , which it says would reveal information on how to out @-@ smart it .
Yelp also conducts " sting operations " to uncover businesses writing their own reviews . In October 2012 , Yelp placed a 90 @-@ day " consumer alert " on 150 business listings believed to have paid for reviews . The alert read " We caught someone red @-@ handed trying to buy reviews for this business " . In June 2013 , Yelp filed a lawsuit against BuyYelpReview / AdBlaze for allegedly writing fake reviews for pay . In 2013 Yelp sued a lawyer it alleged was part of a group of law firms that exchanged Yelp reviews , saying that many of the firm 's reviews originated from their own office . The lawyer said Yelp was trying to get revenge for his own legal disputes and activism against Yelp . An effort to win dismissal of the case was denied in December 2014 . In September 2013 , Yelp cooperated with Operation Clean Turf , a sting operation by the New York Attorney General that uncovered 19 astroturfing operations .
= = = Alleged manipulation by Yelp = = =
According to BusinessWeek , Yelp has " always had a complicated relationship with small businesses . " Throughout much of Yelp 's history there have been allegations that Yelp has manipulated their website 's reviews based on participation in its advertising programs . Many business owners say Yelp salespeople offered to remove or suppress negative reviews if they purchase advertising . Others report seeing negative reviews featured prominently and positive reviews buried ; soon after , they would receive calls from Yelp attempting to sell paid advertising . Yelp says its sales staff do not have the ability to modify reviews and that changes in the reviews are caused by its automated filter .
Several lawsuits have been filed against Yelp accusing it of extorting businesses into buying advertising products . Each have been dismissed by a judge before reaching trial . In early 2010 , a class @-@ action lawsuit was filed against Yelp alleging it asked a Long Beach veterinary hospital to pay $ 300 a month for advertising services that included the suppression or deletion of disparaging customer reviews . The following month , nine additional businesses joined the class @-@ action lawsuit , and two similar lawsuits were filed . That May the lawsuits were combined into one class @-@ action lawsuit , which was dismissed by San Francisco U.S. District Judge Edward Chen in 2011 . Chen said the reviews were protected by the Communications Decency Act of 1996 and that there was no evidence of manipulation by Yelp . The plaintiffs filed an appeal . In September 2014 the Ninth U.S. Circuit Court of Appeals upheld the dismissal , finding that even if Yelp did manipulate reviews to favor advertisers , this would not fall under the court 's legal definition of extortion .
In August 2013 , Yelp launched a series of town hall style meetings in 22 major American cities in an effort to address concerns among local business owners . Many attendees expressed frustrations with Yelp 's automated filter removing positive reviews after they decline to advertise , receiving reviews from users that never entered the establishment , and other issues . A 2011 Harvard study by Michael Luca found that there was no significant statistical correlation between being a Yelp advertiser and having more favorable reviews . The Federal Trade Commission received 2 @,@ 046 complaints about Yelp from 2008 to 2014 , most from small businesses regarding allegedly unfair or fake reviews or negative reviews that appear after declining to advertise . According to Yelp , the Federal Trade Commission finished a second examination of Yelp 's practices in 2015 and in both cases did not pursue an action against the company .
Journalist David Lazarus of the Los Angeles Times also criticized Yelp in 2014 for the practice of selling competitors ' ads to run on top of business listings and then offering to have the ads removed as part of a paid feature .
In 2015 , San Francisco filmmaker Kaylie Milliken was reportedly producing a documentary film titled Billion Dollar Bully about Yelp 's alleged business practices .
= = Community = =
According to Inc . Magazine most reviewers ( sometimes called " Yelpers " ) are " well @-@ intentioned " and write reviews in order to express themselves , improve their writing , or be creative . In some cases , they write reviews in order to lash out at corporate interests or businesses they dislike . Reviewers may also be motivated by badges and honors , such as being the first to review a new location , or by praise and attention from other users . Many reviews are written in an entertaining or creative manner . Some users post reviews as a matter of protest or support of the business 's political views ; Yelp attempts to filter these . Users can give a review a " thumbs @-@ up " if it is " useful , funny or cool . " Each day a " Review of the Day " is determined based on a vote by users . According to The Discourse of Online Consumer Reviews many Yelp reviewers are internet @-@ savvy adults aged 18 – 25 or " suburban baby boomers " .
Reviewers are encouraged to use real names and photos . Each year members of the Yelp community are invited or self @-@ nominated to the " Yelp Elite Squad " and some are accepted based on an evaluation of their reviews . Users must also use their real name and photo on Yelp to qualify for the Elite Squad . They are governed by a council and estimated to have several thousand members . Yelp does not disclose how the Yelp Elite are selected . Elite Squad members are given different color badges based on how long they 've been an elite member . The Yelp Elite Squad originated with parties Yelp began throwing for members in 2005 , and in 2006 it was formally codified ; the name came from a joking reference to prolific reviewers that were invited to Yelp parties as the " Yelp Elite Squad . " Members are invited to special opening parties , given gifts , and receive other perks . Businesses host parties for the Yelp Elite as a way of getting reviews . As of 2011 , there were 60 local Elite Squads , most in North America and Europe .
Yelp receives about six subpoenas a month asking for the names of anonymous reviewers , mostly from business owners seeking litigation against those writing negative reviews . In 2012 the Alexandria Circuit Court and the Virginia Court of Appeals held Yelp in contempt for refusing to disclose the identities of seven reviewers that anonymously criticized a carpet @-@ cleaning business ; in 2014 Yelp appealed to the Virginia Supreme Court . Six internet companies and the Electronic Frontier Foundation said a ruling against Yelp would negatively affect free speech online . The judge from an early ruling said that if the reviewers did not actually use the businesses ' services , their communications would be false claims not protected by free speech laws . In 2014 , a California state law was enacted that prohibits businesses from using " disparagement clauses " in their contracts or terms of use that allow them to sue or fine customers that write negatively about them online .
As of 2010 , Yelp employed a staff of 40 community managers that organize parties for prolific reviewers , send encouraging messages to reviewers and host classes for small business owners . Yelp reviewers are not required to disclose their identity , but Yelp encourages them to do so . After leaving a negative review a user may say " you 've been Yelped " , while businesses with positive reviews advertise with " People Love us on Yelp ! " .
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