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= Constantine Doukas ( usurper ) =
Constantine Doukas ( or Doux ) ( Greek : Κωνσταντίνος Δούκας / Δούξ ) ( died 913 ) was a prominent Byzantine general . In 904 , he stopped the influential eunuch court official Samonas from defecting to the Arabs . In return , Samonas manipulated his father , Andronikos Doukas , into rebelling and fleeing to the Abbasid court in 906 / 7 . Constantine followed his father to Baghdad , but soon escaped and returned to Byzantium , where he was restored by Leo VI the Wise to favour and entrusted with high military offices . Upon the death of the Emperor Alexander , Constantine with the support of several aristocrats unsuccessfully tried to usurp the throne from the young Constantine VII , but was killed in a clash with supporters of the legitimate emperor .
= = Life = =
= = = Early life and career = = =
Constantine Doukas was the son of Andronikos Doukas , a prominent general under Emperor Leo VI the Wise ( reigned 886 – 912 ) and the first prominent member of the Doukas family . Constantine first appears in the sources in 904 , during the attempted flight of the Arab @-@ born eunuch Samonas , one of the emperor 's most trusted aides , to Syria . Constantine captured Samonas at the Monastery of the Holy Cross at Siricha , near the river Halys , and escorted him back to Constantinople , where an enquiry into the matter was held before the Senate . Leo , who was still attached to his servant , enjoined Constantine to maintain that Samonas had in fact been making a pilgrimage to the shrine of Siricha , and not the Arab frontier . When the senators however asked Constantine to verify the truth of this claim by swearing on " God and the emperor 's head " , he refused to hide the truth . Samonas was punished by house arrest , and although he was pardoned by Leo after only four months and restored to his offices , he had conceived a deep enmity towards the Doukai .
This grudge came to the fore in 906 , when Samonas tricked Andronikos into refusing to participate in an imperial expedition . Afraid that he would be punished for his disobedience , Andronikos with his family and retainers fled to the fortress of Kabala , near Iconium , and thence across the border into exile in the Abbasid Caliphate . Constantine and his father ended up in Baghdad , the Abbasid capital . Leo sent a secret message to the Doukai , offering a full pardon if they returned , but again through the machinations of Samonas , the letter fell into the hands of Caliph al @-@ Muktafi ( r . 902 – 908 ) , who had Andronikos confined to house arrest and forced to convert to Islam along with those who had followed him . He died there in ca . 910 . Constantine however managed to escape Baghdad , and was warmly welcomed back by Leo in a ceremony in the throne room of the Chrysotriklinos . The date of his return to Byzantium is unclear , but must be placed between ca . 908 and ca . 911 . Despite his father 's revolt , the Doukai remained very popular due to their military successes , and prophecies apparently circulated that predicted Constantine 's rise to the throne . As a result , according to Theophanes Continuatus , Leo warned the young man from trying to become emperor , but this is probably a later interpolation in view of Constantine Doukas ' eventual fate . In reality , Leo seems to have trusted him , for he showered him with gifts and appointed him to senior military positions : initially he was named — apparently in succession to Eustathios Argyros — strategos of the Charsianon theme , but by 913 he had risen to the post of Domestic of the Schools ( commander @-@ in @-@ chief of the army ) . From both positions he fought victoriously against the Arabs .
= = = Attempted usurpation = = =
Leo VI died in May 912 and was succeeded by his brother Alexander ( r . 912 – 913 ) , who reigned for little over a year before dying in June 913 . Leo 's empress , Zoe Karbonopsina , and his son and titular co @-@ emperor , Constantine VII ( r . 913 – 959 ) , were sidelined during the reign of Alexander , who also restored Zoe 's old adversary , Nicholas Mystikos , as Patriarch of Constantinople . Thus , at the death of Alexander ( 6 June 913 ) , with Constantine VII not even eight years old , a power struggle ensued between Zoe and Patriarch Nicholas , who headed the regency council . It was at this point that Constantine Doukas launched a rebellion aiming for the throne . The Life of Euthymius hagiography , a source hostile to Patriarch Nicholas , reports that the Patriarch was also involved , although the other Byzantine sources include this as a widespread rumour rather than a fact . According to these sources , unaware that he would be appointed regent ( Alexander named him to the regency council on his deathbed ) , fearful of losing his pre @-@ eminent position , and anxious about the military threat posed by the Bulgarian Tsar Simeon , which required a more experienced hand at the helm of the state , the Patriarch summoned Doukas to assume the throne .
Doukas , enjoying wide support among both the aristocrats and the populace , accepted the summons and headed to Constantinople with a few trusted friends . Barely three days after Alexander 's death , he entered the capital in secret during the night through a postern on the sea walls , and hid in the house of his father @-@ in @-@ law , Gregoras Iberitzes , where he was soon joined by high @-@ ranking courtiers such as the patrikios Constantine Helladikos . Already before dawn on the following morning , Constantine and his supporters , bearing torches , marched to the Hippodrome , joined along the way by a great multitude of people . Constantine was duly proclaimed emperor before the people at the Hippodrome , and headed in triumph towards the Chalke Gate of the imperial palace . After crossing the iron gate of the Chalke , however , at the hall of the Exkoubitoi , he was opposed by the soldiers of the Hetaireia guard and armed oarsmen of the imperial fleet , assembled by the magistros John Eladas , a member of the regency council . A clash followed , in which many were killed , including Constantine 's son Gregory , his nephew Michael and his friend Kourtikes . Disheartened , Constantine turned and tried to flee , but his horse slipped and fell . Constantine was killed by an arrow ; according to the Life of Euthymius cursing the Patriarch Nicholas as he died . His head was cut off and presented to Constantine VII .
The Life of Basil the Younger on the other hand reports a slightly different version , according to which the summons to Doukas were undertaken by the entire regency council , which proposed to Doukas to assume the governance of the state while Constantine VII would be limited to his ceremonial duties . According to this source , the proposal met with refusal from Doukas , and the regents had to send a second letter with their own enkolpia to persuade him otherwise . By the time he entered Constantinople , however , the regents had changed their minds and barricaded the palace against him . After his proclamation at the Hippodrome , Doukas resolved to besiege the palace , but finally tried to enter through the Chalke , while ordering his followers not to draw their swords so as to avoid bloodshed . There he was ambushed by archers placed by the regents , and killed along with a number of his followers .
Numerous supporters of the usurper — 800 according to the Life of Euthymius , over 3 @,@ 000 according to the Life of Basil the Younger — were harshly punished ; some were blinded and exiled , while others — including those who had sought sanctuary in the Hagia Sophia — were tonsured and confined to monasteries , while many of the common folk were affixed to stakes on the eastern shore of the Bosporus .
Constantine Doukas ' wife was shorn and exiled to her husband 's estate in Paphlagonia and his younger son Stephen was castrated . Along with the deaths of Constantine 's son and nephew , this meant the extinction of this branch of the Doukas family : the relation of the later bearers of the Doukas name with Andronikos and Constantine is unclear .
= = Legacy = =
Despite his failure at seizing the throne , Constantine Doukas ' popularity meant that his memory was preserved both among the people and the aristocracy of Asia Minor : in the 930s , Basil the Copper Hand assumed his identity and led a peasant revolt , while among the aristocracy he was glorified as a hero . Elements of Constantine 's life eventually found their way into the epic poem Digenes Akrites .
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= Ummagumma =
Ummagumma is the fourth studio album by the English progressive rock band Pink Floyd . It is a double album and was released on 25 October 1969 by Harvest Records in the UK and by Capitol Records internationally . The first disc is a live album that contains part of their normal set list of the time , while the second contains solo compositions by each member of the band recorded as their fourth studio album . The artwork was designed by regular Floyd collaborators Hipgnosis and features a number of pictures of the band combined to give a Droste effect .
Although the album was well received at the time of release , and was a top five hit in the UK album charts , it has since been looked upon unfavourably by the band , who have expressed negative opinions about it in interviews . Nevertheless , the album has been reissued on CD several times , along with the rest of their catalogue .
= = Title = =
The album 's title supposedly comes from Cambridge slang for sex , commonly used by Pink Floyd friend and occasional roadie , Iain " Emo " Moore , who would say " I 'm going back to the house for some ummagumma " . According to Moore , he made up the term himself .
= = Background = =
Although the sleeve notes say that the live material was recorded in June 1969 , the live album of Ummagumma was recorded live at Mothers Club , Birmingham on 27 April 1969 and the following week at Manchester College of Commerce on 2 May of the same year as part of The Man and The Journey Tour . The band had also recorded a live version of " Interstellar Overdrive " ( from The Piper at the Gates of Dawn ) intended for placement on side one of the live album , and " The Embryo " , which was recorded in the studio before it was decided that the band members each come up with their own material .
The studio album came as a result of Richard Wright wanting to make " real music " , where each of the four group members ( in order : Wright , Roger Waters , David Gilmour and Nick Mason ) had half an LP side each to create a solo work without involvement from the others . Wright 's contribution , " Sysyphus " , was named after a character in Greek mythology , usually spelled " Sisyphus " , and contained a combination of various keyboards , including piano and mellotron . Although initially enthusiastic about making a solo contribution , Wright later described it as " pretentious " . Waters ' " Several Species of Small Furry Animals Gathered Together in a Cave and Grooving with a Pict " contained a variety of vocal and percussion effects treated at various speeds , both forwards and backwards , and was influenced by Ron Geesin , who would later collaborate with both Waters and Pink Floyd . Waters ' other contribution Grantchester Meadows was a more pastoral acoustic offering and was usually played as an opening to concerts over 1969 . Gilmour has since stated he was apprehensive about creating a solo work , and admits he " went into a studio and started waffling about , tacking bits and pieces together " , although part one of " The Narrow Way " had already been performed as " Baby Blue Shuffle in D Major " in a BBC radio session in December 1968 . Gilmour said he " just bullshitted " through the piece . He asked Waters to write some lyrics for his compositions , but he refused to do so . Mason 's " The Grand Vizier 's Garden Party " featured his then wife , Lindy , playing flute , and Mason playing a seven @-@ minute drum solo , which was actually used as part two of his three @-@ part piece .
= = Packaging = =
The album was the first album by the band released on the Harvest label . The cover artwork shows a Droste effect featuring the group , with a picture hanging on the wall showing the same scene , except that the band members have switched positions . The cover of the original LP varies between the British , American / Canadian and Australian releases . The British version has the album Gigi leaning against the wall immediately above the " Pink Floyd " letters . At a talk given at Borders bookstore in Cambridge on 1 November 2008 , as part of the " City Wakes " project , Storm Thorgerson explained that the album was introduced as a red herring to provoke debate , and that it has no intended meaning . On most copies of American and Canadian editions , the Gigi cover is airbrushed to a plain white sleeve , apparently because of copyright concerns ; however , the earliest American copies do show the Gigi cover , and it was restored for the American remastered CD edition . On the Australian edition , the Gigi cover is completely airbrushed , not even leaving a white square behind . The house used as the location for the front cover of the album is located in Great Shelford , near Cambridge .
On the rear cover , roadies Alan Styles ( who also appears in " Alan 's Psychedelic Breakfast " ) and Peter Watts are shown with the band 's equipment laid out on a taxiway at Biggin Hill Airport . This concept was proposed by Mason , with the intention of replicating the " exploded " drawings of military aircraft and their payloads , which were popular at the time .
Song titles on the back are laid out slightly differently in British vs. North American editions ; the most important difference being the inclusion of subtitles for the four sections of " A Saucerful of Secrets " . These subtitles only appeared on American and Canadian editions of this album , but not on the British edition ; nor did they appear on original pressings of A Saucerful of Secrets .
The inner gatefold art shows separate black @-@ and @-@ white photos of the band members . Gilmour is seen standing in front of the Elfin Oak . Original vinyl editions showed Waters with his first wife , Judy Trim , but she has been cropped out of the picture on most CD editions ( with the original photo 's caption " Roger Waters ( and Jude ) " accordingly changed to just " Roger Waters " ) . The uncropped picture was restored for the album 's inclusion in the box set Oh , by the Way .
= = Release history = =
Ummagumma was released in the UK and US on 25 October and 10 November 1969 , respectively . It reached number 5 on the UK albums chart and number 74 in the US , marking the first time the band reached the top 100 there . The album was certified gold in the US in February 1974 and platinum in March 1994 . American versions of the cassette retained only " Astronomy Domine " from the live set and omitted the three other tracks . In 1987 , the album was re @-@ released on a two @-@ CD set . A digitally remastered version was issued in 1994 .
In 2009 , to mark the 40th anniversary of the album 's release , Thorgerson sold a limited number of autographed lithographs of the front cover . Although the 2011 re @-@ release campaign Why Pink Floyd ... ? presented all fourteen albums newly remastered in 2011 , only the studio disc of Ummagumma was remastered – the live disc is the previous 1994 version . Both the live and studio album will re @-@ issue on 3 June 2016 with Pink Floyd Records label .
= = Reception = =
On release , Ummagumma received favourable reviews . International Times were particularly positive about the live album , with the reviewer describing it as " probably one of the best live recordings I have ever heard " . Vox included the live half of this album on its list of ' The Greatest Live Albums Ever ' . Stylus Magazine were very positive towards the album , saying the live half " as a visceral document of the early Floyd ’ s proclivity for atmospheric , energetic jamming , there ’ s nothing else like it " and the studio half " somehow transcends its fractured construction to make a full album @-@ length statement " .
However , the band have since been dismissive and critical of the work . Recalling the album in later years , Waters said : " Ummagumma – what a disaster ! " , while in 1995 , Gilmour described the album as " horrible " . In a 1984 interview , Mason said : " I thought it was a very good and interesting little exercise , the whole business of everyone doing a bit . But I still feel really that that 's quite a good example of the sum being greater than the parts … " Later , he described it as " a failed experiment " , adding that " the most significant thing is that we didn 't do it again " .
Paste , reviewing the 2011 re @-@ release , described the album as " rock excess of the worst kind " , although the writer praised the live version of " Careful with that Axe , Eugene " . Robert Christgau has suggested that the album 's " hypnotic melodies " made it " an admirable record to fall asleep to " .
= = = Dragonfly species = = =
In December 2015 scientists named a new found dragonfly / damselfly of the genus Umma Umma gumma after the album Ummagumma of Pink Floyd .
= = Track listing = =
= = = Double @-@ LP Edition = = =
Record one - Live album
Record two – studio album
= = = UK Cassette Edition = = =
= = = US Cassette Edition = = =
= = = CD Edition = = =
= = Personnel = =
= = Charts and certifications = =
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= The Last of Us =
The Last of Us is an action @-@ adventure survival horror video game developed by Naughty Dog and published by Sony Computer Entertainment . It was released for the PlayStation 3 in June 2013 . An updated version , The Last of Us Remastered , was released for the PlayStation 4 in July 2014 . In the game , players control Joel , a man tasked with escorting a young woman named Ellie across a post @-@ apocalyptic United States .
The Last of Us is played from a third @-@ person perspective ; players use firearms and improvised weapons , and can use stealth to defend against hostile humans and cannibalistic creatures infected by a mutated strain of the Cordyceps fungus . " Listen Mode " allows players to locate enemies through a heightened sense of hearing and spatial awareness . Weapons can also be upgraded using items scavenged from the environment . In the game 's online multiplayer mode , up to eight players engage in co @-@ operative and competitive gameplay in recreations of single @-@ player settings .
Development of The Last of Us began in 2009 , soon after the release of Naughty Dog 's previous game , Uncharted 2 : Among Thieves . The relationship between Joel and Ellie was the central focus of the game , with all other elements developed around it . The team chose actors Troy Baker and Ashley Johnson to portray Joel and Ellie respectively , who provided voice and motion capture for the roles . Both assisted creative director Neil Druckmann with the development of the characters and story . The original score was composed and performed by Gustavo Santaolalla .
Following its announcement in December 2011 , The Last of Us was widely anticipated . It was acclaimed by many reviewers , with praise particularly directed at its characterization , subtext , exploration of the human condition , and depiction of female characters . The Last of Us became one of the best @-@ selling PlayStation 3 games , selling over 1 @.@ 3 million units in its first week , and over eight million units within fourteen months . Considered to be one of the greatest video games of all time , it won year @-@ end accolades , including multiple Game of the Year awards from several gaming publications , critics , and game award shows , making it one of the most awarded games in history . After the game 's release , Naughty Dog released several downloadable content additions ; The Last of Us : Left Behind added a new single @-@ player campaign , taking place both before and during the main story , featuring Ellie and her friend Riley .
= = Gameplay = =
The Last of Us is a post @-@ apocalyptic action @-@ adventure survival horror game that is viewed from a third @-@ person perspective . Players traverse post @-@ apocalyptic environments , moving through locations such as towns , buildings , and sewers to advance through the game 's story . Players use firearms , improvised weapons , and stealth to defend against hostile humans and cannibalistic creatures infected by a mutated strain of the Cordyceps fungus . For most of the game , players control Joel — a man tasked with escorting a young girl named Ellie across the United States ; Ellie and other companions are controlled by the artificial intelligence . Players also control Ellie throughout the game 's winter segment .
In combat , players can use long @-@ ranged weapons , such as rifles , shotguns , and bows , and short @-@ barreled guns , such as pistols and revolvers ; players can scavenge limited @-@ use melee weapons , such as pipes and baseball bats . Bottles and bricks can be thrown to distract , stun , or attack enemies . The game features a crafting system , allowing players to upgrade weapons at workbenches using collected items . Equipment such as health kits and Molotov cocktails can be found or crafted using collected items . Physical abilities , such as the health meter and crafting speed , can be upgraded by collecting pills and medicinal plants . Should players take damage , their health meter can be recharged through the use of health kits .
Though players can attack enemies directly , they have the option to use stealth tactics to attack undetected or sneak by them . Stealth combat uses a gameplay mechanic called " Listen Mode " , which allows players to effectively locate enemies through a heightened sense of hearing and spatial awareness . When using Listen Mode , an outline of the enemies becomes visible to players , allowing them to view enemies in different locations . A dynamic cover system is present , in which players crouch behind obstacles to gain a tactical advantage during combat . The game features periods without combat , often involving conversation between the characters . Players solve simple puzzles , such as using floating pallets to move Ellie , who is unable to swim , across bodies of water , and using ladders or dumpsters to reach higher areas . Story collectibles , such as notes , maps and comics , can be scavenged and viewed in the backpack menu .
The game features an artificial intelligence system in which hostile human enemies react to any combat situation they are placed in . If enemies discover the player , they may take cover or call for assistance , and can take advantage of players when they are distracted , out of ammunition , or in the midst of a fight . Players ' companions , such as Ellie , can assist in combat by throwing objects at threats to stun them , announcing the location of unseen enemies , or using a knife and pistol to attack enemies .
The game 's online multiplayer allows up to eight players to engage in competitive gameplay in recreations of multiple single @-@ player settings . The game features three multiplayer game types : Supply Raid and Survivors are both team deathmatches , with the latter excluding the ability to respawn ; Interrogation features teams investigating the location of the enemy team 's lockbox , and the first to capture such lockbox wins . In every mode , players select a Faction — Hunters ( a group of hostile survivors ) or Fireflies ( a revolutionary militia group ) — and keep their clan alive by collecting supplies during matches . Each match is equal to one day ; by surviving twelve " weeks " , players have completed a journey and can re @-@ select their Faction . Killing enemies , reviving allies , and crafting items earn the player parts that can be converted to supplies ; parts can also be scavenged from enemies ' bodies . Players are able to carry more equipment by earning points as their clan 's supplies grow . Players can connect the game to their Facebook account , which alters clan members ' names and faces to match the players ' Facebook friends . Players have the ability to customize their characters with hats , helmets , masks , and emblems .
= = Plot = =
In September 2013 , an outbreak of a mutant Cordyceps fungus ravages the United States , transforming its human hosts into cannibalistic monsters known as Infected . In the suburbs of Austin , Joel ( Troy Baker ) flees the chaos with his brother Tommy ( Jeffrey Pierce ) and daughter Sarah ( Hana Hayes ) . As they flee , Sarah is shot by a soldier and she dies in Joel 's arms . In the twenty years that follow , most of civilization is destroyed by the infection . Survivors live in heavily policed quarantine zones , independent settlements , and nomadic groups . Joel works as a smuggler with his partner Tess ( Annie Wersching ) in the Boston quarantine zone . They hunt down Robert ( Robin Atkin Downes ) , a black market dealer , to recover a stolen weapons cache . Before Tess kills him , Robert reveals that he traded the goods to the Fireflies , a rebel group opposing the quarantine zone authorities .
The leader of the Fireflies , Marlene ( Merle Dandridge ) , promises to double their stolen cache in return for smuggling a teenage girl , Ellie ( Ashley Johnson ) , to Fireflies hiding in the Boston capitol building , outside of the quarantine . Joel , Tess , and Ellie sneak out in the night , but after an encounter with a patrol , they discover Ellie is infected . Full infection normally occurs in under two days , but Ellie claims she was infected three weeks ago and that her immunity may lead to a cure . The trio make their way to their destination through hordes of infected , but find that the Fireflies there have been killed . Tess reveals she has been bitten by an infected ; believing in Ellie 's importance , Tess sacrifices herself against pursuing soldiers so Joel and Ellie can escape . Joel decides to find Tommy , a former Firefly , in the hope that he can locate the remaining Fireflies . With the help of Bill ( W. Earl Brown ) , a smuggler who owes Joel a favor , they acquire a working vehicle . Driving into Pittsburgh , they are ambushed by bandits and their car is wrecked . They ally with two brothers , Henry ( Brandon Scott ) and Sam ( Nadji Jeter ) ; after they escape the city , Sam is bitten by an infected but hides it from the group . As his infection takes hold , Sam attacks Ellie , but Henry shoots him and commits suicide .
In the fall , Joel and Ellie finally find Tommy in Jackson , Wyoming , where he has assembled a fortified settlement near a hydroelectric dam with his wife Maria ( Ashley Scott ) . Joel contemplates leaving Ellie with Tommy , but after she confronts him about Sarah , he decides to stay with her . Tommy directs them to a Fireflies enclave at the University of Eastern Colorado . There , they find the university abandoned , but learn that the Fireflies have moved to a hospital in Salt Lake City . As they leave , they are attacked by bandits and Joel is severely wounded . During the winter , Ellie and Joel shelter in the mountains . Joel is on the brink of death and relies on Ellie to care for him . Hunting for food , Ellie encounters David ( Nolan North ) and James ( Reuben Langdon ) , scavengers willing to trade medicine for food ; David reveals that the university bandits Ellie and Joel killed were part of his group . Ellie manages to lead David 's group away from Joel , but is eventually captured ; David intends to recruit her into his cannibal group . She escapes after killing James , but David corners her in a burning restaurant . Meanwhile , Joel recovers from his wounds and sets out to find Ellie . He reaches Ellie as she kills David ; Joel consoles her before they flee .
In the spring , Joel and Ellie arrive in Salt Lake City and are captured by a Firefly patrol . In the hospital , Marlene tells Joel that Ellie is being prepared for surgery : in hope of producing a vaccine for the infection , the Fireflies must remove the infected portion of Ellie 's brain , which will kill her . Unwilling to let Ellie die , Joel battles his way to the operating room and carries the unconscious Ellie to the parking garage , where he is confronted by Marlene , who he shoots and kills to prevent the Fireflies from pursuing them . On the drive out of the city , Joel attempts to shield Ellie from the truth of what happened ; he claims that the Fireflies had found many other people who are immune but were unable to create a cure , and that they have stopped trying . The pair arrive on the outskirts of Tommy 's settlement . Ellie reveals that she was not alone when she was infected and expresses her survivor guilt . At her request , Joel swears his story about the Fireflies is true .
= = Development = =
Naughty Dog began developing The Last of Us in 2009 , following the release of Uncharted 2 : Among Thieves . For the first time in the company 's history , Naughty Dog split into two teams ; while one team developed Uncharted 3 : Drake 's Deception ( 2011 ) , the other began work on The Last of Us . Director Bruce Straley and creative director Neil Druckmann led the team responsible for developing The Last of Us .
Druckmann views The Last of Us as a coming of age story , in which Ellie adapts to survival after spending time with Joel , as well as an exploration of how willing a father is to save his child . A major motif of the game is that " life goes on " ; this is presented in a scene in which Joel and Ellie discover a herd of giraffes , which concept artist John Sweeney explained was designed to " reignite [ Ellie 's ] lust for life " , after her suffering following her encounter with David . The Infected , a core concept of the game , were inspired by a segment of the BBC nature documentary Planet Earth ( 2006 ) , which featured the Cordyceps fungi . Though the fungi mainly infect insects , taking control of their motor functions and forcing it to help cultivate the fungus , the game explores the concept of the fungus evolving and infecting humans , and the direct results of an outbreak of this infection .
The relationship between Joel and Ellie was the central focus of the game ; all other elements were developed around it . Troy Baker and Ashley Johnson were cast as Joel and Ellie , respectively , and provided voice and motion capture performances . Baker and Johnson contributed to the development of the characters ; for example , Baker convinced Druckmann that Joel would care for Tess due to his loneliness , and Johnson convinced Druckmann that Ellie should be stronger and more defensive . Ellie 's physical appearance was also redesigned throughout development to make her look more similar to Johnson . The game 's other characters also underwent changes . The character Tess was originally intended to be the main antagonist of The Last of Us , but the team found it difficult to believe her motives . The sexuality of the character Bill was originally left vague in the script , but later altered to further reflect his homosexuality .
The Last of Us features an original score composed primarily by Gustavo Santaolalla , along with compositions by Andrew Buresh , Anthony Caruso , and Jonathan Mayer . Known for his minimalist compositions , Santaolalla was contacted early in development . He used various instruments to compose the score , including some that he was unfamiliar with , giving a sense of danger and innocence . This minimalist approach was also taken with the game 's sound and art design . The sound of the Infected was one of the first tasks during development ; the team experimented with the sound in order to achieve the best work possible . To achieve the sound of the Clicker , they hired voice actress Misty Lee , who provided a sound that audio lead Phillip Kovats described as originating in the " back of the throat " . The art department took various pieces of work as inspiration , such as Robert Polidori 's photographs following Hurricane Katrina , which were used as a reference point when designing the flooded areas of Pittsburgh . The art department were forced to negotiate for things that they wished to include , due to the strong differing opinions of the team during development . Ultimately , the team settled on a balance between simplicity and detail ; while Straley and Druckmann preferred the former , the art team preferred the latter . The game 's opening credits were produced by Sony 's San Diego Studio .
The team created new engines to satisfy their needs for the game . The artificial intelligence was created to coordinate with players ; the addition of Ellie as artificial intelligence was a major contributor to the engine . The lighting engine was also re @-@ created to incorporate soft light , in which the sunlight weeps in through spaces and reflects off surfaces . The gameplay introduced difficulty to the team , as they felt that every mechanic required thorough analysis . The game 's user interface design also underwent various iterations throughout development .
The Last of Us was officially announced on December 10 , 2011 , at the Spike Video Game Awards , alongside its debut trailer and an official press release acknowledging some of the game 's features . Journalists noted that the announcement ignited widespread anticipation within the gaming industry , which they owed to Naughty Dog 's reputation . The game missed its original projected release date of May 7 , 2013 , and was pushed back to June 14 , 2013 to allow for further polishing . To spur pre @-@ order game sales , Naughty Dog collaborated with several retail outlets to provide special edition versions of the game , with extra features and content .
= = = Additional content = = =
Downloadable content ( DLC ) for the game was released following its launch . The game 's Season Pass includes access to all DLC , as well as some additional abilities , and the documentary Grounded : Making The Last of Us ; the documentary was released online in February 2014 . Two DLC packs were included with some of the game 's special editions and were available upon release . The Sights and Sounds Pack included the soundtrack , a dynamic theme for the PlayStation 3 home screen , and two avatars . The Survival Pack featured bonus skins for the player following the completion of the campaign , and in @-@ game money , as well as bonus experience points and early access to customizable items for the game 's multiplayer . Abandoned Territories Map Pack , released on October 15 , 2013 , added four new multiplayer maps , based on locations in the game 's story . Nightmare Bundle , released on November 5 , 2013 , added a collection of ten head items , nine of which are available to purchase separately .
The Last of Us : Left Behind added a new single @-@ player campaign which serves as a prequel to the main storyline , featuring Ellie and her friend Riley ; it was released on February 14 , 2014 as DLC and on May 12 , 2015 as a standalone expansion pack . A third bundle was released on May 6 , 2014 , featuring five separate DLC : Grounded added a new difficulty to the main game and Left Behind ; Reclaimed Territories Map Pack added new multiplayer maps ; Professional Survival Skills Bundle and Situational Survival Skills Bundle added eight new multiplayer skills ; and Survivalist Weapon Bundle added four new weapons . The Grit and Gear Bundle , which added new headgear items , masks and gestures , was released on August 5 , 2014 . A Game of the Year Edition containing all downloadable content was released in Europe on November 11 , 2014 .
= = = The Last of Us Remastered = = =
On April 9 , 2014 , Sony announced The Last of Us Remastered , an enhanced version of the game for the PlayStation 4 . It was released on July 29 , 2014 in North America . Remastered features improved graphics and rendering upgrades , including increased draw distance , an upgraded combat mechanic , and higher frame rate . Other enhancements include advanced audio options , an audio commentary , and a Photo Mode . It includes the previously released downloadable content , including Left Behind and some multiplayer maps . The development team aimed at creating a " true " remaster , maintaining the " same core experience " and not changing any large story or gameplay elements .
= = Reception = =
= = = Critical response = = =
The Last of Us received critical acclaim . Metacritic calculated an average score of 95 out of 100 , indicating " universal acclaim " , based on 98 reviews . It is the fifth @-@ highest rated PlayStation 3 game on Metacritic . Reviewers praised the character development , story and subtext , visual and sound design , and depiction of female and LGBT characters . The game is considered one of the most significant titles of the seventh generation of video games , and has been included among the greatest video games of all time . Colin Moriarty of IGN called The Last of Us " a masterpiece " and " PlayStation 3 's best exclusive " , and Edge considered it " the most riveting , emotionally resonant story @-@ driven epic " of the console generation . Oli Welsh of Eurogamer wrote that it is " a beacon of hope " for the survival horror genre ; Andy Kelly of Computer and Video Games declared it " Naughty Dog 's finest moment " .
Kelly of Computer and Video Games found the story memorable , and IGN 's Moriarty named it one of the game 's standout features . PlayStation Official Magazine 's David Meikleham wrote that the pacing contributed to the improvement of the story , stating that there is " a real sense of time elapsed and journey traveled along every step of the way " , and Destructoid 's Jim Sterling lauded the game 's suspenseful moments . Richard Mitchell of Joystiq found that the narrative improved the character relationships .
The characters — particularly the relationship between Joel and Ellie — received acclaim . Matt Helgeson of Game Informer wrote that the relationship felt identifiable , naming it " poignant " and " well @-@ drawn " . Eurogamer 's Welsh wrote that the characters were developed with " real patience and skill " , appreciating their emotional value , and Joystiq 's Mitchell found the relationship " genuine " and emotional . PlayStation Official Magazine 's Meikleham named Joel and Ellie the best characters of any PlayStation 3 game , while IGN 's Moriarty identified it as a highlight of the game . Kelly of Computer and Video Games named the characters " richly painted " , feeling invested in their stories . Philip Kollar of Polygon felt that Ellie was believable , making it easier to develop a connection to her , and that the relationship between the characters was assisted by the game 's optional conversations . The character performances also received praise , with Edge and Eurogamer 's Welsh noting that the script improved as a result .
Many reviewers found the game 's combat a refreshing difference from other games . Game Informer 's Helgeson appreciated the vulnerability during fights , while Kelly of Computer and Video Games enjoyed the variety in approaching the combat . IGN 's Moriarty felt that the crafting system assisted the combat , and that the latter contributed to the narrative 's emotional value , adding that enemies feel " human " . Joystiq 's Mitchell reiterated similar comments , stating that the combat " piles death upon death on Joel 's hands " . Welsh of Eurogamer found the suspenseful and threatening encounters added positively to the gameplay . Tom Mc Shea of GameSpot wrote that the artificial intelligence negatively affected the combat , with enemies often ignoring players ' companions . Polygon 's Kollar felt that the combat was unfair , especially when fighting the Infected .
The game 's visual features were commended by many reviewers . The art design was lauded as " outstanding " by Computer and Video Games ' Kelly , and " jaw @-@ dropping " by Eurogamer 's Welsh . Mc Shea of GameSpot identified the visual representation of the post @-@ apocalyptic world was " mundane " , having been portrayed various times previously . The game 's graphics have been frequently named by critics as the best for a PlayStation 3 game , with Helgeson of Game Informer naming them " unmatched in console gaming " and Moriarty of IGN stating that they contribute to the realism . Destructoid 's Sterling wrote that game was visually impressive but that technical issues , such as some " muddy and basic " textures found early in the game , left a negative impact on the visuals .
The world and environments of the game drew acclaim from many reviewers . Kelly of Computer and Video Games stated that the environments are " large , detailed , and littered with secrets " , adding that The Last of Us " masks " its linearity successfully . Edge repeated similar remarks , writing that the level design serves the story appropriately . Helgeson of Game Informer wrote that the world " effectively and gorgeously [ conveys ] the loneliness " of the story . IGN 's Moriarty appreciated the added design elements placed around the game world , such as the hidden notes and letters .
Reviewers praised the use of sound in The Last of Us . Eurogamer 's Welsh felt that the sound design was significantly better than in other games , while Game Informer 's Helgeson dubbed it " amazing " . Mc Shea of GameSpot stated that the audio added to the effect of the gameplay , particularly when hiding from enemies . Kelly of Computer and Video Games found that the environmental audio positively impacted gameplay , and that Gustavo Santaolalla 's score was " sparse and delicate " . Both Game Informer 's Helgeson and Destructoid 's Sterling called the score " haunting " , with the latter finding that it complements the gameplay .
The graphic depiction of violence in The Last of Us generated substantial commentary from critics . Engadget writer Ben Gilbert found the game 's persistent focus on combat was " a necessary evil to lead the game 's fragile protagonist duo to safety " , as opposed to being used as a method to achieve objectives . Kotaku 's Kirk Hamilton wrote that the violence was " heavy , consequential and necessary " , as opposed to gratuitous . USGamer 's Anthony John Agnello wrote that the game consistently reinforces the negativity associated with violence , intentionally making players feel uncomfortable while in violent combat . He stated that the deaths within the game were not unnecessary or unjustified , making the story more powerful . Kelly of Computer and Video Games stated that , despite the " incredibly brutal " combat , the violence never felt gratuitous . Eurogamer 's Welsh echoed similar remarks , stating that the violence is not " desensitized or mindless " . Matt Helgeson of Game Informer observed that the game 's violence leads to players questioning the morality of their choices . Joystiq 's Mitchell wrote that the violence is " designed to be uncomfortable " , stating that it contributes to Joel 's character . Prior to the release of the game , Keith Stuart of The Guardian wrote that the acceptability of the violence would depend on its context within the game .
Many critics discussed the game 's depiction of female characters . Jason Killingsworth of Edge praised its lack of sexualized female characters , writing that it " offers a refreshing antidote to the sexism and regressive gender attitudes of most blockbuster videogames " . Eurogamer 's Ellie Gibson praised Ellie as " sometimes strong , sometimes vulnerable , but never a cliché " . She felt that Ellie is initially established as a " damsel in distress " , but that this concept is subverted . GameSpot 's Carolyn Petit praised the female characters as morally conflicted and sympathetic , but wrote that gender in video games should be evaluated " based on their actual merits , not in relation to other games " . Chris Suellentrop of The New York Times acknowledged that Ellie was a likable and " sometimes powerful " character , but argued that The Last of Us is " actually the story of Joel " , stating that it 's " another video game by men , for men and about men " . The Last of Us was also praised for its depiction of LGBT characters . Sam Einhorn of GayGamer.net felt that the revelation of Bill 's sexuality " added to his character ... without really tokenizing him " . American organization GLAAD named Bill one of the " most intriguing new LGBT characters of 2013 " , calling him " deeply flawed but wholly unique " . A kiss between two female characters in Left Behind was met with positive reactions .
= = = Sales = = =
Within seven days of its release , The Last of Us sold over 1 @.@ 3 million units , becoming the biggest video game launch of 2013 at the time . Three weeks after its release , the game sold over 3 @.@ 4 million units , and was deemed the biggest launch of an original game since 2011 's L.A. Noire and the fastest @-@ selling PlayStation 3 game of 2013 at the time . The game became the best @-@ selling digital release on PlayStation Store for PlayStation 3 , though numerical sales figures were not disclosed ; this record was later beaten by Grand Theft Auto V. The Last of Us ultimately became the tenth best @-@ selling game of 2013 . By August 2014 , the game had sold eight million copies : seven million on PlayStation 3 and one million on PlayStation 4 . It is the third best @-@ selling PlayStation 3 game of all time . In the United Kingdom , the game remained atop the charts for six consecutive weeks , matching records set by multi @-@ platform titles . Within 48 hours of its release , The Last of Us generated more than the £ 3 million earned by Man of Steel in the same period . The game also topped the charts in the United States , France , Ireland , Italy , the Netherlands , Sweden , Finland , Norway , Denmark , Spain , and Japan .
= = = Awards = = =
The Last of Us is one of the most awarded games of all time , winning over 240 Game of the Year awards . Prior to its release , it received numerous awards for its previews at E3 . It was review aggregators Metacritic and GameRankings ' second @-@ highest rated for the year 2013 , behind Grand Theft Auto V. The game appeared on several year @-@ end lists of the best games of 2013 , receiving wins from the 41st Annie Awards , The A.V. Club , the British Academy Video Games Awards , Canada.com , Daily Mirror , The Daily Telegraph , Destructoid , the 17th Annual DICE Awards , The Escapist , GamesRadar , GameTrailers , the 14th Annual Developers Choice Awards , Game Revolution , Giant Bomb , Good Game , Hardcore Gamer , IGN , IGN Australia , International Business Times , Kotaku , VG247 , and VideoGamer.com. It was also named the Best PlayStation Game by GameSpot , GameTrailers , Hardcore Gamer , and IGN . Naughty Dog won Studio of the Year and Best Developer from The Daily Telegraph , Edge , the Golden Joystick Awards , Hardcore Gamer , and the 2013 Spike VGX .
Baker and Johnson received multiple nominations for their performances as Joel and Ellie , respectively ; Baker won awards from Hardcore Gamer and the 2013 Spike VGX , while Johnson won awards at the British Academy Video Games Awards , DICE Awards , VGX 2013 , and from The Daily Telegraph . The game 's story also received awards at the British Academy Video Games Awards , the DICE Awards , the Game Developers Choice Awards , the Golden Joystick Awards , and the Writers Guild of America Awards , and from GameTrailers , Giant Bomb , Hardcore Gamer , and IGN . The sound design and music received awards at the DICE Awards , the Inside Gaming Awards , and from IGN . The game 's graphical and artistic design also won awards from Destructoid , the DICE Awards , the Golden Joystick Awards , and IGN .
The Last of Us was awarded Outstanding Innovation in Gaming at the DICE Awards , and Best Third Person Shooter from GameTrailers . The game received Best New IP from Hardcore Gamer , Best Newcomer at the Golden Joystick Awards , and Best Debut from Giant Bomb . It received Best Overall Sound , Best PlayStation 3 Multiplayer , and Best Action @-@ Adventure Game on PlayStation 3 , and overall at IGN 's Best of 2013 Awards . It also won Best Action @-@ Adventure Game at the British Academy Video Games Awards , and The Escapist , as well as Best Action Game from Hardcore Gamer and Adventure Game of the Year at the DICE Awards .
= = Adaptations and possible sequel = =
A four @-@ issue comic book miniseries , titled The Last of Us : American Dreams , was published by Dark Horse Comics from April to July 2013 . Written by Druckmann and illustrated by Faith Erin Hicks , the comics serve as a prequel to the game , chronicling the journey of a younger Ellie and Riley . On March 6 , 2014 , Sony announced that Screen Gems will distribute a film adaptation of The Last of Us , written by Druckmann and produced by Sam Raimi . By January 2015 , Druckmann had written the script 's second draft , and performed a read @-@ through with some actors . Very little work occurred following this , as Druckmann stated in April 2016 that the film had entered development hell . On July 28 , 2014 , the cast of the game performed a live reading of selected scenes in Santa Monica , California , with live music by Santaolalla . The performance was hosted and directed by Druckmann , with graphics by Alex Hobbs .
In February 2014 , Druckmann said the possibility of a sequel was " about 50 / 50 " , and the team needed to find a story " really worth telling , and that 's not repeating itself " . In July 2014 , community strategist Arne Meyer said that not considering a sequel " would be a disservice " to the studio and the fans . In June 2015 , discussing his future with Naughty Dog on a Q & A panel , actor Nolan North mentioned : " I know they 're doing a Last of Us 2 " ; Druckmann later responded to these comments , stating that a small team at Naughty Dog had explored ideas and begun building prototypes relating to a sequel , but were interrupted when the team shifted development to Uncharted 4 : A Thief 's End , which was eventually released on May 10 , 2016 .
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= Andorra national football team =
The Andorra national football team ( Catalan : Selecció de futbol d 'Andorra , Spanish : Selección de futbol de Andorra , French : Équipe d 'Andorre de football ) represents Andorra in association football and is controlled by the Andorran Football Federation , the governing body for football in Andorra . The team has enjoyed very little success due to the Principality 's tiny population , the fifth smallest of any UEFA country ( only Liechtenstein , San Marino , Gibraltar and the Faroe Islands are smaller ) .
Andorra 's first official game was a 6 – 1 defeat in a friendly match to Estonia in 1996 . Since the qualifying rounds for the UEFA Euro 2000 tournament , Andorra have competed in qualifying for every European Championship and World Cup but have had very little success . They have only ever won three matches , all at home . They have one win in competitive matches , a 1 – 0 win against Macedonia in the 2006 FIFA World Cup qualifying competition .
= = History = =
Though the Andorran Football Federation formed in 1994 , and the Andorra domestic league started in 1995 , the national team could not participate in major championships until it gained affiliation with governing bodies FIFA and UEFA in 1996 . The national team played its first match against Estonia in Andorra La Vella and lost 6 – 1 .
Andorra 's first match in a FIFA @-@ sanctioned competition was a 3 – 1 loss to Armenia on 5 September 1998 in a qualifier for UEFA Euro 2000 . Andorra lost all ten qualifiers for the tournament . The team particularly struggled in away matches ; each loss was by at least three goals . Andorra scored only three goals , two of which were penalties , and two of which were in the away matches . Andorra conceded 28 goals , and their biggest defeat of the qualifiers was a 6 – 1 away loss to Russia .
For their first World Cup qualifying campaign , Andorra were drawn in a group with Cyprus , Estonia , Ireland , the Netherlands and Portugal . They lost their opening match 1 – 0 loss to Estonia . In the next game , they lost 3 – 2 to Cyprus but scored their first World Cup qualifying goals . They were again defeated by Estonia , this time 2 – 1 . They lost all their matches and their only away goal was in a 3 – 1 loss against Ireland . Their worst defeat was 7 – 1 to Portugal on a neutral ground in Lleida , Spain . Andorra finished the campaign with no points and conceded 36 goals in ten matches .
In the team 's qualification campaign for Euro 2004 they again lost every game . They scored their only goal in a 2 – 1 away loss to Bulgaria . In this competition the scores were closer than before as they lost 3 – 0 to Bulgaria , Croatia and Belgium , 2 – 0 twice to Estonia , 2 – 0 to Croatia and 1 – 0 to Belgium .
By Andorran standards , qualification for the 2006 World Cup was successful . They won their first competitive game 1 – 0 at home against Macedonia . Andorra midfielder Marc Bernaus , who played in the Spanish second division , received a long throw in off his chest and volleyed in a goal early in the second half . After the game , Macedonia coach Dragan Kanatlarovski resigned and called the game " a shameful outcome , a humiliation . " Andorra also drew two matches , 0 – 0 in Macedonia and 0 – 0 at home against Finland . This tournament has been the only one in which Andorra has scored points . In Euro 2008 qualifying , Andorra again lost every game . The closest game was against Russia , a 1 – 0 defeat on 21 November 2007 , which helped Russia qualify at the expense of England . Their biggest defeat was a 7 – 0 loss to Croatia in Andorra La Vella , which is their worst defeat in UEFA competitions and matched their loss to the Czech Republic as their largest losing deficit . Andorra scored only two goals and conceded 42 in a total of 12 games .
In 2010 World Cup qualifying they lost all ten matches . For the tournament , they scored three goals , in defeats to Belarus and Kazakhstan , and conceded 39 goals , including six in a defeat to England , the largest margin in the group . Qualifying for UEFA Euro 2012 ended in a similar way ; they lost all ten matches , scoring only one goal and conceding 25 ; their best results were two one @-@ goal losses to Slovakia and a 3 – 1 loss in Ireland . The 2014 World Cup qualifying was even more disastrous , Andorra losing all the matches , conceding 30 goals and not scoring .
At 2016 UEFA Euro qualifying , Andorra lost again all its ten games but scored four goals , its record in a qualifying group for a European Championship .
= = Andorra all @-@ time record against all nations = =
As of 1 June 2016
° FIFA @-@ unofficial match on February 19 , 1998 between Andorra – Czech Republic ( 0 – 1 ) is not included .
= = Stadium = =
From 1996 until 2014 Andorra played their home matches at the Comunal d 'Andorra la Vella , in the capital city of Andorra la Vella . This stadium has a capacity of 1 @,@ 800 and also hosts the matches of club sides FC Andorra and the Andorran Premier League . On 9 September 2014 , the national team began playing at the new Estadi Nacional with a capacity of 3 @,@ 306 .
Andorra have occasionally played " home " matches outside their borders . For example , Andorra hosted France and England in the 2000 European Championship , 2008 European Championship and 2010 World Cup qualifiers in the Estadi Olímpic Lluís Companys in Barcelona , which was the home of RCD Espanyol between 1997 and 2009 .
= = Kit suppliers = =
= = Reputation = =
Andorra 's dismal record gives them a lowly reputation in world football . The nation has only won one competitive fixture , a 1 – 0 World Cup qualifying win against Macedonia , and two exhibition games against Belarus ( 2 – 0 ) and Albania ( 2 – 0 ) . All matches were played at home .
With the fourth smallest population of any UEFA country , until the admission of Gibraltar , the talent pool is small . Also Andorra is one of the youngest UEFA member association along with Kazakhastan , both founded in 1994 . Players are predominantly amateurs because the Andorra domestic league is only part @-@ time . Although , since Andorra began playing in 1996 their average FIFA ranking is 163 .
= = Players and managers = =
Ildefons Lima is the only Andorran player to have scored more than three career goals for the team ; he has nine goals . Lima is also the second @-@ most capped player with 96 appearances . Óscar Sonejee 's 105 appearances are the most for the Andorra national team . Koldo has the second @-@ most with 78 caps between 1998 and 2009 .
Manuel Miluir was the first coach of the team and managed their first three matches of European Championship qualifying . He departed in 1999 to make way for David Rodrigo , whose first competitive match was a 2 – 0 European Championship qualifying defeat at home to Iceland on 27 March of that year . Rodrigo had been in charge of the team until February 2010 , when it was announced that Koldo took over this role .
In January 2006 , the Andorran Football Association named Koldo , their goalkeeper from 1998 to 2009 , as their greatest ever player .
= = Manager history = =
Isidre Codina ( 1996 )
Manuel Miluir ( 1997 – 1999 )
David Rodrigo ( 1999 – 2009 )
Koldo Álvarez de Eulate ( 2010 – )
= = Player history = =
= = Recent results and fixtures = =
= = = 2015 = = =
= = = 2016 = = =
= = = 2017 = = =
= = World Cup record = =
= = European Championship record = =
= = Current squad = =
Andorra manager Koldo Álvarez named an 18 @-@ man squad for the Friendly Match against Estonia on June 1 , 2016.Caps and goals correct as of June 1 , 2016 , after the match against Estonia .
= = = Recent call @-@ ups = = =
The following players have been called up to the Andorra squad in the last 12 months .
RET : player retired from international footballINJ : player withdrewed due to injury
= = 2018 FIFA World Cup qualification = =
= = UEFA Euro 2016 qualifying = =
= = International goals = =
Andorra has scored very few goals in competitive internationals ( UEFA European Football Championship or FIFA World Cup matches ) ; the list below is comprehensive .
a ECQ |
= UEFA European Football Championship qualification match , WCQ =
FIFA World Cup qualification matchb The Andorra score is always listed first.c The Andorra @-@ Cyprus match in 2000 is the only game Andorra has scored two goals in any competitive match.d The Andorra @-@ Macedonia match in 2004 is the only competitive match Andorra has won .
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= 1983 Atlantic hurricane season =
The 1983 Atlantic hurricane season was the least active Atlantic hurricane season in 53 years , during which only four tropical storms formed . The season officially began on June 1 , 1983 , and lasted until November 30 , 1983 . These dates conventionally delimit the period of each year when most storms form in the Atlantic basin . The season had very little activity , with only seven tropical depressions , four of which reached tropical storm strength or higher . This led to the lowest Accumulated Cyclone Energy count since 1950 , but not since 1900 .
The season began later than normal ; the first tropical depression formed on July 29 and the second on July 31 . Neither tropical depression strengthened and they dissipated soon thereafter . Hurricane Alicia formed as Tropical Depression Three on August 15 , quickly intensified into a hurricane on August 16 and made landfall in Texas on August 18 . Alicia caused over $ 3 billion in damage in Texas . Hurricane Barry formed on August 25 , crossed Florida and strengthened into a hurricane . Barry made landfall near Brownsville , Texas and dissipated over land on August 30 .
Hurricane Chantal , the third of three hurricanes in 1983 , formed on September 10 . It strengthened into a hurricane , but stayed out at sea , and became absorbed by a front on September 15 . Tropical Depression Six formed on September 19 and caused heavy rains in the Caribbean before degenerating into a wave on September 21 . Tropical Storm Dean was the final storm of the season , forming on September 26 . It originally tracked to the north , peaking at 55 mph ( 89 km / h ) winds ( 85 km / h ) , and made landfall in the Delmarva Peninsula on September 29 . It dissipated over the coast of Virginia on September 30 .
= = Seasonal forecasts and activity = =
Forecasts of hurricane activity are issued before each hurricane season by noted hurricane experts like Dr. William M. Gray , and his associates at Colorado State University . A normal season , as defined by NOAA , has six to fourteen named storms , with four to eight of those reaching hurricane strength , and one to three major hurricanes . The July 23 , 1983 forecast predicted that after the slow start to the season , that a total of eight storms would form , and five of the storms would reach hurricane status . The forecast did not specify how many of the hurricanes would reach major hurricane status . However , the predictions proved to be too high , with only four named storms forming by the end of the season and three of those reaching hurricane status .
The season , which began on June 1 and ended on November 30 , was very inactive because of strong upper @-@ level wind shear . The wind shear was unusually strong throughout the Caribbean and open Atlantic , and disrupted convection in areas of disturbed weather so they could not develop . Over sixty African systems had formed and made it westward , but when they reached the Lesser Antilles , they were dissolved easily . The only area where the shear was minimal — a region encompassing the Gulf of Mexico and the Atlantic north of the Bahamas and east of Florida — was where the four named storms developed . This makes the 1983 season the least active season since the 1930 Atlantic hurricane season which had only two storms . 1983 and the prior season became the first example of two consecutive years to have no storms form in the Caribbean Sea since 1871 , when reliable record began . 1983 also proved to be the first season since 1871 that a storm did not form south of 25 ° N latitude .
1983 was the first season for which the National Hurricane Center issued numeric landfall probabilities . Probabilities had been calculated for prior storms for use in the issuing of hurricane watches and warnings , but this was the first time the raw numeric probabilities were released to the public . The probabilities issued were accurate during Alicia , indicating that Galveston and surrounding portions of the upper Texas coast were the most likely area to be struck .
The season 's activity was reflected with a low cumulative accumulated cyclone energy ( ACE ) rating of 17 , which is classified as " below normal " . ACE is , broadly speaking , a measure of the power of the hurricane multiplied by the length of time it existed , so storms that last a long time , as well as particularly strong hurricanes , have high ACEs . ACE is only calculated for full advisories on tropical systems at or exceeding 34 knots ( 39 mph , 63 km / h ) or tropical storm strength . Subtropical cyclones are excluded from the total .
= = Storms = =
= = = Tropical Depression One = = =
Tropical Depression One formed from a tropical disturbance near the Lesser Antilles on July 29 . The National Hurricane Center indicated the possibility of the depression strengthening into a tropical storm in media reports but upper @-@ level wind shear inhibited any development . The depression dissipated the next day .
= = = Tropical Depression Two = = =
An area of disturbed weather in the central Atlantic managed to gain enough organization to be designated Tropical Depression Two on July 31 . The depression moved across the Atlantic without strengthening due to high upper @-@ level wind shear , and dissipated near the Lesser Antilles on August 3 .
= = = Hurricane Alicia = = =
The system that would become Hurricane Alicia originated from the western end of a frontal trough that stretched from New England to the Gulf of Mexico . Satellite pictures showed a meso @-@ scale low pressure area that had moved off the Alabama and Mississippi coasts near the trough and was possibly the precursor system to Alicia . Pressures in the Gulf of Mexico were high and stayed high during the early development stages . On August 15 , a ship recorded a minimal pressure of 1015 millibars ( 29 @.@ 99 inHg ) , when the system was upgraded into Tropical Storm Alicia . With high environmental pressures around it , Alicia remained a small system .
Steering currents above Alicia remained weak during the storm 's lifetime . However , a ridge was well formed to the north of the developing storms . With fluctuations in the pressures , Alicia began to drift to west on August 16 . This was short @-@ lived , as Alicia turned to the northwest towards Texas . During the period of August 16 to August 18 , an anticyclone had formed over Alicia and along with slow movement over warm waters , caused Alicia to intensify rapidly . The pressure in Alicia decreased one millibar an hour in the 40 hours before landfall . Alicia peaked at 115 mph ( 185 km / h ) in winds and 962 millibars ( 28 @.@ 39 inHg ) in pressure on August 18 . Alicia made landfall near Galveston , Texas on August 18 as a Category 3 hurricane . Alicia weakened quickly over land and accelerated over the Midwest , before dissipating over Nebraska on August 21 .
As Alicia moved northward , the remnants caused moderate to heavy rainfall in several states . Houston suffered heavy damage , including thousands of shattered glass panes from downtown skyscrapers . In the end , Alicia killed 22 people and caused $ 2 billion ( 1983 US $ ) in damage ( $ 4 @.@ 1 billion , 2007 USD ) .
= = = Hurricane Barry = = =
Hurricane Barry originated from a tropical disturbance that left the Northwestern African coast on August 13 . Most of the season , the northwestern tropical Atlantic Ocean had upper @-@ level wind shear , which had inhibited development of systems . Due to these conditions , the disturbance was unable to strengthen until August 22 as it was approaching the Bahamas . A weak trough moved the disturbance into an area of low wind shear , and the disturbance intensified into Tropical Depression Four on the evening of August 23 . The depression was just to the northeast of the northern Bahamian Islands where it strengthened into Tropical Storm Barry on the morning of August 24 .
Tropical Storm Barry turned to the west and with returning wind shear , weakened into a tropical depression . The depression made landfall near Melbourne , Florida on the morning of August 25 . After Tropical Depression Barry emerged from central Florida , it was still under pressure from high @-@ level winds . The depression entered the central Gulf of Mexico and returned to tropical storm strength . Barry rapidly intensified , becoming a hurricane on August 28 , making landfall near Brownsville , Texas that afternoon . Before landfall , Barry peaked with 80 mph ( 130 km / h ) winds and a pressure of 986 millibars ( 29 @.@ 11 inHg ) . The remnants dissipated over the northern Mexican mountains on August 29 .
= = = Hurricane Chantal = = =
The area of disturbed weather that would soon become Chantal began in a large envelope of low pressure on the morning of September 10 . The disturbed weather , nested off the coast of Bermuda , was one of the remnants of an old frontal trough that had extended from Hispaniola to the central north Atlantic Ocean . This particular area of disturbed weather become part of the northeast portion of a low @-@ pressure system . On September 10 , a reconnaissance aircraft found sustained winds of 30 mph ( 50 km / h ) and a 1010 millibar ( 29 @.@ 83 inHg ) pressure reading . This reading indicated the system developed into the fifth tropical depression of the 1983 season .
The depression moved to within 100 miles ( 160 kilometers ) of Bermuda and slowly intensified . Late that afternoon , Tropical Depression Five had intensified into a 40 mph ( 60 km / h ) storm and was named Chantal . Chantal intensified rapidly , intensifying to hurricane status late on September 11 . Chantal turned to the east and gained a weak outflow with cirrus clouds . The structure changed little over the next 24 hours , until becoming disorganized on the night of the 12th . Chantal was downgraded to a tropical storm around the same time .
Overnight , all convection in Chantal dissipated , and its forward speed decreased as it headed to the north . A weak wave caused Chantal to speed up and the system was absorbed in the frontal system by the night of September 14 . Effects on Bermuda were minimal , with the island getting winds of up to 20 mph ( 25 km / h ) and few thundershowers . Chantal generated swells of 30 – 40 ft ( 9 – 12 m ) offshore .
= = = Tropical Depression Six = = =
Tropical Depression Six formed on September 19 . The depression caused heavy rainfall in the Lesser Antilles before degenerating into a tropical wave on September 21 near the Dominican Republic .
= = = Tropical Storm Dean = = =
Tropical Storm Dean originated from inside a frontal cloud band , which had moved off the Eastern Coast of the United States on September 22 . During the next few days , the band became stationary from The Bahamas to beyond Bermuda . During this period , a 1035 millibar ( 30 @.@ 56 inHg ) high pressure cell had become settled over the northeastern United States . This resulted in a strong pressure gradient and winds near gale force along the eastern coast .
A low @-@ level circulation formed from the frontal cloud band on September 26 about 460 miles ( 740 km ) east of central Florida . Dean was first identified on the afternoon of September 26 as a subtropical storm . An Air Force reconnaissance flight was sent to Dean on September 27 and only reported winds of 35 mph ( 55 km / h ) at 23 miles ( 37 kilometres ) from the center . A pressure of 999 millibars ( 29 @.@ 50 inHg ) indicated that Dean was strengthening as it headed northward . Additionally , satellite pictures showed that the subtropical cyclone was emerging from the cloud . This data also showed that the storm was gaining tropical characteristics and was given the name Dean on the afternoon of September 27 .
Dean 's winds peaked at 55 mph ( 80 km / h ) on September 28 as it headed northward . Dean 's circulation turned to the northwest on September 29 then made landfall in the Delmarva Peninsula and dissipated over land on September 30 . Gale warnings were from North Carolina to Rhode Island in association with Dean . Dean produced rainfall spreading from the North Carolina / Virginia border all the way to New England . Virginia reported rains of 1 inch ( 25 @.@ 4 mm ) with 3 inches ( 76 @.@ 2 mm ) at the border . Rains peaked at 4 @.@ 62 inches ( 117 mm ) at Cockaponset Ranger Station in Connecticut . Damage was limited to minor beach erosion and flooding along the portion of Mid @-@ Atlantic coast states .
= = Seasonal effects = =
= = Storm names = =
The following names were used for named storms that formed in the North Atlantic in 1983 . The names not retired from this list were used again in the 1989 season . It was the first time these names had been used since the post @-@ 1978 change in the National Hurricane Center 's naming policy .
= = = Retirement = = =
The World Meteorological Organization retired one name in the spring of 1984 : Alicia . It was replaced in the 1989 season by Allison .
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= Garrett 's Miss Pawhuska =
Garrett 's Miss Pawhuska ( 1946 – 1975 ) was a Quarter Horse broodmare who produced eight foals , three of which would become world champion race horses . When she was a yearling , she was sold by her owner , although he had not really planned on selling her . He felt he had to because one of his employees had told a customer the filly was for sale .
Garrett 's Miss Pawhuska 's official race record lists her with six wins in six starts , but it is incomplete and is missing some earnings as well as some races . After racing for two years , she retired to become a broodmare and died in 1975 at age 29 . Her son Vandy 's Flash was the first gelding to be named a World Champion Quarter Running Horse . She was inducted into the American Quarter Horse Association Hall of Fame .
= = Early life = =
Garrett 's Miss Pawhuska was a 1946 sorrel mare sired by Leo and out of Jenny Dee , a daughter of Jimmie Allred . Her dam ( mother ) was out of a mare named Big Bay , who was of unknown breeding . Jimmie Allred was sired by Dan whose father was Old Joe Bailey . Jimmie Allred 's dam was Alice McGill who was sired by Little Hickory Bill , a son of Hickory Bill who was sired by Peter McCue Garrett 's Miss Pawhuska was bred by Bill Rowe of Carlsbad , New Mexico , but by the time she was a yearling she was owned by Earl Jackson , of Pawhuska , Oklahoma . It isn 't clear if Jackson bought Garrett 's Miss Pawhuska as a foal or if he bought Garrett 's Miss Pawhuska 's dam while she was still carrying Garrett 's Miss Pawhuska .
When Garrett 's Miss Pawhuska was a yearling , Dee Garrett visited Jackson 's ranch and one of Jackson 's ranch hands told him the filly was for sale for $ 200 ( approximately $ 2 @,@ 100 in current dollars ) . Although Jackson had not planned to sell the filly , he felt obligated to complete the sale because his employee had put a price on her .
= = Race career = =
Although Garrett 's widow later described Garrett 's Miss Pawhuska as " scrawny — she looked like a jackrabbit then " , Garrett trained her for the track and she raced as a two @-@ year @-@ old and three @-@ year @-@ old . Her first race was the Oklahoma Futurity in 1948 , where she won her qualifying heat and won the finals by a nose . The finals ' start was delayed , but even after the delay , Garrett 's Miss Pawhuska won , beating Savannah G , Lapped , and Red River Pride . Her time for the 220 yards ( 200 m ) race was 12 @.@ 7 seconds .
Although Garrett 's Miss Pawhuska 's official record with the American Quarter Horse Association ( or AQHA ) is six starts and six wins , the early records are not all entered into the AQHA 's computers and the official charts published in the 1940s show she lost a match race to Gin High . However , the published race chart for the race noted that she was leading the race until she ran over a stake 50 yards ( 46 m ) before the end of the race , which caused her to lose the race . She earned a Race ROM and $ 250 @.@ 00 ( approximately $ 2 @,@ 500 in current dollars ) in her official records . The official earnings only reflect one race , a match race in 1949 , but they don 't list the other purses she earned , including the $ 1 @,@ 000 ( approximately $ 9 @,@ 800 in current dollars ) purse for the 1948 Oklahoma Futurity . She also is claimed to have won a match race worth $ 2 @,@ 500 ( approximately $ 24 @,@ 900 in current dollars ) , although this was an unofficial race .
Garrett 's Miss Pawhuska 's jockey at the time , C. W. Cascio , said of her when he raced her at Del Rio , Texas , " I thought she was going to have to go all out just to keep up with those big two @-@ year @-@ olds — what with her little enough to run under their bellies . " Her last race was at Enid , Oklahoma , and it was a match race against Bob K K , which she won .
= = Breeding career = =
Garrett 's Miss Pawhuska 's owner , Dee Garrett , bred her to his champion stallion Vandy , and produced three world champions : Vandy 's Flash , Vanetta Dee , and Vannevar . Vansarita Too set a new track record and Vandy 's Betty and Miss Vanity earned AAA speed ratings . Her first foal was Vandy 's Betty , who went on to earn an AAA rating on the race track and became the dam of Mr. Van Deck . Her next foal was Vanetta Dee , who racked up 94 starts with 31 wins , 20 seconds and 16 thirds in six years of racing . Her total earnings were $ 83 @,@ 325 ( approximately $ 676 @,@ 400 in current dollars ) . Vannevar was the next foal , and was AQHA Champion Racing Gelding in 1956 and 1957 . Garrett 's Miss Pawhuska 's 1954 foal was Vandy 's Flash , who was the first gelding named World Champion Quarter Running Horse , in 1960 . Garrett 's Miss Pawhuska 's 1955 foal was Vansarita , who was never raced . A number of miscarriages followed , but in 1958 Garrett 's Miss Pawhuska produced Miss Vanity , another AAA @-@ rated racehorse . Garrett 's Miss Pawhuska slipped , or lost , her next two foals , but produced Vansarita Too in 1961 , who also earned an AAA on the race track . Garrett 's Miss Pawhuska 's last foal by Vandy was Vandy 's Flash , a stallion , who was never raced but sired 107 foals . Garrett 's Miss Pawhuska 's last foal was not by Vandy , but was by a son of Three Bars named The Ole Man , but the gelding was never raced .
= = Death and legacy = =
Garrett 's Miss Pawhuska died at the age of 29 in 1975 . She was buried on the Garretts ' ranch outside Pawhuska . Garrett 's grandson said of her that " She was very gentle , the kind of mare you could do anything with . " He also said of her " I guess you could say she was a family pet . I used to rider her out to the pastures to round up other mares , things like that . " She was on the leading dams of Race ROM earners from 1959 through 1969 .
Garrett 's Miss Pawhuska was inducted into the AQHA 's AQHA Hall of Fame. in 2006 . Garrett 's Miss Pawhuska also has a stakes race named in her honor at Remington Park Track in Oklahoma City .
= = Pedigree = =
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= Walter Skinner =
FBI Assistant Director Walter Sergei Skinner is a fictional character in the Fox science fiction @-@ supernatural television shows The X @-@ Files and The Lone Gunmen . Skinner supervised the X @-@ Files office , which is concerned with cases with particularly mysterious or possibly supernatural circumstances that were left unsolved and shelved by the FBI . Fox Mulder , the FBI agent in charge of the X @-@ Files , considers the X @-@ Files the truth behind the supposed conspiracy . Portrayed by American actor Mitch Pileggi , Skinner was a main character in the ninth and tenth seasons of the show and a recurring character throughout the first eight seasons .
Skinner made his first appearance in the first season 1994 episode " Tooms " . At the start of the series , Skinner was unfriendly towards Mulder because of his belief in the extraterrestrial , while throughout the series run Skinner has moved on to respect and agree with Mulder 's idea , which is finally proven in " Requiem " , when he saw an Alien spacecraft . Walter Skinner has received critical acclaim and has become a fan favorite . Pileggi received the role of Walter Skinner after " two or three " auditions for the role . Beginning with only a small cameo , his character frequently made more appearances during the second season . Pileggi was honored with numerous awards and award nominations for his portrayal of Skinner .
= = Character arc = =
Skinner is a former Marine and a Vietnam War veteran . In the war he once killed a boy at a very short distance , an experience which has scarred him for life . He is married to Sharon Skinner . He has been treated at a sleep disorder clinic , suffering from recurring dreams of an old woman , which may either be a hallucination arising from drug use during Vietnam or a succubus . Skinner 's hobbies include jogging and boxing , the latter of which has been shown in his ability to outfight Fox Mulder and X and to defend himself reasonably well when he was attacked by Alex Krycek and his men .
Initially , Skinner acts solely as a supervisor to Agent Mulder and Dana Scully 's investigations of the paranormal . In the early episodes , it is unclear whether he is entirely independent of his actions or controlled by men such as the " Cigarette Smoking Man " . Eventually , Skinner begins trusting Mulder and Scully and becomes their ally , saving both of their lives on multiple occasions . He stands up to the conspirators that tried to control him , for which he frequently pays throughout the series .
After Skinner has long broken free of the " Cigarette Smoking Man " , he is again forced to take orders , this time from Alex Krycek . He is covertly infected with nanotechnology , which gives Krycek the leverage to control him . Two years later , Skinner is finally able to rid himself of Krycek , when during an attempt by Krycek on Mulder 's life , Skinner fatally shoots Krycek . At Mulder 's murder trial , Skinner is asked to act as Mulder 's lawyer , having become a supporter of Mulder 's cause . Later , Skinner and Deputy Director Alvin Kersh confront the " Toothpick Man " in Kersh 's office , after Agents John Doggett and Monica Reyes discover that the X @-@ Files office had been emptied out . This results in another , apparently permanent , closing of the X @-@ Files division . Six years later , with the X @-@ Files still closed down , Skinner assists Scully in finding Mulder after he goes missing while consulting on the FBI 's investigation into the disappearance of a missing agent . Mulder and Skinner are shown to still be on friendly terms , despite Mulder 's animosity towards the FBI for the events following the trial .
= = Conceptual history = =
= = = Creation and development = = =
The role of Walter Skinner was played by actor Mitch Pileggi , who had unsuccessfully auditioned for two or three other characters on The X @-@ Files before getting the part . At first , the fact that he was asked back to audition for the recurring role slightly puzzled him , until he discovered the reason he had not previously been cast in those roles — Chris Carter had been unable to envision Pileggi as any of those characters , due to the fact that the actor had been shaving his head . When the actor had attended the audition for Walter Skinner , he had been in a grumpy mood and had allowed his small amount of hair to grow back . Pileggi 's attitude fit well with Walter Skinner 's character , causing Carter to assume that the actor was only pretending to be grumpy . After successfully auditioning for the role , Pileggi thought he had been lucky that he had not been cast in one of the earlier roles , as he believed he would have appeared in only a single episode and would have missed the opportunity to play the recurring role of Walter Skinner .
Pileggi himself thought he got the role because of Gillian Anderson 's ( who portrayed Dana Scully ) pregnancy during the second season , saying the producers felt they needed to take the " show in a different direction " while she was pregnant . So Pileggi felt at the start that he " compensated " for the situation of the show , and after a while the character started to grow on the producers and fellow cast , as Pileggi puts it , " the character just started kind of clicking and working " . At the end of the second season , the producers wanted Pileggi to return in future episodes , so he signed a six @-@ year contract with them .
In an interview with X @-@ Files fan site host Robin Mayhall , Pileggi commented once that he felt David Duchovny 's ( portrayed Fox Mulder ) semi @-@ departure in season eight and the introduction of Robert Patrick 's John Doggett , and the fact that he started to believe in Aliens at the end of season seven , Skinner was given the " opportunity to grow " , further stating " new avenues " had been opened . While Pileggi stated that he missed Duchovny 's presence in The X @-@ Files , he continued saying that he didn 't have the opportunity to work with him during the seventh season . He even went as far as saying that there was no " interaction between " the two characters . He was positive to the new storyline conceived during Duchovny 's departure , saying it gave the show a " shot in the arm , " which reinvented the show .
= = = I Want to Believe = = =
As writers Carter and Frank Spotnitz aimed to avoid complicating the storyline of The X @-@ Files : I Want to Believe with superfluous appearances of characters from the television series , Skinner is the only returning character in the movie . He was included in the film 's plot only when a fitting opportunity to involve him arose , and Spotnitz and Carter were very happy to write Skinner into the story . The scenes of The X @-@ Files : I Want to Believe that include Skinner were filmed very late in the movie 's filming schedule , and the particular scene that acts as the character 's introduction in the movie was filmed , for reasons of time , in two different locations .
= = Reception = =
The character received critical acclaim from fans and critics alike and since became a fan 's favourite of the show . Mitch Pileggi received acclaim for his portrayal of the character .
While not winning or getting nominated for any of his work alone in The X @-@ Files , Mitch Pileggi and several other cast members were nominated in the category " Outstanding Performance by an Ensemble in a Drama Series " by the Screen Actors Guild Awards in 1997 , 1998 and 1999 but did not win . Following the broadcast of " One Breath " , in which Skinner recalls serving as a US Marine during the Vietnam War , Pileggi received several fan letters from Vietnam veterans . Ben @-@ Rawson Jones named the character of Skinner a " Spy cult icon " in 2008 , describing him as the " corporate middle man " .
George Avalos and Michael Liedtke from the Contra Costa Times both reacted positively to the death of Alex Krycek at the hands of Skinner , saying it was the best scene of the eighth season finale , " Existence " . Another review from the same site and writers said the season eight episode , " Via Negativa " , said the story " clicked " largely thanks to Skinner along with Alvin Kersh , saying that Skinner " delivered another Mulderesque " . In a review of The X @-@ Files feature film , Soren Andersen from The News Tribune said the character was " underused " both in the series and film . Entertainment Weekly reviewer Bruce Fretts said Skinner brought " a real element of danger to the show . "
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= Brownie Mary =
Mary Jane Rathbun ( December 22 , 1922 – April 10 , 1999 ) , popularly known as Brownie Mary , was an American medical cannabis activist . As a hospital volunteer at San Francisco General Hospital , she became known for illegally baking and distributing cannabis brownies to AIDS patients . Along with activist Dennis Peron , Rathbun lobbied for the legalization of cannabis for medical use , and she helped pass San Francisco Proposition P ( 1991 ) and California Proposition 215 ( 1996 ) to achieve those goals . She also contributed to the establishment of the San Francisco Cannabis Buyers Club , the first medical cannabis dispensary in the United States .
Rathbun was arrested on three occasions , with each arrest bringing increased local , national , and international media attention to the medical cannabis movement . Her grandmotherly appearance generated public sympathy for her cause and undermined attempts by the district attorney 's office to prosecute her for possession . The City of San Francisco eventually gave Rathbun permission to distribute cannabis brownies to people with AIDS . Her arrests generated interest in the medical community and motivated researchers to propose one of the first clinical trials to study the effects of cannabinoids in HIV @-@ infected adults .
= = Early life = =
Brownie Mary was born Mary Jane Rathbun in Chicago , Illinois , on December 22 , 1922 . Her mother , a conservative Irish Catholic , named her " Mary Jane " . She was raised in Minneapolis , Minnesota , where she attended Catholic school . At the age of 13 , she was involved in an altercation with a nun who tried to cane her , but Rathbun fought back . As a teenager , she moved out of her home and found a job as a waitress ; she worked as a waitress for most of her adult life . Social activism appealed to her from a young age ; she traveled from Chicago to Wisconsin to campaign for the right of miners to form unions . In the late 1940s , she worked as an activist promoting abortion rights for women in Minneapolis . During World War II , she moved to San Francisco , California , where she met a man at a United Service Organization ( USO ) dance . They married , but soon divorced . The marriage produced a daughter , Peggy , who was born in 1955 . She later moved to Reno , Nevada , but after Peggy was killed by a drunk driver in a car accident in the early 1970s , Rathbun returned to San Francisco .
= = Activism = =
= = = 1974 – 1982 ; Peron , two arrests = = =
Rathbun first met fellow activist Dennis Peron in 1974 in the Castro district at Cafe Flore , where they shared a cannabis cigarette . While working as a waitress at the International House of Pancakes , she earned extra money selling cannabis @-@ laced brownies ; she became known in the Castro for selling " magical brownies " out of a basket for several dollars each . Rathbun baked and sold cannabis brownies for profit out of her house . Peron also sold Rathbun 's brownies at his Big Top pot supermarket on Castro Street . He was shot in the leg during a police raid on his business in 1977 .
In the early 1980s , Rathbun was baking about 50 dozen cannabis brownies per day . She advertised her " original recipe brownies " on San Francisco bulletin boards , calling them " magically delicious " . An undercover police officer discovered what she was doing , and on the night of January 14 , 1981 , police raided Rathbun 's home and found more than 18 pounds ( 8 @.@ 2 kg ) of cannabis , 54 dozen cannabis brownies , and an assortment of other drugs . When Rathbun opened the door , she reportedly told the police , " I thought you guys were coming . " She was 57 years old when she was first arrested . It was at this time that the media began calling her " Brownie Mary " . She pleaded guilty to nine counts of possession and received three years probation . The judge also sentenced her to 500 hours of community service . Rathbun began working with the Shanti Project , a support group for people with HIV / AIDS . According to Peron :
Those first 500 hours she worked at a variety of places , from the gay thrift store to the Shanti project , doing her community service in record time — 60 days . Although no longer obligated to do community service , she continued her work for St. Martin de Pores soup kitchen until 1982 , when she joined the Shanti project , which was responding to the demands of the emerging AIDS crises . Mary had lost her only daughter in an auto accident ... and now she adopted every kid in San Francisco as her own .
Rathbun 's brownie customers were mostly gay men . When they first began coming down with AIDS in the early 1980s , she noticed that cannabis helped them with the wasting syndrome ; she also found this to be true of cancer patients . People donated cannabis to Rathbun and she began baking brownies in the hundreds and distributing them to sick people free of charge . Rathbun 's monthly $ 650 Social Security check helped her to purchase baking supplies .
On December 7 , 1982 , Rathbun was walking down Market Street carrying a bag of brownies when she by chance met one of the officers who had originally arrested her in 1981 . Rathbun was on her way to deliver cannabis brownies for a friend who had cancer and was suffering from the side effects of chemotherapy . The officer inquired as to the contents of her bag and found her in possession of four dozen cannabis brownies . She was taken to the city jail and held on multiple counts of possession and violation of her probation . The district attorney eventually dropped the charges .
= = = 1984 – 1991 ; volunteerism , Proposition P = = =
Beginning in 1984 , Rathbun volunteered weekly in the AIDS ward ( Ward 86 ) at San Francisco General Hospital ( SFGH ) . According to Donald Abrams , " she used to wheel our patients to radiology [ and ] take their specimens to the lab " . Ward 86 honored her with a " Volunteer of The Year " award in 1986 . Author Carol Pogash profiled Rathbun 's volunteer work at SFGH in her book , As Real As It Gets : The Life of a Hospital at the Center of the AIDS Epidemic ( 1992 ) .
In New York in the early 1990s , Peron spoke at a meeting of the AIDS Coalition to Unleash Power ( ACT UP ) about the possible use of cannabis for the relief of AIDS symptoms . Multiple studies had demonstrated that cannabis could help with nausea and the loss of appetite suffered by patients undergoing therapy for diseases like cancer and AIDS . However , cannabis had been illegal in the United States since 1937 . Classified under Schedule I of the Controlled Substances Act in 1970 as a drug that " has no currently accepted medical use in treatment in the United States " , medicinal users of cannabis were subject to arrest .
In spite of a skeptical reception at his initial meeting with ACT UP , Peron persisted . He told Rathbun about ACT UP , and she later spoke to the group about her first @-@ hand experience distributing cannabis @-@ laced brownies to people with AIDS . Reporter Peter Gorman noted that this time " the reception was warmer , but still skeptical " .
Rathbun helped work on Proposition P , which made it the policy of the City of San Francisco to recommend that the State of California and the California Medical Association make cannabis available for medicinal purposes and to protect physicians from penalties for prescribing medicinal cannabis . Proposition P passed with the support of 79 percent of San Francisco voters on November 5 , 1991 .
= = = 1992 – 1997 ; third arrest , Proposition 215 = = =
Rathbun was arrested for a third time in Cazadero , California , on July 19 , 1992 , while pouring cannabis into brownie batter at the home of a grower . She was charged with possession of 2 @.@ 5 pounds ( 1 @.@ 1 kg ) of cannabis and released on bail . The Sonoma County district attorney 's office attempted to prosecute her in People v. Rathbun , bringing her case international media coverage . She pleaded not guilty to two counts of felony marijuana possession . Rathbun was acquitted of the charges . Attorney Norman Elliott Kent notes that Rathbun 's legal defense relied on medical necessity , the same defense used by Robert Randall in United States v. Randall ( 1976 ) . According to Kent , Rathbun " was able to testify that her deliveries were made to assist others in need , not to advance individual greed , that the nobility of her actions outweighed the reprehensibleness of her offense according to the law . "
In August 1992 , Rathbun testified about medical cannabis in a hearing held by the San Francisco Board of Supervisors . The Board passed a resolution making the arrest or prosecution of people in possession of or growing medical cannabis the " lowest priority " . The Board recognized Rathbun 's volunteer work at the hospital by declaring August 25 " Brownie Mary Day " .
In September 1992 , Rathbun joined ACT UP / DC at a protest in Washington , D.C. , against the medical cannabis policies of the George H. W. Bush administration . The group delivered a letter to James O. Mason , head of the United States Public Health Service , requesting that people with AIDS receive immediate access to cannabis . After fourteen years of allowing a small group of individuals to use cannabis for medicinal purposes , Mason had terminated the federal government 's Compassionate Investigational New Drug program ( Compassionate IND ) in March 1992 . The Carter administration first established the Compassionate IND program in 1976 when Robert C. Randall successfully argued a medical necessity defense in United States v. Randall .
In addition to cancelling Compassionate IND , Mason made controversial comments about the program , arguing , among other things , that people with AIDS who used cannabis " might be less likely to practice safe ... sexual behavior . " ACT UP / DC asked Mason to resign his post if he failed to meet their demands to restore access to cannabis . Brownies were served at the protest in honor of Rathbun , who had been arrested the month before and was now facing felony possession charges for distributing cannabis brownies to AIDS patients . Outside the Department of Health and Human Services , Rathbun invited Mason to " follow me around for two days as I visit my kids in the wards , and then see where he stands on this " .
In 1992 , Rathbun helped Peron open the San Francisco Cannabis Buyers Club , the first medical cannabis dispensary in the United States . In 1996 , she and Peron campaigned on behalf of California Proposition 215 , a statewide voter initiative that would allow patients to possess and cultivate cannabis for personal medical use with the recommendation of a physician . The initiative passed with more than 55 percent of the vote and became state law ; other states have since passed similar legislation .
In 1997 , she was honored as the Grand Marshal of the San Francisco Gay Pride Parade , along with Dennis Peron .
= = Personal life = =
Rathbun often appeared in public wearing polyester pantsuits , and she was said to have a " sailor 's mouth . " Jane Meredith Adams of The Dallas Morning News observed that " four @-@ letter words are an essential part of the vocabulary of Brownie Mary . " Philosophically , she considered herself an anarchist and an atheist .
= = Illness and death = =
Rathbun suffered from chronic obstructive pulmonary disease and osteoarthritis . She survived colon cancer and walked with artificial knees . Rathbun often self @-@ medicated by consuming half a cannabis brownie in the morning and another half in the afternoon to ease the pain of osteoarthritis in her knees . She claimed cannabis brownies allowed her to walk and helped her with her gout . By the spring of 1996 , Rathbun was in extreme pain and was no longer able to bake . She began losing weight and told Peron that she considered traveling to Michigan for physician @-@ assisted suicide at the hands of Jack Kevorkian . After suffering a fall in August 1998 , Rathbun was admitted to Mount Zion Hospital for surgery on her neck and spine . She recovered from the operation at Davies Medical Center , but received few visitors . Later , she was confined to a bed at Laguna Honda Hospital , a nursing home for the poor . Rathbun died of a heart attack at age 77 on April 10 , 1999 . On April 17 , 300 people , including her friend , district attorney Terence Hallinan , attended a candlelight vigil held in her honor in the Castro . Hallinan told a crowd of several hundred people gathered at her memorial that she was a hero who will " one day be remembered as the Florence Nightingale of the medical marijuana movement . "
= = Legacy = =
Associated Press , United Press International , Reuters , and CNN distributed stories about Rathbun 's arrests around the world and brought her campaign for access to medical cannabis to a wide audience . Her grandmotherly visage became the public face of the American medical cannabis movement in the early 1990s , winning support and sympathy for the movement . Support for Proposition P and California Proposition 215 gained momentum when her arrests were publicized . Rathbun and her court case in 1992 became , according to Jane Meredith Adams of The Dallas Morning News , " a cause célèbre for those fighting to legalize marijuana for medical use ... a heroine to people with AIDS and cancer " and others . English news magazine The Economist attributed Rathbun 's efforts at direct action on the issue to the change in electoral support for medical cannabis in the United States : " In 1996 California eased its law on the use of marijuana . The change allows a doctor in the state to prescribe the drug if he believes it will lessen a patient 's pain . The relaxation in the public mood towards the use of marijuana was ascribed chiefly to Mary Jane Rathbun . "
Rathbun 's 1992 arrest caught the attention of her friend Donald Abrams , clinical professor at the University of California , San Francisco , and a physician at San Francisco General Hospital ( SFGH ) . He was in Amsterdam attending an AIDS conference when he learned of Rathbun 's arrest by way of CNN . Rick Doblin of the Multidisciplinary Association for Psychedelic Studies read about Rathbun 's arrest in the newspaper . He sent a letter to the AIDS program at SFGH proposing that " Brownie Mary 's institution " should consider conducting clinical trials of cannabis on the wasting syndrome in AIDS patients . Inspired by Rathbun 's arrest , Abrams and Doblin collaborated to develop a protocol to test the effects of cannabis on appetite and body weight . Five years later , after two of their proposed studies were rejected by the National Institute on Drug Abuse ( NIDA ) , their third research protocol , " Short @-@ Term Effects of Cannabinoids in Patients with HIV @-@ 1 Infection " , was finally approved in 1997 . The study was funded with $ 978 @,@ 000 from the National Institutes of Health with cannabis supplied by NIDA .
= = Publications = =
Burch , Claire . ( 2007 ) . California Chronicles of Medical Marijuana . Regent Press . DVD .
Rathbun , Mary ; Dennis Peron ( 1996 ) . Brownie Mary 's Marijuana Cookbook and Dennis Peron 's Recipe for Social Change . Trail of Smoke Publishing . ISBN 0 @-@ 9639892 @-@ 0 @-@ 0 .
Rathbun , Mary . ( April 17 , 1993 ) . 50th Anniversary of LSD : Marijuana and Medical Uses ; Sacred and Healing Plants and Psychedelic Drugs in the Treatment of Substance Abuse . San Francisco Unitarian Center . ( Audio / Video ) .
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= Ombla =
The Ombla is a short river in Croatia , northeast of Dubrovnik . Its course is approximately 30 metres ( 98 feet ) long , and it empties into the Rijeka Dubrovačka embayment of the Adriatic Sea near Komolac in Dubrovnik @-@ Neretva County . Rijeka Dubrovačka is actually a ria , a flooded river valley formed through changes in sea surface elevation on a geologic time scale . The river rises as a karst spring fed by groundwater replenished by Trebišnjica , which is an influent stream flowing in Popovo Polje , in the immediate hinterland of the Ombla . The elevation difference between the river 's source and its mouth is just over 2 metres ( 6 feet 7 inches ) . The average discharge of the river is 24 @.@ 1 cubic metres ( 850 cubic feet ) per second . The drainage basin of the Ombla encompasses 600 square kilometres ( 230 square miles ) and , besides the short surface course , includes only groundwater flow .
The Ombla is used as a source of drinking water for Dubrovnik 's water supply network , and construction of a hydroelectric power plant has been planned for the past two decades . As of 2012 , the plans entail construction of a subsurface reservoir and a 68 megawatt power plant . The plan sparked controversy amid doubts raised with respect to environmental protection and biodiversity management , technical and financial feasibility , and procedural problems related to the project . A particular concern expressed was that the underground reservoir might trigger earthquakes .
= = Source and course = =
The course of the Ombla River is located in the Dubrovnik @-@ Neretva County , northeast of the city of Dubrovnik in the southernmost part of the mainland of Croatia . The area surrounding the river , known as Rijeka Dubrovačka ( lit . Dubrovnik 's River ) , encompasses several villages clustered near the Ombla that are home to 12 @,@ 000 people . The name is also applied to an estuary of the Ombla — a ria enclosed by steep slopes of 600 @-@ metre ( 2 @,@ 000 ft ) high hills , forming a 5 @-@ kilometre ( 3 @.@ 1 @-@ mile ) long , 200 @-@ to @-@ 400 @-@ metre ( 660 to 1 @,@ 310 ft ) wide and 26 @-@ metre ( 85 @-@ foot ) deep embayment of the Adriatic Sea . The Ombla rises at the foot of the 422 @-@ metre ( 1 @,@ 385 ft ) Golubov Kamen massif , a landform that straddles the border between Croatia and Bosnia @-@ Herzegovina .
The river rises in a 80 @-@ by @-@ 40 @-@ metre ( 260 by 130 ft ) cave whose roof has an 8 @-@ metre ( 26 ft ) clearance above the surface of the water . The primary source is located at an elevation of 15 metres ( 49 feet ) below sea level , and the secondary sources are found at 2 @.@ 5 metres ( 8 feet 2 inches ) above sea level ( a.s.l. ) . The spring is the largest karst spring in Croatia , and one of the largest ones in the Dinarides . The surface of the water in the cave is 2 @.@ 38 metres ( 7 feet 10 inches ) a.s.l. The watercourse flows for approximately 30 metres ( 98 feet ) before reaching a weir across which the Ombla discharges into the Adriatic Sea , leading to claims that the Ombla is the shortest river in the world .
= = Drainage basin = =
The drainage basin of the Ombla is estimated to cover an area of at least 600 square kilometres ( 230 square miles ) , and up to 900 square kilometres ( 350 square miles ) between the Adriatic Sea coast in the area of Dubrovnik and Popovo Polje . Other than the short surface course of the river , the drainage basin includes groundwater only . The exact boundaries of the drainage basin vary depending on prevailing hydrological conditions determining groundwater seepage and flow . The area comprises 176 settlements and 50 @,@ 000 inhabitants .
The area exhibits karst morphology , with bedrock largely consisting of limestones and comparatively small areas of dolomites and Quaternary sediments . Eocene flysch forms the southwest boundary of the catchment area , towards which the catchment basin drains and where the Ombla rises . The rocks were formed as a thick series of carbonate sediments were deposited between the Norian and Late Cretaceous as the Adriatic Carbonate Platform , up to 8 @,@ 000 metres ( 26 @,@ 000 ft ) deep . In the Eocene and early Oligocene , the Adriatic Plate moved north and north @-@ east , contributing to the Alpine orogeny via the tectonic uplift of the Dinarides . The basin 's karst topography developed from the carbonate platform 's exposure to weathering . Karstification largely began after the Dinarides ' final uplift in the Oligocene and the Miocene , when the carbonates were exposed to atmospheric effects ; this extended to the level of 120 metres ( 390 feet ) below the present sea level , exposed during the Last Glacial Maximum . Some karst formations were created during earlier sea level drops , most notably the Messinian salinity crisis . The geological structure of the area indicates recent tectonic activity in the catchment , with a fault running between Hum and the Ombla . A recent strong earthquake in the wider region was the 1979 Montenegro earthquake , measuring 7 @.@ 0 on the Richter scale . The only strong historical earthquake in the immediate area was the 1667 Dubrovnik earthquake , which was followed by a tsunami .
The hydrological regime of the basin and Popovo Polje is determined by the flow of the Trebišnjica — a losing stream disappearing underground in the polje . The groundwater is distributed to a number of springs . Some of them are headwaters of watercourses discharging into the Neretva River to the northwest of the polje , or appearing as vruljas ( submarine springs ) or as headwaters of the Ombla river . Flow rate of the Ombla River , measured at the Komolac water intake plant , ranges from 3 @.@ 96 to 104 cubic metres ( 140 to 3 @,@ 673 cubic feet ) per second , averaging 24 @.@ 1 cubic metres ( 850 cubic feet ) per second . The average has dropped by about 10 cubic metres ( 350 cubic feet ) per second since completion of Trebišnjica Hydroelectric Power Plant and the concreting of the Trebišnjica 's river bed . On the other hand , the minimum discharge was not affected by the river engineering works .
The catchment basin area straddles boundary of two climate zones — the Mediterranean climate zone in areas at elevations up to 400 metres ( 1 @,@ 300 feet ) a.s.l , and the continental climate zone in other parts of the basin . Average annual precipitation varies depending on the climate zones : 1 @,@ 238 millimetres ( 48 @.@ 7 inches ) in Dubrovnik , at the coast , and 2 @,@ 037 millimetres ( 80 @.@ 2 inches ) in Hum , in Popovo Polje .
= = Economy = =
As of 2012 , the Ombla is used as a source of drinking water for the city of Dubrovnik . The water intake plant at Komolac has a water supply capacity of 560 litres ( 120 imperial gallons ; 150 US gallons ) per second . The Ombla has been used as a part of Dubrovnik 's water supply network since 1897 , when the first contract to supply 960 cubic metres ( 34 @,@ 000 cubic feet ) of water per day was made with an owner of watermills operating on the river . The river water becomes opaque , containing increased proportion of suspended particulate matter , three to five times a year for periods of four to five days after increased rainfall . The situation is proposed to be addressed through moving of the intake plant to a higher elevation during construction of a proposed Ombla Hydroelectric Power Plant ( HPP ) . The new water intake is planned to be constructed at 55 metres ( 180 feet ) a.s.l. These changes are expected to improve the quality of the drinking water , and to increase the water supply capacity to 1 @,@ 500 litres ( 330 imperial gallons ; 400 US gallons ) per second . Average volume of water diverted to the water supply network varies considerably by month , peaking during summer tourist seasons . In August 2008 , daily volume of water taken from Ombla for the water supply network averaged at 23 @,@ 419 cubic metres ( 827 @,@ 000 cubic feet ) . In 2008 , the annual daily volume of the water diverted averaged 17 @,@ 750 cubic metres ( 627 @,@ 000 cubic feet ) .
= = = Proposed power plant = = =
The Ombla HPP is proposed to be built as an underground power plant utilizing headwaters of the Ombla River through a planned underground reservoir , which would hold the water behind a grout curtain and a concrete block extending from 250 metres ( 820 feet ) below sea level to 135 metres ( 443 feet ) a.s.l. The project entails flooding of a cavern system at the spring to a level 7 metres ( 23 feet ) below the entrance to the 3 @,@ 063 @-@ metre ( 10 @,@ 049 @-@ foot ) long Vilina Cave . The proposed power plant is planned to have productive capacity of 68 megawatts . The project is to be financed in part through an European Bank for Reconstruction and Development ( EBRD ) loan in the amount of 123 @.@ 2 million Euros , approved on 22 November 2011 . Total project cost is estimated at 152 @.@ 4 million Euros . Pursuant to the European Union Habitats Directive , an additional assessment and a biodiversity management plan are required before the EBRD actually provides the approved funds . The documents should define any mitigating or compensating activities that might be needed .
The development project became controversial as environmental protection non @-@ governmental organizations ( NGOs ) drew public attention to a possible threat that may arise to seven species of bats . Subsequently , the NGOs alleged that the project is illegal , environmentally unsafe , financially not feasible , and technically questionable . Project legality was disputed because it is based on a 1999 environmental impact assessment ( EIA ) , while Croatian legislation requires that EIAs must not be more than two years old . Flooding of Vilina Cave is cited as an environmental concern , while the financial issues are based on previous cost overruns by Hrvatska elektroprivreda — the state @-@ owned company planning the development — in other projects . One objection to the technical aspects of the project is the possibility that the groundwater may trigger earthquakes . Opponents of the project have urged the Prime Minister of Croatia to cancel development of the plant .
After the elections of 2011 , Mirela Holy , who had declared her opposition to the project prior to the elections , was appointed Minister of Environment and Nature Protection . In 2012 the ministry commissioned four reviews of the EIA . The reviews — one of them supporting the EIA and three disproving the conclusions of the original EIA — were submitted to the Government of Croatia one day after Holy resigned her post , reportedly over an unrelated matter , on 7 June 2012 . Objections were raised by authors of the EIA that the reviews were not published and the names of the authors have been kept secret . Prime Minister Zoran Milanović said he wanted to collect opinions from the foremost Croatian , European , and worldwide experts before deciding on the matter , which has been under consideration since the early 1990s .
In May 2013 , the European Bank for Reconstruction and Development cancelled its proposed loan to the project , pointing at environmental concerns .
= = Etymology = =
In classical antiquity , the Ombla was a part of the river Arion , rising and sinking in present @-@ day region of Herzegovina before resurfacing at the coast . This is the earliest known name of the river , reported in Periplus of Pseudo @-@ Scylax . The most likely etymology of the river 's name is that it is derived from the Latin Vimbula , being named after vineyards , or Humbla , since the river was once in Zachlumia . Alternatively it is proposed that the name of the river descended from the Slavic word ubao or ubla , meaning a pit containing water , possibly a water well . Since the 16th century , the river was called Ombla or Umbla , or a variety of similar names which all translate as " River " — Rika , Rieka , Ričina , and Rijeka . In the 19th century , the use of name Orion was also reported , apparently based on the Arion of the classical period . The word " Ombla " means sweet water from Albanian language
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= Necrid =
Necrid ( ネクリッド , Nekuriddo ) is a playable character in the Soul series of weapon @-@ based fighting games . Designed by comic book artist and toy designer Todd McFarlane through a collaboration with Namco , the character first appeared in console ports of Soulcalibur II and later as part of an action figure set created by McFarlane Productions . Though designed and named by McFarlane , Necrid 's concept and physical build were outlined by Namco , who aimed to target North American audiences with the character . Necrid 's spoken lines in the game are unintelligible , and no voice actor has been credited .
According to the game 's back @-@ story , Necrid was once a human warrior . He sought and found the cursed sword Soul Edge , only to be pulled into the dimension that the sword 's spirit inhabits . Escaping the dimension with his body drastically mutated , his memories and sanity initially lost , he now wields various forms of energy as weapons , while searching for fragments of the shattered Soul Edge that soothe the pain caused by his separation from the dimension 's energies .
The character has received a divisive response . While some sources criticized the character 's design for clashing with the game 's aesthetic , some others praised the visual appeal of the character when in motion . Some have called Necrid one of the best characters introduced to the series ; others deem him one of the worst .
= = Conception and history = =
Series producer Hiroaki Yotoriyama learned that comics creator Todd McFarlane was a fan of the Soul series and that McFarlane had praised their characters ' designs . In 2003 , McFarlane was interested in creating a new video game based on the Spawn comic book franchise ; his search for a developer resulted in a deal with Soul publisher Namco . When the topic of toys arose in discussions , McFarlane and Namco reached an agreement to release a line of action figures based on Soulcalibur II characters . Afterward , Namco proposed that their company design a new character for video game console ports of the game , an idea that McFarlane accepted because he considered it an opportunity to create a toy based on Necrid 's finished design .
Necrid 's design targeted North American audiences , specifically fans of American comic books . Although McFarlane received most of the credit for the character , Necrid was the result of a collaboration ; Namco outlined the then @-@ unnamed character 's traits , such as his in @-@ game role and physical build , and McFarlane 's company completed the design . As a result , both companies hold a partial copyright for Necrid , with Namco 's rights to the character as a derivative work of McFarlane 's illustrations .
= = = Design = = =
Necrid is a bald , green , and muscular humanoid . His eyes glow bright red , and short bones protrude from his left arm , back , jaw and a Mohawk @-@ like ridge on his head . The fingers on his right hand have claw points , but his left hand is much larger and has three fingers with large , talon @-@ like bone claws . Two large , ram @-@ like horns extend from opposite sides of his left wrist , toward and slightly beyond his elbow . His clothing consists of dark blue pants , large metal sandals held together by bandages , and armor plating covering his abdomen , the sides of his legs , and the back of his lower right arm . A pulsating red jewel described by McFarlane as a " power plant " is set in a circular piece of metal strapped to his chest . At about 6 1 ⁄ 2 feet ( 196 cm ) , Necrid is the second tallest Soul series character whose height is known .
Necrid 's alternate appearance differs heavily , and features scaly , reddish – orange skin . Additional differences include teal eyes , black pants , and a blue jewel . The protruding bones are isolated and bigger on his left shoulder and arm , and appear crystalline . A pauldron covering his right shoulder is fastened to the jewel 's support harness , and the armor on his legs incorporate a pair of greaves . He wears a fauld on his abdomen , and bandages wrap around his stomach . A mask covers his face and is held in place by two straps around his head .
Necrid 's speech is unintelligible , and the vocal samples in the game 's sound test feature are named after emotions , such as " Determination " and " Indignation " . He is the only speaking Soulcalibur II character whose voice does not change when the player selects a different language setting .
= = In video games = =
As introduced in Soulcalibur II , Necrid is a warrior who fought and defeated a former wielder of the cursed sword Soul Edge , and was pulled into the dimension where the sword 's spirit , Inferno , inhabited . Instead of battling Inferno , he fled , and became trapped in the dimension for years . Warped physically and mentally by the dimension as a result , he escaped during the closing events of Soulcalibur , but quickly found that , without the dimension 's energies , he experienced intense pain and would eventually die . Attacking travelers he perceived as enemies , he happened upon a fragment of Soul Edge and felt his pain dampened . Pursuing other fragments of the sword , he encountered Talim , who was also seeking them , and helped defeat the resurrected Inferno . His memories and sanity restored by the battle , Necrid closed the entrance to the void , trapping himself within .
To date , Necrid has appeared in only one game of the series , Soulcalibur II . He did not appear in the original arcade version , but was added later when the game was ported to the GameCube , PlayStation 2 , and Xbox video game consoles . When asked whether the character would return in Soulcalibur III , Yotoriyama replied , " Necrid has gone on vacation . " When the subject came up again during the production of Soulcalibur V , game director Daishi Odashima responded via his Twitter account , “ To be honest , that will be too hard to do due to copyright issues . ”
= = = Gameplay = = =
Using fighting skills Yotoriyama described as " horrific splendor " , Necrid attacks using Maleficus , a transforming , physical manifestation of the energy in Soul Edge . He controls Maleficus by channeling it through his hands to form various bladed weapons , able to set them aside or reabsorb them as needed . Necrid can also attack using other forms of energy , such as ignis fatuus , æther , and chaos , represented in game as equipable alternate weapons with varying effects and attributes . Necrid also incorporates acrobatics into his fighting style through a variety of flips and kicks .
Several of Necrid 's attacks duplicate physical motions and properties of attacks used by other characters in the series . However , each attack causes his weapon to extend from then retract into his hands , resulting in different visual cues than the move they derive from . Some attacks combine elements of two other existing character moves ; for example , Dragon Blaze begins with one attack used by Maxi and ends with another from Nightmare . Despite this fact some moves are unique to Necrid 's repertoire , such as Elder Topaz , an attack stance that allows the use of an altered set of attacks for a short time , and Void Cannon , which creates a small explosion on the ground at varying distances from Necrid .
= = Promotion and reception = =
Yotoriyama announced Necrid early in Soulcalibur II 's production for the Xbox , in an interview with the Japanese magazine Famitsu . Text in each version of the game 's box art also drew attention to Necrid . Namco later featured the character in promotional items , such as artwork , screenshots , and an animated emoticon , which they distributed to IGN and other news outlets . McFarlane Productions distributed one thousand copies of a limited @-@ edition lithograph to promote the character at E3 2003 . Drawn by Greg Capullo , the lithograph featured a comic @-@ book rendition of Necrid , fighting Spawn in one of the game 's arenas . In August 2003 , Namco included a sculpture of Necrid in a set of five based on different Soulcalibur II characters . The figure was based on Necrid 's secondary outfit , stood 6 inches ( 15 cm ) tall ( with a base ) , and allowed for adjustment of its head and arms . McFarlane Productions later gave the sculptures and copies of the game as prizes in a contest named after the character .
Critical response to Necrid varied . University of Delaware professor Rachel Hutchinson cited him as an example of the cultural stereotype of human versus monster , a " mutated or damned [ creature ] deviant from the human norm " that the game 's human characters are expected to vanquish . A staff writer for GameNOW magazine called the visual design " silly " and compared the character to an " old @-@ school He @-@ Man character " , but added that Necrid 's gameplay was decent . Another magazine , GMR , described him as an example of " bad American comic book design " . IGN 's Kaiser Hwang called Necrid a " disappointment " and questioned the character 's design in comparison to others in the series ; he also felt Necrid was " filler " rather than a complete character . GameSpot made similar comments in their review of the game , as did GameSpy . IGN 's Xbox article editor described the character 's inclusion as an unnecessary marketing ploy and would have preferred new characters made without McFarlane 's involvement ; the editor also wrote that Necrid did not " vibe " with the rest of the game . 1UP.com 's podcast Retronauts criticized the design and wrote that the character 's name was used as a synonym for " shitty " . They further added that McFarlane had " tainted " the game with Necrid 's inclusion , with host Jeremy Parish stating " I could close my eyes and draw a better character " . In a retrospective of the series , Joystiq used him as an example of the series succumbing to " commercial gimmicks " , citing his design as reviled and that Necrid was either too strong or too weak a character to play as , depending on who one asked .
Other reviewers praised the character 's gameplay and design . An editor for the video game website GameZone wrote that his attacks compensated for his appearance and described him as " cool " , while also praising both his weapon and fighting style . Adam Sessler and Morgan Webb of X @-@ Play stated that , while Necrid did not seem to fit the aesthetic , the character did have some appeal . UGO 's Doug Trueman stated Necrid 's weapon had to be " seen to be believed " , and described him among other new characters as " [ adding ] something spectacular to the Soul Calibur pantheon " . Tim Rogers of website Insert Credit called Necrid " a work of digital art both in form and function " and added that " as far as console @-@ only characters go — everybody wins with Necrid " . Despite their negative remarks , an editor for IGN listed Necrid as eighth on their list of the top ten characters contributed to the Soulcalibur games by designers outside Namco and wrote that while they felt the character 's gameplay was unbalanced , it added to Necrid 's appeal ; the editor wrote " what do you expect from a man who shares a symbiotic relationship with the very energy that powers Soul Edge ? If you needed to clean house in [ Soulcalibur II ] , Necrid was the man for the job . "
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= Hygrophoropsis aurantiaca =
Hygrophoropsis aurantiaca , commonly known as the false chanterelle , is a species of fungus in the family Hygrophoropsidaceae . It is found across several continents , growing in woodland and heathland , and sometimes on woodchips used in gardening and landscaping . Fruit bodies ( mushrooms ) are yellow – orange with a funnel @-@ shaped cap up to 8 cm ( 3 1 ⁄ 8 in ) across that has a felt @-@ like surface . The thin , often forked gills on the underside of the cap run partway down the length of the otherwise smooth stipe . Reports on the mushroom 's edibility vary – it can serve as food , though not a particularly flavorful one , or it can be mildly poisonous .
Austrian naturalist Franz Xaver von Wulfen described the false chanterelle in 1781 , noting both its resemblance with the true chanterelles and people 's propensity to confuse them . The false chanterelle was then placed in the genus Clitocybe , but it was later observed that its forked gills and dextrinoid spores indicated a relationship to Paxillus . Genetic analysis has confirmed that it belongs to the order Boletales and is more closely related to boletes .
= = Taxonomy = =
Austrian naturalist Franz Xaver von Wulfen described the false chanterelle as Agaricus aurantiacus in 1781 , reporting that it appeared in the fir tree forests around Klagenfurt in October . He added that it could be confused with the chanterelle by the inexperienced , but that its true nature was very different ; in contrast to its edible lookalike , he described it as " kind of pernicious " . The specific epithet is the Latin word aurantiacus , meaning " orange " . James Sowerby illustrated it and gave it the name Agaricus subcantharellus , describing it as a " perhaps unfavourable " variety of A. cantharellus ( chanterelle ) . The fungus was placed in the genus Merulius by Johann Friedrich Gmelin in 1792 , and then Cantharellus by Elias Fries in 1821 . Bernhard Studer @-@ Steinhäuslin concluded it could only be classified in the genus Clitocybe in 1900 , based on its white spores , decurrent gills and lack of a ring . It was elevated to the status of genus in Emile Martin @-@ Sans ' 1929 publication L 'Empoisonnement par les champignons et particulièrement les intoxications dues aux Agaricacées du groupe des Clitocybe et du groupe des Cortinarius , with authorship attributed to René Maire . Martin @-@ Sans concurred with Maire 's assessment of Hygrophoropsis , suggesting that it represented a form intermediate between Cantharellus and Clitocybe , and was thus worthy of generic ranking . The genus name refers to a resemblance to the genus Hygrophorus . It is commonly known as the false chanterelle .
Two varieties described by Derek Reid in 1972 , H. aurantiaca var. macrospora and H. aurantiaca var. rufa , have since been promoted to distinct species status as H. macrospora ( 1996 ) and H. rufa ( 2008 ) . Two other varieties of the fungus have been described , but they are not considered to have independent taxonomic significance by Index Fungorum : var. nana ( Singer 1946 ) , characterized by a small fruit body ; and var. robusta ( Antonín 2000 ) , characterized by a robust fruit body and an odour similar to Maggi seasoning sauce . Pale forms of the fungus are sometimes referred to as var. pallida . This taxon was first published by Robert Kühner and Henri Romagnesi in 1953 , but later considered invalid as it did not conform to nomenclatural rules . Variety nigripes , a taxon with a black @-@ brown stipe , is invalid for similar reasons . H. aurantiaca var. pallida was published validly in 1995 .
In 1979 , Egon Horak suggested that H. aurantiaca and the New Zealand taxon H. coacta were the same species , but neither Index Fungorum nor MycoBank accept this synonymy . According to MycoBank , H. aurantiaca has several heterotypic synonyms , that is , they have different types , but are considered the same species :
Agaricus alectorolophoides Schaeff . ( 1774 )
Agaricus subcantharellus Sowerby ( 1809 )
Cantharellus brachypodus Chevall . ( 1826 )
Cantharellus ravenelii Berk . & M.A.Curtis ( 1853 )
Merulius brachypodes ( Chevall . ) Kuntze ( 1891 )
Hygrophoropsis aurantiaca has been confused with the true chanterelles ( genus Cantharellus ) because of overall similarities in appearance . However , the forked gills , frequently off @-@ centre stipe placement , and dextrinoid spores of H. aurantiaca suggested a relationship with Paxillus , prompting Rolf Singer to classify the genus Hygrophoropsis in the family Paxillaceae in 1946 . Several pigments have been identified from the fungus , including the orange variegatic acid , methyl variegate , the red variegatorubin , and several derivatives of pulvinic acid . The presence of these pigments suggests a chemotaxic relationship with the Boletaceae , Coniophoraceae , and Paxillaceae — families of Boletales with members that have similar compounds . Molecular phylogenetic analysis confirmed its affinity lay in the order Boletales in 1997 , though later research showed it is not closely related to Paxillus or other gilled members of the order .
= = Description = =
The false chanterelle has a golden @-@ orange cap up to 8 cm ( 3 1 ⁄ 8 in ) across , initially convex but becoming funnel @-@ shaped as the mushroom matures . The cap margin , which remains rolled in a little , becomes wavy or lobed in age . The cap surface is covered with a fine down . The decurrent gill @-@ like structures are narrow and forked , which is a distinctive and distinguishing feature . They are generally a more intense shade of orange than the cap . Along the stipe , the gills may be slightly crimped . The orange stipe is 3 – 5 cm ( 1 1 ⁄ 8 – 2 in ) high and 0 @.@ 5 – 1 cm ( 1 ⁄ 4 – 3 ⁄ 8 in ) thick , and lacks a ring . It often has a darker , brownish , base . The ability to form sclerotia ( compact masses of hardened fungal mycelium ) has been documented for H. aurantiaca in laboratory studies . These structures contain glycogen and protein that may be used as food reserves during spore germination .
The soft , thin flesh ranges from white to yellowish to golden @-@ orange . It has an odour and taste described variously as indistinct , or unpleasant and earthy . The spore print is white to cream . The oval spores are 5 @.@ 5 – 7 by 4 – 4 @.@ 5 micrometres ( µm ) , with walls that tend to thicken in age . The spores are cyanophilous , meaning that they will readily stain dark blue in methyl blue solution . Staining with Melzer 's reagent often produces a dextrinoid ( reddish @-@ brown ) colour reaction . Basidia ( spore @-@ bearing cells ) measure 25 – 40 by 5 – 8 µm , and can be two- , three- , or four @-@ spored . Cystidia ( large sterile cells on the hymenium ) are absent . The cap cuticle is in the form of a trichoderm , where the outermost hyphae are roughly parallel , like hairs , perpendicular to the cap surface . These hyphae are 4 – 15 µm in diameter , and contain intracellular pigments that impart an orange @-@ brown to yellow @-@ brown colouring to the cells . Clamp connections are present in the hyphae .
Teratological ( developmentally abnormal ) forms of H. aurantiaca were reported to occur in the United Kingdom . The fruit bodies of these specimens were club @-@ shaped with a wrinkled upper surface of convoluted gill tissue . The overall morphology of these forms somewhat resembles species of Clavariadelphus . Although the cause of this abnormal development is not known with certainty , environmental pollutants or virus infection have been suggested as contributing factors .
= = = Similar species = = =
Characteristics typically used in the field to distinguish Hygrophoropsis aurantiaca from lookalike species include : the soft , dry consistency of its cap ; the crowded , decurrent , and forked gills that are saffron to orange coloured ; and the lack of any distinctive taste or odour . The false chanterelle can be distinguished from the true chanterelle ( Cantharellus cibarius ) by its deeper orange colour , brown base to the stipe , velvety cap surface , forked gills rather than gill @-@ like ridges , softer ( and thinner ) flesh , and lack of the characteristic apricot @-@ smell . The cap surface of Hygrophoropsis fuscosquamula , found in Britain , has fine brown scales overlaying a dull orange background . H. rufa has velvety brown fur covering its cap , while H. macrospora has cream gills and stipe . Microscopically , these three species have larger spores than H. aurantiaca . H. tapinia , found in a range extending from southern Florida to Central America , is set apart from H. aurantiaca by its growth on or under deciduous trees ( never conifers ) , and smaller spores , which measure 3 @.@ 3 – 4 @.@ 8 by 2 @.@ 5 – 3 @.@ 3 µm .
Formerly a member of Hygrophoropsis , Aphroditeola olida is also similar in appearance to H. aurantiaca but can be distinguished from the false chanterelle by its smaller , pinkish fruit bodies and candy @-@ like odour . It also has smaller spores . Chrysomphalina chrysophylla has a yellowish brown cap and unforked yellow gills . Cortinarius hesleri , an eastern North American species that associates with oaks , has a rusty brown spore print and a cortina in young specimens . The poisonous jack @-@ o ' -lantern mushrooms ( genus Omphalotus ) comprise another group of lookalikes ; however , they have straight , non @-@ forked true gills . The European wood @-@ rotting species Haasiella splendidissima , sometimes confused with H. aurantiaca , is most readily distinguished from the latter by its pink spore print and gills that do not fork .
= = Distribution , habitat , and ecology = =
Hygrophoropsis aurantiaca is a widely distributed species . In Europe and North America , it is found in both hardwood and conifer forests , as well as heathland , in summer and autumn . In Mexico , it is common in coniferous forests . It fruits from the ground or from decaying wood , on burned areas in forests , and is often found near fallen trees and tree stumps . The fungus can also grow on woodchips used in gardening and landscaping , and so it also appears on roadsides and other locations where this material is used . Fruit bodies occur singly to scattered , or in clusters , and can be very abundant . Generally considered a dry weather mushroom , it can be plentiful when other mushrooms are scarce . Other locations where the false chanterelle has been recorded include Africa , Central and South America , northern Asia , Australia and New Zealand . Populations in California represent a complex of undescribed species that are collectively referred to as Hygrophoropsis aurantiaca sensu lato .
A saprophytic fungus , H. aurantiaca obtains nutrients from forest litter and decomposing wood , causing a brown rot on the wood upon which it grows . A Finnish field study on tree stumps in a forest near Helsinki found that the species colonised them after 6 – 7 years .
H. aurantiaca secretes large amounts of oxalic acid , a reducing agent and relatively strong acid . This stimulates weathering of the humus layer of forest soil , and influences the solubility and turnover of nutrients ( particularly phosphorus and nitrogen ) , which in turn affects their availability for use by forest trees .
= = Edibility = =
The false chanterelle has been described as edible ( though not tasty ) by some experts , but other authors report it as potentially poisonous . Indeed , Fries described it as venenatus , meaning " poisonous " , in 1821 . David Arora speculates that the confusion about edibility may be a result of misidentification with the similar @-@ looking but definitely poisonous Omphalotus species . However , extracts made from Nigerian collections were mildly toxic to mice . Some people experience gastrointestinal symptoms after eating the mushroom , possibly due to its high levels of the sugar alcohol arabitol . It was eaten , though not especially highly regarded , by the Zapotec people of Ixtlán de Juárez in Oaxaca . The Tepehuán people of northwestern Mexico also occasionally eat the mushroom , which they refer to in their native language as guin 'xacan ( " delightful " ) or kia 's gio ' ( " iguana lard " ) ; there , it is commonly prepared by roasting over charcoal , or boiling and garnishing with cheese .
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= Self Made Man ( Terminator : The Sarah Connor Chronicles ) =
" Self Made Man " is the 20th episode ( 11th of the second season ) of the United States television series Terminator : The Sarah Connor Chronicles ( T : TSCC ) . Aired on December 1 , 2008 ( 2008 @-@ 12 @-@ 01 ) , " Self Made Man " explores Cameron 's nighttime activities of enlisting help to research a Terminator 's presence in the past , as well as John Connor 's continuing relationship with Riley Dawson .
= = Plot = =
Written by Toni Graphia , the plot of " Self Made Man " consists of two separate storylines .
While the Connors sleep , Cameron ( Summer Glau ) secretly visits the library and her friend , bone cancer survivor and nighttime library attendant , Eric ( Billy Lush ) ; it 's revealed that Cameron has been doing this regularly to improve her human disguise and infiltration capabilities . After discovering the 1920 photograph of a T @-@ 888 model Terminator ( Todd Stashwick ) , Cameron uses the library 's resources to deduce that it time travelled to the wrong date . The T @-@ 888 , having accidentally killed the architect of a downtown landmark ( Pico Tower ) crucial to its original mission of assassinating the governor of California in 2010 , it invented a new identity : 1920s Los Angeles realty magnate , Myron Stark . As Stark , the T @-@ 888 funded and designed the building itself before ensconcing itself inside a wall to wait for New Year 's Eve 2010 . Returning to the library after finding and tending to Stark , Cameron damages her relationship with Eric by revealing to him that his cancer has returned ; the following night however , Eric is missing , but Cameron is unconcerned and succeeds in wooing the new attendant with the doughnuts she had brought for Eric .
Simultaneously with Cameron 's escapades , John ( Thomas Dekker ) also sneaks out of the house , responding to a phone call from Riley Dawson ( Leven Rambin ) . Meeting her at a house party in Van Nuys , they leave after John beats up the host ( Oren Dayan ) for accosting Riley — who stole his lighter . Driving to a vista overlooking Los Angeles , John and Riley discuss their relationship and supposed foster family backgrounds . The official T : TSCC blog revealed that John Connor 's fight was written knowing that he 's still dealing with posttraumatic stress disorder and having killed Margos Sarkissian earlier in the season .
= = Production = =
" Self Made Man " is the third T : TSCC episode written by Toni Graphia , whereas it was director Holly Dale 's first foray into the Terminator franchise . Graphia vetted the episode 's historical information alongside T : TSCC department heads , and History for Hire , a prop house specializing in period pieces . All of the 1920s scenes were shot on the Warner Bros. backlot , which itself was inaugurated during the same era . " Myron Stark 's " meeting Rudolph Valentino ( Branden R. Morgan ) at the premiere of The Sheik is the first occasion of the series referencing a real @-@ life person . The fictional Pico Tower was written at the intersection of Pico Boulevard and 3rd Street , despite the two roadways running parallel in real life . Costume designer Amanda Friedland created the flapper @-@ themed wardrobe for " Self Made Man " . Production wrapped on " Self Made Man " on October 15 , 2008 .
= = Reception = =
Reviewing the episode for IGN , Travis Fickett extolled Summer Glau 's performance , and held it up as an example of her acting ability keeping the whole series from failing . Fickett also explained that " Self Made Man " received better ratings than the preceding episodes of the series ' second season . At the website Television Without Pity ( TWoP ) , the staff review rated the episode a " C " , and specifically took issue with the suspension of disbelief required for Cameron 's ability to find anything and everything about the Myron Stark storyline in a closed public library ; as of January 2010 , 757 of their readers awarded it an average grade of " B + " .
Though the series never specifically explains the three dots written on the Connors ' basement wall in " Automatic for the People " , reviewers ( including IGN , TWoP , and Total Sci @-@ Fi 's Owen Van Spall ) attributed them to this episode 's revelation of the Terminators ' temporal triangulation ability . Van Spall and TWoP also noted the plot point of the T @-@ 888 's mission to kill the Governor of California . Stark 's assassination mission was to take place on New Year 's Eve 2010 , at which time Arnold Schwarzenegger would still be the Californian Governor ( leaving office in January 2011 ) ; Schwarzenegger is the star of the first three Terminator films in the franchise , having premiered the role in 1984 .
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= The Culinary Institute of America at Greystone =
The Culinary Institute of America at Greystone is a branch campus of the private culinary college the Culinary Institute of America . The Greystone campus , located on State Route 29 / 128 in St. Helena , California , offers associate degrees and two certificate programs in culinary arts and baking and pastry arts .
The campus ' primary facility is a 117 @,@ 000 @-@ square @-@ foot ( 10 @,@ 900 m2 ) stone building , known as Greystone Cellars and built for William Bowers Bourn II as a cooperative wine cellar in 1889 . The building changed ownership several times , and was notably owned by the Christian Brothers as a winery from 1945 to 1989 . It was used as a winery until its sale to the school in 1993 , and was added to the National Register of Historic Places in 1978 .
= = History = =
= = = Establishment of Greystone Cellars = = =
The Greystone campus is situated in and around the Greystone Cellars building , which William Bowers Bourn II conceived as a business concept . His father , William Bowers Bourn Sr. , was wealthy from ownership of the gold mine the Empire Mine , as well as co @-@ ownership of a shipping company . Bourn II was a businessman with business interests and residences around California , although he had spent his summers during his youth at White Sulphur Springs Resort in St. Helena , before his parents bought Madroño , an estate in the town .
Around the 1880s , San Francisco wine dealers were purchasing wine from Napa Valley vintners at low prices ( sometimes around 15 to 18 cents per gallon ) . The dealers had facilities to store and age wines that most Napa Valley vintners lacked , and thus were able to purchase wine from the vintners at low prices . Because of this , Bourn began a campaign to build the cooperative winery ; he was in his early 30s at the time . He created a business partnership with another businessman , E. Everett Wise , who was of a similar age . Bourn then asked for support within the Napa County wine industry . Bourn met with Henry Pellet , president of the St. Helena Vinicultural Club , who endorsed the idea and encouraged his associates to do the same . Bourn and Wise ended up gathering enough support from the local wine industry , and they hired George Percy and F. F. Hamilton of the San Francisco architectural firm Percy & Hamilton to design the Greystone Cellars , along with Italian stonemasons to build the façades , and the Ernest L. Ransome firm to handle concrete work . The plans involved the use of new materials and technology of the time , including the relatively new Portland cement . The cement was used as mortar and also poured over the iron reinforcing rods built within the first and second floor elevations . The heavy timber construction of the third floor provided structural support for not only that floor 's cask , barrel and bottle aging space but also for the gravity @-@ flow crushing area located on the floor above . The architects planned for the cellars to hold two million gallons of wine at a time , with thirteen tunnels in the hillside behind the building to hold another million gallons . Those tunnels collapsed due to effects of water seepage and of the 1906 San Francisco earthquake .
A large number of men were hired for the building 's construction , and local workers were chosen over non @-@ locals . During the construction , many of the workers lived in tents beside their worksite , and cooked meals and stayed there when not working . The cornerstone was laid on June 15 , 1888 ; beneath it was laid several bottles of wine , a copy of a St. Helena Star and San Francisco newspapers , and foreign and rare coins . The building , called the Bourn & Wise Wine Cellar , was completed around June 1889 , along with a distillery north of the building and a superintendent 's house to the south . In September of that year Everett Wise became too ill to work and sold his share in the winery to Bourn , who between that time and 1890 named the winery Greystone Cellars .
The building cost $ 250 @,@ 000 ( $ 6 @.@ 58 million in 2015 ) . At its completion , architect George Percy described Greystone Cellars as the largest wine cellar in California , if not the world . Greystone was also the first California winery to be operated and illuminated by electricity , produced by a boiler and gas generator located in a mechanical room below the building 's central front wing . In the spring of 1894 , a long @-@ lasting phylloxera scourge made Bourn decide the winery was no longer profitable .
= = = Subsequent uses = = =
He sold the building at a low price that year , to Charles Carpy , who deeded the property to the California Wine Association . The association continued using the Greystone Cellars wine label . A year later , the Bisceglia brothers of San Jose purchased Greystone where they produced sacramental wine under the same label until 1930 , and again beginning in October 1933 . The Carpy family maintained part of the land , including a Victorian house nicknamed Albert 's Villa south of the winery . The house burned down around 1929 and was replaced with a Spanish @-@ style house that is now owned by the school .
In 1940 , the Brothers of the Christian Schools ( the Christian Brothers ) leased the property , purchasing it in 1945 , and using it for sparkling wine production from 1950 to 1989 . It was listed on the National Register of Historic Places in 1978 . The Christian Brothers sold the property in 1989 because of declining market shares and vineyard yields , and the costs of seismically retrofitting Greystone . The Heublein Company of Canada purchased the property and marketing rights to the Christian Brothers ' brands in 1990 , shortly after the 1989 Loma Prieta earthquake occurred . The earthquake damaged the Greystone Cellars building , rendering the northern portion of the building unusable .
= = = Culinary Institute campus = = =
In 1993 , Heublein sold the property at about 10 percent of its $ 14 million ( $ 22 @.@ 9 million in 2015 ) valuation , $ 1 @.@ 68 million ( $ 2 @.@ 75 million in 2015 ) , to the Culinary Institute of America , which used $ 15 million ( $ 24 @.@ 6 million in 2015 ) to renovate the building and give it a seismic retrofit . After completing the work in August 1995 , the school established the property as a branch campus . After initially offering certificate courses , in autumn 2006 , the campus began offering associate degrees . In 2015 , the college put in motion plans to purchase a portion of Copia , a museum in downtown Napa that operated from 2001 to 2008 . The college intends to open a campus , the Culinary Institute of America at Copia , which will house the CIA 's new Food Business School . The school , which was outgrowing the Greystone campus , purchased the northern portion of the property for $ 12 @.@ 5 million ( it was recently assessed for $ 21 @.@ 3 million ) .
= = Architecture = =
The Greystone Cellars building stands on a terraced hillside site on the west side of 29 / 128 , about a mile north of St. Helena 's central business district . It has 117 @,@ 000 @-@ square @-@ foot ( 10 @,@ 900 m2 ) , three stories , and a basement , and is around 400 feet ( 120 m ) long , 76 feet ( 23 m ) wide , and 66 feet ( 20 m ) tall , with 22 @-@ inch ( 56 cm ) thick walls . As a wine cellar , it held 3 @.@ 5 million gallons . The building was designed in the Richardson Romanesque style , with an arched entranceway and tower , stone mullions and transoms , a low sweeping roof , well @-@ fitted stonework , and a large and simple stone façade . The building 's exterior is made of local light gray volcanic stone put together with Portland cement ; the trimmings are of a red stone . Bourne had insisted that gray stones were used in the east façade of the building ( its main façade ) , with darker or other colored stones usable for the other sides of the building . The roof originally used black slate roof tiles .
The building has a front projection measuring 50 by 20 feet ( 15 m × 6 @.@ 1 m ) , which held the main entranceway and an office and sample room . The former office has walls and ceilings of quartered oak , and includes a stone fireplace and vault door . The former sample room has paneled mahogany walls and ceilings , a parquet floor , open bottle racks on walls , and two lockers of mahogany . The windows are polished plate glass with stained glass transoms . The tasting and sales rooms are still preserved in their original form . The projection also includes a 20 @-@ by @-@ 20 @-@ foot ( 6 @.@ 1 m × 6 @.@ 1 m ) stone tower that extends one story above the roof and was built to hold a large water tank . A driveway wraps around the front and back of the building , where it is nearly level with the third floor .
The interior has two distinct wings with a large hallway between them , originally with an iron staircase and a hydraulic ram elevator both leading to the third floor . Each side of the hallway on each floor had three doors 8 feet ( 2 @.@ 4 m ) wide . 4 @-@ inch ( 100 mm ) iron pipes were placed through the walls and floors every thirty feet in order to pipe wine from one part of the building to another , and into and out of the building .
Property changes since the original construction include the front terrace , entranceway and landscaping . The former front lawn and flower beds were paved over , and a new driveway was cut into the stone wall north of the original large stone arch over the first driveway .
= = Programs = =
The campus ' programs include associate degrees in culinary arts and in baking and pastry arts , a 30 @-@ week culinary arts certificate program , a 30 @-@ week wine and beverage certificate program , and several culinary arts programs for students who have met basic requirements . Of the campus ' 300 students , approximately 60 percent are in the culinary arts degree program , 23 percent in the baking and pastry arts degree program , and 17 percent in a certificate program .
= = School facilities = =
The primary school building is the Greystone Cellars building , which houses teaching kitchens , the Wine Spectator Greystone Restaurant , the Bakery Café by illy , the Spice Islands Marketplace ( the campus store ) , the De Baun and Ecolab Theatres ( auditoriums and cooking demonstration facilities , also used as lecture halls ) , and administrative offices . Adjacent to the teaching kitchens is the Margie Schubert Library .
= = = Teaching kitchens = = =
The 15 @,@ 000 @-@ square @-@ foot ( 1 @,@ 400 m2 ) teaching kitchens at Greystone are on the third floor of the primary building . The space was designed without interior walls in order to facilitate ease of movement and open exchange of ideas . The kitchens vary from common stainless steel commercial kitchens by using materials including granite , stone , tile , and wood . The kitchens use Bonnet stoves and have a variety of cooking appliances , including rotisseries , appliances for induction cooking , a stone hearth oven , convection ovens , combi steamers , French tops , and numerous large mixers . The baking and pastry kitchen has 16 @-@ foot ( 4 @.@ 9 m ) flecked granite and solid oak tables for pastry and dough preparation .
On the first floor , the 5 @,@ 000 @-@ square @-@ foot ( 460 m2 ) Viking Teaching Kitchen is designed for 36 to 40 students at a time . Its appliances and equipment were donated by Viking Range Corporation 's founders and installed as part of a comprehensive redesign of the building 's first floor in 2010 . The redesign also involved the completion of a chocolate @-@ making facility and the campus store and Flavor Bar .
= = = Restaurants = = =
The Conservatory Restaurant is led by students of the American Food Studies : Farm @-@ to @-@ Table Cooking concentration in the CIA 's bachelor 's degree programs . The Bakery Café by illy is run by Baking and Pastry Arts Certificate students . The café has sandwiches , salads , soups , and fresh pastries and breads , and also serves coffee , espressos , and teas . The Wine Spectator Greystone Restaurant ( WSGR ) is run by students in the associate degree program in culinary arts . The restaurant focuses on using local and seasonal ingredients . The dining room has open cooking stations to give diners a full view of the working kitchen . The WSGR initially served food of the Mediterranean cuisines , and was at first professionally run . Later on , it became fully student @-@ run , however changes in late 2015 led to lunch service staffed by students and dinner service staffed by employees .
= = = Residence halls = = =
The campus offers housing for 130 students , and has three residence halls : the 18 @-@ room Guest House , the 41 @-@ room Vineyard Lodge I , and the 30 @-@ room Vineyard Lodge II . The residence halls have single , double , and triple @-@ occupancy rooms . The Guest House is located on @-@ campus and the Vineyard Lodges are about three @-@ quarters of a mile ( 1 @.@ 2 km ) from the campus , with shuttle service to and from the buildings .
The campus ' newest residence hall , Vineyard Lodge II , was built around 2009 as the campus expected to double its enrollment . The building has two @-@ stories , 31 dorm rooms , a kitchen , an activity room , an outside deck and two manager 's rooms . The school planned for an environmentally @-@ oriented dormitory , with solar panels to cover some of the building 's electrical needs , as well as a membrane system for waste water . The building also has board and batten siding , which lasts longer than wooden siding . The building , on Pratt Avenue in St. Helena , is the first building in the city to be metal @-@ framed rather than wood @-@ framed , to better prevent termites , mold , and fire . The school estimated costs of $ 4 million for a Napa @-@ based construction company to construct the building . The company demolished a 1 @,@ 750 @-@ square @-@ foot ( 163 m2 ) laundry and facilities building in what was described as a green @-@ oriented process . At the time of construction , the school annually enrolled 104 students ; the new residence hall would allow the campus to enroll another 100 students .
= = = Other facilities = = =
The De Baun Theatre is a 48 @-@ seat demonstration kitchen that hosts cooking demonstrations for the public .
The Ecolab Theatre is a 125 @-@ seat amphitheater @-@ style demonstration auditorium that rises through the first two levels of the building . It is designed for cooking demonstrations , lectures , food and wine tastings , and other special events . The auditorium 's demonstration kitchen has a 22 @-@ foot ( 6 @.@ 7 m ) cooking center , large video monitors , and fixed tables at every seat .
The Rudd Center for Professional Wine Studies , a two @-@ story distillery building dating to around 1889 , is used for the Professional Wine Studies program and was named after the Rudd family of Rudd Farms . The building has sensory analysis classrooms with wireless keypad response systems , built @-@ in light boxes , and expectoration stations . The Rudd Center contains a pantry , a 4 @,@ 000 @-@ bottle wine cave and private dining room , and a terrace . Karen MacNeil is the creator and chairman of the center . The building opened in 2003 for a wine professional credential ; the school began its wine and beverage certification program in 2010 . In 2013 the school began a wine , beverage , and hospitality concentration in its bachelor 's degree program .
The Spice Islands Marketplace is the campus store , and offers culinary @-@ related items ( cooking equipment , cookbooks , uniforms , and food ingredients ) . Next to the store is a flavor bar that holds tasting exercises for guests .
The Ventura Center for Menu Research and Development has 8 @,@ 000 square feet ( 740 m2 ) of classrooms , a theater @-@ style kitchen , and interactive audience response audio technologies .
The Williams Center for Flavor Discovery , in the former gatehouse , is used by students for the study of flavors and flavor development in food and wine . The results of tasting panels at the building are shared with members of the culinary industry to enhance understanding of flavor in food , cooking , and wine .
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= Stephen Strasburg =
Stephen James Strasburg ( / ˈstrɑːsbərɡ / ; born July 20 , 1988 ) is an American professional baseball pitcher for the Washington Nationals of Major League Baseball ( MLB ) . Strasburg was selected by Washington with the first pick in the 2009 MLB Draft , and he made his MLB debut with the Nationals in 2010 .
A talented but unpolished high school baseball player at West Hills High School , Strasburg played college baseball for the San Diego State Aztecs . There , he became one of the best collegiate pitchers in the country . He pitched for the United States national baseball team at the 2008 Summer Olympics , winning the bronze medal . Two years later , Strasburg was called the " most @-@ hyped pick in draft history " by ESPN and the " most hyped and closely watched pitching prospect in the history of baseball " by Sports Illustrated . Strasburg 's major league debut on June 8 , 2010 , produced a franchise @-@ record 14 strikeouts .
Several months into his major league career , Strasburg tore a ligament in his pitching elbow . The injury required Tommy John surgery and a year of rehabilitation . He rejoined the Nationals on September 6 , 2011 , but was only able to pitch 24 innings that year . His 2012 season marked a successful return to form ; Strasburg was selected to play in the 2012 MLB All @-@ Star Game . Strasburg pitches an average fastball of 94 @.@ 7 mph .
= = Amateur career = =
= = = High school = = =
Strasburg attended West Hills High School in Santee , California . At first , he struggled on the school 's baseball team , posting a 1 – 10 win – loss record in his junior year . A twelve @-@ strikeout game against El Capitan High School in his senior year , in which Strasburg allowed one hit , drew attention from scouts . He finished his senior year with a 1 @.@ 68 earned run average ( ERA ) and 74 strikeouts in 62 1 ⁄ 3 innings pitched , with seven complete games . He finished with three varsity letters , set school records in ERA and shutouts , and was named his school 's 2006 Scholar @-@ Athlete of the Year . He was also named second @-@ team all @-@ league and his team 's MVP . Despite these achievements , he was not selected in that year 's Major League Baseball Draft .
= = = College = = =
Strasburg had hoped to attend Stanford University but was not accepted there . Although recruited by a number of schools across the country , he enrolled at San Diego State University , where both of his parents attended school . He played college baseball for the San Diego State Aztecs , coached by the late Baseball Hall of Fame inductee Tony Gwynn . When he first arrived , he was an unlikely candidate to pitch collegiate baseball at all ; he was so overweight and out of shape that his conditioning coach nicknamed him " Slothburg " and encouraged him to quit baseball . He also had a difficult time adjusting to college life , moving out of his dormitory and in with his mother after five days . He acknowledged , " I wasn 't the most mature guy out of high school . … The dorm was an overload , too much , too soon . " Strasburg responded with an intense workout regimen , losing 30 pounds ( 14 kg ) in the process . He also worked to improve his mental toughness . Coaches tested him by placing him in high @-@ pressure situations and telling him he needed to get strikeouts .
San Diego State used Strasburg as a relief pitcher in his freshman year ; he began the season pitching in middle relief , before becoming the Aztecs ' closer . He held opponents to a .141 batting average against and was named Co @-@ Freshman of the Year for the Mountain West Conference . In the summer of 2007 , Strasburg also played for the Torrington Twisters of the collegiate summer baseball New England Collegiate Baseball League ( NECBL ) . He was named to the NECBL First Team as a closer , and was also chosen as the Top Pro Prospect and Top Relief Pitcher in the NECBL .
In 2008 , as a sophomore , Strasburg was converted to a full @-@ time starting pitcher . He went 8 – 3 with a 1 @.@ 58 ERA and 134 strikeouts in 98 ⅓ innings . Four of his thirteen starts in 2008 were complete games , two of which were shutouts . On April 11 of that year , he struck out a Mountain West Conference record 23 batters in a game versus the University of Utah . He also gained eight miles per hour on his fastball , regularly working in the upper 90s and touching 100 mph .
Strasburg finished his junior year , the 2009 season , 13 – 1 with a 1 @.@ 32 ERA , 59 hits allowed , 16 earned runs , 19 walks , and 195 strikeouts in 109 innings pitched . In his final home start on May 8 , 2009 , Strasburg threw his first career no @-@ hitter while striking out 17 Air Force Falcons batters . His lone loss came against the Virginia Cavaliers in the NCAA Regionals as Virginia advanced toward the College World Series , but he still struck out 15 in seven innings during the loss . He won the Dick Howser Trophy and the National Pitcher of the Year Award .
= = = International play = = =
Strasburg was named to the United States national baseball team on June 24 , 2008 . In that role he appeared in the 2008 World University Baseball Championship , held in late July . The United States won the gold medal in the competition .
Strasburg was the lone collegiate player selected for the United States national team at the 2008 Summer Olympics in Beijing . In his first start at the Olympics , Strasburg one @-@ hit the Netherlands over seven innings , striking out five of the first six batters he faced and 11 overall . The lone hit Strasburg allowed was a seventh @-@ inning single to Sharnol Adriana .
With the United States having already secured a spot in the semifinals medal round , manager Davey Johnson held Strasburg from what would have been his second start on August 20 in order to pitch him in the first round of the semifinals against Norge Luis Vera of the Cuban national baseball team , on August 22 . Vera outdueled Strasburg with six innings pitched and only two runs , one earned . Strasburg , meanwhile , lasted only four innings while giving up three runs , two earned . Cuba won the game 10 – 2 .
Strasburg ended up with a 1 – 1 record , a 1 @.@ 67 ERA , and a bronze medal for the Olympics , as the United States won its following contest against Japan 8 – 4 . He won the USA Baseball Richard W. " Dick " Case Player of the Year Award in 2008 .
= = Professional career = =
= = = Draft = = =
On June 9 , 2009 , Strasburg was drafted number one overall in the 2009 Major League Baseball Draft by the Washington Nationals . On August 17 , 2009 , he signed a record @-@ breaking four @-@ year , $ 15 @.@ 1 million contract with the Nationals , just 77 seconds before the deadline , shattering a dollar @-@ amount record previously held by Mark Prior , who signed for $ 10 @.@ 5 million in 2001 . Strasburg is represented by agent Scott Boras .
= = = Minor leagues = = =
Strasburg made his professional debut on October 16 , 2009 , starting for the Phoenix Desert Dogs in the Arizona Fall League at Phoenix Municipal Stadium . He was selected to play in the league 's Rising Stars Showcase , but was unable to participate due to a minor neck injury . He also won Pitcher of the Week honors for the week of November 2 , 2009 and led the AFL with four wins . Before the 2010 season started , Baseball America named Strasburg as the top pitching prospect , and the second @-@ best overall prospect behind Jason Heyward .
Strasburg was assigned to the Harrisburg Senators of the Class AA Eastern League for the start of the 2010 season . There was so much anticipation and hype surrounding Strasburg that there were about 70 credentialed media members in attendance at his April 11 , 2010 debut , and ESPN nationally broadcast portions of the game . He won his Senators debut against the Altoona Curve , allowing four hits and four runs ( one earned ) , while striking out eight batters in five innings . During his first home start on April 16 , he yielded two hits and an unearned run with three strikeouts in 2 ⅓ innings in a loss to the New Britain Rock Cats , one where his innings were limited due to a rain delay . Harrisburg set an attendance record in Strasburg 's home debut with 7 @,@ 895 fans . He completed his Class AA stint with a 1 @.@ 64 ERA while striking out 27 and walking six in 22 innings .
On May 4 , 2010 , he was promoted to the Syracuse Chiefs of the Class AAA International League . In his first game with the Chiefs , he pitched six scoreless innings , striking out six batters while allowing one hit and one walk . That game drew 13 @,@ 766 fans — the highest attendance in the 135 @-@ year history of baseball in Syracuse . In his second start , Strasburg was removed after pitching six no @-@ hit innings . He finished his minor league stint with an overall record of 7 – 2 , an ERA of 1 @.@ 30 , 65 strikeouts and 13 walks in 55 ⅓ innings , and a walks plus hits per inning pitched ( WHIP ) ratio of 0 @.@ 80 .
= = = Washington Nationals = = =
= = = = Debut = = = =
Strasburg made his major @-@ league debut on June 8 , 2010 , against the Pittsburgh Pirates . A Sports Illustrated columnist termed it " the most hyped pitching debut the game has ever seen . " An ESPN article revealed the colloquial name for Strasburg 's celebrated debut as " Strasmas " . Strasburg picked up the win in his debut , pitching seven innings , allowing two earned runs and no walks and 14 strikeouts , setting a new team strikeout record . Also , he was the first pitcher in history to strike out at least eleven batters without issuing any walks in his pro debut , while falling just one strikeout short of the all @-@ time record for a pitcher 's debut — Karl Spooner ( 1954 ) and J. R. Richard ( 1971 ) both struck out 15 , but each took nine innings to do it , and each walked three . ( Bob Feller also struck out 15 in his first start , although it wasn 't his big league debut ) . He struck out every batter in the Pirates ' lineup at least once and struck out the last seven batters he faced — also a Nationals record . He threw 34 of his 94 pitches at 98 miles per hour ( 158 km / h ) or faster , including two that reached 100 miles per hour ( 160 km / h ) .
In Strasburg 's second and third major league starts he struck out another eight and ten batters , respectively , setting a major league record for the most strikeouts in a pitcher 's first three starts with 32 . The previous record holder had been Richard , who struck out 29 in his first three starts in 1971 .
Strasburg was also featured in the cover story of Sports Illustrated following his second start . His # 37 jersey was the top @-@ selling jersey in all of baseball for the month of June and became the best @-@ selling Nationals jersey of all time in that span .
= = = = Injuries and rehab = = = =
Strasburg was placed on the disabled list with an inflamed right shoulder in July 2010 . He returned to action on August 10 , but in his third game back , on August 21 , he was removed with an apparent injury . On August 27 , the Nationals announced that Strasburg had a torn ulnar collateral ligament , requiring Tommy John surgery , and about 12 to 18 months of rehabilitation .
In the 2010 season Strasburg pitched in 12 games , all starts , throwing 68 innings , 92 strikeouts and compiling a 2 @.@ 91 ERA . He was named a pitcher on the 2010 Topps Major League Rookie All @-@ Star Team .
Strasburg made his first rehab start on August 7 , 2011 for the Hagerstown Suns . Strasburg made six rehab starts during the 2011 minor league season throwing a total of 20 ⅓ innings , with 29 strikeouts , compiling a 3 @.@ 49 ERA and a 1 – 1 record . He then made 5 starts during the 2011 major league season , his first coming against the Los Angeles Dodgers on September 6 . That year he threw for 24 innings , struck out 24 , compiled a 1 @.@ 50 ERA and a 1 – 1 record .
= = = = 2012 season = = = =
In April 2012 , Strasburg accumulated an NL @-@ best 34 strikeouts and second @-@ best 1 @.@ 13 ERA . He totaled 6 walks and did not give up a home run . Consequently , he was named NL Pitcher of the Month . On May 20 , Strasburg went 2 @-@ for @-@ 2 as a hitter in a game against the Baltimore Orioles and hit his first career home run , a solo shot off of Wei @-@ Yin Chen .
In his June 13 start against the Toronto Blue Jays , Strasburg became the first pitcher of the year to strike out 100 batters . On July 1 , Strasburg was elected to his first All @-@ Star Game , alongside teammates Gio Gonzalez , Ian Desmond , and Bryce Harper . Strasburg ended the season 15 – 6 with a 3 @.@ 16 ERA , 1 @.@ 15 WHIP and 197 strikeouts in 159 ⅓ innings pitched .
Strasburg hit .277 with a home run , 7 RBI , and three walks , earning him a Silver Slugger Award .
= = = = = Innings limit and shutdown = = = = =
As part of Strasburg 's rehabilitation from his Tommy John surgery , and as a precaution due to his low innings total in 2011 , the Nationals decided to limit the number of innings Strasburg would throw in the 2012 season . Although the number was never official , rumors started that Strasburg 's limit would be between 160 and 180 innings . It was also decided that Strasburg 's shutdown would be final ; he would not pitch in the playoffs . Dr. Lewis Yocum , the surgeon who operated on Strasburg 's elbow , agreed in 2011 that Strasburg 's 2012 innings total should be limited , although he did not consult with Nationals General Manager Mike Rizzo or Strasburg during the season . Teammate Jordan Zimmermann underwent a similar process the year before .
Strasburg 's high profile and the success of the Nationals in the 2012 season made the innings limit a topic of national conversation . In addition to baseball writers , a number of other figures made their views on the topic known , including football broadcasters Troy Aikman and Terry Bradshaw , basketball reporter Stephen A. Smith , and even prominent politicians such as Rudy Giuliani and Mitch McConnell . Rizzo defended the decision to shut down Strasburg and criticized the buzz surrounding it : " It 's a good conversational piece , it 's a good debatable subject . But most of the people that have weighed in on this know probably 10 percent of the information that we know , and that we 've made our opinion based upon . "
The Nationals announced that Strasburg would be scheduled to make his final start on September 12 and would be replaced by John Lannan in the Nationals ' starting rotation . However , after a rough outing on September 8 , Davey Johnson announced that Strasburg was finished for the 2012 season . Strasburg spent the postseason on the physically unable to perform list as the Nationals lost the 2012 NLDS to the St. Louis Cardinals in 5 games .
= = = = 2013 season = = = =
Strasburg pitched Opening Day for the Nationals at Nationals Park in Washington , D.C. , on April 1 , 2013 . He went seven innings , giving up no runs and three hits and recording three strikeouts . Following the first batter of the game , Juan Pierre , he retired nineteen straight batters . Strasburg earned the decision , a win , with a final score of 2 – 0 .
Strasburg served a brief stint on the disabled list with a mild lateral strain in June and was re @-@ activated on June 16 .
Strasburg achieved milestones in longevity in 2013 . He pitched into the 8th inning for the first time in his big @-@ league career on May 16 , in a win against his hometown San Diego Padres , and in subsequent starts on May 26 and July 24 . On August 11 , 2013 , Strasburg pitched his first career complete game winning , 6 – 0 over the Philadelphia Phillies .
He was ejected for the first time in his MLB career on August 17 , 2013 by umpire Marvin Hudson for intentionally pitching at Braves batter Andrelton Simmons in the second inning of a Nationals @-@ Braves game . Prior to the ejection , Hudson warned both teams after Strasburg hit Justin Upton with a first @-@ pitch fastball following a Braves home run .
Strasburg finished the year with a 3 @.@ 00 ERA , 1 @.@ 05 WHIP , 8 Wins , 9 Losses , and 191 strikeouts over 183 innings pitched .
= = = = 2014 season = = = =
Strasburg enjoyed the best season of his career , leading the league in strikeouts and finishing 9th in the Cy Young award balloting . He posted career @-@ bests in innings pitched and strikeouts .
= = = = 2015 season = = = =
2015 was a disappointing year for Strasburg and the Nationals as injuries limited his production to 127 innings , his lowest output since 2011 . In the meantime , the Nationals failed to make it to the playoffs , in part due to Strasburg 's unavailability . Despite the setbacks , he was effective in limited action , winning 11 games , good for third most wins in the Nationals ' pitching staff .
= = = = 2016 season = = = =
On May 9 , 2016 , it was reported that Strasburg had agreed to a 7 @-@ year , $ 175 million extension to remain with the Nationals . The deal was made official the next day on May 10 . With the extension , Strasburg became the first National to receive an opt @-@ out clause in his contract , which will allow him to elect free agency after the 2019 or 2020 seasons if he desires . On June 26 , 2016 , he was placed on the 15 @-@ day disabled list due to an upper back strain . He returned on July 3 against the Cincinnati Reds , where he took a no @-@ hitter through 6 @.@ 2 innings until being lifted from the game after throwing 109 pitches . The no @-@ hitter was broken up in the 8th inning , but the Nationals still won 12 @-@ 1 . On July 8 , Strasburg became the first pitcher since 1912 to start 12 @-@ 0 .
= = Pitching style = =
= = = Pitch repertoire and approach = = =
Strasburg 's repertoire features four pitches : a four @-@ seam fastball , his primary pitch at 95 – 98 miles per hour ( 153 – 158 km / h ) which tops out at 100 mph ; a two @-@ seam fastball at 94 – 97 miles per hour ( 151 – 156 km / h ) ; a curveball that Strasburg himself refers to as a slurve at 79 – 82 miles per hour ( 127 – 132 km / h ) ; and a changeup at 87 – 90 miles per hour ( 140 – 145 km / h ) . Strasburg throws a mix of all four pitches to left @-@ handed hitters , but he mostly eliminates the changeup when facing right @-@ handed hitters . He is liable to throw his four @-@ seamer or slurve to right @-@ handers with 2 strikes , and adds the changeup in those counts against lefties .
His velocity was not significantly affected by his Tommy John surgery in 2010 . He had the fastest four @-@ seam fastball among starting pitchers in the 2012 season , averaging 96 @.@ 5 miles per hour ( 155 km / h ) .
Strasburg has a high strikeout rate of 11 @.@ 2 per 9 innings through his first 251 ⅓ MLB innings . This corresponds with high swing @-@ and @-@ miss rates across all of his pitches , including 54 % on his changeup — the highest whiff rate among all starting pitchers ' changeups since PITCHf / x began tracking pitches . Through the 2012 season , Strasburg 's career strikeout @-@ to @-@ walk ratio of 4 @.@ 67 would rank second all @-@ time if he had enough innings to qualify . Strasburg maintains that his high strikeout rate is not intentional , and in fact is a hindrance to maintaining low pitch counts .
= = = Mechanics = = =
Strasburg 's pitching mechanics have drawn concern over the years from scouts and coaches . The sequence of Strasburg 's delivery places a great deal of stress on his arm , placing him at greater risk of elbow and shoulder injuries . Indeed , " several pitching coaches quietly predicted Strasburg was at risk " before the rupture of his elbow ligament . Independent scout Paul Reddick compared his mechanics unfavorably with those of pitching legend Greg Maddux , saying Strasburg 's motion is inefficient and badly synchronized .
= = Personal life = =
Strasburg was born in San Diego , California , He credits his maternal grandmother with helping him develop his baseball skills as a child . She would frequently play catch and even work on pitching with him . He labels her as one of his biggest inspirations . He was married on January 9 , 2010 , to Rachel Lackey , whom he had met while they were students at San Diego State . On June 24 , 2014 Strasburg stated in an interview that he was going to stop chewing tobacco in the wake of his college coach Tony Gwynn 's death .
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= Michael Jackson =
Michael Joseph Jackson ( August 29 , 1958 – June 25 , 2009 ) was an American singer , songwriter , record producer , dancer , and actor . Famously called the King of Pop , his contributions to music , dance and fashion along with his publicized personal life made him a global figure in popular culture for over four decades .
The eighth child of the Jackson family , Michael made his professional debut in 1964 with his elder brothers Jackie , Tito , Jermaine , and Marlon as a member of the Jackson 5 , and began his solo career in 1971 . In the early 1980s , Jackson became a dominant figure in popular music . His music videos , including those of " Beat It " , " Billie Jean " , and " Thriller " from his 1982 album Thriller , are credited with breaking racial barriers and transforming the medium into an art form and promotional tool . The popularity of these videos helped bring the television channel MTV to fame . Jackson 's 1987 album Bad spawned the U.S. Billboard Hot 100 number @-@ one singles " I Just Can 't Stop Loving You " , " Bad " , " The Way You Make Me Feel " , " Man in the Mirror " , and " Dirty Diana " , becoming the first album to have five number @-@ one singles on the Billboard Hot 100 . He continued to innovate with videos such as " Black or White " and " Scream " throughout the 1990s , and forged a reputation as a touring solo artist . Through stage and video performances , Jackson popularized a number of complicated dance techniques , such as the robot and the moonwalk , to which he gave the name . His distinctive sound and style has influenced numerous artists of various music genres .
Thriller is currently the best @-@ selling album of all time , with estimated sales of 65 million copies worldwide . Jackson 's other albums , including Off the Wall ( 1979 ) , Bad ( 1987 ) , Dangerous ( 1991 ) , and HIStory ( 1995 ) , also rank among the world 's best @-@ selling albums . He is recognized as the Most Successful Entertainer of All Time by Guinness World Records . Jackson is one of the few artists to have been inducted into the Rock and Roll Hall of Fame twice , and was also inducted into the Songwriters Hall of Fame and the Dance Hall of Fame as the only dancer from pop and rock music . His other achievements include multiple Guinness World Records , 13 Grammy Awards , the Grammy Legend Award , the Grammy Lifetime Achievement Award , 26 American Music Awards — more than any other artist — including the " Artist of the Century " and " Artist of the 1980s " , 13 number @-@ one singles in the United States during his solo career , — more than any other male artist in the Hot 100 era — and estimated sales of over 400 million records worldwide . Jackson has won hundreds of awards , making him the most awarded recording artist in the history of popular music . He became the first artist in history to have a top ten single in the Billboard Hot 100 in five different decades when " Love Never Felt So Good " reached number nine on May 21 , 2014 . Jackson traveled the world attending events honoring his humanitarianism , and , in 2000 , the Guinness World Records recognized him for supporting 39 charities , more than any other entertainer .
Aspects of Jackson 's personal life , including his changing appearance , personal relationships , and behavior , generated controversy . In 1993 , he was accused of child sexual abuse , but the civil case was settled out of court for an undisclosed amount and no formal charges were brought . In 2005 , he was tried and acquitted of further child sexual abuse allegations and several other charges after the jury found him not guilty on all counts . While preparing for his comeback concert series , This Is It , Jackson died of acute propofol and benzodiazepine intoxication on June 25 , 2009 , after suffering from cardiac arrest . The Los Angeles County Coroner ruled his death a homicide , and his personal physician , Conrad Murray , was convicted of involuntary manslaughter . Jackson 's death triggered a global outpouring of grief , and a live broadcast of his public memorial service was viewed around the world . Forbes ranks Jackson as the top @-@ earning dead celebrity , a title held for a sixth consecutive year , with $ 115 million in earnings .
= = Life and career = =
= = = 1958 – 75 : Early life and the Jackson 5 = = =
Michael Joseph Jackson was born on August 29 , 1958 . He was the eighth of ten children in a working class African @-@ American family living in a two @-@ bedroom house on Jackson Street in Gary , Indiana , an industrial city and a part of the Chicago metropolitan area . His mother , Katherine Esther Scruse , was a devout Jehovah 's Witness . She played clarinet and piano and once aspired to be a country @-@ and @-@ western performer , but worked part @-@ time at Sears to support the family . Michael 's father , Joseph Walter " Joe " Jackson , a former boxer , was a steelworker at U.S. Steel . Joe also performed on guitar with a local rhythm and blues band , the Falcons , to supplement the family 's household income . Michael grew up with three sisters ( Rebbie , La Toya , and Janet ) and five brothers ( Jackie , Tito , Jermaine , Marlon , and Randy ) . A sixth brother , Marlon 's twin Brandon , died shortly after birth .
Jackson had a troubled relationship with his father , Joe . In 2003 , Joe acknowledged that he regularly whipped him as a boy . Joe was also said to have verbally abused his son , often saying that he had a " fat nose " . Jackson stated that he was physically and emotionally abused during incessant rehearsals , though he credited his father 's strict discipline with playing a large role in his success . In an interview with Martin Bashir for the 2003 documentary Living with Michael Jackson , Jackson recalled that Joe often sat in a chair with a belt in his hand as he and his siblings rehearsed , and that " if you didn 't do it the right way , he would tear you up , really get you . "
Jackson 's parents have disputed the longstanding allegations of abuse , with Katherine stating that while whipping is considered abuse today , it was a common way to discipline children at the time . Jackie , Tito , Jermaine and Marlon have also said that their father was not abusive and that the whippings , which were harder on Michael because he was younger , kept them disciplined and out of trouble . Speaking openly about his childhood in an interview with Oprah Winfrey broadcast in February 1993 , Jackson acknowledged that his youth had been lonely and isolating . His deep dissatisfaction with his appearance , his nightmares and chronic sleep problems , his tendency to remain hyper @-@ compliant , especially with his father , and to remain childlike throughout his adult life are consistent with the effects of the maltreatment he endured as a young child .
In 1964 , Michael and Marlon joined the Jackson Brothers — a band formed by their father and which included brothers Jackie , Tito , and Jermaine — as backup musicians playing congas and tambourine . In 1965 , Jackson began sharing lead vocals with his older brother Jermaine , and the group 's name was changed to the Jackson 5 . The following year , the group won a major local talent show with Jackson performing the dance to Robert Parker 's 1965 hit " Barefootin ' " . From 1966 to 1968 the band toured the Midwest , frequently performing at a string of black clubs known as the " chitlin ' circuit " as the opening act for artists such as Sam & Dave , the O 'Jays , Gladys Knight , and Etta James . The Jackson 5 also performed at clubs and cocktail lounges , where striptease shows and other adult acts were featured , and at local auditoriums and high school dances . In August 1967 , while touring the East coast , the group won a weekly amateur night concert at the Apollo Theater in Harlem .
The Jackson 5 recorded several songs , including " Big Boy " ( 1968 ) , their first single , for Steeltown Records , a Gary , Indiana , record label , before signing with Motown in 1969 . They left Gary in 1969 and relocated to the Los Angeles area , where they continued to record music for Motown . Rolling Stone later described the young Michael as " a prodigy " with " overwhelming musical gifts " who " quickly emerged as the main draw and lead singer . " The group set a chart record when its first four singles — " I Want You Back " ( 1969 ) , " ABC " ( 1970 ) , " The Love You Save " ( 1970 ) , and " I 'll Be There " ( 1970 ) — peaked at number one on the Billboard Hot 100 . In May 1971 , the Jackson family moved into a large home on two @-@ acre estate in Encino , California . During this period , Michael evolved from child performer into a teen idol . As Jackson began to emerge as a solo performer in the early 1970s , he maintained ties to the Jackson 5 and Motown . Between 1972 , when his solo career began , and 1975 , Michael released four solo studio albums with Motown : Got to Be There ( 1972 ) , Ben ( 1972 ) , Music & Me ( 1973 ) , and Forever , Michael ( 1975 ) . " Got to Be There " and " Ben " , the title tracks from his first two solo albums , both became successful singles , as did a cover of Bobby Day 's " Rockin ' Robin " .
The Jackson 5 were later described as " a cutting @-@ edge example of black crossover artists . " Although the group 's sales began to decline in 1973 , and the band members chafed under Motown 's refusal to allow them creative input , they achieved several top 40 hits , including the top five single " Dancing Machine " ( 1974 ) , before leaving Motown in 1975 .
= = = 1975 – 81 : Move to Epic and Off the Wall = = =
In June 1975 , the Jackson 5 signed with Epic Records , a subsidiary of CBS Records , and renamed themselves the Jacksons . Younger brother Randy formally joined the band around this time , while Jermaine chose to stay with Motown and pursue a solo career . The Jacksons continued to tour internationally , and released six more albums between 1976 and 1984 . Michael , the group 's lead songwriter during this time , wrote hits such as " Shake Your Body ( Down to the Ground ) " ( 1979 ) , " This Place Hotel " ( 1980 ) , and " Can You Feel It " ( 1980 ) .
His work in film began in 1978 , when he starred as the Scarecrow in The Wiz , a musical directed by Sidney Lumet that also starred Diana Ross , Nipsey Russell , and Ted Ross . The film was a box @-@ office failure . While working on the film Jackson met producer Quincy Jones , though this was not the first time they had met ( they originally met when Michael was 12 , at Sammy Davis Jr . ' s house ) . Jones was arranging the film 's musical score and agreed to produce Jackson 's next solo album , Off the Wall . In 1979 , Jackson broke his nose during a complex dance routine . His subsequent rhinoplasty was not a complete success ; he complained of breathing difficulties that would affect his career . He was referred to Dr. Steven Hoefflin , who performed Jackson 's second rhinoplasty and subsequent operations .
Off the Wall ( 1979 ) , which Jones and Jackson co @-@ produced , established Jackson as a solo performer . The album helped Jackson transition from the bubblegum pop of his youth to the more complex sounds he would create as an adult . Songwriters for the album included Jackson , Rod Temperton , Stevie Wonder , and Paul McCartney . Off the Wall was the first solo album to generate four top 10 hits in the United States : " Off the Wall " , " She 's Out of My Life " , and the chart @-@ topping singles " Don 't Stop ' Til You Get Enough " and " Rock with You " . The album reached number three on the Billboard 200 and eventually sold over 20 million copies worldwide . In 1980 , Jackson won three awards at the American Music Awards for his solo efforts : Favorite Soul / R & B Album , Favorite Soul / R & B Male Artist , and Favorite Soul / R & B Single for " Don 't Stop ' Til You Get Enough " . He also won Billboard Year @-@ End awards for Top Black Artist and Top Black Album , and a Grammy Award for Best Male R & B Vocal Performance for 1979 with " Don 't Stop ' Til You Get Enough " . In 1981 Jackson was the American Music Awards winner for Favorite Soul / R & B Album and Favorite Soul / R & B Male Artist . Despite its commercial success , Jackson felt Off the Wall should have made a bigger impact , and was determined to exceed expectations with his next release . In 1980 , he secured the highest royalty rate in the music industry : 37 percent of wholesale album profit .
Jackson recorded with Queen singer Freddie Mercury from 1981 to 1983 , including a demo of " State of Shock " , " Victory " and " There Must Be More to Life Than This " . The recordings were intended for an album of duets but , according to Queen 's then @-@ manager Jim Beach , the relationship between the singers soured when Jackson insisted on bringing a llama into the recording studio . The collaborations were not officially released until 2014 . Jackson went on to record the single " State of Shock " with Mick Jagger for the Jacksons ' album Victory ( 1984 ) . Mercury included the solo version of " There Must Be More To Life Than This " on his Mr. Bad Guy album ( 1985 ) .
= = = 1982 – 83 : Thriller and Motown 25 : Yesterday , Today , Forever = = =
In 1982 , Jackson combined his interests in songwriting and film when he contributed the song " Someone in the Dark " to the storybook for the film E.T. the Extra @-@ Terrestrial . The song , with Quincy Jones as its producer , won a Grammy for Best Recording for Children for 1983 .
More success came with the release of his sixth album , Thriller , in late 1982 . The album earned Jackson seven more Grammys and eight American Music Awards , including the Award of Merit , the youngest artist to win it . It was the best @-@ selling album worldwide in 1983 , and became the best @-@ selling album of all time in the United States and the best @-@ selling album of all time worldwide , selling an estimated 65 million copies . It topped the Billboard 200 chart for 37 weeks and was in the top 10 of the 200 for 80 consecutive weeks . It was the first album to have seven Billboard Hot 100 top 10 singles , including " Billie Jean " , " Beat It " , and " Wanna Be Startin ' Somethin ' " . In December 2015 , Thriller was certified for 30 million shipments by the RIAA , making it the only album to achieve that feat in the United States . Thriller won Jackson and Quincy Jones the Grammy award for Producer of the Year ( Non @-@ Classical ) for 1983 . It also won Album of the Year , with Jackson as the album 's artist and Jones as its co @-@ producer , and a Best Pop Vocal Performance , Male , award for Jackson . " Beat It " won Record of the Year , with Jackson as artist and Jones as co @-@ producer , and a Best Rock Vocal Performance , Male , award for Jackson . " Billie Jean " won Jackson two Grammy awards , Best R & B Song , with Jackson as its songwriter , and Best R & B Vocal Performance , Male , as its artist . Thriller also won another Grammy for Best Engineered Recording – Non Classical in 1984 , awarding Bruce Swedien for his work on the album . The AMA Awards for 1984 provided Jackson with an Award of Merit and AMAs for Favorite Male Artist , Soul / R & B , and Favorite Male Artist , Pop / Rock . " Beat It " won Jackson AMAs for Favorite Video , Soul / R & B , Favorite Video , Pop / Rock , and Favorite Single , Pop / Rock . Thriller won him AMAs for Favorite Album , Soul / R & B , and Favorite Album , Pop / Rock .
In addition to the album , Jackson released " Thriller " , a 14 @-@ minute music video directed by John Landis , in 1983 . It " defined music videos and broke racial barriers " on the Music Television Channel ( MTV ) , a fledgling entertainment television channel at the time . In December 2009 , the Library of Congress selected the " Thriller " music video for inclusion in the National Film Registry . It was one of 25 films named that year as " works of enduring importance to American culture " that would be " preserved for all time . " As of 2009 , the zombie @-@ themed " Thriller " is the only music video to have been inducted into the registry .
Jackson 's attorney John Branca noted that Jackson had the highest royalty rate in the music industry at that point : approximately $ 2 for every album sold . He was also making record @-@ breaking profits from sales of his recordings . The videocassette of the documentary The Making of Michael Jackson 's Thriller sold over 350 @,@ 000 copies in a few months . The era saw the arrival of novelties such as dolls modeled after Michael Jackson , which appeared in stores in May 1984 at a price of $ 12 . Biographer J. Randy Taraborrelli writes that " Thriller stopped selling like a leisure item — like a magazine , a toy , tickets to a hit movie — and started selling like a household staple . " In 1985 , The Making of Michael Jackson 's Thriller won a Grammy for Best Music Video , Longform . Time described Jackson 's influence at that point as " star of records , radio , rock video . A one @-@ man rescue team for the music business . A songwriter who sets the beat for a decade . A dancer with the fanciest feet on the street . A singer who cuts across all boundaries of taste and style and color too " . The New York Times wrote that " in the world of pop music , there is Michael Jackson and there is everybody else " .
On March 25 , 1983 , Jackson reunited with his brothers for a live performance taped at the Pasadena Civic Auditorium for Motown 25 : Yesterday , Today , Forever , an NBC television special . The show aired on May 16 , 1983 , to an estimated audience of 47 million viewers , and featured the Jacksons and other Motown stars . The show is best remembered for Jackson 's solo performance of " Billie Jean " , which earned Jackson his first Emmy nomination . Wearing a distinctive black @-@ sequined jacket and a golf glove decorated with rhinestones , he debuted his signature dance move , the moonwalk , which former Soul Train dancer and Shalamar member Jeffrey Daniel had taught him three years earlier . Jackson originally turned down the invitation to perform at the show , believing he had been doing too much television at the time ; however , at the request of Berry Gordy , Jackson agreed to perform in exchange for time to do a solo performance . According to Rolling Stone reporter Mikal Gilmore , " There are times when you know you are hearing or seeing something extraordinary ... that came that night . " Jackson 's performance drew comparisons to Elvis Presley 's and the Beatles ' appearances on The Ed Sullivan Show . Anna Kisselgoff of The New York Times later wrote : " The moonwalk that he made famous is an apt metaphor for his dance style . How does he do it ? As a technician , he is a great illusionist , a genuine mime . His ability to keep one leg straight as he glides while the other bends and seems to walk requires perfect timing . " Berry Gordy said of the performance , " from the first beat of Billie Jean , I was mesmerized , and when he did his iconic moonwalk , I was shocked , it was magic , Michael Jackson went into orbit , and never came down . "
= = = 1984 – 85 : Pepsi , " We Are the World " , and business career = = =
In November 1983 Jackson and his brothers partnered with PepsiCo in a $ 5 million promotional deal that broke advertising industry records for a celebrity endorsement . The first Pepsi Cola campaign , which ran in the United States from 1983 to 1984 and launched its " New Generation " theme , included tour sponsorship , public relations events , and in @-@ store displays . Jackson , who was actively involved in creating the iconic advertisement , suggested using his song , " Billie Jean " , as its jingle with a revised chorus . According to a Billboard report in 2009 , Brian J. Murphy , executive VP of branded management at TBA Global , said : " You couldn 't separate the tour from the endorsement from the licensing of the music , and then the integration of the music into the Pepsi fabric . "
On January 27 , 1984 , Michael and other members of the Jacksons filmed a Pepsi commercial overseen by executive Phil Dusenberry , a BBDO ad agency executive , and Alan Pottasch , Pepsi 's Worldwide Creative Director , at the Shrine Auditorium in Los Angeles . During a simulated concert before a full house of fans , pyrotechnics accidentally set Jackson 's hair on fire , causing second @-@ degree burns to his scalp . Jackson underwent treatment to hide the scars and had his third rhinoplasty shortly thereafter . Pepsi settled out of court , and Jackson donated his $ 1 @.@ 5 million settlement to the Brotman Medical Center in Culver City , California . Its Michael Jackson Burn Center is named in his honor . Dusenberry later recounted the episode in his memoir , Then We Set His Hair on Fire : Insights and Accidents from a Hall of Fame Career in Advertising . Jackson signed a second agreement with Pepsi in the late 1980s for a reported $ 10 million . The second campaign had a global reach of more than 20 countries and would provide financial support for Jackson 's Bad album and 1987 – 88 world tour . Although Jackson had endorsements and advertising deals with other companies , such as LA Gear , Suzuki , and Sony , none were as significant as his deals with Pepsi , which later signed other music stars such as Britney Spears and Beyoncé to promote its products .
Jackson 's humanitarian work was recognized on May 14 , 1984 , when he was invited to the White House to receive an award from President Ronald Reagan for his support of charities that helped people overcome alcohol and drug abuse , and in recognition of his support for the Ad Council 's and the National Highway Traffic Safety Administration 's Drunk Driving Prevention campaign . Jackson donated the use of " Beat It " for the campaign 's public service announcements .
Unlike later albums , Thriller did not have an official tour , but the Victory Tour of 1984 headlined the Jacksons and showcased much of Jackson 's new solo material to more than two million Americans . It was the last tour he would do with his brothers . Following controversy over the concert 's ticket sales , Jackson held a press conference and announced that he would donate his share of the proceeds , an estimated $ 3 to 5 million , to charity . His charitable work and humanitarian awards continued with the release of " We Are the World " ( 1985 ) , which he co @-@ wrote with Lionel Richie . The song was recorded on January 28 , 1985 and was released worldwide in March 1985 to aid the poor in the United States and Africa . The song earned $ 63 million for famine relief , and became one of the best @-@ selling singles of all time , with 20 million copies sold . " We Are the World " won four Grammys for 1985 , including Song of the Year going to Jackson and Richie as its co @-@ songwriters . Although the American Music Award directors removed the charity song from the competition because they felt it would be inappropriate , the AMA show in 1986 concluded with a tribute to the song in honor of its first anniversary . The project 's creators received two special AMA honors : one for the creation of the song and another for the USA for Africa idea . Jackson , Quincy Jones , and entertainment promoter Ken Kragan received special awards for their roles in the song 's creation .
Jackson 's financial interests in the music publishing business grew after Jackson collaborated with Paul McCartney in the early 1980s . He subsequently learned that McCartney was making approximately $ 40 million a year from other people 's songs . By 1983 , Jackson had begun investing in publishing rights to songs that others had written , but he was careful with his acquisitions , only bidding on a few of the dozens that were offered to him . Jackson 's early acquisitions of music catalogs and song copyrights such as the Sly Stone collection included " Everyday People " ( 1968 ) , Len Barry 's " 1 @-@ 2 @-@ 3 " ( 1965 ) , and Dion DiMucci 's " The Wanderer " ( 1961 ) and " Runaround Sue " ( 1961 ) ; however , Jackson 's most significant purchase came in 1985 , when he acquired the publishing rights to ATV Music Publishing after months of negotiation . ATV had acquired the publishing rights to nearly 4000 songs , including the Northern Songs catalog that contained the majority of the Lennon – McCartney compositions recorded by the Beatles .
In 1984 Robert Holmes à Court , the wealthy Australian investor who owned ATV Music Publishing , announced he was putting the ATV catalog up for sale . In 1981 , McCartney was offered the ATV music catalog for £ 20 million ( $ 40 million ) . According to McCartney , he contacted Yoko Ono about making a joint purchase by splitting the cost at £ 10 million each , but Ono thought they could buy it for £ 5 million each . When they were unable to make a joint purchase , McCartney , who did not want to be the sole owner of the Beatles ' songs , did not pursue an offer on his own . According to a negotiator for Holmes à Court in the 1984 sale , McCartney was given first right of refusal and declined to purchase .
Jackson was informed of the sale by his attorney , John Branca , in September 1984 . An attorney for McCartney also assured Branca that McCartney was not interested in bidding . McCartney reportedly felt it was too expensive , but several other companies and investors were interested in bidding . Jackson submitted a bid of $ 46 million on November 20 , 1984 . His agents thought they had a deal several times , but encountered new bidders or new areas of debate . In May 1985 , Jackson 's team left talks after having spent more than $ 1 million and four months of due diligence work on the negotiations . In June 1985 , Jackson and Branca learned that Charles Koppelman 's and Marty Bandier 's The Entertainment Company had made a tentative agreement with Holmes à Court to buy ATV Music for $ 50 million ; however , in early August , Holmes à Court 's team contacted Jackson and talks resumed . Jackson raised his bid to $ 47 @.@ 5 million , which was accepted because he could close the deal more quickly , having already completed due diligence of ATV Music . Jackson also agreed to visit Holmes à Court in Australia , where he would appear on the Channel Seven Perth Telethon . Jackson 's purchase of ATV Music was finalized on August 10 , 1985 .
= = = 1986 – 90 : Changing appearance , tabloids , Bad , films , autobiography , and Neverland = = =
Jackson 's skin had been a medium @-@ brown color during his youth , but starting in the mid @-@ 1980s gradually grew paler . The change gained widespread media coverage , including rumors that he might have been bleaching his skin . According to J. Randy Taraborrelli 's biography , in 1984 , Jackson was diagnosed with vitiligo , which Taraborrelli noted may be a consequence of skin bleaching . He claimed Jackson was diagnosed with lupus . The vitiligo partially lightened his skin , and the lupus was in remission . Both illnesses made his skin sensitive to sunlight . The treatments Jackson used for his condition further lightened his skin tone , and with the application of pancake makeup to even out blotches he could appear pale . Jackson was also diagnosed with vitiligo in his autopsy , though not lupus .
Jackson claimed he had only two rhinoplasties and no other facial surgery , although at one point mentioned having a dimple created in his chin . He lost weight in the early 1980s because of a change in diet and a desire for " a dancer 's body " . Witnesses reported that he was often dizzy , and speculated he was suffering from anorexia nervosa . Periods of weight loss would become a recurring problem later in life . During the course of his treatment , Jackson made two close friends : his dermatologist , Dr. Arnold Klein , and Klein 's nurse Debbie Rowe . Rowe eventually became Jackson 's second wife and the mother of his two eldest children . He also relied heavily on Klein for medical and business advice .
Jackson became the subject of increasingly sensational reports . In 1986 , the tabloids ran a story claiming that Jackson slept in a hyperbaric oxygen chamber to slow the aging process ; he was pictured lying in a glass box . Although the claim was untrue , according to tabloid reports that are widely cited , Jackson had disseminated the fabricated story himself . When Jackson bought a chimpanzee named Bubbles from a laboratory , he was reported to be increasingly detached from reality . It was reported that Jackson had offered to buy the bones of Joseph Merrick ( the " Elephant Man " ) and , although untrue , Jackson did not deny the story . Although he initially saw these stories as opportunities for publicity , he stopped leaking untruths to the press as they became more sensational . Consequently , the media began fabricating stories . These reports became embedded in the public consciousness , inspiring the nickname " Wacko Jacko " , which Jackson came to despise . Responding to the gossip , Jackson remarked to Taraborrelli :
Why not just tell people I 'm an alien from Mars ? Tell them I eat live chickens and do a voodoo dance at midnight . They 'll believe anything you say , because you 're a reporter . But if I , Michael Jackson , were to say , " I 'm an alien from Mars and I eat live chickens and do a voodoo dance at midnight , " people would say , " Oh , man , that Michael Jackson is nuts . He 's cracked up . You can 't believe a single word that comes out of his mouth . "
Jackson collaborated with filmmakers George Lucas and Francis Ford Coppola on the 17 @-@ minute 3D film Captain EO , which debuted in September 1986 at both the original Disneyland and at Epcot in Florida , and in March 1987 at Tokyo Disneyland . The $ 30 million movie was a popular attraction at all three parks . A Captain EO attraction was later featured at Euro Disneyland after that park opened in 1992 . All four parks ' Captain EO installations stayed open well into the 1990s : the Paris installation was the last to close , in 1998 . The attraction would later return to Disneyland in 2010 after Jackson 's death . In 1987 , Jackson disassociated himself from the Jehovah 's Witnesses , in response to their disapproval of the Thriller video .
With the industry expecting another major hit , Jackson 's first album in five years , Bad ( 1987 ) , was highly anticipated . The album produced seven successful singles in the U.S. , five of which ( " I Just Can 't Stop Loving You " , " Bad " , " The Way You Make Me Feel " , " Man in the Mirror " , and " Dirty Diana " ) reached number one on the Billboard Hot 100 . This was a record for most number one Hot 100 singles from any one album , including Thriller . As of 2012 , the album had sold between 30 and 45 million copies worldwide . Bruce Swedien and Humberto Gatica won one Grammy in 1988 for Best Engineered Recording – Non Classical and Michael Jackson won one Grammy for Best Music Video , Short Form for " Leave Me Alone " in 1989 . In the same year , Jackson won an Award of Achievement at the American Music Awards because Bad is the first album ever to generate five number one singles in the U.S. , the first album to top in 25 countries , and the best @-@ selling album worldwide in 1987 and 1988 . In 1988 , " Bad " won an American Music Award for Favorite Soul / R & B Single .
The Bad World Tour began on September 12 that year , finishing on January 14 , 1989 . In Japan alone , the tour had 14 sellouts and drew 570 @,@ 000 people , nearly tripling the previous record of 200 @,@ 000 in a single tour . Jackson broke a Guinness World Record when 504 @,@ 000 people attended seven sold @-@ out shows at Wembley Stadium . He performed a total of 123 concerts to an audience of 4 @.@ 4 million people .
In 1988 , Jackson released his only autobiography , Moonwalk , which took four years to complete and sold 200 @,@ 000 copies . He wrote about his childhood , the Jackson 5 , and the abuse he had suffered . He also wrote about his changing facial appearance , attributing it to puberty , weight loss , a strict vegetarian diet , a change in hair style , and stage lighting . Moonwalk reached the top position on The New York Times best sellers ' list . Jackson released a film , Moonwalker , which featured live footage and short films starring Jackson and Joe Pesci . Due to financial issues , the film was only released theatrically in Germany ; in other markets it was released direct @-@ to @-@ video . It debuted at the top of the Billboard Top Music Video Cassette chart , staying there for 22 weeks . It was eventually knocked off the top spot by Michael Jackson : The Legend Continues .
In March 1988 , Jackson purchased land near Santa Ynez , California , to build Neverland Ranch at a cost of $ 17 million . He installed several carnival rides on the 2 @,@ 700 @-@ acre ( 11 km2 ) property , including a Ferris wheel , carousel , menagerie , as well as a movie theater and a zoo . A security staff of 40 patrolled the grounds . In 2003 , it was valued at approximately $ 100 million . In 1989 , Jackson 's annual earnings from album sales , endorsements , and concerts were estimated at $ 125 million for that year alone . Shortly afterwards , he became the first Westerner to appear in a television ad in the Soviet Union .
Jackson 's success resulted in him being dubbed the " King of Pop " . The nickname was popularized by Elizabeth Taylor when she presented him with the Soul Train Heritage Award in 1989 , proclaiming him " the true king of pop , rock and soul . " President George H. W. Bush designated him the White House 's " Artist of the Decade " . From 1985 to 1990 , he donated $ 455 @,@ 000 to the United Negro College Fund , and all profits from his single " Man in the Mirror " went to charity . Jackson 's live rendition of " You Were There " at Sammy Davis Jr . ' s 60th birthday celebration won Jackson a second Emmy nomination .
= = = 1991 – 93 : Dangerous , Heal the World Foundation , and Super Bowl XXVII = = =
In March 1991 , Jackson renewed his contract with Sony for $ 65 million , a record @-@ breaking deal at the time , displacing Neil Diamond 's renewal contract with Columbia Records . In 1991 , he released his eighth album , Dangerous , co @-@ produced with Teddy Riley . Dangerous was certified seven times platinum in the U.S. , and by 2008 had sold approximately 30 million copies worldwide . In the United States , the album 's first single " Black or White " was its biggest hit , reaching number one on the Billboard Hot 100 and remaining there for seven weeks , with similar chart performances worldwide . The album 's second single , " Remember the Time " , spent eight weeks in the top five in the United States , peaking at number three on the Billboard Hot 100 singles chart . At the end of 1992 , Dangerous was awarded the best @-@ selling album of the year worldwide and " Black or White " was awarded best @-@ selling single of the year worldwide at the Billboard Music Awards . Jackson also won an award as best @-@ selling artist of the 1980s . In 1993 , he performed the song at the Soul Train Music Awards in a chair , saying he had suffered an injury in rehearsals . In the UK and other parts of Europe , " Heal the World " was the album 's most successful song ; it sold 450 @,@ 000 copies in the UK and spent five weeks at number two in 1992 .
Jackson founded the Heal the World Foundation in 1992 . The charity organization brought underprivileged children to Jackson 's ranch to enjoy theme park rides that Jackson had built on the property . The foundation also sent millions of dollars around the globe to help children threatened by war , poverty , and disease . In the same year , Jackson published his second book , Dancing the Dream , a collection of poetry , revealing a more intimate side of his nature . While it was a commercial success , it received mostly negative reviews . In 2009 , the book was republished by Doubleday and was more positively received by some critics in the wake of Jackson 's death . The Dangerous World Tour grossed $ 100 million . The tour began on June 27 , 1992 , and finished on November 11 , 1993 . Jackson performed to 3 @.@ 5 million people in 70 concerts . He sold the broadcast rights to his Dangerous world tour to HBO for $ 20 million , a record @-@ breaking deal that still stands .
Following the illness and death of AIDS spokesperson Ryan White , Jackson helped draw public attention to HIV / AIDS , something that was controversial at the time . He publicly pleaded with the Clinton Administration at Bill Clinton 's Inaugural Gala to give more money to HIV / AIDS charities and research . In a high @-@ profile visit to Africa , Jackson visited several countries , among them Gabon and Egypt . His first stop to Gabon was greeted with an enthusiastic reception of more than 100 @,@ 000 people , some of them carrying signs that read , " Welcome Home Michael . " In his trip to Ivory Coast , Jackson was crowned " King Sani " by a tribal chief . He thanked the dignitaries in French and English , signed official documents formalizing his kingship , and sat on a golden throne while presiding over ceremonial dances .
In January 1993 , Jackson performed at the Super Bowl XXVII halftime show in Pasadena , California . Because of a dwindling interest during halftime in the preceding years , the NFL decided to seek big @-@ name talent that would keep ratings high , with Jackson selected for his universal appeal . It was the first Super Bowl whose half @-@ time performance drew greater audience figures than the game itself . The performance began with Jackson catapulting onto the stage as fireworks went off behind him . As he landed on the canvas , he maintained a " clenched fist , standing statue stance , " dressed in a gold and black military outfit and sunglasses ; he remained completely motionless for a minute and a half while the crowd cheered . He then slowly removed his sunglasses , threw them away , and performed four songs : " Jam " , " Billie Jean " , " Black or White " , and " Heal the World " . Jackson 's Dangerous album rose 90 places up the album chart soon after .
Jackson gave a 90 @-@ minute interview to Oprah Winfrey on February 10 , 1993 , his second television interview since 1979 . He grimaced when speaking of his childhood abuse at the hands of his father ; he believed he had missed out on much of his childhood years , admitting that he often cried from loneliness . He denied tabloid rumors that he had bought the bones of the Elephant Man , slept in a hyperbaric oxygen chamber , or bleached his skin , stating for the first time that he had vitiligo . Dangerous re @-@ entered the album chart in the top 10 , more than a year after its original release .
In February 1993 , Jackson was given the " Living Legend Award " at the 35th Annual Grammy Awards in Los Angeles . " Black or White " was Grammy @-@ nominated for best vocal performance . " Jam " gained two nominations : Best R & B Vocal Performance and Best R & B Song . The Dangerous album won a Grammy for Best Engineered – Non Classical , awarding the work of Bruce Swedien and Teddy Riley . In the same year , Michael Jackson won three American Music Awards for Favorite Pop / Rock Album ( Dangerous ) , Favorite Soul / R & B Single ( " Remember the Time " ) , and was the first to win the International Artist Award of Excellence , for his global performances and humanitarian concerns .
Jackson agreed to produce the soundtrack for Sega 's 1994 video game Sonic the Hedgehog 3 with collaborators Brad Buxer , Bobby Brooks , Darryl Ross , Geoff Grace , Doug Grigsby , and Cirocco Jones . Jackson left the project before completion and was never officially credited , allegedly due to his dissatisfaction with the Sega Genesis console 's audio chip .
= = = 1993 – 94 : First child sexual abuse allegations and first marriage = = =
In the summer of 1993 , Jackson was accused of child sexual abuse by a 13 @-@ year @-@ old boy named Jordan Chandler and his father , Evan Chandler , a dentist . The Chandler family demanded payment from Jackson , and the singer initially refused . Jordan Chandler eventually told the police that Jackson had sexually abused him . Evan Chandler was recorded discussing his intention to pursue charges , saying , " If I go through with this , I win big @-@ time . There 's no way I lose . I will get everything I want and they will be destroyed forever ..... Michael 's career will be over . " Jordan 's mother was , however , adamant at the time that there had been no wrongdoing on Jackson 's part . Jackson later used the recording to argue that he was the victim of a jealous father whose only goal was to extort money from the singer . In January 1994 , after investigation on allegations of extortion against the singer by Chandler , deputy Los Angeles County district attorney Michael J. Montagna stated that Chandler would not be charged , due to lack of cooperation from Jackson 's party and its willingness to negotiate with Chandler for several weeks , among other reasons .
In August 1993 , Jackson 's home was raided by the police who , according to court documents , found books and photographs in his bedroom featuring young boys with little or no clothing . Since the books were legal to purchase and own , the jury decided not to indict Jackson . In December 1993 , Jackson was strip @-@ searched . Jordan Chandler had reportedly given police a description of Jackson 's intimate parts , and the strip search revealed that Jordan had correctly claimed Jackson had patchy @-@ colored buttocks , short pubic hair , and pink and brown marked testicles . Reportedly , Jordan had also previously drawn accurate pictures of a dark spot on Jackson 's penis only visible when his penis was lifted . Despite differing initial internal reports from prosecutors and investigators and later , with reports of jurors feeling otherwise that the photos did not match the description , the DA stated his belief in a sworn affidavit that the description was accurate , along with the sheriff 's photographer stating the description was accurate . A 2004 motion filed by Jackson 's defense asserted that Jackson was never criminally indicted by any grand jury and that his settlement admitted no wrongdoing and contained no evidence of criminal misconduct .
The investigation was inconclusive and no charges were filed . Jackson described the search in an emotional public statement , and proclaimed his innocence . On January 1 , 1994 , Jackson settled with the Chandlers out of court for $ 22 million . A Santa Barbara County grand jury and a Los Angeles County grand jury disbanded on May 2 , 1994 , without indicting Jackson , and the Chandlers stopped co @-@ operating with the criminal investigation around July 6 , 1994 . The out @-@ of @-@ court settlement 's documentation stated Jackson admitted no wrongdoing and no liability ; the Chandlers and their family lawyer Larry Feldman signed it without contest .
Feldman also stated " nobody bought anybody 's silence " . A decade after the fact , during the second round of child abuse allegations , Jackson 's lawyers would file a memo stating that the 1994 settlement was done without his consent . A later disclosure by the FBI of investigation documents compiled over nearly 20 years led Jackson 's attorney to suggest that no evidence of molestation or sexual impropriety from Jackson toward minors existed . According to reports the Department of Children and Family Services ( Los Angeles County ) had investigated Jackson beginning in 1993 with the Chandler allegation and again in 2003 . Reports show the LAPD and DCFS did not find credible evidence of abuse or sexual misconduct .
In May 1994 , Jackson married Lisa Marie Presley , the daughter of Elvis and Priscilla Presley . They had met in 1975 , when a seven @-@ year @-@ old Presley attended one of Jackson 's family engagements at the MGM Grand Hotel and Casino , and reconnected through a mutual friend . According to a friend of Presley 's , " their adult friendship began in November 1992 in L.A. " They stayed in contact every day over the telephone . As the child molestation accusations became public , Jackson became dependent on Presley for emotional support ; she was concerned about his faltering health and addiction to drugs . Presley explained , " I believed he didn 't do anything wrong and that he was wrongly accused and yes I started falling for him . I wanted to save him . I felt that I could do it . " She eventually persuaded him to settle the civil case out of court and go into rehabilitation to recover .
Jackson proposed to Presley over the telephone towards the fall of 1993 , saying , " If I asked you to marry me , would you do it ? " They married in the Dominican Republic in secrecy , denying it for nearly two months afterwards . The marriage was , in her words , " a married couple 's life ... that was sexually active . " The tabloid media speculated that the wedding was a ploy to prop up Jackson 's public image . The marriage ended less than two years later with an amicable divorce settlement . In a 2010 interview with Oprah , Presley admitted that they had spent four more years after the divorce " getting back together and breaking up " until she decided to stop .
= = = 1995 – 99 : HIStory , second marriage , and fatherhood = = =
In 1995 , Jackson merged his ATV Music catalog with Sony 's music publishing division , creating Sony / ATV Music Publishing . He retained ownership of half the company , earning $ 95 million up front as well as the rights to more songs . In June , he released the double album HIStory : Past , Present and Future , Book I. The first disc , HIStory Begins , is a 15 @-@ track greatest hits album ( later reissued as Greatest Hits : HIStory , Volume I in 2001 ) ; the second disc , HIStory Continues , contains 13 original songs and 2 cover versions . The album debuted at number one on the charts and has been certified for seven million shipments in the US . It is the best @-@ selling multiple @-@ disc album of all @-@ time , with 20 million copies ( 40 million units ) sold worldwide . HIStory received a Grammy nomination for Album of the Year .
The first single released from the album was " Scream / Childhood " . " Scream " , a duet with Jackson 's youngest sister Janet , protests the media , particularly for its treatment of him during the 1993 child abuse allegations . The single had the highest debut on the Billboard Hot 100 at number five , and received a Grammy nomination for " Best Pop Collaboration with Vocals " . " You Are Not Alone " was the second single released from HIStory ; it holds the Guinness World Record for the first song ever to debut at number one on the Billboard Hot 100 chart . It was seen as a major artistic and commercial success , receiving a Grammy nomination for " Best Pop Vocal Performance " .
In late 1995 , Jackson was rushed to a hospital after collapsing during rehearsals for a televised performance , caused by a stress @-@ related panic attack . " Earth Song " was the third single released from HIStory , and topped the UK Singles Chart for six weeks over Christmas 1995 ; it sold a million copies , making it Jackson 's most successful single in the UK . The track " They Don 't Care About Us " became controversial when the Anti @-@ Defamation League and other groups criticized its allegedly antisemitic lyrics . Jackson quickly released a revised version of the song without the offending lyrics . In 1996 , Jackson won a Grammy for Best Music Video , Short Form for " Scream " and an American Music Award for Favorite Pop / Rock Male Artist .
HIStory was promoted with the successful HIStory World Tour , beginning on September 7 , 1996 , and ending on October 15 , 1997 . Jackson performed 82 concerts in five continents , 35 countries and 58 cities to over 4 @.@ 5 million fans , and grossed a total of $ 165 million , becoming Jackson 's most successful tour in terms of audience figures . During the tour , Jackson married his longtime friend Deborah Jeanne Rowe , a dermatology nurse , in an impromptu ceremony in Sydney , Australia . Rowe was approximately six months pregnant with the couple 's first child at the time . Originally , Rowe and Jackson had no plans to marry , but Jackson 's mother Katherine persuaded them to do so . Michael Joseph Jackson Jr ( commonly known as Prince ) was born on February 13 , 1997 ; his sister Paris @-@ Michael Katherine Jackson was born a year later on April 3 , 1998 . The couple divorced in 1999 , and Jackson received full custody of the children . The divorce was relatively amicable , but a subsequent custody suit was not settled until 2006 .
In 1997 , Jackson released Blood on the Dance Floor : HIStory in the Mix , which contained remixes of hit singles from HIStory and five new songs . Worldwide sales stand at 6 million copies , making it the best @-@ selling remix album of all time . It reached number one in the UK , as did the title track . In the US , the album was certified platinum , but only reached number 24 . Forbes placed Jackson 's annual income at $ 35 million in 1996 and $ 20 million in 1997 .
Throughout June 1999 , Jackson was involved in a number of charitable events . He joined Luciano Pavarotti for a benefit concert in Modena , Italy . The show was in support of the nonprofit organization War Child , and raised a million dollars for the refugees of Kosovo , FR Yugoslavia , and additional funds for the children of Guatemala . Later that month , Jackson organized a series of " Michael Jackson & Friends " benefit concerts in Germany and Korea . Other artists involved included Slash , The Scorpions , Boyz II Men , Luther Vandross , Mariah Carey , A. R. Rahman , Prabhu Deva Sundaram , Shobana , Andrea Bocelli , and Luciano Pavarotti . The proceeds went to the Nelson Mandela Children 's Fund , the Red Cross and UNESCO . From August 1999 through 2000 , he lived in New York City at 4 East 74th Street .
= = = 2000 – 03 : Label dispute and Invincible = = =
At the turn of the century , Jackson won an American Music Award as Artist of the 1980s . Throughout 2000 and 2001 , he worked with collaborators including Teddy Riley and Rodney Jerkins to produce his tenth solo album , Invincible , released in October 2001 . The album cost $ 30 million to record , not including promotional expenditures . Invincible was Jackson 's first full @-@ length album in six years , and was the last album of original material he released in his lifetime . The release was preceded by a dispute between Jackson and his record label , Sony Music Entertainment . Jackson had expected the licenses to the masters of his albums to revert to him sometime in the early 2000s . Once he had the licenses , he would be able to promote the material however he pleased and keep all the profits ; however , clauses in the contract set the revert date years into the future . Jackson discovered that the attorney who had represented him in the deal had also been representing Sony . Jackson was also concerned about the fact that for years , Sony had been pressuring him to sell his share in its music catalog venture . Jackson feared that Sony might have a conflict of interest , since if Jackson 's career failed , he would have to sell his share of the catalog at a low price . Jackson sought an early exit from his contract .
In September 2001 , two 30th Anniversary concerts were held at Madison Square Garden to mark Jackson 's 30th year as a solo artist . Jackson appeared onstage alongside his brothers for the first time since 1984 . The show also featured performances by Mýa , Usher , Whitney Houston , NSYNC , Destiny 's Child , Monica , Luther Vandross , and Slash , among other artists . The second of the two shows took place the night before the September 11 , 2001 , terrorist attacks . After 9 / 11 , Jackson helped organize the United We Stand : What More Can I Give benefit concert at RFK Stadium in Washington , D.C. The concert took place on October 21 , 2001 , and included performances from dozens of major artists , including Jackson , who performed his song " What More Can I Give " as the finale . Due to contractual issues related to the earlier 30th Anniversary concerts , later edited into a two @-@ hour TV special titled Michael Jackson : 30th Anniversary Celebration broadcast in November 2001 , Jackson 's solo performances were omitted from the televised benefit concert , although he could still be seen singing background vocals .
Invincible was released in October 2001 to much anticipation . It debuted at number one in 13 countries and went on to sell approximately 13 million copies worldwide . It received double @-@ platinum certification in the U.S. However , sales for Invincible were lower than Jackson 's previous releases , due in part to the record label dispute and the lack of promotion or tour , and its release at a bad time for the music industry in general . Invincible spawned three singles , " You Rock My World " , " Cry " , and " Butterflies " , the latter without a music video . Jackson alleged in July 2002 that the @-@ then Sony Music chairman Tommy Mottola was a " devil " and a " racist " who did not support his African @-@ American artists , using them merely for his own personal gain . He charged that Mottola had called his colleague Irv Gotti a " fat nigger " . Sony refused to renew Jackson 's contract , and claimed that a $ 25 million promotional campaign had failed because Jackson refused to tour in the United States .
In 2002 , Michael Jackson won his 22nd American Music Award for Artist of the Century . In the same year , his third child , Prince Michael Jackson II ( nicknamed " Blanket " ) was born . The mother 's identity was not announced , but Jackson said the child was the result of artificial insemination from a surrogate mother and his own sperm . On November 20 of that year , Jackson brought his infant son onto the balcony of his room at the Hotel Adlon in Berlin as fans stood below , holding him in his right arm , with a cloth loosely draped over the baby 's face . The baby was briefly extended over a railing , four stories above ground level , prompting widespread criticism in the media . Jackson later apologized for the incident , calling it " a terrible mistake " . In November 2003 , Sony released Number Ones , a compilation of Jackson 's hits on CD and DVD . In the U.S. , the album was certified triple platinum by the RIAA ; in the UK it was certified six times platinum for shipments of at least 1 @.@ 2 million units .
= = = 2003 – 05 : Second child sexual abuse allegations and acquittal = = =
Beginning in May 2002 , Jackson allowed a documentary film crew , led by British TV personality Martin Bashir , to follow him around nearly everywhere he went . Bashir 's film crew was with Jackson during the " baby @-@ dangling incident " in Berlin . The program was broadcast in March 2003 as Living with Michael Jackson . In a particularly controversial scene , Jackson was seen holding hands and discussing sleeping arrangements with a young boy .
As soon as the documentary aired , the Santa Barbara county attorney 's office began a criminal investigation . After an initial probe from the LAPD and DCFS was conducted in February 2003 , they had initially concluded that molestation allegations were " unfounded " at the time . After the young boy involved in the documentary and his mother had told investigators that Jackson had behaved improperly with the boy , Jackson was arrested in November 2003 , and was charged with seven counts of child molestation and two counts of administering an intoxicating agent in relation to the 13 @-@ year @-@ old boy shown in the film . Jackson denied the allegations , saying the sleepovers were not sexual in nature . The People v. Jackson trial began on January 31 , 2005 , in Santa Maria , California , and lasted five months , until the end of May . On June 13 , 2005 , Jackson was acquitted on all counts . After the trial , in a highly publicized relocation he moved to the Persian Gulf island of Bahrain , as a guest of Sheikh Abdullah . Bahrain was also where the family intended to send Jackson if he was convicted ( though Jackson did not know about the plan ) , according to a statement by Jermaine Jackson printed in The Times of London in September 2011 .
= = = 2006 – 09 : Closure of Neverland , final years , and This Is It = = =
In March 2006 , the main house at the Neverland Ranch was closed as a cost @-@ cutting measure . There were numerous reports around that time that Jackson had been having financial problems . He had been delinquent on his repayments of a $ 270 million loan secured against his music @-@ publishing holdings , even though those holdings were reportedly making him as much as $ 75 million a year . Bank of America sold the debt to Fortress Investments . Sony reportedly proposed a restructuring deal which would give them a future option to buy half of Jackson 's stake in their jointly @-@ owned publishing company , leaving Jackson with a 25 % stake . Jackson agreed to a Sony @-@ backed refinancing deal in April 2006 , although the details were not made public . Jackson did not have a recording contract at the time . In early 2006 , it was announced that Jackson had signed a contract with a Bahrain @-@ based startup called Two Seas Records . However , nothing came of the deal , and the Two Seas CEO Guy Holmes later stated that the deal had never been finalized .
Throughout 2006 , Sony repackaged 20 singles from the 1980s and 1990s as the Michael Jackson : Visionary series , which subsequently became a box set . Most of those singles returned to the charts as a result . In September 2006 , Jackson and his ex @-@ wife Debbie Rowe confirmed reports that they had settled their long @-@ running child custody suit . The terms were never made public . Jackson continued to be the custodial parent of the couple 's two children . In October 2006 , Fox News entertainment reporter Roger Friedman said that Jackson had been recording at a studio in rural Westmeath , Ireland . It was not known at the time what Jackson had working on , or who had paid for the sessions , since his publicist had recently issued a statement claiming that he had left Two Seas .
In November 2006 , Jackson invited an Access Hollywood camera crew into the studio in Westmeath , and MSNBC reported that he was working on a new album , produced by will.i.am. Jackson performed at the World Music Awards in London on November 15 , 2006 , and accepted a Diamond Award for selling over 100 million records . He returned to the United States after Christmas 2006 to attend James Brown 's funeral in Augusta , Georgia , where he gave one of the eulogies , saying that " James Brown is my greatest inspiration . " In the spring of 2007 , Jackson and Sony teamed up to buy another music publishing company , Famous Music LLC , formerly owned by Viacom . This deal gave him the rights to songs by Eminem and Beck , among others . In March 2007 , Jackson gave a brief interview to the Associated Press in Tokyo , where he said : " I 've been in the entertainment industry since I was 6 years old , and as Charles Dickens would say , ' It 's been the best of times , the worst of times . ' But I would not change my career ... While some have made deliberate attempts to hurt me , I take it in stride because I have a loving family , a strong faith and wonderful friends and fans who have , and continue , to support me . " In March 2007 , Jackson visited a U.S. Army post in Japan , Camp Zama , to greet over 3 @,@ 000 U.S. troops and their families . The hosts presented Jackson with a Certificate of Appreciation .
In September 2007 , Jackson was reportedly still working on his next album , but the work was never completed . In 2008 , Jackson and Sony released Thriller 25 to mark the 25th anniversary of the original Thriller . This album featured the previously unreleased song " For All Time " , an outtake from the original sessions , as well as remixes , where Jackson collaborated with younger artists who had been inspired by his work . Two of the remixes were released as singles with modest success : " The Girl Is Mine 2008 " ( with will.i.am ) and " Wanna Be Startin ' Somethin ' 2008 " ( with Akon ) . The first single was based on an early demo version , without Paul McCartney . The album was a commercial success . In anticipation of Jackson 's 50th birthday , Sony BMG released a series of greatest hits albums , King of Pop . Slightly different versions were released in various countries , based on polls of local fans . King of Pop reached the top 10 in most countries where it was issued , and also sold well as an import in other countries ( such as the United States ) .
In late 2008 , Fortress Investments threatened to foreclose on Neverland Ranch , which Jackson used as collateral for loans running into many tens of millions of dollars . However , Fortress opted to sell Jackson 's debts to Colony Capital LLC . In November , Jackson transferred Neverland Ranch 's title to Sycamore Valley Ranch Company LLC , a joint venture between Jackson and Colony Capital LLC . The deal cleared Jackson 's debt and reportedly earned him an additional $ 35 million . At the time of his death , Jackson still owned a stake of unknown size in Neverland / Sycamore Valley . In September 2008 , Jackson entered negotiations with Julien 's Auction House to display and auction a large collection of memorabilia amounting to approximately 1 @,@ 390 lots . The auction was scheduled to take place between April 22 and 25 . An exhibition of the lots opened as scheduled on April 14 , but the actual auction was eventually cancelled at Jackson 's request .
In March 2009 , Jackson held a press conference at London 's O2 Arena to announce a series of comeback concerts titled This Is It . The shows would be Jackson 's first major series of concerts since the HIStory World Tour finished in 1997 . Jackson suggested possible retirement after the shows , saying it would be his " final curtain call " . The initial plan was for 10 concerts in London , followed by shows in Paris , New York City and Mumbai . Randy Phillips , president and chief executive of AEG Live , stated that the first 10 dates alone would earn the singer approximately £ 50 million . The London residency was increased to 50 dates after record @-@ breaking ticket sales : over one million were sold in less than two hours . The concerts would have commenced on July 13 , 2009 , and finished on March 6 , 2010 . Jackson rehearsed in Los Angeles in the weeks leading up to the tour under the direction of choreographer Kenny Ortega . Most of these rehearsals took place at the Staples Center , owned by AEG . Less than three weeks before the first show was due to begin in London , with all concerts sold out , Jackson died after suffering cardiac arrest . Some time before his death , it was reported that he was starting a clothing line with Christian Audigier .
Jackson 's first posthumous song released entirely by his estate was " This Is It " , which he had co @-@ written in the 1980s with Paul Anka . It was not on the setlists for the concerts , and the recording was based on an old demo tape . The surviving brothers reunited in the studio for the first time since 1989 to record backing vocals . On October 28 , 2009 , a documentary film about the rehearsals , Michael Jackson 's This Is It , was released . Despite a limited two @-@ week engagement , it became the highest @-@ grossing documentary or concert film of all time , with earnings of more than $ 260 million worldwide . Jackson 's estate received 90 % of the profits . The film was accompanied by a compilation album of the same name . Two versions of " This Is It " appear on the album , which also featured original masters of Jackson 's hits in the order in which they appear in the film , along with a bonus disc with previously unreleased versions of more Jackson hits and a spoken @-@ word poem , " Planet Earth " . At the 2009 American Music Awards , Jackson won four posthumous awards , two for him and two for his album Number Ones , bringing his total American Music Awards to 26 .
= = Death and memorial = =
On June 25 , 2009 , Jackson fell unconscious while lying in bed at his rented mansion at 100 North Carolwood Drive in the Holmby Hills district of Los Angeles . Attempts at resuscitating him by Conrad Murray , his personal physician , were unsuccessful . Los Angeles Fire Department paramedics received a 911 call at 12 : 22 pm ( PDT , 19 : 22 UTC ) , arriving three minutes later . Jackson was reportedly not breathing and CPR was performed . Resuscitation efforts continued en route to Ronald Reagan UCLA Medical Center , and for more than an hour after arriving there at 1 : 13 pm ( 20 : 13 UTC ) . He was pronounced dead at 2 : 26 pm Pacific time ( 21 : 26 UTC ) .
Jackson 's death triggered a global outpouring of grief . The news spread quickly online , causing websites to slow down and crash from user overload . Both TMZ and the Los Angeles Times suffered outages . Google initially believed that the millions of search requests meant their search engine was under DDoS attack , and blocked searches related to Michael Jackson for 30 minutes . Twitter reported a crash , as did Wikipedia at 3 : 15 pm PDT ( 22 : 15 UTC ) . The Wikimedia Foundation reported nearly a million visitors to Jackson 's biography within one hour , probably the most visitors in a one @-@ hour period to any article in Wikipedia 's history . AOL Instant Messenger collapsed for 40 minutes . AOL called it a " seminal moment in internet history ... We 've never seen anything like it in terms of scope or depth . " Around 15 % of Twitter posts ( 5 @,@ 000 tweets per minute ) reportedly mentioned Jackson after the news broke , compared to the 5 % recalled as having mentioned the Iranian elections or the flu pandemic that had made headlines earlier in the year . Overall , web traffic ranged from 11 % to at least 20 % higher than normal . MTV and BET aired marathons of Jackson 's music videos . Jackson specials aired on television stations around the world . The British soap opera EastEnders added a last @-@ minute scene to the June 26 episode in which one character tells another about the news . MTV briefly returned to its original music video format to celebrate his work , airing hours of Jackson 's music videos , accompanied by live news specials featuring reactions from MTV personalities and other celebrities . The temporary shift in MTV 's programming culminated the following week in the channel 's live coverage of Jackson 's memorial service .
Jackson 's memorial was held on July 7 , 2009 at the Staples Center in Los Angeles , preceded by a private family service at Forest Lawn Memorial Park 's Hall of Liberty . Due to high demand , tickets to the memorial were distributed via lottery , and over 1 @.@ 6 million fans applied for tickets during the two @-@ day application period . 8 @,@ 750 names were drawn at random , with each recipient receiving two tickets each . Jackson 's casket was present during the memorial but no information was released about the final disposition of the body . The memorial service was one of the most watched events in streaming history , with an estimated U.S. audience of 31 @.@ 1 million , an amount comparable to the estimated 35 @.@ 1 million that watched the 2004 burial of former president Ronald Reagan , and the estimated 33 @.@ 1 million Americans who watched the 1997 funeral for Princess Diana .
Mariah Carey , Stevie Wonder , Lionel Richie , John Mayer , Jennifer Hudson , Usher , Jermaine Jackson , and Shaheen Jafargholi performed at the event . Berry Gordy and Smokey Robinson gave eulogies , while Queen Latifah read " We Had Him " , a poem written for the occasion by Maya Angelou . The Reverend Al Sharpton received a standing ovation with cheers when he told Jackson 's children : " Wasn 't nothing strange about your daddy . It was strange what your daddy had to deal with . But he dealt with it anyway . " Jackson 's 11 @-@ year @-@ old daughter Paris Katherine , speaking publicly for the first time , wept as she told the crowd : " Ever since I was born , Daddy has been the best father you could ever imagine ... I just wanted to say I love him ... so much . " Reverend Lucious Smith provided a closing prayer .
At the time of death , Jackson had been administered propofol , lorazepam , and midazolam , and the Los Angeles coroner decided to treat the death as a homicide . Law enforcement officials conducted a manslaughter investigation of his personal physician Conrad Murray , and charged him with involuntary manslaughter in Los Angeles on February 8 , 2010 . Jackson 's body was entombed on September 3 , 2009 , at Forest Lawn Memorial Park in Glendale , California .
On June 25 , 2010 , the first anniversary of Jackson 's death , fans traveled to Los Angeles to pay tribute . They visited Jackson 's star on the Hollywood Walk of Fame , his family 's home , and Forest Lawn Memorial Park . Many of the fans were carrying sunflowers and other tribute items to leave at the sites . Members of the Jackson family and close friends arrived to pay their respects . Katherine returned to Gary , Indiana to unveil a granite monument constructed in the front yard of the family home . The memorial continued with a candlelight vigil and a special performance of " We Are the World " . On June 26 , there was a protest march in front of the Los Angeles Police Department 's Robbery @-@ Homicide Division at the old Parker Center building and a petition with thousands of signatures demanding justice . The Jackson Family Foundation , in conjunction with Voiceplate , presented " Forever Michael " , an event bringing together Jackson family members , celebrities , fans , supporters and the community to celebrate and honor his legacy . A portion of the proceeds were presented to some of Jackson 's favorite charities . Katherine also introduced her new book " Never Can Say Goodbye " .
= = = Aftermath = = =
In the 12 months after his death , Jackson sold more than 8 @.@ 2 million albums in the United States and 35 million albums worldwide , making him the best @-@ selling albums artist of 2009 . He became the first artist to sell one million downloads in a week in music download history , with a record @-@ breaking 2 @.@ 6 million downloads of his songs . Three of his albums sold more than any new album , the first time a catalog album has ever scanned more sales than any new album . Jackson also became the first artist in history to have four of the top 20 best @-@ selling albums in a single year in the United States . Following this surge in sales , Sony announced that they had extended their distribution rights for Jackson 's material , which had been due to expire in 2015 . On March 16 , 2010 , Sony Music Entertainment , spearheaded by its Columbia / Epic Label Group division , signed a new deal with the Jackson estate to extend their distribution rights to his back catalogue until at least 2017 , and release ten new albums of previously unreleased material and new collections of released work .
On November 4 , 2010 , Sony announced the first postumous album , Michael , released on December 14 , with the promotional single , " Breaking News " , released to radio on November 8 . Sony Music reportedly paid the Jackson estate $ 250 million for the deal , plus royalties , making it the most expensive music contract pertaining to a single artist in history . Video game developer Ubisoft announced a dancing @-@ and @-@ singing game featuring Michael Jackson for the 2010 holiday season , Michael Jackson : The Experience ; it is among the first games to use Kinect and PlayStation Move , the motion @-@ detecting camera systems for Microsoft 's Xbox 360 and Sony 's PlayStation 3 respectively .
On November 3 , 2010 , the theatrical performing company Cirque du Soleil announced that it would launch Michael Jackson : The Immortal World Tour in October 2011 in Montreal , while a permanent show will reside in Las Vegas . The 90 @-@ minute $ 57 @-@ million production will combine Jackson 's music and choreography with the Cirque 's artistry , dance and aerial displays involving 65 artists . The tour was written and directed by Jamie King and centers on Jackson 's " inspirational Giving Tree – the wellspring of creativity where his love of music and dance , fairy tale and magic , and the fragile beauty of nature are unlocked . " On October 3 , 2011 , the accompanying compilation soundtrack album Immortal was announced to have over 40 Jackson 's original recordings re @-@ produced by Kevin Antunes . A second , larger and more theatrical Cirque show , Michael Jackson : One , designed for residency at the Mandalay Bay resort in Las Vegas , was announced on February 21 , 2013 . This show , also produced , written and directed by King , began its run on May 23 , 2013 in a newly renovated theater to critical and commercial success .
In April 2011 , billionaire businessman Mohamed Al @-@ Fayed , chairman of Fulham Football Club and Jackson 's longtime friend , unveiled a statue of Michael Jackson outside the club 's stadium , Craven Cottage . Fulham fans were bemused by the statue and failed to understand the relevance of Jackson to the club . Al Fayed defended the statue and told the fans to " go to hell " if they did not appreciate it . The statue was removed in September 2013 and moved to the National Football Museum in Manchester in May 2014 .
In 2012 , in an attempt to end public family feuding , Jackson 's brother Jermaine Jackson retracted his signature on a public letter criticizing executors of Michael Jackson 's estate and his mother 's advisers concerning the legitimacy of his brother 's will . T.J. Jackson , son of Tito Jackson , was given co @-@ guardianship of Michael Jackson 's children after false reports surfaced of Katherine Jackson going missing .
On May 16 , 2013 , choreographer Wade Robson alleged on The Today Show that Jackson " performed sexual acts on me and forced me to perform sexual acts on him " for 7 years , beginning when Robson was 7 years old . Robson had previously testified in defence of Jackson at the singer 's 2005 child molestation trial . The attorney for Jackson 's estate described Robson 's claim as " outrageous and pathetic " . The date for the hearing which will determine whether Robson can sue Jackson 's estate was scheduled for June 2 , 2014 . In February 2014 , the Internal Revenue Service reported that Jackson 's estate owed $ 702 million , including $ 505 million in taxes and $ 197 million in penalties after they claimed the estate undervalued Jackson 's fortune .
On March 31 , 2014 , Epic Records announced Xscape , an album of eight songs of unreleased material culled from past recording sessions . It was released on May 13 , 2014 . On May 12 , 2014 , another young man , Jimmy Safechuck , sued Jackson 's estate , claiming Jackson sexually abused him " from the age of 10 to about 14 or 15 " in the 1980s . During the 2014 Billboard Music Awards on May 18 , a " Pepper 's ghost " likeness of Jackson appeared , dancing to " Slave to the Rhythm " , one of the tracks from Xscape . Later that year , Queen released three duets that Freddie Mercury had recorded with Jackson in the 1980s .
Jackson 's earnings have exponentially increased following his sudden death in comparison to his final years alive . According to Forbes , he has been the top @-@ earning dead celebrity each year since his death , with triple @-@ digit millions per annum ( $ 115 million in 2015 ) . In December 2015 , Jackson 's album Thriller became the first album in the United States to surpass 30 million shipments , certifying it 30 × platinum by the RIAA . Two months later , Billboard reported that the album was certified again at 32 × platinum , surpassing 32 million shipments after Soundscan added streams and audio downloads to album certifications .
= = Artistry = =
= = = Influences = = =
Jackson was influenced by musicians including Little Richard , James Brown , Jackie Wilson , Diana Ross , Fred Astaire , Sammy Davis Jr . , Gene Kelly , David Ruffin , the Isley Brothers , and the Bee Gees . According to choreographer David Winters , who met and befriended Jackson while choreographing the 1971 Diana Ross TV special Diana ! , Jackson watched the musical West Side Story almost every week , and it was his favorite film ; he paid tribute to it in " Beat It " and the " Bad " video . While Little Richard had a substantial influence on Jackson , James Brown was Jackson 's greatest inspiration . In reference to Brown , Jackson declared : " Ever since I was a small child , no more than like six years old , my mother would wake me no matter what time it was , if I was sleeping , no matter what I was doing , to watch the television to see the master at work . And when I saw him move , I was mesmerized . I had never seen a performer perform like James Brown , and right then and there I knew that was exactly what I wanted to do for the rest of my life because of James Brown . "
The young Jackson owed his vocal technique in large part to Diana Ross . Not only a mother figure to him , she was often observed in rehearsal as an accomplished performer . He later said : " I got to know her well . She taught me so much . I used to just sit in the corner and watch the way she moved . She was art in motion . I studied the way she moved , the way she sang – just the way she was . " He told her : " I want to be just like you , Diana . " She said : " You just be yourself . " Jackson owed part of his enduring style — especially his use of the oooh interjection — to Ross . From a young age , Jackson often punctuated his verses with a sudden exclamation of oooh . Diana Ross had used this effect on many of the songs recorded with the Supremes .
= = = Musical themes and genres = = =
Jackson explored a variety of music genres , including pop , soul , rhythm and blues , funk , rock , disco , post @-@ disco , dance @-@ pop and new jack swing . Unlike many artists , Jackson did not write his songs on paper and instead dictated into a sound recorder . When composing music , he preferred to beatbox and imitate instruments vocally rather than use instruments .
According to Steve Huey of AllMusic , Thriller refined the strengths of Off the Wall ; the dance and rock tracks were more aggressive , while the pop tunes and ballads were softer and more soulful . Notable tracks included the ballads " The Lady in My Life " , " Human Nature " and " The Girl Is Mine " ; the funk pieces " Billie Jean " and " Wanna Be Startin ' Somethin ' " ; and the disco set " Baby Be Mine " and " P.Y.T. ( Pretty Young Thing ) " . With Thriller , Christopher Connelly of Rolling Stone commented that Jackson developed his long association with the subliminal theme of paranoia and darker imagery . AllMusic 's Stephen Thomas Erlewine noted this is evident on the songs " Billie Jean " and " Wanna Be Startin ' Somethin ' " . In " Billie Jean " , Jackson sings about an obsessive fan who alleges he has fathered a child of hers . In " Wanna Be Startin ' Somethin ' " he argues against gossip and the media . " Beat It " decried gang violence in an homage to West Side Story , and was Jackson 's first successful rock cross @-@ over piece , according to Huey . He also observed that the title track " Thriller " began Jackson 's interest with the theme of the supernatural , a topic he revisited in subsequent years . In 1985 , Jackson co @-@ wrote the charity anthem " We Are the World " ; humanitarian themes later became a recurring theme in his lyrics and public persona .
In Bad , Jackson 's concept of the predatory lover can be seen on the rock song " Dirty Diana " . The lead single " I Just Can 't Stop Loving You " is a traditional love ballad , while " Man in the Mirror " is an anthemic ballad of confession and resolution . " Smooth Criminal " was an evocation of bloody assault , rape and likely murder . AllMusic 's Stephen Thomas Erlewine states that Dangerous presents Jackson as a very paradoxical individual . He comments the album is more diverse than his previous Bad , as it appeals to an urban audience while also attracting the middle class with anthems like " Heal the World " . The first half of the record is dedicated to new jack swing , including songs like " Jam " and " Remember the Time " . The album is Jackson 's first where social ills become a primary theme ; " Why You Wanna Trip on Me " , for example , protests against world hunger , AIDS , homelessness and drugs . Dangerous contains sexually charged efforts such as the multifaceted love song , " In the Closet " . The title track continues the theme of the predatory lover and compulsive desire . The second half includes introspective , pop @-@ gospel anthems such as " Will You Be There " , " Heal the World " and " Keep the Faith " ; these songs show Jackson opening up about various personal struggles and worries . In the ballad " Gone Too Soon " , Jackson gives tribute to his friend Ryan White and the plight of those with AIDS .
HIStory creates an atmosphere of paranoia . Its content focuses on the hardships and public struggles Jackson went through just prior to its production . In the new jack swing @-@ funk @-@ rock efforts " Scream " and " Tabloid Junkie " , along with the R & B ballad " You Are Not Alone " , Jackson retaliates against the injustice and isolation he feels , and directs much of his anger at the media . In the introspective ballad " Stranger in Moscow " , Jackson laments over his " fall from grace " , while songs like " Earth Song " , " Childhood " , " Little Susie " and " Smile " are all operatic pop pieces . In the track " D.S. " , Jackson launched a verbal attack against Tom Sneddon . He describes Sneddon as an antisocial , white supremacist who wanted to " get my ass , dead or alive " . Of the song , Sneddon said , " I have not — shall we say — done him the honor of listening to it , but I 've been told that it ends with the sound of a gunshot " . Invincible found Jackson working heavily with producer Rodney Jerkins . It is a record made up of urban soul like " Cry " and " The Lost Children " , ballads such as " Speechless " , " Break of Dawn " , and " Butterflies " and mixes hip hop , pop , and R & B in " 2000 Watts " , " Heartbreaker " and " Invincible " .
= = = Vocal style = = =
Jackson sang from childhood , and over time his voice and vocal style changed noticeably . Between 1971 and 1975 , Jackson 's voice descended from boy soprano to high tenor . His vocal range as an adult was F2 @-@ E ♭ 6 . Jackson first used a technique called the " vocal hiccup " in 1973 , starting with the song " It 's Too Late to Change the Time " from the Jackson 5 's G.I.T. : Get It Together album . Jackson did not use the hiccup technique — somewhat like a gulping for air or gasping — fully until the recording of Off the Wall : it can be seen in full force in the " Shake Your Body ( Down to the Ground ) " promotional video . With the arrival of Off the Wall in the late 1970s , Jackson 's abilities as a vocalist were well regarded . At the time , Rolling Stone compared his vocals to the " breathless , dreamy stutter " of Stevie Wonder . Their analysis was also that " Jackson 's feathery @-@ timbred tenor is extraordinarily beautiful . It slides smoothly into a startling falsetto that 's used very daringly " . 1982 saw the release of Thriller , and Rolling Stone was of the opinion that Jackson was then singing in a " fully adult voice " that was " tinged by sadness " .
A distinctive deliberate mispronunciation of " come on " , used frequently by Jackson , occasionally spelled " c 'mon " , " cha 'mone " , or " shamone " , is also a staple in impressions and caricatures of him . The turn of the 1990s saw the release of the introspective album Dangerous . The New York Times noted that on some tracks , " he gulps for breath , his voice quivers with anxiety or drops to a desperate whisper , hissing through clenched teeth " and he had a " wretched tone " . When singing of brotherhood or self @-@ esteem the musician would return to " smooth " vocals . When commenting on Invincible , Rolling Stone were of the opinion that — at the age of 43 — Jackson still performed " exquisitely voiced rhythm tracks and vibrating vocal harmonies " . Nelson George wrote : " The grace , the aggression , the growling , the natural boyishness , the falsetto , the smoothness — that combination of elements mark him as a major vocalist " . Cultural critic Joseph Vogel notes that Jackson had a " distinctive styles is his ability to convey emotion without the use of language : there are his trademark gulps , grunts , gasps , cries , exclamations ; he also frequently scats or twists and contorts words until they are barely discernible . " Neil McCormick notes that Jackson 's unorthodox singing style " was original and utterly distinctive , from his almost ethereal falsetto to his soft , sweet mid @-@ tones ; his fluid , seamless control of often very fast moving series of notes ; his percussive yet still melodic outbursts , ululations and interjections ( from those spooky " tee @-@ hee @-@ hees " to grunts and wails ) . Unusually for someone coming from a black American soul tradition , he did not often sing straight , unadorned ballads , though when he did ( from ' Ben ' to ' She 's Out of My Life ' ) the effect was of a powerful simplicity and truth . "
Concerned about a transparent rendition of this identity , the sound engineer Bruce Swedien opted for some technical approaches and studio strategies aiming at keeping as truly as possible the singer 's intimate and natural expressions : mikes , analogic recordings , special techniques elaborated to design vocal prisms , creation of natural acoustic spaces , conversion of stereophonic fields in tri @-@ dimensional sound spaces playing with early reflections , plywood , Monstercable or Tubetraps .
= = = Music videos and choreography = = =
Jackson has been called the King of Music Videos . Steve Huey of AllMusic observed how Jackson transformed the music video into an art form and a promotional tool through complex story lines , dance routines , special effects and famous cameo appearances , simultaneously breaking down racial barriers . Before Thriller , Jackson struggled to receive coverage on MTV , allegedly because he was African American . Pressure from CBS Records persuaded MTV to start showing " Billie Jean " and later " Beat It " , leading to a lengthy partnership with Jackson , also helping other black music artists gain recognition . MTV employees deny any racism in their coverage , or pressure to change their stance . MTV maintains that they played rock music , regardless of race . The popularity of his videos on MTV helped to put the relatively young channel " on the map " ; MTV 's focus shifted in favor of pop and R & B. His performance on Motown 25 : Yesterday , Today , Forever changed the scope of live stage show ; " That Jackson lip @-@ synced ' Billie Jean ' is , in itself , not extraordinary , but the fact that it did not change the impact of the performance is extraordinary ; whether the performance was live or lip @-@ synced made no difference to the audience " thus creating an era in which artists re @-@ create the spectacle of music video imagery on stage . Short films like Thriller largely remained unique to Jackson , while the group dance sequence in " Beat It " has frequently been imitated . The choreography in Thriller has become a part of global pop culture , replicated everywhere from Indian films to prisons in the Philippines . The Thriller short film marked an increase in scale for music videos , and has been named the most successful music video ever by the Guinness World Records .
In the 19 @-@ minute music video for " Bad " — directed by Martin Scorsese — Jackson began using sexual imagery and choreography not previously seen in his work . He occasionally grabbed or touched his chest , torso and crotch . When asked by Oprah in the 1993 interview about why he grabbed his crotch , he replied , " I think it happens subliminally " and he described it as something that was not planned , but rather , as something that was compelled by the music . " Bad " garnered a mixed reception from both fans and critics ; Time magazine described it as " infamous " . The video also featured Wesley Snipes ; in the future Jackson 's videos would often feature famous cameo roles . For the " Smooth Criminal " video , Jackson experimented with an anti @-@ gravity lean where the performer leans forward at a 45 degree angle , beyond the performer 's center of gravity . To accomplish this move live , Jackson and designers developed a special shoe that locks the performer 's feet to the stage , allowing them to lean forward . They were granted U.S. Patent 5 @,@ 255 @,@ 452 for the device . Although the music video for " Leave Me Alone " was not officially released in the US , in 1989 it was nominated for three Billboard Music Video Awards ; the same year it won a Golden Lion Award for the quality of the special effects used in its production . In 1990 , " Leave Me Alone " won a Grammy for Best Music Video , Short Form .
He received the MTV Video Vanguard Award in 1988 and the MTV Video Vanguard Artist of the Decade Award in 1990 to celebrate his accomplishments in the art form in the 1980s ; in 1991 the first award was renamed in his honor . " Black or White " was accompanied by a controversial music video , which , on November 14 , 1991 , simultaneously premiered in 27 countries with an estimated audience of 500 million people , the largest viewing ever for a music video at that time . It featured scenes construed as having a sexual nature as well as depictions of violence . The offending scenes in the final half of the 14 @-@ minute version were edited out to prevent the video from being banned , and Jackson apologized . Along with Jackson , it featured Macaulay Culkin , Peggy Lipton , and George Wendt . It helped usher in morphing as an important technology in music videos .
" Remember the Time " was an elaborate production , and became one of his longest videos at over nine minutes . Set in ancient Egypt , it featured groundbreaking visual effects and appearances by Eddie Murphy , Iman , and Magic Johnson , along with a distinct complex dance routine . The video for " In the Closet " was Jackson 's most sexually provocative piece . It featured supermodel Naomi Campbell in a courtship dance with Jackson . The video was banned in South Africa because of its imagery .
The music video for " Scream " , directed by Mark Romanek and production designer Tom Foden , is one of Jackson 's most critically acclaimed . In 1995 , it gained eleven MTV Video Music Award Nominations — more than any other music video — and won " Best Dance Video " , " Best Choreography " , and " Best Art Direction " . The song and its accompanying video are a response to the backlash Jackson received from the media after being accused of child molestation in 1993 . A year later , it won a Grammy for Best Music Video , Short Form ; shortly afterwards Guinness World Records listed it as the most expensive music video ever made , at a cost of $ 7 million .
" Earth Song " was accompanied by an expensive and well @-@ received music video , which gained a Grammy nomination for Best Music Video , Short Form in 1997 . The video had an environmental theme , showing images of animal cruelty , deforestation , pollution and war . Using special effects , time is reversed so that life returns , wars end , and the forests re @-@ grow . Released in 1997 and premiering at the 1996 Cannes Film Festival , Michael Jackson 's Ghosts was a short film written by Jackson and Stephen King and directed by Stan Winston . The video for Ghosts is over 38 minutes long and holds the Guinness World Record as the world 's longest music video .
= = Legacy and influence = =
The media has commonly referred to Jackson as the " King of Pop " because , throughout his career , he transformed the art of music videos and paved the way for modern pop music . For much of Jackson 's career , he had an unparalleled worldwide influence over the younger generation through his musical and humanitarian contributions . His music and videos , such as Thriller , fostered racial diversity in MTV 's roster and steered its focus from rock to pop music and R & B , shaping the channel into a form that proved enduring . Jackson 's work continues to influence numerous artists of various music genres .
AllMusic 's Steve Huey describes Jackson as " an unstoppable juggernaut , possessed of all the skills to dominate the charts seemingly at will : an instantly identifiable voice , eye @-@ popping dance moves , stunning musical versatility and loads of sheer star power " . BET described Jackson " as quite simply the greatest entertainer of all time " and someone who " revolutionized the music video and brought dances like the moonwalk to the world . Jackson 's sound , style , movement and legacy continues to inspire artists of all genres . "
In 1984 , TIME magazine 's pop critic Jay Cocks wrote that " Jackson is the biggest thing since the Beatles . He is the hottest single phenomenon since Elvis Presley . He just may be the most popular black singer ever . " In 1990 , Vanity Fair cited Jackson as the most popular artist in the history of show business . In 2003 , Daily Telegraph writer Tom Utley described Jackson as " extremely important " and a " genius " . In 2007 , Jackson said : " Music has been my outlet , my gift to all of the lovers in this world . Through it , my music , I know I will live forever . "
At Jackson 's memorial service on July 7 , 2009 , Motown founder Berry Gordy proclaimed Jackson " the greatest entertainer that ever lived " . In a June 28 , 2009 Baltimore Sun article titled " 7 Ways Michael Jackson Changed The World " , Jill Rosen wrote that Jackson 's legacy was " as enduring as it is multi @-@ faceted " , influencing fields including sound , dance , fashion , music videos and celebrity . On December 19 , 2014 , the British Council of Cultural Relations named Jackson 's life one of the 80 most important cultural moments of the 20th century .
In July 2009 , the Lunar Republic Society , which promotes the exploration , settlement and development of the Moon , named a Moon crater after Jackson . In the same year , for Jackson 's 51st birthday , Google dedicated their Google Doodle to him . In 2010 , two university librarians found that Jackson 's influence extended to academia , with references to Jackson in reports concerning music , popular culture , chemistry and an array of other topics .
= = Honors and awards = =
Michael Jackson was inducted onto the Hollywood Walk of Fame in 1980 as member of the Jacksons and in 1984 as solo artist . Throughout his career he received numerous honors and awards , including the World Music Awards ' Best @-@ Selling Pop Male Artist of the Millennium , the American Music Award 's Artist of the Century Award and the Bambi Pop Artist of the Millennium Award . He was a double @-@ inductee of the Rock and Roll Hall of Fame , once as a member of The Jackson 5 in 1997 and later as a solo artist in 2001 . Jackson was also inducted in several other halls of fame , including Vocal Group Hall of Fame ( as a Jackson 5 member ) in 1999 and the Songwriters Hall of Fame in 2002 . In 2010 , Jackson was inducted into the Dance Hall of Fame as the first ( and currently only ) dancer from the world of pop and rock ' n ' roll . In 2014 , Jackson was inducted into the second class of inductees to the Rhythm and Blues Music Hall of Fame ; his father Joe Jackson accepted on his behalf .
His awards include many Guinness World Records ( eight in 2006 alone ) , including for the Most Successful Entertainer of All Time , 13 Grammy Awards ( as well as the Grammy Legend Award and the Grammy Lifetime Achievement Award ) , 26 American Music Awards ( including the " Artist of the Century " and " Artist of the 1980s " ) , — more than any artist — 13 number @-@ one singles in the US in his solo career — more than any other male artist in the Hot 100 era — and estimated sales of over 400 million records worldwide , which makes him one of the best @-@ selling artists of all time . On December 29 , 2009 , the American Film Institute recognized Jackson 's death as a " moment of significance " saying , " Michael Jackson 's sudden death in June at age 50 was notable for the worldwide outpouring of grief and the unprecedented global eulogy of his posthumous concert rehearsal movie This Is It . " Michael Jackson also received an Honorary Doctor of Humane Letters Degree from the United Negro College Fund and also an Honorary Doctorate of Humane Letters from Fisk University .
= = Earnings and wealth = =
It is estimated that Michael Jackson earned about $ 750 million in his lifetime . Sales of his recordings through Sony 's music unit earned him an estimated $ 300 million in royalties . He may have also earned an additional $ 400 million from concerts , music publishing ( including his share of the Beatles catalog ) endorsements , merchandising and music videos . Estimating how much of these earnings Jackson was able to personally pocket is difficult because one has to account for taxes , recording costs and production costs .
There have also been several detailed estimates of Jackson 's net worth which range from negative $ 285 million to positive $ 350 million for the years 2002 , 2003 and 2007 .
= = = U.S. federal estate tax problems = = =
On July 26 , 2013 , the executors of the Estate of Michael Jackson filed a petition in the United States Tax Court as a result of a dispute with the Internal Revenue Service ( IRS ) over U.S. federal estate taxes imposed on the value of Jackson 's Estate at the time of his death . The executors of the Estate claim that the Estate was worth about $ 7 million . The IRS asserts that the Estate was worth over $ 1 @.@ 1 billion , and that over $ 700 million in federal estate taxes ( including penalties ) are due . The parties have been ordered to submit a status report to the Court on settlement negotiations by November 2 , 2015 .
= = Discography = =
Got to Be There ( 1972 )
Ben ( 1972 )
Music & Me ( 1973 )
Forever , Michael ( 1975 )
Off the Wall ( 1979 )
Thriller ( 1982 )
Bad ( 1987 )
Dangerous ( 1991 )
HIStory : Past , Present and Future , Book I ( 1995 )
Invincible ( 2001 )
= = Filmography = =
The Wiz ( 1978 )
Captain EO ( 1986 )
Moonwalker ( 1988 )
Michael Jackson 's Ghosts ( 1997 )
Men in Black II ( 2002 )
Miss Cast Away and the Island Girls ( 2004 )
Michael Jackson 's This Is It ( 2009 )
Bad 25 ( 2012 )
Michael Jackson : The Last Photo Shoot ( 2014 )
Michael Jackson 's Journey from Motown to Off the Wall ( 2016 )
= = Tours = =
Bad ( 1987 – 89 )
Dangerous World Tour ( 1992 – 93 )
HIStory World Tour ( 1996 – 97 )
MJ & Friends ( 1999 )
This Is It ( 2009 – 10 ; cancelled )
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= Steve Morison =
Steven ' Steve ' William Morison ( born 29 August 1983 ) is a Wales international footballer who currently plays for League One side Millwall .
Morison started his career at Northampton Town at the age of 16 , progressing through the club 's centre of excellence . After featuring regularly for the club 's reserve team , Morison made his first @-@ team debut in 2002 , and played a total of 28 times for the club during his three years with Northampton . He left Northampton and joined Conference South side Bishop 's Stortford for an undisclosed fee in November 2004 . Morison spent just under two years with Stortford , scoring prolifically , before joining another Hertfordshire team in the form of Stevenage for a " small four @-@ figure fee " in August 2006 .
During the 2006 – 07 season , Morison scored a total of 34 times in 53 games , including the winner in Stevenage 's 3 – 2 victory over Kidderminster Harriers in the FA Trophy final in May 2007 – the first competitive cup final to be held at the new Wembley Stadium . The following season , Morison netted 22 times in 45 matches , before scoring 30 times during the club 's 2008 – 09 campaign ; scoring again in Stevenage 's 2 – 0 win against York City in the FA Trophy final in May 2009 , his last game for the club . He subsequently joined Millwall for £ 130 @,@ 000 ahead of 2009 – 10 season , and helped the club to promotion to the Championship by scoring 23 goals in 52 games . He finished as Millwall 's top goalscorer the following season , before signing for Premier League side Norwich City for an undisclosed fee in June 2011 . In January 2013 , Morison signed for Leeds United as part of a swap deal . After just five months at Leeds , Morison rejoined Millwall on a season @-@ long loan in June 2013 . Morison earned eight caps for the England C team , scoring three goals . In August 2010 , Morison made his senior international debut for Wales .
= = Club career = =
= = = Northampton and Bishop 's Stortford = = =
Born in Enfield , London , Morison joined Northampton Town as part of the club 's youth system after a successful trial period with the club , having also spent time on trial at Leicester City . When Morison turned 18 , he signed a two @-@ year professional contract with Northampton . He impressed manager Kevan Broadhurst and subsequently made his debut at the end of the 2001 – 02 season in a 2 – 2 draw against Cambridge United . The following season , Morison featured regularly as a substitute , playing a total of 15 games , scoring his first goal for the Northamptonshire side in a 2 – 2 draw against Plymouth Argyle . However , the 2003 – 04 season witnessed Morison feature in only 5 games , getting on the scoresheet once . In June 2004 , he was offered a new six @-@ month contract at the club , and told by manager Colin Calderwood that he had to prove his worth at the club .
Morison played the opening five games of the club 's 2004 – 05 campaign , but failed to score . He featured two more times for the club , scoring Northampton 's equaliser away at Darlington in September 2004 . The following month , Morison joined Conference South side Bishop 's Stortford for an undisclosed fee . He scored on his debut in a 1 – 1 draw against Redbridge , and scored in the following game in Stortford 's 3 – 1 loss at Bognor Regis Town . He also helped Stortford reach the FA Trophy semi @-@ final and Morison finished the season as the club 's top goalscorer , as well as finishing as the 2004 – 05 FA Trophy top goalscorer . The following season , Morison struggled for form at the start of the club 's league campaign , and was subsequently used as a substitute during the first two months of the season . He started in a game against Histon in November 2005 , scoring a hat @-@ trick in a 5 – 0 win . He followed this up with goals against St Albans City and Eastbourne Borough respectively , as well as scoring Stortford 's fourth in a 5 – 2 victory over Dorchester Town . He ended the season by scoring twice against Eastleigh , meaning he scored a total of 15 goals as he continued to impress at Woodside Park .
= = = Stevenage Borough = = =
He started the 2006 – 07 season by scoring two goals in two games for Stortford , before joining Conference National side Stevenage Borough on a two @-@ year deal in August 2006 for a " small four figure fee " . He scored on his debut in a 3 – 2 defeat against Crawley Town , also having a goal disallowed in the same game . He continued his goalscoring form at his new club by scoring a hat @-@ trick against Morecambe in a 3 – 3 draw at Christie Park , and then a brace two days later against Forest Green Rovers . The following week , he partnered George Boyd upfront , scoring once and assisting all of Boyd 's three goals in a 6 – 0 victory against Stafford Rangers . He went on to score doubles against Forest Green Rovers in the FA Cup , Oxford United , and Leigh RMI in the FA Trophy . He also scored goals in draws against Morecambe and Forest Green Rovers respectively in April 2007 , and scored his last league goal of the season in Stevenage 's 3 – 0 win against Tamworth . Morison also helped the club to success in the FA Trophy , finishing the competition 's top goalscorer with 8 goals , including a goal in the final in May 2007 against Kidderminster Harriers , scoring the winner in a 3 – 2 victory at Wembley Stadium in front of a competition record crowd of 53 @,@ 262 . In total , Morison played 53 games during the season , scoring 34 times in all competitions and finishing as the club 's top goalscorer for the season .
Morison continued his scoring form throughout Stevenage 's 2007 – 08 campaign , scoring 22 times in 43 appearances , as the club narrowly missed out on the play @-@ offs . He scored his first goal of the campaign in Stevenage 's 2 – 1 victory against Histon in the club 's first home fixture of the season , following this up with goals in victories against Weymouth , Stafford Rangers , and York City respectively . Morison scored his first brace of the season in a 4 – 0 win over Farsley Celtic in September 2007 . He went on to score six goals in four games during the Christmas period – scoring doubles against Altrincham , Stafford Rangers , and Droylsden . He also scored on the last day of the season in a 2 – 1 win against Halifax Town . Although his least prolific season at Stevenage , Morison still managed a one @-@ in @-@ two ratio . At the end of the season , Morison handed in a transfer request as he sought a return to the Football League . Despite the club granting him his wish , and attracting interest from League Two side Crewe Alexandra , nothing materialised and Morison signed a new three @-@ year contract at Stevenage . There was a clause in the contract that stated he could leave the club at the end of the 2008 – 09 season for a pre @-@ arranged fee if Stevenage failed to make it into the Football League .
He scored 30 goals in 51 games for the Hertfordshire outfit during the 2008 – 09 season , and captained the side for the majority of the campaign . His season got off to a bad start , however , with Stevenage losing 5 – 0 away to Wrexham ; a game in which Morison was sent @-@ off for an " off the ball headbutt " . He subsequently missed the next three games , but quickly re @-@ discovered his goalscoring form in early September 2008 , following up a hat @-@ trick against champions Burton Albion with a brace against Altrincham . Another brace followed shortly after in a 3 – 3 draw against York City , as well as scoring the winner in a 3 – 2 win against Mansfield Town . Morison 's goals were vital in ensuring Stevenage 's surge up the league table over the Christmas period ; notching braces against Rushden & Diamonds , Lewes , and Barrow , whilst also scoring Stevenage 's solitary goal in a 1 – 1 at Nene Park against Rushden . He later scored goals in away victories to both Weymouth and York City respectively , as well as scoring in a 3 – 1 win over Kidderminster Harriers to ensure Stevenage made the play @-@ offs , finishing in the final play @-@ off spot . Morison was also instrumental in the side 's successful FA Trophy campaign in the same season , scoring seven times in seven games , including once in the side 's 2 – 0 win against York in the Final , as captain Morison lifted the trophy at Wembley Stadium . However , Stevenage failed to achieve promotion to League Two following an aggregate 4 – 3 defeat to Cambridge United in the play @-@ offs ; with Morison scoring twice at Broadhall Way , but missing a " gilt edged " chance in the return leg . Subsequently , activating a release clause in his contract , Morison was allowed to leave and , shortly after , agreed personal terms with League One team Millwall in May 2009 , with a fee of £ 130 @,@ 000 being agreed for the transfer . During his three @-@ year tenure at the club , Morison made a total of 152 appearances , scoring 89 goals . Morison was also included in the club 's ' Wall of Fame ' , which features " the six greatest players in Stevenage 's history as voted for by the club 's supporters " .
= = = Millwall = = =
He made his debut for Millwall in the opening game of the 2009 – 10 season , starting in the club 's 1 – 1 draw with Southampton ; providing the assist for Millwall 's equaliser . A month later , he scored his first goal for Millwall in a 3 – 1 victory over Huddersfield Town . Playing in a deeper role than when at Stevenage , Morison struggled for goals , but made the majority of Millwall 's goals throughout October , whilst also netting in a 5 – 0 win over Tranmere Rovers . In December 2009 , he scored a 91st @-@ minute winner in a 3 – 2 victory over Milton Keynes Dons , and also scored a similar goal in a 4 – 0 win over Staines Town in the FA Cup . Three days later , Morison scored twice in Millwall 's 2 – 1 victory over Walsall . His fine form through December continued , scoring twice in a 4 – 4 draw against Charlton Athletic at The Valley . He scored his seventh goal in as many games in a 2 – 0 win over Bristol Rovers , whilst also assisting the second goal . Morison scored his second goal of Millwall 's FA Cup campaign against Derby County at Pride Park in early January 2010 ; scoring in the 108th minute as Millwall were knocked out 5 – 3 on a penalty shootout . He provided the assists for both of Millwall 's goals in games against Southampton and Oldham Athletic respectively , before scoring the winner in a 1 – 0 victory over Brighton & Hove Albion ; his 11th goal of the season . This was followed up with a brace in a 3 – 1 win away to Carlisle United , whilst also setting up Millwall 's third goal . Morison scored another brace four days later , as Millwall beat Charlton Athletic 4 – 0 . His 17th of the season came in front of the Sky cameras against Leeds United at Elland Road . Shortly after , Morison scored his 18th goal of the campaign , scoring a header from an acute angle in Millwall 's 5 – 0 win over Stockport County . As a result of his fine goalscoring form throughout March , Morison was named Football League One Player of the Month . Another goal followed for Morison in a 2 – 1 win away at Colchester United . Morison 's 20th goal of the season came in a 2 – 1 victory over Leyton Orient , scoring Millwall 's second goal from the penalty spot . The goal subsequently means that Morison has now scored 20 goals or more in his last six seasons for three different clubs . On the last day of the season , Morison scored a brace against Swindon Town in a 3 – 2 victory . Morison 's first was a coolly dispatched penalty , whilst he supplied the cross that led to an own goal . Morison 's second goal of the game was a half @-@ volley from outside the area ; looping into the top right @-@ hand corner of the net . He scored his 23rd goal of the season in Millwall 's 2 – 0 win against Huddersfield Town as Millwall progressed to the League One play @-@ off final , where they beat Swindon Town 1 – 0 at Wembley Stadium ; Morison 's third successive victory at the stadium .
Ahead of the 2010 – 11 season , Morison scored in pre @-@ season friendlies against AFC Wimbledon and Stevenage respectively . He started the season by assisting two of Millwall 's goals in the club 's 3 – 0 win against Bristol City at Ashton Gate . In the club 's following league match , he scored two headed goals as Millwall beat Hull City comprehensively at The Den . He scored his third goal of the season from the penalty spot as Millwall beat Middlesbrough 2 – 1 in the League Cup . Four days later , Morison was on the scoresheet again , scoring a penalty to seal Millwall 's 3 – 1 win against Coventry City . He also provided the assist for Millwall 's first goal . He scored his fifth goal in six games in Millwall 's 1 – 1 draw with Nottingham Forest at The City Ground , giving Millwall the lead in the fifth minute with a header . Ten days later , Morison added to his goal tally when he scored against Ipswich Town in the League Cup , scoring after the hour mark in a 2 – 1 home defeat . In October , Morison scored his seventh goal of the campaign in Millwall 's 2 – 0 win against Derby County , the club 's first home win since August . Two weeks later , Morison scored the opening goal of the game against Doncaster Rovers at the Keepmoat Stadium , but was unable to prevent Millwall from losing the match 2 – 1 . He went three games without scoring through November 2010 , before scoring two late goals in Millwall 's televised victory over Scunthorpe United in early December 2010 . On 15 December 2010 , it was widely reported that Millwall had rejected a £ 2million offer for Morison from Nottingham Forest , with Millwall manager Kenny Jackett claiming there is " no chance " that Morison will be sold in the January transfer window . A day later , Jackett said the club had not received a formal bid for Morison from Forest . Morison 's eleventh goal of the season came in Millwall 's last game of 2010 ; scoring the first goal in a 2 – 0 home win over Leicester City . He went on to score goals in home victories against Ipswich Town and Barnsley respectively . Morison signed a new 2 ½ year contract with Millwall on 5 February 2011 , ending transfer speculation about his long term commitment to the club , he stated " I 'm looking forward to playing my part in the future success of Millwall " . After a run of six games without a goal , Morison scored in Millwall 's 2 – 0 win over eventual Championship winners Queens Park Rangers , netting Millwall 's first goal in the 63rd minute . Eleven days later , Morison scored a lobbed effort against Cardiff City to restore parity in a game that ended 3 – 3 . His sixteenth goal of the 2010 – 11 campaign came on 2 April 2011 , scoring another lobbed effort , this time in a 1 – 0 away win at Hull City . A week later , Morison was on hand to score Millwall 's third goal in a 3 – 2 home win over Leeds United . He was sent @-@ off just three days later in the club 's 0 – 0 draw with Bristol City , receiving the red card for a " reckless lunge " on Bristol City 's Jamal Campbell @-@ Ryce . This subsequently meant Morison served a three @-@ game suspension , returning for Millwall 's two final league games of the season . Morison ended the season having scored 17 goals for Millwall in 43 appearances .
= = = Norwich City = = =
At the end of the 2010 – 11 season , Morison handed in a written transfer request amid speculation about a move to newly promoted Premier League side Norwich City . Millwall subsequently rejected the transfer request . A day later , Morison revealed " Norwich have made a couple of bids that have been turned down so I 've done what I 've done . I want to play in the Premier League , I might not get another opportunity " . On 2 June 2011 , Millwall accepted an offer from Norwich City for Morison after the two clubs agreed a fee for the player , it was the fourth bid Norwich had made for Morison . He signed for the club on a three @-@ year contract for an undisclosed fee on 6 June . Morison made his Norwich City debut against Wigan Athletic during the club 's first game of the 2011 – 12 campaign , playing 75 minutes of the match in a 1 – 1 draw . He was crucial in Norwich 's equalising goal , beating Adrián López Rodríguez on the right wing and providing a cross that was ultimately turned in by Wes Hoolahan . He scored his first goal for the club in Norwich 's first home win of the season , a 2 – 1 victory against Sunderland on 26 September . The goal came shortly after half @-@ time , with Morison heading in Marc Tierney 's cross to give Norwich a two @-@ goal lead . Morison scored his second goal for Norwich in a 3 – 3 draw against Blackburn Rovers on 29 October , with the goal being described as a " stunning strike " from the edge of the area . A week later , he scored a header from an acute angle in Norwich 's 3 – 2 away defeat against Aston Villa . Morison 's fourth goal of the campaign came in a 2 – 1 home defeat to Arsenal on 19 November , scoring the opening goal of the game after he stole the ball from Per Mertesacker before calmly beating Wojciech Szczęsny in the Arsenal goal . He scored his fourth goal in five Premier League appearances on 3 December , beating Gaël Clichy at the back post to powerfully head the ball past Joe Hart in the Manchester City goal . Morison 's goal was a minor consolation in a 5 – 1 defeat at the City of Manchester Stadium . Morison was also on target for the Canaries in the club 's 4 – 2 home win over Newcastle United on 10 December , scoring Norwich 's third goal when he powerfully headed in Andrew Crofts ' cross from 12 @-@ yards out . He scored in Norwich 's first three games of 2012 despite featuring as a substitute in two of the matches , scoring once in the FA Cup in a 4 – 1 victory over Burnley , as well as netting late goals in 2 – 1 away victories against Queens Park Rangers and West Bromwich Albion respectively . After his goal at West Brom , Morison did not find the scoresheet for another three months — eventually scoring his tenth goal of the campaign in a 3 – 3 draw away to Arsenal at Emirates Stadium on 5 May 2012 . Morison 's late strike from a tight angle drew Norwich level after they had trailed 3 – 2 with five minutes remaining . During his first season at the club , he scored ten goals in 37 appearances .
The following season , under new Norwich manager Chris Hughton , Morison featured predominantly as a substitute ; starting just four games during the first half of the campaign . He scored his first goal of the season in a 5 – 2 home defeat to Liverpool in September 2012 , a match in which he started . He went on to score one further goal for the club , netting in Norwich 's 4 – 1 loss to Aston Villa in the League Cup quarter @-@ final on 11 December . He dedicated the goal to former team mate Mitchell Cole , who had recently died . Morison made his last appearance for Norwich in a 4 – 3 defeat to Manchester City in the club 's final game of 2012 . He made 59 appearances during his one @-@ and @-@ a @-@ half year spell at the club , scoring 12 goals .
= = = Leeds United = = =
On the last day of the 2013 January transfer window , Morison signed for Championship side Leeds United as part of a swap deal . The transfer involved Luciano Becchio moving to Norwich , as well as Norwich paying Leeds a " further undisclosed sum " . On signing Morison , the then @-@ Leeds manager Neil Warnock said that — " Steve meets all the requirements of the striker we 've been looking to bring in . For me , he is a player who has everything . He can score goals from anywhere – whether it 's 25 yards or a tap @-@ in – he has pace , and he has all the attributes you want " . He made his Leeds debut on 9 February 2013 , playing the whole match in the club 's 2 – 2 draw against Wolverhampton Wanderers at Molineux . Morison scored his first goal for the club on his home debut on 20 February , netting the second goal in a 2 – 0 victory over Blackpool . He scored twice for Leeds in the club 's 2 – 2 draw against Crystal Palace at Selhurst Park on 9 March . The two goals proved to be Morison 's last of the season , scoring three goals in 16 appearances during the second half of the 2012 – 13 campaign .
= = = = Millwall loan = = = =
Just a day after returning for pre @-@ season training with Leeds , on 28 June 2013 , Morison joined former club Millwall , also of the Championship , on a season @-@ long loan deal . On rejoining Millwall , Morison stated — " I 'm pleased to be back here . If anybody has any doubts about me all I 'd say is that I aim to score plenty of goals for Millwall and help this club to greater success " . Morison finished the season with 8 goals in 41 appearances , helping the London club stave off relegation from The Championship with a 19th @-@ place finish .
= = = = Return to Leeds = = = =
In June 2014 , after returning to Leeds , new Leeds owner Massimo Cellino revealed that Morison would be fully in Dave Hockaday 's plans for the following season , describing that " he needs to show if he ’ s still a good player because he used to be . " On 1 August , Morison was assigned the Leeds number 19 shirt for the 2014 – 15 season , with Morison 's previous shirt number going to team @-@ mate Matt Smith . Morison missed the opening games of the season through injury , making his first league appearance for Leeds in over a year as a substitute against Huddersfield Town on 20 September .
On 25 October 2014 , Morison was named in Leeds ' starting 11 for the first time in 18 months for the game against Wolverhampton Wanderers , replacing the suspended Souleymane Doukara . The match proved to be Darko Milanic 's last match as head coach .
On 19 April 2015 , Morison scored his first goal for Leeds since March 2013 , when he scored a volley in a 2 – 1 loss against Charlton Athletic . After scoring against Charlton , Morison followed this up by scoring in the consecutive game on 25 April in a 2 – 1 win against Yorkshire rivals Sheffield Wednesday . It would have been three goals in three games if his goal against Rotherham hadn 't been wrongly called offside .
He started off the 2015 / 16 pre season in good form , scoring against Harrogate Town on 10 July 2015 , and then scoring against Eintracht Frankfurt in a 2 – 1 defeat on 21 July 2015 . On 31 July 2015 , Morison was given the number 20 shirt for the upcoming 2015 / 16 season .
= = = Millwall = = =
On 4 August 2015 , Leeds announced that Morison had rejoined League 1 side Millwall for an undisclosed fee .
= = International career = =
= = = England C = = =
Morison was called up to the England C team , who represent England at non @-@ league level , in November 2006 , scoring in a European Challenge Trophy game against the Netherlands . Morison was then chosen to represent his country for the Four Nations Tournament hosted in Scotland in May 2007 , where he played in victories against Republic of Ireland C and Scotland C respectively , assisting two goals in the process . He was included in the 16 @-@ man squad for the Four Nations Tournament hosted in Wales in May 2008 , scoring in the side 's 1 – 0 win against Scotland C , as well as featuring against both Gibraltar and Wales C. He was subsequently called up for the England C tour of the Caribbean in June 2008 , in which Morison played both games against Grenada and Barbados respectively , scoring against the former in a 1 – 1 draw . Morison played a total of eight times for the England C side , scoring three times , before his age meant that he was ineligible to be selected .
= = = Wales = = =
In May 2010 , it was identified that Morison was eligible to represent Wales due to Welsh ancestry – as his grandmother was born in Tredegar , near Ebbw Vale . Wales assistant manager Roy Evans was present to watch Morison in Millwall 's 1 – 0 victory against Swindon Town , while Morison " registered his interest " in representing Wales . In July 2010 , Wales boss John Toshack named Morison in the Wales squad for a friendly against Luxembourg in Llanelli on 11 August 2010 . On being called up to the Wales squad , Morison said " It 's a fantastic achievement and it feels good to be recognised for my hard work " . Morison subsequently started in Wales ' 5 – 1 victory against Luxembourg , playing the whole match and assisting Ashley Williams ' goal . Following Morison 's debut , manager John Toshack said " I was very impressed with the debut of Steve Morison , he didn ’ t get on the scoresheet , but he certainly made his presence felt " . A week after his first appearance for Wales , Morison was called up again as part of the 25 @-@ man squad for Wales ' first UEFA Euro 2012 qualifier against Montenegro in September 2010 . He started the match against Montenegro , but was substituted with ten minutes remaining as Wales lost 1 – 0 . In October 2010 , Morison was again included in Wales ' squad for their qualifiers against Bulgaria and Switzerland respectively . He started in Wales ' 1 – 0 home loss to Bulgaria , before appearing as a substitute with ten minutes remaining in the team 's 4 – 1 loss to Switzerland in Basel . Morison earned his fifth cap for Wales on 26 March 2011 , starting in Wales ' UEFA Euro 2012 qualifier against England . The game ended 2 – 0 to England .
At the start of the 2011 – 12 season , Morison was called up for Wales ' friendly game against Australia , coming on as a 62nd @-@ minute substitute in a 2 – 1 defeat . Wales manager Gary Speed called Morison up for the country 's two UEFA Euro 2012 qualifiers in September 2011 . He scored his first international goal for Wales in a 2 – 1 victory against Montenegro , played at Cardiff City Stadium on 2 September . Morison 's goal came from six yards out , sliding to make contact with David Vaughan 's low cross . The victory was Wales ' first of the qualification group . He earned his tenth cap for Wales in a 1 – 0 defeat to England at Wembley Stadium four days later , on 6 September . Morison went on to make two further appearances in victories against Switzerland and Bulgaria respectively in October 2011 , before starting up @-@ front alongside Craig Bellamy in a 4 – 1 friendly win over Norway . Two further appearances in friendly matches against Costa Rica and Mexico took Morison 's appearances tally for Wales to 15 .
He opened the 2012 – 13 season by appearing in a 2 – 0 friendly loss to Bosnia and Herzegovina , coming on as a 69th @-@ minute substitute in the match . Morison started in Wales ' first two 2014 FIFA World Cup qualifiers , a 2 – 0 home defeat to Belgium on 7 September 2012 , followed by a 6 – 1 away loss to Serbia four days later . He started in Wales ' first win of the World Cup campaign a month later , playing the first 65 minutes as Wales came from behind to defeat Scotland at Cardiff City Stadium . Morison earned his 20th cap in a 2 – 0 defeat to Croatia in Osijek on 16 October 2012 .
= = Style of play = =
Morison plays as a striker and has been described as a " player who is always in the right place at the right time " , which is a reference to his goalscoring exploits . Ahead of the 2008 – 09 season , Stevenage manager Graham Westley sent Morison to a training camp whereby he would work on his pace , and later said " he is improving all the time " . He also described him as a player that " no defender would want to play against " due to his height , pace , and strength . In May 2010 , Millwall manager Kenny Jackett said that Morison " has a lot of strength and pace , which he uses on defenders perfectly " , as well as referring to him as a " physical threat " because of his aerial ability . Nick Szczepanik of The Times stated that Morison plays with " a fearless , all @-@ action style " , and that this was emphasised when he " played against Huddersfield Town with his head bandaged to protect a wound that required three stitches " .
= = Personal life = =
Morison attended Enfield Grammar School , leaving school at the age of 16 with one GCSE qualification . During his time at Northampton Town , Morison added to his qualifications with a National Diploma in Sports science , and also earned a coaching badge during his time at Protec . When Morison fell into part @-@ time football with Bishop 's Stortford in 2004 , he worked for a shredding company , " getting up at four in the morning shredding paper around London " . However , he said he " could not handle the early starts " and subsequently got " an easier job indoors " doing administration work in an office , where he met his wife , since then they have had a baby boy together , called Fenton . He quit the administration job immediately after signing for Stevenage in August 2006 .
Morison has always had an interest in greyhound racing , ever since he attended Walthamstow Stadium as a boy . In January 2013 , Morison set up a greyhound racing syndicate alongside his former strike partner at Norwich City , Grant Holt , and the two launched the SMGH Racing Club . Talking of the racing club , Morison stated — " I 've got lots of kennels myself , lots of animals , lots of dogs . So me and Grant got together bought a couple of dogs and it ’ s spiralled out of control a little bit , because we ’ ve bought seven now in the space of about three months . But it 's been brilliant " . When he finishes playing football , he says it would be " a dream " to be a greyhound trainer .
= = Honours = =
Stevenage Borough
FA Trophy ( 2 ) : 2006 – 07 , 2008 – 09
Millwall
League One play @-@ offs ( 1 ) : 2009 – 10
Individual
Stevenage Player of the Year ( 1 ) : 2007 – 08
League One Player of the Month ( 1 ) : March 2010
= = Career statistics = =
As of 15 May 2016
= = = Club = = =
= = = International = = =
= = = International goals = = =
Wales ' goal tally first
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= Funeral ( Glee ) =
" Funeral " is the twenty @-@ first episode of the second season of the American musical television series Glee , and the forty @-@ third overall . It first aired May 17 , 2011 on Fox in the United States , and was written by series creator Ryan Murphy and directed by Bradley Buecker . The episode featured Jonathan Groff guest starring as Jesse St. James , who is brought in as a consultant to help the New Directions glee club prepare for the National Show Choir competition . Sue Sylvester 's ( Jane Lynch ) sister Jean ( Robin Trocki ) dies unexpectedly , and the glee club helps Sue plan her funeral .
The episode received a wide range of reviews , from highly enthusiastic to harshly critical . The performances of the five songs covered were generally well @-@ liked , though having four of them arranged as a series of auditions in the middle of the show met with disapproval . All five songs were released as singles , and three of them charted on the Billboard Hot 100 .
Upon its initial airing , this episode was viewed by 8 @.@ 97 million American viewers and garnered a 3 @.@ 6 / 10 Nielsen rating / share in the 18 – 49 demographic . The total viewership and ratings for this episode were down slightly from the previous episode , " Prom Queen " . Lynch was nominated for an Outstanding Supporting Actress in a Comedy Series at the 63rd Primetime Emmy Awards for her work on the show , and submitted this episode for judging .
= = Plot = =
Will Schuester ( Matthew Morrison ) , director of New Directions , the McKinley High School glee club , hires Jesse St. James ( Jonathan Groff ) — an alumnus of championship @-@ winning rival glee club Vocal Adrenaline — as a consultant to help them develop a strategy to win the upcoming Nationals competition . Jesse convinces Will to use Vocal Adrenaline 's methodology , which is to identify the club 's best performer and center the entire performance on that person , and Will decides to hold auditions to determine who will be featured . Santana Lopez ( Naya Rivera ) , Rachel Berry ( Lea Michele ) , Mercedes Jones ( Amber Riley ) and Kurt Hummel ( Chris Colfer ) all audition , with Jesse and Will as judges . Jesse is highly critical of the performances by Santana , Kurt and Mercedes , while he praises his former girlfriend Rachel 's performance . He tells Will that Rachel is the clear winner , which angers the other three . Ultimately , Will decides to ignore Jesse 's advice and instead plans to do for Nationals what brought them victory at the Regionals competition : having the whole group sing original songs .
Cheerleading coach Sue Sylvester ( Jane Lynch ) is deeply upset by the death of her sister , Jean ( Robin Trocki ) . She lashes out by having the glee club 's flight to Nationals in New York City rerouted so it has a layover in war @-@ ravaged Tripoli , and kicks Becky Jackson ( Lauren Potter ) off the Cheerios . Sue allows Finn Hudson ( Cory Monteith ) and Kurt to plan Jean 's funeral and help her sort through Jean 's personal belongings , and agrees to have the glee club to perform at the funeral , as she believes no one will attend otherwise . While going through Jean 's belongings , Finn and Kurt discover that her favorite movie was Willy Wonka & the Chocolate Factory , and arrange a funeral inspired by the film . At the funeral , an emotional Sue is unable to continue reading her eulogy after a few sentences , and Will reads the remainder for her . The glee club then sings " Pure Imagination " , the theme song of the film . Touched by Will 's support , Sue later tells him that he is a good friend and he has what Jean had and she does not : a pure heart . She says that she will no longer attempt to destroy the glee club , and announces that she is planning to run for the United States House of Representatives . For the first time , she wishes him good luck . Sue also apologizes to Becky , reinstates her as a member of the Cheerios , and tells her she will be captain of the squad in the fall . Sue asks for and receives a hug from Becky .
Finn realizes his true feelings for Rachel during the funeral , and breaks up with Quinn Fabray ( Dianna Agron ) afterward . He later thanks her for not quitting glee club because of their breakup ; Quinn tells him that quitting would have ruined her " big plans " for New York , and refuses to tell him what they are . Finn sees Jesse and Rachel sharing a brief kiss on stage ; after they leave , he brings a flower from behind his back . Will 's ex @-@ wife , Terri ( Jessalyn Gilsig ) , who aided Sue 's earlier plot to sabotage the glee club 's flights , gives Will first @-@ class plane tickets to New York for the entire club , revealing that they were a donation from an airline executive . She tells him she is moving to Miami to start over with her life and to pursue her retail management career , and they say goodbye .
= = Production = =
The episode was written by series co @-@ creator Ryan Murphy and directed by Bradley Buecker . Two months before it aired , Murphy confirmed at PaleyFest 2011 that there was a death planned before the end of the season , but that it would not be recurring character Dave Karofsky , despite rumors that his death would be paving the way for Kurt 's return to McKinley High . Further details were eventually supplied by entertainment reporter Michael Ausiello , who reported on April 19 , 2011 that a " beloved character " would be dying in the " season 's penultimate episode " , and one week later that the character was female . Morrison confirmed in late April that there would indeed be a death , and added : " The episode right before the finale is called ' Funeral ' . We were actually at a funeral home yesterday , shooting all day . It was a very taxing day . " The day the episode aired , Lynch revealed in an interview that Murphy had conferred with her before proceeding with the storyline : " He took me aside at a party and said ' I want your blessing on this before we move forward . ' I said , ' It sounds like a really great storyline . ' It ’ s the thing that will break Sue Sylvester ’ s heart and get to where she lives . " Lynch was nominated for an Outstanding Supporting Actress in a Comedy Series at the 63rd Primetime Emmy Awards for her work on the show , and submitted " Funeral " to be the episode by which she would be judged .
Groff returns for the second of three consecutive episodes as Jesse . Terri 's colleague Howard Bamboo ( Kent Avenido ) also returns , and makes his only appearance of the second season after having featured in several episodes during the first . Other recurring guest stars in the episode include glee club members Mike Chang ( Harry Shum , Jr . ) , Sam Evans ( Chord Overstreet ) and Lauren Zizes ( Ashley Fink ) , cheerleader Becky Jackson ( Lauren Potter ) , and in an uncredited appearance in a video shown during the funeral scene , Sue 's sister Jean Sylvester ( Robin Trocki ) . Additional guests include Becky 's mother Donna Jackson ( Kari Coleman ) , and Jim Metzler as the Reverend who presides at the funeral .
" Funeral " features cover versions of five songs : " Back to Black " by Amy Winehouse , sung by Rivera ; " Some People " from Gypsy , performed by Colfer ; " Try a Little Tenderness " by Otis Redding , sung by Riley ; " My Man " in the Barbra Streisand version from the film of Funny Girl , performed by Michele ; and " Pure Imagination " from Willy Wonka & the Chocolate Factory , sung by New Directions .
= = Reception = =
= = = Ratings = = =
" Funeral " was first broadcast on May 17 , 2011 in the United States on Fox . It garnered a 3 @.@ 6 / 10 Nielsen rating / share in the 18 – 49 demographic , and received 8 @.@ 97 million American viewers during its initial airing , despite airing simultaneously with the NCIS season finale on CBS , The Biggest Loser on NBC , Dancing With the Stars Freestyle Special on ABC , and the One Tree Hill season finale on The CW . The total viewership and ratings for this episode were down slightly from those of the previous episode , " Prom Queen " — which was watched by 9 @.@ 29 million American viewers and acquired a 3 @.@ 7 / 11 rating / share in the 18 – 49 demographic upon first airing on television .
The episode 's Canadian broadcast , also on May 17 , 2011 , drew 1 @.@ 58 million viewers . It was the fourteenth most @-@ watched show of the week , and ranked two places higher than the previous week 's " Prom Queen " , even though it drew 13 % fewer viewers than the 1 @.@ 82 million recorded for that episode . In Australia , the episode was watched by 1 @.@ 07 million viewers on June 8 , 2011 , which made Glee the seventh most @-@ watched show of the night and the twenty @-@ first most @-@ watched for the week . This was up slightly from " Prom Queen " , which attracted 1 @.@ 04 million viewers on June 1 , 2011 , and was the eighth most @-@ watched program of the night and twenty @-@ sixth of the week . In the UK , the episode debuted on June 7 , 2011 , and was watched by 2 @.@ 19 million viewers ( 1 @.@ 76 million on E4 , and 427 @,@ 000 on E4 + 1 ) , which made it the most @-@ watched show on E4 and E4 + 1 for the week , and the most @-@ watched show on cable for the week . This was up slightly over " Prom Queen " , which aired on May 23 , 2011 , and was watched by 2 @.@ 11 million viewers , again the most @-@ watched show on cable for the week .
= = = Critical response = = =
" Funeral " was met with a wide range of reviews , from highly enthusiastic to harshly critical . Lisa Respers France of CNN said it was " one of the best episodes ever " , and MTV 's Aly Semigran called it " authentic " and " one of the very best " of the season if not the series as a whole . Robert Canning of IGN wrote that it was " a great episode that truly showcased the talents of Jane Lynch " and rated it 8 @.@ 5 out of 10 . Rolling Stone 's Erica Futterman said that the episode " felt like a recycled version of things we 've seen previously " and added that the show is " not as entertaining when it 's simply a showcase " . Todd VanDerWerff of The A.V. Club gave the episode a " C " and characterized the funeral scene as " the highlight of an uneven episode " . The Atlantic 's Kevin Fallon wrote , " Killing off Sue 's sister seemed cruel , but ultimately paid off — it 's too bad the episode completely derailed afterward , dying its own rapid death in turn . " Anthony Benigno of The Faster Times had little good to say , and singled out the writers for doing " such a crappy job " on the penultimate episode of the season .
Lynch as Sue received high praise for her acting . Canning wrote that she " stole the episode " and " perfectly portrayed a woman [ whose ] hard heart was trying terribly not to break , but not being able to stop it . " BuddyTV 's John Kubicek stated , " it 's impossible for me to say that Lynch wasn 't exceptional , because her slow breakdown and attempt to cover @-@ up her emotions was well done and fit perfectly with the character . " Respers France commented that " we got to see the range and complexity of Sue Sylvester " , and Sandra Gonzalez of Entertainment Weekly said that Lynch did an " outstanding job of delivering even the funniest quips with an underlying sense of sadness " . Sue 's characterization in the series was criticized by several reviewers , however . Amy Reiter of The Los Angeles Times stated that the " consistent inconsistency of Sue 's character is wearing thin " , and that " our sense of her fails to advance , wandering endlessly between pure evil and pure love for her sister . " Futterman called the episode a " too @-@ little @-@ too late attempt at redemption for Sue 's poor characterization this season . " VanDerWerff wrote that the episode " feels very self @-@ consciously like a way to just remove her character from the table for the season finale " , that " it feels very self @-@ consciously like an attempt by the show to address the fact that the character doesn 't make any sense " , and criticized the death of Jean : " killing her solely to right a wayward character arc is lazy writing , and no amount of actor commitment can wholly save it . " Fallon described the funeral plot line as " pure , classic Glee : Egregiously random , emotionally manipulative , wholly unnecessary to plot development , and , in the end , deeply moving . "
The secondary plot line , about the auditions for New Directions soloist at Nationals , was roundly criticized . Canning called it a " faux drama " , though he added that Jesse was " a delight to despise " , and VanDerWerff said it was " completely ridiculous to do this with Nationals coming up " in a week 's time , and " constructed almost entirely " to make Jesse a " jerk " . Houston Chronicle 's Bobby Hankinson also hit on the lack of preparation for the upcoming competition and stated that it seemed " like a very bad idea " to be going without a setlist already decided on , much less with songs unwritten . He said the four audition numbers were " awkwardly paced " , though he thought they were " fantastic " ; Reiter said they " stood out like glinting gems in a somewhat muddy episode " . Canning and VanDerWerff also criticized the block of four songs in the middle of the episode which , as VanDerWerff put it , " stops the show cold " . James Poniewozik of Time was unhappy for another reason altogether : " Having four people stand up and sing solos into a microphone may be music ; but it ain 't a musical . "
Poniewozik wrote of Will 's Broadway plans that " his ambitions , and guilt over them , make a much more believable and compelling conflict than Matthew Morrison has had to convey for much of the season . " VanDerWerff complimented Morrison on his portrayal of Will : " every time the show hands him anything to play that 's something that makes vague sense , he does a good job with it . " Other kudos for the actors were provided by Respers France , who highlighted the " further great acting " seen during " Finn and Quinn 's moment in his truck " , and E ! Online 's Jenna Mullins , who called the scene where Finn and Kurt help Sue with her sister 's room " positively heartbreaking " , and the trio of characters " magnificent " . Although Canning stated that " Terri leaving lacked much punch " , Poniewozik commented that it was " satisfying to see her realized as an adult for once " .
= = = Musical commentary = = =
While the placement of the four solos together in the middle of the episode was questioned , the songs themselves were met with approbation : VanDerWerff called all four " really good performances " . Santana 's rendition of " Back to Black " was declared " spot on " by Futterman , and Raymund Flandez of The Wall Street Journal wrote that it was performed " with raspy sensitivity " , and went " deep into the emotional truth of the song " . Kubicek was less enthusiastic , and called it " pretty good , but nothing groundbreaking or special " , and Semigran called it " decent " . Benigno said that " Rivera 's delivery gives this song its smoldering swagger " and gave it an " A − " , and Poniewozik praised Rivera as " really impressive " .
" Some People " received adequate to good reviews . Gonzalez missed Kurt 's usual charisma and thought the performance " a bit lackluster " , and Benigno called it " kind of a boring cover " . It received their lowest grades of the show , " B " and " B − " , respectively . Kubicek stated , " Kurt has a unique voice that sounds positively beautiful with the right melodic song , but this is a terrible song for his style " , and Vanity Fair 's Brett Berk added , after he gave it two out of five stars , that it was " not the best showcase of Kurt 's talents " . Futterman and Reiter referred approvingly to Kurt 's " upper register " , and both Reiter and Respers France said he " ripped it " on his song .
" Try a Little Tenderness " received a stream of bouquets from the critics . Kubicek raved that Mercedes " gave 100 % of what she has to offer , which is pure greatness " , and Respers France said she " stole the night " and was " amazing " . Berk broke his own scale of one to five stars with six stars , and praised " the unstinting instrument that is Mercedes ' voice " . Gonzalez gave it an " A " and called it " pure perfection " , but Benigno was more restrained with a " B + " , and wrote " she hits a little too hard for my taste " and " the vocals … threaten to engulf the song itself " .
" My Man " was also lauded . Flandez called it " heartstopping " , and Futterman summed up with , " she nails the Funny Girl closer , making it one of Rachel 's top performances on the show " . Berk called it " good singing " and gave it three stars out of five , and Gonzalez gave it an " A − " . Benigno was more generous with an " A " grade , and said , " even by Lea Michele 's standards , the vocals here are fan @-@ fucking @-@ tastic " . Hankinson agreed : " Rachel truly nailed the most difficult song she 's ever sung . "
The one group number , " Pure Imagination " , received reviews that touched on the song itself as much as the performance . Fallon called it " unsettling yet touching " and Poniewozik described it as " odd but perfect " . Berk , on the other hand , characterized it as " pure dreck " . Benigno felt that while the song was " really quite good " , the " stupidity of the scene " it was in detracted from it , resulting in a grade of " B + " , while Gonzalez , when she gave it an " A − " , said she hadn 't been a " huge fan of the cover " when she heard it before the show aired , but it grew on her in context . Futterman wrote , " The New Directions break into a restrained , tender take on " Pure Imagination " with lush harmonies on the chorus that 's exactly right for the moment . "
= = = Chart history = = =
Only three of the five cover versions debuted on the Billboard Hot 100 : " Pure Imagination " debuted at number fifty @-@ nine , " Back to Black " at number eighty @-@ two , and " My Man " at number ninety @-@ four . " Pure Imagination " was the only song to make the Billboard Canadian Hot 100 at number eighty @-@ seven .
Of the five songs that were featured in the episode , three were featured on the eighth soundtrack album of the series , Glee : The Music , Volume 6 : " Pure Imagination " , " My Man " , and " Try a Little Tenderness " . The album was released on May 23 , 2011 , and debuted at number four on the US Billboard 200 , selling 80 @,@ 000 copies in its first week , which was the second @-@ lowest opening sales figure for a Glee release next to the extended play Glee : The Music , The Rocky Horror Glee Show , and lower than the 86 @,@ 000 sold by Glee : The Music Presents the Warblers in its first week the previous month . The album was also at number four on the Canadian Album charts .
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= New York State Route 383 =
New York State Route 383 ( NY 383 ) is an 18 @.@ 70 @-@ mile ( 30 @.@ 09 km ) north – south state highway in Monroe County , New York , in the United States . The southern terminus of the route is at an intersection with NY 36 in the hamlet of Mumford within the town of Wheatland . Its northern terminus is at a junction with NY 31 in the city of Rochester . The route follows the Genesee River and its tributaries for its entire length and passes through the village of Scottsville .
In the early 20th century , the entirety of modern NY 383 south of Scottsville was part of Route 16 , an unsigned legislative route . In 1921 , Route 16 was truncated to end in Caledonia while the entirety of its former routing north of the village became part of Route 15 . The segment of Route 15 between Mumford and Scottsville became part of NY 253 in the 1930 renumbering of state highways in New York . This section of NY 253 was replaced c . 1938 by a rerouted NY 35 , a route that extended northeast of Scottsville to Ontario by way of Rochester . NY 35 was split into two routes in the early 1940s , at which time NY 383 was assigned to the portion between Mumford and Walworth . NY 383 was truncated to Rochester in 1949 , and only minor realignments within the city have occurred since .
= = Route description = =
NY 383 begins at an intersection with NY 36 in the hamlet of Mumford , located just north of the border between Monroe and Livingston Counties in the town of Wheatland . Taking on the name Scottsville – Mumford Road , NY 383 follows Oatka Creek east through open fields and passes through the small hamlet of Garbutt on its way to the village of Scottsville , where it becomes Caledonia Avenue . At an intersection with the southern terminus of NY 386 , NY 383 turns east onto Main Street and follows it through the residential southern portion of the village and past the Scottsville Free Library . Main Street comes to an end at a junction with River Road ( NY 251 , which has its western terminus here ) and Rochester Street near the northern bank of Oatka Creek . Here , NY 383 curves north onto Rochester Street and proceeds through eastern Scottsville . The street name of NY 383 becomes Scottsville Road upon intersecting the western terminus of NY 253 . Past this junction , the surroundings shift from village streets to housing tracts as the route exits Scottsville . North of the village , NY 383 re @-@ enters open fields once again upon crossing the Wheatland – Chili town line .
Within Chili , NY 383 parallels the path of the Genesee River , which Oatka Creek feeds into east of the village of Scottsville . During this stretch , the route passes under the New York State Thruway ( Interstate 90 or I @-@ 90 ) and intersects Mile Wood Road , a highway connecting NY 383 to Mile of Woods , a hamlet on the west bank of the Genesee River . From this point , NY 383 heads to the north while the river flows to the northwest toward the route . Upon meeting the waterway , NY 383 begins to run along the Genesee River 's western bank to a junction with NY 252 . It continues along the riverbank as it proceeds northward , passing over Black Creek and crossing the West Shore Subdivision , a rail line owned by CSX Transportation . As NY 383 approaches the Greater Rochester International Airport , it diverges from the river and has a junction with Paul Road ( unsigned County Route 168 and formerly NY 252A ) south of the Airport . NY 383 follows the southern edge of the airport to an interchange with I @-@ 390 at exit 17 . Shortly afterward , NY 383 crosses the Erie Canal and enters the city of Rochester . At this point , maintenance of NY 383 shifts from the New York State Department of Transportation to the city of Rochester .
Scottsville Road continues within the city for four blocks to a three @-@ way junction with Genesee Street and Elmwood Avenue . NY 383 veers north onto Genesee Street for six blocks to Brooks Avenue . Here , the route turns east to access South Plymouth Avenue . NY 383 continues north on Plymouth Avenue through densely populated sections of the city to Ford Street . The route curves east to follow Ford for one block to Exchange Boulevard , where it turns back to the north toward downtown Rochester . NY 383 follows Exchange Boulevard along the Genesee River 's west bank and under the Frederick Douglass – Susan B. Anthony Memorial Bridge , which carries I @-@ 490 over both NY 383 and the river . Past the bridge , the highway enters downtown , where it passes the City of Rochester Public Safety Building and the Blue Cross Arena before terminating at a junction with East Broad Street ( NY 31 ) .
= = History = =
In 1908 , the New York State Legislature created Route 16 , an unsigned legislative route extending from the village of Cuba to the city of Rochester . Between the hamlet of Mumford and the village of Scottsville , Route 16 followed Scottsville – Mumford Road . By 1919 , Route 15 was extended northeast from Caledonia to meet Route 16 in Scottsville . Within the village , it was routed on River Road and Main Street . On March 1 , 1921 , Route 16 was truncated to end in Le Roy while the portion of its former routing north of Caledonia became part of a realigned and extended Route 15 . None of Route 15 between Mumford and Scottsville was assigned a designation when the first set of routes in the modern state highway system were assigned in 1924 .
The portion of former legislative Route 15 from Mumford to Scottsville and the segment of pre @-@ 1921 legislative Route 15 on Main Street in Scottsville was designated as the westernmost portion of NY 253 , a highway extending from Mumford to Henrietta , as part of the 1930 renumbering of state highways in New York . In Scottsville , NY 253 was concurrent with NY 35 , a route stretching from Buffalo to Ontario via Canawaugus ( west of Avon ) , Rochester , and Walworth , on Rochester Street . U.S. Route 20 was rerouted to follow NY 35 between Buffalo and Avon c . 1938 . As a result , NY 35 was reconfigured south of Scottsville to follow the routing of NY 253 to Mumford instead , where it ended at NY 36 . NY 253 was then truncated to the former northern terminus of its overlap with NY 35 northeast of Scottsville . The NY 35 designation was split into two designations in the early 1940s , with the portion from Mumford to Ontario Center Road in Walworth becoming NY 383 . The new route also continued southward for another 2 miles ( 3 @.@ 2 km ) to NY 5 in Caledonia by way of an overlap with NY 36 ; however , this extension was eliminated by 1970 .
Within Rochester , NY 383 was initially routed on Scottsville Road , Elmwood and Plymouth avenues , Main Street , and Winton Road . At the junction of Winton and Blossom roads , NY 383 turned east to follow Blossom into Penfield . It veered east upon intersecting Browncroft Boulevard to follow modern NY 286 east to Walworth . The portion of NY 383 east of NY 96 ( East Avenue ) in downtown Rochester became NY 286 on January 1 , 1949 . At the same time , NY 383 was truncated to the junction of Plymouth Avenue and Main Street in Rochester . NY 383 was further truncated to an interchange with the newly constructed Inner Loop in the mid @-@ 1950s .
In the late 1970s , NY 383 was rerouted to follow Ford Street and Exchange Boulevard around the southeastern edge of Rochester 's Corn Hill district to a new terminus at Broad Street ( NY 31 ) in downtown Rochester . The route 's former alignment on Plymouth Avenue was split into two segments in the late 1980s as part of a larger reconfiguration of Corn Hill 's street layout . In the mid @-@ 2000s , NY 383 was rerouted between Elmwood and Brooks Avenues to follow Genesee Street instead . This realignment was made out of necessity as a portion of South Plymouth Avenue immediately south of Brooks Avenue was removed as part of the construction of the Brooks Landing riverside development project . Incidentally , Genesee Street was part of the routing used by NY 35 , NY 383 's predecessor , during the 1930s and 1940s .
= = NY 383B = =
NY 383B was an alternate route of NY 383 between Rochester and Penfield along Browncroft Boulevard . It was renumbered from NY 35B to NY 383B when the portion of NY 35 in the vicinity of Rochester was redesignated as NY 383 in the early 1940s . It was renumbered again to NY 286A in 1949 to match the redesignation of NY 383 east of Rochester to NY 286 . Despite the " B " suffix of the route , it is the only suffixed route in NY 383 's history — there has never been a " NY 383A " .
= = Major intersections = =
The entire route is in Monroe County .
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= Real Madrid C.F. =
Real Madrid Club de Fútbol ( Spanish pronunciation : [ reˈal maˈðɾið ˈkluβ ðe ˈfuðβol ] ; Royal Madrid Football Club ) , commonly known as Real Madrid , or simply as Real outside Spain frontiers , is a professional football club based in Madrid , Spain .
Founded in 1902 as Madrid Football Club , the team has traditionally worn a white home kit since inception . The word Real is Spanish for Royal and was bestowed to the club by King Alfonso XIII in 1920 together with the royal crown in the emblem . The team has played its home matches in the 85 @,@ 454 @-@ capacity Santiago Bernabéu Stadium in downtown Madrid since 1947 . Unlike most European sporting entities , Real Madrid 's members ( socios ) have owned and operated the club throughout its history .
The club is the most valuable sports team in the world , worth € 2 @.@ 5 billion ( $ 3 @.@ 4 billion ) and the world 's highest @-@ earning football club for 2013 – 14 , with an annual revenue of € 549 @.@ 5 million . The club is one of the most widely supported teams in the world . Real Madrid is one of three founding members of the Primera División that have never been relegated from the top division , along with Athletic Bilbao and Barcelona . The club holds many long @-@ standing rivalries , most notably El Clásico with Barcelona and the El Derbi madrileño with Atlético Madrid .
Real Madrid established itself as a major force in both Spanish and European football during the 1950s . The club won five consecutive European Cups , and reached the final seven times . This success was replicated in the league , where the club won five times in the space of seven years . This team , which consisted of players such as Di Stéfano , Ferenc Puskás , Gento , Raymond Kopa , and Santamaría , is considered by some in the sport to be the greatest team of all time .
In domestic football , the club has won a record 32 La Liga titles , 19 Copa del Rey , 9 Supercopa de España , 1 Copa Eva Duarte , and 1 Copa de la Liga . In international football , the club has won a record 11 European Cup / UEFA Champions League titles and a joint record 3 Intercontinental Cups , as well as 2 UEFA Cups , 2 UEFA Super Cups and a FIFA Club World Cup .
Real Madrid was recognised as the FIFA Club of the 20th Century on 23 December 2000 , and named Best European Club of the 20th Century by the IFFHS on 11 May 2010 . The club received the FIFA Centennial Order of Merit in 2004 . The club is ranked first in the latest IFFHS Club World Ranking , setting a new ranking @-@ points record . The club also leads the current UEFA club rankings .
= = History = =
= = = Early years ( 1897 – 1945 ) = = =
Real Madrid 's origins go back to when football was introduced to Madrid by the academics and students of the Institución Libre de Enseñanza , which included several Cambridge and Oxford University graduates . They founded Football Club Sky in 1897 , playing on Sunday mornings at Moncloa . It split into two clubs in 1900 : New Foot @-@ Ball de Madrid and Madrid Football Club . On 6 March 1902 , after a new Board presided by Juan Padrós had been elected , Madrid Football Club was officially founded . Three years after its foundation , in 1905 , Madrid FC won its first title after defeating Athletic Bilbao in the Spanish Cup final . The club became one of the founding sides of the Royal Spanish Football Federation on 4 January 1909 , when club president Adolfo Meléndez signed the foundation agreement of the Spanish FA . After moving between grounds the team moved to the Campo de O 'Donnell in 1912 . In 1920 , the club 's name was changed to Real Madrid after King Alfonso XIII granted the title of Real ( Royal ) to the club .
In 1929 , the first Spanish football league was founded . Real Madrid led the first league season until the last match , a loss to Athletic Bilbao , meant they finished runners @-@ up to Barcelona . Real Madrid won its first League title in the 1931 – 32 season . Real won the League again the following year , becoming the first team to have won the championship twice .
On 14 April 1931 , the arrival of the Second Spanish Republic caused the club to lose the title Real and went back to being named Madrid Football Club . Football continued during the Second World War , and on 13 June 1943 Madrid beat Barcelona 11 – 1 in the second leg of a semi @-@ final of the Copa del Generalísimo , the Copa del Rey having been renamed in honour of General Franco . It has been suggested that Barcelona players were intimidated by police , including by the director of state security who " allegedly told the team that some of them were only playing because of the regime 's generosity in permitting them to remain in the country . " The Barcelona chairman , Enric Piñeyro , was assaulted by Madrid fans . However , none of these allegations have been proven and FIFA and UEFA still consider the result as legitimate . According to Spanish journalist and writer , Juan Carlos Pasamontes , Barcelona player Josep Valle denied that the Spanish security forces came before the match . Instead , at the end of the first half , Barcelona coach Juan José Nogués and all of his players were angry with the hard @-@ style of play Real Madrid was using and with the aggressiveness of the home crowd . When they refused to take the field , the Superior Chief of Police of Madrid appeared , identified himself , and ordered the team to take the field .
= = = Santiago Bernabéu Yeste and European success ( 1945 – 78 ) = = =
Santiago Bernabéu Yeste became president of Real Madrid in 1945 . Under his presidency , the club , its stadium Santiago Bernabéu and its training facilities Ciudad Deportiva were rebuilt after the Spanish Civil War damages . Additionally , during the 1950s former Real Madrid Amateurs player Miguel Malbo founded Real Madrid 's youth academy , or " cantera , " known today as La Fábrica . Beginning in 1953 , he embarked upon a strategy of signing world @-@ class players from abroad , the most prominent being Alfredo Di Stéfano .
In 1955 , acting upon the idea proposed by the French sports journalist and editor of L 'Équipe Gabriel Hanot , Bernabéu , Bedrignan and Gusztáv Sebes created an exhibition tournament of invited teams from around Europe that would eventually become what today is known as the UEFA Champions League . It was under Bernabéu 's guidance that Real Madrid established itself as a major force in both Spanish and European football . The club won the European Cup five times in a row between 1956 and 1960 , which included the 7 – 3 Hampden Park final against Eintracht Frankfurt in 1960 . After these five consecutive successes , Real was permanently awarded the original cup and earning the right to wear the UEFA badge of honour .
The club won the European Cup for a sixth time in 1966 defeating Partizan Belgrade 2 – 1 in the final with a team composed entirely of same nationality players , a first in the competition . This team became known as the Yé @-@ yé . The name " Ye @-@ yé " came from the " Yeah , yeah , yeah " chorus in The Beatles ' song " She Loves You " after four members of the team posed for Marca and impersonated the Beatles . The Ye @-@ yé generation was also European Cup runner @-@ up in 1962 and 1964 . In the 1970s , Real Madrid won five league championships and three Spanish Cups . The club played its first UEFA Cup Winners ' Cup final in 1971 and lost to English side Chelsea 2 – 1 . On 2 July 1978 , club president Santiago Bernabéu died while the World Cup was being played in Argentina . FIFA decreed three days of mourning to honour him during the tournament . The following year , the club organized the first edition of the Trofeo Santiago Bernabéu in the memory of its former president .
= = = Quinta del Buitre and seventh European Cup ( 1980 – 2000 ) = = =
By the early 1980s , Real Madrid had lost its grasp on the Liga title until a new cohort of home @-@ grown stars brought domestic success back to the club . Spanish sport journalist Julio César Iglesias gave to this generation the name La Quinta del Buitre ( " Vulture 's Cohort " ) , which was derived from the nickname given to one of its members , Emilio Butragueño . The other four members were Manuel Sanchís , Martín Vázquez , Míchel and Miguel Pardeza ; all five footballers were graduates of Real Madrid 's youth academy . With La Quinta del Buitre ( reduced to four members when Pardeza left for Zaragoza in 1986 ) and notable players like goalkeeper Francisco Buyo , right @-@ back Miguel Porlán Chendo and Mexican striker Hugo Sánchez , Real Madrid had one of the best teams in Spain and Europe during the second half of the 1980s , winning two UEFA Cups , five Spanish championships in a row , one Spanish cup and three Spanish Super Cups . In the early 1990s , La Quinta del Buitre split up after Martín Vázquez , Emilio Butragueño and Míchel left the club .
In 1996 , President Lorenzo Sanz appointed Fabio Capello as coach . Although his tenure lasted only one season , Real Madrid was proclaimed league champion and players like Roberto Carlos , Predrag Mijatović , Davor Šuker and Clarence Seedorf arrived at the club to strengthen a squad that already boasted the likes of Raúl , Fernando Hierro , Iván Zamorano , and Fernando Redondo . As a result , Real Madrid ( with the addition of Fernando Morientes in 1997 ) finally ended its 32 @-@ year wait for its seventh European Cup : in 1998 , under manager Jupp Heynckes , they defeated Juventus 1 – 0 in the final with a goal from Predrag Mijatović .
= = = Los Galácticos ( 2000 – 2006 ) = = =
In July 2000 , Florentino Pérez was elected club president . He vowed in his campaign to erase the club 's € 270 million debt and modernize the club 's facilities . However , the primary electoral promise that propelled Pérez to victory was the signing of Luís Figo from arch @-@ rivals Barcelona . The following year , the club had its training ground rezoned and used the money to begin assembling the Galácticos team by signing a global star every summer , which included Zinedine Zidane , Ronaldo , Luís Figo , Roberto Carlos , Raúl , David Beckham and Fabio Cannavaro . It is debatable whether the gamble paid off , as despite winning the UEFA Champions League and an Intercontinental Cup in 2002 , followed by La Liga in 2003 , the club failed to win a major trophy for the next three seasons .
The few days after the capturing of the 2003 Liga title were surrounded with controversy . The first controversial decision came when Pérez sacked winning coach Vicente del Bosque . Over a dozen players left the club , including Madrid captain Fernando Hierro , while defensive midfielder Claude Makélélé refused to take part in training in protest at being one of the lowest @-@ paid players at the club and subsequently moved to Chelsea . " That 's a lot [ of players leaving ] when the normal rule is : never change a winning team , " stated Zidane . Real Madrid , with newly appointed coach Carlos Queiroz , started their domestic league slowly after a hard win over Real Betis .
The 2005 – 06 season began with the promise of several new signings : Júlio Baptista ( € 24 million ) , Robinho ( € 30 million ) and Sergio Ramos ( € 27 million ) . However , Real Madrid suffered from some poor results , including a 0 – 3 loss at the hands of Barcelona at the Santiago Bernabéu in November 2005 . Madrid 's coach Wanderley Luxemburgo was sacked the following month and his replacement was Juan Ramón López Caro . A brief return to form came to an abrupt halt after losing the first leg of the Copa del Rey quarterfinal , 6 – 1 to Real Zaragoza . Shortly after , Real Madrid were eliminated from the Champions League for a fourth successive year , this time at the hands of Arsenal . On 27 February 2006 , Florentino Pérez resigned .
= = = New president Ramón Calderón ( 2006 – 09 ) = = =
Ramón Calderón was elected as club president on 2 July 2006 and subsequently appointed Fabio Capello as the new coach and Predrag Mijatović as the new sporting director . Real Madrid won the Liga title in 2007 for the first time in four years , but Capello was nonetheless sacked at the end of the campaign . On 9 June 2007 , Real played against Zaragoza at La Romareda . Zaragoza led Real 2 – 1 near the end of the match while Barcelona were also winning against Espanyol 2 – 1 . A late Ruud van Nistelrooy equalizer followed by a last @-@ minute Raúl Tamudo goal sprang Real Madrid 's title hopes back into their favour .
The title was won on 17 June , where Real faced Mallorca at the Bernabéu while Barcelona and Sevilla , the other title challengers , faced Gimnàstic de Tarragona and Villarreal , respectively . At half @-@ time , Real were 0 – 1 down , while Barcelona had surged ahead into a 0 – 3 lead in Tarragona ; however , three goals in the last half @-@ hour secured Madrid a 3 – 1 win and their first league title since 2003 . The first goal came from José Antonio Reyes , who scored after a good work from Gonzalo Higuaín . An own goal followed by another goal from Reyes allowed Real to begin celebrating the title . Thousands of Real Madrid fans began going to Plaza de Cibeles to celebrate the title .
= = = Second Pérez term , and arrival of Cristiano Ronaldo ( 2009 – 13 ) = = =
On 1 June 2009 , Florentino Pérez regained Real Madrid 's presidency . Pérez continued with the Galácticos policy pursued in his first term , buying Kaká from Milan for a record @-@ breaking sum of £ 56 million , and then breaking the record again by purchasing Cristiano Ronaldo from Manchester United for £ 80 million .
José Mourinho took over as manager in May 2010 . In April 2011 , a strange occurrence happened when , for the first time ever , four Clásicos were to be played in a span of just 18 days . The first fixture was for the Liga campaign on 17 April ( which ended 1 – 1 with penalty goals for both sides ) , the Copa del Rey final ( which ended 1 – 0 to Madrid ) and the controversial two @-@ legged Champions League semifinal on 27 April and 2 May ( 3 – 1 loss on aggregate ) to Barcelona .
In the 2011 – 12 La Liga season , Real Madrid won La Liga for a record 32nd time in the league 's history , also finishing the season with numerous club @-@ level records set , including 100 points reached in a single season , a total of 121 goals scored , a goal difference of + 89 and 16 away wins , with 32 wins overall . In the same season , Cristiano Ronaldo become the fastest player to reach 100 goals scored in Spanish league history . In reaching 101 goals in 92 games , Ronaldo surpassed Real Madrid legend Ferenc Puskás , who scored 100 goals in 105 games . Ronaldo set a new club mark for individual goals scored in one year ( 60 ) , and became the first player ever to score against all 19 opposition teams in a single season .
Real Madrid began the 2012 – 13 season winning the Supercopa de España , defeating Barcelona on away goals , but finished as second in the league competition . A major transfer of the season was signing from Tottenham Hotspur of Luka Modrić for a fee in the region of £ 33 million . In the Champions League , they were drawn in the " group of death " alongside Borussia Dortmund , Manchester City and Ajax , finishing second with three points behind Dortmund . In the round of 16 , they defeated Manchester United , Galatasaray in the quarter @-@ finals , and reached their third @-@ straight semi @-@ final finish in the Champions League , when they were again stopped by Dortmund . After a disappointing extra time loss to Atlético Madrid in the 2013 Copa del Rey Final , Pérez announced the departure of José Mourinho at the end of the season by " mutual agreement . "
= = = Ancelotti and La Décima ( 2013 – 15 ) = = =
On 25 June 2013 , Carlo Ancelotti succeeded Mourinho to become the manager of Real Madrid on a three @-@ year deal . A day later , he was introduced at his first press conference for Madrid where it was announced that both Zinedine Zidane and Paul Clement will be his assistants . On 1 September 2013 , the long @-@ awaited transfer from Tottenham of Gareth Bale was announced . The transfer of the Welshman was reportedly the new world record signing , with the transfer price approximated at € 100 million . In Ancelotti 's first season at the club , Real Madrid won the Copa del Rey , with Bale scoring the winner in the final against Barcelona . On 24 May , Real Madrid defeated city rivals Atlético Madrid in the 2014 Champions League Final , winning their first European title since 2002 , and becoming the first team to win ten European Cups / Champions League titles , an achievement known as " La Décima . "
After winning the 2014 Champions League , Real Madrid signed goalkeeper Keylor Navas , midfielder Toni Kroos and attacking midfielder James Rodríguez . The club won the 2014 UEFA Super Cup against Sevilla , with two goals by Cristiano Ronaldo , the club 's 79th official trophy . During the last week of the 2014 summer transfer window , Real Madrid sold two players key in the previous season 's successes — Xabi Alonso to Bayern Munich and Ángel Di María to Manchester United , the latter for an English record fee of € 75 million . This decision from the club was surrounded by controversy , however , with Ronaldo stating , " If I was in charge , maybe I would have done things differently , " while Carlo Ancelotti admitted , " We must start again from zero . "
After a slow start to the 2014 – 15 La Liga season , which included defeats to Atlético Madrid and Real Sociedad , Real Madrid went on a record @-@ breaking winning streak , which included wins against Barcelona and Liverpool , surpassing the previous Spanish record of 18 successive wins set by Frank Rijkaard 's Barça in the 2005 – 06 season . In December 2014 , the club extended their winning streak to 22 games with a 2 – 0 win over San Lorenzo in the 2014 FIFA Club World Cup Final , thus ending the calendar year with four trophies . Their 22 @-@ game winning streak ended in their opening game of 2015 with a loss to Valencia , leaving the club two short of equalling the world record of 24 consecutive wins . The club failed to retain the Champions League ( losing 3 – 2 on aggregate against Juventus in the semi @-@ finals ) , the Copa del Rey ( 4 – 2 aggregate loss to Atlético ) , and failed to land the league title ( finishing two points and a place behind champions Barcelona ) , shortcomings that all preceded Ancelotti 's sacking on 25 May 2015 .
= = = Zidane arrival and La Undécima ( 2015 – present ) = = =
On 3 June 2015 , Rafael Benítez was confirmed as the new Real Madrid manager , signing a three @-@ year contract . Real Madrid remained unbeaten in the league until a 3 – 2 loss at Sevilla in the eleventh matchday . This was followed by a 0 – 4 home loss in the first El Clásico of the season against Barcelona . Real played Cádiz CF in the Copa del Rey Round of 32 , winning away 1 – 3 in the first leg . However , they fielded an ineligible player in Denis Cheryshev as he was suspended for that match , resulting in the second leg being cancelled and Real being disqualified . Meanwhile , Real topped their UEFA Champions League group with 16 points . He was sacked on 4 January 2016 , following allegations of unpopularity with supporters , displeasure with players and a failure to get good results against top sides . At the time of sacking , Real were third in La Liga , four points behind leaders Atlético Madrid and two points behind arch @-@ rivals Barcelona ( with a game in hand ) .
On 4 January 2016 , Benítez 's departure was announced along with the promotion of Zinedine Zidane to his first head coaching role . Zidane previously worked as assistant to Benítez 's predecessor Carlo Ancelotti and , since 2014 , had occupied the helm of reserve team Real Madrid Castilla . Zidane 's coaching debut for Madrid was marked by a 5 – 0 home victory over Deportivo in La Liga on 9 January 2016 with Gareth Bale scoring a hat @-@ trick . On 28 May , Real Madrid won their eleventh UEFA Champions League title , extending their record for most successes in the competition , with Cristiano Ronaldo scoring the decisive penalty in a shoot out win over Atlético Madrid in the final .
= = Crest and colours = =
= = = Emblem = = =
The first crest had a simple design consisting of a decorative interlacing of the three initials of the club , " MCF " for Madrid Club de Fútbol , in dark blue on a white shirt . The first change in the crest occurred in 1908 when the letters adopted a more streamlined form and appeared inside a circle . The next change in the configuration of the crest did not occur until the presidency of Pedro Parages in 1920 . At that time , King Alfonso XIII granted the club his royal patronage which came in the form of the title " Real Madrid , " meaning " Royal . " Thus , Alfonso 's crown was added to the crest and the club styled itself Real Madrid Club de Fútbol .
With the dissolution of the monarchy in 1931 , all the royal symbols ( the crown on the crest and the title of Real ) were eliminated . The crown was replaced by the dark mulberry band of the Region of Castile . In 1941 , two years after the end of the Civil War , the crest 's " Real Corona " , or " Royal Crown " , was restored while the mulberry stripe of Castile was retained as well . In addition , the whole crest was made full color , with gold being the most prominent , and the club was again called Real Madrid Club de Fútbol . The most recent modification to the crest occurred in 2001 when the club wanted to better situate itself for the 21st century and further standardize its crest . One of the modifications made was changing the mulberry stripe to a more bluish shade .
= = = Home kit = = =
Real Madrid 's traditional home colours are all white , although before its foundation , in the club 's first game against themselves , they adopted a blue and a red oblique stripe on the shirt to differentiate the two teams ( the club crest design has a purple stripe which is not associated to this . It was incorporated the year they lost the royal crown , as it the traditional region of Castile colour ) ; but unlike today , black socks were worn . Lastly , the black socks will be replaced by dark blue ones . Real Madrid has maintained the white shirt for its home kit throughout the history of the club . There was , however , one season that the shirt and shorts were not both white . It was an initiative undertaken by Escobal and Quesada in 1925 ; the two were traveling through England when they noticed the kit worn by London @-@ based team Corinthian F.C. , one of the most famous teams at the time known for its elegance and sportsmanship . It was decided that Real Madrid would wear black shorts in an attempt to replicate the English team , but the initiative lasted just one year . After being eliminated from the cup by Barcelona with a 1 – 5 defeat in Madrid and a 2 – 0 defeat in Catalonia , President Parages decided to return to an all @-@ white kit , claiming that the other kit brought bad luck . By the early 1940s , the manager changed the kit again by adding buttons to the shirt and the club 's crest on the left breast , which has remained ever since . On 23 November 1947 , in a game against Atlético Madrid at the Metropolitano Stadium , Real Madrid became the first Spanish team to wear numbered shirts . English club Leeds United permanently switched their blue shirt for a white one in the 1960s , to emulate the dominant Real Madrid of the era .
Real 's traditional away colours are all blue or all purple . Since the advent of the replica kit market , the club has also released various other one colour designs , including red , green , orange and black . The club 's kit is manufactured by Adidas , whose contract extends from 1998 . Real Madrid 's first shirt sponsor , Zanussi , agreed for the 1982 – 83 , 1983 – 84 and 1984 – 85 seasons . Following that , the club was sponsored by Parmalat and Otaysa before a long @-@ term deal was signed with Teka in 1992 . In 2001 , Real Madrid ended their contract with Teka and for one season and used the Realmadrid.com logo to promote the club 's website . Then , in 2002 , a deal was signed with Siemens Mobile and in 2006 , the BenQ Siemens logo appeared on the club 's shirt . Real Madrid 's shirt sponsor from 2007 until 2013 was bwin.com following the economic problems of BenQ Siemens . It is currently Fly Emirates .
= = Kit manufacturers and shirt sponsors = =
Source :
= = Grounds = =
After moving between grounds , the team moved to the Campo de O 'Donnell in 1912 , which remained its home ground for 11 years . After this period , the club moved for one year to the Campo de Ciudad Lineal , a small ground with a capacity of 8 @,@ 000 spectators . After that , Real Madrid moved its home matches to Estadio Chamartín , which was inaugurated on 17 May 1923 with a match against Newcastle United . In this stadium , which hosted 22 @,@ 500 spectators , Real Madrid celebrated its first Spanish league title . After some successes , the 1943 elected president Santiago Bernabéu decided that the Estadio Chamartín was not big enough for the ambitions of the club , and thus a new stadium was built and was inaugurated on 14 December 1947 . This was the Santiago Bernabéu Stadium as it is known today , although it did not acquire the present name until 1955 . The first match at the Bernabéu was played between Real Madrid and the Portuguese club Belenenses and won by Los Blancos , 3 – 1 , the first goal being scored by Sabino Barinaga .
The capacity has changed frequently , peaking at 120 @,@ 000 after a 1953 expansion . Since then , there have been a number of reductions due to modernizations ( the last standing places went away in 1998 – 99 in response to UEFA regulations which forbids standing at matches in the UEFA competition ) , countered to some extent by expansions . The last change was an increase of about five thousand to a capacity of 85 @,@ 454 , effected in 2011 . A plan to add a retractable roof has been announced . Real Madrid has the fourth @-@ highest of the average attendances of European football clubs , behind only Borussia Dortmund , Barcelona and Manchester United .
The Bernabéu has hosted the 1964 European Championship final , the 1982 FIFA World Cup final , the 1957 , 1969 and 1980 European Cup finals and the 2010 Champions League Final . The stadium has its own Madrid Metro station along the 10 line called Santiago Bernabéu . On 14 November 2007 , the Bernabéu has been upgraded to Elite Football Stadium status by UEFA .
On 9 May 2006 , the Alfredo Di Stéfano Stadium was inaugurated in the City of Madrid , where Real Madrid usually trains . The inaugural match was played between Real Madrid and Stade Reims , a rematch of the 1956 European Cup final . Real Madrid won the match 6 – 1 with goals from Sergio Ramos , Antonio Cassano ( 2 ) , Roberto Soldado ( 2 ) and José Manuel Jurado . The venue is now part of the Ciudad Real Madrid , the club 's new training facilities located outside Madrid in Valdebebas . The stadium holds 5 @,@ 000 people and is Real Madrid Castilla 's home ground . It is named after former Real legend Alfredo Di Stéfano .
= = Records and statistics = =
Raúl holds the record for most Real Madrid appearances , having played 741 first @-@ team matches from 1994 to 2010 . Iker Casillas comes second with 725 appearances , followed by Manuel Sanchis , Jr. having played 711 times . The record for a goalkeeper is held by Iker Casillas , with 725 appearances . With 166 * caps ( 162 while at the club ) , he is also Real 's most capped international player while with 127 caps ( 47 while at the club ) , Luís Figo of Portugal is Real 's most capped foreign international player .
Cristiano Ronaldo is Real Madrid 's all @-@ time top goalscorer , with 360 goals . Five other players have also scored over 200 goals for Real : Alfredo Di Stéfano ( 1953 – 64 ) , Santillana ( 1971 – 88 ) , Ferenc Puskás ( 1958 – 66 ) , Hugo Sánchez ( 1985 – 92 ) and the previous goalscoring record @-@ holder Raúl ( 1994 – 2010 ) . Cristiano Ronaldo also holds the record for the most league goals scored in one season ( 48 in 2014 – 15 ) , alongside being Real 's top goalscorer of all time in La Liga history with 256 goals . Di Stéfano 's 49 goals in 58 matches was for decades the all @-@ time highest tally in the European Cup , until it was surpassed by Raúl in 2005 , which now is held by Cristiano Ronaldo with 93 goals . The fastest goal in the history of the club ( 15 seconds ) was scored by the Brazilian Ronaldo on 3 December 2003 during a league match against Atlético Madrid .
Officially , the highest home attendance figure for a Real Madrid match is 83 @,@ 329 , which was for a football cup competition , Copa del Rey , in 2006 . The current legal capacity of the Santiago Bernabéu is 80 @,@ 354 . The club 's average attendance in 2007 – 08 season was 76 @,@ 234 , the highest in European Leagues . Real has also set records in Spanish football , most notably the most domestic titles ( 32 as of 2012 – 13 ) and the most seasons won in a row ( five , during 1960 – 65 and 1985 – 90 ) . With 121 matches ( from 17 February 1957 to 7 March 1965 ) , the club holds the record for longest unbeaten run at home in La Liga .
The club also hold the record for winning the European Cup / UEFA Champions League ten times and for the most semi @-@ final appearances ( 27 ) . As of April 2016 , Cristiano Ronaldo is the all @-@ time top scorer in the UEFA Champions League , with 93 goals in total , 78 while playing for Real Madrid . The team has the record number of consecutive participations in the European Cup ( before it became the Champions League ) with 15 , from 1955 – 56 to 1969 – 70 . Among the club 's on @-@ field records is a 22 @-@ game winning streak in all competitions during the 2014 – 2015 season , a Spanish record . The same season the team tied the win @-@ streak for games in the UEFA Champions League , with ten .
In June 2009 , the club broke its own record for the highest transfer fee ever paid in the history of football by agreeing to pay Manchester United € 96 million ( US $ 131 @.@ 5 million , £ 80 million ) for the services of Cristiano Ronaldo . The fee of € 76 million ( over $ 100 million , £ 45 @.@ 8 million ) for Zinedine Zidane 's transfer from Juventus to Real Madrid in 2001 was the previous highest transfer fee ever paid . This record had been broken previously in June 2009 , for a few days , when Real Madrid agreed to buy Kaká from Milan . The transfer of Tottenham Hotspur 's Gareth Bale in 2013 was reportedly the new world record signing , with the transfer price expected at around € 100 million . In January 2016 , documents pertaining to Bale 's transfer were leaked which confirmed a world record transfer fee of € 100 @,@ 759 @,@ 418 . The club 's sale record came on 26 August 2014 , when Manchester United signed Ángel Di María for € 75 million .
= = Support = =
During most home matches the majority of the seats in the stadium are occupied by season ticket holders , of which there are average of 68 @,@ 670 . To become a season ticket holder one must first be a socio , or club member . In addition to members , the club has more than 1 @,@ 800 peñas ( official , club @-@ affiliated supporters ' groups ) in Spain and around the world . Real Madrid has the second highest average all @-@ time attendance in Spanish football and regularly attracts over 74 @,@ 000 fans to Santiago Bernabéu ; it was the second best @-@ supported La Liga team in the 2004 – 05 season , with an average gate of 71 @,@ 900 . Real Madrid is one of the best supported teams globally , and has the second largest social media following in the world among sports teams , after Barcelona , with over 85 million Facebook fans as of November 2015 .
Real Madrid 's hardcore supporters are the so @-@ called Ultras Sur supporters , or simply Ultras . They are known for their extreme right @-@ wing politics , akin to Barcelona 's hardcore supporters group Boixos Nois . The Ultras Surs have developed an alliance with other right wing groups , most notably Lazio Irriducibili fans , and have also developed an alliance with left @-@ wing groups . On several occasions , they have racially abused opposing players and have been investigated by UEFA for doing so . Florentino Pérez took it upon himself to ban the Ultras from the Bernabéu and assign their seats to the general public . This decision was controversial with some of the Bernabéu faithful , however , as the lively atmosphere of games would suffer as a result . The Ultras have since held protests outside the Bernabéu and have demanded to be reinstated and allowed to enter the grounds .
= = Rivalries = =
= = = El Clásico = = =
There is often a fierce rivalry between the two strongest teams in a national league , and this is particularly the case in La Liga , where the game between Real Madrid and Barcelona is known as " The Classic " ( El Clásico ) . From the start of national competitions , the clubs were seen as representatives of two rival regions in Spain , Catalonia and Castile , as well as of the two cities . The rivalry reflects what many regard as the political and cultural tensions felt between Catalans and the Castilians , seen by one author as a re @-@ enactment of the Spanish Civil War . Over the years , the record from Real Madrid and Barcelona is 81 victories for Madrid , 76 victories for Barcelona , and 39 draws .
During the dictatorships of Primo de Rivera and especially of Francisco Franco ( 1939 – 1975 ) , all regional cultures were suppressed . All of the languages spoken in Spanish territory , except Spanish ( Castilian ) itself , were officially banned . Symbolising the Catalan people 's desire for freedom , Barcelona became " More than a club " ( " Més que un club " ) for the Catalans . According to Manuel Vázquez Montalbán , the best way for the Catalans to demonstrate their identity was by joining Barcelona . It was less risky than joining a clandestine anti @-@ Franco movement , and allowed them to express their dissidence . During Franco 's regime , however , the Blaugrana team was granted profit due to its good relationship with the dictator at management level , even giving two awards to him .
On the other hand , Real Madrid was widely seen as the embodiment of the sovereign oppressive centralism and the fascist regime at management level and beyond – Santiago Bernabéu , the former club president for whom Real Madrid 's stadium is named , fought on the Nationalist side during the Spanish Civil War . During the war , however , members of both clubs , such as Josep Sunyol and Rafael Sánchez Guerra , suffered at the hands of Francoists .
During the 1950s , the rivalry was exacerbated further when there was a controversy surrounding the transfer of Alfredo Di Stéfano , who finally played for Real Madrid and was key to their subsequent success . The 1960s saw the rivalry reach the European stage when they met twice in a controversial knock @-@ out round of the European Cup , with Madrid receiving unfavourable treatment from the referee . In 2002 , the European encounter between the clubs was dubbed the " Match of The Century " by Spanish media , and Madrid 's win was watched by more than 500 million people .
= = = El Derbi madrileño = = =
The club 's nearest neighbour is Atlético Madrid , a rivalry being shared between fans of both football teams . Although Atlético was originally founded by three Basque students in 1903 , it was joined in 1904 by dissident members of Madrid FC . Tensions escalated further after Atlético were merged with the football team of the Spanish airforce ( and thus renamed Atlético Aviación ) , and in the 1940s , Atlético was perceived as the preferred team of Franco 's regime before he revelled in Real 's European success in the 1950s . Furthermore , Real supporters initially came from the middle and upper classes while the Atlético supporters were drawn from the working class . Today , however , these distinctions are largely blurred . They met for the first time on 21 February 1929 in matchday three of the first League Championship at the former Chamartín . It was the first official derby of the new tournament , and Real won 2 – 1 .
The rivalry first gained international attention in 1959 during the European Cup when the two clubs met in the semi @-@ final . Real won the first leg 2 – 1 at the Bernabéu while Atlético won 1 – 0 at the Metropolitano . The tie went to a replay , which Real won 2 – 1 . Atlético , however , gained some revenge when , led by former Real Madrid coach José Villalonga , it defeated its city rivals in two successive Copa del Generalísimo finals in 1960 and 1961 .
Between 1961 and 1989 , when Real dominated La Liga , only Atlético offered it any serious challenge , winning Liga titles in 1966 , 1970 , 1973 and 1977 . In 1965 , Atlético became the first team to beat Real at the Bernabéu in eight years . Real Madrid 's record against Atlético in more recent times is very favorable . A high point coming in the 2002 – 03 season , when Real clinched the La Liga title after a 0 – 4 victory at Atlético at the Vicente Calderón Stadium . Atlético 's first win over its city rivals since 1999 came with the Copa del Rey win in May 2013 . In 2013 – 14 , Real and Atlético were finalists of UEFA Champions League , the first final which hosted two clubs from same city . Real Madrid triumphed with 4 – 1 in extra time . On 7 February 2015 , Real suffered their first defeat in 14 years at the Vicente Calderón , a 4 – 0 loss . On 28 May 2016 , Real and Atlético met again for the Champions League title in Milan which resulted in a win for Real Madrid via Penalty Shootout .
= = = European rivalry = = =
Real Madrid and Bayern Munich are two of the most successful clubs in the UEFA Champions League / European Cup competition , Real winning eleven times and Bayern winning five times . Real Madrid versus Bayern is the match that has historically been played most often in the Champions League , with 16 matches and the European Cup with 22 matches . Real 's biggest loss at home in the Champions League came at the hands of Bayern on 29 February 2000 , 2 – 4 . Real Madrid supporters often refer to Bayern as the " Bestia negra " ( " Black Beast " ) . The two teams met in the 2011 – 12 Champions League semi @-@ finals , which resulted in 3 – 3 on aggregate , forcing extra time and penalties . Bayern won 3 – 1 on penalties to reach their first @-@ ever home Champions League final . They then again met in 2013 – 14 UEFA Champions League semi @-@ finals , a rematch of the 2012 semi @-@ final , with Real Madrid winning 5 – 0 on aggregate .
= = Finances and ownership = =
It was under Florentino Pérez 's first presidency ( 2000 – 2006 ) that Real Madrid started its ambition of becoming the world 's richest professional football club . The club ceded part of its training grounds to the city of Madrid in 2001 , and sold the rest to four corporations : Repsol YPF , Mutua Automovilística de Madrid , Sacyr Vallehermoso and OHL . The sale eradicated the club 's debts , paving the way for it to buy the world 's most expensive players , such as Zinedine Zidane , Luís Figo , Ronaldo and David Beckham . The city had previously rezoned the training grounds for development , a move which in turn increased their value , and then bought the site . The European Commission started an investigation into whether the city overpaid for the property , to be considered a form of state subsidy .
The sale of the training ground for office buildings cleared Real Madrid 's debts of € 270 million and enabled the club to embark upon an unprecedented spending spree which brought big @-@ name players to the club . In addition , profit from the sale was spent on a state @-@ of @-@ the @-@ art training complex on the city 's outskirts . Although Pérez 's policy resulted in increased financial success from the exploitation of the club 's high marketing potential around the world , especially in Asia , it came under increasing criticism for being too focused on marketing the Real Madrid brand and not enough on the performances of the team .
By September 2007 , Real Madrid was considered the most valuable football brand in Europe by BBDO . In 2008 , it was ranked the second @-@ most valuable club in football , with a value of € 951 million ( £ 640 million / $ 1 @.@ 285 billion ) , only beaten by Manchester United , which was valued at € 1 @.@ 333 billion ( £ 900 million ) . In 2010 , Real Madrid had the highest turnover in football worldwide . In September 2009 , Real Madrid 's management announced plans to open its own dedicated theme park by 2013 .
A study at Harvard University concluded that Real Madrid " is one of the 20 most important brand names and the only one in which its executives , the players , are well @-@ known . We have some spectacular figures in regard to worldwide support of the club . There are an estimated 287 million people worldwide who follow Real Madrid . " In 2010 , Forbes evaluated Real Madrid 's worth to be around € 992 million ( US $ 1 @.@ 323 billion ) , ranking them second after Manchester United , based on figures from the 2008 – 09 season . According to Deloitte , Real Madrid had a recorded revenue of € 401 million in the same period , ranking first .
Along with Barcelona , Athletic Bilbao and Osasuna , Real Madrid is organised as a registered association . This means that Real Madrid is owned by its supporters who elect the club president . The club president cannot invest his own money into the club and the club can only spend what it earns , which is mainly derived through merchandise sales , television rights and ticket sales . Unlike a limited company , it is not possible to purchase shares in the club , but only membership . The members of Real Madrid , called socios , form an assembly of delegates which is the highest governing body of the club . As of 2010 , the club has 60 @,@ 000 socios . At the end of the 2009 – 10 season , the club board of directors of the club stated that Real Madrid had a net debt of € 244 @.@ 6 million , € 82 @.@ 1 million lower than the previous fiscal year . Real Madrid announced that it had a net debt of € 170 million after the 2010 – 11 season . From 2007 to 2011 , the club made a net profit of € 190 million .
During the 2009 – 10 season , Real Madrid made € 150 million through ticket sales , which was the highest in top @-@ flight football . The club has the highest number of shirt sales a season , around 1 @.@ 5 million . For the 2010 – 11 season its wage bill totalled € 169 million , which was second @-@ highest in Europe behind Barcelona . However , its wage bill to turnover ratio was the best in Europe at 43 percent , ahead of Manchester United and Arsenal at 46 percent and 50 percent , respectively . In 2013 , Forbes listed the club as the world 's most valuable sports team , worth $ 3 @.@ 3 billion .
= = Popular culture = =
Real Madrid was the featured club in the second edition of the Goal ! football movie trilogy , Goal ! 2 : Living the Dream ... ( 2007 ) . The film follows former Newcastle United star Santiago Muñez as he is first scouted , and then signed by Real Madrid for the 2005 – 06 season . The film 's creators wanted to put emphasis on the changes in Muñez 's life after his move to Madrid . Production was done with the full support of UEFA , allowing the film crew to use many real life players in cameo roles . Real Madrid squad members featured in the film included Iker Casillas , Zinedine Zidane , David Beckham , Ronaldo , Roberto Carlos , Raúl , Sergio Ramos , Robinho , Michael Owen , Míchel Salgado , Júlio Baptista , Steve McManaman and Iván Helguera . Non @-@ Real Madrid players to make cameo appearances included Ronaldinho , Thierry Henry , Lionel Messi , Samuel Eto 'o , Andrés Iniesta , Pablo Aimar , Fredrik Ljungberg , Cesc Fàbregas and Santiago Cañizares . In the film , both Florentino Pérez and Alfredo Di Stéfano presented the fictional player Muñez to the club after his signing .
Real , The Movie is a 2005 part feature , part documentary film that showcases the world @-@ wide passion for Real Madrid C.F. Produced by the club and directed by Borja Manso , it follows five sub @-@ stories of fans from around the world and their love for Real Madrid . Along with the fictional portion of the film , it also contains real footage of the squad , during training at Ciudad Real Madrid , matches , and interviews . Although the film mentions all of the squad , it mainly focuses on galácticos such as David Beckham , Zinedine Zidane , Raúl , Luís Figo , Ronaldo , Iker Casillas , and Roberto Carlos , among others . The film was originally produced in Spanish , but has been dubbed for their world @-@ wide fanbase .
The book White Storm : 100 years of Real Madrid by Phil Ball was the first English @-@ language history of Real Madrid . Published in 2002 , it talks about the most successful moments of the club during its first centenary , having been translated into various languages . In late 2011 , Real Madrid released a digital music album , entitled Legends , and a remix of the club 's anthem , " Himno del Real Madrid , " was released as the first single from the album .
= = = Real Madrid TV = = =
Real Madrid TV is an encrypted digital television channel , operated by Real Madrid and specialising in the club . The channel is available in Spanish and English . It is located at Ciudad Real Madrid in Valdebebas ( Madrid ) , Real Madrid 's training centre .
= = = Hala Madrid = = =
Hala Madrid is a magazine published quarterly for the Real Madrid club members and the Madridistas Fan Club card holders . The phrase Hala Madrid , meaning " Forward Madrid " or " Go Madrid " , is also the title of the club 's official anthem , which is often sung by the Madridistas ( the club 's fans ) . The magazine includes reports on the club 's matches in the previous month , as well as information about the reserve and youth teams . Features often include interviews with players , both past and present , and the club 's historic matches .
= = Honours = =
As of 24 May 2014 , Real Madrid has won a record 32 La Liga , a record eleven European Cup / UEFA Champions League and a shared record three Intercontinental Cup trophies . The club was awarded with the recognition of " FIFA Club of the 20th Century " on 23 December 2000 , and named " Best European Club of the 20th Century " by the IFFHS in London on 11 May 2010 . It also received the FIFA Order of Merit in 2004 . Added to this , Real is allowed to wear a multiple – winner badge on their shirt during UEFA Champions League matches as they have won more than five European Cups .
= = = Domestic competitions = = =
La Liga
Winners ( 32 ) – record : 1931 – 32 , 1932 – 33 , 1953 – 54 , 1954 – 55 , 1956 – 57 , 1957 – 58 , 1960 – 61 , 1961 – 62 , 1962 – 63 , 1963 – 64 , 1964 – 65 , 1966 – 67 , 1967 – 68 , 1968 – 69 , 1971 – 72 , 1974 – 75 , 1975 – 76 , 1977 – 78 , 1978 – 79 , 1979 – 80 , 1985 – 86 , 1986 – 87 , 1987 – 88 , 1988 – 89 , 1989 – 90 , 1994 – 95 , 1996 – 97 , 2000 – 01 , 2002 – 03 , 2006 – 07 , 2007 – 08 , 2011 – 12
Copa del Rey
Winners ( 19 ) : 1905 , 1906 , 1907 , 1908 , 1917 , 1934 , 1936 , 1946 , 1947 , 1961 – 62 , 1969 – 70 , 1973 – 74 , 1974 – 75 , 1979 – 80 , 1981 – 82 , 1988 – 89 , 1992 – 93 , 2010 – 11 , 2013 – 14
Supercopa de España
Winners ( 9 ) : 1988 , 1989 , 1990 , 1993 , 1997 , 2001 , 2003 , 2008 , 2012
Copa Eva Duarte ( the forerunner to the Supercopa de España )
Winners : 1947
Copa de la Liga
Winners : 1984 – 85
= = = European competitions = = =
European Cup / UEFA Champions League
Winners ( 11 ) – record : 1955 – 56 , 1956 – 57 , 1957 – 58 , 1958 – 59 , 1959 – 60 , 1965 – 66 , 1997 – 98 , 1999 – 2000 , 2001 – 02 , 2013 – 14 , 2015 – 16
UEFA Cup
Winners ( 2 ) : 1984 – 85 , 1985 – 86
UEFA Super Cup
Winners ( 2 ) : 2002 , 2014
= = = Worldwide competitions = = =
Intercontinental Cup
Winners ( 3 ) – shared record : 1960 , 1998 , 2002
FIFA Club World Cup
Winners ( 1 ) : 2014
= = Players = =
Spanish teams are limited to three players without EU citizenship . The squad list includes only the principal nationality of each player ; several non @-@ European players on the squad have dual citizenship with an EU country . Also , players from the ACP countries — countries in Africa , the Caribbean , and the Pacific that are signatories to the Cotonou Agreement — are not counted against non @-@ EU quotas due to the Kolpak ruling .
= = = Current squad = = =
As of 20 July 2016
Note : Flags indicate national team as defined under FIFA eligibility rules . Players may hold more than one non @-@ FIFA nationality .
Note : Flags indicate national team as defined under FIFA eligibility rules . Players may hold more than one non @-@ FIFA nationality .
= = Personnel = =
= = = Current technical staff = = =
= = = Management = = =
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= Steamtown , U.S.A. =
Steamtown , U.S.A. , was a steam locomotive museum that ran steam excursions out of North Walpole , New Hampshire , and Bellows Falls , Vermont , from the 1960s to 1983 . The museum was founded by millionaire seafood industrialist F. Nelson Blount . The non @-@ profit Steamtown Foundation took over operations following his death in 1967 . Because of Vermont 's air quality regulations restricting steam excursions , declining visitor attendance , and disputes over the use of track , some pieces of the collection were relocated to Scranton , Pennsylvania , in the mid @-@ 1980s and the rest were auctioned off . After the move , Steamtown continued to operate in Scranton but failed to attract the expected 200 @,@ 000 – 400 @,@ 000 visitors . Within two years the tourist attraction was facing bankruptcy , and more pieces of the collection were sold to pay off debt .
In 1986 , the United States House of Representatives , under the urging of Pennsylvania Representative Joseph M. McDade , voted to approve $ 8 million to study the collection and to begin the process of making it a National Historic Site . As a result , the National Park Service ( NPS ) conducted historical research on the equipment that remained in the Foundation 's possession . This research was used as a Scope of Collections Statement for the Steamtown National Historic Site . The scope was published in 1991 under the title Steamtown Special History Study . The report provided concise histories of each piece of equipment and made recommendations as to whether or not each piece belonged in the soon @-@ to @-@ be government @-@ funded collection .
By 1995 , Steamtown had been acquired and developed by the NPS with a $ 66 million allocation . Several more pieces have been removed from the collection as a result of the government acquisition . Part of the Blount collection is still on display at the Steamtown National Historic Site in Scranton .
= = History = =
= = = Formation of the collection = = =
F. Nelson Blount , the heir to the largest seafood processor in the United States , was an avid railroad enthusiast . When he was just seventeen years old he wrote a book on steam power . Acquiring the narrow @-@ gauge Edaville Railroad in Carver , Massachusetts in 1955 , he began amassing one of the largest collections of antique steam locomotives in the United States . By 1964 , another part of his collection housed at North Walpole , New Hampshire consisted of 25 steam locomotives from the United States and Canada , 10 other locomotives , and 25 pieces of rolling stock . The Monadnock , Steamtown & Northern Railroad , as the enterprise was then called , ran excursions between Keene and Westmoreland , New Hampshire . In addition to Edaville Railroad and Steamtown , Blount also ran excursions at Pleasure Island in Wakefield , Massachusetts and Freedomland U.S.A. in New York City . In the early 1960s , Blount came close to entering into an agreement with the state of New Hampshire in which he would donate 20 locomotives to a museum which was to be located in Keene . However , the plan , which was originally approved by New Hampshire governor Wesley Powell , in 1962 , was later rejected by the new governor , John W. King . An advisory committee had said of the proposed plan , that it " does not take advantage of anything that is singularly and peculiarly New Hampshire . "
In 1964 , incorporation papers were filed for the " Steamtown Foundation for the Preservation of Steam and Railroad Americana " . The non @-@ profit charitable , educational organization was to have nine non @-@ salaried directors , including the five incorporators of which Blount was one . The other incorporators were former New Hampshire governor , Lane Dwinell ; Emile Bussiere ; Robert L. Mallat , Jr . , mayor of Keene ; and Bellows Falls Municipal Judge , Thomas P. Salmon , who later became governor of Vermont . The president of the Campbell Soup Company , William B. Murphy , who had also served as National Chairman of Radio Free Europe , and Fredrick Richardson , then vice president of Blount Seafood , were among the other directors . The first order of business for the Steamtown Foundation was to acquire the Blount collection at North Walpole , and relocate it to property once owned by the Rutland Railroad , in Bellows Falls , Vermont .
= = = Steamtown in Vermont = = =
F. Nelson Blount was killed when his private airplane hit a tree during an emergency landing , in Marlboro , New Hampshire , on August 31 , 1967 . By that time a good deal of Blount 's collection was controlled by the Steamtown Foundation and had been relocated to Bellows Falls . Blount owned several corporations and one , the Green Mountain Railroad ( GMRC ) , controlled the tracks that lay between Walpole , Bellows Falls and Chester , Vermont , which Steamtown was to use for its excursions . When Blount died most of the controlling stock of the GMRC was transferred to the president of the railroad , Robert Adams .
Throughout its tenure in Vermont , Steamtown provided several types of excursions , primarily in the summer and during the peak foliage season of the autumn . Occasionally , these trips would be lengthy , like one that ran from Boston to Montreal , or those that ran between Bellows Falls and Rutland , Vermont . On a daily basis the excursions ran from Riverside station in Bellows Falls to Chester depot . The cost of the trip , which in 1977 was $ 5 @.@ 75 for an adult and $ 2 @.@ 95 for a child , was combined with entrance into the museum , which was the grounds of Riverside station . The station was located about 2 miles ( 3 km ) outside of town and was situated on the bank of the Connecticut River . One newspaper travel writer , Bill Rice , described the 13 miles ( 21 km ) trip from Riverside to Chester : " The trip to Chester affords a beautiful view of unspoiled Vermont countryside @-@ covered bridges , vintage farms with grazing livestock and cornfield and a winding river with a deep gorge and picturesque waterfall . " The river that Rice referred to was the Williams River , which crossed the route of the train seven times . The waterfall was at Brockway Mills Gorge and was seen from a bridge 100 feet ( 30 m ) above the gorge . Rice also said that at the time he was writing , 1977 , Steamtown had the largest collection of steam locomotives in the world .
In 1971 , the Board of Health of Vermont issued a waiver to the GMRC for Vermont 's air pollution regulations . The waiver permitted the operation of steam locomotive excursions between Steamtown 's Riverside station at Bellows Falls , and Chester depot . In 1974 , as the state of Vermont prepared for its celebration of the country 's bicentenary , in which the Steamtown excursion featured prominently , the subject of the air pollution regulations came up again . The tourist attraction was operating on temporary permits that allowed it to operate excursions in Vermont . By 1976 , the relationship between Steamtown and GMRC deteriorated as the two organizations fought over maintenance of the tracks , which were owned by the state of Vermont .
By 1978 , the Steamtown Foundation had begun scouting for a new location for Steamtown , U.S.A. Orlando and perhaps other locations in Florida were under consideration . In 1980 , Ray Holland , the Chairman of the Board of Steamtown Foundation , resigned after accusing the board of incompetence . His resignation was followed by that of Robert Barbera , a long @-@ time director of the board . In the year that followed , Steamtown did not run excursions . Don Ball , Jr . , had taken over direction of Steamtown by this time and discovered that the excursion train did not meet federal safety guidelines . In 1981 , despite its vast holdings of vintage railroad stock , Steamtown , U.S.A. had only 17 @,@ 000 visitors , while Connecticut 's Essex Valley Railroad , which ran two small engines , had 139 @,@ 000 visitors . Even in its best year , 1973 , the Vermont location had attracted only 65 @,@ 000 visitors .
Self @-@ syndicated newspaper columnist Michael McManus once said that his goal in writing his weekly column was " to suggest answers to problems of the old industrial states . " In March 1982 a substantial article by McManus appeared in the Bangor Daily News . In the article , McManus proposed several reasons why a city , like Chicago , Pittsburgh , or Scranton might find the addition of a tourist attraction like Steamtown beneficial . McManus went on to explain why the business was failing in Vermont . Among the reasons the article gave for poor attendance at the Vermont site were : past failed management , an isolated location and the lack of signs on Interstate 91 , which the state opposed . In addition to these problems , the roof of the largest storage shed on the site collapsed under heavy snow the previous winter , damaging several pieces of equipment . Among the injured were the Canadian Pacific Railway No. 1293 and the Meadow River Lumber Company No. 1 Shay ( shown in the infobox ) .
When asked by McManus to describe the value of the Steamtown collection , Jim Boyd , editor of Railfan magazine said , " Everything there is no longer obtainable anywhere , whether it is the " Big Boy " Union Pacific No. 4012 or the Rahway Valley No. 15 , a nice @-@ sized locomotive any museum would give a right arm for . Most of the other large collections do not have any serviceable equipment . " McManus closed his argument for the relocation of Steamtown by pointing out , " What is at stake is more than tourism and jobs . It is a significant part of America 's past before the welder 's torch is turned on the likes of the 1877 " Prince of Liege " , the rare Union Pacific diamond stack , etc . The steel alone is worth $ 3 million .
In June 1983 , McManus wrote about Steamtown again , this time announcing that Scranton had taken his suggestion . He said that other cities in contention for the relocation were Springfield , Massachusetts , and Willimantic , Connecticut . " But on May 24 , Scranton signed a contract to get it , pledging to raise $ 2 million to cover the cost of moving 40 ancient steam engines and 60 cars , few of which are operable , and to create a museum . " Steamtown sponsored its last Vermont excursion on October 23 , 1983 , using Canadian Pacific 1246 to pull a " dozen or so cars " on a 100 miles ( 160 km ) round trip from Riverside station to Ludlow , Vermont .
= = = Steamtown in Scranton and nationalization = = =
When Scranton agreed to take on Steamtown , U.S.A. , it was estimated that the museum and excursion business would attract 200 @,@ 000 to 400 @,@ 000 visitors to the city every year . In anticipation of this economic boon , the city and a private developer spent $ 13 million to renovate the Delaware , Lackawanna and Western Railroad ( DL & W ) station and transform it into a Hilton hotel , at a time when the unemployment rate in the city was 13 percent . Only 60 @,@ 000 visitors showed up at Steamtown in 1987 , and the 1988 excursions were canceled . After only three years , it was $ 2 @.@ 2 million in debt and facing bankruptcy . Part of the problem was the cost of restoration of the new property and the deteriorating equipment . In addition , while the tourists in Vermont had enjoyed the sights of cornfields , farms , covered bridges , a waterfall and a gorge on a Steamtown excursion , the Scranton trip to Moscow , Pennsylvania , cut through one of the nation 's largest junkyards , an eyesore described by Ralph Nader as " the eighth wonder of the world " .
In 1986 , the U.S. House of Representatives , under the urging of Scranton native , Representative Joseph M. McDade , voted to approve the spending of $ 8 million to study the collection and to begin the process of making it a National Historic Site . By 1995 , Steamtown was acquired and developed by the National Park Service ( NPS ) at a total cost of $ 66 million , and opened as Steamtown National Historic Site the same year . In preparation for its acquisition of the collection , the NPS had conducted historical research during 1987 and 1988 on the equipment that still remained in the foundation 's possession . This research was used for a Scope of Collections Statement for Steamtown National Historic Site and was published in 1991 under the title Steamtown Special History Study . Aside from providing concise histories of the equipment , the report also made recommendations as to whether or not each piece belonged in the now government @-@ funded collection . Historical significance to the United States was a criterion of the recommendations . Many of the pieces of equipment that did not meet the report 's recommendations were sold or traded for pieces that had historical significance to the DL & W grounds on which the site is located .
= = The collection = =
Before its move to Scranton , Steamtown , U.S.A. sold several pieces of the collection . After the facility was nationalized , several other pieces were sold or traded for pieces that were significant to the Scranton area . Some examples of the original collection are profiled below . In some cases , the pieces of equipment discussed here are still in the collection in Scranton , but several others are not . When possible the most recent information on the location of the equipment is provided .
= = = In operation at Bellows Falls = = =
Rahway Valley No. 15 was built by Baldwin Locomotive Works , June 1916 . It is a 2 @-@ 8 @-@ 0 Consolidation type locomotive . It was built for Oneida & Western Railroad and wore the number 20 for that company . The railroad 's initial purpose was to develop Tennessee 's coal and lumber industry , but it became a short line that connected the Cincinnati , New Orleans and the Texas Pacific Railways between Oneida and Jamestown , Tennessee .
In the mid @-@ 1930s the engine was purchased by Rahway Valley Railroad in New Jersey . Renumbered 15 , the locomotive served primarily while the company 's other locomotives were being serviced . The locomotive was the favorite of master mechanic Charles Nees . " Perhaps not the most efficient engine , Rahway Valley No. 15 qualified as the line 's most attractive . " When it was retired in 1953 , having been replaced with diesel power , No. 15 was put into well @-@ protected storage until it was purchased by F. Nelson Blount in 1959 .
Blount used No. 15 first for a static display at Pleasure Island , and then for excursions in New Hampshire and Vermont from 1962 to 1967 . It was used again at Steamtown , in 1973 , when it blew a flue while heading a triple header excursion from Riverside . The incident left veteran engineer Andy Barbera scalded and No. 15 in need of repair . Since the services of the locomotive were not needed at the time , the repairs were not done and remained undone by the time the Steamtown Special History was written . While in Blount 's possession , the locomotive appeared in the movie The Cardinal ( 1963 ) . The Steamtown Special History Study recommended that the engine be cosmetically and operationally restored , as it had served in the northeastern quarter of the United States and had been serviced , at least once , at the Lackawanna 's Scranton shop . As of March 2012 , the locomotive is still displayed at Steamtown National Historic Site .
Canadian Pacific Railway No. 1293 was built in 1948 by Canadian Locomotive Company . It was retired after only eight years of service when diesel power made it obsolete . This was one of three type 4 @-@ 6 @-@ 2 , class G5d light @-@ weight " Pacific " model locomotives that were operational at the time that Steamtown was in Bellows Falls . The Steamtown Special History Study gave no details of the operational career of 1293 , but said that Blount purchased it under the name of Green Mountain Railroad , in January 1964 . The Steamtown Foundation purchased the locomotive from Green Mountain Railroad in 1973 and rebuilt it in 1976 . Making its debut as an excursion train in June of that year and sporting a green and black color scheme , 1293 served the state of Vermont as its " Bicentennial Train " , logging 13 @,@ 000 miles ( 21 @,@ 000 km ) . Leased by the state of Vermont for 80 miles ( 100 km ) excursions that were scheduled for the entire year , the engine was dubbed " The Spirit of Ethan Allen " . In 1979 , the locomotive was renumbered " 1881 " , painted black with silver stripes , and leased to a Hollywood company for use in the filming of the horror movie Terror Train ( 1979 ) , starring Jamie Lee Curtis . In 1980 , the locomotive was repainted with a color scheme used by Canadian Pacific in the 1930s . The black , gold , and Tuscan red paint job was popular with railroad enthusiasts and photographers . The number 1293 was also restored to the engine . In February 1982 , the headlights , handrails , and cab roof of 1293 were damaged when the roof of a Steamtown storage building gave way to heavy snow .
Although the Steamtown Special History Study reasoned that , since this type of locomotive had historically operated in New England , perhaps as far south as Boston , it qualified to be part of the federal government 's collection , the Canadian native sat unused for 12 years following the move to Scranton . Ohio Central Railroad System purchased it in 1996 , and it underwent a 13 @-@ month restoration . As of July 2010 , Ohio Central Railroad has lost control of most of its holdings , but former owner , Jerry Joe Jacobson , maintained a collection of vintage equipment including CPR 1293 and her sister , CRP 1278 , which is also a veteran of Steamtown , U.S.A. operational locomotives . No. 1293 is still operational as of October 2011 .
Canadian Pacific Railway No. 1278 , like her sister , CPR 1293 , CPR 1278 was also built by Canadian Locomotive Company in 1948 , and is a type 4 @-@ 6 @-@ 2 , class G5d light @-@ weight " Pacific " locomotive . It was purchased by Blount in May 1965 , and renumbered 127 . Blount had planned to renumber all three of the series 1200 CRP locomotives in his collection from 1246 , 1278 , and 1293 to 124 , 127 and 129 respectively , but 1278 was the only one of the three that underwent the change . The new number remained on the locomotive from 1966 until 1973 , when its former number was restored . The locomotive was leased to the Cadillac and Lake City Railroad in Michigan from 1970 to 1971 . After some repair work , the locomotive was returned to Bellows Falls where it served on excursion runs . After moving to Scranton , CPR 1278 was traded to the Gettysburg Steam Railroad in Pennsylvania .
Shortly after 7 p.m. Friday , June 16 , 1995 , an explosion in the firebox of CPR 1278 burned three members of its crew . One man , James Cornell , the son of the owner of the engine , was critically injured . The train that the locomotive was pulling had 310 passengers on board . None of the passengers , who were taking the " Summer Eve Dinner Excursion " to Mount Holly Springs , were hurt . An investigation done by the National Transportation Safety Board determined that the accident was caused by poor maintenance and operator training . The board also pointed out that the Canadian design of the firebox may have prevented further injuries and perhaps deaths . Jerry Jacobson , the owner of the Ohio Central Railroad , ( OCR ) bought the engine at an auction in 1998 . After Jacobson sold the OCR , in 2008 , he maintained ownership of the locomotive . As of 2009 , it is stored at Jacobson 's facility , the Age of Steam Roundhouse , in Sugarcreek , Ohio .
Canadian Pacific Railway No. 1246 was the third of the 1200 series Canadian Pacific locomotives in the collection . In the fall of 1983 , Steamtown said " farewell to Vermont " by offering two 100 miles ( 160 km ) excursions " through a landscape of covered bridges , rushing streams and scenic countryside " . The train , which had the capacity of 800 – 1000 passengers , was to be pulled by CRP 1246 . Built in 1946 , CPR 1246 is a 4 @-@ 6 @-@ 2 type locomotive . After operating in Steamtown in Scranton between 1984 and 1986 , it was determined that 1246 was inadequate for service as it was " too light for the heavy grades and sharp curves of the Steamtown line " . The National Park Service sold it to the Connecticut Valley Railroad , in 1988 . This locomotive was on static display from 1996 to 2008 , at the Valley Railroad in Essex , Connecticut . In 2008 , it was moved to the Naugatuck Railroad which is operated by the Railroad Museum of New England , Thomaston , Connecticut .
= = Other pieces of the Blount collection = =
= = = Union Pacific No. 4012 = = =
" Big Boy " , a 4 @-@ 8 @-@ 8 @-@ 4 type locomotive built by American Locomotive Company in November 1941 , is among the world 's largest steam locomotives and weighs 1 @,@ 250 @,@ 000 pounds ( 570 @,@ 000 kg ) . The Steamtown Special History Study recommended that it remain at Steamtown as it is the only articulated type in the collection . It also recommended that it remain on static display , as it was doubtful that the " track , switches , culverts , trestles , bridges , wyes , turntables , and other facilities that would have to carry her [ could ] bear her great weight " . In fact , since the Steamtown turntable and roundhouse were inadequate for its size , Big Boy has remained out @-@ of @-@ doors since its arrival at Scranton , where it is still on display as of May 2015 .
= = = Meadow River Lumber Company No. 1 = = =
While at Steamtown , the Shay locomotive endured extensive damage when the building it was stored in collapsed under heavy snow in February 1982 . The Shay 's wooden cab was destroyed , but " its sand dome , its headlight , its front number plate , its bell and bell hanger , whistle , and other components " were missing before this incident . It was determined that it would remain at the National Historic Site as it was the only Shay and the only geared locomotive in the collection .
= = = Bevier & Southern Railroad No. 109 = = =
Bevier & Southern Railroad No. 109 was built by Brooks in 1900 . This 2 @-@ 6 @-@ 0 type locomotive served the Illinois Central Railroad under several numbers : 560 , 3706 and 3719 . As of July 2010 it is located at the Illinois Railroad Museum in Union and referred to as Illinois Central 3719 .
= = = Illinois Central No. 790 = = =
This locomotive was built in 1903 by American Locomotive Company as a 2 @-@ 8 @-@ 0 Consolidation type . It was originally owned by Chicago Union Transfer Railway and numbered 100 . It was sold to Illinois Central Railroad Company in 1904 and renumbered 641 . The railroad , which dated back to 1851 , operated 4 @,@ 265 miles of track between Chicago , Illinois and New Orleans , Louisiana . This locomotive pulled heavy freight in Tennessee and " must have seen hard service , for reportedly the Illinois Central rebuilt it in 1918 , modernizing it with a superheater , and possibly replacing the boiler and firebox " .
In 1943 it was renumber 790 and remained in service until it was replaced by diesel @-@ electric locomotives and put into storage , " the railroad nevertheless had to fire No. 790 up in the spring to assist Illinois Central trains through track inundated by flood waters near Cedar Rapids , because diesel @-@ electric locomotives with their electric motors shorted out in any water , whereas even the bottom of the firebox in a steam locomotive was much higher above the rail , hence above flood waters . " It was sold to Louis S. Keller of Cedar Rapids , Iowa , in 1959 who had hoped to use it for excursions . It was used for " flood duty " in April 1965 at the Clinton Corn Processing Company " where it plowed through overflow from the Mississippi River . " Later that year it was sold to David de Camp who planned to use it in the area of Lake Placid , New York . The plans were not met and it was sold to F. Nelson Blount in January 1966 .
The only surviving locomotive of the Chicago Union Transfer Railway , No. 790 is the only Illinois Central 2 @-@ 8 @-@ 0 Consolidation type of its class to survive . " About 146 standard gauge 2 @-@ 8 @-@ 0s survive in the United States , including Illinois Central No. 790 " . The Steamtown National Historic Site retained this locomotive on the suggestion of the Steamtown Special History Study .
= = = Brooks @-@ Scanlon Corporation No. 1 = = =
No. 1 was once part of the Steamtown , U.S.A. collection . This type of locomotive was originally developed for use on the flat terrain of the prairie , such as the Great Plains of Kansas and surrounding states , and thus it was referred to as a Prairie @-@ type locomotive . The Prairie locomotives were later used by lumber companies which operated on flat forest terrain . This locomotive was built specifically for the lumber industry and served several lumber firms in Florida
The Carpenter @-@ O 'Brien Lumber Company was incorporated in Delaware in 1913 . The company , which operated in Florida , ordered this locomotive from Baldwin Locomotive Works , which completed it in 1914 . Locomotive No. 1 was put into service at the company 's Eastport sawmill in Florida . The locomotive , which could burn either coal or wood , was likely originally outfitted with a Rushton , or cabbage cinder catching stack . " If so , a later owner apparently replaced the Rushton stack with the ' shotgun ' stack now on the locomotive . "
After the United States entered World War I in 1917 , the Carpenter @-@ O 'Brien Lumber Company was sold to Brooks @-@ Scanlon Corporation . By 1928 , Brooks @-@ Scanlon was operating in four Florida counties and producing 100 @,@ 000 @,@ 000 board feet ( 200 @,@ 000 m3 ) of lumber . This locomotive was probably used to haul logs in to the mill from the woods or to switch the yard around the Eastport plant , or both . In the following years the locomotive changed hands four of five times between several interconnected Florida lumber firms .
In 1959 , locomotive No.1 was taken out of service by its then owner , Lee Tidewater Cypress , in Perry , Florida . It was sold to F. Nelson Blount in 1962 by the Lee Tidewater Cypress parent company , J.C. Turner Company . It was moved to Walpole , New Hampshire and then , across the Connecticut River , to Bellows Falls , Vermont where it stayed until the Blount collection was relocated to Scranton , Pennsylvania .
= = = Simons Wrecking Company No. 2 = = =
Simons Wrecking Company No. 2 is a H.K. Porter , 0 @-@ 6 @-@ 0T steam engine built in 1941 . The tank engine , which is oil fired , worked for the US Navy during World War II in Virginia as # 14 . Later the engine was put into service with Simons Wrecking Co. as No. 2 .
Once part of Blount 's Steamtown collection , Locomotive # 2 was sold before Steamtown moved to Scranton , and languished for many years in an auto salvage yard in Newbury , Massachusetts . In 2006 , the engine was removed from the junkyard by Peabody , Massachusetts Public Works Director Dick Carnevale , and restoration began in hopes for it to be displayed in a city park in Peabody . The restoration of the engine was done by Carnevale personally , along with some volunteers . After he resigned in October 2008 , the city gave him 60 days to remove the engine from city property . Local residents contacted the Friends of Valley Railroad in Essex , Connecticut , who purchased the engine from Carnevale and transported it to Connecticut where , as of July 2010 , the locomotive is undergoing cosmetic restoration and will be displayed at Essex Steam Train and Riverboat .
= = = Canadian National Railways No. 1551 = = =
No. 1551 is a 4 @-@ 6 @-@ 0 type locomotive , was built by Montreal Locomotive Works , March 1912 , and originally was numbered 1354 for the Canadian Northern Railway . Used primarily on Canadian commuter lines , the locomotive was renumbered 1551 in October 1956 and retired in 1958 . Blount bought the engine and restoration was begun , but never completed . In 1986 , Jerry Joe Jacobson traded a 1929 Baldwin Locomotive Works built shop switcher , Iron and Steel Company No. 3 , 0 @-@ 6 @-@ 0 , for No. 1551 . It was restored and ran excursions for the Ohio Central Railroad until Jacobson lost control of the railroad . Jacobson still owns the locomotive . It is stored at Jacobson 's " Age of Steam Roundhouse " in Ohio and remains operational .
= = = Canadian National Railways No. 96 = = =
Canadian National Railways No. 96 , 2 @-@ 6 @-@ 0 Mogul type , is also owned by Jerry Joe Jacobson . It was built in 1910 by the Canadian Locomotive Company and originally numbered 1024 for the Grand Trunk Railway , then 926 when Canadian National obtained it in a merger in 1923 , CN renumbered it 96 in 1951 . While owned by Blount , the locomotive was used for its parts . It was sold in the 1980s and went to Ontario . It was purchased by Jacobson in 1994 and as of 2009 is stored out of service .
= = = Southern Railway No. 926 ; Repton = = =
No. 926 is a Schools class 4 @-@ 4 @-@ 0 type locomotive , one of 40 named after British public schools . It is one of three Schools class locomotives to survive the onset of diesel power . It was completed in May 1934 and entered service on the Bournemouth route , with some time operating between Waterloo and Portsmouth before that line was electrified . It was one of the last of the class to be overhauled by British Railways in 1960 , so was considered a good choice for preservation . In December 1963 the engine was withdrawn from service , and in 1966 it was purchased and overhauled at Eastleigh Works , before moving to America . It was donated by the purchaser to Steamtown . Steamtown loaned the engine to the Cape Breton Steam Railway in Canada , where it operated a regular passenger service . In 1989 , it was sold again , and returned to the United Kingdom to the North Yorkshire Moors Railway ( NYMR ) , where it was again overhauled and found to be in good condition . As of March 2012 , the locomotive is awaiting boiler repair and a possible overhaul at NYMR .
= = = Canadian Pacific Railway Locomotive No. 2816 = = =
Canadian Pacific Railway Locomotive No. 2816 was acquired by Blount in January 1964 . It was built by Montreal Locomotive Works in 1930 . The 4 @-@ 6 @-@ 4 Hudson , H1b class locomotive had logged over 2 @,@ 000 @,@ 000 miles ( 3 @,@ 200 @,@ 000 km ) in 30 years of service pulling passenger trains between Winnipeg and Calgary , and Winnipeg and Fort William , Ontario . Later , 2816 served on the Windsor @-@ to @-@ Quebec City corridor . The locomotive 's final run was on May 26 , 1960 , pulling a Montreal – Rigaud commuter train . The Steamtown Special History Study recommended that the locomotive be kept in the collection , as it was the only 4 @-@ 6 @-@ 4 in the group , but the National Park Service sold it back to Canadian Pacific Railway , who restored it and put it back into service .
In 1998 , the Steamtown National Historic Site , which is funded by the federal government , began divesting itself of foreign equipment , including CPR 2816 . Canadian Pacific Railway acquired it and undertook a 3 @-@ year , 1 million dollar restoration which included converting it from coal @-@ burning to oil . In 2001 , renamed the " Empress " , 2816 was used for pricy excursions between Calgary and Vancouver , British Columbia . After taking a year off in 2009 , the Empress went on tour in 2010 offering rides to the general public across Canada . CPR donated the ticket proceeds to the Children 's Wish Foundation .
= = = Bullard Company No. 2 = = =
Bullard Company No. 2 is a small tank locomotive built by H.K. Porter Company for the Bullard Company , October 1937 . It is on display at Steamtown National Historic Site , as of September 2010 . According to the Steamtown Special History Study , this locomotive was used to switched cars around the Bullard tool plant in Bridgeport , Connecticut , for about 15 or 20 years before acquisition by Steamtown . The Bullard Company sold it to a used locomotive dealer , the American Machinery Corporation of Bridgeport , Connecticut , probably in the late 1950s or early 1960s . It was purchased by Blount in June 1963 . The SSHS also said that a catalog , believed to be the one the Bullard Company used to order the locomotive , was in the possession of the SNHS at the time the report was written .
= = = Union Pacific Railway No. 737 = = =
Union Pacific No. 737 , a 4 @-@ 4 @-@ 0 " American " , was built by Baldwin Locomotive Works in 1887 . The oldest locomotive in the collection to have operated in the United States , it is the " oldest genuine Union Pacific in existence and the only Union Pacific 4 @-@ 4 @-@ 0 in existence " . At the time it was built it was the most common type of locomotive used for both passenger and freight trains in the United States and was therefore referred to as the " American Standard " or " American " . In 1904 the locomotive was sold to the Southern Pacific Company where its number was changed to 246 and then to 216 . It was retired from service on mainline railroads and put to use in industry in 1929 . The locomotive operated as 216 for the Erath Sugar Company and the Vermillion Sugar Company . It was retired by the latter company in 1956 and acquired by Blount in 1957 .
Originally the locomotive had a " diamond " smoke stack . It is unknown when that was changed to a straight " shotgun " stack . Sometime during the early 20th century the locomotive was converted from coal burning to oil burning and its wooden " cowcatcher " pilot was replaced with a steel pipe pilot . The wooden cab was replaced with an all @-@ steel cab , and its kerosene " box " headlamp was replaced with an electric one . When the engine was relocated from Louisiana to Vermont its steel cab roof was removed in preparation for the ride on a flat car . The roof was later mistaken for scrap metal as a worker at Steamtown cut out a piece for use as a stack cover for the locomotive . In 1970 the train underwent what the Steamtown Historical Study refers to as a " misguided " restoration , and given a diamond @-@ shaped smoke stack and a kerosene " box " headlamp , both of which bearing very little resemblance to the stack and headlamp originally worn by the engine . The restoration thus gave the engine an appearance unlike any form it had assumed during its service life .
In 2004 , the Portola Railroad Museum traded the 737 to the Double T Ranch in Stevinson , California . The Double T has cosmetically restored the engine to its 1914 ( SP # 216 ) appearance , and placed it on display along with some antique passenger cars . This exhibit was dubbed as the " History Train " , and offers " excursion rides " . During these excursions , the train does not actually move , but sounds and motions that simulate a train ride are produced to create an illusion that the train is in motion .
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= Economy of the Song dynasty =
For over three centuries during the Song Dynasty ( 960 – 1279 ) China experienced sustained growth in per capita income and population , structural change in the economy , and increased pace of technological innovation . Movable print , improved seeds for rice and other commercial crops , gunpowder , water @-@ powered mechanical clocks , the use of coal as a source of fuel for a variety of industries , improved techniques for iron and steel production , pound locks and many other technological innovations transformed the economy . In north China , the main fuel source for ceramic kilns and iron furnaces shifted from wood to coal .
During the Song dynasty , there was also a notable increase in commercial contacts with global markets . Merchants engaged in overseas trade through investments in trading vessels and trade which reached ports as far away as East Africa . This period also witnessed the development of the world 's first banknote , or printed paper money ( see Jiaozi , Huizi ) , which circulated on a massive scale . Combined with a unified tax system and efficient trade routes by road and canal , this meant the development of a truly nationwide market . Regional specialization promoted economic efficiency and increased productivity . Although much of the central government 's treasury went to the military , taxes imposed on the rising commercial base refilled the coffers and further encouraged the monetary economy . Reformers and conservatives debated the role of government in the economy . The emperor and his government still took responsibility for the economy , but generally made fewer claims than in earlier dynasties . The government did , however , continue to enforce monopolies on certain manufactured items and market goods to boost revenues and secure resources that were vital to the empire 's security , such as tea , salt , and chemical components for gunpowder .
These changes made China a global leader , leading some historians to call this an " early modern " economy many centuries before Western Europe made its breakthrough . Many of these economic gains were lost , however , in the succeeding Yuan dynasty .
= = Agriculture = =
There was a massive expansion of ploughland during the Song dynasty . The government encouraged people to reclaim barren lands and put them under cultivation . Anyone who opened up new lands and paid taxes were granted permanent possession of the new land . Under this policy , the cultivated land in the Song dynasty is estimated to have reached a peak number of 720 million mu , and was not surpassed by later Ming and Qing Dynasties .
Irrigation of arable land was also greatly fostered during this period . Prominent statesman and economist Wang Anshi issued the Law and Decree on Irrigation in 1069 that encouraged expansion of the irrigation system in China . By 1076 , about 10 @,@ 800 irrigation projects were completed , which irrigated more than 36 million mu of public and private land . Major irrigation projects included dredging the Yellow River at northern China and artificial silt land in the Lake Tai valley . As a result of this policy , crop production in China tripled . Agricultural yields were about 2 tan ( a unit of about 110 pounds or 50 kilograms ) of grain per mu during the Song dynasty , compared with 1 tan during the early Han and 1 @.@ 5 tan during the late Tang .
The economic development of China under the Song dynasty was marked by improvements in farm tools , seeds , and fertilizers . The Song inherited the plow innovations described in the Tang dynasty text The Classic of the Plow , which documents their utilization in Jiangnan . The Song improved on the Tang curved iron plough and invented a special steel plough design specifically for reclaiming wasteland . The wasteland plough was not made of iron , but of stronger steel , the blade was shorter but thicker , and particularly effective in cutting through reeds and roots in wetlands in the Huai River valley . A tool designed to facilitate seedling called " seedling horse " was invented under the Song ; it was made of jujube wood and paulownia wood . Song farms used bamboo water wheels to harness the flow energy of rivers to raise water for irrigation of farmland .
The water wheel was about 30 chi in diameter , with ten bamboo watering tubes fastened at its perimeter . Some farmers even used three stage watering wheels to lift water to a height of over 30 chi .
High yield Champa paddy seeds , Korean yellow paddy , Indian green pea , and Middle East watermelon were introduced into China during this period , greatly enhancing the variety of farm produce . Song farmers emphasized the importance of night soil as fertilizer . They understood that using night soil could transform barren wasteland into fertile farmland . Chen Pu wrote in his Book of Agriculture of 1149 : " The common saying that farmland becomes exhausted after seeding three to five years is not right , if frequently top up with new soil and cure with night soil , then the land becomes more fertile " .
= = = Economic Crops = = =
Cotton was introduced from Hainan Island into central China . Cotton flowers were collected , pits removed , beaten loose with bamboo bows , and drawn but tinto yarns and weaved into cloth called " jibei " . " The cotton jibei made in Hainan has great variety , the cloth has great width , often dyed into brilliant colors , stitching up two pieces make a bedspread , stitching four pieces make a curtain Hemp was also widely planted and made into linen . Independent mulberry farms flourished in the Mount Dongting region in Suzhou . The mulberry farmers did not make a living on farmland , but instead they grew mulberry trees and bred silkworm to harvest silk .
Sugarcane first appeared in China during the Warring States period . During the Song dynasty , Lake Tai valley was famous for the sugarcane cultivated . Song writer Wang Zhuo described in great detail the method of cultivating sugarcane and how to make cane sugar flour from sugarcane in his monography " Classic of Sugar " in 1154 , the first book about sugar technology in China .
Tea plantation in the Song dynasty was three times the size that it during the Tang dynasty . According to a survey in 1162 , tea plantations were spread across 66 prefectures in 244 counties . The Beiyuan Plantation ( North Park Plantation ) was an imperial tea plantation in Fujian prefecture . It produced more than forty varieties of tribute tea for the imperial court . Only the very tip of tender tea leaves were picked , processed and pressed into tea cakes , embossed with dragon pattern , known as " dragon tea cakes " .
With the growth of cities , high value vegetable farms sprung up in the suburbs . In southern China , on average one mu of paddy farm land supported one man , while in the north about three mu for one man , while one mu of vegetable farm supported three men .
Flower nurseries also flourished . Peony was the favorite of the rich and powerful . Up to ninety varieties of peony were cultivated . Jasmine and crabapple from Persia were also cultivated .
= = Organization , investment , and trade = =
During the Song dynasty , the merchant class became more sophisticated , well @-@ respected and organized than in earlier periods of China . Their accumulated wealth often rivaled that of the scholar @-@ officials who administered the affairs of government . For their organizational skills , Ebrey , Walthall , and Palais state that Song merchants :
... set up partnerships and joint stock companies , with a separation of owners ( shareholders ) and managers . In the large cities , merchants were organized into guilds according to the type of product sold ; they periodically set prices and arranged sales from wholesalers to shop owners . When the government requisitioned goods or assessed taxes , it dealt with the guild heads .
Although large government @-@ run industries and large privately owned enterprises dominated the market system of urban China during the Song period , there was a plethora of small private businesses and entrepreneurs throughout the large suburbs and rural areas that thrived off the economic boom of the period . There was even a large black market in China during the Song period , which was actually enhanced once the Jurchens conquered northern China and established the Jin dynasty . For example , around 1160 AD there was an annual black market smuggling of some 70 to 80 thousand cattle . There were multitudes of successful small kilns and pottery shops owned by local families , along with oil presses , wine @-@ making shops , small local paper @-@ making businesses , etc . There was also room for small economic success with the " inn keeper , the petty diviner , the drug seller , the cloth trader , " and many others .
Rural families that sold a large agricultural surplus to the market not only could afford to buy more charcoal , tea , oil , and wine , but they could also amass enough funds to establish secondary means of production for generating more wealth . Besides necessary agricultural foodstuffs , farming families could often produce wine , charcoal , paper , textiles , and other goods they sold through brokers . Farmers in Suzhou often specialized in raising bombyx mori to produce silk wares , while in Fujian , Sichuan , and Guangdong farmers often grew sugarcane . In order to ensure the prosperity of rural areas , technical applications for public works projects and improved agricultural techniques were essential . The vast irrigation system of China had to be furnished with multitudes of wheelwrights mass @-@ producing standardized waterwheels and square @-@ pallet chain pumps that could lift water from lower planes to higher irrigation planes .
For clothing , silken robes were worn by the wealthy and elite while hemp and ramie was worn by the poor ; by the late Song period cotton clothes were also in use . Shipment of all these materials and goods was aided by the 10th century innovation of the canal pound lock in China ; the Song scientist and statesman Shen Kuo ( 1031 – 1095 ) wrote that the building of pound lock gates at Zhenzhou ( presumably Kuozhou along the Yangtze ) during the 1020s and 1030s freed up the use of five hundred working laborers at the canal each year , amounting to the saving of up to 1 @,@ 250 @,@ 000 strings of cash annually . He wrote that the old method of hauling boats over limited the size of the cargo to 300 tan of rice per vessel ( roughly 17 t / 17 @,@ 000 kg ) , but after the pound locks were introduced , boats carrying 400 tan ( roughly 22 t / 22 @,@ 000 kg ) could then be used . Shen wrote that by his time ( c . 1080 ) government boats could carry cargo weights of up to 700 tan ( 39 t / 39 @,@ 000 kg ) , while private boats could hold as much as 800 bags , each weighing 2 tan ( i.e. a total of 88 t / 88 @,@ 000 kg ) .
= = = Foreign trade = = =
Sea trade abroad to the South East Pacific , the Hindu world , the Islamic world , and the East African world brought merchants great fortune . Although the massive amount of indigenous trade along the Grand Canal , the Yangtze River , its tributaries and lakes , and other canal systems trumped the commercial gains of overseas trade , there were still many large seaports during the Song period that bolstered the economy , such as Quanzhou , Fuzhou , Guangzhou , and Xiamen . These seaports , now heavily connected to the hinterland via canal , lake , and river traffic , acted as a long string of large market centers for the sale of cash crops produced in the interior . The high demand in China for foreign luxury goods and spices coming from the East Indies facilitated the growth of Chinese maritime trade abroad during the Song period . Along with the mining industry , the shipbuilding industry of Fujian province during the Song period increased its production exponentially as maritime trade was given more importance and as the province 's population growth began to increase dramatically . The Song capital at Hangzhou had a large canal that connected its waterways directly to the seaport at Mingzhou ( modern Ningbo ) , the center where many of the foreign imported goods were shipped out to the rest of the country . Despite the installation of fire stations and a large fire fighting force , fires continued to threaten the city of Hangzhou and the various businesses within it . In safeguarding stored supplies and providing rented space for merchants and shopkeepers to keep their surplus goods safe from city fires , the rich families of Hangzhou , palace eunuchs , and empresses had large warehouses built near the northeast walls ; these warehouses were surrounded by channels of water on all sides and were heavily guarded by hired night watchmen . Shipbuilders generated means of employment for many skilled craftsmen , while sailors for ship crews found many opportunities of employment as more families had enough capital to purchase boats and invest in commercial trading abroad . Foreigners and merchants from abroad had an impact on the economy from within China as well . For example , many Muslims went to Song China not only to trade , but dominated the import and export industry and in some cases became officials of economic regulations . For Chinese maritime merchants , however , there was risk involved in such long overseas ventures to foreign trade posts and seaports as far away as Egypt . In order to reduce the risk of losing money instead of gaining it on maritime trade missions abroad :
[ Song era ] investors usually divided their investment among many ships , and each ship had many investors behind it . One observer thought eagerness to invest in overseas trade was leading to an outflow of copper cash . He wrote , " People along the coast are on intimate terms with the merchants who engage in overseas trade , either because they are fellow @-@ countrymen or personal acquaintances ... [ They give the merchants ] money to take with them on their ships for purchase and return conveyance of foreign goods . They invest from ten to a hundred strings of cash , and regularly make profits of several hundred percent . "
The author Zhu Yu wrote in his Pingzhou Ketan ( 萍洲可談 ; Pingzhou Table Talks ) of 1119 AD about the organization , maritime practices , and government standards of seagoing vessels , their merchants , and sailing crews . His book stated :
According to government regulations concerning seagoing ships , the larger ones can carry several hundred men , and the smaller ones may have more than a hundred men on board . One of the most important merchants is chosen to be Leader ( Gang Shou ) , another is Deputy Leader ( Fu Gang Shou ) , and a third is Business Manager ( Za Shi ) . The Superintendent of Merchant Shipping gives them an unofficially sealed red certificate permitting them to use the light bamboo for punishing their company when necessary . Should anyone die at sea , his property becomes forfeit to the government ... The ship 's pilots are acquainted with the configuration of the coasts ; at night they steer by the stars , and in the day @-@ time by the sun . In dark weather they look at the south @-@ pointing needle ( i.e. the magnetic compass ) . They also use a line a hundred feet long with a hook at the end which they let down to take samples of mud from the sea @-@ bottom ; by its ( appearance and ) smell they can determine their whereabouts .
Foreign travelers to China often made remarks on the economic strength of the country . The later Muslim Moroccan Berber traveler Ibn Batutta ( 1304 – 1377 ) wrote about many of his travel experiences in places across the Eurasian world , including China at the farthest eastern extremity . After describing lavish Chinese ships holding palatial cabins and saloons , along with the life of Chinese ship crews and captains , Batutta wrote : " Among the inhabitants of China there are those who own numerous ships , on which they send their agents to foreign places . For nowhere in the world are there to be found people richer than the Chinese " .
= = = Salaries and Income = = =
Wealthy landholders were still typically those who were able to educate their sons to the highest degree . Hence small groups of prominent families in any given local county would gain national spotlight for having sons travel far off to be educated and appointed as ministers of the state . Yet downward social mobility was always an issue with the matter of divided inheritance . Suggesting ways to increase a family 's property , Yuan Cai ( 1140 – 1190 ) wrote in the late 12th century that those who obtained office with decent salaries should not convert it to gold and silver , but instead could watch their values grow with investment :
For instance , if he had 100 @,@ 000 strings worth of gold and silver and used this money to buy productive property , in a year he would gain 10 @,@ 000 strings ; after ten years or so , he would have regained the 100 @,@ 000 strings and what would be divided among the family would be interest . If it were invested in a pawn broking business , in three years the interest would equal the capital . He would still have the 100 @,@ 000 strings , and the rest , being interest , could be divided . Moreover , it could be doubled again in another three years , ad infinitum .
Shen Kuo ( 1031 – 1095 ) , a minister of finance , was of the same opinion ; in his understanding of the velocity of circulation , he stated in 1077 :
The utility of money derives from circulation and loan @-@ making . A village of ten households may have 100 @,@ 000 coins . If the cash is stored in the household of one individual , even after a century , the sum remains 100 @,@ 000 . If the coins are circulated through business transactions so that every individual of the ten households can enjoy the utility of the 100 @,@ 000 coins , then the utility will amount to that of 1 @,@ 000 @,@ 000 cash . If circulation continues without stop , the utility of the cash will be beyond enumeration .
Considerable scholarship has been concentrated on researching the level of living standards during the Song dynasty . A recent study by economic historian Cheng Minsheng estimated the average income for lower @-@ class laborers during the Song dynasty as 100 wen a day , about 5 times the estimated subsistence level of 20 wen a day and a very high level for preindustrial economies . Per capita consumption of grain and silk respectively was estimated by Cheng to be around 8 jin ( about 400 g each ) a day and 2 bolts a year , respectively .
= = Handicraft industry = =
= = = Steel and iron industries = = =
Accompanying the widespread printing of paper money was the beginnings of what one might term an early Chinese industrial revolution . For example , the historian Robert Hartwell has estimated that per capita iron output rose sixfold between 806 and 1078 , such that , by 1078 China was producing 127000000 kg ( 125 @,@ 000 t ) in weight of iron per year . However , historian Donald Wagner questions Hartwell 's method used to estimate these figures ( i.e. by using Song tax and quota receipts ) .
In the smelting process of using huge bellows driven by waterwheels , massive amounts of charcoal were used in the production process , leading to a wide range of deforestation in northern China . However , by the end of the 11th century the Chinese discovered that using bituminous coke could replace the role of charcoal , hence many acres of forested land in northern China were spared from the steel and iron industry with this switch of resources . Iron and steel of this period were used to mass @-@ produce ploughs , hammers , needles , pins , nails for ships , musical cymbals , chains for suspension bridges , Buddhist statues , and other routine items for an indigenous mass market . Iron was also a necessary manufacturing component for the production processes of salt and copper . Many newly constructed canals linked the major iron and steel production centers to the capital city 's main market . This was also extended to trade with the outside world , which greatly expanded with the high level of Chinese maritime activity abroad during the Southern Song period .
Through many written petitions to the central government by regional administrators of the Song Empire , historical scholars can piece evidence together to appropriate the size and scope of the Chinese iron industry during the Song era . The famed magistrate Bao Qingtian ( 999 – 1062 ) wrote of the iron industry at Hancheng , Tongzhou Prefecture , along the Yellow River in what is today eastern Shaanxi province , with iron smelting households that were overseen by government regulators . He wrote that 700 such households were acting as iron smelters , with 200 having the most adequate amount of government support , such as charcoal supplies and skilled craftsmen ( the iron households hired local unskilled labor themselves ) . Bao 's complaint to the throne was that government laws against private smelting in Shaanxi hindered profits of the industry , so the government finally heeded his plea and lifted the ban on private smelting for Shaanxi in 1055 . The result of this was an increase in profit ( with lower prices for iron ) as well as production ; 100 @,@ 000 jin ( 60 tonnes ) of iron was produced annually in Shaanxi in the 1040s AD , increasing to 600 @,@ 000 jin ( 360 tonnes ) produced annually by the 1110s , furbished by the revival of the Shaanxi mining industry in 1112 . Although the iron smelters of Shaanxi were managed and supplied by the government , there were many independent smelters operated and owned by rich families . While acting as governor of Xuzhou in 1078 , the famous Song poet and statesman Su Shi ( 1037 – 1101 ) wrote that in the Liguo Industrial Prefecture under his administered region , there were 36 iron smelters run by different local families , each employing a work force of several hundred people to mine ore , produce their own charcoal , and smelt iron .
= = = Gunpowder production = = =
During the Song period , there was a great deal of organized labor and bureaucracy involved in the extraction of resources from the various provinces in China . The production of sulfur , which the Chinese called ' vitriol liquid ' , was extracted from pyrite and used for pharmaceutical purposes as well as for the creation of gunpowder . This was done by roasting iron pyrites , converting the sulphide to oxide , as the ore was piled up with coal briquettes in an earthenware furnace with a type of still @-@ head to send the sulfur over as vapour , after which it would solidify and crystallize . The historical text of the Song Shi ( History of the Song , compiled in 1345 AD ) stated that the major producer of sulfur in the Tang and Song dynasties was the Jin Zhou sub @-@ provincial administrative region ( modern Linfen in southern Shanxi ) . The bureaucrats appointed to the region managed the industrial processing and sale of it , and the amount created and distributed from the years 996 to 997 alone was 405 @,@ 000 jin ( roughly 200 tons ) . It was recorded that in 1076 AD the Song government held a strict commercial monopoly on sulfur production , and if dye houses and government workshops sold their products to private dealers in the black market , they were subject to meted penalties by government authorities . Even before this point , in 1067 AD , the Song government had issued an edict that the people living in Shanxi and Hebei were forbidden to sell foreigners any products containing saltpetre and sulfur . This act by the Song government displayed their fears of the grave potential of gunpowder weapons being developed by Song China 's territorial enemies as well ( i.e. the Tanguts and Khitans ) .
Since Jin Zhou was in close proximity to the Song capital at Kaifeng , the latter became the largest producer of gunpowder during the Northern Song period . With enhanced sulfur from pyrite instead of natural sulfur ( along with enhanced potassium nitrate ) , the Chinese were able to shift the use of gunpowder from an incendiary use into an explosive one for early artillery . There were large manufacturing plants in the Song dynasty for the purpose of making ' fire @-@ weapons ' employing the use of gunpowder , such as fire lances and fire arrows . While engaged in a war with the Mongols , in 1259 the official Li Zengbo wrote in his Ko Zhai Za Gao , Xu Gao Hou that the city of Qingzhou was manufacturing one to two thousand strong iron @-@ cased bomb shells a month , dispatching to Xiangyang and Yingzhou about ten to twenty thousand such bombs at a time . One of the main armories and arsenals for the storage of gunpowder and weapons was located at Weiyang , which accidentally caught fire and produced a massive explosion in 1280 AD .
= = Commerce = =
This arrangement of allowing competitive industry to flourish in some regions while setting up its opposite of strict government @-@ regulated and monopolized production and trade in others was not exclusive to iron manufacturing . In the beginning of the Song , the government supported competitive silk mills and brocade workshops in the eastern provinces and in the capital city of Kaifeng . However , at the same time the government established strict legal prohibition on the merchant trade of privately produced silk in Sichuan province . This prohibition dealt an economic blow to Sichuan that caused a small rebellion ( which was subdued ) , yet Song Sichuan was well known for its independent industries producing timber and cultivated oranges . The reforms of the Chancellor Wang Anshi ( 1021 – 1086 ) sparked heated debate amongst ministers of court when he nationalised the industries manufacturing , processing , and distributing tea , salt , and wine . The state monopoly on Sichuan tea was the prime source of revenue for the state 's purchase of horses in Qinghai for the Song army 's cavalry forces . Wang 's restrictions on the private manufacture and trade of salt were even criticized in a famous poem by Su Shi , and while the opposing politically charged faction at court gained advantage and lost favor , Wang Anshi 's reforms were continually abandoned and reinstated . Despite this political quarrel , the Song Empire 's main source of revenue continued to come from state @-@ managed monopolies and indirect taxes . As for private entrepreneurship , great profits could still be pursued by the merchants in the luxury item trades and specialized regional production . For example , the silk producers of Raoyang County , Shenzhou Prefecture , southern Hebei province were especially known for producing silken headwear for the Song emperor and high court officials in the capital .
= = = Copper resources and receipts of deposit = = =
The root of the development of the banknote goes back to the earlier Tang dynasty ( 618 – 907 ) , when the government outlawed the use of bolts of silk as currency , which increased the use of copper coinage as money . By the year 1085 the output of copper currency was driven to a rate of 6 billion coins a year up from 5 @.@ 86 billion in 1080 ( compared to just 327 million coins minted annually in the Tang 's prosperous Tianbao period of 742 – 755 , and only 220 million coins minted annually from 118 BC to 5 AD during the Han dynasty ) . The expansion of the economy was unprecedented in China : the output of coinage currency in the earlier year of 997 AD , which was only 800 million coins a year . In 1120 alone , the Song government collected 18 @,@ 000 @,@ 000 ounces ( 510 @,@ 000 kg ) of silver in taxes .
With many 9th century Tang era merchants avoiding the weight and bulk of so many copper coins in each transaction , this led them to using trading receipts from deposit shops where goods or money were left previously . Merchants would deposit copper currency into the stores of wealthy families and prominent wholesalers , whereupon they would receive receipts that could be cashed in a number of nearby towns by accredited persons . Since the 10th century , the early Song government began issuing their own receipts of deposit , yet this was restricted mainly to their monopolized salt industry and trade . China 's first official regional paper @-@ printed money can be traced back to the year 1024 , in Sichuan province .
Although the output of copper currency had expanded immensely by 1085 , some fifty copper mines were shut down between the years 1078 and 1085 . Although there were on average more copper mines found in Northern Song China than in the previous Tang dynasty , this case was reversed during the Southern Song with a sharp decline and depletion of mined copper deposits by 1165 . Even though copper cash was abundant in the late 11th century , Chancellor Wang Anshi 's tax substitution for corvée labor and government takeover of agricultural finance loans meant that people now had to find additional cash , driving up the price of copper money which would become scarce . To make matters worse , large amounts of government @-@ issued copper currency exited the country via international trade , while the Liao dynasty and Western Xia actively pursued the exchange of their iron @-@ minted coins for Song copper coins . As evidenced by an 1103 decree , the Song government became cautious about its outflow of iron currency into the Liao Empire when it ordered that the iron was to be alloyed with tin in the smelting process , thus depriving the Liao of a chance to melt down the currency to make iron weapons .
The government attempted to prohibit the use of copper currency in border regions and in seaports , but the Song @-@ issued copper coin became common in the Liao , Western Xia , Japanese , and Southeast Asian economies . The Song government would turn to other types of material for its currency in order to ease the demand on the government mint , including the issuing of iron coinage and paper banknotes . In the year 976 , the percentage of issued currency using copper coinage was 65 % ; after 1135 , this had dropped significantly to 54 % , a government attempt to debase the copper currency .
= = = The world 's first paper money = = =
The central government soon observed the economic advantages of printing paper money , issuing a monopoly right of several of the deposit shops to the issuance of these certificates of deposit . By the early 12th century , the amount of banknotes issued in a single year amounted to an annual rate of 26 million strings of cash coins . By the 1120s the central government officially stepped in and produced their own state @-@ issued paper money ( using woodblock printing ) . Even before this point , the Song government was amassing large amounts of paper tribute . It was recorded that each year before 1101 AD , the prefecture of Xinan ( modern Xi @-@ xian , Anhui ) alone would send 1 @,@ 500 @,@ 000 sheets of paper in seven different varieties to the capital at Kaifeng . In that year of 1101 , the Emperor Huizong of Song decided to lessen the amount of paper taken in the tribute quota , because it was causing detrimental effects and creating heavy burdens on the people of the region . However , the government still needed masses of paper product for the exchange certificates and the state 's new issuing of paper money . For the printing of paper money alone , the Song court established several government @-@ run factories in the cities of Huizhou , Chengdu , Hangzhou , and Anqi . The size of the workforce employed in these paper money factories were quite large , as it was recorded in 1175 AD that the factory at Hangzhou alone employed more than a thousand workers a day . However , the government issues of paper money were not yet nationwide standards of currency at that point ; issues of banknotes were limited to regional zones of the empire , and were valid for use only in a designated and temporary limit of 3 @-@ year 's time . The geographic limitation changed between the years 1265 and 1274 , when the late Southern Song government finally produced a nationwide standard currency of paper money , once its widespread circulation was backed by gold or silver . The range of varying values for these banknotes was perhaps from one string of cash to one hundred at the most . In later dynasties , the use and enforcement of paper currency was a method undertaken by the government as a response to the counterfeiting of copper coins .
The subsequent Yuan , Ming , and Qing dynasties would issue their own paper money as well . Even the Southern Song 's contemporary of the Jin dynasty to the north caught on to this trend and issued their own paper money . At the archeological dig at Jehol there was a printing plate found that dated to the year 1214 , which produced notes that measured 10 cm by 19 cm in size and were worth a hundred strings of 80 cash coins . This Jurchen @-@ Jin issued paper money bore a serial number , the number of the series , and a warning label that counterfeiters would be decapitated , and the denouncer rewarded with three hundred strings of cash .
= = = Urban employment and businesses = = =
Within the cities there were a multitude of professions and places of work to choose from , if one were not strictly inheriting a profession of his paternal line . Sinologist historians are fortunate enough to have a wide variety of written sources describing minute details about each location and the businesses within the cities of Song China . For example , in the alleys and avenues around the East Gate of the Xiangguo Temple in Kaifeng , historian Stephen H. West quotes one source :
Along the Temple Eastgate Avenue ... are to be found shops specializing in cloth caps with pointed tails , belts and waiststraps , books , caps and flowers as well as the vegetarian tea meal of the Ding family ... South of the temple are the brothels of Manager 's Alley ... The nuns and the brocade workers live in Embroidery Alley ... On the north is Small Sweetwater Alley ... There are a particularly large number of Southern restaurants inside the alley , as well as a plethora of brothels .
Similarly , in the " Pleasure District " along the Horse Guild Avenue , near a Zoroastrian temple in Kaifeng , West quotes the same source , Dongjing Meng Hua Lu ( Dreams of Splendor of the Eastern Capital ) :
In addition to the household gates and shops that line the two sides of New Fengqiu Gate Street ... military encampments of the various brigades and columns [ of the Imperial Guard ] are situated in facing pairs along approximately ten li of the approach to the gate . Other wards , alleys , and confined open spaces crisscross the area , numbering in the tens of thousands — none knows their real number . In every single place , the gates are squeezed up against each other , each with its own tea wards , wineshops , stages , and food and drink . Normally the small business households of the marketplace simply purchase [ prepared ] food and drink at food stores ; they do not cook at home . For northern food there are the Shi Feng style dried meat cubes ... made of various stewed items ... for southern food , the House of Jin at Temple Bridge ... and the House of Zhou at Ninebends ... are acknowledged to be the finest . The night markets close after the third watch only to reopen at the fifth .
West points out that Kaifeng shopkeepers rarely had time to eat at home , so they chose to go out and eat at a variety of places such as restaurants , temples , and food stalls . Restaurant businesses thrived on this new clientele , while restaurants that catered to regional cooking targeted customers such as merchants and officials who came from regions of China where cuisine styles and flavors were drastically different than those commonly served in the capital . The pleasure district mentioned above — where stunts , games , theatrical stage performances , taverns and singing girl houses were located — was teeming with food stalls where business could be had virtually all night . West makes a direct connection between the success of the theatre industry and the food industry in the cities . Of the fifty some theatres within the pleasure districts of Kaifeng , four of these could entertain audiences of several thousand each , drawing huge crowds which would then give nearby businesses an enormous potential customer base . Besides food , traders in eagles and hawks , precious paintings , as well as shops selling bolts of silk and cloth , jewelry of pearls , jade , rhinoceros horn , gold and silver , hair ornaments , combs , caps , scarves , and aromatic incense thrived in the marketplaces .
= = = Foreign trade = = =
The Song dynasty actively promoted overseas trade . About fifty countries carried out overseas trade with the Song , among them Ceylon , Langkasuka , Mait , Samboja , Borneo , Kelantan , Champa , Chenla , Bengtrao , Java , India , Calicut , Lambri , Bengal , Kurum , Gujara , Mecca , Egypt , Baghdad , Iraq , Amman , the Almoravid dynasty , Sicily , Morocco , Tanzania , Somalia , Ryukyu , Korea , and Japan . Pearls , ivory , rhinocero horns , frankincense , agalloch eaglewood , coral , agate , hawksbill turtle shell , gardenia , and rose were imported from the Arabs and Samboja , herbal medicine from Java , costusroot from Foloan ( Kuala Sungai Berang ) cotton cloth , cotton yarn from Mait , and ginseng , silver , copper , and quick silver from Korea .
To promote overseas trade and maximize government profits in control of imported goods , in 971 the government established a Maritime Trade Supervisorate at Guangzhou , in 999 established a second one at Hangzhou , a third at Mingzhou ( now Ningbo city ) , followed by Quanzhou ( Zaitung ) in 1079 , Huating County ( now part of Shanghai ) in 1113 , and Jiangyin in 1145 . Initially the Maritime Trade Supervisorate was subordinate under the Department of Transportation or prefecture official , later made into a separate agency with its own supervisor . The roles of the Maritime Trade Supervisorate included :
Taxation of imported goods , tax rate varied over the Song dynasty , from 10 % to as high as 40 % ; however , during the reign of Emperor Shenzong ( 1048 – 1085 ) , the tax rate for imports was lowered to 6 @.@ 67 % . The tax was goods in kind , not money .
Government purchase and sale of imported goods . In 976 , all imported goods from overseas merchants had to be sold only to the government , private sales was prohibited , penalty for violation depended on the quantity of goods involved , and the highest penalty was tattooing of the face and forced labor . Later the 100 % rule was relaxed somewhat . The Maritime Trade Superisorate purchased a portion of the finest quality goods , for example 60 % for pearls , 40 % for rhinocero horn ; the low quality leftover goods were allowed to be traded in the market . The purchase rate applied to after tax goods , then paid in money , not according to market price , but according to a government @-@ accessed " fare value " . In the Southern Song , the Maritime Trade Supervisorates were short of funds and were not paid on time , causing huge losses in profits for overseas merchants ; the volume of incoming ships also dropped .
Issue foreign trade permits for local merchants .
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= Dylan Penn =
Dylan Frances Penn ( born April 13 , 1991 ) is an American model and actress . She is the daughter of Sean Penn and Robin Wright . Her early public roles included modelling campaigns for Gap Inc . , a controversial magazine cover for treats ! , a music video appearance in Nick Jonas ' " Chains " and an acting role in Elvis & Nixon .
= = Early life = =
Penn 's mother , Robin Wright , had surrendered the role of Maid Marian in Robin Hood : Prince of Thieves due to her pregnancy with Dylan . Penn was born to Wright and Sean Penn in Los Angeles on April 13 , 1991 , and raised in Ross , a town in Marin County , California . Her father , Penn , is a two @-@ time Academy Award for Best Actor @-@ winner , while her mother , Wright , is a Golden Globe Award for Best Actress – Television Series Drama @-@ winner . She has a younger brother named Hopper Jack . She attended Marin Academy . After high school , she spent time living in New York City . Her parents ' divorce was finalized in 2010 . Before modeling , Penn had worked delivering pizzas , as a waitress and as a freelance screenplay editor . She also worked in New York City as a restaurant hostess and an intern at an advertising agency .
= = Public life = =
Penn gained public exposure when she dated Robert Pattinson in 2013 . According to Penn , the relationship was not serious . Her first modeling billboards were for Gap in 2013 . Then she appeared in GQ in December 2013 , in W in January 2014 , and Elle in March 2014 .
E ! Online reported on March 5 , 2014 , that Penn had declined a $ 150 @,@ 000 offer to pose for the cover of Playboy . However , she accepted an offer to pose for Tony Duran for the cover and a full layout in the seventh issue of treats ! , which was released on April 8 , 2014 . Although nude , Penn was not completely exposed , as she was partially obscured by a Fendi bag in the cover photo and similar accoutrements in the interior layout . Penn said that she had " always loved [ Duran 's ] black @-@ and @-@ white nudes " . At the time of the issue 's April 16 launch party in Los Angeles , she was filming Condemned in New York . She stated that she was experimenting with the profession of acting . Within weeks of the issue 's release , Penn signed a new modeling contract with Premier Model Management to represent her in the United Kingdom . Penn has noted that she only models to earn a paycheck . She aspires to be involved on the writing / directing end of the Hollywood business .
On May 23 , 2014 , Maxim revealed its annual Hot 100 list , which included Penn at # 68 . Penn was also listed at # 93 in the 2014 AskMen 99 Most Desirable Women list . During the last weekend in June 2014 , she filmed an undisclosed video project with Nick Jonas at the Hotel Alexandria . In July , Jonas revealed the video to " Chains " , including the Penn performance . In September 2014 , Penn received a lot of attention for appearing without pants alongside Poppy Delevingne in Rock Roll Ride , a short film directed by Julia Restoin Roitfeld , as biker chicks for shoe designer Stuart Weitzman during Paris Fashion Week . The pair modeled a wide variety of the latest boot designs . It was the first female @-@ directed ad campaign for the brand . She appeared on the cover of L 'Officiel that December and the cover of Asos in August 2015 . In January 2016 , Penn and her younger brother , Hopper , did their first joint fashion modeling campaign together , eventually making media appearances at Milan Fashion Week .
= = Acting = =
Her first film , the horror film Condemned , in which she plays the girlfriend of a band member living in a rundown building , is directed by Eli Morgan Gesner . The film opened on Friday the 13th in November 2015 . One of the highlights of her performance was a scene with Johnny Messner that was described as " intense " by Marlow Stern of The Daily Beast . Upon reviewing the film , Frank Scheck of The Hollywood Reporter questioned Penn 's decision to get involved in this production . Noel Murray of Los Angeles Times described her performance as less than extraordinary and the role as limited . Another early role was in Elvis & Nixon , which stars Kevin Spacey . The movie was presented in at least one spring film festival and was released in April 2016 . In November 2015 it was announced that she had booked roles in a pair of independent films : GenRX and Unfiltered .
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= Desde un Principio : From the Beginning =
Desde un Principio : From the Beginning is a greatest hits album from American recording artist Marc Anthony . The album was released on November 9 , 1999 by RMM Records & Video ( RMM ) . It was a result of Anthony leaving RMM Records and signing on with Columbia Records . The recording contains fourteen tracks from his years with RMM and " No Me Ames " by Jennifer Lopez and Anthony .
Allmusic 's Jose Promis praised Desde un Principio : From the Beginning , calling the album an " ideal introduction " to the artist , although he complained about the songs on it being " truncated " , particularly towards the end . The album received a Billboard Latin Music Award for Latin Greatest Hits Album of the Year . Desde un Principio : From the Beginning reached number one on both the Billboard Top Latin Albums and the Billboard Tropical Albums charts , and became the best @-@ selling album of 2000 on both charts . The album was certified gold by the Recording Industry Association of America ( RIAA ) after shipments reached 500 @,@ 000 copies .
= = Background = =
After the release of Contra la Corriente in 1997 , disputes over certain business practices arose between Marc Anthony and RMM executive Ralph Mercado . Columbia Records had approached Anthony to sign a contract with their record label . However , Mercado would not allow Anthony to leave RMM Records because of an earlier contract committing Anthony to record two more albums for RMM . Anthony filed a lawsuit , and with the backing of Columbia Records , bought out the remainder of the contract . As part of the settlement , Anthony allowed RMM Records to release a " greatest hits " collection from his earlier records .
= = Content = =
Desde un Principio : From the Beginning includes a total of fifteen songs , most of which came from his recordings with RMM . Four songs were selected from each of his earlier albums ( Otra Nota , Todo a Su Tiempo , and Contra la Corriente ) . The opener , a tropical version of " No Me Ames " , is a duet with American singer and actress Jennifer Lopez ; she included the recording on her debut album On the 6 ( 1999 ) . " Vivir lo Nuestro " , featuring La India , was originally recorded on the RMM Records compilation album Combinacion Perfecta . " Preciosa " is a cover of the Rafael Hernández song which Anthony had recorded for a tribute album to Hernandez , Romance Del Cumbanchero – La Musica del Rafael Hernández .
= = Commercial reception = =
The album debuted at number three on the Billboard Top Latin Albums on the week of November 27 , 1999 and reached number one the following week . The recording debuted atop the Billboard Tropical Albums chart on the week of November 27 , 1999 , and remained at number one for five consecutive months . Desde un Principio : From the Beginning peaked at number 151 on the Billboard 200 chart and became the best @-@ selling album of 2000 for the Top Latin Albums and Tropical Albums charts . It was then certified gold by the Recording Industry Association of America ( RIAA ) .
= = Critical reception = =
Jose Promis of Allmusic gave the album 4 @.@ 5 out of 5 stars . He described it as a " superb collection " , and wrote that Desde un Principio " provides a wonderful introduction to the music of Marc Anthony , a singer that , undoubtedly , will one day rank among the best . " Promis also complained that the songs were " severely truncated " , especially near their end .
In 2001 , Anthony received a Billboard Latin Music Award for " Latin Greatest Hits Albums of the Year " .
= = Track listing = =
The following track information is from Allmusic .
= = Chart performance = =
= = Album certification = =
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= 1932 Freeport hurricane =
The 1932 Freeport hurricane was an intense tropical cyclone that primarily affected areas of the Texas coast in August of the 1932 Atlantic hurricane season . It was the second storm and first hurricane of the season , developing just off the Yucatán Peninsula on August 12 . While moving to the northwest , the storm began to quickly intensify the next day . It rapidly intensified from a Category 1 hurricane to a Category 4 with winds estimated at 150 mph ( 240 km / h ) and an estimated central pressure of 935 mbar ( 27 @.@ 6 inHg ) shortly before making landfall near Freeport , Texas , early on August 14 . After landfall , the hurricane began to quickly weaken before dissipating over the Texas Panhandle .
The storm caused heavy rainfall inland , peaking at 9 @.@ 93 in ( 252 mm ) in Angleton . Record rainfall rates were also reported in some areas . Power outages were reported in Galveston and San Antonio . The storm caused $ 7 @.@ 5 million in damages , mostly to crops , and 40 deaths .
= = Meteorological history = =
The Freeport hurricane was first noted by ships on August 12 as a tropical disturbance in the Gulf of Mexico . However , it was suggested in later research that the disturbance may have originated from a low @-@ pressure area between Belize and Honduras on August 11 . Steadily moving to the northwest , the storm began to intensify , reaching hurricane strength on August 13 , and soon after reaching major hurricane strength later that day . A report remarked that the storm was " phenomenal " due to the fact that previously the storm had " seemed to be of only moderate intensity " while near land before rapidly intensifying .
The storm eventually reached winds of 145 mph ( 233 km / h ) , making it a Category 4 hurricane on the Saffir @-@ Simpson Hurricane Scale . The hurricane proceeded to make landfall early on August 14 just east of Freeport with winds of 150 mph ( 240 km / h ) . A ship just offshore of the coast reported a minimum pressure of 942 mbar ( 27 @.@ 8 inHg ) , but the official estimate for the hurricane 's landfall intensity was set to 935 mbar ( 27 @.@ 6 inHg ) given the fact that the system was still rapidly intensifying at the time . Due to the storm 's small size , it quickly weakened to tropical storm strength later that day . The storm finally weakened into a tropical depression before dissipating the next day over the Texas Panhandle .
= = Preparations , impact , and aftermath = =
In preparation for the storm , 150 vehicles evacuated out of Freeport , while water craft were taken up the Brazos River as far inland as possible . 100 families in Caplen and Gilchrist were also evacuated . The 38th division of the Texas National Guard , stationed in Palacios , was alerted due to the oncoming storm .
Heavy rainfall occurred across the coast and further inland due to the storm . Four locations set 24 @-@ hour rainfall records for the month of August , the highest of which was set near Angleton , recording 9 @.@ 93 in ( 252 mm ) of rain on August 13 . Angleton also faced a water shortage after its pumping station was destroyed . The remnants of the storm produced as much as 12 in ( 300 mm ) of rain in Oklahoma . Occupants in four vehicles were rescued by the United States Coast Guard near San Luis Pass . In Wharton , 800 birds went missing in the heavy rain . Galveston suffered primarily wind damage in the form of unroofed structures and broken windows . The Galveston Causeway was flooded by the heavy rain , preventing access from Galveston Island to the mainland . Several other roads were blocked by fallen trees . The city was also affected by a power outage after the storm caused loss of power and damaged communication lines . In addition , communication lines in San Antonio were damaged .
At William P. Hobby Airport in Houston , 11 planes were damaged when a hangar collapsed , resulting in losses of $ 250 @,@ 000 . Hermann Park was also affected by the storm , where nine goats began to roam within the park due to a broken fence caused by a fallen limb . 35 convicts were freed from the Ramsey Unit state prison during the storm due to the chance of the prison collapsing . However , after the storm , only eight returned to the prison , leaving 27 others missing .
After the storm , the American Red Cross brought supplies to areas affected by the hurricane , requesting as much as $ 10 @,@ 000 in relief work . Several other local relief committees also brought supplies to affected areas . An estimated $ 2 million in damages from the storm were attributed to crop damage alone , especially rice and cotton . The storm was estimated to have killed 40 people and caused $ 7 @.@ 5 million in damage .
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= Gossip ( The Office ) =
" Gossip " is the sixth season premiere of the American comedy television series The Office , and the 101st overall episode of the series . It originally aired on NBC in the United States on September 17 , 2009 . The episode was written and directed by Paul Lieberstein . It features Max Carver , Kelii Miyata and Elvy Yost in guest appearances as Dunder Mifflin 's summer interns .
The series — presented as if it were a real documentary — depicts the everyday lives of office employees in the Scranton , Pennsylvania , branch of the fictional Dunder Mifflin Paper Company . In the episode , Michael spreads a rumor about Stanley having an affair , then spreads a series of false rumors to try to convince everyone the original rumor was not true . The rumors cause Andy to question his sexuality , and Pam and Jim to debate whether or not to tell the office that Pam is pregnant .
" Gossip " confirmed the fact that protagonist Pam was pregnant , which was strongly hinted in the fifth season finale , " Company Picnic " . " Gossip " was the first episode to feature Ellie Kemper as a regular cast member , and the first Office episode since Ed Helms achieved box office success with the summer comedy film , The Hangover . " Gossip " received generally positive reviews , with several commentators particularly praising the subplot in which Andy questions whether the rumor about him being gay might actually be true . According to Nielsen ratings , the episode was watched by 8 @.@ 21 million viewers . Although The Office had the highest 9 p.m. rating among viewers aged between 18 and 49 , the overall episode constituted an 18 percent drop in viewership compared to the fifth season premiere , " Weight Loss " . " Gossip " was nominated for a Writers Guild of America Award for best episodic comedy .
= = Synopsis = =
As the three summer interns prepare to depart , Michael ( Steve Carell ) hears from various members of the office that two of the interns might be dating , and feels upset that he was left out of the gossip . He talks about the situation with the third intern , and learns that the interns had recently gone out to a young people 's club , where they saw Stanley ( Leslie David Baker ) dancing with a woman , presumably his wife Teri . Michael , wanting to start some gossip of his own , forms the conclusion that Stanley was out because he was having a mid @-@ life crisis and shares it with the office , but Phyllis ( Phyllis Smith ) claims Stanley does not like crowds and that Teri is out of town . When Michael confronts the interns about this , they insist they saw Stanley there " making out " with a woman . Now realizing that Stanley is possibly having an affair and he is the first person to learn of it , Michael starts telling the employees . Jim ( John Krasinski ) urges Michael to stop spreading a rumor that he does not know for certain to be true . When Stanley is leaving , Michael heads to the parking lot to discuss the rumor with him . Stanley initially denies it , but when Michael mentions that he was spotted in the club by the interns , he reveals that since Teri has been out of town constantly , he has been seeking company from a nurse named Cynthia , whom he met in rehab . Stanley urges Michael not to say anything since he is breaking it off with Cynthia , and Michael agrees , despite having already told the entire office .
Hoping to obscure the truth about Stanley 's affair , Michael starts spreading a variety of false rumors , among them that there is another person physically inside Kevin ( Brian Baumgartner ) ) , that Kelly is anorexic , that Toby ( Paul Lieberstein ) is still a virgin , that Pam ( Jenna Fischer ) is pregnant , and that Andy ( Ed Helms ) is gay . When Andy hears about this , he realizes that many people have thought this about him in the past and gets increasingly insecure as he begins to question his sexual orientation . Jim and Pam , who were trying to keep Pam 's pregnancy a secret , think they have been found out . The couple then notice that there have been various absurd rumors about office employees being spread . When Jim brings it to everyone 's attention , they trace one particular rumor back to Michael , who then tries to slip out of the office .
The employees pursue Michael , and he confesses that he created the rumors to conceal the one true rumor . Andy fears that it might be the one about him . The employees urge Michael to tell them which one is true , but just as Michael is about to give in , Jim announces that Pam is actually pregnant to save Stanley . Michael denies it , but Pam shows her baby 's ultrasound picture to prove it . Later , while Michael discusses her pregnancy with Jim and Pam in his office , Stanley 's wife Teri returns Michael 's call from earlier . He picks up the phone with the intention of making an excuse for his earlier call so as to not tip her off , but he accidentally calls her Cynthia twice before Jim hangs up the phone for him . Teri had already been suspicious of Stanley and Cynthia , so Michael calling her Cynthia is enough for her to figure out what is going on . Michael , feeling guilty , watches from his office window as Stanley attacks Michael 's car with a tire iron in a fit of rage . At the end of the episode , the three interns discuss what they have learned at Dunder Mifflin , which they essentially reveal was nothing .
= = Production = =
" Gossip " was written and directed by Paul Lieberstein , a producer and screenwriter for the series who also plays Toby . The episode confirmed the fact that Pam was pregnant , which was strongly hinted in the fifth season finale , " Company Picnic " . " Gossip " was the first episode to feature Ellie Kemper as a full cast member ; she had guest starred in several episodes at the end of the fifth season as receptionist Erin Hannon . It was also the first episode of The Office to air since the release of the Ed Helms comedy film The Hangover . The film was a surprise box office success , grossing more than twice the amount of The 40 @-@ Year Old Virgin , which established Steve Carell as a comedy movie star . Commentators were split on what the success would mean for The Office , with some believing it would allow the show 's writers to better realize his potential and write better material for Helms , and others expressing concern Helms would not be as dedicated to the Andy Bernard role . One of the interns , portrayed by Elvy Yost , also appeared in an earlier episode from season four , Job Fair .
The official website for The Office included three cut scenes from " Gossip " within a week of its original release . In the first 40 @-@ second clip , Dwight has the interns pass hand @-@ written notes to officemates , while Ryan orders them to search thousands of pennies for rare coins . In the second clip , which is one minute and 10 seconds , Dwight has the interns pick up their own cake , but chastises them for not picking up candles . In the final two @-@ minute clip , Dwight makes the interns memorize trivial bits of information , then tells them what he believes are inspirational stories .
= = Cultural references = =
During the episode 's cold open , Michael , Dwight and Andy run throughout the office climbing on desks , jumping off chairs and pushing themselves off objects . The actions are their attempts to engage in parkour , the art of moving from point A to point B as creatively as possible , which Jim describes as " the Internet sensation of 2004 " . Jim points out parkour was used in a chase scene in the 2006 James Bond film Casino Royale . This is the first season premiere to include an internet trend in the cold open . The second was in Nepotism where the office make a lip dub video of the song Nobody but Me . The third was in The List where multiple characters plank in various places throughout the episode .
Pam says the Dunder Mifflin office previously did not have interns for years because Michael kept making jokes about Monica Lewinsky , an intern at the White House who had a sexual relationship with President Bill Clinton in 1995 and 1996 . Michael discusses the 1960 film Spartacus , which he calls as a great " whodunit " due to the ending , in which dozens of people claim to be the real Spartacus in order to protect the actual title character .
While trying to figure out whether he is gay , Andy says he would reluctantly accept a kiss from movie star Brad Pitt . The three summer interns say Michael constantly says they look like actors Jet Li , Julia Stiles and Alan Thicke . Michael spreads a rumor that Oscar is the voice of the Taco Bell dog , a chihuahua used as an advertising character in the 1990s and 2000s for the restaurant chain Taco Bell . Michael also claims Angela is dating a billionaire who manages a Quiznos , a fast @-@ food submarine sandwich restaurant . Michael starts a rumor that someone in the office is a J.Crew model , originally referring to himself , although everyone believes it to be Jim . J.Crew is an American clothing and accessories retailer .
= = Reception = =
In its original American broadcast on September 17 , 2009 , " Gossip " was seen by 8 @.@ 21 million viewers , according to Nielsen ratings . The viewership was an 18 percent drop compared to the fifth season premiere , " Weight Loss " . " Gossip " received a 4 @.@ 0 rating among viewers aged between 18 and 49 . It was the highest rating of that age group in the 9 p.m. to 10 p.m. slot , competing with CBS ' CSI : Crime Scene Investigation , Fox 's Fringe , ABC 's Grey 's Anatomy ( a rerun ) and The CW 's Supernatural . However , the rating was a drop compared to a 4 @.@ 9 rating among ages 18 to 49 for " Weight Loss " . " Gossip " served as the lead @-@ in for the series premiere of NBC 's Community , which held on to 93 percent of The Office 's 18 to 49 audience to premiere with a 3 @.@ 7 rating , garnering 7 @.@ 68 million viewers . The episode was viewed by 931 @,@ 000 households during its Canadian premiere on September 17 , 2009 , making it the 28th highest viewed program of that week .
" Gossip " received generally positive reviews . Several commentators particularly praised the comedic performance of Ed Helms , as well as the line by Kevin , " Who 's been saying that there 's another person inside of me working me with controls ? " Alan Sepinwall of The Star @-@ Ledger called the episode " not an instant classic , but a solid start to the season " . Sepinwall said it started slowly , but gradually built to a " very funny , and kinda sweet climax in the conference room " . New York magazine writer Will Leitch said " Gossip " appeared to be a return to a more normal Office atmosphere , compared to the surprises and twists of the fifth season . Rick Ingebritson of The Palm Beach Post said he was concerned the season premiere would not be good because Steve Carell , John Krasinski and Ed Helms would be too distracted with their growing film careers . But , he said , " Thankfully , if Thursday 's premiere was any indication , it appears that the Dunder Mifflin crew still has a lot to offer . " Entertainment Weekly writer Margaret Lyons said , " ' Gossip ' had some terrific moments , but I don 't know that I 'd put it on my all @-@ time great episodes list . " She specifically praised the performances of Brian Baumgartner and Jenna Fischer .
Chicago Tribune television columnist Maureen Ryan called " Gossip " a " solidly entertaining premiere " , specifically complimenting the Ed Helms subplot and the various office rumors . Hopper of Best Week Ever praised the episode 's final scene , in which Michael unsuccessfully tries to lie his way through a phone call with Stanley 's wife . Dan Hopper said of the episode , " Season six is off to an appropriately awkward start . " Philadelphia Examiner writer Matt Carter gave the episode an 8 @.@ 9 out of 10 score . Carter said the episode was " proof that there is still a ton of life left in these characters " , and particularly enjoyed the way Jim and Pam stood up for Stanley by revealing the truth about Pam 's pregnancy . Dan Phillips of IGN said the episode included several " amusing asides and laugh @-@ out @-@ loud moments " , particularly from supporting characters Creed , Kevin and Andy . He also praises the episode 's " day in the life " formula , which he said has been successful in other previous Office episodes . Tara Tanzos of The Express @-@ Times said the episode lived up to the series ' standards , particularly praising the Ed Helms subplot and the parkour cold open .
For his work on this episode , Paul Lieberstein was nominated for a Writers Guild of America Award for Best Screenplay – Episodic Comedy , but lost to the pilot episode of Modern Family and the 30 Rock episode " Apollo , Apollo " , which split the prize .
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= Talbot Samba =
The Talbot Samba is a supermini car manufactured by the PSA Group in the former Simca factory in Poissy , France , and marketed under the short @-@ lived modern @-@ day Talbot brand . Based on the Peugeot 104 , it was the only Talbot not inherited from Chrysler Europe , engineered by PSA alone . It was also the last new Talbot to be launched , and the last in production . Its demise in 1986 was effectively the end of the Talbot brand for passenger cars . Launched initially as a three @-@ door hatchback , it was also for some time the only supermini available in a factory @-@ ordered cabrio body style , and the most economical car in Europe .
= = Development = =
= = = Background = = =
The PSA Group , formed in 1976 when Peugeot bought out its competitor , Citroën , took over the former Chrysler Europe in 1979 ; one of its first decisions was to rebrand all of the models manufactured in the French and British factories to Talbot . Among the models inherited from Chrysler was the Scottish @-@ built rear @-@ wheel drive Talbot Sunbeam , the only supermini in the lineup .
The Sunbeam was originally conceived by Chrysler as a stopgap model , developed to keep the Linwood works running — it was based on the running gear of the earlier Avenger made there — while helping the company to maintain a foothold in the growing supermini market . Aware that a more modern design was needed to compete with upcoming front @-@ wheel drive rivals , Chrysler undertook some development work on a shortened version of the Chrysler Horizon ( which had the development code C2 ) , dubbed C2 @-@ short , but it was cut short by the company 's financial problems and plans to divest Chrysler Europe .
PSA decided that the Linwood plant would be unprofitable to maintain and should be closed , which meant an end to both the Avenger and Sunbeam model lines , further emphasizing the need for a new supermini in the Talbot lineup . On the eve of the 1980s , PSA 's supermini lineup consisted of models based on the veteran front @-@ wheel drive 1972 Peugeot 104 , which came in a shorter three @-@ door and longer five @-@ door version . Citroën rebadged the short @-@ wheelbase 104 as the Citroën LN , and the long @-@ wheelbase chassis formed the base of the five @-@ door Citroën Visa .
= = = Decision = = =
In 1979 , PSA decided that their new small Talbot would also be based on the 104 rather than the Horizon . Keeping the common underpinnings allowed the new model , known internally as project C15 ( later renamed to T15 to reflect the brand change from Chrysler to Talbot ) to be launched in 1981 , in time to replace the Sunbeam when Linwood would close . In order not to create too much internal competition , a wheelbase between the 3 door and 5 door versions of the 104 was chosen . This made the projected model slot in size slightly below popular superminis such as the Ford Fiesta , but above the smallest cars , including the about @-@ to @-@ be @-@ launched Austin Metro .
= = = Styling = = =
As with previous Talbot and Chrysler Europe models , styling of the T15 was the responsibility of the British design centre in Whitley , Coventry . The stylists were limited by the need to retain the entire body structure of the 104 , and allegedly were given Peugeot 's own proposal of a 104 facelift as a starting point . The resulting design was quite different from and more modern @-@ looking than its progenitor ; only the bonnet and tailgate were shared , and the car was given a distinctive front end in Chrysler / Talbot " international " style .
= = Launch = =
Production of the new car started in October 1981 , and it was officially launched as the Talbot Samba in December . Unlike the Horizon , 1510 / Alpine or Solara , which were made simultaneously in France and England , the model was assembled only in Poissy . The engine lineup included three versions of the four cylinder PSA X engine , which the Samba shared with its Peugeot and Citroën siblings , coupled with three trim levels . The base LS came with the 954 cc XV , the GL with the 1124 cc XW and the top @-@ of @-@ the @-@ line GLS ' with the largest 1360 cc XY . The GL was rated as " Europe 's most economical car " according to the official EEC fuel consumption figures , bettering the previously triumphant Renault 5 , but later lost the title to the Austin Metro .
= = = Cabrio = = =
In an effort to make the vehicle stand out in the market against similar rivals , which included its own derivatives , Peugeot added a more glamorous two @-@ door cabriolet to the standard three @-@ door hatchback . Although announced at the hatchback 's launch , the first models were not available until 1982 . Designed and built by the Italian coachbuilder Pininfarina , who had been building open @-@ top Peugeots since the 1960s , it came only with the 1360 cc engine ; two engine versions were offered , 53 or 59 kilowatts ( 72 or 80 PS ) — the former was dropped after 1984 , at which time a slightly revised cabriolet was released featuring the later style 104 dashboard , twin carburettors and a lined hood ; the 80bhp engine was shared with the Rallye . At the time of its launch it was the only cabrio supermini available from the manufacturer , although other models subsequently entered the market segment created by the Samba , including PSA 's own Citroën Visa Decapotable . Pininfarina built 13 @,@ 062 Samba cabriolets .
= = = Rallye = = =
Following the rallying successes of the Simca 1000 and the Talbot Sunbeam , PSA launched the Samba Rallye . Fitted with the 1219 cc XW version of the X engine , delivering 66 kilowatt ( 90 PS ) , it came in either white or red , with a hood scoop and side stripes . In 1985 , a version with the 1360 cc unit producing 59 kilowatt ( 80 PS ) was launched , without the stripes . A special rallye @-@ only Group B model , officially called the Peugeot Talbot Sport Samba Rallye preceded the later Peugeot 205 T16 , with a 1285 cc , 96 kilowatt engine ( 130 PS ) .
= = Later developments = =
In 1982 , the Talbot Group was merged into Peugeot within PSA , and responsibility for the model was devolved to France . The Whitley design studio was dissolved , and some of the designers crossed over to British Leyland , where they joined their former boss Roy Axe . PSA had by then already started work on a replacement for the Samba , based on the Citroën AX , a few prototypes of which — essentially rebadged AXs — were created in 1983 / 84 . The Samba sold reasonably well throughout 1982 and 1983 , after which sales began to suffer , partly because of the model 's aging and partly because of competition from the very popular Peugeot 205 , which created powerful ( and successful ) internal competition within PSA for the little Talbot .
To sustain interest in the Samba towards the end of its life , PSA launched a few concept and special versions of the model . The Copacabana was a Samba @-@ based concept car , featuring body elements painted in garish colors . It was followed by the 1984 Samba Sympa production model , targeted at " young buyers " , which came in silver metallic paint , with a choice of yellow , red or blue highlights and either a radio or a sunroof . In 1985 , the sunroof became standard and only yellow highlights were available . The Samba Bahia ( marketed as the Samba Trio in the UK ) was a 1985 model , also targeted at younger customers . It came with the 1 @.@ 1 litre engine , denim @-@ covered seats , and a sunroof , and was painted in metallic blue . The Samba Style model was launched with both radio and sunroof as standard , but not the colorful highlights , essentially to facilitate the sales of the last Samba series .
The Samba was not the only Talbot model to see customer interest waning ; as the 1980s progressed , all Talbots began to sell rather poorly and the range was gradually phased out . Peugeot had been working on developing a replacement for the Samba as late as 1984 , which would have been based on the forthcoming Citroen AX , but this project was abandoned as Peugeot took the decision to phase out the Talbot brand , and the Peugeot 205 was proving so popular that Peugeot felt little need for a third car of this size within the group .
The Citroën AX was launched without a twin in 1986 , and the only other Talbot in development , the Arizona family hatchback , was launched instead as the Peugeot 309 at the end of 1985 . Production of the Samba ended in May 1986 , by which time 270 @,@ 555 had been made , signalling the beginning of the end of the Talbot brand for passenger cars , the death knell finally sounding the following year when the last Horizon rolled off the production line in Finland , although the brand survived on commercial vehicles until 1994 .
It was , however , retained until 1994 for the Talbot Express , one of the Sevel Sud vans .
= = Jeremy Clarkson video = =
In Jeremy Clarkson 's 2009 DVD Duel , a 1984 Talbot Samba Cabriolet was destroyed by hurling it from a catapult into a wall , with a speed camera nearby showing that its speed was 164 mph ( 264 km / h ) before it hit the wall and exploded .
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= Algol =
Algol ( Beta Per , β Persei , β Per ) , known colloquially as the Demon Star , is a bright star in the constellation Perseus . It is one of the best known eclipsing binaries , the first such star to be discovered , and also one of the first ( non @-@ nova ) variable stars to be discovered . Algol is actually a three @-@ star system ( Beta Persei Aa1 , Aa2 , and Ab ) in which the large and bright primary β Persei Aa1 is regularly eclipsed by the dimmer β Persei Aa2 . Thus , Algol 's magnitude is usually near @-@ constant at 2 @.@ 1 , but regularly dips to 3 @.@ 4 every 2 @.@ 86 days ( 2 days , 20 hours and 49 minutes ) during the roughly 10 @-@ hour @-@ long partial eclipses . There is also a secondary eclipse ( the " second minimum " ) when the brighter star occults the fainter secondary . This secondary eclipse can only be detected photoelectrically . Algol gives its name to its class of eclipsing variable , known as Algol variables .
= = Observation history = =
An Ancient Egyptian Calendar of Lucky and Unlucky Days composed some 3200 years ago is claimed to be the oldest historical document of the discovery of Algol .
The association of Algol with a demon @-@ like creature ( Gorgon in the Greek tradition , ghoul in the Arabic tradition ) suggests that its variability was known long before the 17th century , but except for the Ancient Egyptian discovery there is still no indisputable evidence for this .
The variability of Algol was noted in 1667 by Italian astronomer Geminiano Montanari , but the periodic nature of its variations in brightness was not recognized until more than a century later , when the British amateur astronomer John Goodricke also proposed a mechanism for the star 's variability . In May 1783 he presented his findings to the Royal Society , suggesting that the periodic variability was caused by a dark body passing in front of the star ( or else that the star itself has a darker region that is periodically turned toward the Earth ) . For his report he was awarded the Copley Medal .
In 1881 , the Harvard astronomer Edward Charles Pickering presented evidence that Algol was actually an eclipsing binary . This was confirmed a few years later , in 1889 , when the Potsdam astronomer Hermann Carl Vogel found periodic doppler shifts in the spectrum of Algol , inferring variations in the radial velocity of this binary system . Thus Algol became one of the first known spectroscopic binaries . Joel Stebbins at the University of Illinois Observatory used an early selenium cell photometer to produce the first @-@ ever photoelectric study of a variable star . The light curve revealed the second minimum and the reflection effect between the two stars . Some difficulties in explaining the observed spectroscopic features led to the conjecture that a third star may be present in the system ; four decades later this conjecture was found to be correct .
= = System = =
From the point of view of the Earth , Algol Aa1 and Algol Aa2 form an eclipsing binary because their orbital plane contains the line of sight to the Earth . To be more precise , Algol is a triple @-@ star system : the eclipsing binary pair is separated by only 0 @.@ 062 astronomical units ( AU ) from each other , whereas the third star in the system ( Algol Ab ) is at an average distance of 2 @.@ 69 AU from the pair , and the mutual orbital period of the trio is 681 Earth days . The total mass of the system is about 5 @.@ 8 solar masses , and the mass ratios of Aa1 , Aa2 , and Ab are about 4 @.@ 5 to 1 to 2 .
The three components of the bright triple star used to be , and still sometimes are , referred to as β Per A , B , and C. The Washington Double Star Catalog lists them as Aa1 , Aa2 , and An , with two very faint stars B and C about one arcmin distant . A further five faint stars are also listed as companions .
Studies of Algol led to the Algol paradox in the theory of stellar evolution : although components of a binary star form at the same time , and massive stars evolve much faster than the less massive ones , it was observed that the more massive component Algol A is still in the main sequence , whereas the less massive Algol B is a subgiant star at a later evolutionary stage . The paradox can be solved by mass transfer : when the more massive star became a subgiant , it filled its Roche lobe , and most of the mass was transferred to the other star , which is still in the main sequence . In some binaries similar to Algol , a gas flow can be seen .
This system also exhibits variable activities in the forms of x @-@ ray and radio wave flares . The former is thought to be caused by the magnetic fields of the A and B components interacting with the mass transfer . The radio @-@ wave emissions might be created by magnetic cycles similar to those of sunspots , but because the magnetic fields of these stars are up to ten times stronger than the field of the Sun , these radio flares are more powerful and more persistent .
Magnetic activity cycles in the chromospherically active secondary component induce changes in its radius of gyration that have been linked to recurrent orbital period variations on the order of ΔP / P ≈ 10 − 5 via the Applegate mechanism . Mass transfer between the components is small in the Algol system but could be a significant source of period change in other Algol @-@ type binaries .
Algol is located about 92 @.@ 8 light years from the Sun , but about 7 @.@ 3 million years ago it passed within 9 @.@ 8 light years of the Solar System and its apparent magnitude was about − 2 @.@ 5 , which is considerably brighter than the star Sirius is today . Because the total mass of the Algol system is about 5 @.@ 8 solar masses , at the closest approach this might have given enough gravity to perturb the Oort cloud of the Solar System somewhat and hence increase the number of comets entering the inner Solar System . However , the actual increase in net cometary collisions is thought to have been quite small .
= = Names = =
The name Algol derives from Arabic رأس الغول raʾs al @-@ ghūl : head ( raʾs ) of the ogre ( al @-@ ghūl ) ( see " ghoul " ) . The English name " Demon Star " is a direct translation of this .
In Hebrew folklore , Algol was called Rōsh ha Sāṭān or " Satan 's Head " , as stated by Edmund Chilmead , who called it " Divels head " or Rosch hassatan . A Latin name for Algol from the 16th century was Caput Larvae or " the Spectre 's Head " . Hipparchus and Pliny made this a separate , though connected , constellation .
In Chinese , 大陵 ( Dà Líng ) , meaning Mausoleum , refers to an asterism consisting of β Persei , 9 Persei , τ Persei , ι Persei , κ Persei , ρ Persei , 16 Persei and 12 Persei . Consequently , β Persei itself is known as 大陵五 ( Dà Líng wu , English : The Fifth Star of Mausoleum . ) . According to R.H. Allen the star bore the grim name of Tseih She 叠尸 ( Dié Shī ) , meaning " Piled up Corpses " but this appears to be a misidentification .
= = Cultural significance = =
Historically , the star has received a strong association with bloody violence across a wide variety of cultures . In the Tetrabiblos , the 2nd @-@ century astrological text of the Alexandrian astronomer Ptolemy , Algol is referred to as " the Gorgon of Perseus " and associated with death by decapitation : a theme which mirrors the myth of the hero Perseus 's victory over the snake @-@ haired Gorgon Medusa . Astrologically , Algol is considered one of the unluckiest stars in the sky , and was listed as one of the 15 Behenian stars .
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= New Jersey Route 70 =
Route 70 is a state highway located in the U.S. state of New Jersey . It extends 59 @.@ 84 mi ( 96 @.@ 30 km ) from an interchange with Route 38 in Pennsauken Township , Camden County to an intersection with Route 34 and Route 35 in Wall Township , Monmouth County . Route 70 cuts across the middle of the state as a two @-@ lane highway through the Pine Barrens in Burlington and Ocean counties . The western section in Cherry Hill and Marlton is a four to eight @-@ lane divided highway that serves as a major suburban arterial ; as such , it is congested . It is locally known as the Marlton Pike . The eastern section in Monmouth and Ocean counties is also a multilane divided highway that runs through suburban areas . Route 70 is officially known as the John Davison Rockefeller Memorial Highway its entire length in honor of John Davison Rockefeller .
The portion of the current route between Whitesbog and Lakehurst became a part of pre @-@ 1927 Route 18 in 1923 . In 1927 , Route 40 was legislated to run from Camden to Lakewood ; the termini were eventually moved to the Airport Circle in Pennsauken and the Laurelton Circle in Brick Township . Route 40 became Route 70 in 1953 in order to avoid conflicting with U.S. Route 40 ; in addition , the western terminus was cut back to its current location to avoid a concurrency with Route 38 and the eastern terminus was moved to the Brielle Circle , replacing a portion of Route 34 between the Laurelton Circle and the Brielle Circle .
= = Route description = =
= = = Camden County = = =
Route 70 begins at an interchange with Route 38 and County Route 601 ( CR 601 ) in Pennsauken Township , Camden County . From this interchange , it heads to the southeast on Marlton Pike , a six @-@ lane divided highway that runs through suburban residential and commercial areas . The road is also officially called the John Davison Rockefeller Memorial Highway for its entire length after John Davison Rockefeller . The road enters Cherry Hill and comes to a cloverleaf interchange with CR 636 before crossing under New Jersey Transit 's Atlantic City Line , a short distance to the south of the Cherry Hill Station . In this area , Route 70 passes to the south of the former site of the Garden State Park before crossing CR 644 . Past this intersection , the route narrows to four lanes and turns more to as it comes to the Ellisburg area . In Ellisburg , it has an intersection with Route 41 and the northern terminus of Route 154 . The road runs through more suburban areas as it encounters Interstate 295 at another cloverleaf interchange . A short distance past I @-@ 295 , Route 70 passes over the New Jersey Turnpike without an interchange before widening into an eight @-@ lane highway and continuing east to junctions with CR 674 and CR 673 . Following CR 673 , the road narrows back to four lanes before it encounters CR 600 , a former alignment of the road known as Old Marlton Pike .
= = = Burlington County = = =
Route 70 crosses the Pennsauken Creek into Evesham Township , Burlington County , running east through more commercial areas within the Marlton section of the township . A short distance later , the route intersects Route 73 at an interchange that was formerly the Marlton Circle . After the Marlton Circle , the road heads east passing through some more commercial areas and then into residential neighborhoods that are separated from the road by trees , narrowing into a two @-@ lane undivided road . It continues into a mix of suburban development and rural woods and farms as it crosses into Medford Township , coming to a crossroads with CR 618 . From this intersection , Route 70 continues east through the Medford area , passing a couple shopping centers before crossing CR 541 . After the CR 541 intersection , the route leaves the suburban development and runs through a mix of woodland and farmland with occasional homes . It enters Southampton Township , where the road enters more wooded surroundings before coming to U.S. Route 206 at the Red Lion Circle .
Past here , Route 70 loses the Marlton Pike name and continues east into the heavily wooded Pine Barrens . It passes to the south of the Leisuretowne retirement village before entering predominantly rural areas , with two fire lanes paralleling the road on either side . Route 70 eventually turns slightly to the northeast and forms the border between Southampton Township to the north and Woodland Township to the south . Along this borderline , the route comes to the Four Mile Circle , where it intersects the western terminus of Route 72 as well as CR 644 and CR 646 . Past the traffic circle , Route 70 becomes the border between Pemberton Township to the north and Woodland Township to the south . The road passes to the south of the wooded Presidential Lakes Estates residential development before turning northeast through more of the Pine Barrens entirely within Pemberton Township . The road passes near some cranberry bogs before intersecting CR 530 . At this intersection , CR 530 heads east concurrent with Route 70 .
= = = Ocean and Monmouth counties = = =
A short distance later , the two routes enter Manchester Township in Ocean County and continue east through a tract of the Brendan T. Byrne State Forest within the Pine Barrens as well as a corner of the Fort Dix Military Reservation . The road eventually reaches the community of Whiting , where it passes commercial development at the intersection with CR 539 . Here , CR 530 turns south to follow CR 539 and Route 70 continues northeast back into the Pine Barrens . The road turns more to the north @-@ northeast before heading east into Lakehurst to the south of the Lakehurst Naval Air Station . In Lakehurst , Route 70 comes to a traffic circle with CR 4 and CR 12 before running through residential and commercial areas of the town . It intersects with the southern terminus of CR 547 , where it widens into a four @-@ lane divided highway . From here , the route crosses over a Conrail Shared Assets Operations railroad line before coming to the Lakehurst Circle , where it intersects the western terminus of Route 37 .
Route 70 enters Manchester Township again past this traffic circle and becomes a two @-@ lane undivided road , passing near the wooded residential Leisure Knoll community before crossing CR 571 . Past CR 571 , the route heads through wooded suburban residential and business areas , crossing into Toms River . Here , the road intersects CR 527 and CR 637 before becoming a four @-@ lane divided highway again and encountering U.S. Route 9 at an interchange . Following the US 9 interchange , Route 70 enters Lakewood Township and turns more to the east , crossing CR 623 prior to a partial interchange with the Garden State Parkway . This interchange has access from eastbound Route 70 to the northbound parkway and from the southbound parkway to Route 70 . From here , the route continues into Brick Township and passes several shopping centers , intersecting CR 528 and CR 549 . At the CR 528 intersection , the road is briefly an undivided highway . It turns northeast , crossing the Metedeconk River before intersecting Route 88 . After this intersection , Route 70 passes more inhabited areas separated from the road by trees , crossing both CR 632 and CR 549 Spur . A short distance later , it becomes an undivided road and crosses the Manasquan River on the September 11th Memorial Bridge , entering Brielle , Monmouth County . The September 11th Memorial Bridge is dedicated to residents of Monmouth and Ocean counties who lost their lives in the September 11 attacks . After the bridge , the route turns north through residential areas and becomes a divided highway again , briefly forming the border between Wall Township to the west and Brielle to the east before fully entering Wall Township . Route 70 ends at the former Brielle Circle intersection with Route 34 and Route 35 , where the road continues north as part of Route 35 .
Route 70 is a major road providing access between the Philadelphia area and the Jersey Shore resorts , particularly Long Beach Island by way of Route 72 . It is also a congested commercial route within the suburban areas of Philadelphia .
= = History = =
The Camden , Ellisburg , and Marlton Turnpike was chartered in 1849 as a turnpike that was to run from Camden east to Marlton along what is today Route 70 and CR 601 . The Marlton Pike was taken over by the county in 1907 at a time many other turnpikes became public roads . The current alignment of Route 70 between Whitesbog ( the west end of the CR 530 concurrency ) and Lakehurst was legislated as a part of pre @-@ 1927 Route 18 in 1923 , a route that was to run from Camden to Toms River . In the 1927 New Jersey state highway renumbering , Route 40 was designated to run from Camden to Lakewood along the current alignment of Route 70 . In addition a spur of this route called Route S40 ( now Route 72 ) was designated to head from the route at Four Mile to Manahawkin . Eventually , the eastern terminus of Route 40 was moved to the Laurelton Circle in Brick Township , where it intersected Route 35 ( now Route 88 ) as well as Route 34 , which continued north from this point ; the western terminus was placed at the Airport Circle with U.S. Route 30 and U.S. Route 130 in Pennsauken , ending concurrent with Route 38 . In the 1953 New Jersey state highway renumbering , Route 40 was renumbered to Route 70 in order to avoid the conflict with U.S. Route 40 in the state . Also , Route 70 was designated onto its current alignment between Route 38 in Pennsauken and Route 34 and Route 35 at the Brielle Circle , removing the concurrency with Route 38 and replacing the portion of Route 34 between the Laurelton Circle and the Brielle Circle .
Since 1953 , many changes have occurred to Route 70 . Several traffic circles that had existed on the road had been either modified or replaced by at @-@ grade intersections . The Marlton Circle at Route 73 in Marlton was modified in 1974 to allow Route 73 to run directly straight through the circle . This circle became known for traffic backups and was replaced with an interchange . Construction on this interchange , which cost $ 31 million , began in April 2009 . In May 2010 , the circle was eliminated with a temporary at @-@ grade intersection constructed while the Route 73 bridge over Route 70 was being built . The interchange was completed in June 2011 . Also , the Race Track Circle at the intersection with CR 644 ( Haddonfield Road ) was eventually replaced by an at @-@ grade intersection . The Laurelton Circle at Route 88 , built in 1937 , was replaced by the 1990s . The Ellisburg Circle at Route 41 and Route 154 , was replaced by an intersection with jughandles . The Brielle Circle at the eastern terminus was also converted to an intersection with jughandles in 2001 . In conjunction with eliminating the Brielle Circle , Route 70 was also widened between the intersection with Jack Martin Boulevard in Brick Township and the former circle . In July 2004 , floods caused by heavy rain washed away a bridge along the route in Southampton Township , leading for it to be replaced . The New Jersey Department of Transportation replaced the September 11th Memorial Bridge over the Manasquan River in a $ 52 million project that increased capacity on the bridge and added monumental decorations and increased pedestrian access . Construction was scheduled to be complete in December 2010 ; however , the project was completed ahead of schedule in September 2008 .
= = Major intersections = =
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= Ice Cream Freeze ( Let 's Chill ) =
" Ice Cream Freeze ( Let 's Chill ) " is a pop song by American recording artist and actress Miley Cyrus , performing as Hannah Montana – the alter ego of Miley Stewart – a character she played on the Disney Channel television series Hannah Montana . The song was written by Matthew Gerrard and Robbie Nevil and produced by Gerrard . It was released on June 20 , 2009 , by Walt Disney Records as a promotional single from the series ' third soundtrack , Hannah Montana 3 . A karaoke version is available in Disney 's Karaoke Series : Hannah Montana 3 . It is an instructional dance song with a country pop sound and lyrics referencing ice cream and other frozen foods .
The song garnered negative reactions from contemporary critics but enjoyed humble commercial success for Cyrus in several countries , compared to those of her previous efforts as Montana . " Ice Cream Freeze ( Let 's Chill ) " made its highest peak by charting at number fifty @-@ seven in the Canadian Hot 100 . The song also charted on charts in the United Kingdom and the United States . A music video for " Ice Cream Freeze ( Let 's Chill ) " was released , taken from footage of a concert performance .
= = Background = =
" Ice Cream Freeze ( Let 's Chill ) " was co @-@ written by Matthew Gerrard and Robbie Nevil , a duo of longtime songwriters for Montana ; Together , they wrote her hit " The Best of Both Worlds " ( 2006 ) . A karaoke version is available in Disney 's Karaoke Series : Hannah Montana 3 . " Ice Cream Freeze ( Let 's Chill ) " has corresponding dance moves designed by Jamal Sims , which are heavily influenced by line dancing . It was first titled " Let 's Chill " and leaked into the Internet in November 2008 , along with six other songs from the soundtrack . The song first premiered on Radio Disney on May 22 , 2009 , in order to promote the soundtrack ; it was afterward released as a promotional single from Hannah Montana 3 on June 30 , 2009 , as part of Radio Disney 's iTunes Pass , an exclusive campaign launched by the iTunes Store .
= = Composition = =
" Ice Cream Freeze ( Let 's Chill ) " is country pop song with a length of three minutes and seven seconds . According to Allmusic , " Ice Cream Freeze ( Let 's Chill ) " contains dance @-@ pop and teen pop influences in its musical composition . Warren Truitt of About.com also cited dance music as the song 's " craze " . The song is set in common time and has a moderate dance groove tempo . It is written in the key of F major and it follows the chord progression F – E ♭ – B ♭ . Peter Larsen of The Orange County Register believed the song was " more or less literally is about ice cream and other frozen delights " , referencing the lines " Do the ice cream freeze , strike a pose / Can you do the milkshake / Shake it , shake it down low " .
= = Reception = =
= = = Critical reception = = =
The song garnered negative reactions from contemporary critics . Heather Phares of Allmusic said , " ' Ice Cream Freeze ( Let 's Chill ) , ' [ ... ] sounds extremely similar to the soundtrack 's ' Hoedown Throwdown . ' That feeling of familiarity extends to the songs that haven 't appeared anywhere else . " Warren Truitt of About.com agreed and described the song to be " silly " and " as awkwardly goofy " as " Hoedown Throwdown " . Peter Larsen of The Orange County Register identified the track to be a " crowd pleaser " .
= = = Chart performance = = =
On the week ending July 25 , 2009 , " Ice Cream Freeze ( Let 's Chill ) " debuted and peaked at number eighty @-@ seven on the Billboard Hot 100 ; in the succeeding week , it dropped from the chart . On the week ending 2009 , the song debuted and peaked at number fifty seven in the Canadian Hot 100 , thus becoming Cyrus ' second highest @-@ charting song as Montana in Canada . The song dropped to number one @-@ hundred in the following week and completely fell the week after . On the week ending August 1 , 2009 , " Ice Cream Freeze ( Let 's Chill ) " entered the UK Singles Chart as number ninety @-@ five . It marked Cyrus ' first entry in the country as Montana since " The Best Both Worlds " , which charted in March 2007 . On the week ending August 8 , 2009 , the song reached its peak on the chart at number ninety .
= = Live performances = =
Cyrus , dressed as Montana , premiered " Ice Cream Freeze ( Let 's Chill ) " , along with eight other songs , at the concert taping for the third season of Hannah Montana , which was set on October 10 in Irvine , California at the Verizon Wireless Amphitheatre . In the performance , Montana dressed in a tee shirt with a pink star , zebra patterned skirt , cowboy boots and a bejeweled vest and performed the corresponding choreography . Six backup dancers , also costumed by Western clothing , later appeared to perform . Peter Larsen of The Orange County Register recalled his two children enjoying the dance and referred to it as " probably one of the most popular of the eight new songs Miley performs tonight . " The performance was later released as the song 's music video on May 22 , 2009 , on Disney Channel .
= = Charts = =
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= Gray mouse lemur =
The gray mouse lemur ( Microcebus murinus ) , grey mouse lemur or lesser mouse lemur , is a small lemur , a type of strepsirrhine primate , found only on the island of Madagascar . Weighing 58 to 67 grams ( 2 @.@ 0 to 2 @.@ 4 oz ) , it is the largest of the mouse lemurs ( genus Microcebus ) , a group that includes the smallest primates in the world . The species is named for its mouse @-@ like size and coloration and is known locally ( in Malagasy ) as tsidy , koitsiky , titilivaha , pondiky , and vakiandry . The gray mouse lemur and all other mouse lemurs are considered cryptic species , as they are nearly indistinguishable from each other by appearance . For this reason , the gray mouse lemur was considered the only mouse lemur species for decades until more recent studies began to distinguish between the species .
Like all mouse lemurs , this species is nocturnal and arboreal . It is very active , and though it forages alone , groups of males and females form sleeping groups and share tree holes during the day . It exhibits a form of dormancy called torpor during the cool , dry winter months , and in some cases undergoes seasonal torpor ( or hibernation ) , which is unusual for primates . The gray mouse lemur can be found in several types of forest throughout western and southern Madagascar . Its diet consists primarily of fruit , insects , flowers , and nectar . In the wild , its natural predators include owls , snakes , and endemic mammalian predators . Predation pressure is higher for this species than among any other primate species , with one out of four individuals taken by a predator each year . This is counterbalanced by its high reproductive rate . Breeding is seasonal , and distinct vocalizations are used to prevent hybridization with species that overlap its range . Gestation lasts approximately 60 days , and typically two young are born . The offspring are usually independent in two months , and can reproduce after one year . The gray mouse lemur has a reproductive lifespan of five years , although captive individuals have been reported to live up to 15 years .
Although threatened by deforestation , habitat degradation , and live capture for the pet trade , it is considered one of Madagascar 's most abundant small native mammals . It can tolerate moderate food shortages by experiencing daily torpor to conserve energy , but extended food shortages due to climate change may pose a significant risk to the species .
= = Etymology = =
The gray or lesser mouse lemur is named for its brownish @-@ gray fur and mouse @-@ like size and appearance . The genus name , Microcebus , derives from the Greek words mikros , meaning " small " , and kebos , meaning " monkey " . The Latin version of kebos , cebus , is a common suffix used for primate names , despite the fact that the gray mouse lemur is a lemur , and not a monkey . The species name , murinus , means " mouse @-@ like " and derives from the Latin word mus , or " mouse " , and the Latin suffix -inus , which means " like " .
The lemur is known locally by several names in Malagasy , depending upon the region . Around Tôlanaro ( Fort Dauphin ) , it is called pondiky [ punˈdikʲ ] . In the northern end of its range , it is known as tsidy [ ˈtʃidʲ ] . Around Morondava , it is referred to as koitsiky [ kuiˈtʃikʲ ] , titilivaha [ ti ̥ tiliˈva ] , and vakiandry [ vakiˈaɳɖʐʲ ] . In many cases , these Malagasy names are also used for other visually indistinguishable mouse lemur species that live within its range .
= = Taxonomy = =
As its name implies , the gray mouse lemur is a lemur , a type of primate , and belongs to the suborder Strepsirrhini and infraorder Lemuriformes . Within Lemuriformes , it belongs to the family Cheirogaleidae , which contains the mouse lemurs , dwarf lemurs , giant mouse lemurs , fork @-@ marked lemurs , and hairy @-@ eared dwarf lemur . The mouse lemur genus Microcebus includes the smallest primates in the world . Phylogenetic analyses of D @-@ loop DNA sequences of various lemur species suggests that the gray mouse lemur may be most closely related to the reddish @-@ gray mouse lemur ( M. griseorufus ) .
First described in 1777 by English illustrator John Frederick Miller , M. murinus remained the only species of its genus , as well as the name used for all mouse lemurs on Madagascar , between the first major taxonomic revision in 1931 and an extensive field study conducted in 1972 . The field study distinguished the brown mouse lemur , M. rufus — then considered a subspecies — as a distinct , sympatric species in the southeastern part of the island . Upon this revision , the gray mouse lemur was thought to account for all mouse lemurs that lived in the drier parts of the north , west , and south , while the brown mouse lemur represented the eastern rainforest mouse lemurs . More recently , scientific understanding of the distribution and diversity of the mouse lemurs has become much more complex . Additional field studies , genetic testing , and resulting taxonomic revisions throughout the 1990s and 2000s identified numerous new mouse lemur species , demonstrating that the genus includes at least 17 cryptic species .
= = Anatomy and physiology = =
The gray mouse lemur shares many traits with other mouse lemurs , including soft fur , a long tail , long hind limbs , a dorsal stripe down the back ( not always distinct ) , a short snout , rounded skull , prominent eyes , and large , membranous , protruding ears . It has large eyes and a tapetum lucidum to enhance its vision at night . The dorsal coat is brownish @-@ gray with various reddish tones , the flanks are light gray to beige , and the ventral fur has discrete dull beige or whitish @-@ beige patches along portions of the belly . On the rounded face , there is a pale white patch above the nose and between the eyes ; some individuals have dark orbital markings . The furred portions of the hands and feet are off @-@ white .
The gray mouse lemur is one of the smallest primates in the world , yet it is also the largest mouse lemur . Its total length is 25 to 28 cm ( 9 @.@ 8 to 11 @.@ 0 in ) , with a head @-@ body length of 12 to 14 cm ( 4 @.@ 7 to 5 @.@ 5 in ) and a tail length of 13 to 14 @.@ 5 cm ( 5 @.@ 1 to 5 @.@ 7 in ) . The average weight for this species is 60 g ( 2 @.@ 1 oz ) , with ranges of 58 and 67 g ( 2 @.@ 0 and 2 @.@ 4 oz ) and 40 and 70 g ( 1 @.@ 4 and 2 @.@ 5 oz ) reported . This is smaller than the world 's smallest monkey , the pygmy marmoset , which ranges between 85 and 140 g ( 3 @.@ 0 and 4 @.@ 9 oz ) . Weight varies by season , with both sexes building fat reserves , up to 35 % of their body weight , in the tail and hind legs prior to the dry season and periods of dormancy . The tail of the gray mouse lemur can increase fourfold in volume during the wet season when it is storing fat . Even in captivity when environmental limitations are not an issue , mouse lemurs have shown a seasonal dietary preference with a greater protein intake during what would be their more active season .
Researchers have identified differences in the tooth morphology of the first and second molars between the gray mouse lemur and the reddish @-@ gray mouse lemur . In the reddish @-@ gray mouse lemur , the first lower molar ( m1 ) is squared and both the first and second upper molars ( M1 and M2 ) have slight indentations around the middle of the posterior margin . The gray mouse lemur has a more elongated m1 and lacks the aforementioned indentation on M1 and M2 . In terms of its general dentition , the gray mouse lemur shares the same dental formula as all other members of its family , Cheirogaleidae : 2 @.@ 1 @.@ 3 @.@ 32 @.@ 1 @.@ 3 @.@ 3 × 2 = 36
This species has 66 chromosomes , closely resembling the karyotype of the dwarf lemurs ( genus Cheirogaleus ) . Except for the X chromosome , all chromosomes are acrocentric ( with the short arm absent or virtually absent ) . Its genome size is 3 @.@ 12 picograms ( pg ) .
= = Ecology = =
Like all other members of the family Cheirogaleidae , the gray mouse lemur is nocturnal and arboreal . It inhabits lowland tropical dry forest , sub @-@ arid thorn scrub , gallery forest , spiny forest , eastern littoral forest , dry deciduous forests , semi @-@ humid deciduous , moist lowland forest , transitional forest , and secondary forests or degraded forests ( including plantations ) all ranging up to 800 m ( 2 @,@ 600 ft ) above sea level . The species is more common in secondary forest than in primary forest , particularly bush and scrub habitat , where it occupies a " fine branch " niche , restricting the vertical range to fine branches , fine terminal supports , lianas and dense foliage . These lemurs are usually seen on branches less than 5 cm ( 2 @.@ 0 in ) in diameter . The gray mouse lemur tends to prefer lower levels of the forest and the understory , where branches and vegetation are dense .
In secondary forest , it is generally observed from ground level up to 10 m ( 33 ft ) above ground , yet 15 to 30 m ( 50 to 100 ft ) in the canopy of primary forest . Studies have found that the species can spend as much as 40 % of its time below 3 m ( 10 ft ) , with 70 % of its time spent at this level during the end of the dry season , when plant food is limited and insects compose a larger percentage of the diet . The species is more numerous in spiny forest , such as the Andohahela Special Reserve , than in the gallery forest , preferring drier , littoral forest , whereas the brown mouse lemur prefers inland rain forest .
The limits of the distribution are poorly understood . It is believed to range from the Onilahy River or Lake Tsimanampetsotsa in the south to Ankarafantsika National Park in the north . There is also an isolated and disjointed population in the southeastern part of the island , near Tôlanaro and the Andohahela National Park , up to the Mandena Conservation Zone . Individuals tend to occupy small home ranges of 1 to 2 ha ( 2 @.@ 5 to 4 @.@ 9 acres ) . The gray mouse lemur is also sympatric with the reddish @-@ gray mouse lemur , golden @-@ brown mouse lemur , Madame Berthe 's mouse lemur , and several other cheirogaleid lemurs . In Ankarafantsika National Park , where it coexists with the golden @-@ brown mouse lemur , the gray mouse lemur 's relative population density was highest at higher altitudes and in drier habitat , while the golden @-@ brown mouse lemur preferred the opposite . Another study has looked at the coexistence of the gray mouse lemur and Madame Berthe 's mouse lemur and found small , exclusive clusters of each species and a high degree of feeding niche overlap .
The gray mouse lemur can reach high population densities up to several hundred individuals per square kilometer ( up to 167 individuals / km2 at Ankarafantsika National Park to 712 individuals / km2 at Kirindy Mitea National Park ) . This abundance is not uniform and tends to concentrate in " population nuclei " , suggesting that it is difficult to accurately estimate population densities when extrapolating from a small area ( from various studies ) to a large area . The difficulty in finding individuals during some times of the year , particularly during the dry periods , can further complicate the problem of estimating population densities .
Mouse lemurs are omnivorous , and favor fruit and insects for the bulk of their diet . The gray mouse lemur may even come down to the ground to catch insect prey , though it quickly returns to the protective cover of the understory to consume its catch . Nectar is also a part of the gray mouse lemur 's diet , making it a potential pollinator for local plant species . A single instance of a male cannibalizing an adult female is known .
= = = Predation = = =
The most significant predators of the gray mouse lemur are the Madagascar long @-@ eared owl and barn owl . Studies conducted in Beza Mahafaly Reserve and Kirindy Mitea National Park indicate a predation rate of around 25 % ( percent population taken by predators per year ) , the highest known for any primate species . However , given the species ' high reproductive potential , predation does not appear to have a drastic effect on its populations . Other raptors , such as Henst 's goshawk and other owls , also prey upon this species . Snakes , such as Ithycyphus miniatus ( a native colubrid snake ) and the Madagascar tree boa , as well as mammalian predators , such as the ring @-@ tailed mongoose , narrow @-@ striped mongoose , fossa , and domestic dogs are also known to prey on the gray mouse lemur . Mammalian predators often discover tree holes serving as nests , and enlarge the opening so they can catch and eat the occupant . This puts strong selective pressure on the choice of nest hole opening diameter and deepness .
Due to its non @-@ gregarious nature , the gray mouse lemur , like other nocturnal lemurs , primarily defends itself from predators using avoidance strategies , although group defense through the use of alarm calls and predator mobbing has been observed in this species . Studies involving the placement of predator and non @-@ predator fecal odor with captive populations have demonstrated a genetic predisposition for predator recognition through the detection of metabolites from meat digestion . The mouse lemurs were shown to avoid locations where they typically received rewards , as well as exhibit increased activity and anti @-@ predator behavior , when the odor of predator feces were present in that vicinity , but not when the fecal odor of Malagasy non @-@ predators was present .
During the day , when they are most vulnerable , individuals shelter inside tree holes , sometimes forming nests . They may use three to nine different tree holes within their home range , yet individuals may use one particular hole for up to five consecutive days . Mouse lemurs tend to prefer tree hollows , but also commonly make spherical constructions out of leaves . Nests are usually found in tree holes with a minimum diameter of 5 cm ( 2 @.@ 0 in ) , with a median of 13 cm ( 5 @.@ 1 in ) , suggesting that this range in diameter of tree holes may be crucial for maintaining a healthy habitat . The gray mouse lemur also spends most of its time in dense vegetation , limiting its visibility and accessibility to predators . Furthermore , it has a high reproductive rate to counter losses to predation .
= = Behavior = =
The gray mouse lemur is nocturnal , sleeping during the day in tree holes lined with leaf litter or purpose @-@ built spherical nests constructed from dead leaves , moss and twigs . It usually forages alone at night , but may sleep in groups during the day , the composition of which depends on gender and season . Tree holes can be shared with up to 15 other individuals , although males tend to sleep alone while females tend to share nests .
All mouse lemurs are highly active at night , often scurrying like mice and leaping over 3 m ( 9 @.@ 8 ft ) , using the tail as a balancing organ . When moving among the terminal branches of bushes and trees , they grip using all four feet and move with four legs . When on the ground , either to catch insects or cross short open areas , mouse lemurs hop like a frog . When hunting , the grey mouse lemur is known to catch invertebrates and small vertebrates with quick hand grasps .
In the dry season , the gray mouse lemur faces the challenge of exploiting sparsely distributed feeding resources efficiently . Results of a recent study on this showed that the gray mouse lemur does not move around randomly , but rather use spatial cues to find food resources in the absence of sensory cues , and that they seem to reuse common , highly efficient routes with regard to travel distance . It is believed that rather than using a route @-@ based network , the gray mouse lemur has some sense of mental representation of their spatial environment , which they use to find and exploit food resources .
Foraging behavior is often slow , with height and direction changing continuously . Predation of insects occurs primarily on the ground . Before descending , the ear pinnae move alternately to help pinpoint the precise location of their prey . Insects are captured during a rapid dash across the leaf litter and are transported by mouth up into the relative safety of the branches . Studies with captive gray mouse lemurs have shown that vision is primarily used for prey detection , although the other senses certainly play a role in foraging .
The gray mouse lemur is omnivorous , feeding primarily on fruit and invertebrates . Local populations appear to specialize on locally available fruit . At both Marosalaza and Mandena , beetles are the primary insect prey , although moths , praying mantids , fulgorid bugs , crickets , cockroaches , and spiders are also eaten . Less than half the diet consists of insects , with fruit making up a slightly larger fraction . This lemur also consumes flowers , gums and nectar from Euphorbia and Terminalia trees , leaves ( Uapaca sp . ) , exudates ( Homopteran larvae secretions ) , and small vertebrates such as tree frogs , geckos , and chameleons . Its diet is seasonally varied and diverse in content , giving it a very broad feeding niche compared to other species such as the Madame Berthe 's mouse lemur . Therefore , it is affected more by food availability than by niche partitioning where sympatry occurs .
= = = Dormancy = = =
As with all members of the mouse lemur genus , the gray mouse lemur is known to enter short states of daily torpor , particularly during the cool , dry Southern Hemisphere winter . This rare trait in primates , coupled with the ease of observing the species within its wide geographic distribution and its good representation in captivity , makes it a popular subject for research as a model organism .
The gray mouse lemur is unique among the mouse lemurs studied so far because it is the only species to exhibit prolonged seasonal torpor , but this behavior has only been observed to occur in one locality . Activity patterns can differ noticeably between sexes as well as populations . At the Ampijoroa Forestry Station in Ankarafantsika National Park , males and females exhibit daily , rather than seasonal torpor . At Kirindy Forest , both sexes share the same daily torpor , yet during the dry season ( April / May through September / October ) , females become completely inactive for several weeks or up to five months to conserve energy and reduce predation . However , males rarely remain inactive for more than a few days and become extremely active before the females revive from torpor , allowing them to establish hierarchies and territories for the breeding season . The use of alternative energy @-@ saving strategies under the same environmental conditions was observed directly in 2008 , providing the first physiological confirmation from the field . This pattern of seasonal versus daily torpor may relate to the seasonality of the region , since Kirindy is the only location west of the eastern mountain rainforests that experiences very low temperatures at night during the winter months . By entering extended torpor , sometimes referred to as hibernation , this would reduce the thermoregulatory stress in females , whereas males remain more active in preparation for the upcoming mating season . No difference in mortality has been shown between hibernating females and active males .
During torpor , the gray mouse lemur 's metabolic rate slows and its body temperature drops to the ambient temperature , as low as 7 ° C ( 45 ° F ) . During the cooler months of May though August , the species selects tree holes closer to ground level , where ambient temperatures remain more stable . This allows them to remain in torpor longer , and to conserve metabolic resources . One study showed that during the breeding season , both males and females reduced their energy expenditure by 20 % when they nested in pairs , and a maximal energetic benefit of 40 % was achieved when three mouse lemurs nested together . Even during the nonbreeding season , maximal energetic gain was observed two or more animals nested together , because resting metabolic rate was already decreased .
While the gray mouse lemur is found in both primary and secondary deciduous forests , they have lower population densities in secondary forests . This is because variations in gray mouse lemur abundance are linked to their capacity to enter torpor during the dry season , especially for females , which tend to hibernate longer than males . In primary forests , they can maintain daily torpor or hibernation as long as their body temperatures remain below 28 ° C ( 82 ° F ) , but in secondary forests that have fewer large trees , temperatures are higher and inhibit the gray mouse lemur 's ability to maintain torpor for prolonged periods of time . In addition , the gray mouse lemur in secondary forests tend to have a lower body mass than those in primary forests , as well as lower survival rates . This is likely because those with lower body mass are less likely to enter torpor , and therefore expend around 40 % more energy than those that do maintain torpor .
This unusual ability for a primate to exhibit dormancy , in addition to the diminutive size , has led researchers to speculate that ancestral lemurs , and possibly ancestral primates , may have shared some traits with mouse lemurs . Consequently , the gray mouse lemur has once again been used as a model organism for studying lemur and primate evolution . For example , lemurs are thought to have colonized Madagascar by rafting to the island around 60 million years ago according to molecular phylogenetic studies . Before the discovery that ocean currents were the opposite of what they are today , thus favoring such an event , it was thought that it would have taken too long for any animal not capable of entering a state of dormancy to survive the trip . Therefore , the mouse lemurs , such as the gray mouse lemur , were thought to have shared this plesiomorphic ( ancestral ) trait with the ancestral lemurs .
= = = Social systems = = =
The gray mouse lemur is described as solitary but social , foraging alone at night , but frequently sleeping in groups during the day . This social pattern varies by gender , season , and location . Females tend to share nests with other females and their offspring , whereas males tend to sleep alone or in pairs outside of the breeding season . Groups of females sharing a nest can be relatively stable , consisting of two to nine individuals , although a male may be found with a group of females outside the breeding season . During the breeding season ( September through October ) , males and females may sleep in the same tree hole . Mixed sex groups can be common at this time , with single males sharing nest sites with three to seven females or single females sharing nest sites with one to three males .
Research has shown that home ranges for the gray mouse lemur are usually small , possibly less than 50 m ( 160 ft ) . Males typically travel further at night and have home ranges that are twice as large as those of females , often overlapping with one another , and always overlapping with at least one female 's home range . Male home ranges increase threefold during the breeding season .
Female home ranges overlap less than those of males , although localized concentrations , or " population nuclei " , tend to form in some areas , where the sex ratio favors females to males by three or four to one at the nucleus core . Genetic studies indicate that females arrange themselves spatially in clusters ( " population nuclei " ) of related individuals , while males tend to emigrate from their natal group . Research has shown that females in this species may maintain smaller ranges and associate more closely with other females than in some other mouse lemur species due to a more opportunistic feeding niche and , in the case of populations at Kirindy , the use of extended , seasonal torpor .
= = = Communication = = =
Vocalizations and scent are the primarily modes of communication within this species . Home ranges are scent marked with urine and feces . Vocalizations are complex and very high @-@ pitched ( ranging from 10 to 36 kHz ) , sometimes beyond the range of human hearing ( 0 @.@ 02 to 20 kHz ) . These include calls for seeking contact , mating , distant communication , alarm , and distress .
Like other mouse lemurs , the gray mouse lemur uses what has been described as a harmonic whistle call that is lower in frequency and shorter in duration than its close relative , the brown mouse lemur . In addition , it has been found that the types of vocalizations emitted by the gray mouse lemur can be dependent upon the environment . In the more open dry forest habitats favored by the gray mouse lemur , trill calls are more common and effective since they carry faster and are less likely to be masked by the wind , while chirp calls are more common in the brown mouse lemur , which favors closed rain forest habitats .
As with other social mammals , the calls reveal the sex and identity of the individual . Dialects have also been detected between communities . The male trill call , part of the male mating display , is much like a bird song in terms of its ordered sequence of broadband frequency modulated syllables , ranging between 13 and 35 kHz in pitch and lasting 0 @.@ 3 to 0 @.@ 9 seconds , repeating up to 1 @.@ 5 times per minute . Each locality has its own theme of trill calls that is distinct from those of neighboring communities , and resident males produce individually distinct trill calls within that theme . These calls are not genetically programmed . During play , young males produce early attempts at the trill call , which show high degrees of variability . Research has shown that the male mouse lemurs consciously manipulate the dialect to resemble those of their neighbors , when transferred from their home to a new neighborhood . This may reduce aggression and foster social acceptance for emigrant males as they transfer from their natal group upon maturity .
Because mouse lemurs are cryptic species , and therefore visually indistinguishable , their social calls help individuals select mates of their own species . This differentiated signaling and recognition system has promoted species cohesiveness through premating isolation , and helped researchers distinguish and identify species .
= = = Breeding and reproduction = = =
The mating system is described as multi @-@ male and multi @-@ female . Males establish dominance hierarchies prior to the mating season , however , some studies in the wild have shown no male aggression or visible competition for receptive females . Males in captivity become highly aggressive and form strict dominance hierarchies . These captive males may show the highest plasma testosterone levels found in mammals , and even the odor of a dominant male can lower the testosterone levels and sexually inhibit a subordinate male . During the breeding season , male testes increase significantly in size , facilitating sperm competition due to female promiscuity . Studies with the gray mouse lemur have shown that the optimal insemination period , during which a male is most likely to sire offspring , occurs early during a female 's receptivity . Only during the mating season does male mortality rise above that of female mortality .
Although the gray mouse lemur displays multi @-@ male , multi @-@ female mating patterns , studies have shown that females do exhibit indirect mate selection ( a form of selected polyandry ) . During the study , females would mate with 1 – 7 males up to 11 times during their single night of receptivity , but would avoid or counteract males that attempted to monopolize mating . Dominant males that attempt to monopolize tend to be larger and heavier individuals . Female selection however , has been shown to help increase genetic diversity among offspring .
The gray mouse lemur is considered overall sexually monomorphic , but seasonally fluctuating sexual dimorphism in terms of body mass has been recorded . While the body mass of both sexes fluctuates over the year as a function of food availability , being highest in the rainy season , the differing behavioral repertoires of the sexes lead to sex @-@ specific patterns in this fluctuation . For example , male body mass increases prior to the mating season due to a substantial increase in testes volume that likely enhances the males ' success in sperm competition .
The females are receptive for 45 to 55 days between September and October , with estrus lasting 1 to 5 days . Females advertise estrus by distinctive high @-@ frequency calls and scent @-@ marking . Gestation lasts 54 to 68 days , averaging 60 days , typically resulting in 2 or 3 offspring weighing 5 g ( 0 @.@ 18 oz ) each . Infants are born in a leaf nest or tree hole in November prior to the onset of the rainy season . Weaning occurs after 25 days , and the infants are either left in the nest or carried in the mother 's mouth and deposited on a branch while she forages . Infant mouse lemurs do not cling to the mother 's fur . Independence is attained in 2 months , while sexual maturity is reached at 10 to 29 months in females and 7 to 19 months in males . Closely related females remain loosely associated after maturation ( female philopatry ) , whereas males disperse from their natal area . In the wild , the gray mouse lemur 's reproductive lifespan is no more than 5 years , although captive specimens have reportedly lived as long as 15 years and 5 months .
The gray mouse lemur uses cooperative breeding as a form of family insurance . The female regularly transfers her offspring to other females ' nests — and likewise grooms and cares for offspring other than her own . While this can have a high physiological cost on a lactating female that is already expending a lot of energy , it can be beneficial overall to insuring survival among closely related groups with high mortality risk . A study that took place over three breeding seasons showed that closely related females form breeding groups mainly when there is a shortage of suitable roosts ; when there is an advantage of a communal nest for defense , or when there are thermoregulatory benefits . In the event of offspring adoption , when a parent dies and a closely related female takes over care , it is believed that this is beneficial to groups with high mortality risk .
= = Conservation status = =
The gray mouse lemur was listed in Appendix 1 by the Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species ( CITES ) in 1975 , declaring it as threatened with extinction and prohibiting international trade of specimens except for non @-@ commercial use , such as scientific research . The 2008 International Union for Conservation of Nature ( IUCN ) Red List assessment lists it as a species of least concern ( LC ) with a decreasing population trend .
Its greatest threats are habitat loss from slash @-@ and @-@ burn agriculture and cattle @-@ grazing , as well as live capture for the local pet trade in the northern and southern parts of its range . Although this species inhabits secondary forests , studies have shown that decreased habitat quality adversely affects its populations since fewer tree holes offer fewer opportunities to conserve energy , increasing stress and mortality . One study found nine species of parasites in the fecal matter of the gray mouse lemur living in forests that suffered degradation and fragmentation . In small fragments of good quality forest , as well as forests with high levels of degradation , the gray mouse lemur showed a higher prevalence of parasitic nematodes and protozoans than those in larger good quality forest fragments . Studies in the late 1960s and 1970s showed that heavy logging between 1968 and 1970 seemed to result in decreased body weight , the use of smaller trees for nesting sites , and a smaller maximum female nesting group size ( down to 7 from 15 ) . There is also a concern that although daily torpor can help conserve energy and resources during moderate food shortages , extended food shortages brought about by climate change could create too much stress and severely impact the survivability of the species .
The gray mouse lemur is considered one of Madagascar 's most abundant small native mammals , found in seven national parks , five special reserves , the Berenty Private Reserve , and other privately protected forests within the Mandena Conservation Zone .
This species of mouse lemur breeds very well in captivity , although it is not commonly displayed in zoos like some larger , diurnal lemurs . In 1989 , more than 370 individuals were housed by 14 International Species Information System ( ISIS ) and non @-@ ISIS institutions across the United States and Europe , 97 % of which were captive born . In March 2009 , 167 were registered at 29 ISIS institutions , including the Duke Lemur Center .
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= Grammy Award for Best Female Rap Solo Performance =
The Grammy Award for Best Female Rap Solo Performance was an honor presented to female recording artists at the 45th Grammy Awards in 2003 and the 46th Grammy Awards in 2004 for quality rap solo performances . The Grammy Awards , an annual ceremony that was established in 1958 and originally called the Gramophone Awards , are presented by the National Academy of Recording Arts and Sciences of the United States to " honor artistic achievement , technical proficiency and overall excellence in the recording industry , without regard to album sales or chart position " .
In 1991 , the Academy began to honor individual rap performances with the Best Rap Solo Performance category . In 2003 , the category was split into two to recognize Female and Male Rap Solo Performances . The categories remained separated by gender until 2005 when they were combined into the genderless category originally called Best Rap Solo Performance . American artist Missy Elliott won the award for Best Female Rap Solo Performance both years it was presented .
= = Background = =
In 1991 , the Academy began to honor individual rap performances with the Grammy Award for Best Rap Solo Performance category . The category name remained unchanged until 2004 when it was split into separate categories for Female and Male Rap Solo Performance . The categories remained separated by gender for one additional year . In 2005 , they were merged into the genderless category originally known as Best Rap Solo Performance . Female rapper MC Lyte has campaigned for the reinstatement of the female @-@ specific category and believes that : " it destroys [ hip @-@ hop ] culture to not have the perspective of a woman " . Bill Freimuth , Recording Academy Vice President of Awards , claimed that the category was eliminated because " [ there ] wasn 't enough competition essentially , due to the lack of the number of releases in that category " . Black Entertainment Television ( BET ) executive Stephen Hill cited a similar reason for the elimination of the female categories by the BET Hip Hop Awards and VH1 's Hip Hop Honors , reflecting a lack of female representation in the hip hop music scene for several years . As of 2011 , the category name has not changed since 2005 .
= = Recipients = =
For the 45th Grammy Awards ( 2003 ) , Best Female Rap Solo Performance nominees included : Charli Baltimore for " Diary ... " , Missy Elliott for " Scream a.k.a. Itchin ' " , Eve for " Satisfaction " , Foxy Brown for " Na Na Be Like " , and Lauryn Hill for " Mystery of Iniquity " . Baltimore was shocked when she learned of her album 's nomination because she thought that it did not meet eligibility requirements . Elliott was also nominated for Best Short Form Music Video , along with Knoc @-@ turn 'al and Dr. Dre , for " Knoc " . The award was presented to Elliott at Madison Square Garden in New York City , though not broadcast on television .
Nominees for the 46th Grammy Awards included : Da Brat for " Got It Poppin ' " , Elliott for " Work It " , Lil ' Kim for " Came Back for You " , MC Lyte for " Ride Wit Me " , and Queen Latifah for " Go Head " . In addition , Elliott was nominated for : Album of the Year and Best Rap Album for Under Construction , Best Song Rap for " Work It " , and Best Rap Performance by a Duo or Group for " Gossip Folks " ( featuring Ludacris ) , for a total five nominations . Lil ' Kim was also nominated for Best Pop Collaboration with Vocals for " Can 't Hold Us Down " ( with Christina Aguilera ) and Best Rap Performance by a Duo or Group for " Magic Stick " ( featuring 50 Cent ) . The award was presented to Elliott for " Work It " , whose music video was awarded Video of the Year and Best Hip @-@ Hop Video at the 2003 MTV Video Music Awards .
Elliott won the award for Best Female Rap Solo Performance both years it was presented . Prior to the female and male categories , she received the award for Best Rap Solo Performance in 2002 for " Get Ur Freak On " . This marked the second time a female had received the award for Best Rap Solo Performance ( Queen Latifah was presented the honor for " U.N.I.T.Y. " at the 37th Grammy Awards in 1995 ) . In 2007 , following the return to the genderless category , Elliot was nominated for the song " We Run This " .
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= Music of the Lesser Antilles =
The music of the Lesser Antilles encompasses the music of this chain of small islands making up the eastern and southern portion of the West Indies . Lesser Antillean music is part of the broader category of Caribbean music ; much of the folk and popular music is also a part of the Afro @-@ American musical complex , being a mixture of African , European and indigenous American elements . The Lesser Antilles ' musical cultures are largely based on the music of African slaves brought by European traders and colonizers . The African musical elements are a hybrid of instruments and styles from numerous West African tribes , while the European slaveholders added their own musics into the mix , as did immigrants from India . In many ways , the Lesser Antilles can be musically divided based on which nation colonized them .
The former British colonies include Trinidad and Tobago , whose calypso style is an especially potent part of the music of the other former British colonies , which also share traditions like the Big Drum dance . The French islands of Martinique and Guadeloupe share the popular zouk style and have also had extensive musical contact with the music of Haiti , itself once a French colony though not part of the Lesser Antilles . The Dutch colonies of Curaçao , Bonaire and Aruba share the combined rhythm popular style . The islands also share a passion for kaseko , a genre of Surinamese music ; Suriname and its neighbors Guyana and French Guiana share folk and popular styles that are connected enough to the Antilles and other Caribbean islands that both countries are studied in the broader context of Antillean or Caribbean music .
= = Characteristics = =
While Lesser Antillean music is very often discussed as a music area , this division is of limited usefulness . The islands of the Lesser Antilles divide musically along linguistic lines , with the most significant overlap coming from Dominica and Saint Lucia , both primarily Anglophone but strongly influenced by a French colonial past . Because the islands are divided linguistically , the term Antillean music is usually used in reference to one such music area . Thus , for example , the Rough Guide to World Music features a chapter on " Antillean music " , which is entirely about the French Antillean islands of Martinique and Guadeloupe , with a brief sidebar specifically about the Dutch Antilles .
In the context of Anglophone music , the term Antillean music most commonly refers to Trinidad and Tobago , home to the well @-@ known calypso style . Music author Peter Manuel , for example , treats all the Anglophone islands as a subject of Trinidadian calypso traditions , while using the title Music of the Lesser Antilles for Francophone Antillean music . Manuel also , like many authors , treats Suriname and Guyana as integral aspects of Caribbean music ; due to the Dutch colonial history of both countries , they are often grouped with Aruba and the Netherlands Antilles .
Nevertheless , Antillean music can be characterized by the prominence of the Carnival celebration ( prominently from Trinidad and Tobago ) , and the importance of calypso @-@ like song traditions . The Lesser Antilles is also home to a strong Indo @-@ Caribbean population ; though Indo @-@ Caribbean music is found elsewhere in the Caribbean , the prominence of Indian @-@ influenced styles is a hallmark of the Antillean music scenes . Regional forms can also be found outside of the Caribbean entirely , most notably in New York City , where Brooklyn 's Labor Day Carnival features music and parades , mas and steel bands ; this Carnival is distinct to New York , and reflects elements of a pan @-@ Caribbean nature .
= = = Calypso and calypso @-@ like traditions = = =
Calypso is most closely associated with the island of Trinidad , but it has spread throughout the Lesser Antilles , and abroad . Similar traditions can be found natively on many of Caribbean islands . Within the Antilles , most of the popular calypso stars have come from Trinidad and Tobago ; the majority of the exceptions , such as Arrow from Montserrat , have come from other Anglophone islands . Music author Peter Manuel has argued that , despite the modern Anglophone focus to calypso @-@ like song forms , their origins lie in the " Afro @-@ French creole culture " , and notes that the ancestor of the word calypso , cariso , was first used to refer to a Martinican singer .
The calypso song complex is characterized by satirical , political , risque and humorous lyricism , a competitive and celebratory nature and its function in social organization and informal communication . Jamaican mento is perhaps the most well @-@ known form of calypso @-@ like music . The island of Carriacou is home to a calypso @-@ like song style , as well as canboulay feasts , calinda songs and steel bands , all similar to though distinct from the related Trinidadian traditions . Modern influences from Trinidad have organized the Carriacou song style , and there are competitions similar to calypso tents on the island . The Antiguan benna is part of the same song complex , featuring news @-@ oriented and ribald , often satirical lyrics and a rhythmic , uptempo style .
= = = Carnival = = =
Annual Carnival celebrations are an important part of the culture of all the Lesser Antillean islands . Carnival is celebrated at varying times of year , either pre @-@ Lent , Christmastime or in July and August , and feature a wide variety of dances , songs and parades . Contests are common , especially Calypso King and Queen contests , which are held on most of the British Antillean islands , the U.S. Virgin Islands as well as French Saint Martin and elsewhere . The British Antillean Carnivals are also mostly united by the J 'ouvert tradition , which involves calypso and soca band parades and are the highlight of their celebrations .
Summer Carnivals include those on Antigua , Saint Vincent and the Grenadines , Sint Eustatius , Saint John , Saint Lucia , Grenada , Saba , Nevis and Anguilla , the latter two of which are especially known for popular calypso competitions . Christmastime Carnivals are held on Montserrat , Saint Croix , Saint Martin and Saint Kitts ; Montserrat 's distinctive Carnival includes masquerades and steelbands , and both islands also feature calypso competitions . The Carnival of Sint Maarten , which takes place a month after Easter , is known for the burning of King Moui @-@ Moui as the culmination of the festival . Many islands , especially the French and Dutch Antilles , are home to pre @-@ Lenten Carnivals , including Martinique , Aruba , Saint @-@ Barthélemy , Bonaire , Curaçao , Dominica , Saint Thomas and Guadeloupe .
= = British Antilles = =
There are many popular traditions common to the English @-@ speaking islands of the Lesser Antilles . Calypso , originally an old folk music – based genre from West Africa , is popular throughout the islands ; other popular traditions , like soca originally from Trinidad , are also well known throughout the region . Steel drum ensembles is also found throughout the English @-@ speaking Lesser Antilles ( and abroad ) , especially in Trinidad and Tobago as well as Antigua and Barbuda . The British Antilles also share in certain folk traditions . Eastern Caribbean folk calypso is found throughout the area , as are African @-@ Caribbean religious music styles like the Shango music of Trinidad . Variants of the Big Drum festival occur throughout the Windward Islands , especially in Saint Vincent and the Grenadines . Carnival is an important folk music celebration on all the islands of the Lesser Antilles , and the rest of the Caribbean .
Calypso is part of a spectrum of similar folk and popular Caribbean styles that spans benna and mento , but remains the most prominent genre of Lesser Antillean music . Calypso 's roots are somewhat unclear , but we know it can be traced to 18th @-@ century Trinidad and other Caribbean islands like Saint Lucia . Modern calypso , however , began in the 19th century , a fusion of disparate elements ranging from the masquerade song lavway , French Creole belair and the stick fighting chantwell . Calypso 's early rise was closely connected with the adoption of Carnival by Trinidadian slaves , including camboulay drumming and the music masquerade processions . Popular calypso arose in the early 20th century , with the rise of internationally known calypsonians like Attila the Hun and Roaring Lion. calypso remained popular throughout the Caribbean in the later 20th century , the islands began producing calypso stars . In the 1970s , a calypso variant called soca arose , characterized by a focus on dance rhythms rather than lyricism . Soca has since spread across the Caribbean and abroad .
Steel drums are a distinctively Trinidadian ensemble that evolved from improvised percussion instruments used in Carnival processions . By the late 1930s , bamboo tubes , a traditional instrumental , were supplemented by pieces of metal used percussively ; over time , these metal percussion instruments were pitched to produce as many as twenty @-@ some tones . Steel bands were large orchestras of these drums , and were banned by the British colonial authorities . Nevertheless , steel drums spread across the Caribbean , and are now an entrenched part of the culture of Trinidad and Tobago .
Though Trinidadian popular music is by far the most well @-@ known style of Lesser Antillean music , the other Anglophone islands are home to their own musical traditions . Carriacou and Grenada are home to Carnival celebrations that feature distinct form of calypso , canboulay feasts , calinda stick @-@ fighting songs and the steelband accompanied jouvert , as well as the Big Drum dance , which is also found in Saint Vincent and the Grenadines . Grenada and Saint Vincent and the Grenadines share other musics as well including the funereal music of the saraca rite , a call @-@ and @-@ response form with both European and African lyrics .
= = French Antilles = =
French Creole music is most famously associated with Martinique and Guadeloupe , though the islands of Saint Lucia and Dominica are also home to French Antillean music . Creole music is characterized by the prominence of the quadrille dance , distinct from the French version and related to the Haitian mereng . The quadrille is a potent symbol of French Antillean culture .
Martinique and Guadeloupe are also home to their own distinct folk traditions , most influentially including Guadeloupan gwo ka and Martinican tambour and tibwa . Gwo ka is a type of percussion music which consists of seven basic rhythms and variations on them . It has been modernized into gwo ka moderne , though traditional rural performances ( lewoz ) are still common . Tambour and ti bwa ensembles are the origin of several important Martinican popular styles , including chouval bwa and biguine , and also exerted an influence on zouk . Lucian folk music features ensembles of fiddle , cuatro , banjo , guitar and chak @-@ chak ( a rattle ) , with the banjo and cuatro being of iconic importance , and recreational , often lyric song forms called jwé . The French Creole folk music of Dominica is based on the quadrille , accompanied by ensembles called jing ping . Folk storytelling ( kont ) and songs ( bélé ) are also a major part of the country 's musical identity .
= = = Kadans / Compas = = =
In the 1970s , a wave of Haitian , mostly musicians , to Dominica and the French Antilles ( Guadeloupe and Martinique ) brought with them the kadans , a sophisticated form of music that quickly swept the island and helped unite all the former French colonies of the Caribbean by combining their cultural influences . These Haitians drew upon previous success from mini @-@ jazz artists like Les Gentlemen , Les Leopards , and Les Vikings de Guadeloupe .
Later in the decade and into the 1980s , the French Antilles became home to a style of cadence music called cadence @-@ lypso . Gordon Henderson 's Exile One innovated this style , as well as turned the mini @-@ jazz combos into guitar @-@ dominated big bands with full @-@ horn sections and keyboard synthesizers , paving the way for the success of large groups like Grammacks , Experience 7 , among others . Drawing on these influences , the supergroup Kassav ' invented zouk and popularized it with hit songs like " Zouk @-@ La @-@ Se Sel Medikaman Nou Ni " . Kassav ' formed from Paris in 1978 .
= = = Cadence @-@ lypso = = =
Cadence @-@ lypso is the Dominican kadans of the 1970s . The leading figure in the promotion of the Cadence @-@ lypso was the Dominican group Exile One ( based on the island of Guadeloupe ) and Grammacks that featured the Haitian Cadence rampa or compas with the Trinidadian calypso , hence the name cadence @-@ lypso ; however , most of the bands repertoire was kadans
This fusion of kadans and calypso accounts only for a small percentage of the band 's repertoire : Exile One like all Dominica kadans bands featured reggae , calypso and mostly kadans or compas music .
The Dominican kadans has evolved under the influence of Dominican and Caribbean / Latin rhythms , as well as rock guitars , soul @-@ style vocals and funk bass and horn styles - music from the United States . By the end of the 1970s , Gordon Henderson defined Cadence @-@ lypso as " a synthesis of Caribbean and African musical patterns fusing the traditional with the contemporary " . It was pushed in the 1970s by groups from Dominica , and was the first style of Dominican music to find international acclaim .
Exile One , based in Guadeloupe , is a leading Dominican kadans group of the 1970s that was very influential in the development of caribbean music . The full @-@ horn section kadans band Exile One led by Gordon Henderson was the first to introduce the newly arrived synthesizers to their music that other young cadence or compas bands from Dominica , Haiti ( mini @-@ jazz ) and the French Antilles emulated in the 1970s . Exile One was the most promoted creole band of the Caribbean . The first to sign a production contract with major label Barclay Records . The first to export kadans music to the four corners of the globe : Japan , the Indian Ocean , Africa , North America , Europe , The Cape Verde islands .
= = = Zouk = = =
The inspiration for Zouk 's style of rhythmic music comes from the Haitian compas , as well as music called cadence @-@ lypso - Dominica cadence popularized by Grammacks and Exile One . Elements of gwo ka , tambour , ti bwa and biguine vidé are prominent in zouk . Though there are many diverse styles of zouk , some commonalities exist . The French Creole tongue of Martinique and Guadeloupe is an important element , and are a distinctive part of the music . Generally , zouk emphasises star singers , with little attention given to instrumentalists , and performances consist almost entirely of studio recordings .
Ethnomusicologist Jocelyn Guilbault believes zouk 's evolution was influenced by other Caribbean styles especially Dominica cadence @-@ lypso , Haitian cadence and Guadeloupean biguine . Zouk arose in the late 1970s and early 1980s , using elements of previous styles of antillean music , as well as importing other genres .
The band Kassav ' remain the best known zouk group . Kassav ' drew in influences from balakadri and bal granmoun dances , biguine 's and mazurka 's , along with more contemporary Caribbean influences like compas , reggae and salsa music . Zouk live shows soon began to draw on American and European rock and heavy metal traditions , and the genre spread across the world , primarily in developing countries .
Zouk has diversified into multiple subgenres . These include zouk @-@ love , pop ballads by artists like Edith Lefel and Gilles Floro , Zouk @-@ R & B , and ragga @-@ zouk bands like Lord Kossity who fused the genre with other influences .
= = = Zouk @-@ love = = =
Zouk Love is the French Antilles cadence or compas , characterized by a slow , soft and sexual rhythm . The lyrics of the songs often speak of love and sentimental problems .
The music kizomba from Angola and cabo @-@ love from Cape Verde are also derivatives of this French Antillean compas music style , which sounds basically the same , although there are notable differences once you become more familiar with these genres . A main exponent of this subgenre is Ophelia Marie . Other Zouk Love artists come from the French West Indies , the Netherlands , and Africa .
Popular artists include French West Indian artists Edith Lefel and Nichols , or like Netherlands based Suzanna Lubrano and Gil Semedo , the African artist Kaysha .
= = = Bouyon = = =
Bouyon ( Boo @-@ Yon ) is a form of popular music of Dominica , also known as jump up music in Guadeloupe and Martinique . The best @-@ known band in the genre is Windward Caribbean Kulture ( WCK ) , who originated the style in 1988 by experimenting elements of kadans ( or cadence @-@ lypso ) , lapo kabwit drumming , the folk style jing @-@ ping , and a quick @-@ paced electronic drum pattern . From a language perspective , Bouyon draws on English and Dominican Creole French . More recently , deejays with raggamuffin @-@ style vocals ( bouyon @-@ muffin ) have moved to the fore , updating the sound for the New Generation .
Due to the popularity of Triple K International , Ncore , and the New generation of bouyon bands who toured the French Antilles , a popular offshoot of bouyon from Guadeloupe is call bouyon gwada . The jump up had its heyday from the 90s with songs such as Met Veye WCK , but remained stamped background music or carnival . Over the years , thanks to inter @-@ trade with the Dominicans and the mass participation of Guadeloupe at the World Creole Music Festival , the flagship group as Triple kay and MFR band began to democratize and local artists were inducted including the remix Allo Triple kay with Daly and " Big Ting Poppin ' Daly alone .
A popular offshoot within the bouyon gwada is call bouyon hardcore , a style characterized by its lewd and violent lyrics . Popular Bouyon gwada musicians include , Wee Low , Suppa , Doc J , Yellow gaza , etc .
= = = Popular folk music = = =
Though zouk is the most well @-@ known form of modern French Antillean music , the island of Martinique has also produced the chouval bwa and biguine styles , which were especially popular in the early 20th century . Chouval bwa is includes multiple distinctive instruments and internationally famous performers like Claude Germany , Dede Saint @-@ Prix , Pakatak and Tumpak , while biguine has achieved international fame since the 1920s and has since been modernized and adapted for pop audiences , making it a major influence on zouk . Between the 1930s and 1950s , the dance biguine was popular among the islands ' dance orchestras . The biguine uses a cinquillo variant related to that found in other Caribbean genres like méringue and Compas . In the 1940s and 1950s , these dance bands absorbed influences from Cuban , American and Haitian popular music .
= = Dutch Antilles = =
The islands of Curaçao , Bonaire , Aruba , Sint Eustatius and Saint Martin share musical styles , as well as maintain their own sets of folk and popular dances , ranging from the impromptu Statian road block to calypso , zouk and soca . African , indigenous and European ancestry predominate , though more recent immigrants have brought musical styles from Lebanon , China and India . In popular music , the islands are known for the Combined Rhythm , like local favorites the Happy Peanuts and Expresando Rimto i Ambiente . Kaseko music from the mainland country Suriname is also popular . Traditional music of Aruba and the Netherlands Antilles , however , is primarily African , characterized by the use of complex , highly developed polyrhythms , dance styles and drums like the tambú . Other African @-@ derived instruments include metal percussion rods , agan , the rasp wiri , aerophones like the cachu trumpet , becu transverse double @-@ reed wind instrument , and the bow benta .
The tambu is an instrument , and a form of music and dance found on Aruba , Bonaire ( where it is sometimes known as bari ) , and Curaçao . The tambu is an especially important symbol of Curaçaoan identity . Instrumentation for the tambu uses the agan , chapi , triangle , wiri and other instruments , many of which are also part of the African @-@ derived muziek di zumbi , or spirit music , of Curaçao . Curaçao 's folk music also includes a rich tradition of work songs with apentatonic lyrics sung in Guene or a Papiamento variant called seshi . The Simadan harvest festival is found across the islands , and features the cachu trumpet , made from a cowhorn . Bonaire 's Simadan festival is also notable for the use of the becu , an aerophone made from the stalk of a sorghum plant , and the kinkon , made from a conch shell and known elsewhere as the carco . Folk song forms range from the harvest seu , simadan and wapa . Other songs were imported beginning in the 19th century , including the South American joropo and pasillo , Spanish Caribbean merengue and other new songs , dances and instruments . This diverse mixture was the origin of the Dutch Antilles ' most distinctive and long @-@ standing popular tradition , the tumba .
The smaller islands of Saint Martin , Saba and Sint Eustatius largely share in the same folk instruments , dances and songs as their neighbors ; however , these islands remain largely unstudied . Saba is home to a vital percussive music tradition , most closely associated with private parties , using instrumentation similar to Curaçao , Bonaire and Aruba . Saint Martin is home to a national dance form called the ponum , which dates to the 19th century and was only displaced by string bands in the mid @-@ 20th century . Saint Martin is also home to a calypso @-@ like quimbe song form , that remains a major part of the island 's culture .
= = Indo @-@ Antillean = =
Indo @-@ Caribbean people in the Lesser Antillean music area are clustered in Guyana , Suriname , and Trinidad and Tobago . Indo @-@ Caribbean folk traditions include the chowtal songs from the springtime festival phagwa , and Hindi bhajans which are still sung at temples despite there being few people who understand Hindi . Guyanese and Trinidadian Indo @-@ Caribbeans developed a tradition that fused elements of calypso with the folk music of North India , a style that was referred to as local music .
Indo @-@ Caribbean music plays a vital role in various annual festivals like the springtime phagwa , where chowtal is traditionally performed competitively and in teams . Indo @-@ Caribbean Shia Muslims celebrate Hosay ( Muharram ) with floats accompanied by barrel drums called tassa . Wedding music is another important part of Indo @-@ Caribbean music , and is dominated by tan singing . Tan singing is accompanied by the dholak drum and dhantal , and sometimes includes verbal duels influenced by picong . Indo @-@ Caribbean popular music gained international attention in the late 1980s , with the rise of chutney music . Chutney is a dance music , in its modern form accompanied by soca instrumentation , such as synthesizers and pressure drums . This style is called chutney @-@ soca .
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= Skaters in the Bois de Boulogne =
Skaters in the Bois de Boulogne ( French : Les patineurs à Longchamp ) is an oil @-@ on @-@ canvas landscape painting by the French artist Pierre @-@ Auguste Renoir , created during the winter of 1868 . The painting depicts a snowscape with a large number of Parisians , young and old , spending leisure time on a frozen park lake . Due to Renoir 's strong dislike of cold temperatures and snow , the piece is one of his few winter landscapes .
= = Background = =
Pierre @-@ Auguste Renoir ( 1841 – 1919 ) first met landscape painters Alfred Sisley ( 1839 – 1899 ) , Claude Monet ( 1840 – 1926 ) , and figure painter Frédéric Bazille ( 1841 – 1870 ) at the art studio of Swiss artist Charles Gleyre in 1861 . In addition to their friendship , all would prove influential in Renoir 's work . For the next several years , Renoir attended the École des Beaux @-@ Arts . He first exhibited a large painting at the Salon in 1863 , but destroyed his work . That same year , Renoir was living in a studio with Bazille who introduced him to Paul Cézanne ( 1839 – 1906 ) and Camille Pissarro ( 1830 – 1903 ) .
An early painting , The Cabaret of Mère Anthony ( 1866 ) , represents for Renoir " some of the most agreeable memories " of his life with friends at a village inn during this time . He soon moved to the village of Chailly near Marlotte and the forest of Fontainebleau , and began working with model Lise Tréhot who posed for him between 1866 and 1872 . Renoir began painting at La Grenouillère , a popular middle class day resort with a floating dance hall , in late 1868 . Like Monet and several other Impressionists , Renoir worked en plein air , painting outdoors , but unlike Monet , who was known for painting in the cold and snow , Renoir was not fond of cold temperatures . Years later , he told art dealer Ambroise Vollard that he could not stand the cold : " But then , even if you can stand the cold , why paint snow ? It is a blight on the face of Nature . " Although it is unknown when his symptoms began , Renoir was known to suffer from rheumatoid arthritis from at least 1892 onward , an affliction which would severely restrict his artistic production in late life .
= = Description = =
Renoir , who was then 26 years old , painted Skaters in the Bois de Boulogne in the public park of Bois de Boulogne in Paris en plein air during the cold winter month of January 1868 . Newspaper accounts of the time recorded freezing temperatures allowing people to walk across the Seine and ice skate on rivers and streams . Due to Renoir 's dislike of cold temperatures , it is one of the few winter landscapes he completed aside from a few minor studies . At the time of the painting , the park itself was relatively new , with construction beginning in 1852 under a public works program led by Georges @-@ Eugène Haussmann under the direction of Napoleon III . Under Haussmann 's renovation of Paris , the Bois de Boulogne was completed in 1858 .
The scene is thought to have been painted near the Lac pour le patinage ( Skating Lake ) , an artificial lake . Renoir chose the park because he preferred painting crowds . The painting has an unfinished , sketch @-@ like quality to it , in the style of a pochade , but the brushwork is bold and the composition fully realized . The scene represents the western part of the park , using an elevated perspective . The theme evokes older Dutch ice skating landscapes made popular by painters like Hendrick Avercamp ( 1585 – 1634 ) . Several dogs can be seen in the work , reflecting Renoir 's thematic interest in the lives of the Parisian bourgeoisie . The motif of social leisure depicted in the piece would come to define Renoir 's subsequent work .
= = Other work = =
There are at least four known snowscapes by Renoir : Skaters in the Bois de Boulogne ( 1868 ) ; Winter Landscape ( 1868 ) ; Snowy Landscape ( 1870 – 75 ) ; and another work also titled Snowy Landscape ( 1875 ) . Along with Skaters in the Bois de Boulogne , Renoir would return to the imagery of the Bois de Boulogne years later with a large painting called The Morning Ride ( 1873 ) , alternatively titled Madame Henriette Darras , which was rejected by the Salon in that year .
= = Provenance = =
The piece is currently held in the private art collection of William I. Koch , who lent the work for exhibition by the Museum of Fine Arts , Boston in 2005 . Previous owners include :
Ambroise Vollard
The Marquess of Northampton
Richard L. Feigen & Co .
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= SS West Nohno =
SS West Nohno was a cargo ship for the United States Shipping Board ( USSB ) launched shortly after the end of World War I. The ship was inspected by the United States Navy for possible use as USS West Nohno ( ID @-@ 4029 ) but was neither taken into the Navy nor ever commissioned under that name .
West Nohno was built in 1919 for the USSB , as a part of the West ships , a series of steel @-@ hulled cargo ships built on the West Coast of the United States for the World War I war effort , and was the 24th ship built at Northwest Steel in Portland , Oregon . Completed too late for that conflict , she operated for a number of years as a merchant ship sailing to African ports for the American West African Line .
In November 1941 , West Nohno became the first American merchant ship to be armed prior to the United States ' entry into World War II . Shortly after the U.S. entry to that conflict , she was employed for one roundtrip to the Soviet Union in March 1942 . After her return , she sailed mainly between the United States and United Kingdom ports . In 1943 , a civilian crewman aboard West Nohno was convicted of sedition for trying to incite a rebellion among members of the ship 's crew and Naval Armed Guard . In February 1944 , she sailed from the United States for the final time , and was scuttled in June as part of the " gooseberry " breakwater off Utah Beach during the Normandy invasion , earning a battle star for the ship .
= = Design and construction = =
The West ships were cargo ships of similar size and design built by several shipyards on the West Coast of the United States for the United States Shipping Board ( USSB ) for emergency use during World War I. All were given names that began with the word West , like West Nohno , the one of some 40 West ships built by the Northwest Steel of Portland , Oregon . West Nohno ( Northwest Steel yard number 24 , USSB hull number 1080 ) was launched 12 February 1919 and completed in May 1919 .
West Nohno was 6 @,@ 186 gross register tons ( GRT ) , and was 409 feet 9 inches ( 124 @.@ 89 m ) long ( between perpendiculars ) and 54 feet 2 inches ( 16 @.@ 51 m ) abeam . She had a steel hull and had a deadweight tonnage of 8 @,@ 580 DWT . Sources do not give West Nohno 's other hull characteristics , but West Cheswald , a sister ship also built at Northwest Steel had a displacement of 12 @,@ 200 t with a mean draft of 24 feet 1 inch ( 7 @.@ 34 m ) , and a hold 29 feet 9 inches ( 9 @.@ 07 m ) deep . West Nohno power plant consisted of a single steam turbine that drove a single screw propeller , which moved the ship at up to 11 @.@ 5 knots ( 21 @.@ 3 km / h ) .
= = Early career = =
West Nohno was inspected by the United States Navy after completion for possible use and was assigned the identification number of 4029 . Had she been commissioned , she would have been known as USS West Nohno ( ID @-@ 4029 ) , but the Navy neither took over the ship nor commissioned her .
Information on West Nohno 's early career is incomplete , but through the end of 1920 the cargo ship sailed on a New York – Glasgow route . By early 1922 , West Nohno was sailing for the USSB @-@ owned American West African Line . The principal ports visited by American West African ships were Dakar , Freetown , Monrovia , and Lagos . News items reported that West Nohno also visited Teneriffe , Accra , Las Palmas , Grand @-@ Bassam , Seccondee , and Saint Vincent . West Nohno was still on African routes as late as 1928 , when the USSB began accepting bids for the purchase of the American West African Line .
From 1928 to 1941 , little is known about West Nohno 's activities . At some point during this period , she was laid up as part of a reserve fleet , in which she remained as late as 1939 . By May 1941 , now under ownership of the United States Maritime Commission ( USMC ) ( a successor to the USSB ) , the ship had been reactivated and was scheduled to sail in Red Sea service under the operation of American Export Lines . In this Red Sea service , ships would carry materiel for the British to Red Sea and Gulf of Aden ports and carry strategic materials needed by the United States on return journeys .
= = World War II = =
When amendments to the U.S. Neutrality Acts in late 1941 allowed United States merchant ships to be armed for service in the Atlantic , West Nohno became the first vessel so equipped when a large deck gun and three anti @-@ aircraft gun emplacements were installed by workers at the Tietjen & Lang Drydock in Hoboken , New Jersey in late November . Navy officials , citing secrecy concerns , would not reveal the size of the gun , but allowed that the bore was between 3 and 6 inches ( 76 and 152 mm ) . While at the shipyard , West Nohno 's wheelhouse and radio shack were reinforced with thick walls of concrete to protect against machine @-@ gun bullets , and the ship was repainted " battleship gray " .
After her guns were installed , West Nohno had made her way to Sydney , Nova Scotia , by 27 December when she sailed as a part of transatlantic Convoy SC 86 . With her destination set for Murmansk , West Nohno peeled off from the convoy and headed to Reykjavík , Iceland . While at anchor in Iceland , West Nohno experienced a winter storm from 15 to 19 January 1942 . On 15 January , the storm , packing winds of 80 knots ( 150 km / h ) and gusts of up to 100 knots ( 190 km / h ) , drove West Nohno into USS Wichita , damaging the heavy cruiser . Apparently suffering no major damage herself in the collision , West Nohno joined Arctic convoy PQ 9 , which sailed on 1 February and arrived at Murmansk nine days later . Though the convoy had arrived at its destination , the danger of German attack was still present . The nearest German airfield was 35 miles ( 56 km ) away — about 7 to 10 minutes flying time — which gave almost no advance warning of air raids . German dive bombers would silently glide in below Soviet anti @-@ aircraft fire , drop their payloads , and fly away . Despite the fact that Murmansk had limited port facilities and typically slow unloading of cargo , sometimes requiring ships to remain in port for weeks or months , West Nohno was ready to sail in Convoy QP 8 on 1 March , returning to Reykjavik on 11 March . She sailed for Halifax eleven days later and arrived on 7 April .
West Nohno had made her way to Hampton Roads , Virginia , by 29 May , when she sailed for Key West , Florida . After her 4 June arrival at Key West , she began a nine @-@ month journey to Alexandria , Cairo , and other ports . During this extended voyage , three crewmen entered one of West Nohno 's fuel tanks to clean it while the ship was at Suez on 29 September 1942 . The crewmen did not use gas masks and were soon overcome by fumes . The second mate of the Norwegian tanker Britannia , Henning Vaagsnes , entered the tank and removed all three men . Two of West Nohno 's men survived but the third , despite two hours of attempts to revive him by Vaagsnes , did not . For his efforts , Vaagsnes received a pair of binoculars from U.S. president Franklin D. Roosevelt and a gold watch from the ship owners . He was also awarded St. Olav 's medal with Oak Branch , a medal awarded for personal courage and bravery by the Norwegian government .
In February 1943 , the West Nohno completed her nine @-@ month journey when she arrived at Mobile , Alabama , after sailing via Guantánamo Bay , Cuba , and Key West . The Chicago Daily Tribune reported that during this voyage , seaman James Orville Couchois had incited subordination and disloyalty among the crew . The head of the Naval Armed Guard detachment aboard West Nohno reported Couchois ' activities , as well as comments from other crew members on the ship . After the ship had docked at Mobile , Couchois was removed from the ship and ultimately faced a trial for sedition . Couchois , who was the deck manager for the National Maritime Union of the Congress of Industrial Organizations , was convicted and sentenced to a prison term of five years .
In late March , West Nohno began the first of three Boston – Liverpool round trips . On the Halifax – Liverpool leg of this first trip , she had some unspecified problem that required her return to Halifax , but it must have been a minor problem since she sailed again for Liverpool a week later . The cargo ship returned to Boston on 3 June and began her second voyage to Liverpool on 30 June . While in the UK she called at Loch Ewe , Methil , and Oban in July and August before her 6 September return to Boston . Her third journey was an extended one that began by sailing from Boston on 3 October . She arrived at Liverpool three weeks later . During the next seven weeks , she made her way to Milford Haven , from which she began her last westbound transatlantic crossing on 13 December . West Nohno arrived in Boston on 5 January 1944 .
= = Final voyage = =
West Nohno had been selected to become one of the blockships for the Allied invasion of France , then in the planning stages . Though the specific modifications performed on West Nohno are not revealed in sources , modifications for other ships do appear . In November 1944 , The Christian Science Monitor reported that blockships dispatched from Boston , like West Nohno , had been loaded with " tons of sand and cement " and had been rigged with explosive charges before departing the port . Further , existing antiaircraft weapons had been moved higher up on the ship and supplemented by additional guns . An account by Cesar Poropat , chief engineer aboard West Honaker , another blockship dispatched from Boston , mentions that transverse bulkheads aboard that ship were cut open to facilitate sinking .
West Nohno departed Boston on 24 February and arrived at Halifax two days later . Departing from that port on 29 February , she sailed in Convoy HX @-@ 281 and arrived at Milford Haven on 15 March . She departed there for Portsmouth the same day . West Nohno 's whereabouts and movements through early June are not recorded . Other ships that had been selected as blockships assembled in a " corncob " fleet at Oban , though it 's not clear if West Nohno did or not . The " corncob " fleet was the group of ships intended to be sunk to form the " gooseberries " , shallow @-@ water artificial harbors for landing craft . Poropat reports that once the ship crews were told of their mission while anchored at Oban , they were not permitted to leave the ships .
Three " corncob " convoys , consisting of what one author called the " dregs of the North Atlantic shipping pool " , departed from Poole and reached the Normandy beachhead the next day , shortly after the D @-@ Day landings . Poropat reports that the corncob ships traveled under cover of darkness and , stripped of all unnecessary equipment , carried no radios , having only a signal lamp ( with a spare bulb ) for communication . Once at the designated location , the ships were put into position and scuttled over the next days , under heavy German artillery fire . Naval Armed Guardsmen manned the guns on all the gooseberry ships to protect against frequent German air attacks ; West Nohno 's gunners assisted in shooting down several planes on 10 June . All the while , harbor pilots — about half of the New York Bar Pilots Association , according to one source — carefully positioned the ships . West Nohno and West Cheswald were the last two ships sunk off Utah Beach when they went down on 11 June . Even though she had been sunk , West Nohno continued to serve as an antiaircraft platform manned by Navy gun crews until 18 June , and by Army crews after that date . West Nohno 's naval gunners were awarded a battle star for participation in the Normandy Landings .
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= Alma @-@ class ironclad =
The Alma @-@ class ironclads were a group of seven wooden @-@ hulled , armored corvettes built for the French Navy in the mid to late 1860s . Three of the ships attempted to blockade Prussian ports in the Baltic Sea in 1870 during the Franco @-@ Prussian War . Three others patrolled the North Sea and the Atlantic , while the last ship was en route to Japan when the war began and blockaded two small Prussian ships in a Japanese harbor . Afterwards they alternated periods of reserve and active commissions , many of them abroad . Three of the ships participated in the French occupation of Tunisia in 1881 while another helped to intimidate the Vietnamese Government into accepting status as a French protectorate and played a small role in the Sino @-@ French War of 1884 – 85 .
= = Design and description = =
The Alma @-@ class ironclads were designed by Henri Dupuy de Lôme as improved versions of the armored corvette Belliqueuse suitable for foreign deployments . Unlike their predecessor the ships were true central battery ironclads as they were fitted with armored transverse bulkheads . The original plan for these ships was to have a two @-@ deck battery with four 194 @-@ millimeter ( 7 @.@ 6 in ) guns on the battery deck and four 164 @-@ millimeter ( 6 @.@ 5 in ) guns mounted above them on the upper deck , one gun at each corner of the battery . This design was changed to substitute four barbettes for the upper battery , but the addition of armored bulkheads proved to be very heavy and the rear pair of barbettes had to be deleted to save weight . In partial compensation the 164 @-@ millimeter guns in the remaining forward barbettes were replaced by an additional pair of 194 @-@ millimeter guns . Like most ironclads of their era they were equipped with a metal @-@ reinforced ram .
The ships were built from the same general plan , but differed amongst themselves . They measured 68 @.@ 75 – 69 @.@ 03 meters ( 225 @.@ 6 – 226 @.@ 5 ft ) between perpendiculars , with a beam of 13 @.@ 94 – 14 @.@ 13 meters ( 45 @.@ 7 – 46 @.@ 4 ft ) . The ships had a mean draft of 6 @.@ 26 – 6 @.@ 66 meters ( 20 @.@ 5 – 21 @.@ 9 ft ) and displaced 3 @,@ 569 – 3 @,@ 889 metric tons ( 3 @,@ 513 – 3 @,@ 828 long tons ) . Their crew numbered 316 officers and men .
= = = Propulsion = = =
The Alma @-@ class ships had a single horizontal return connecting @-@ rod steam engine driving a single propeller . Their engine was powered by four oval boilers . On sea trials the engine produced between 1 @,@ 585 – 1 @,@ 896 indicated horsepower ( 1 @,@ 182 – 1 @,@ 414 kW ) and the ships reached 10 @.@ 48 – 11 @.@ 99 knots ( 19 @.@ 41 – 22 @.@ 21 km / h ; 12 @.@ 06 – 13 @.@ 80 mph ) . Unlike the single funnels of the others , Jeanne d 'Arc and Thétis had two funnels , mounted side @-@ by @-@ side . The ships carried 250 metric tons ( 250 long tons ) of coal which allowed the ship to steam for 1 @,@ 310 – 1 @,@ 620 nautical miles ( 2 @,@ 430 – 3 @,@ 000 km ; 1 @,@ 510 – 1 @,@ 860 mi ) at a speed of 10 knots ( 19 km / h ; 12 mph ) . They were barque @-@ rigged with three masts and had a sail area between 1 @,@ 338 – 1 @,@ 454 square meters ( 14 @,@ 400 – 15 @,@ 650 sq ft ) .
= = = Armament = = =
The ships mounted four of their 194 @-@ millimeter Modèle 1864 breech @-@ loading guns in the central battery on the battery deck . The other two 194 @-@ millimeter guns were mounted in barbettes on the upper deck , sponsoned out over the sides of the ship . The four 120 @-@ millimeter ( 4 @.@ 7 in ) guns were also mounted on the upper deck . Alma is the only ship positively known to have exchanged her 194 mm guns for newer Modèle 1870 guns . The armor @-@ piercing shell of the 20 @-@ caliber Mle 1870 gun weighed 165 @.@ 3 pounds ( 75 @.@ 0 kg ) while the gun itself weighed 7 @.@ 83 long tons ( 7 @.@ 96 t ) . The gun fired its shell at a muzzle velocity of 1 @,@ 739 ft / s ( 530 m / s ) and was credited with the ability to penetrate a nominal 12 @.@ 5 inches ( 320 mm ) of wrought iron armour at the muzzle . The guns could fire both solid shot and explosive shells .
= = = Armor = = =
The Alma @-@ class ships had a complete 150 @-@ millimeter ( 5 @.@ 9 in ) wrought iron waterline belt , approximately 2 @.@ 4 meters ( 7 @.@ 9 ft ) high . The sides of the battery itself were armored with 120 millimeters ( 4 @.@ 7 in ) of wrought iron and the ends of the battery were closed by bulkheads of the same thickness . The barbette armor was 100 millimeters ( 3 @.@ 9 in ) thick , backed by 240 millimeters ( 9 @.@ 4 in ) of wood . The unarmored portions of their sides were protected by 15 @-@ millimeter ( 0 @.@ 6 in ) iron plates .
= = Construction = =
= = Service = =
During the Franco @-@ Prussian War of 1870 – 71 Thétis , Jeanne d 'Arc and Armide were assigned to the Northern Squadron that attempted to blockade Prussian ports on the Baltic until ordered to return to Cherbourg on 16 September 1870 . Montcalm , Atalante , and Reine Blanche cruised the North Sea and Montcalm later watched a Prussian corvette in Portuguese waters . Alma was en route to the Far East when the war began and she blockaded a pair of Prussian corvettes in Yokohama harbor once she arrived at Japan .
After the end of the war many of the ships were placed in reserve or sent to foreign stations , often as the flagship . During the Third Carlist War of 1872 – 76 Thétis , Reine Blanche and Jeanne d 'Arc spent time in Spanish waters where they could protect French citizens and interests . In 1875 the latter ship rammed and sank the dispatch vessel Forfait . On 3 July 1877 Thétis rammed Reine Blanche who had to be run ashore to prevent her from sinking .
Further abroad Reine Blanche and Alma bombarded the Tunisian port of Sfax in July 1881 as part of the French occupation of Tunisia . Atalante participated in the Battle of Thuan An in August 1883 . This was an attack by the French on the forts defending the mouth of the Perfume River , leading to the Vietnamese capital of Huế in an attempt to intimidate the Vietnamese government . During the Sino @-@ French War of 1884 – 85 the ship was in Huế in early September 1884 , but she carried Admiral Amédée Courbet to Keelung , Taiwan on 23 September .
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= The Boat Race 1987 =
The 133rd Boat Race took place on 29 March 1987 . Held annually , the Boat Race is a side @-@ by @-@ side rowing race between crews from the Universities of Oxford and Cambridge along the River Thames . Oxford won by four lengths . The race featured the tallest , heaviest , youngest and oldest crew members in the event 's history .
Oxford 's crew rebelled in the prelude to the race , with several American rowers and the cox leaving the squad in February after their coach Dan Topolski removed their compatriot Chris Clark from the crew , replacing him with Scottish rower Donald Macdonald . The rebels were replaced in the main by the reserves . Umpired by former Oxford Blue Colin Moynihan , it was the first year that the race was sponsored by Beefeater Gin , replacing Ladbrokes after ten years .
In the 23rd reserve race , Cambridge 's Goldie defeated Oxford 's Isis by one length . Cambridge won the 42nd Women 's Boat Race .
= = Background = =
= = = History = = =
The Boat Race is a side @-@ by @-@ side rowing competition between the University of Oxford and the University of Cambridge ( sometimes referred to as the " Dark Blues " and the " Light Blues " respectively ) . First held in 1829 , the race takes place on the 4 @.@ 2 @-@ mile ( 6 @.@ 8 km ) Championship Course on the River Thames in southwest London . The rivalry is a major point of honour between the two universities and is followed throughout the United Kingdom ; the races are broadcast worldwide . Cambridge went into the race as reigning champions , having won the 1986 race by seven lengths , and led overall with 69 victories to Oxford 's 62 ( excluding the " dead heat " of 1877 ) . The 1987 race was the first race to be sponsored by Beefeater Gin .
The first Women 's Boat Race took place in 1927 , but did not become an annual fixture until the 1960s . Up until 2014 , the contest was conducted as part of the Henley Boat Races , but as of the 2015 race , it is held on the River Thames , on the same day as the men 's main and reserve races . The reserve race , contested between Oxford 's Isis boat and Cambridge 's Goldie boat has been held since 1965 . It usually takes place on the Tideway , prior to the main Boat Race .
= = = Mutiny = = =
Following defeat in the previous year 's race , Oxford 's first in eleven years , American Chris Clark was determined to gain revenge : " Next year we 're gonna kick ass ... Cambridge 's ass . Even if I have to go home and bring the whole US squad with me . " He recruited another four American post @-@ graduates : three international @-@ class rowers ( Dan Lyons , Chris Huntington and Chris Penney ) and a cox ( Jonathan Fish ) , in an attempt to put together the fastest Boat Race crew in the history of the contest .
Disagreements over the training regime of Dan Topolski , the Oxford coach , ( " He wanted us to spend more time training on land than water ! " lamented Lyons ) led to the crew walking out on at least one occasion , and resulted in the coach revising his approach . A fitness test between Clark and Scottish former Blue Donald Macdonald ( in which the American triumphed ) resulted in a call for the Scotsman 's removal ; it was accompanied with a threat that the Americans would refuse to row should Macdonald remain in the crew . As boat club president , Macdonald " had absolute power over selection " and after announcing that Clark would row on starboard , his weaker side , Macdonald would row on the port side and Briton Tony Ward was to be dropped from the crew entirely , the American contingent mutinied . After considerable negotiation and debate , much of it conducted in the public eye , Clark , Penny , Huntington , Lyons and Fish were dropped and replaced by members of Oxford 's reserve crew , Isis .
= = Crews = =
Oxford 's crew weighed an average of nearly 9 pounds ( 4 @.@ 1 kg ) a rower more than their opponents . The race featured the tallest and heaviest ( Oxford 's stroke Gavin Stewart ) , youngest ( Cambridge 's Matthew Brittin ) and oldest ( Oxford 's president Donald Macdonald ) crew members in the event 's history . The Cambridge boat saw four returning Blues while Oxford welcomed back just one , in Macdonald . Oxford 's coach was Topolski , his counterpart was Alan Inns .
= = Race = =
With a more experienced crew and less disruption in the preparation for the race , Cambridge were considered favourites . Oxford won the toss and elected to start from the Middlesex station . A malfunction to umpire Colin Moynihan 's barge caused a delay to the start ; as a consequence the crews avoided racing in a lightning storm . Straight from the start , Oxford steered towards Middlesex to seek shelter from the inclement weather . Cambridge eventually followed , taking on water , and receiving warnings for encroaching into Oxford 's water . Almost a length ahead by Craven Cottage , Oxford steered across and in front of Cambridge to control the race before the Mile Post . A seven @-@ second advantage at Hammersmith Bridge became twelve seconds by Barnes Bridge and remained so by the finishing post , with Oxford winning by four lengths in a time of 19 minutes 59 seconds .
In the reserve race , Cambridge 's Goldie beat Oxford 's Isis by one length , their first victory in three years . Cambridge won the 42nd Women 's Boat Race , their fourth victory in six years .
= = Reaction = =
Oxford 's Macdonald was triumphant : " It was a fairy @-@ tale . " Topolski acknowledged his crew 's luck in winning the toss combined with the conditions : " We had been praying for rough water . " He also appeared conciliatory : " I wish the Americans had been there . It has nothing to do with vindication . We just won the race , that 's all . " Cadoux @-@ Hudson said , " I thought Cambridge would murder us but we took 20 colossal strokes and there was a primeval scream from the crew . There was a huge release . "
= = Legacy = =
In 1989 Topolski and author Patrick Robinson 's book about the events , True Blue : The Oxford Boat Race Mutiny , was published . Seven years later , a film based on the book was released . Alison Gill , the then @-@ president of the Oxford University Women 's Boat Club wrote The Yanks in Oxford , in which she defended the Americans and claimed Topolski wrote True Blue in order to justify his own actions . The journalist Christopher Dodd described True Blue as " particularly offensive " .
Oxford 's stroke Gavin Stewart , writing in The Times in 1996 , had chosen to mutiny because " Macdonald as president had lost the respect of the squad and the selection system had lost credibility " . In 2003 , Clark had " broken his silence " , stating " Mutiny is such a loaded term ... Rebellion would be a more apt description . On the face of it , I have no regrets whatsoever . However , I now lament my own personal maturity level . In hindsight my callowness had the effect of exacerbating a complicated but manageable situation . " On the twentieth anniversary of the race , Topolski insisted " It was just a selection dispute , an argument which every club in every sport has from time to time . The media just took the story and hyped it up . "
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= Pokémon , I Choose You ! =
" Pokémon - I Choose You ! " ( ポケモン ！ きみにきめた ！ , Pokémon ! Kimi ni Kimeta ! ) is the first episode of the first season of the Pokémon anime series . It was first broadcast in Japan on April 1 , 1997 and was first broadcast in the United States on September 8 , 1998 .
In the episode , Ash Ketchum gets his Pokémon journey off to a rough start when he receives his first Pokémon , the reluctant Pikachu . After many failed attempts at capturing some Pokémon , Ash throws a rock at a Spearow , which gets angry and starts attacking Ash and Pikachu . Soon , an entire flock of Spearow start chasing them , and Pikachu is the only one who is able to step in and stop the flock .
Nintendo , which publishes the Pokémon video games , asked for changes to be made to the English adaptation of the episode . Some graphic sequences involving punching were taken out , including one where Misty slaps Ash on the cheek . The script was translated by Paul Taylor . Veronica Taylor , who provided the English voice of Ash in this episode , said she enjoyed the script and recording Ash 's lines .
Since airing , the episode has received negative reviews from television critics . Andrew Wood of The Plain Dealer praised the episode for staying true to the games , but thought it focused too much on the character Ash . A children 's book adaptation of " Pokémon - I Choose You ! " was released in July 1999 , and the episode was released on Game Boy Advance Video in 2004 .
= = Plot = =
Ash Ketchum is about to receive his very first Pokémon from Professor Oak . At the age of ten , boys and girls like Ash can get the license to become Pokémon trainers . On the day he is supposed to get his first Pokémon , Ash accidentally breaks his alarm clock and oversleeps . When he wakes up , he runs in his pajamas to Professor Oak 's laboratory , but when Ash enters to receive his Pokémon , he is told that all three starter Pokémon have already been taken . Ash pleads for one and Oak replies that he still has one left , but there is a slight problem with it . Ash does not care and receives the Pokémon , which turns out to be the electric @-@ type Pokémon Pikachu . Ash thinks that it is cute , but it gives him an electric shock when he picks it up to hug it . Oak gives Ash a Pokédex and six Poké Balls before he heads out on his journey to become the greatest Pokémon trainer of all time .
As Ash carries the reluctant Pikachu , he hopes that they can be friends , but Pikachu acts aloof and openly shows his distrust of Ash . Just then , a Pidgey flies by and Ash unsuccessfully tries to catch it by throwing his Poké Ball . Ash uses his Pokédex and finds out that in order to catch a Pokémon , a trainer must first use their Pokémon to battle it , thereby weakening it , to be caught by a Poké Ball . With Pikachu being uncooperative , Ash tries to fight the Pidgey himself , but is easily beaten , much to the amusement of Pikachu . Frustrated , Ash throws a rock at what he believes is the Pidgey . However , it turns out to be a Spearow , which starts attacking Pikachu and Ash . Pikachu shocks Spearow , and in the process alerts a whole flock . Ash grabs Pikachu and dives down a waterfall in order to escape from the flock of Spearow , and the two are fished out by a young girl named Misty , who tells Ash to take the injured Pikachu to the Pokémon Center in Viridian City . Seeing the Spearow flock approaching , Ash escapes with Pikachu by " borrowing " Misty 's bike .
When the Spearow flock find Ash and Pikachu on the way to Viridian City , Ash risks his life by protecting Pikachu from the attacking Spearow . Pikachu , after seeing how much Ash cares for it , performs a powerful Thunder attack which drives the Spearow away , but also destroys Misty 's bike . Ash carries Pikachu into Viridian City , and Pikachu licks Ash 's cheek to signify the new bond they share as good friends . As the rain @-@ clouds part , a mysterious golden bird flies over the rainbow .
= = Production = =
" Pokémon - I Choose You ! " was the first episode of the Pokémon anime to be made and aired in Japan . The episode was written by Shoji Yonemura , and directed by Masamitsu Hidaka . When the production staff started on the anime , they wanted a specific character to focus on . They chose Pikachu because it was relatively popular compared with the other Pokémon and the staff thought that " potentially both boys and girls would like it " . The episode was animated by Shogakukan in Japan , and it was aimed at elementary school students .
= = = English adaptation = = =
Just before 4Kids Entertainment revealed that they were planning on producing an English adaptation dub of the anime in the United States , the episode " Dennō Senshi Porygon " caused controversy when it aired in Japan on December 16 , 1997 . In the episode , there was a scene with a huge explosion that flashed red and blue lights . At this point , viewers started to complain of blurred vision , headaches , dizziness , seizures , blindness , and lost consciousness . A total of 685 viewers were taken to hospitals by ambulances . Alfred R. Kahn , chief executive of 4Kids Entertainment , announced on January 1 , 1998 , that the anime would be edited for the American market . Many American parents worried about the safety of their children now that the anime would air in the United States , but Kahn said : " We 're confident it won 't be a problem . [ ... ] We 've taken the problem seriously and fixed it . "
Nintendo asked for changes to be made to the original Japanese show in the English adaptation . " We tried not to have violence or sexual discrimination or religious scenes in the United States , " said Masakazu Kubo , executive producer of Shogakukan . Some graphic sequences involving punching were taken out , including one from " Pokémon , I Choose You ! " where Misty slaps Ash on the cheek . The names of the characters and monsters were Westernized : Satoshi became Ash , and Shigeru became Gary , and the Pokémon were given descriptive names . For example , of the three starter Pokémon , Hitokage , a salamander with a ball of fire on its tail , became Charmander ; Fushigidane , a dinosaur with a green garlic bulb on its back , became Bulbasaur ; and Zenigame , a turtle who squirts water , became Squirtle .
= = = = Voice acting = = = =
Veronica Taylor , who provided the voice of Ash in this episode and all episodes from season one to eight , said that recording Ash 's lines for the episode was " really great " for her . " Playing a 10 @-@ year @-@ old boy with that energy and excitement , and the battles that he 's in , and his low , husky voice was really terrific , " she said .
I really enjoy playing [ Ash ] and he ’ s really a great character , [ ... ] but I feel that after the first ten episodes everything has kind of loosened up . The script 's loosened up , the characters were able to come into their own a bit more , and I think everyone has relaxed a bit ; we 're able to play with it more , whereas in the first ten episodes , I think it was so new , and everyone was trying to make sure it was done right . I enjoy playing him now much more than I did in the very beginning because I can have fun with him more , and we know him and can work out how he really would react .
Taylor explained the process of recording an episode in an interview with Animerica Magazine ; first , the script is translated from Japanese into English , it is then adapted to fit the lip flap ( movement of the mouth ) . Taylor said that she is the only one in the recording booth when she works , as they record each voice separately throughout each episode . Taylor added that she is often the first one to record so she has to imagine how the previous line would be said . " Luckily , I work with a great director who helps with the interpretation of the line , matching of the lip flap , and consistency of the voice , " she said .
= = Reception = =
The episode first aired in the United States on September 8 , 1998 . Since then , it has received mixed to positive reviews from television critics . Andrew Wood of The Plain Dealer had mixed feelings for the episode , stating the episode did a good job of setting up the world of Pokémon , and that it was faithful to the game . However , Wood thought it was " apparent " in this episode that without a traveling partner , " Ash just isn 't all that interesting " . Andrew Tei of Mania.com said that " one great thing about listening to early dubs is how the voice actors haven 't completely gotten into their roles yet . Ash 's and James ' voices are much deeper than where they end up at . " Louis Bedigian of GameZone believed the best moment of the episode to be the Pokémon battle on television at the beginning , stating that " the Pokémon battle side @-@ to @-@ side in black and white . Their movements are slow and appear to be turn @-@ based . It emulates the game perfectly , then quickly transforms into a more realistic , full @-@ color battle . Few game @-@ based anime series incorporate the game elements so well . " X @-@ Entertainment considered the best part of the episode to be the moment when Ash spots the mysterious Ho @-@ Oh , a Pokémon whose data was not included in the Pokédex at the time .
= = Book adaptation and re @-@ releases = =
A children 's book adaptation of the episode was released in July 1999 . It was published by Scholastic Corporation and written by Tracey West . The episode was released on VHS and DVD on November 24 , 1998 , and December 13 , 1998 , respectively .
Nintendo announced on September 24 , 2004 , that two Game Boy Advance Video cartridges , featuring " classic " episodes from the early days of the Pokémon series , would hit stores on September 27 that year . The Pokémon episodes were packaged in two separate packs containing two episodes each , and the four episodes available were " Pokémon , I Choose You ! " , " Here Comes the Squirtle Squad " , " Beach Blank @-@ Out Blastoise " , and " Go West Young Meowth " , all from season one .
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= Jack Hobbs =
Sir John Berry " Jack " Hobbs ( 16 December 1882 – 21 December 1963 ) was an English professional cricketer who played for Surrey from 1905 to 1934 and for England in 61 Test matches between 1908 and 1930 . Known as " The Master " , he is regarded by critics as one of the greatest batsmen in the history of cricket . He is the leading run @-@ scorer and century @-@ maker in first @-@ class cricket , with 61 @,@ 760 runs and 199 centuries . A right @-@ handed batsman and an occasional right @-@ arm medium pace bowler , Hobbs also excelled as a fielder , particularly in the position of cover point .
Born into poverty in 1882 , Hobbs wished from an early age to pursue a career in cricket . His early batting was undistinguished , but a sudden improvement in 1901 brought him to the attention of local teams . In 1903 he successfully applied to join Surrey , with the support of England batsman Tom Hayward . His reputation grew and when he qualified to play for Surrey , he scored 88 on his first @-@ class debut and a century in his next game . Over the following seasons , he established himself as a successful county player and in 1908 made his Test debut for England , scoring 83 in his first innings . After some mixed early performances for England , Hobbs ' success against South African googly bowlers made his place secure , and by 1911 – 12 , when he scored three centuries in the Test series against Australia , critics judged him the world 's best batsman . In county cricket , he developed an attacking , dynamic style of play and was very successful up until 1914 . After serving in the Royal Flying Corps during the First World War , he maintained his reputation when cricket resumed in 1919 , but his career was threatened by appendicitis , which caused him to miss most of the 1921 season . When he returned , he was a more cautious batsmen and used a safer style of play . Subsequently , he became more consistent and scored prolifically in both Test and domestic cricket until his retirement . In this period , he played some of his most acclaimed innings .
Hobbs ' success was based on fast footwork , an ability to play many different shots , and excellent placement of the ball . Among the first batsmen to succeed against previously devastating googly bowlers , he adapted his technique to meet the new styles of bowling that arose early in his career ; he mixed classical shots with an effective defence . He was particularly successful on difficult pitches for batting . An opening batsman , Hobbs established several effective opening partnerships ; with Tom Hayward and Andy Sandham for Surrey and with Wilfred Rhodes and Herbert Sutcliffe for England . His partnership with Sutcliffe remains in 2016 the most effective for the first wicket , in terms of average partnership , in Test history . Contemporaries rated Hobbs extremely highly , and critics continue to list him among the best batsmen of all time .
Hobbs was very close to Ada , his wife of 56 years ; the pair were able to live comfortably in later life through Hobbs ' substantial wage from Surrey , his commercial endorsements , and the proceeds of the sporting goods shop he opened in 1921 and ran for the rest of his life . After his cricketing retirement , he also worked in journalism . Knighted in 1953 , the first professional cricketer to be so honoured , he spent his later years nursing his wife . He died , aged 81 , a few months after her in 1963 .
= = Early life = =
= = = Childhood and early cricket = = =
Hobbs was born in Cambridge on 16 December 1882 , the first of 12 children to John Cooper Hobbs , a slater , and his wife Flora Matilda Berry . Hobbs was raised in a poor , run @-@ down area of the city , and he spent most of his childhood in near @-@ poverty . Hobbs senior , a lover of cricket , changed his career to become a professional cricketer , and in 1889 was appointed groundsman and umpire at Jesus College .
From an early age , Hobbs played cricket whenever he could . His first games were played in the streets near his house . He was educated at a primary school affiliated with his local Anglican church , St Matthew 's , and moved in 1891 to York Street Boys ' School , a fee @-@ paying establishment ; Hobbs later admitted to being a poor scholar but was successful at sports . He played cricket regularly for the St Matthew 's choir team and the York Street school team , and during holidays helped his father at Jesus College . In his final year at York Street , to supplement the family budget , Hobbs took a job working before school hours in the domestic service of a private house . On leaving school in 1895 , he worked as an errand boy until his father 's connections at the university secured him a summer job as a college servant , chiefly assisting the cricket team . Aged 16 , Hobbs became an apprentice gas fitter , and practised cricket on Parker 's Piece , an open area of common land in Cambridge , in his spare time . He played for various local clubs but did not initially stand out as a cricketer : although better than most other Cambridge batsmen , no coaches or major teams approached him , and his batting gave little indication of the success which came later .
Hobbs ' breakthrough came in 1901 . His batting improved throughout the season , during which he scored 102 for Ainsworth against the Cambridge Liberals , his first century . At the end of the season , he was included in a Cambridge XI , a team chosen from the best local cricketers , to play a prestigious match against a team of professional cricketers brought by the Cambridge @-@ born Surrey cricketer Tom Hayward . Hobbs ' overall record was unremarkable , but at the end of the season he was invited to play as an amateur for Cambridgeshire ; he achieved little in his appearances .
Early in 1902 , Hobbs was appointed as assistant to the professional cricket coach at Bedford School , working as a groundsman and bowling in the nets . In late August , he returned to Cambridge to play as a professional for the first time . For a fee of ten shillings , Hobbs appeared for a team from the nearby town of Royston against Hertfordshire Club and Ground and scored 119 runs . His success delighted his family and made him a local celebrity . Hobbs ' father , who had helped to arrange his appearance in the match , died from pneumonia a week later . Despite local fund @-@ raising efforts for the bereaved family , Hobbs senior 's death left his wife and children facing great financial hardship . Francis Hutt , a former friend and colleague of the father , contacted Essex County Cricket Club to request a trial for Hobbs . That county never replied — Hobbs later scored his maiden first @-@ class century against them — but Hutt was more successful when he asked Hayward to look at Hobbs with a view to recommending him to Surrey . Consequently , in late 1902 , Hobbs batted on Parker 's Piece against Hayward and Bill Reeves , an Essex cricketer born in Cambridge , impressing Hayward in the process . In the winter of 1902 – 03 Hobbs assumed his father 's duties as groundsman at Jesus College .
= = = Surrey cricketer = = =
Hobbs was summoned to Surrey for a trial in April 1903 , and subsequently offered a contract with the ground staff at the Oval on a basic wage during the season of 30 shillings a week . Hobbs could not immediately play for Surrey owing to the qualification rules in place at the time for the County Championship — a player had to be born in a county or to have lived there for two years in order to represent it . To achieve qualification , he moved to the Surrey area of London . Around this time he played football for local teams as a forward with some success , but struggled financially during the winter months and found it hard to find employment .
While qualifying , Hobbs played for Surrey 's Colts side and for the Club and Ground Eleven , both of which were teams for young cricketers . Although he made some substantial scores , according to his biographer , Leo McKinstry , " just as he had done for much of his early life , [ Hobbs ] performed satisfactorily without doing anything startling " . In the 1903 season he scored 480 runs at an average of 34 @.@ 29 , as well as taking 19 wickets as his bowling improved . The following season , Hobbs played only for the Club and Ground , increased his average to 43 @.@ 90 , and impressed people connected with the Surrey county side . His sudden improvement brought about a temporary return to the Cambridgeshire team , for which he remained qualified by birth . His batting was praised , particularly when he scored 195 and 129 in two matches against Hertfordshire . In total , he scored 696 runs in 13 innings for Cambridgeshire , averaging 58 @.@ 00 .
= = First @-@ class cricketer = =
By the start of the 1905 season , Hobbs had qualified for Surrey and was already being noted as a player of promise . At the time , Surrey needed an opening batsman to partner Tom Hayward . Although Hobbs had rarely opened the batting , he was selected as Hayward 's opening partner for Surrey 's first game of the season . He made his debut on 24 April 1905 against a team representing the " Gentlemen of England " ; after scoring 18 runs in the first innings , he scored a rapid 88 in the second before rain ensured the match was drawn . The Surrey team and committee were impressed , and Hobbs retained his place for the club 's opening County Championship match against Essex . When he scored 155 runs in around three hours during Surrey 's second innings , the Surrey captain Lord Dalmeny awarded Hobbs his County Cap . Over the following weeks , Hobbs scored consistently , hitting another century against Essex and 94 runs against the touring Australian cricket team . But a combination of fatigue from continuous cricket and the pressure of first @-@ class cricket adversely affected his form , and he struggled for the remainder of the season even as the county tried various measures to help him . In first @-@ class cricket that season , Hobbs scored 1 @,@ 317 runs at an average of 25 @.@ 82 , including two centuries and four other scores over fifty , to finish ninth in the Surrey batting averages . As an occasional medium @-@ paced bowler , he took six wickets . Reviewing Surrey 's season , Wisden Cricketers ' Almanack singled Hobbs out for attention , praising his early @-@ season form ; it suggested that he was the best professional batsman Surrey had found for a long time . The Times noted that , while performing well , Hobbs had fallen short of the standards suggested by his start .
After a winter of practice , Hobbs displayed greater consistency in 1906 . Displaying a wider range of shots , he scored four centuries , including another against Essex , and established an effective opening partnership with Hayward . Between his debut and Hayward 's retirement in 1914 , the pair shared 40 opening partnerships in excess of 100 runs . Hobbs was generally the junior partner , and was overawed by Hayward , to the extent that he did not feel confident enough to invite him to his wedding . Hayward influenced Hobbs ' mental approach , particularly his running between the wickets , but the pair were dissimilar in style . In all first @-@ class cricket in 1906 , Hobbs scored 1 @,@ 913 runs at an average of 40 @.@ 70 with a highest score of 162 , placing him second in the Surrey averages . Wisden praised his improved fielding and commented that he was " one of the best professional bats of the year " . Hobbs made further advances in 1907 . Unusually frequent rain during the season — Wisden described the season as the wettest ever — meant that pitches often favoured bowlers . After a poor start , Hobbs successfully adapted to the conditions , and scored consistently well . In June , he and Hayward shared four century opening partnerships in one week . Hobbs scored four centuries in total and by the end of the season had scored 2 @,@ 135 runs , averaging 37 @.@ 45 . He was one of only three men to pass 2 @,@ 000 runs ; he was second to Hayward in the Surrey averages , and eighth nationally . His performances brought him to the attention of the Marylebone Cricket Club ( MCC ) selectors , and he was chosen for the Players in the prestigious Gentlemen v Players matches in July , although he scored few runs in either game .
= = Test match cricketer = =
= = = First appearances = = =
Hobbs was selected to tour Australia in the 1907 – 08 season with an MCC team , given his opportunity by the unavailability of several leading players . Throughout the outward voyage , Hobbs was severely affected by sea @-@ sickness , a condition which afflicted him on sea voyages throughout his life ; in later tours , he travelled overland as far as possible to reduce his time on ships . Consequently , he missed the first two games of the tour against the Australian state teams . His appearances were further limited by the reluctance of the MCC captain , Arthur Jones , to select him . He played in only two of the early matches , failing on both occasions , and was left out of the team for the first Test match . After England lost the game , Hobbs was chosen for the second Test . Hobbs made his Test debut on 1 January 1908 at Melbourne Cricket Ground . Opening the England batting on the second day , Hobbs scored 83 runs in 182 minutes . Eventually , England needed 282 to win and did so by one wicket ; Hobbs scored 28 . He retained his place for the rest of the series . In the fourth match , he scored 57 on a pitch badly affected by rain ; by adopting a policy of attacking the bowling he hit ten fours . He concluded his series with an innings of 72 in the final game , but could not prevent a third successive English defeat — the home side won the five @-@ match series 4 – 1 . He scored 302 runs in the Tests at an average of 43 @.@ 14 . In other first @-@ class matches , he scored centuries against Tasmania and Victoria , totalling 876 runs at 41 @.@ 71 .
Hobbs scored fewer runs in 1908 , despite better conditions for batting . Even so , he scored 81 in the Gentlemen v Players game , achieved a batting average over 40 in the County Championship and scored six centuries for Surrey . In all first @-@ class games , Hobbs scored 1 @,@ 904 runs at 37 @.@ 33 . For his achievements that season , Hobbs was chosen as one of Wisden 's Cricketers of the Year . The citation noted that " at the present time there is perhaps no better professional batsman in England except Hayward and Tyldesley " .
Hobbs began the 1909 season with a succession of large scores , including a double century in one match and two separate centuries in another . Such form placed him in contention for a place in the England team to play Australia that year , despite the English batting strength . But the England captain , Archie MacLaren , was unconvinced that Hobbs possessed the required quality . The Surrey captain and England selector H. D. G. Leveson Gower persuaded the committee to include Hobbs in the squad , then convinced a reluctant MacLaren to play him in the team . In the first Test , played at Edgbaston , Hobbs opened the batting with MacLaren but was dismissed from the first ball he received . The match was a low @-@ scoring one , and Australia set England 105 runs to win . Hobbs , this time opening the batting with C. B. Fry , hit 62 not out and England passed the target without losing a wicket . England lost the next two matches , and Hobbs was unsuccessful , with a top @-@ score of 30 in four innings . A badly injured finger meant that he missed the remainder of the Test series ; in three games , he scored 132 runs at an average of 26 @.@ 40 . England lost the series when the remaining two matches were drawn . Hobbs struggled to regain his form when he recovered ; he averaged 40 @.@ 65 for the season , but of the 2 @,@ 114 first @-@ class runs he scored , nearly half came in the first month of the season .
= = = Dominance in South Africa = = =
Hobbs accepted an invitation to tour South Africa that winter with the MCC . The cricketing conditions were challenging : matches were played on matting pitches , unfamiliar to English players , and the South African googly bowlers had previously troubled most leading English batsmen , provoking debate over how batsmen could combat the new delivery . The MCC captain , Leveson Gower , selected Wilfred Rhodes to open the batting with Hobbs for the first Test . Rhodes , a defensively @-@ minded batsman who excelled at taking quick singles , had begun his career as a bowler who batted down the order . He steadily improved his batting , eventually becoming an opening batsman . Hobbs and Rhodes , between 1910 and 1921 , opened the batting 36 times for England and shared eight century partnerships ; their average of 61 @.@ 31 runs per opening partnership remains the second highest in Test history . In other first @-@ class cricket , they shared a further five century opening partnerships . Their association was notable for effective running ; the pair developed such an unusually good understanding that they were able to run without calling to each other . They scored singles by pushing the ball just past nearby fielders and running quickly . Critics believed that they raised the art of running to a new level .
This tactic developed from the first day that Hobbs and Rhodes batted together in the first Test ; they added 159 runs for the first wicket . Hobbs scored 89 in the first innings and 35 in the second , and while England lost narrowly , he appeared much more comfortable than the other English batsmen against the googly . Hobbs and Rhodes shared a partnership of 207 in the tour match following the Test , in which Hobbs scored 163 . England also lost the second Test , but Hobbs scored 53 and 70 , sharing two substantial opening partnerships with Rhodes . The failure of the other batsmen , defeated by the googly bowlers , caused consternation in the English press . As England had few effective pace bowlers on the tour , Hobbs opened the bowling in the first two Tests , as well as the batting . In the third Test , he scored 93 not out to guide England to a three @-@ wicket victory . However , the series was lost when England were defeated in the fourth match ; Hobbs scored 0 and 1 , the only time in his Test career that he failed to reach double figures in either innings , and his worst match return in first @-@ class cricket . In the final game of the series , he scored his first Test hundred , opening the batting and sharing a partnership of 221 with Rhodes which was a record at the time for the first wicket in Test matches . Hobbs scored 187 , an innings praised by Wisden for its " brilliancy " . In this match he once more opened the bowling , dismissing Reggie Schwarz , his only Test wicket . England won the match by nine wickets and the series finished 3 – 2 against them . Hobbs scored 1 @,@ 124 first @-@ class runs at an average of 66 @.@ 11 on the tour , while in the Test matches , he scored 539 runs at 67 @.@ 37 . None of the other English batsmen came close to matching his success against the googly , and by the end of the series , critics were beginning to describe him as the world 's leading batsman . Wisden commented : " Beyond everything else from the English point of view the feature of the trip was the superb batting of Hobbs , who easily adapted himself to the matting wickets and scored from the famous googly bowlers with amazing skill and facility . When they came home the other members of the team could not say too much in his praise . "
Fatigue from the South African tour affected Hobbs in 1910 . He scored 1 @,@ 982 runs at an average of 33 @.@ 03 , the lowest average of his career apart from his first season . More effective during 1911 , after a long rest during the winter , Hobbs was consistently successful in a hot , dry summer which produced good batting pitches . He played few large innings , but was very effective in high @-@ pressure games , and scored 2 @,@ 376 runs at 41 @.@ 68 . Bowling more frequently than in other seasons , Hobbs took 28 first @-@ class wickets . Against Oxford University , Hobbs bowled throughout the second innings to take seven wickets for 56 runs , the best figures of his career .
= = = Success against Australia = = =
Hobbs was an automatic selection for the MCC tour of Australia in the winter of 1911 – 12 . During the first Test , which Australia won by 146 runs , Hobbs scored 63 in the first innings , although by his own admission he did not play well . Rhodes was in the team , but did not open the batting owing to his poor form ; Hobbs opened with Septimus Kinneir . England recovered to win the second Test ; after bowling Australia out for 184 and taking a first @-@ innings lead of 81 , the visiting team eventually faced a target of 219 to win . Hobbs and Rhodes , restored to the opening position , began with a partnership of 57 . Hobbs scored 126 not out , his first century against Australia , and scored particularly well from the bowling of H. V. " Ranji " Hordern , a googly bowler who had taken 12 wickets in the first Test . Wisden commented that Hobbs " played one of the finest innings of his life " , and England won by eight wickets . Australia were once more bowled out for a low score in the third Test ; this time Hobbs and Rhodes added 147 for the first wicket and Hobbs scored 187 . England reached a total of 501 and won the match by seven wickets .
Having established a lead in the series , England began the fourth Test by bowling Australia out for 191 . At the end of the first day , Hobbs and Rhodes had scored 54 together , and the next day they took their partnership for the first wicket to 323 , setting a new record for the highest partnership for any wicket in Test matches . Their partnership remained an overall Test record for 22 years and the highest for the first wicket until 1948 . As of 2016 , this remains England 's highest opening partnership against Australia . The pair scored easily from the bowling but faced criticism for slow batting . Even so , Hobbs reached a century in 133 minutes and proceeded to play more aggressively afterwards . He was finally dismissed for 178 . England reached a total of 589 and bowled Australia out for 173 to win the match by an innings and regain the Ashes . England also won the final Test to take the series 4 – 1 ; Hobbs scored 32 and 45 , sharing a partnership of 76 with Rhodes in the second innings . Hobbs ended the series with an aggregate of 662 runs at an average of 82 @.@ 75 , setting a new record number of runs for an individual batsman in a Test series . His average was far greater than any other batsman on either team , and the tour established him as the world 's best batsman . In addition , he ran out 15 batsmen while fielding at cover point . The Australians did not dare run when he fielded the ball for fear of the speed of his throw . In all first @-@ class matches , Hobbs scored 943 runs at 55 @.@ 47 .
The 1912 season was unusually wet , which resulted in some very difficult pitches for batting . Wisden remarked that Hobbs did not bat particularly well for Surrey . The press criticised him for trying to score too quickly and losing his wicket in the process . During the summer , both Australia and South Africa toured England , taking part in the Triangular Tournament . Hobbs made a slow start to the competition when he was bowled in the first over in England 's opening match , and his form was uncertain in the early part of the season . However , he scored a century against Australia at Lord 's Cricket Ground on a very difficult batting pitch in England 's second game , sharing a partnership of 112 with Rhodes . He continued with scores of 55 and 68 in the next two games against South Africa , and his batting was praised by the press ; for the first time , in the Times , he was referred to as " a great master " . South Africa were defeated in five of their six games ( the other was drawn ) . As the first two games between England and Australia were drawn , the final match was designated as the deciding match for the tournament . Hobbs and Rhodes opened with 107 , and Hobbs scored 66 . These runs were crucial and England won the game by 244 runs . Hobbs had the best batting average for the summer from all three teams ; he averaged 40 @.@ 75 against South Africa and 56 @.@ 00 against Australia . In all first @-@ class cricket his aggregate was 2 @,@ 042 runs at 37 @.@ 81 .
= = = Years before the war = = =
In 1913 , batting in a more controlled fashion , Hobbs scored 2 @,@ 605 runs at an average of 50 @.@ 09 , placing him second in the national averages . He continued to score quickly , twice scoring 100 runs before lunch on the first day of a match ; against Worcestershire , he and Hayward shared an opening partnership of 313 in 190 minutes . In the winter of 1913 – 14 , the MCC sent a strong team to South Africa . The opposition team lacked effective players , and England won the five @-@ Test series 4 – 0 , mainly as a result of the bowling of Sydney Barnes . Hobbs scored 443 runs at an average of 63 @.@ 28 in the series ; he did not score a century , but accumulated scores of 82 , 92 and 97 , while he and Rhodes shared two century opening partnerships and another of 92 . Hobbs adopted a cautious approach , and Wisden noted that he was " not quite so brilliant as in England " but said that he was " an absolute master on matting wickets [ pitches ] . " In all first @-@ class matches , he scored 1 @,@ 489 runs at 74 @.@ 45 .
After a slow start to the 1914 season , Hobbs recorded a string of centuries , including a score of 226 , his highest at that time . The looming First World War overshadowed much of the season . Cricket initially continued once the war began , but as the Oval had been requisitioned by the military , Hobbs ' benefit match was moved from the Oval to Lord 's . This move , and the public 's preoccupation with the war , consigned the game to a financial failure ; in total Hobbs ' benefit raised £ 657 , lower than most benefits and far less than usually raised for cricketers of Hobbs ' standing . The Surrey committee agreed to give him another benefit when the war concluded . Hobbs scored his 11th century of the season before public pressure terminated the cricket season . During the winter , the MCC declared Surrey as County Champions ; although the war prevented the completion of all the matches , Surrey led comfortably enough for the other counties not to object . This was the only time in Hobbs ' career that Surrey were champions . In all first @-@ class games in 1914 , he scored 2 @,@ 697 runs at 58 @.@ 63 . As the war began , Hobbs reputation was at its peak ; he was described by Wisden as " one of the greatest bats of his generation " . McKinstry states that during the season : " With his free @-@ scoring method , [ Hobbs ] had dazzled in a way that he was never to do again . "
= = First World War = =
Unlike many other cricketers , Hobbs did not immediately join the army , but worked in a munitions factory , possibly as a clerk . Writing later , Hobbs related that he was criticised for not joining up , but suggested he did not realise how serious the war would be , and was conscious of the need to care for his family . From March 1915 he found extra work as coach at Westminster School , and in May began to play on Saturdays as a professional for Idle in the Bradford Cricket League . The continuation of competitive cricket in Bradford , when all other such cricket had ceased , was controversial . Several clubs hired top @-@ class professionals and matches became very popular . Although his arrival was eagerly anticipated , Hobbs never reached the expected heights , averaging 36 @.@ 63 throughout the 1915 season . But his signing provoked an angry exchange of correspondence between the Yorkshire president Lord Hawke , who was highly critical of the employment of professionals , and John Booth , the president of the Bradford League . Hobbs never publicly commented on the matter , but was instrumental in recruiting Frank Woolley to play in the league . He continued to play for Idle in 1916 , and was more successful , scoring 790 runs at 52 @.@ 60 and taking 65 wickets at 6 @.@ 27 . But his conscription after the season into the Royal Flying Corps ended his regular cricket in the league .
Hobbs joined the Corps in October 1916 as an air mechanic and after training was posted to London , then Norfolk ; at first he had time to appear in charity cricket matches and in several games for Idle . In November 1917 , he joined 110 Squadron which remained in England despite plans to send it to France . By 1918 , the cricket authorities began to arrange more matches and Hobbs played successfully several times at Lord 's . In September 1918 , 110 Squadron , as part of the newly formed Royal Air Force ( RAF ) , was sent to France and took an active part in the fighting , but Hobbs never discussed his career in the RAF . Even so , some of his family remained critical and felt that the worst of the war was over when Hobbs went to France . He was demobilised in February 1919 .
= = Career after the war = =
= = = Resumption of cricket = = =
When first @-@ class cricket resumed in 1919 , Surrey awarded Hobbs a five @-@ year contract worth £ 400 a year . During the season , he began to open the batting with Andy Sandham , who succeeded to Hayward 's position as Hobbs ' partner ; in the following years , the pair established an effective partnership . In total , they shared 66 century opening partnerships and averaged over 50 for the first wicket . Like Hobbs ' other successful partnerships , this one was based on quick running . Sandham , even when successful , was often overshadowed by his partner ; on one occasion , Sandham scored a century but the headlines were reserved for Hobbs ' duck . Sandham usually played the subordinate role and Hobbs took most of the bowling .
Hobbs made a good start to the 1919 season and , despite a brief spell of failure through over @-@ aggression , batted consistently . He scored a double century for Surrey against a touring Australian Imperial Forces cricket team and centuries in each of the three Gentlemen v Players matches — the only player ever to do so in one season . His rescheduled benefit match raised £ 1 @,@ 670 , money he used to open a sports shop in London . The shop was successful and he ran it until just before his death . The additional income gave him considerable financial independence . In total that year , Hobbs scored 2 @,@ 594 runs in first class matches , more than anyone else , at an average of 60 @.@ 32 . After a winter working in his shop , his good form continued into 1920 . Four of his eleven first @-@ class centuries came in consecutive innings in June , and he totalled 2 @,@ 827 runs at 58 @.@ 89 . He also took five wickets for 21 runs against Warwickshire , and his 17 wickets at an average of 11 @.@ 82 placed him at the top of the Surrey bowling averages .
Hobbs toured Australia with the MCC during the 1920 – 21 season , under the captaincy of J. W. H. T. Douglas , when Australia won every match of the five @-@ Test series . He was one of the few English successes . He scored two centuries in the opening three first @-@ class games , and in the first Test top @-@ scored in both England innings with 49 and 59 . In the second Test , he scored 122 on a difficult pitch which had been affected by rain . Wisden commented that this was " from the English point of view , the finest innings of the tour " . He also scored a century in defeat in the third Test , hitting 123 in the final innings as England failed to score 489 to win the game . He did not pass 50 again in the series ; after a failure on the fourth Test , he tore a thigh muscle batting in a game before the final Test . Persuaded by Douglas to play anyway , he scored 40 and 34 but struggled to field effectively . One unsuccessful attempt to chase the ball caused some of the crowd to jeer him , which led to controversy when two amateur members of the team , Percy Fender and Rockley Wilson , wrote scathingly about the incident . Hobbs scored a total of 924 first @-@ class runs on the tour , at an average of 51 @.@ 33 ; in Test matches , he scored 505 runs at 50 @.@ 50 . Although he and Rhodes resumed their opening partnership , apart from in the first Test , when C. A. G. Russell partnered Hobbs , they could not replicate their former successes , and shared only one stand worth more than fifty .
Hobbs played just five first @-@ class matches in 1921 , when Australia toured England . In his opening first @-@ class game , he played against the touring team , but tore the same thigh muscle injured in Australia . He missed the opening two Tests , but once recovered , scored a century for Surrey ; as England trailed 2 – 0 in the five @-@ Test series , the selectors chose him for the third Test . In the days approaching the match , played in Leeds , he suffered from increasing stomach pain but reluctantly played . On the first day of the match , he had to leave the field , and after a day of rest the pain worsened . He consulted Sir Berkley Moynihan , a prominent surgeon based in Leeds , who diagnosed acute appendicitis and operated the same day . In the opinion of the surgeon , Hobbs would not have lived another five hours without surgery . He missed the rest of the season .
Hobbs returned to cricket in 1922 and batted effectively throughout the first months of the season , scoring 10 first @-@ class centuries in total . One of the centuries came in the Gentlemen v Players match at Lord 's , in which he captained the Players team for the first time . Towards the end of the season , his form faded owing to the lingering effects of his illness and operation the previous year . Wisden observed that he frequently tired during longer innings and often tried to get out soon after reaching three figures ; this habit of giving up his innings continued throughout the remainder of his career . The season also marked a turning point in his batting approach where he preferred to score more slowly and take fewer risks , in contrast to his adventurous pre @-@ war tactics . Second in the national batting averages for 1922 , he scored 2 @,@ 552 runs at an average of 62 @.@ 24 , but declined an invitation to tour South Africa that winter with the MCC . Less successful during the wet 1923 season , Hobbs failed on many occasions and was unsuccessful in both Gentlemen v Players games . He was still struggling with the after @-@ effects of his operation and Wisden noticed he once more tried to score too quickly early in an innings . However , against Somerset , he scored the 100th century of his first @-@ class career , the third man to reach the landmark after W. G. Grace and Hayward . Overall in the season , he scored 2 @,@ 087 runs at 37 @.@ 95 .
= = = Partnership with Sutcliffe = = =
Hobbs signed a new contract worth £ 440 a season before the 1924 season . His form recovered to the extent that his biographer , John Arlott , described it as the beginning of " his quite phenomenal second lease of cricketing life " . Batting conditions were good throughout the summer and Hobbs ' opening partnership with Sandham for Surrey began to approach its peak of effectiveness . Hobbs also established an opening partnership with Yorkshire 's Herbert Sutcliffe ; the pair had opened together briefly in previous seasons and were chosen to open in a Test trial early in 1924 , beginning a six @-@ year Test association . They were often successful in difficult batting conditions ; Hobbs , generally the dominant partner , usually faced more of the bowling . By the time of his retirement , they had opened the batting 38 times in Tests , shared 15 century opening partnerships , and added 3 @,@ 249 runs together ; their average partnership was 87 @.@ 81 , the highest in all Tests for a pair of opening batsmen as of 2016 . In all first @-@ class matches , they had added 100 for the first wicket 26 times and had an average partnership of over 77 . As with Hobbs ' other partnerships , they ran well between the wickets , and established a particular reputation for reliability ; according to McKinstry , they became an " English institution " . The cricket writer Gerald Howat suggests that " ' Hobbs and Sutcliffe ' became almost a synonym for English stability . "
Following their success in the 1924 trial match , Hobbs and Sutcliffe were selected for the England team to play the first Test against South Africa . When England batted first , the pair added 136 for the first wicket ; Hobbs , playing a Test innings in England for the first time since 1912 , scored 76 . England won the match by a large margin . In the second Test , Hobbs and Sutcliffe opened with 268 runs for the first wicket ; Hobbs scored 211 , his highest Test score . At the time , the innings was the highest played at Lord 's in a Test and equalled the highest in a Test match in England . England scored 531 for the loss of two wickets and won the match by an innings . Having initially declined an invitation to tour Australia with the MCC in the coming winter , Hobbs was left out of the team for the fourth Test . After the MCC accepted his request to allow his wife Ada to accompany him — the wives of professionals were not usually permitted to tour — he changed his mind , and was added to the England team for the fifth Test . In the series , he scored 355 runs at an average of 71 @.@ 00 , while in all first @-@ class matches he totalled 2 @,@ 094 runs at 58 @.@ 16 . He finished second in the national averages , and the cricket press noted that , although Hobbs scored more slowly and in less spectacular fashion than previously , he batted in a safer , secure style which was more successful in terms of run @-@ scoring .
The MCC team which toured Australia under the captaincy of Arthur Gilligan in 1924 – 25 lost the Test series 4 – 1 , but critics thought the winning margin flattered the host country . Between them in the Test matches , Hobbs and Sutcliffe scored seven centuries and shared four opening partnerships which passed 100 runs . Hobbs began the tour well , and scored consistently in the matches before the Tests . In the first Test , in reply to Australia 's first innings of 450 , Hobbs and Sutcliffe opened with 157 runs . Hobbs went on to his seventh century against Australia , beating the previous record number in England @-@ Australia Tests by Victor Trumper . Australia eventually set England a target of 605 runs . Hobbs and Sutcliffe shared their second century opening partnership of the game , but England lost by 193 runs . During the match , Hobbs became the leading run @-@ scorer in Test cricket , passing the previous record of 3 @,@ 412 runs set by Clem Hill in 1912 . In the second Test , Australia scored 600 during the opening two days . In reply , Hobbs and Sutcliffe batted throughout the third day without being separated , scoring 283 . They concentrated on defence but both men reached centuries , and the press praised their achievements . Even so , Australia won the game by 81 runs , and in the aftermath of the defeat , Cecil Parkin , a former Test bowler and vocal critic of Gilligan 's captaincy , wrote a newspaper article suggesting that Hobbs should assume the leadership of the side . This suggestion provoked a reaction from Lord Hawke — " Pray God , no professional will ever captain England " — and subsequent press debate over the idea of Hobbs as captain . In reality , Hobbs had no desire to captain England .
Australia once more batted first in the third Test , scoring 489 . For tactical reasons , Hobbs did not open the batting but scored 119 and shared another century partnership with Sutcliffe . Wet weather altered the course of the match and , despite an opening partnership of 63 between Hobbs and Sutcliffe , Australia won by 11 runs . The opening batsmen shared their fourth century partnership of the series in the fourth Test as England won by an innings , but Australia won the final match to win the series 4 – 1 and in a heavy defeat , Hobbs failed in both innings . In the series , he scored 573 runs at an average of 63 @.@ 66 , and made two half @-@ centuries in addition to his three hundreds . Critics in Australia and England once more recognised him as the leading batsman in the world . Hobbs and Sutcliffe far outscored the remaining MCC batsmen and Wisden judged that with better support from other batsmen they could have won the series . In all games , Hobbs scored 865 first @-@ class runs at 54 @.@ 06 .
= = = Peak of popularity = = =
Hobbs was particularly successful in 1925 . Early in the season a string of centuries , including a run of four in consecutive innings , made him the first batman to reach 1 @,@ 000 runs that season and brought him close to Grace 's record of 126 first @-@ class hundreds . He scored the 125th century of his career against Kent on 20 July , but amid intense press and public interest , Hobbs lost form through a combination of anxiety and fatigue . He continued to score well , but could not reach three figures in an innings — after one innings of 54 , a newspaper headline proclaimed that " Hobbs Fails Again " . It was not until 15 August , against Somerset , that Hobbs scored 101 to reach the landmark , an achievement praised and feted throughout the country over the following weeks . On the final day of the match , Hobbs scored another century to become the outright record holder . He ended his season with an innings of 266 in a Gentlemen v Players match at the Scarborough Festival , his highest to date and the best score made in the Gentlemen v Players series , and 104 for the Rest of England against Yorkshire , the County Champions . In total , he scored 16 centuries — setting a record for most centuries in a season — and totalled 3 @,@ 024 runs at an average of 70 @.@ 32 to top the national averages for the first time . Following his successful season , Hobbs was in great demand . He attended several functions in his honour but rejected offers to appear on stage , in film and to stand as a Liberal parliamentary candidate .
Hobbs was given a third benefit by Surrey in 1926 which raised £ 2 @,@ 670 . Further recognition came when he and Rhodes joined the England selection committee for the Ashes series to be played that summer ; for professional cricketers to serve as England selectors was unprecedented . Hobbs began the season well , and after the first Test , which was badly affected by rain , he remained in form by scoring 261 against Oxford University , sharing an opening partnership of 428 with Sandham ; this remained a Surrey first wicket record as of 2016 . In the drawn second Test , he and Sutcliffe shared an opening stand of 182 . Hobbs scored 119 but was criticised for slowing down later in his innings , leading to accusations that he was more concerned with reaching three figures than batting for the team . The third Test was also drawn . England followed on in the face of a large Australian total , but Hobbs and Sutcliffe opened the second innings with a partnership of 156 and Hobbs scored 88 as the game was saved . During the fourth Test , he temporarily assumed the captaincy when Arthur Carr withdrew from the match owing to illness ; Hobbs became the first professional to captain England at home . The selectors and players on both teams believed Hobbs performed well tactically . He scored 74 in England 's innings , but heavy rain ensured a fourth successive draw .
As everything depended on the final game , the Imperial Cricket Conference agreed that the match be played to a finish . Carr was replaced as captain by Percy Chapman , a decision which proved controversial in the press ; Rhodes was also recalled to the team , aged 48 . Amid huge public interest , the match was evenly balanced at the end of the second day when England began their second innings . Overnight rain seriously damaged the pitch before the third morning and few critics — including members of the home team — expected England to score many runs . But Hobbs and Sutcliffe , who had scored 49 on the second evening , began to bat confidently before the effects of a hot sun drying a damp pitch made batting even more hazardous . Concentrating on defence , but scoring whenever possible , the pair added 172 in total . Immediately after reaching 100 , Hobbs was out and received a prolonged ovation from the crowd . Many critics believed that , given the conditions , match situation and pressure , this was his greatest innings . England built up a large lead and bowled Australia out to win the Ashes . Late in the season , Hobbs made the highest score of his career , 316 not out for Surrey against Middlesex at Lord 's , establishing a record individual innings for Lord 's which survived until 1990 . In total , Hobbs scored 2 @,@ 949 runs at 77 @.@ 60 , including 12 centuries , to be placed first in the national batting averages .
Hobbs missed a large part of the 1927 season with a combination of illness and injury . In between his absences , he performed well , although he was left out of the Gentlemen v Players match . He scored 1 @,@ 641 runs at 52 @.@ 93 , including seven centuries . He began the 1928 season with four centuries in the first month , but another leg injury kept him out of cricket for six weeks . When he recovered , he was selected in the last two of the three Tests against the West Indies , playing their first Test series . In his first game , he and Sutcliffe shared a century partnership ; in the third , Hobbs scored 159 , having opened with a 155 @-@ run partnership with Sutcliffe . England won the series 3 – 0 . Hobbs maintained his batting form until the end of the season ; he finished second in the batting averages , scoring 2 @,@ 542 runs at an average of 82 @.@ 00 and hitting 12 centuries . Critics believed he remained unsurpassed among English batsmen .
= = = Final Tests = = =
Hobbs toured Australia for a final time as a player in 1928 – 29 as part of a strong MCC team , and despite substantial scores in early games , did not bat well . He made little contribution to England 's victories in the first two Tests , and some critics noticed a decline in his batting , a judgement reinforced when he was out to a poorly @-@ chosen shot in the first innings of the third Test for 20 . Australia were able to build up a substantial lead , and overnight rain before the sixth day of the match made them likely winners . England needed 332 to win , but on a pitch growing more difficult as it dried , a total of 100 was considered unlikely . Hobbs and Sutcliffe survived to add 105 for the first wicket ; observers praised their technique against the turning ball , although the Australian bowlers were criticised for ineffective tactics . Hobbs was out for 49 ; at his suggestion , Douglas Jardine came in to bat next , and England reached the end of the day having lost just one wicket for a score of 199 . Next day , the team won the game to take a 3 – 0 lead in the series with two to play and ensure they retained the Ashes . In the fourth Test , Hobbs scored 74 and shared a partnership of 143 with Sutcliffe as England won by 12 runs ; in the final game , won by Australia , he scored 142 on the first day , his final Test century and 12th against Australia . Scoring his hundred at the age of 46 years 82 days , he remained as of 2016 the oldest player to score a Test century . In first @-@ class games on the tour , Hobbs scored 962 runs at 56 @.@ 58 @.@ and 451 runs at 50 @.@ 11 in the Tests .
Hobbs missed more cricket with injuries and illnesses in 1929 ; between 1926 and 1930 , he missed more than a third of Surrey 's matches . However , he scored heavily and compiled 2 @,@ 263 runs at an average of 66 @.@ 55 to lead the first @-@ class averages . Unfit for the first two Tests against South Africa , he chose to miss the next two , and played in the final game , scoring 10 and 52 . Critics observed a general slowing in Hobbs ' scoring throughout the season , and he scored more often in singles than in his earlier years .
Hobbs began 1930 in good form , and , with Rhodes , was added to the selection panel again for the Ashes series that season . In the first Test , Hobbs scored 78 and 74 ; he top @-@ scored in both innings , but failed in the next two Tests . Before the third and fourth Tests , feeling tired and concerned by his form , he offered to stand down but the other selectors declined his suggestion . When he batted in the fourth Test , he shared an opening partnership of 108 with Sutcliffe , their 11th century stand against Australia . After two hours batting , he was out for 31 . With the series level at 1 – 1 , the final Test was to be played to a finish , but before it began , Hobbs announced that it would be his last . Shortly after making the decision , he returned to form , scoring a century and passing , in his next game , W. G. Grace 's record career @-@ aggregate of 54 @,@ 896 first @-@ class runs . Before the deciding Test , the selectors sacked Percy Chapman as captain . The press speculated that Hobbs would replace him , but Bob Wyatt was chosen ; Hobbs may have turned down an offer of the captaincy at the meeting of selectors . In the match , Hobbs scored 47 in the first innings . When he came out to bat in the second , in the face of a large Australian first @-@ innings lead , Hobbs was given an ovation by the crowd and the Australian fielders gave him three cheers . Hobbs was moved by his reception but scored only nine runs before he was dismissed , and Australia won the match and series . In his final series , he scored 301 runs at 33 @.@ 44 . In 61 Tests , he had scored 5 @,@ 410 runs at an average of 56 @.@ 94 . He retired as the leading run @-@ scorer in Test matches , a record he held until it was passed by Wally Hammond in 1937 . Maintaining his form for the rest of the season , Hobbs scored 2 @,@ 103 first @-@ class runs in 1930 at 51 @.@ 29 .
= = = End of career = = =
During the winter of 1930 – 31 , Hobbs and Sutcliffe joined a private team run by the Maharajkumar of Vizianagram which toured India and Ceylon . Hobbs was very popular with the crowds , and scored 593 runs . These runs , and in particular the two centuries he scored , were to prove controversial . Hobbs never believed that the matches were , or should have been , of first @-@ class status , but statisticians later judged them to be first @-@ class . Wisden never recognised the centuries and so records his century total as 197 . Other authorities give 199 centuries . Despite using a more limited batting technique , Hobbs remained successful in 1931 . He played several representative matches and took part in the 150th century opening partnership of his career . In total , he scored 2 @,@ 418 first @-@ class runs in the season at 56 @.@ 23 . In 1932 , despite missing several matches owing to injuries and fatigue , he scored 1 @,@ 764 runs at 56 @.@ 90 , including centuries in each innings against Essex . According to Mason , this latter performance prompted Douglas Jardine to nickname Hobbs " The Master " . Hobbs scored 161 not out for the Players against the Gentlemen , his 16th century in the fixture , to pass the record total of Grace for the Gentlemen .
Hobbs was partially involved in the Bodyline controversy in Australia in 1932 – 33 . Late in the 1932 season , Bill Bowes consistently bowled short @-@ pitched deliveries against him in a match between Surrey and Yorkshire . Bowes was criticised in the press and particularly by Pelham Warner , who was to manage the MCC team in Australia . Hobbs accompanied the team to Australia as a journalist , writing for the News Chronicle and The Star , accompanied by his ghostwriter Jack Ingham . During the tour , Hobbs neither condemned Bodyline nor fully described the English tactics . Other journalists admired Hobbs but dismissed his writing as " bland " . When he returned to England , Hobbs openly criticised the English tactics in newspaper columns and in a book he wrote about the tour . In 1933 , playing less frequently , he scored 1 @,@ 105 runs at 61 @.@ 38 , aged 50 . After missing the first games with illness , he scored 221 against the touring West Indian team , to the acclaim of the press . He did not play every game , and the Surrey committee allowed him to choose which matches to play . More centuries followed later that season , which took him to 196 in his career , fuelling anticipation that he would reach 200 centuries . That winter he accompanied the MCC team in India as a journalist . Before the next season , Surrey constructed a new entrance to the Oval which was named after Hobbs . In 1934 , he scored 624 runs at 36 @.@ 70 . After a solid start , he scored his final first @-@ class century against Lancashire . After this he played irregularly , and his batting began to appear uncomfortable . Hobbs realised his career was over : in February 1935 , he announced his retirement . There were many tributes and a public dinner was held in his honour which was attended by many leading figures in cricket . In all first @-@ class cricket , Hobbs scored 61 @,@ 760 runs at an average of 50 @.@ 70 according to ESPNcricinfo . Later in 1935 , Hobbs was made an honorary life member of Surrey .
= = Style and technique = =
For much of Hobbs ' career , critics judged him to be the best batsman in the world . E. W. Swanton described him in 1963 as " a supreme master of his craft , and the undisputed head of his profession " . Neville Cardus said that Hobbs was the first batsman to develop a technique to succeed consistently against googly bowlers , and that he mastered all types of bowling , all over the world and in a variety of conditions . Other critics have suggested that Hobbs moved the focus of batting from aesthetic off side shots to leg side play more suited to swing and googly bowling . Swanton wrote that Hobbs combined classical play with effective defence — including protecting the wickets using his pads — against the ball unexpectedly moving towards the stumps . His pad @-@ play was controversial : it removed any possibility of dismissal but was regarded by some cricket authorities as negative and unsporting .
Many of his English contemporaries rated Hobbs superior to Donald Bradman , often regarded as the greatest batsman in the history of cricket , on difficult pitches . In difficult batting conditions Hobbs batted with great success , and several of his most highly regarded innings came in such circumstances . Murphy suggests : " Before Bradman , he was the most consistent run @-@ getter of all time , yet no one worried less about the sheer slog of carving out big scores . " Hobbs frequently was out deliberately soon after reaching a century — roughly a quarter of his centuries were scores less than 110 — and was not particularly interested in most statistics . An article in Wisden in 2000 stated : " He was never as dominant as Bradman ; he never wanted to be . But his contemporaries were in awe of his ability to play supremely and at whim , whatever the conditions . "
Hobbs ' technique was based on strong forearms and good foot movement . R. C. Robertson @-@ Glasgow suggested that " his footwork was , as near as is humanly possible , perfect . In every stroke , he moved into line with the ball with so little effort that he could bat for hours without over @-@ taxing energy of mind or body . " He played every type of shot — he did not have a " signature " shot like other batsmen , but selected his strokes effectively ; according to Alec Kennedy , who bowled to Hobbs , it seemed that he could predict what the bowler would do . In contrast to many leading batsmen from his time , Hobbs preferred to play off the back foot as he believed it gave him more time to see the ball and adapt his shot . Capable of playing all the strokes , he hit the ball precisely between fielders and sometimes delayed his shot to make the ball travel more slowly and allow more time to run ; he also ran well between the wickets . He liked to score his first run quickly when he came into bat , and he often looked to score quickly at the start of an innings , before the bowlers had settled ; on occasion , Hobbs targeted the main bowling threats from the opposition in an attempt to neutralise them . Early in his career , mainly before the First World War , Hobbs was an aggressive , fast @-@ scoring batsman who played many shots . After the war , he was more circumspect and adapted his technique to account for both his increased age , and the increased pressure and expectation from the public and teammates . He concentrated to a greater extent on batting for longer periods ; many critics , including Hobbs himself , recognised the change and suggested that he was a better batsman before 1914 . However , commentators also noted that he displayed greater certainty and control in this later period ; Cardus wrote that " he scored his centuries effortlessly now ; we hardly noted the making of them . " This was the period in which he became known as " The Master " , and he was more consistent than before the war . This was the time when the public regarded him with the most respect and affection ; 98 of his centuries and 26 @,@ 411 of his runs ( at an average of 58 @.@ 62 ) in first @-@ class cricket were scored after he reached the age of 40 .
Hobbs was an occasional medium @-@ paced bowler who bowled a good length and made the ball swing . Some critics judged him to be a potentially good bowler , but both Surrey and England were reluctant for him to bowl regularly , fearing it would affect his batting . As a fielder , Hobbs improved greatly from his early days . He fielded in the covers and was expert in cutting off potential runs and returning the ball quickly to the wicket @-@ keeper . Contemporaries believed him to be one of the best cover fielders there had been , and remarked on his powers of anticipation in getting to the ball . They also noted he sometimes deceived batsmen with his casual attitude and occasional deliberate mis @-@ fields ; these would be followed by very sharp fielding which often produced a run out .
Although a professional — captains at the time were almost exclusively amateurs — the respect in which Hobbs was held meant that he was accepted as a captain . Many , but not all , critics considered him a competent tactician and leader . He regularly led the Players team against the Gentlemen and sometimes at Surrey in the absence of Percy Fender , but he was a reluctant captain . He disliked the responsibility and decision @-@ making of leadership , and rarely even offered tactical advice .
= = Reputation and legacy = =
Hobbs was twice selected as Wisden 's Cricketer of the Year , in 1909 and 1926 ; only he and Pelham Warner have received this award twice . In 1963 , Neville Cardus chose him as one of the best six cricketers of the previous 100 years , to mark Wisden 's centenary . More recently , Hobbs was selected by a panel of experts in 2000 as one of five Wisden cricketers of the 20th century . In 2009 , he was selected by cricket historians and writers as a member of England 's all @-@ time best team , and included in a similar team to represent the best players worldwide in the history of cricket . Hobbs ' Test batting average of 56 @.@ 94 remained as of 2016 the sixth best among batsmen to have passed 5 @,@ 000 runs , despite a rise in the number of batsmen who average more than 50 since 2000 . Among openers who have scored 5 @,@ 000 Test runs , he has the third best average behind Sutcliffe and Len Hutton . He was comfortably the leading Test run @-@ scorer during his career , and had the highest number of Test runs at the time of his retirement . Between 1910 and 1929 , he averaged 65 @.@ 55 in Test cricket .
Gideon Haigh suggests that Hobbs was a " spontaneous and original " , trend @-@ setting batsman who was not afraid to depart from orthodoxy . Gerald Howat notes that , aside from his batting achievements , " Hobbs 's biographers and obituarists could strike no discordant note . He was a man of moral probity , religious conviction , and personal commitment . And he was humble enough to see himself as an ordinary person blessed with one extraordinary talent , which he put into its proper perspective . It was an attitude of mind which tempered the sternness of his approach with an engaging humour and a delight in playing practical jokes . " Among his contemporaries , Hobbs was regarded as modest and kind , and never criticised other players . He avoided confrontation , although he was " quietly determined " , according to Wisden , and tried to avoid publicity . According to Fender , Hobbs " gave stature " to the profession of cricket . Modern critics have expressed some reservations : some have pointed out that his batting average , although high , has been surpassed by others , and that among his many centuries , few were as large as other players managed . However , others contend that his impact on the game , his achievement in showing that professionals could bat as freely and stylishly as amateurs , and his kindness place him among the top cricketers of all time . Wisden described him in 2000 : " More than anyone else , he lifted the status and dignity of the English professional cricketer . " In summing up his place in history , it said : " He was not an artist , like some of his predecessors , nor yet a scientist , like some of the moderns ; he was perhaps the supreme craftsman . "
= = Personal life = =
= = = Family life = = =
In 1900 , Hobbs met Ada Ellen Gates , a cobbler 's daughter , at an evening church service held in St Matthew 's , Cambridge . The progress of their relationship was slowed by Hobbs ' shyness and devotion to cricket , but the pair eventually married on 26 September 1906 at the church in which they met . They planned to keep the event quiet , but it was reported in the press and the couple received gifts and messages from Hobbs ' Surrey team @-@ mates . Hobbs so disliked being separated from his wife during cricket tours that in later years she often accompanied the team overseas . They had four children : Jack , born in 1907 , Leonard in 1909 , Vera in 1913 and Ivor in 1914 .
Hobbs and his wife lived in rented property for the first years of their marriage . His earnings placed them roughly in the bracket of lower middle class according to McKinstry : although more prosperous than he had been during his childhood , the family were not initially financially comfortable . Hobbs ' wages increased with his reputation so that by 1913 , he was earning £ 375 each year , placing his family within the bracket of the London middle class . After several years of moving from one property to another , he was able to buy his own house in 1913 , in Clapham Common , a prosperous area of London . By the middle of the 1920s , cricket in England was extremely popular and the players were famous . Hobbs was the biggest attraction and a combination of his cricket earnings ( estimated to be around £ 780 each year ) , the income from his business , product endorsement — he was one of the first cricketers to benefit from lending his name to commercial products — and ghostwritten books and articles made him relatively wealthy . According to McKinstry , his annual earnings probably reached £ 1 @,@ 500 a year by 1925 , more than a family doctor at the time . Consequently , in 1928 the family moved to a large house in private grounds and Hobbs was able to send his children to private schools . He had greater financial independence than most contemporary cricketers , but was always first concerned to give his family the security lacking from his childhood .
= = = Retirement and final years = = =
Following his retirement from cricket in 1934 , Hobbs continued to work as a journalist , first with Jack Ingham then with Jimmy Bolton as his ghostwriters . He accompanied the MCC team to Australia in 1936 – 37 and published four books which sold well in the 1930s . In addition , he produced two ghostwritten autobiographies , but generally avoided self @-@ publicity or controversy . He continued to work at his sports shop and he and Ada moved home several times . By the mid @-@ 1930s , his wife was becoming mentally and physically frail . Hobbs supported several charities in his spare time and continued to play cricket at club and charity level .
During the Second World War , Hobbs served in the Home Guard at New Malden . In 1946 , Hobbs became the first professional to be elected to the Surrey committee . The same year , he and his wife moved to Hove , following several years of health concerns and worries over his business and children . Ada 's health continued to deteriorate , and the couple spent some time in South Africa in an attempt to aid her recuperation .
In 1953 , Hobbs was knighted , the first professional cricketer to be so honoured . He was reluctant to accept and only did so when convinced that it was an honour to all professional cricketers , not just himself . In the same year , John Arlott formed the " Master 's Club " , a group of Hobbs ' friends who met regularly to toast him . Hobbs remained active into the 1960s , including working in his shop . By the late 1950s , Ada was wheelchair @-@ bound and Hobbs spent most of his time caring for her . She died in March 1963 . Hobbs ' health began to fail shortly afterwards and he died on 21 December 1963 at the age of 81 . He left £ 19 @,@ 445 in his will and was buried in Hove Cemetery . A memorial service was held at Southwark Cathedral in February 1964 .
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= Bill King ( Royal Navy officer ) =
Commander William Donald Aelian " Bill " King , DSO & Bar , DSC ( 23 June 1910 – 21 September 2012 ) was a British naval officer , yachtsman and author . He was the oldest participant in the first solo non @-@ stop , around @-@ the @-@ world yacht race , the Sunday Times Golden Globe Race , the only person to command a British submarine on both the first and last days of World War II . At the time of his death , he was the last surviving British World War II submarine commander .
Brought up by his mother and grandmother , King went to the Royal Naval College in Dartmouth . He was first assigned to the battleship Resolution , and later became commanding officer of the submarine Snapper . He served on three separate vessels in World War II , and was promoted to commander and awarded seven medals during the war . King not only survived World War II , but succeeded in a singlehanded circumnavigation in 1973 on his third attempt . During the latter journey , he managed to reach port despite a collision with a large sea creature 400 miles ( 640 km ) southwest of Australia .
= = Family background and childhood = =
William Donald Aelian King was born to William Albert de Courcy King and Georgina Marie MacKenzie in 1910 . King 's grandfather , William King , was Chair of Mineralogy and Geology at Queen ’ s College , Galway . He was appointed when the College first opened in 1849 . Grandfather King was the first to argue that neanderthals were a species separate from modern humans .
King 's father , William Albert de Courcy King , was born in 1875 . He married Georgina Marie , daughter of a " Mr. D. F. MacKenzie , of Collingwood Grange , Camberley , Surrey " in June 1908 . De Courcy King attended Royal Military Academy , Woolwich , and then the School of Military Engineering , Chatham . He received his commission as a second lieutenant in the Royal Engineers in 1894 . Prior to World War I , his postings included Saint Lucia in the 1890s , where the Engineers constructed gun emplacements and fortified coal stations , and South Africa , where the Engineers built blockhouses ( designed by Major S. R. Rice , RE ) during the Anglo Boer War . De Courcy King was awarded the Distinguished Service Order ( DSO ) in 1916 while a major . During the First World War Lieutenant @-@ Colonel De Courcy King served with the 36th ( Ulster ) Division in Belgium .
De Courcy King was killed on 27 May 1917 at the age of 42 , and lies buried at Dranoutre Military Cemetery in Belgium . In April the Engineers had helped prepare for the Battle of Arras , primarily tunnelling and mining of enemy positions .
As a result of his father 's death , Bill King was brought up by his mother and grandmother . His MacKenzie grandmother was a formidable woman who learned to ski at the age of 75 and still sailed in her eighties .
= = Early naval career = =
After preparatory school , at the age of twelve , King was sent to the Royal Naval College , Dartmouth , in Devon . In the 2006 documentary about the disastrous 1968 round @-@ the @-@ world yacht race ; Deep Water , King said that he had been a boxer and a " champion long @-@ distance runner " in his youth .
From December 1927 to April 1930 , King was posted to the battleship Resolution , which served in the Mediterranean . During this time he became a midshipman . From June 1932 to January 1934 , he was posted to the submarine Orpheus , which served near China . He was promoted to lieutenant in 1932 . In April 1935 , King was appointed first lieutenant of the service vessel Pigmy , formerly the Polish sailing vessel Iskra , used by the Royal Navy at Gibraltar to supply the 8th Submarine Squadron . After seven months , he was transferred to Starfish , then to Narwhal , before being sent to Portsmouth for a commanding officers ' course at HMS Dolphin . A four @-@ month stint aboard the submarine depot ship Titania followed , before King was appointed commanding officer of Snapper .
= = World War II = =
During World War II , King served in three submarines of the Royal Navy : Snapper , Trusty , and Telemachus . He patrolled the North Sea , the Mediterranean , and the Far East .
At the outbreak of the war , King and Snapper were sent to patrol the North Sea . King was commanding officer on Snapper from 16 April 1939 to April 1940 . On 3 December 1939 , Snapper sustained a direct hit from a British aircraft while returning to Harwich after a patrol , but without taking damage . Between December 1939 and July 1940 , Snapper sank six ships , mainly in the Skagerrak Strait . These include the tanker Moonsund , the merchant ship Florida , the minesweepers H. M. Behrens and Carsten Janssen , and the armed trawlers Portland and Cygnus . Snapper was later lost under command of Lieutenant Geoffrey Vernon Prowse , either in a minefield or sunk by German depth charges .
In 1941 , King served on the T @-@ class submarine Trusty in the Mediterranean Sea . On 4 December 1941 Trusty unsuccessfully launched torpedoes against a boat which may have been the Italian torpedo boat Orsa . From 21 July 1943 to August 1945 , King was commanding officer of the T @-@ class submarine Telemachus . Telemachus dropped off a special forces unit in western Malaya in October 1944 .
Operating from a joint British @-@ Dutch base at Ceylon , Telemachus sank the Japanese Kadai @-@ class submarine I @-@ 166 in the Strait of Malacca on 17 July 1944 . Telemachus tracked I @-@ 166 for 30 minutes , then fired a spread of six torpedoes . One torpedo hit , and sank the Japanese boat with 89 lives lost ; five men on bridge watch survived to be rescued by the Japanese .
During the war , King was promoted to commander , and awarded seven medals , including the DSO on 9 May 1940 for " daring , endurance and resource in the conduct of hazardous and successful operations in His Majesty 's Submarines against the enemy " , and the Distinguished Service Cross on 6 September 1940 " for bravery and determination during arduous and successful patrols in H.M. Submarines " both whilst in command of Snapper . A bar was added to his DSO on 16 January 1945 " For outstanding courage , skill and determination in one of H.M. Submarines in successful patrols in Far Eastern waters " ( specifically the sinking of I @-@ 166 ) . In 2006 , he received an eighth medal , the Arctic Emblem .
King ended his Royal Navy career as executive officer of the submarine depot ship Forth , an appointment he held from 1 September 1945 to April 1946 . His formal retirement came on 9 May 1948 .
= = Post @-@ war life and marriage = =
On 1 January 1949 , King married divorceé Anita Leslie ( Anita Theodosia Moira Rodzianko King 1914 – 1984 ) . She was the eldest child of Sir John Randolph Shane Leslie , 3rd Baronet and his wife Marjorie Ide , the Vermont @-@ born daughter of the US ambassador to Spain . Bill and Anita probably met in Lebanon in 1943 , where King served for 5 months as executive officer of the submarine base at Beirut . She was on a skiing trip after doing duty in Africa in the Motor Transport Corps in 1940 – 42 , although a letter mentions her being in Beirut in 1941 – 42 . Leslie @-@ King then became an ambulance driver in the French Army from 1944 to 1945 . For the latter , she was awarded the Croix de Guerre in 1945 by General Charles de Gaulle . As Anita Leslie , she wrote over a dozen books , including Love in a Nutshell ( 1952 ) , The Remarkable Mr. Jerome : The Life and Times of Leonard Jerome , Sir Winston Churchill 's American Grandfather ( 1954 ) . In 1974 she wrote the biography of Francis Chichester , the first person to sail around the world single @-@ handedly with only one stop . The Kings had two children , Richard Tarka Bourke King ( b . 1949 ) , and Leonie Rose King ( b . 1951 ) .
After the war , King took up farming and was an avid fox hunter , as was his wife . In 1946 , the Kings bought Oranmore Castle , a 15th century Norman keep built on Galway Bay in county Galway , Ireland for ₤ 200- . Other sources report that Anita Leslie @-@ King was given the castle by her mother , who had bought it in 1946 . For a while , the Kings lived in a hunting lodge outside Oranmore village , designed by Bill , and built while he and Anita went on a " world sailing cruise . " To help combat his wife 's asthma , King developed an organic farm and garden to feed his family . Both Anita Leslie 's mother and grandmother had suffered asthma .
= = Solo circumnavigation = =
By 1967 , King was intent on sailing around the world by himself . He had a boat built for this purpose at Souter 's yard at Cowes , on the Isle of Wight .
King 's boat , the two @-@ masted Galway Blazer II , a cold @-@ molded plywood schooner , was specially designed for him by Angus Primrose . It is not certain whether the boat was named after The Galway Blazers , a local fox hunting club in Galway , Ireland , which dates to 1839 . Based on boats he had seen in China , the 42 @-@ foot ( 13 m ) schooner had a junk rig ( a sail stiffened by battens ) . In this regard Galway Blazer II was similar to Jester , the junk @-@ rigged Folkboat used by former Royal Marine Colonel Herbert Hasler in the first single @-@ handed cross @-@ Atlantic race ( OSTAR ) . King , Hasler and Primrose had " teamed up " to design the boat , which was displayed " at the London Boat Show in January 1968 . "
King 's intention to sail around the world was overtaken by the institution in March 1968 of the Sunday Times Golden Globe Race . Aged 58 , King became the oldest participant in what was the first organised round the world solo yacht race . In Deep Water , King explained that he joined the race as a means of recovering psychologically from fifteen years of service in submarines . This , he said , had left him " a nervous wreck " . He had planned to sail around the world before he heard of the race , which " sort of caught up with me . " An aunt 's legacy provided him with the means to finance the boat .
King was sponsored by the Daily Express and Sunday Express newspapers . One of the shortcomings of the boat was that it had neither guard rails or shrouds to hold on to . King solved this problem with a steel wire that stretched from bow to stern , to which he clipped a harness . His method was then copied by fellow racers Loïck Fougeron and Bernard Moitessier .
King started the race on 24 August 1968 . During the race , King lived on raw food , such as dried fruit stirred into almond paste and green sprouts that he grew on board . He read through the New Testament , the Qur 'an , and Edwin Arnold 's 1880 Buddhist writing , The Light of Asia , as well as " all the best novels , such as Tolstoy . " He said that he did not get depressed during the journey , because of the beauty surrounding him . " You are ... alone with God ... there 's no opportunity to sin " .
King lost radio contact during the race . On 31 October , Galway Blazer II capsized in 50 @-@ foot ( 15 m ) waves northeast off Gough Island while King rested , breaking both masts . King had to be towed to Cape Town , South Africa .
In 1969 , King again tried and failed to circumnavigate in Galway Blazer II . In 1970 , he was ready for another attempt , again using Galway Blazer II . Ill @-@ health and hull damage forced him to put ashore at Australia . After departing on 12 December 1971 , a large sea creature ( a whale or shark ) damaged his boat about 400 miles ( 640 km ) southwest of Fremantle . " Only his skill and heroic efforts were able to keep the vessel afloat until jury repairs could be made " . King was below deck when he heard a shattering sound and saw the hull below the water line bulge inward and splinter . He rushed upstairs and heeled the boat so that the hole was lifted out of the water . He had to hang over the side and submerge himself to carry out emergency repairs with material that included thirteen ropes , sticky tape , collision covers , sheet copper , and sponge rubber . Then he had to fix the inside of the hull as well . After three days of work , he was able to return to Fremantle , " barely able to limp into port " .
The 1970 journey was eventually successful , with King completing his global circumnavigation on 23 May 1973 . In 1975 the Cruising Club of America awarded King the Blue Water Medal in recognition of his feat . The same year Galway Blazer II was sold to Peter Crowther , landlord of a Devon pub . Crowther wrote a book about his experiences with the boat , which was lost on 24 June 1996 during the tenth Singlehanded Transatlantic Race from Plymouth , England , to Newport , Rhode Island in the USA .
= = Later life = =
In September 2007 , King and his daughter Leonie , still lived at Oranmore Castle . His life 's experiences continue to attract media attention , from film to music to art installation .
He was filmed for two documentaries about the Golden Globe Race ; the 1960s BBC short Golden Globe – Lone Sailor Round the World Race and 2006 's Deep Water . His war experiences still fascinate documentary film makers . King was interviewed for two planned productions , a 24 minute episode entitled " To Honour and Peace " for the proposed series entitled Bravery Beneath the Waves , and for The Stick & The Stars : The Life & Times of Commander Bill King .
Most recent attention arises from King 's interaction with Akira Tsurukame and Katja Boonstra @-@ Blom – the subject of print media articles , an exhibition , and video interviews . Tsurukame , son of the chief engineer who perished with I @-@ 166 , in 2004 sought out King . King , Tsurukame , and Katja Boonstra , whose father was killed when I @-@ 166 sank the Dutch submarine K XVI , together planted a tree at Oranmore Castle to honour the fathers of the latter two .
The local paper , The Galway Advertiser , dubbed their threeway meeting at Oranmore Castle a " reconciliation " . Subsequently Akira Tsurukame released video material of his interviews with Bill King on the internet . Two installations in July 2006 at the Project 06 art exhibition in Galway referenced King . Response to Japanese Peace and Reconciliation was arranged in Swan House , and featured art @-@ works by his daughter Leonie King and grand @-@ daughter Heather Finn . The Lost at Sea installation was a collaboration between Galway @-@ based Cane 141 , who set stories told by Bill King to electronic music , and visual artist Roisin Coyle . The latter installation has since been exhibited in Dublin , and in May 2007 at Grace Exhibition Space in New York City .
In 2009 , Bill King 's great nephew Luke Leslie produced the short film King of the Waves , which dramatised King 's solo circumnavigation and encounter with the great white shark . It also included interviews with King himself . It was screened before King and his family in Oranmore Galway on his ninety @-@ ninth birthday shortly before premiering at the 2009 Galway , Cork and Kerry film festivals .
King died in September 2012 . At the time of his death , he was the oldest surviving World War II submarine commander .
= = Published works = =
1958 : The Stick and the Stars . ( Hutchinson ) .
1969 : Capsize . ( Nautical Publishing
1975 : Adventure in Depth . ( Putnam Publishing ) .
1983 : Dive and Attack . Revises and updates The Stick and the Stars , describes author 's experiences during World War II . ( W. Kimber / Hutchinson )
1989 : The Wheeling Stars : A Guide for Lone Sailors . Boston , London : Faber & Faber .
1997 : Kamikaze : the Wind of God ( Minerva Press )
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= Sydney Riot of 1879 =
The Sydney Riot of 1879 was a civil disorder that occurred at an early international cricket match . It took place in Sydney , Australia , at the Association Ground , Moore Park , now known as the Sydney Cricket Ground , during a match between a touring English team captained by Lord Harris and New South Wales , led by Dave Gregory , who was also the captain of Australia . The riot was sparked by a controversial umpiring decision , when star Australian batsman Billy Murdoch was given out by George Coulthard , a Victorian employed by the Englishmen . The dismissal caused an uproar among the parochial spectators , many of whom surged onto the pitch and assaulted Coulthard and some English players . It was alleged that illegal gamblers in the New South Wales pavilion , who had bet heavily on the home side , encouraged the riot because the tourists were in a dominant position and looked set to win . Another theory given to explain the anger was that of intercolonial rivalry , that the New South Wales crowd objected to what they perceived to be a slight from a Victorian umpire .
The pitch invasion occurred while Gregory halted the match by not sending out a replacement for Murdoch . The New South Wales skipper called on Lord Harris to remove umpire Coulthard , whom he considered to be inept or biased , but his English counterpart declined . The other umpire , Edmund Barton , defended Coulthard and Lord Harris , saying that the decision against Murdoch was correct and that the English had conducted themselves appropriately . Eventually , Gregory agreed to resume the match without the removal of Coulthard . However , the crowd continued to disrupt proceedings , and play was abandoned for the day . Upon resumption after the Sunday rest day , Lord Harris 's men won convincingly by an innings .
In the immediate aftermath of the riot , the England team cancelled the remaining games they were scheduled to play in Sydney . The incident also caused much press comment in England and Australia . In Australia , the newspapers were united in condemning the unrest , viewing the chaos as a national humiliation and a public relations disaster . An open letter by Lord Harris about the incident was later published in English newspapers , and caused fresh outrage in New South Wales when it was reprinted by the Australian newspapers . A defensive letter written in response by the New South Wales Cricket Association further damaged relations . The affair led to a breakdown of goodwill that threatened the future of Anglo @-@ Australian cricket relations . However , friction between the cricketing authorities finally eased when Lord Harris agreed to lead an England representative side at The Oval in London against the touring Australians in 1880 ; this match became the fourth @-@ ever Test and cemented the tradition of Anglo @-@ Australian Test matches .
= = Background = =
England cricket tours to Australia started in 1861 , and while successful , were still in their infancy in 1879 , despite the first Test match being played in 1877 . The teams were of variable quality ; while promoters sought the best cricketers , they still had to agree to terms . In addition , many could not afford the time for the long boat trip , the tour itself , and the return voyage — the journey itself often took up to two months . Aside from a tour by an Australian Aboriginal team in 1868 , the Dave Gregory @-@ led campaign in 1878 was the first major Australian tour to England . The tour was generally regarded as a success ; a highlight was the Australians ' famous victory over a very strong Marylebone Cricket Club outfit , which included W. G. Grace , the dominant cricketer of the 19th century , in less than four hours .
Keen to make the most of this success , the Melbourne Cricket Club — the Australian Board of Control for International Cricket was not created until 1905 — invited Lord Harris , an eminent amateur cricketer of the time , to lead a team to Australia . The team was originally meant to be entirely amateur , but two professional Yorkshire bowlers , George Ulyett and Tom Emmett , joined the tour team after two Middlesex players had to withdraw due to a bereavement . The main distinction between amateurs and professionals was social status , and although amateurs were not paid for playing , they did receive generous " expenses " which usually exceeded anything they would have been paid as professionals . Despite the presence of two professionals in the team , the Englishmen were described as " Gentlemen " , a euphemism for amateurs . Now that Ulyett and Emmett were in the team , they did a large part of the bowling , and commentators felt that Harris had overworked them .
At the time , English cricket was dominated by amateurs . These scions of the ruling class were generally educated in elite sandstone private establishments ( ironically called " public schools " ) , such as Harrow and Eton , and universities of the establishment such as Oxford and Cambridge , and to them , sport was a social leisure pursuit . In contrast , the Australians were regarded — by the social standards of the 19th century — as coarse , rowdy and uncultured . The likes of bushranger Ned Kelly heightened perceptions that Australia had a bandit culture . Violence , heckling and abusive chanting among drunken spectators and gamblers at sporting grounds were commonplace in 19th century Australia , and the prevalence of betting was seen as a major cause of crowd unrest . There were many instances of concerning player behaviour during the 1878 tour of England , and Gregory 's men were considered to be unrefined and raucous .
Cheating was a regular occurrence in 19th @-@ century Australian cricket , and the inter @-@ colonial rivalry was strong — the modern states of Australia were separate colonies until their federation in 1901 . As in real life , the sporting rivalry was at its most bitter between the two most populous and politically powerful colonies , New South Wales and Victoria . The endless dispute between the colonies over whether Sydney or Melbourne would be the capital of Australia eventually forced the compromise that saw the construction of Canberra midway between the two cities . With regards to sport , cricket administrators from both colonies sought to undermine their cross @-@ border counterparts . On the field , matches were dominated by tit @-@ for @-@ tat throwing wars . Both colonies sought to stack their teams with players who either had borderline — and sometimes flagrantly — illegal bowling actions to use physical intimidation as a means of negating opposition batsmen . Gregory , whose action was regarded as highly dubious , was prominent in his New South Wales team pursuing a policy of condoning illegal bowling . It was amidst a background of inter @-@ colonial rancour and a belligerent Australian sports culture that the riot broke out .
Soon after Gregory 's 1878 Australian team returned home , Lord Harris 's Englishmen arrived . Australia won the first match , played at the Melbourne Cricket Ground , by 10 wickets . The match was later recognised as the third Test match in history . New South Wales paceman Fred Spofforth — nicknamed " The Demon " because of his ferocious pace — took 13 wickets in the match , including the first ever Test hat @-@ trick . The next tour match was against New South Wales and started on 24 January at the Association Ground in Sydney . New South Wales won by five wickets , despite the absence of Spofforth — who withdrew from the home side after spraining his wrist the night before the start of the match — and Gregory , who had been dropped for missing a training session and failing to provide an explanation for his absence .
= = Match = =
The third tour match and the second game between the English XI ( led by Lord Harris ) and New South Wales — captained by Gregory — commenced on Friday 7 February at the Association Ground . It was usual for each side to select one of the two umpires for a match . The English selected 22 @-@ year @-@ old Victorian George Coulthard , upon a recommendation from the Melbourne Cricket Club . As well as being a star footballer for Carlton , Coulthard was a ground @-@ bowler employed by Melbourne , but was yet to make his first @-@ class cricketing debut . Coulthard accompanied Harris 's men from Melbourne following the Test . New South Wales selected Edmund Barton , who later became the first Prime Minister of Australia .
As both Gregory and Spofforth were playing for the hosts , bookmakers were offering attractive odds against an English win , and New South Wales were heavily backed , having won the previous match with an even weaker side . The Sydney Morning Herald condemned the " impunity with which open betting was transacted in the pavilion " , in defiance of the prominent notices indicating that gambling was banned .
Lord Harris won the toss and chose to bat . At about 12 : 10 pm in front of approximately 4 @,@ 000 spectators , A N Hornby and Lucas started the England innings . They put on 125 for the first wicket before Spofforth bowled Lucas for 51 and Hornby soon after for 67 . Hornby had given a chance during his innings but Lucas did not . Ulyett and Harris steadied the innings after the two quick wickets and added 85 ; Ulyett made 55 before falling victim to a running , diving catch , and Harris made 41 . During his innings , Harris edged a ball to wicket @-@ keeper Murdoch , but Coulthard ruled him not out ; this was noticed by the journalists present and reported the following day . Spofforth cut up the wicket with his feet so badly that it became very difficult to play , and Edwin Evans , bowling from the other end , pitched nearly every ball into the marks . The loss of Ulyett and Harris in quick succession triggered a sudden collapse as England lost 7 / 34 to be all out for 267 . Evans took 5 / 62 and Spofforth 5 / 93 . The English batsmen were productive against the bowling of Edwin Tindall , taking 79 runs from his 27 overs without losing a wicket . At stumps on the first day , NSW were 2 / 53 , with wicket @-@ keeper and opening batsman Billy Murdoch on 28 and Hugh Massie on three .
The match recommenced at noon the next day , Saturday 8 February . Ten thousand were in attendance , and New South Wales started well . Murdoch and Massie took the score to 107 before the latter fell , but the hosts reached 3 / 130 at lunch , having not lost another wicket . However , wickets tumbled through the afternoon , none of the incoming batsmen passed single figures and New South Wales were all out for 177 , a deficit of 90 runs . Tom Emmett took the last seven wickets to end with 8 / 47 . Murdoch batted through the innings for 82 not out , making him the hero in the eyes of the locals . He hit 11 fours , and Wisden called his effort a " grand innings " . The prevailing rule of the time required New South Wales to Follow @-@ on ( i.e. to bat again ) as they were more than 80 runs in arrears . NSW started their second innings around 4 o 'clock . Then , when the New South Wales second innings score was 19 , the opening partnership between Murdoch and Alick Bannerman ended when the former was adjudged run out by Coulthard for 10 .
= = Riot = =
Many in the crowd disagreed with the decision and took exception to it being made by an umpire employed by the Englishmen . That Coulthard was a Victorian added to the emotions of the crowd , who thought along intercolonial lines . The Sydney Evening News propagated rumours that Coulthard had placed a large bet on an English victory , something that the umpire and Lord Harris later denied . Loud hooting came from the pavilion , especially the section where the gamblers , who had overwhelmingly backed a New South Wales victory , were situated . It was reported that well @-@ known gamblers were prominent in inciting the other members of the crowd , amid loud chants of " not out " and " Go back [ to the playing field ] , Murdoch " . Gregory was later accused of trying to fan the dispute and encourage the crowd to gain an advantage for his team . The crowd was already suspicious of Coulthard 's competence and impartiality ; the Sydney Morning Herald commented in that morning 's edition , " The decision [ to give Lord Harris not out on the first day ] was admittedly a mistake " .
The pavilion stood at an angle to the crease , so the members were not in an ideal position to see how accurate the decision was . The uproar continued as it became obvious that no batsman was coming out to replace Murdoch , so Harris walked towards the pavilion and met Gregory at the gate , at which point Gregory asked Harris to change his umpire . Harris refused , as the English team considered the decision to be fair and correct . Lord Harris later said that his two fielders in the point and cover positions , being side on to the crease , had a good view of the incident , and that they agreed with Coulthard 's judgement . Barton said that Coulthard 's decision was correct , and that the Englishmen were justified in standing by their nominated umpire .
It was while Harris was remonstrating with Gregory that " larrikins " in the crowd surged onto the pitch . A young Banjo Paterson , who later went on to write the iconic Australian bush ballad " Waltzing Matilda " , was among the pitch invaders . Of the 10 @,@ 000 spectators , up to 2 @,@ 000 " participated in the disorder " . Coulthard was jostled and Lord Harris , who had returned to the field to support Coulthard , was struck by a whip or stick but was not hurt . Hornby , a keen amateur boxer who had been offered the English captaincy before stepping aside for Harris , grabbed his captain 's assailant and " conveyed his prisoner to the pavilion in triumph " ; it was later said that he had caught the wrong man . Hornby was also attacked and almost lost the shirt off his back . Emmett and Ulyett each took a stump for protection and escorted Lord Harris off , assisted by some members . In the meantime , the crowd anger grew and there was mounting fear that the riot would intensify , due to speculation that the crowd would try to free Hornby 's captive . However , there was only jostling as the players were evacuated into the pavilion , and the injuries were limited to minor cuts and bruises . An English naval captain who was at the ground had his top hat pulled over his eyes and was verbally abused by some spectators . After 30 minutes , the field was cleared .
When the ground was finally cleared Gregory insisted , according to Harris , that Coulthard be replaced . When Harris would not agree , Gregory said , " Then the game is at an end " . Harris asked Barton whether he could claim the match on a forfeit . Barton replied " I will give it to you in two minutes if the batsmen don 't return " . Harris then asked Barton to speak with Gregory to ascertain his intentions . When Barton came out he announced that Alick Bannerman and Nat Thomson would resume the NSW innings . They walked onto the arena and reached the stumps , but before they could receive a ball , the crowd again invaded the pitch , and remained there until the scheduled end of play . According to The Sydney Mail approximately 90 minutes ' play had been lost . Lord Harris maintained his position on the ground , standing " erect " with " moustache bristling " among the spectators , fearful that his leaving the arena would lead to a forfeit .
Sunday was a rest day , so the match resumed on Monday , 10 February . As it was a working day , the crowd was much smaller . Rain had fallen and the sun had baked the playing surface into a sticky wicket , which caused erratic behaviour . Nat Thomson was out for a duck without addition to the overnight total , and a collapse ensued . New South Wales made only 49 in their second innings ; Bannerman top @-@ scored with 20 while six of his colleagues failed to score , while Emmett and Ulyett took four and five wickets respectively , including four wickets in four balls for the latter . England thus won by an innings and 41 runs .
= = Reaction = =
There were widespread allegations by the media and English players that the riot was started by bookmakers , or at least encouraged by the widespread betting that was known to be occurring at the match . Vernon Royle , a member of the English team , wrote in his diary that " It was a most disgraceful affair and took its origin from some of the ' better ' [ gambling ] class in the Pavilion " .
The Australian press and cricket officials immediately condemned the riot , which dominated the front pages of the local newspapers , even though the infamous bushranger Ned Kelly and his gang had raided Jerilderie on the same weekend . The local media were united in their disgust at the scenes of tumult , fearing a public relations disaster would erupt in England . The Sydney Morning Herald called the riot " a national humiliation " , and that it " would remain a blot upon the colony for some years to come " . They accused those involved in gambling of inciting " larrikins " and " roughs " to storm the field and attack the Englishmen . However , they also suggested that some of the blame should be put on one of the English professionals , who " made use of a grossly insulting remark to the crowd about their being nothing but ' sons of convicts ' " . Barton defended the Englishmen and Coulthard , saying that none had done anything wrong . He claimed that Emmett and Ulyett were incapable of insulting the Australians in such a way .
The Australasian claimed that three policemen at the ground idled and allowed the rioters to attack the Englishmen . They said that the riot " forever made the match memorable in the annals of New South Wales cricket " , and lamented the fact that " rowdyism became rampant for the rest of the afternoon " . The paper asked the question " What will they say in England ? " Wisden condemned the unrest as a " deplorably disgraceful affair " and described the spectators as a " rough and excited mob " . Richard Driver of the New South Wales Cricket Association ( NSWCA ) issued a statement of regret for what had happened to the tourists .
= = = Lord Harris = = =
The NSWCA appealed to Lord Harris , and in reply he said he did not blame them or the cricketers of Sydney in any way , but said that " it [ the riot ] was an occurrence it was impossible he could forget " .
On 11 February , one day after the conclusion of the match and three days after the riot , Harris wrote a letter to one of his friends about the disturbance . It was clear that he intended the letter to be printed in the press , and it appeared in full in The Daily Telegraph on 1 April , among other London newspapers , reigniting the furore . Wisden Cricketers ' Almanack considered the incident of such significance that it reprinted the whole correspondence . The letter gives a detailed contemporary account of what Lord Harris thought about the riot .
Lord Harris referred to the crowd as a " howling mob " and said " I have seen no reason as yet to change my opinion of Coulthard 's qualities , or to regret his engagement , in which opinion I am joined by the whole team " . He further added that " Beyond slyly kicking me once or twice the mob behaved very well , their one cry being , ' Change your umpire ' . And now for the cause of this disturbance , not unexpected , I may say , by us , for we have heard accounts of former matches played by English teams . " Harris further accused a New South Wales parliamentarian of assisting the gamblers in the inciting the unrest , although he did not name the accusee . He said
I blame the NSW Eleven for not objecting to Coulthard before the match began , if they had reason to suppose him incompetent to fulfil his duties . I blame the members of the association ( many , of course , must be excepted ) for their discourtesy and uncricket like behaviour to their guests ; and I blame the committee and others of the association for ever permitting betting , but this last does not , of course , apply to our match only . I am bound to say they did all in their power to quell the disturbance . I don 't think anything would have happened if A. Bannerman had been run out instead of Murdoch , but the latter , besides being a great favourite , deservedly I think , was the popular idol of the moment through having carried his bat out in the first innings .
He further accused the Australian public of being bad losers , claiming that they were sparing in their applause upon his team 's victory , and were unable to appreciate skills shown by an opposing team . He summed up his feelings
To conclude , I cannot describe to you the horror we felt that such an insult should have been passed on us , and that the game we love so well , and wish to see honoured , supported , and played in an honest and manly way everywhere , should receive such desecration . I can use no milder word .
= = = Response in New South Wales = = =
The NSWCA were outraged by Lord Harris 's letter and convened a special meeting to consider their response and subsequently had their honorary secretary , Mr J.M. Gibson , write to The Daily Telegraph in reply . Gibson argued that " the misconduct of those who took possession of the wickets has been exaggerated " and that Lord Harris 's account was " universally regarded here as both inaccurate and ungenerous . " The letter said that " We cannot allow a libel upon the people of New South Wales so utterly unfounded as this to pass without challenge " . It went on to accuse Harris of omitting certain facts in his account , which according to the NSWCA , depicted Australia and the cricket authorities in a poor light . These included an accusation that Harris had failed to note that the NSWCA and the media had immediately and strongly condemned the disturbance and treatment of the English visitors . Gibson also criticised Lord Harris for claiming that Coulthard was " competent " , while " admitting ' he had made two mistakes in our innings ' " , especially as Coulthard 's not out ruling against Lord Harris " was openly admitted by his lordship to be a mistake " that favoured the Englishmen . The letter further denied the claim that those who incited the riot were associated with the NSWCA and accused Harris of inflammatory conduct during the disorder .
Certainly the conduct of Lord Harris did not tend to calm the general excitement . His lordship elbowed his way out through the crowd in a manner so violent as to invite assault . He kept his men ' exposed to the fury of the mob ' for about an hour and a half upon the absurd and insulting plea that if he did not ' the other side would claim the match ! ' . But not one of the team received a scratch , and Mr. Hornby dragged a supposed offender of very diminutive stature through the mass to the pavilion , a hundred yards away , in triumph , and amidst general applause , with only a torn shirt as the penalty of his heroism .
Spofforth , Australia 's leading bowler , commented on the incident in an 1891 cricket magazine interview , but put a different slant on the cause . He thought that the English team were victims of intercolonial rivalry between New South Wales and Victoria :
Then the crowd could stand it no longer and rushed on to the field , refusing to budge until the umpire was removed . I have no wish to dwell on this painful occurrence , but I should like to point out that the feeling aroused was almost entirely due to the spirit of the rivalry between the Colonies ... The umpire was Victorian , and the party spirit in the crowd was too strong , ' Let an Englishman stand umpire , ' they cried ; ' we don 't mind any of them . We won 't have a Victorian . ' There was not the slightest animosity against Lord Harris or any of his team ; the whole disturbance was based on the fact that the offender was a Victorian . But Lord Harris stood by his umpire ; and as a result , the match had to be abandoned till the following day .
= = Aftermath = =
Immediately after the game , Lord Harris led his men from Sydney , cancelling the planned return match against a representative Australian side that would have become the fourth @-@ ever Test match . The England team returned to Melbourne where two further matches were played against Victoria on 21 – 25 February and 7 – 10 March . At the farewell banquet hosted by the Melbourne Cricket Club , Harris spoke publicly for the first time about the riot . He was critical of the way his team had been treated by a portion of the New South Wales press , which had " unintentionally " , he trusted , " but with questionable courtesy " , described them " as if they were strolling actors , rather than as a party of gentlemen . " However , the speech was otherwise regarded as reconciliatory .
The NSWCA pressed charges against two men who were charged with " having participated in the disorder " . Their President Richard Driver , who appeared for the prosecution , told the court that " the inmates of the Pavilion who had initiated the disturbance , including a well @-@ known bookmaker of Victoria who was at the time ejected , had had their fees of membership returned to them , and they would never again be admitted to the ground " . The Sydney Morning Herald reported that the two men " expressed regret for what had occurred , and pleaded guilty " and " the Bench fined them 40 shillings , and to pay 21 shillings professional costs of the court " . Despite initial cynicism from journalists , the NSWCA announced a crackdown on betting on cricket matches , and it was reported that over the next 10 years , gambling at cricket matches in Sydney mainly died out .
= = = Impact on later tours = = =
In 1880 , an Australian side captained by Billy Murdoch toured England . The tourists had difficulty finding good opponents ; most county sides turned them down , although Yorkshire played two unofficial matches against them . There was a lot of bad will , exacerbated by the Australians ' arrival in England at short notice , to some extent unexpectedly . This was heightened by an English perception that the Australians came frequently to maximise their profits ; at the time , professionalism was frowned upon . In his autobiography Lord Harris wrote , " They asked no @-@ one 's goodwill in the matter , and it was felt this was a discourteous way of bursting in on our arrangements ; and the result was they played scarcely any counties and were not generally recognised ... We felt we had to make a protest against too frequent visits " . Harris initially shunned the team and tried to avoid correspondence and meetings with them . An attempt to arrange a game against an English XI for the Cricketers ' Fund was turned down , and public advertisements in the newspapers were shunned . W.G. Grace was sympathetic to the Australians and felt that they were not to blame for the riot . He attempted to arrange a game for them at Lord 's , but was rebuffed by the Marylebone Cricket Club , who gave the excuse that the ground was not available .
Despite it being Murdoch 's wicket that started the riot , the English public were more sympathetic towards him than Gregory , and although the Australians played against weak opposition , including many XVIIIs , they attracted large crowds , leading the counties to regret their decision to snub them . Eventually the secretary of Surrey , C. W. Alcock asked Lord Harris to put together a representative side to play the Australians , while Grace acted as a mediator . Luckily for the Australians , Lord Harris had a personal rapport with their captain Murdoch and leading player Spofforth , especially as they shared his antipathy towards throwing . An agreement was reached , and although Lord Harris was generous in agreeing to lead the side , three cricketers who played in the infamous Sydney game — Hornby , Emmett and Ulyett — refused to play . Harris assembled a strong team , which included the three Grace brothers and Australia , who had not faced strong opposition and were without star bowler Fred Spofforth , went down by five wickets in front of 45 @,@ 000 spectators . This game , later recognised as the fourth Test in history and the first to be played in England , is more important than its result , as the custom of cricket tours between England and Australia was cemented . Overall , the tour was a financial success and an effective exercise in mending relations ; the team were received by the Lord Mayor of London at the end of the tour and were given gifts . Profits were healthy and public awareness of the bilateral cricketing relationship increased .
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= 5 to 7 =
5 to 7 is a 2014 American romantic comedy film written and directed by Victor Levin and starring Anton Yelchin , Bérénice Marlohe , Olivia Thirlby , Lambert Wilson , Frank Langella and Glenn Close . Yelchin plays Brian , a 24 @-@ year @-@ old writer who has an affair with a 33 @-@ year @-@ old married French woman , Arielle ( Marlohe ) . Arielle and her husband , Valery ( Wilson ) , have an agreement that each is allowed to have extramarital affairs as long as they are confined to the hours between 5 and 7 p.m.
The film 's premise was inspired by a French couple in an open marriage whom Levin met in the 1980s . Though he completed the film 's first draft in 2007 , the project remained in development for seven further years due to casting issues . Diane Kruger was initially cast as Arielle but was replaced by Marlohe . Filming began in May 2013 in New York City and mainly took place on the Upper East Side of Manhattan . The film 's score was composed by Danny Bensi and Saunder Jurriaans .
5 to 7 was premiered at the Tribeca Film Festival on April 19 , 2014 . It was also screened at the 2014 Traverse City Film Festival , where it won the Audience Award for Best American Film . The film was released theatrically on April 3 , 2015 by IFC Films . It grossed $ 674 @,@ 579 at the worldwide box office and received mixed to positive reviews from critics .
= = Plot = =
Brian Bloom ( Anton Yelchin ) , a struggling 24 @-@ year @-@ old writer in New York City , meets a 33 @-@ year @-@ old French woman named Arielle Pierpoint ( Bérénice Marlohe ) . After their second meeting , Arielle reveals that she is married to a diplomat , Valery ( Lambert Wilson ) , and they have two young children . Arielle and Valery have an agreement that each is allowed to have extramarital affairs as long as they are confined to the hours between 5 and 7 p.m. on weeknights . Brian is perplexed at this information and tells Arielle that he cannot continue the relationship with her , believing it is an unethical affair . Arielle says that , should he change his mind , she will continue to smoke on Fridays at the same place they met .
After three weeks Brian decides to meet again with Arielle . She gives him a hotel key and in the evening at the hotel room they consummate their relationship . They begin to meet regularly at the same hotel room in the evenings . Valery , who is aware of Brian 's affair with Arielle , approaches him on the street and invites Brian to his house for dinner . At dinner , Brian meets Arielle and Valery 's children and is introduced to Valery 's lover , Jane ( Olivia Thirlby ) . Arielle later meets Brian 's parents , Sam ( Frank Langella ) and Arlene ( Glenn Close ) . Upon learning that Arielle is a married mother of two , Sam tells Brian that he disapproves of the relationship , while Arlene accepts that they love each other despite the circumstances . When Brian is invited to a New Yorker ceremony to receive an award for one his short stories , he is joined by Arielle , Valery , Jane , and his parents . Jane tells Brian that her boss Galassi ( Eric Stoltz ) , a publisher , has read his story and wants Brian to write a novel .
Brian meets Arielle at the hotel and asks her to marry him , giving her a ring . She rejects his proposal and tells him that their feelings have always been different due to their age difference . Brian insists that he is truly in love with her , and Arielle reluctantly accepts his proposal , telling him to meet her the next day at the hotel . Valery shows up at Brian 's apartment that night ; he slaps Brian and expresses anger at Brian 's betrayal of the rules and boundaries of an open marriage . He then gives Brian a check for $ 250 @,@ 000 for " expenses " and leaves . The next day , the hotel doorman gives Brian a letter from Arielle in which she explains that although she loves him deeply , she cannot leave her husband and children , and asks him not to contact her again .
Jane later ends her relationship with Valery because it feels like a betrayal of her friendship with Brian , and Brian 's first novel is published by Galassi . After some years , Brian is walking down the street with his wife , Kiva ( Jocelyn DeBoer ) , and their baby son . They run into Arielle , Valery and their now @-@ teenage children outside the Guggenheim . Valery asks about Jane , and Brian tells him that she is married with a son . Arielle shows Brian subtly that she still wears the ring he gave to her before they part again .
= = Cast = =
Anton Yelchin as Brian Bloom
Bérénice Marlohe as Arielle Pierpont
Olivia Thirlby as Jane Hastings
Lambert Wilson as Valery Pierpont
Frank Langella as Sam Bloom
Glenn Close as Arlene Bloom
Eric Stoltz as Galassi
Jocelyn DeBoer as Kiva Bloom
= = Production = =
The story of 5 to 7 was inspired by a couple whom writer @-@ director Victor Levin met in France in 1987 . The couple had an open marriage ; each spouse had an extramarital lover and , according to Levin , " they were all terribly civilized with the arrangement " . After meeting the couple , Levin " filed away " the idea until he could work out how to incorporate it into a larger story . He conceived the complete plot after his children 's birth in the early 2000s . Levin wrote the first draft of the film in March 2007 . His agent at William Morris Endeavor introduced him to Julie Lynn , who read the script and agreed to produce it . In 2011 , Lynn partnered with Bonnie Curtis , who also became a producer on the film . The project remained in development for seven years due to difficulties in finding appropriately " box office @-@ eligible " actors whose schedules lined up . The budget was primarily financed by Demarest Films , with additional funding from private investors including Sam Englebardt , David Greathouse and Bill Johnson .
Levin approached Anton Yelchin to star in 5 to 7 after seeing the actor 's performance in the 2011 film Like Crazy . He wrote Yelchin a " beseeching " letter asking him to accept the role ; Yelchin never received the letter but nevertheless agreed to star in the film . In 2012 , it was announced that Diane Kruger had been cast as Yelchin 's lover , but she was later replaced by Bérénice Marlohe . Glenn Close was cast through Curtis and Lynn , who had produced Close 's 2011 film Albert Nobbs and remained close friends with her . The film also features cameo appearances from several prominent New Yorkers : civil rights activist Julian Bond , chef Daniel Boulud , the New York Philharmonic conductor Alan Gilbert and The New Yorker editor David Remnick .
Filming was originally scheduled to begin in February 2013 , but was delayed until May 2013 . The film was shot by cinematographer Arnaud Potier on an Arri Alexa camera in CinemaScope widescreen format . Levin and Potier decided to use minimalistic wide shots and long takes to avoid " reminding the audience that it 's a movie " with unnecessary cuts . Filming mainly took place on the Upper East Side of New York City . Specific filming locations included the Carlyle Hotel , the St. Regis Hotel , The Guggenheim , Fifth Avenue , Grand Army Plaza , Le Charlot restaurant and Crawford Doyle Booksellers . The only major location used outside of the Upper East Side was Brian 's apartment , which was filmed on 30th Street in Midtown Manhattan . Shots of plaques on Central Park benches are interspersed throughout the film ; Levin sent a group of interns to find interesting inscriptions on the benches in Central Park and selected about thirty that were filmed on the last day of shooting . The crew adopted a bench of their own whose plaque is shown at the end of the film 's credits .
Levin initially planned to use a jazz soundtrack but found classical music more apt after completing the filming . He hired Danny Bensi and Saunder Jurriaans to compose the film 's score , which consisted of two main melodies , one a waltz and the other a more classical theme .
= = Release = =
5 to 7 was premiered at the Tribeca Film Festival on April 19 , 2014 , and went on to be screened at the Traverse City Film Festival , Savannah Film Festival , Denver Film Festival , Palm Springs International Film Festival , Cinequest Film Festival , Hamptons International Film Festival , Carmel International Film Festival , Virginia Film Festival Boulder International Film Festival , and Bermuda International Film Festival . It won the Audience Award for Best American Film at the Traverse City Film Festival , and was nominated for Best Narrative Feature at the Bermuda International Film Festival .
IFC Films acquired the United States distribution rights to the film in June 2014 . It was released theatrically on April 3 , 2015 in New York and Los Angeles , grossing $ 18 @,@ 006 from two locations on its opening weekend . It later expanded to 27 theaters and earned a total of $ 162 @,@ 685 from six weeks in American theaters . Outside of North America , the film was most successful in Mexico ( where it grossed $ 259 @,@ 757 ) and Russia ( where it grossed $ 120 @,@ 909 ) ; it earned a total of $ 511 @,@ 894 internationally , making a total worldwide gross of $ 674 @,@ 579 .
= = Reception = =
On the review aggregator site Rotten Tomatoes , 5 to 7 holds a 70 % approval rating based on 50 reviews with an average rating of 5 @.@ 7 / 10 . The site 's consensus states : " 5 to 7 too often settles for rom @-@ com clichés , but they 're offset by its charming stars , sensitive direction , and a deceptively smart screenplay . " On Metacritic , the film has a score of 52 out of 100 based on reviews from 22 critics , indicating " mixed or average reviews " .
The San Francisco Chronicle 's Mick LaSalle enjoyed the film and praised Marlohe 's performance in particular . He felt that 5 to 7 was " in that rare category of romantic drama that seems aimed for a male audience " , comparing Yelchin 's role to that of Kristen Stewart in The Twilight Saga . Variety critic Peter Debruge commended Levin for his " earnest , heart @-@ on @-@ his @-@ sleeve approach " , referring to the film as " courageously sentimental in an age of irony " . He also highlighted the " elegant , traditional " classical score and minimalist cinematography . John DeFore of The Hollywood Reporter opined that 5 to 7 was " sumptuous and romantic in an attractively old @-@ fashioned way " despite its clichéd plot devices . He praised Potier 's " dreamily hazy " cinematography and Yelchin 's performance . The Los Angeles Times ' Betsy Sharkey found the film " charm [ ing ] " in spite of what it lacked in plot and character development . She credited the cinematography , music , production design and costumes with giving the film " a kind of gauzy loveliness " . Peter Keough , who awarded the film 2 @.@ 5 out of 4 stars for The Boston Globe , felt that the film relied on stereotypes and cliché but nevertheless offered " refreshing innovations " to the romance genre . He praised Marlohe 's performance and the comic relief provided by " the oddly but perfectly cast Glenn Close and Frank Langella " .
The New York Times ' chief film critic Manohla Dargis found the plot of 5 to 7 to be inauthentic and the characters " unpersuasive " . She criticized Marlohe 's " opaque , physically stiff " performance and the similarities of the film to Woody Allen 's Manhattan @-@ based works . The Washington Post 's Ann Hornaday also felt that the film lacked authenticity , writing that it " feels more constructed than lived " . She praised Yelchin 's " modest , endearing lead performance " but found Arielle 's character underdeveloped . Rodrigo Perez of The Playlist referred to 5 to 7 as " groan @-@ worthy " , " sappy and painfully jejune " , finding the premise implausible and melodramatic . He found Brian 's character uninteresting and two @-@ dimensional and believed that he was a stand @-@ in for " an adolescent male fantasy " . The Village Voice 's Amy Nicholson also felt that Brian was an unsympathetic character and that his relationship with Arielle was not believable . She criticized the film 's reliance on national stereotypes and the " artistic @-@ martyr trope " .
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= Hotel Polen fire =
The Hotel Polen fire occurred on 9 May 1977 in Amsterdam , the Netherlands . The conflagration destroyed the Hotel Polen ( Hotel Poland ) , a five story hotel in the centre of the city which had been built in 1891 , as well as the furniture store on the ground level and a nearby bookstore . Many of the tourists who stayed at the hotel ( of whom the majority were Swedes ) jumped to their deaths trying to escape the flames . Upon their arrival , the fire department used a life net to help people escape , but not everyone could be saved . The incident resulted in 33 deaths and 21 severe injuries . The cause of the fire is unknown .
The hotel was located between the Kalverstraat ( no . 15 @-@ 17 ) and the Rokin ( no . 14 ) , near the present day Madame Tussauds . Its place is now occupied by the Rokin Plaza , which was originally an office building , today it houses several fashion shops . The Polish @-@ born artist Ania Bien created a photographic installation based on the fire in 1986 , which compared it to the Holocaust .
= = Background = =
In the beginning of the 16th century , there was an inn on the site where the Hotel Polen was later located . At the end of the 18th century , the " Poolsche Koffiehuis " ( Polish Coffee House ) was established , which began offering guest accommodation in 1857 . In 1891 , the Hotel Polen was established by the " Maatschappij tot Exploitatie van het Poolsche Koffiehuis " ( Polish Coffee House Society ) , after the adjacent space on the Rokin was bought , and a building was constructed there which was possibly designed by the architect Pierre Cuypers , who also designed the Amsterdam Central Station and the Rijksmuseum . Another source lists Eduard Cuypers as the architect . The hotel was five stories high and on the ground level of the building a café @-@ restaurant was opened .
The Hotel Polen was once known as a fashionable place to stay . The café @-@ restaurant was closed at the end of 1974 and its location was subsequently rented to the furniture store Inden . The hotel remained open as a part of the Krasnapolsky Concern .
The building , including the load @-@ bearing elements , was constructed of wood . There were 10 fire extinguishers and 11 fire hoses in the hotel . Only a few escape routes had proper emergency lighting and directions to the emergency exits , and the hotel was also not on a hotline with the emergency centre of the fire department . The building had been inspected by the fire department , first in February 1976 , and later in the beginning of 1977 , after which the hotel 's management was notified in writing that there were severe fire safety defects . They issued a list of proposed improvements to be implemented by the hotel , such as complying with the building regulations and the regulations for residence facilities .
= = The fire = =
On the night of Sunday 8 May to Monday 9 May 1977 , about 100 people were staying in the Hotel Polen , including a large group of Swedish tourists . About 6 : 20 am , the hotel staff were preparing for breakfast service , when one of them noticed smoke that seemed to be coming from the freight elevator ( which had not been used since the café @-@ restaurant on the ground floor had closed the previous evening ) . The night porter was alerted . Contrary to instructions , he did not call the fire department immediately ; instead , he poured some buckets of water into the shaft , in an attempt to subdue the fire . By the time he decided to call the fire department , the hotel was filling with smoke . The night porter was unable to reach the phone at the front desk because the fire had already reached it . The porter then ran outside , where he stopped the driver of a laundry truck serving the hotel , and instructed him to drive to the Hotel Krasnapolsky to warn them and to call the fire department .
By 6 : 30 am the fire was spreading very quickly through the building , although from the outside nothing was visible . Because of the wooden construction , the building was soon engulfed in flames . The guests on the top level could not escape and stood panicked in the windows . When the fire reached the rooms of some guests , they leaped out of the windows to escape . At 6 : 42 the first large fire engine arrived . On the street there lay several dead and injured people , who had jumped from their hotel room windows . On the lower floor , the furniture store Inden was also on fire . The fire fighters tried to fold out a life net in the Papenbroekssteeg ( which runs between the Rokin and the Kalverstraat ) but the alley was too narrow for it .
On the front side , on the Rokin , the rescue operations of the fire department were also hampered . There were so many people standing on the window ledges screaming that the fire fighters did not know who to save first . Time was also lost because some people threw their luggage in the life net and then jumped into it themselves , causing injuries . Some people fell to the side of the net and were severely injured . Just before 7 : 00 am the part of the hotel which faced the Kalverstraat collapsed . The burning debris landed on the fire engine in the Kalverstraat , and the fire fighters barely escaped to safety . The nearby book store was also burned out and fires broke out in several buildings on the other side of the Kalverstraat , which were quickly brought under control .
At about 8 : 30 am the wooden construction of the main part of the building also burned through and collapsed . Despite the fact that there were still people in the building and more people were lying around the building severely injured , the fire fighters decided to withdraw . The fire department proceeded to extinguish the smoking debris , and at 9 : 30 am the fire was declared under control . The building 's collapse left a gaping hole ; of the hotel , the furniture store and the book store , almost nothing remained .
The disaster caused the deaths of 33 people : 32 tourists ( 17 of them were Swedes ) and the occupant of the apartment above the book store . Eighteen charred bodies were recovered from the debris . Thirteen people , who had jumped from windows , either died or were severely injured . Among the dead was the celebrated German concert musician and composer Walter Kraft , longtime organist of St. Mary 's Church , Lübeck . Of the 57 people who were injured , 21 had severe injuries . Two guests from the United States escaped without injury .
= = Possible cause = =
The cause of the fire could not be determined with certainty . One possibility is that a fire smouldered in the furniture store Inden under the hotel , and the opening of the elevator shaft in the morning provided an inflow of oxygen , causing the fire to spread . There is also a theory that the fire was set by burglars who tried to cover their tracks ; however , there was no evidence of a burglary .
The high number of casualties was a consequence of the wooden construction of the building , the poorly marked escape routes and the shortage of safety equipment .
= = Cultural impact = =
Polish @-@ born artist Ania Bien produced a photographic art installation in 1986 called " Hotel Polen " . She fabricated 18 replicas of the hotel 's menu stands , and used them to display photographs alluding to the Holocaust . David Levi @-@ Strauss wrote that Bien 's art piece is a " polysemous work of absence , in which what happens between images is the most important . " The work was displayed at the San Francisco Museum of Modern Art in 1987 and at the Amsterdams Historisch Museum in 1988 .
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= Australia 31 – 0 American Samoa =
On 11 April 2001 , the Australian and American Samoa national association football teams played each other in a qualifying match for the 2002 FIFA World Cup . The match was played at the International Sports Stadium in Coffs Harbour , Australia . Australia set a world record for the largest victory in an international football match , winning the game 31 – 0 . Australia 's Archie Thompson also broke the record for most goals scored by a player in an international match by scoring 13 goals . David Zdrilic , the scorer of eight goals in the match , achieved the second highest number of goals in an international match since World War I.
The outcome of the match led to debates about the format of qualification tournaments , with the Australian manager Frank Farina and Thompson feeling that preliminary rounds should be introduced to avoid such unbalanced matches , views shared by the international footballing body FIFA . It eventually led to the introduction of a preliminary round in the Oceanian zone qualification for the 2006 FIFA World Cup . The unbalanced level of opponents also partly contributed to Australia 's move to the Asian Football Confederation in 2006 .
= = Background = =
The first attempt from Oceanian teams to qualify for the FIFA World Cup came with the 1966 FIFA World Cup . In subsequent tournaments they entered joint qualification competitions with the Asian zone , until a separate qualification round for the Oceania Football Confederation was introduced in 1986 . By the 2002 FIFA World Cup qualification tournament , this had grown to a competition with ten teams entering . The ten teams were divided into two groups of five teams , where each team played against each other once . The two group winners would advance to the final round and played against each other in a home and away format . The winner of Oceania would advance to the intercontinental play @-@ off round against the fifth best team in the South American zone for a place in the World Cup . Australia and American Samoa were placed in Group 1 along with Fiji , Samoa and Tonga with the matches to be played at Coffs Harbour , Australia during April 2001 .
Australia , along with New Zealand , were widely recognized as the strongest teams in the Oceanian zone . They were the only teams to have won the OFC Nations Cup , and the only ones to have qualified for the World Cup : Australia had qualified in 1974 and New Zealand in 1982 . American Samoa were one of the weakest teams in the world , having lost all of their official international matches since they had joined FIFA in 1998 . Prior to the match , Australia was ranked 75th in the FIFA World Rankings , while American Samoa was ranked 203rd , the lowest of all FIFA members .
Two days before the match , Australia recorded a 22 – 0 win over Tonga , breaking the previous record for the largest win in an international match , held by Kuwait who won 20 – 0 against Bhutan in 2000 . American Samoa had suffered two losses prior to the match , a 13 – 0 loss to Fiji and an 8 – 0 loss to Samoa .
= = Match summary = =
Australia fielded a team with several rarely used players as many regulars were either rested or omitted from the team . Strikers John Aloisi and Damian Mori who combined for 10 goals in the 22 – 0 win over Tonga were also omitted for this match . The American Samoa team were troubled by passport issues , with only one member of their original 20 @-@ man senior team , goalkeeper Nicky Salapu , eligible to play . Some hint that the passport issue was an Australian ploy to win the match by a large margin in order to secure the team 's move to the AFC . American Samoa were also unable to call their under @-@ 20 players because most of them were involved in high school exams at the time . They were forced to draft in their youth players , including three 15 @-@ year @-@ old players , to put together a makeshift team with an average age of 18 . According to team manager and Football Federation American Samoa vice @-@ president Tony Langkilde , some of the Samoan players had never played a full 90 @-@ minute game before the match with Australia .
American Samoa held Australia scoreless for the first ten minutes of play until Con Boutsianis scored Australia 's first goal from a corner kick . Archie Thompson scored his first goal in the 12th minute , and his strike partner , David Zdrilic , added his first goal a minute later . Tony Popovic added two successive goals in the 17th and 19th minute to extend Australia 's lead into 6 – 0 . In the 25th minute , Zdrilic achieved a hat @-@ trick , making the score 9 – 0 for Australia . Thompson then scored 6 of the next 7 goals as Australia led 16 – 0 at half time . Thompson led Australia in scoring with 8 goals at half @-@ time , and Zdrilic had 4 goals .
Boutsianis , who scored the first goal of the first half , scored the first goal of the second half in the 50th minute . Boutsianis later added another goal to complete his hat @-@ trick . Thompson and Zdrilic added 5 and 4 goals to finish with 13 and 8 goals respectively . Boutsianis finished with 3 goals , while Popovic , Aurelio Vidmar and Simon Colosimo scored 2 goals each , and substitute Fausto De Amicis scored one goal . In the 86th minute , despite being down by 29 goals , American Samoa managed to launch an attack towards Australia 's goal when Pati Feagiai had a shot , which was saved by Michael Petkovic . That was American Samoa 's first and only shot on goal .
The large number of goals created a confusion over the correct scoreline . At the end of the match , the scoreboard at the stadium showed 32 – 0 and Thompson was credited with 14 goals . After the statistician did a recount , the 31 – 0 scoreline was announced , and Thompson 's total goals count was reduced to 13 . After the match , FIFA went on to release the official statistics after receiving the official report from the referee and match officials , which confirmed the 31 – 0 scoreline and Thompson 's 13 goals .
= = = Details = = =
= = Records = =
Australia 's 31 – 0 win broke the record for the largest win in an international match . The previous record was Australia 's 22 – 0 win over Tonga , recorded two days earlier in the same competition . Both wins surpassed the previous record held by Kuwait in a 20 – 0 win over Bhutan in the 2000 Asian Cup qualification . The match also broke the record for the largest win in a World Cup qualification match . The previous record was held by Iran in a 19 – 0 win over Guam in 2002 World Cup qualification . The match also broke the friendly match record set by North Korea against Guam 21 @-@ 0 .
Apart from team records , individual records were also broken in the match . Australia 's Archie Thompson , who only had two international caps and one international goal prior to the match , scored 13 goals in the match and broke the record for most goals scored in an international match . David Zdrilic scored 8 goals and was widely reported as having recorded the second most goals scored in an international match , after Thompson 's 13 goals . In fact , his figure was less than the previous record of 10 goals , which was achieved by Denmark 's Sophus Nielsen at the 1908 Olympics and Germany 's Gottfried Fuchs at the 1912 Olympics . Nevertheless , this made Zdrilic 's total the second highest in almost 90 years . Thompson also equalled the world record for most goals scored in a recognized senior match , set in 1885 when John Petrie scored 13 goals in Arbroath 's 36 – 0 win over Bon Accord in a Scottish Cup tournament . The previous record in a World Cup qualifying match was seven goals and was jointly held by another Australian , Gary Cole , who scored seven goals against Fiji in the 1982 World Cup qualification on 14 August 1981 , and Iranian Karim Bagheri , who also scored seven goals against Maldives in the 1998 World Cup qualification on 2 June 1997 .
= = Match reactions = =
Australia 's manager Frank Farina criticised the qualification format and questioned the need for these kind of matches . Archie Thompson , who scored a record @-@ setting 13 goals , was delighted with his record , but he also agreed with Farina 's comments . FIFA spokesman Keith Cooper agreed with both comments and suggested a change in the qualification format , with the smaller teams entering a preliminary round . However , Oceania Football Confederation chairman Basil Scarsella , opposed both comments and claimed that the smaller teams have the right to face Australia and New Zealand , similar to Australia having the rights to face stronger opponents such as Brazil and France .
" Breaking the world record is a dream come true for me ; that sort of thing doesn 't come along every day . But you have to look at the teams we are playing and start asking questions . We don 't need to play these games . "
This match and the other lopsided victories in the qualification partially contributed towards the reintroduction of a preliminary round for smaller teams in the qualification for the 2006 FIFA World Cup , in order to avoid these one @-@ sided matches . The significant gap between the two top teams , Australia and New Zealand , and the rest of the teams in the Oceanian zone was one of the reasons behind Australia leaving the Oceania Football Confederation at the end of 2006 to join Asian Football Confederation in order to increase the competitiveness . Starting in the 2010 World Cup qualification , Australia participated in the Asian zone qualification rounds .
The Samoan team was not feeling downhearted after the game , and even embraced and sang to the audience as the game finished . Salapu declared that he enjoyed the game . " I wasn 't embarrassed because we all learned something from it . If we had all our players maybe it would have been only five or six goals , because I was without my best defenders and there was nothing I could do . " Tony Langkilde also defended the goalkeeper , saying that he " kept the score down with a magnificent display " . He also added that " now we are recognised by FIFA , it has really helped spark an interest in football on the islands " . Samoan manager Tunoa Lui commented that football was being played in the Samoan elementary and high schools and " in five years we will be competitive . "
= = Post @-@ match = =
American Samoa closed their qualification campaign with a 5 – 0 loss to Tonga . American Samoa finished bottom of the groups with a -57 goal difference in four matches , without scoring a single goal in the qualifications . Australia continued their qualification campaign with a 2 – 0 win over Fiji and 11 – 0 win over Samoa . Australia finished first in the group with a + 66 goal difference in four matches , without conceding a single goal .
Australia then defeated New Zealand , the other group winner , with an aggregate score of 6 – 1 . By winning the Oceanian zone , Australia advanced to the intercontinental play @-@ off round against Uruguay , the fifth best team in the South American zone , where Australia was defeated with an aggregate score of 1 – 3 , therefore failing to qualify for the 2002 World Cup .
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= Action of 9 November 1822 =
The Action of 9 November 1822 was a naval battle fought between the United States Navy schooner USS Alligator and a squadron of three piratical schooners off the coast of Cuba during the US Navy 's West Indies Anti @-@ Piracy Operation . Fifteen leagues from Matanzas , Cuba , a large band of pirates captured several vessels and held them for ransom . Upon hearing of the pirate attacks , the Alligator under Lieutenant William Howard Allen rushed to the scene to rescue the vessels and seize the pirates .
Upon arriving at the bay where the pirates were said to be , USS Alligator dispatched boats to engage the enemy vessels , as the water was too shallow for the US warship to engage them herself . With Allen personally commanding one of the boats , the Americans assaulted the piratical schooner Revenge . Although the Navy was able to force the pirates into abandoning Revenge , the buccaneers managed to fight their way out of the bay and inflict heavy casualties , including Allen . With their commander mortally wounded , the boats ceased pursuit of the pirates but managed to recover the vessels that had been held in the bay .
= = Background = =
In early November 1822 , the schooner USS Alligator , under the command of Lieutenant William Allen , put in to Matanzas , Cuba , intending to patrol the area as part of the United States Navy 's West Indian Anti @-@ Piracy Campaign . Upon arriving at the port , Allen discovered two Americans attempting to raise $ 7 @,@ 000 in order to pay a ransom to a band of pirates that had captured their vessels . If the ransom was not delivered , the pirates threatened to destroy the ships and rough up their crews . Learning from these men that the pirates were holed up some 15 leagues away , Allen took the civilians aboard and decided to make an attempt at recovering their ship from the buccaneers .
The band of pirates was relatively large , consisting of around 125 men and three armed schooners . One schooner , Revenge , was an 80 @-@ ton vessel armed with five cannon and 35 men ; a second , 90 @-@ ton schooner had six guns and 30 men ; a third vessel displaced 60 @-@ tons , was armed with three cannon and manned by 60 men . In addition to their armed vessels , the pirates also had in their possession five American prizes . These were the ship rigged vessel William Henry from New York , the brigs Iris and Sarah Morril from Boston , and a pair of merchant schooners with one hailing from Rochester and the other Salem .
Allen 's force of 100 was outnumbered by the pirates and also outgunned , with Alligator mounting only 12 six pounders compared to the pirates ' 14 cannons . Despite being outnumbered , Alligator and her crew were experienced veterans , having taken the Portuguese brig Marianna Flora the year before in a bloody action . Allen himself was also an experienced commander who had taken command of USS Argus during her engagement with HMS Pelican in the War of 1812 . Though Alligator 's draft was too deep to chase pirate craft inshore , if need be , she could send her cutter , gig , and launch out with boarding parties to engage the pirates .
= = Action = =
As Revenge was the nearest of the three pirate vessels to the Americans , Allen ordered Alligator 's boats lowered to run inshore and attack her . Some 40 men armed with small arms were put into the boats , with Allen personally taking command of the launch , Lieutenant Dale the cutter , and Midshipman Henley the gig . Revenge was already underway by the time it was sighted and attempted to escape the Americans despite the lack of wind , using its sweeps . After the American boats had rowed about 10 miles ( 16 km ) , the piratical schooner made an about @-@ face and raised a red flag . Upon approaching the piratical schooner , the American craft were fired on with both grape and roundshot . The American boats returned fire with small arms and moved in to board the vessel . Rather than try to fight off the boarding attempt , the pirates abandoned Revenge while another schooner covered their escape . Alligator 's gig manned by Henley and four men was sent off to take Revenge as a prize .
Allen then set off with the other two boats in an attempt to seize the schooner which had helped Revenge 's crew escape . This second schooner maintained a heavy fire upon the advancing American boats , and Alligator 's cutter soon lagged behind as it had taken heavy casualties and had trouble manning its oars . Allen attempted to rally his men by standing up and waving them forward . In doing so Allen exposed himself and was struck by musket fire , taking a round first in the head and then in the chest . With their commander mortally wounded and their crew taking heavy casualties , the American boats withdrew , thus allowing the second piratical schooner as well as a third that had not been engaged , to escape . The vessels the pirates had seized were left behind and recovered by the Americans after the action had ended .
= = Aftermath = =
By the end of the action , the American boats were all damaged and their crews suffered four killed and three wounded . Allen was among the former and died some four hours after the battle ended . Despite the fact that they had escaped , the pirates also suffered heavy casualties , with 14 bodies being counted by the Americans at the end of the action in addition to several buccaneers that were presumed drowned . Alligator returned to Matanzas with the recovered prizes ; there Allen was buried with an escort provided by the local governor .
Alligator left Matanzas on 18 November escorting her prizes back to the United States . The following day , she ran hard aground on a coral reef in the Florida Keys , which has since been named Alligator Reef . Her crew failed to refloat the vessel , but managed to salvage her guns , papers , and other valuables . Fearing that she would be salvaged by pirates , they burnt her and she sank . Though it was previously thought that the location of the wreck was known , a 1996 expedition proved this false and Alligator 's exact final resting place remains unknown . Allen was regarded by the Navy as a hero for his efforts against the pirates and his name would be used as a rallying cry the following year when USS Galliniper and USS Mosquito engaged and defeated a band of pirates led by Diabolito near the same area where the American lieutenant had been slain .
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= Guam Highway 1 =
Guam Highway 1 ( GH @-@ 1 ) , also known as Marine Corps Drive , is one of the primary automobile routes in the United States territory of Guam . It runs in a southwest @-@ to @-@ northeast direction , from the main gate of Naval Base Guam in the western community of Santa Rita in a general northeasterly direction to the main gate of Andersen Air Force Base in the community of Yigo . It passes through Guam 's capital , Hagåtña , as well as intersecting various other territorial highways . Along its route , the highway runs through tropical forest areas , urbanized commercial areas , and residential neighborhoods . The US Military built the road starting in 1941 . Construction ceased with the Japanese invasion in December 1941 and resumed in 1944 . The highway was formally dedicated to the US Marines by the territorial governor in 2004 .
= = Route description = =
GH @-@ 1 begins near the entrance gate to Naval Base Guam , at a junction with GH @-@ 2A . Known as Marine Corps Drive , the route then travels to the northeast through tropical forests along Apra Harbor to the town of Piti . After passing through Piti , the drive runs along Tepungon Beach before turning inland near Asan Point . The road passes the US Naval Hospital and Asan Point ; then it runs parallel to the coast along Asan Memorial Beach through the community of Asan . Soon thereafter , Marine Corps Drive cuts a path due east towards the Island 's capital , Hagåtña where it passes through the northern edge of the city . In this area , GH @-@ 1 runs through commercial areas parallel to the West Agaña Beach Front area . The drive passes the Paseo de Susana before following Trinchera Beach northeasterly through town .
After passing through the capital and the community of Mongmong , the road turns towards the northeast as it skirts to the west of Antonio B. Won Pat International Airport on its way through the village of Tamuning . After the airport , the highway runs inland from the shoreline through the neighborhood of Tumon . It runs northeasterly around the Micronesia Mall before turning southeasterly through residential areas as it cuts across the southern edges of Dededo . It runs to the south of the Guam International Country Club and to the north of the Andersen Air Force Base 's southern unit . Through this area , the north side of the highway is residential areas , and the south side is tropical forests . Marine Corps Drive passes the War Dead Cemetery and turns northeasterly residential areas on both sides of the roadway through Yigo before reaching its terminus at Salisbury Junction , the main entrance to the Air Force Base , where the road continues to the northwest as GH @-@ 9 .
Like most major highways on Guam , a 35 mph ( 56 km / h ) speed limit is posted throughout most of its length . In the past , GH @-@ 1 was one of the few roads to post a 45 mph ( 72 km / h ) limit on lengths of less @-@ developed roadway . However , as more of the area became developed , certain sections of the roads were posted with lower limits . Travelers heading north away from the developed areas are allowed a 45 mph ( 72 km / h ) speed limit . However , the southbound lanes on the same sections remain posted at 35 mph ( 56 km / h ) due to development on the western side of the road .
= = History = =
The United States Military began to develop and construct roads on the island in 1941 . Some roads had existed prior to this , but improvements were beginning to take shape . Only one road , which encircled most of the island , had been graded . It was the primary route linking Agana ( the name of the capital at the time ) to Piti and Asan . This was the foundation for Marine Corps Drive . After the Japanese invasion , little infrastructure improvements were made by the occupiers . Road construction resumed by the US Military after the island was invaded in 1944 . In 60 days , a 12 @-@ mile ( 19 km ) , four @-@ lane super @-@ highway with nine bridges was built after the invasion . The remainder of the roadway was built and numbered under the local administration after Guam was given civil government in 1950 .
Named Marine Corps Drive throughout its length , it was known as simply Marine Drive until the road was rededicated by Governor Felix Perez Camacho in 2004 . In 2012 , the DPW has started to install LED streetlights along Marine Corps Drive . At the same time , construction has started to replace the Agana Bridge along GH @-@ 1 .
= = Major intersections = =
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= Rail transport in Vatican City =
Rail transport in Vatican City consists of two 300 @-@ metre sets of rail tracks and two freight sidings within Vatican City ( named Vatican Railway , Ferrovia Vaticana ) , the shortest national railway system in the world , with only one station . Access to Italian rail lines was guaranteed by the Lateran Treaty ( 1929 ) , and tracks and station were constructed during the reign of Pope Pius XI . The only station is referred to as Vatican City ( officially : Città del Vaticano [ tʃitˈta del vatiˈkaːno ] , also named Stazione Vaticana [ statˈtsjoːne vatiˈkaːna ] ) .
Most railway traffic consists of freight good importation , although the railway has occasionally carried passengers , usually for symbolic or ceremonial reasons .
= = History = =
Pope Gregory XVI ( died 1846 ) prevented the construction of railways in the Papal States , and was reputed to have said " chemin de fer , chemin d 'enfer " ( " road of iron , road of hell " ) . Gregory XVI 's successor , Pope Pius IX , began the construction of a rail line from Bologna to Ancona but the territory was seized by the armies of the Risorgimento in 1861 before it was completed . The utility of rail travel for the mass pilgrimages of the 19th century , beginning with those at Lourdes circa 1858 , was one factor that softened opposition to such technology within the Roman Curia .
The construction of a railway station in Vatican City and its linkage to the Italian rail lines was guaranteed by the Lateran Treaty of February 11 , 1929 . The Directorate of New Railway Construction of the Ministry of Public Works of the Kingdom of Italy implemented this provision with construction beginning on April 3 , 1929 , to establish earthworks 38 m above sea level ( the height of the " Roma - San Pietro " station ) between Piazza Santa Marta and the Palazzo del Governatorato . The construction of the viaduct leading to Vatican City was paid for by the Italian government ; the station within the Vatican was financed from the ₤ 750 million indemnity agreed to in the Lateran Treaty 's financial part . The total cost of construction was reported to be ₤ 24 million .
The station building ( see below ) was constructed between 1929 and 1933 .
The first locomotive entered the Vatican in March 1932 . The station was opened officially on October 2 , 1934 . A Railway Convention was ratified between Italy and Vatican City on September 12 , 1934 , on which date the property passed from Ferrovie dello Stato ( Italian State Railways ) to the Holy See . In October 1934 the Ministry of Public Works gave the completed rail lines to Vatican City and Ferrovie dello Stato , respectively . Legge sulle fonti del diritto ( June 7 , 1929 ) made Italian railway legislation binding on Vatican @-@ controlled railways .
In late March 1944 , during the allied bombing of Rome in World War II , the Vatican discovered a German munitions train stopped on the line by the Vatican railway station .
Pope John XXIII , on October 4 , 1962 , became the first pope to use the Vatican railway during his pilgrimage to Loreto and Assisi one week before the beginning of Second Vatican Council using the Italian presidential train ; the trip was broadcast on the Eurovision Network . Prior to John 's trip in 1962 , Pope Pius IX had been both the last pope to visit Loreto ( as the head of the Papal States ) and the last pope to travel by train . John XXIII also arranged for the remains of Pope Pius X to be transferred to Venice using the Vatican railway .
Pope John Paul II used the railway a few times for symbolic purposes , as early as November 8 , 1979 , but did not use the railway to leave Rome until January 24 , 2002 .
On 21 May 2011 , a special train ran from Vatican City station to commemorate the 60th Anniversary of Caritas .
Pope Benedict XVI used the railway as well ( e.g. , for a pilgrimage to Assisi on 27 October 2011 ) .
Pope Francis 's desire to open the Church 's treasures to the public has resulted in a weekly special train from Vatican City Station that is open to the public and is provided by the Vatican Museums and the Italian railway . A special train for invited guests and reporters inaugurated the run with on 11 September 2015 . This inaugural train was hauled by FS Class 625 steam locomotive 625 @-@ 017 , built in 1915 . The same engine was used by the Italian royal family , and also hauled the train which carried Pope John XXIII to Loreto and Assisi in 1962 . Scheduled trains use contemporary suburban rolling stock to travel from Vatican City railway station to Albano Laziale , via Castel Gandolfo .
= = Railway station = =
The Vatican City railway station ( in Italian , Stazione Città del Vaticano or Stazione Vaticana ) is the only railway station of the Vatican Railway . It was built approximately 20 m from the Entrance Gateway by architect Giuseppe Momo . Construction began on April 3 , 1929 , and the station began operation in 1933 . Its simple white , Italian marble design was described by writer H. V. Morton as " more like a branch of the Barclay Bank in London . " The station building is composed of white marble , and its dimensions are 61 x 21 @.@ 5 m . The central body is 16 @.@ 85 m tall and the lateral ones 5 @.@ 95 m . Part of the station building continues in use as passenger station and goods ( rail freight ) office , whilst part now houses the Vatican numismatic and philatelic museum . The railway station also houses the small Vatican tax @-@ free department store , a private facility open only to Vatican subjects and diplomats .
= = Route = =
The Vatican City State Railway branches off from the Rome to Viterbo railway line at the Roma San Pietro railway station and crosses Gelsomino valley via a 143 @.@ 12 metre long masonry viaduct of eight 15 @.@ 30 metre arches ( bearing the Fasces and the Savoy Coat of Arms ) , which crosses Viale Vaticano ( which it interrupts ) and Via Aurelia . The Via delle Cave and the Via del Gelsomino are also interrupted by the viaduct and thus merge with the Via Aurelia .
Before passing through the Vatican City walls and terminating in the Vatican City railway station , the line passes under an arch decorated with the Coat of Arms of Pope Pius XI with a two @-@ piece 35 @.@ 5 ton iron gate which slides into the recesses of the Vatican walls . The gate is closed when there is no traffic scheduled on the line .
The railway has two tracks ( partly located in Rome , outside the gateway ) , but only one is served by a station platform . Two terminal load tracks , for freight wagons , are situated on the northeast side of the building . They are linked to the main track that ends in a headshunt in a tunnel .
The station is near the Vatican Gardens , behind St. Peter 's Basilica . The gateway separating the station from rail track in Italian territory is part of Leonine Wall . Other buildings near the station are the Governatorate Palace and the Domus Sanctae Marthae .
= = Uses = =
The Vatican railway has been used primarily for importing goods ( before automobile travel became more common and less expensive ) into the Vatican and intermittently for ordinary passenger trains .
The planned papal train of Pius XI was never constructed and the Vatican has never employed any railway workers or registered any rolling stock . The official train of Pope Pius IX remains on display at the Museum of Rome in the Palazzo Braschi .
The Vatican City station has no regularly scheduled passenger trains . Pope Francis 's desire to open the Church 's treasures to the public has resulted in a weekly special train from Vatican City Station that is open to the public and is provided by the Vatican Museums and the Italian railway . Starting from September 12 , 2015 , on each Saturday , visitors to the Vatican Museums can board a train and travel to the Pontifical Villas in Castel Gandolfo . There , passengers can tour the newly created museum and visit the pontifical gardens as well as visit the town . The tour returns the same afternoon to the station of Roma San Pietro . The trains use contemporary suburban rolling stock to travel from Vatican City railway station to Albano Laziale , via Castel Gandolfo .
= = Gallery = =
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= Expedition 1 =
Expedition 1 was the first long @-@ duration stay on the International Space Station ( ISS ) . The three @-@ person crew stayed aboard the station for 136 days , from November 2000 to March 2001 . It was the beginning of an uninterrupted human presence on the station which continues as of July 2016 . Expedition 2 , which also had three crew members , immediately followed Expedition 1 .
The official start of the expedition occurred when the crew docked to the station on 2 November 2000 , aboard the Russian spacecraft Soyuz TM @-@ 31 , which had launched two days earlier . During their mission , the Expedition 1 crew activated various systems on board the station , unpacked equipment that had been delivered , and hosted three visiting Space Shuttle crews and two unmanned Russian Progress resupply vehicles . The crew was very busy throughout the mission , which was declared a success .
The three visiting Space Shuttles brought equipment , supplies , and key components of the space station . The first of these , STS @-@ 97 , docked in early December 2000 , and brought the first pair of large U.S. photovoltaic arrays , which increased the station 's power capabilities fivefold . The second visiting shuttle mission was STS @-@ 98 , which was docked in mid @-@ February 2001 , delivered the US $ 1 @.@ 4 billion research module Destiny , which increased the mass of the station beyond that of Mir for the first time . Mid @-@ March 2001 saw the final shuttle visit of the expedition , STS @-@ 102 , whose main purpose was to exchange the Expedition 1 crew with the next three @-@ person long @-@ duration crew , Expedition 2 . The expedition ended when Discovery undocked from the station on 18 March 2001 .
The Expedition 1 crew consisted of an American commander and two Russians . The commander , Bill Shepherd , had been in space three times before , all on shuttle missions which lasted at most a week . The Russians , Yuri Gidzenko and Sergei K. Krikalev , both had previous long @-@ duration spaceflights on Mir , with Krikalev having spent over a full year in space .
= = Crew = =
The commander , Bill Shepherd , was a former Navy SEAL , whose only spaceflights were on shuttle missions , and at the beginning of the mission his total time in space was about two weeks . Questions had been raised by the Russian space agency about the choice of Shepherd as mission commander due to his lack of experience . Flight engineer Sergei Krikalev had spent over a year in orbit , mostly on Mir , and would become the first person to visit the ISS twice . He had felt excitement to have been one of the first people to enter the Zarya module ( the first component of the space station ) in 1998 , during STS @-@ 88 , and was looking forward to returning . Yuri Gidzenko was designated commander and pilot of the two @-@ day Soyuz mission to the station , had one previous spaceflight , which was a 180 @-@ day stay aboard Mir .
Shepherd was only the second U.S. astronaut to be launched in a Russian spacecraft , the first being Norman Thagard , who launched on Soyuz TM @-@ 21 to visit Mir in 1995 . Shepherd expected one of the biggest challenges for the ISS would be the compatibility of technologies , such as that between Russian and U.S. technologies .
= = Backup Crew = =
= = Background = =
The first component of the space station was the Zarya module , which was launched unmanned in November 1998 . Following this launch , and prior to Expedition 1 , there were five manned Space Shuttle flights and two unmanned Russian flights to the ISS . Some of these flights delivered large modules , such as the pressurized Unity and Zvezda modules , and the first piece of the Integrated Truss Structure . The manned flights were used for partial assembly of the ISS , as well as to start unpacking the supplies and equipment that were being delivered . Prior to Expedition 1 , Krikalev expected the ISS to be very similar to his experience on Mir ten years previous , due to the physical similarities of the stations ' components .
The launch of the Expedition 1 crew occurred a week before the United States presidential election , so it got little attention in the United States . At the time of the mission , the station was expected to be completed in 2006 , and be continuously inhabited until at least 2015 . Due to several delays , including the fallout from the Space Shuttle Columbia disaster , the station was completed in late 2011 , thanks to STS @-@ 134 .
= = Mission highlights = =
The crew of three were on board the International Space Station for four and a half months , from early November 2000 to mid @-@ March 2001 . Major events during this time include the three @-@ week @-@ long Space Shuttle visits , which occurred in early December , mid @-@ February , and at the end of the expedition in March .
= = = Launch and docking = = =
The three @-@ member Expedition 1 crew successfully launched on 31 October 2000 , at 07 : 52 UTC , atop a Soyuz @-@ U rocket on Soyuz TM @-@ 31 from the Baikonur Cosmodrome in Kazakhstan ; they used launch pad Gagarin 's Start , from which the first human to fly in space , Yuri Gagarin , was launched in 1961 . After 33 orbits of the Earth , and a series of rendezvous maneuvers performed by Gidzenko , they docked the Soyuz capsule to the aft port of the Zvezda Service Module on 2 November 2000 , at 09 : 21 UTC . Ninety minutes after docking , Shepherd opened the hatch to Zvezda and the crew members entered the complex .
Alpha
At the end of the first day on the station , Shepherd requested the use of the radio call sign " Alpha " , which he and Krikalev preferred it to the more cumbersome " International Space Station " . The name " Alpha " had previously been used for the station in the early 90 's , and following the request , its use was authorized for the whole of Expedition 1 . Shepherd had been advocating the use of a new name to project managers for some time . Referencing a naval tradition in a pre @-@ launch news conference he had said : " For thousands of years , humans have been going to sea in ships . People have designed and built these vessels , launched them with a good feeling that a name will bring good fortune to the crew and success to their voyage . " Yuri Semenov , the President of Russian Space Corporation Energia at the time , disapproved of the name " Alpha " ; he felt that Mir was the first space station , and so he would have preferred the names " Beta " or " Mir 2 " for the ISS .
= = = First month = = =
In their first weeks on board , the Expedition 1 crew members activated critical life support systems and computer control , as well as unpacked supplies left behind for them by previous supply missions . At this time the station did not have enough electricity to heat all three pressurized modules , so Unity was left unused and unheated . Unity had been used for the past two years to allow U.S. flight controllers to command ISS systems and read station system data .
The Russian unmanned resupply spacecraft Progress M1 @-@ 4 docked to the station on 18 November . The Progress spacecraft 's automatic docking system failed , necessitating a manual docking controlled by Gidzenko using the TORU docking system . Although manual dockings are routine , they have caused some concern among flight controllers since an attempt in 1997 which resulted in the spacecraft colliding with Mir , causing significant damage .
The astronauts had a heavy workload in the first month , as Shepherd told reporters in a space @-@ to @-@ ground interview : " To me , the biggest challenge is trying to pack 30 hours into an 18 @-@ hour work day . " Some of the early tasks took longer than scheduled . For example , the activation of a food warmer in Zvezda 's galley was scheduled for 30 minutes , but it took the astronauts a day and a half to turn it on .
= = = STS @-@ 97 = = =
Endeavour docked with the ISS on 2 December 2000 , on mission STS @-@ 97 , bringing four more Americans and a Canadian temporarily to the station . The shuttle also brought the first pair of U.S. provided photovoltaic arrays , which would provide crucial electricity for further development of the station . In total , STS @-@ 97 brought 17 tons of equipment to the ISS , which also included expandable metal girders , batteries , electronics and cooling equipment .
Three spacewalks were conducted by the crew of STS @-@ 97 , all of which were completed prior to opening the hatch between shuttle and station . On 8 December , the hatch between the two was opened and the two crews greeted each other for the first time . It had remained closed to maintain their respective atmospheric pressures . The Expedition 1 crew took this opportunity to leave the station and tour the inside of the space shuttle , which was thought to be good for their psychological well @-@ being .
Progress M1 @-@ 4
Prior to Endeavour docking , the Russian resupply spacecraft Progress M1 @-@ 4 , which came to the station in mid @-@ November , was undocked to make room for the space shuttle . This Progress spacecraft remained undocked for the duration of STS @-@ 97 , parked in orbit about a mile away from the station . It docked manually again with the station on 26 December by Gidzenko , after Endeavour left . The automatic docking system for this Progress spacecraft had failed on the first docking in November . The crew spent much of the following week unloading the Progress spacecraft .
Christmas and New Year
On Christmas Day , the Expedition 1 crew were given the day off work . They opened presents delivered by Endeavour and the Progress supply ship . They also each took turns speaking to their families . In the following days they did several video downlinks , some with Russian TV stations . The crew had a quiet New Year . Citing a Naval tradition , for the New Year 's entry of the station 's log , Shepherd provided a poem on behalf of the crew .
= = = STS @-@ 98 = = =
On 9 February 2001 , Space Shuttle Atlantis docked to the ISS , bringing the five American crew members of STS @-@ 98 temporarily to the station . The mission was originally planned for mid @-@ January , but was delayed due to NASA 's concerns about some cables on the shuttles . This mission brought the U.S. built Destiny laboratory , which has a mass of 16 short tons . It was installed with the use of the shuttle 's robotic Canadarm , controlled by Marsha Ivins . Astronauts Thomas D. Jones and Robert L. Curbeam helped with the installation during a spacewalk . The Destiny module had a cost of US $ 1 @.@ 4 billion , and would be used primarily for scientific research . During the spacewalk an ammonia coolant leak created a contamination scare , which happened when Curbean was hooking up coolant lines to Destiny . The other two spacewalks went ahead without any problems . While the Shuttle was docked , the control of the station 's orientation was switched from propellants to electrically powered gyroscopes , which had been installed in September 2000 . The gyroscopes had not been used earlier due to the lack of key navigational electronics .
By the end of STS @-@ 98 , the crew of Expedition 1 had been on the station for over three months , and Shepherd stated that he was " ready to come home " . NASA used several techniques to prevent the three crew members from suffering the effects of the " three @-@ month wall " psychological barrier , which had caused depression in previous astronauts . For example , they allowed more time for the crew to speak to their families via videophone , and they also encouraged them to watch movies and listen to music they like .
Progress M @-@ 44
On 28 February the third Progress spacecraft to visit the ISS , Progress M @-@ 44 , docked to the Zvezda module . It brought air , food , rocket fuel and other equipment . It remained docked until Expedition 2 , when it was intentionally burnt up during atmospheric reentry , like all Progress spacecraft .
= = = STS @-@ 102 = = =
Space Shuttle Discovery docked on 10 March 2001 , bringing to the ISS the new long @-@ duration three @-@ person crew of Expedition 2 , as well as four short @-@ term crew members of STS @-@ 102 . A few hours after docking , the hatch opened , and all ten astronauts greeted each other , setting a new record for the number people simultaneously in the ISS . The day after docking , American astronauts Jim Voss and Susan Helms began a spacewalk which ended up being nearly nine hours long , and still holds the record for the longest spacewalk ever performed , as of August 2010 . The length of the spacewalk was partially due to some mistakes , including Voss accidentally releasing a small tool . Unable to retrieve it , NASA engineers tracked the tool , and decided to use Discovery 's thrusters on 14 March to boost the station four kilometers higher , to ensure the ISS would not collide with the piece of space debris .
Transferring expedition crews
By 14 March , the expedition crews had completed the change over , but until the shuttle undocked , Shepherd officially remained commander of the station . The morning of the 14th the astronauts ' wake @-@ up call was the song " Should I Stay or Should I Go " by The Clash , at the request of Shepherd 's wife . Shepherd , a former Navy SEAL , said during the change over ceremony : " May the good will , spirit and sense of mission we had enjoyed on board endure . Sail her well . " The commander of Discovery , Jim Wetherbee , said " " For Captain Shepherd and his crew , we hold you in admiration as we prepare to bring you home . This has been an arduous duty for you . This ship was not built in a safe harbor . It was built on the high seas . "
= = = Undocking and landing = = =
The crew 's four and a half @-@ month tour aboard the ISS officially ended on 18 March 2001 , when Discovery undocked . The Expedition 1 crew returned home to Earth on STS @-@ 102 , landing on 21 March 2001 , on a rare night landing at 2 : 30 am local time . Two days after the landing , coincidentally , Mir was intentionally burned up during atmospheric reentry , ending its 15 years in orbit .
= = Daily activities = =
In a typical day , each crew member divided his time between physical exercise , station assembly and maintenance , experiments , communications with ground personnel , personal time , and bio @-@ needs activities ( such as rest and eating ) . The crew 's daily schedule usually operated on UTC ; for example , a typical morning had been scheduled to begin with an electronic wake @-@ up tone at about 05 : 00 UTC . But during the expedition , a more typical wake @-@ up time was actually between 06 : 00 and 07 : 00 UTC . The crew 's sleep habits were sometimes shifted to accommodate the schedules of visiting shuttles or resupply vehicles .
Following the wake @-@ up call , the crew was given some time to clean up , have breakfast , and read e @-@ mail which had been uplinked to them from flight controllers . Their work day included a lunch break at midday ( UTC ) , and ended with a mid @-@ afternoon planning session with flight controllers , regarding the next day 's activities . Most days ended with some entertainment , with the crew watching all or part of a movie ; this was thought to be good for crew bonding as well as their psychological well @-@ being . After watching 2010 , the sequel to 2001 : A Space Odyssey ( film ) , Shepherd commented , " [ There is ] something strange about watching a movie about a space expedition when you 're actually on a space expedition " .
An important part of the crew 's schedule was regular exercise . They had three pieces of equipment for this : a stationary bicycle , a treadmill ( TVIS ) , and a resistance device ( IRED ) for weight @-@ lifting . The bicycle malfunctioned in mid @-@ December 2000 , and wasn 't fixed until March . The treadmill , which used bungee cords to keep the crew member in place , was designed to reduce the vibrations caused by running . A normal treadmill would have produced enough vibrations to shake the station , and potentially affect the sensitive science experiments on board . The treadmill malfunctioned near the end of February , but some in @-@ flight maintenance fixed the problem within a week .
= = = Ground communications = = =
Until the Unity module was available for use a month into the mission , the astronauts used the Russian VHF communications gear ( also called the " Regul radio link " ) in Zvezda and the Zarya module to communicate with the Russian Mission Control Center ( known as " TsUP " ) in Korolev , outside Moscow . The Russian technology didn 't have the use of satellites , so they were restricted to ground passes ( called a " comm pass " ) which lasted for only 10 – 20 minutes . With the arrival of the solar arrays on STS @-@ 97 , they activated the S @-@ band Early Communication gear in the Unity Module , allowing for more continuous communication with Mission Control in Houston via NASA 's network of Tracking and Data Relay Satellites .
During STS @-@ 106 in September 2000 , the equipment for a ham radio was delivered to the station . The first ' ham ' contact with the ground by the Expedition 1 crew was on 13 November 2000 on a pass over Moscow , shortly followed by contact with Goddard Space Flight Center in Greenbelt , Maryland . The crew reported that " Voice quality of ham radio continues to be well above any of our other links . "
The Amateur Radio on the International Space Station project had the crew of the station to make brief windows to radio contact with schools and clubs on the ground . The first school to be contacted by the ISS was Luther Burbank School in southwest Chicago . The contact had been planned for 19 December 2000 , but due to technical problems , it was delayed to 21 December 2000 . Due to the speed of the space station , the window of radio contact only lasted for 5 – 10 minutes , which was usually enough for 10 to 20 questions .
= = = Science activities = = =
Unlike subsequent expeditions , the crew of Expedition 1 had a somewhat modest amount of science experiments to conduct , due to the priority placed on station construction . The plasma crystal experiment , known as PKE @-@ Nefedov , was one of the first natural science experiments conducted on the space station . It was a collaboration between the Max Planck Institute for Extraterrestrial Physics in Germany , and the Institute for High Energy Densities ( part of the Russian Academy of Sciences ) .
Like previous missions , the astronauts took many photos of Earth from the station , over 700 in total , which have been made freely available . These Crew Earth Observations , are intended to record dynamic events on the Earth 's surface such as storms , fires , or volcanoes . For example , a photo from 1 January 2001 shows Mount Cleveland , Alaska , with a plume of smoke , prior to its eruption the following month . On 23 January 2001 , the crew observed a unique perspective of a plume of volcanic ash coming from Popocatépetl , an active volcano 70 kilometres southeast of Mexico City .
An example of a low @-@ maintenance experiment was the protein crystal growth experiment , which had also been flown on previous shuttle missions . The goal was to produce better protein crystallizations than those produced on the Earth , and hence allowing for a more accurate model of protein structures . Of the 23 proteins and viruses attempted during Expedition 1 , only four resulted in successful crystallizations , which was a lower success rate than predicted . Of those successful was the low @-@ calorie sweetener Thaumatin , whose crystals diffracted at a higher resolution than Earth @-@ grown crystal , which resulted in a more accurate protein structure model .
Another research activity was measuring the crew 's heart rates and the station 's carbon dioxide levels to determine the effect of exercise on the station .
= = = IMAX filming = = =
Throughout the mission the Expedition 1 crew filmed footage for use in the IMAX documentary film , Space Station 3D . Highlights of the footage include the first entry into the Destiny module , during STS @-@ 98 ; the Expedition 1 crew showering and shaving in zero gravity ; and the docking of STS @-@ 102 , followed by the change over to the Expedition 2 crew .
= = = NASA = = =
This article incorporates public domain material from websites or documents of the National Aeronautics and Space Administration .
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= Yi Jianlian =
Yi Jianlian ( simplified Chinese : 易建联 ; traditional Chinese : 易建聯 ; pinyin : Yì Jiànlián , pronounced [ î tɕi ̯ ɛ ̂ nli ̯ ɛ ̌ n ] , EE JEN @-@ len ; born October 27 , 1987 ) is a Chinese basketball player who currently plays for Guangdong Southern Tigers in the Chinese Basketball Association ( CBA ) . He has also played in the National Basketball Association ( NBA ) for the Milwaukee Bucks , New Jersey Nets , Washington Wizards , and Dallas Mavericks .
Yi joined the Guangdong Southern Tigers beginning with the 2002 @-@ 03 season , and subsequently won the CBA Rookie of the Year award . In his first five years with Guangdong , the team won three CBA titles . Yi also played with the Chinese national basketball team at the 2004 , 2008 , and 2012 Summer Olympics as well as the 2006 and 2010 FIBA Basketball World Cup .
In the 2007 NBA draft , he was selected by the Milwaukee Bucks as the sixth overall pick . Initially , Yi declined to sign with Milwaukee for several months before agreeing to a contract with them on 29 August 2007 . He later played for three other NBA teams until returning to the Guangdong Southern Tigers in 2012 .
= = CBA career = =
As a child , Yi was not allowed by his parents to join a sports school , which is designed for children predicted to be future sports stars . However , a sports school 's basketball coach who noticed Yi 's potential in playing street basketball persuaded Yi 's family to allow him to train professionally . Hoping to sign Yi to an endorsement deal , Adidas invited him to attend the company 's ABCD camp in New Jersey in 2002 , where he competed against all @-@ American high school players .
After returning to China later that year , he signed his Professional contract with Chinese Basketball Association side Guangdong Southern Tigers and averaged 3 @.@ 5 points per game and 1 @.@ 9 rebounds per game in his first season . He also averaged 7 @.@ 3 points per game and 7 @.@ 3 rebounds per game in four games during the playoffs and won the Rookie of the Year award . Yi was featured in TIME 's August 2003 article titled " The Next Yao Ming " . In each of his next three seasons , Yi led Guangdong to the championships and he was awarded the finals ' most valuable player honor in each of those three years . In Yi 's last season in the Chinese Basketball Association before he entered the 2007 NBA Draft , he averaged a career @-@ high 24 @.@ 9 points per game and 11 @.@ 5 rebounds per game , but his team lost to the Bayi Rockets in the playoff finals .
During the 2011 NBA lockout , Yi signed a one @-@ year contract to return to the Guangdong Southern Tigers . Unlike most NBA players who went to the Chinese Basketball Association during that time , he received an option to return to the National Basketball Association once the lockout had been resolved . After the lockout ended , he signed with the Dallas Mavericks for the remainder of the 2011 @-@ 12 season . Yi rejoined the Guangdong Southern Tigers after he was released by the Dallas Mavericks in 2012 .
= = NBA career = =
= = = NBA draft = = =
Yi was not expected to enter the NBA draft until 2009 because the Chinese Basketball Association ruled that players would not be allowed to leave for foreign leagues until they turned 22 . In early 2006 , however , Yi announced that he would enter the 2006 NBA draft although he eventually decided to withdraw , saying he was " not good enough to compete in the NBA and needed more experience . " A year later on 1 November 2006 , the Guangdong Southern Tigers announced that Yi would enter the 2007 NBA draft .
Yi chose Dan Fegan as his agent to represent him in the NBA draft and flew to Los Angeles to participate in pre @-@ NBA draft camps . Before the draft , Yi was predicted by many to be picked anywhere from third to twelfth . On 28 June 2007 , Yi was selected by the Milwaukee Bucks with the sixth overall pick in the 2007 NBA draft , despite Fegan warning the Milwaukee Bucks not to pick Yi and not allowing them to be one of the teams invited to Yi 's pre @-@ draft private workouts in Los Angeles . Fegan did not want Milwaukee to select Yi because the city of Milwaukee did not have a large Asian @-@ American community . However , Milwaukee 's general manager Larry Harris said they had only drafted the best player available to them . Yi and Sun Yue together would also mark the first time in NBA draft history where two Chinese born players would be selected in the same draft , which was a feat that would not be repeated again until 2016 .
After the draft , Milwaukee attempted to convince Yi to sign with the team and on 2 July 2007 , the owner of the Bucks franchise , Herb Kohl , wrote a letter to Yi and his representatives , hoping to persuade Yi to sign with the team . Three days later , head coach Larry Krystkowiak and Harris met with Yi , attempting to influence him to play for Milwaukee , however , Yi 's representatives requested that the team trade Yi to another team with a city that had a large Chinese presence . Chinese officials also required that any team Yi played for would have to give him sufficient playing time for him to improve for the 2008 Summer Olympics . Kohl made a special trip to Hong Kong to appeal to Yi personally and he assured Chinese officials that Yi would have sufficient playing time . On 29 August 2007 , the Milwaukee Bucks and Yi agreed to a standard , multi @-@ year rookie contract .
= = = Milwaukee Bucks = = =
After being named to Milwaukee 's starting lineup by head coach Larry Krystkowiak in place of Charlie Villanueva to begin the 2007 @-@ 08 season , Yi scored 9 points and three rebounds in a loss to the Orlando Magic for his debut . He played his first home game in Milwaukee three days later and scored 16 points while grabbing eight boards in a 78 @-@ 72 win against the Chicago Bulls . The game was also Yi 's first game to be televised nationally in China , where it was watched by an estimated 100 million viewers . Yao Ming praised Yi 's play in his first few games , saying , " If you compare us in our third NBA games , you will see that Yi 's statistics are far better than mine . "
On 9 November 2007 , Yi played against Yao for the first time when the Houston Rockets hosted Milwaukee in a 104 @-@ 88 loss . Yi scored 19 points and nine rebounds , including two three @-@ pointers while Yao scoring 28 points and nine rebounds . The game between the two was watched by over 200 million people in China , making it one of the most @-@ watched games in NBA history . After the game , Yao called Yi 's talent " unbelievable " and Tracy McGrady said that Yi had a " tremendous upside in this league " . Del Harris , the former head coach of the Chinese national basketball team , also described Yi as the " most athletic 7 @-@ footer in the NBA . "
Yi was named the Rookie of the Month in December 2007 after averaging 12 @.@ 1 points per game and 6 @.@ 6 rebounds per game that month while scoring a career @-@ high 29 points on 14 @-@ 17 shooting in a win against the Charlotte Bobcats on 22 December 2007 . On 30 January 2008 , he was selected for the rookie team in the Rookie Challenge at the 2008 NBA All @-@ Star Game . On 2 February 2008 , Yi faced Yao for the second time when Milwaukee played at home against Houston , which Krystkowiak dubbed the " Chinese Super Bowl . " However , both players struggled during Houston 's 91 @-@ 83 victory over Milwaukee . Yao scored 12 points while Yi injured his shoulder during the game , finishing 6 points and scoring on one of his ten field goal attempts .
On 2 April 2008 , it was announced that Yi would miss the rest of the season with a knee injury . Having already missed eight games with other injuries , Yi played in only 66 out of a possible 82 games in his rookie season , averaging 8 @.@ 6 points per game and 5 @.@ 2 rebounds per game . One of Milwaukee 's assistant coaches , Brian James , later said that " the injuries he had bothered him more than people realized , and he couldn 't play through them . "
= = = New Jersey Nets = = =
On 26 June 2008 , Yi was traded by the Milwaukee Bucks along with Bobby Simmons to the New Jersey Nets in exchange for Richard Jefferson . New Jersey 's team president Rod Thorn said that " we feel strongly he 's going to be a real good player , " and the team 's chief executive Brett Yormark said " it opens up a truly new fan base for us . " Yi stated that he didn 't expect to be traded , but that it was " an honor to join the Nets . "
Through his first 37 games with New Jersey , Yi averaged 10 @.@ 5 points per game and 6 @.@ 2 rebounds per game while shooting 39 % from behind the three @-@ point line , which was well above his average from the previous season . But on 9 January 2009 , Yi broke the little finger on his right hand and was expected to miss four to six weeks . Thorn called it " lousy timing " because " he 'd been playing well , " but Yi said " ( I 'll ) just take my time . I 'll come back . " In voting for the 2009 NBA All @-@ Star Game , Yi finished third in total votes for forwards in the Eastern Conference , ahead of players such as Paul Pierce and Chris Bosh .
Yi made his return from injury after the 2009 NBA All @-@ Star Game in a loss to the Houston Rockets on 17 February 2009 . However , after averaging only 6 points on 36 % shooting after his return , Yi was removed from the team 's starting lineup . His final averages for the season were 8 @.@ 6 points per game and 5 @.@ 3 rebounds per game , as well as a 38 % shooting percentage from the field and 34 % on three @-@ point field goals . After New Jersey finished the season outside of the playoffs , Yi 's agent Dan Fegan suggested New Jersey played better when Yi played more minutes and took more shots , and said it " begs the question [ sic ] ... who 's accountable ? " New Jersey 's head coach Lawrence Frank said that " you have to be patient . He 's only 21 , " and Yi assessed his season by saying he was " still too much up and down . "
In the 2009 @-@ 10 season , Yi returned to the starting lineup for New Jersey . Starting in every game he played but one , Yi suffered several injuries during the season which made him miss 30 games . He sprained his medial collateral ligament on 4 November 2009 , had a laceration on his upper lip on 8 December 2009 , and sprained his left ankle on 8 March 2009 . His final averages for the season were 12 points per game and 7 @.@ 2 rebounds per game , as well as a 40 % shooting percentage from the field and 37 % on three @-@ point field goals .
= = = Washington Wizards = = =
On 29 June 2010 , Yi was traded to the Washington Wizards along with $ 3 million in cash considerations for Quinton Ross . Yi ended the 2010 @-@ 11 season averaging 5 @.@ 6 points per game and 3 @.@ 9 rebounds per game . Washington had until 30 June 2011 to extend Yi 's contract but decided not to .
= = = Dallas Mavericks = = =
On 6 January 2012 , Yi was signed by the Dallas Mavericks to a one @-@ year contract when he returned to the National Basketball Association after one season with Guangdong Southern Tigers . He was immediately assigned to Dallas 's D @-@ League affiliate team , the Texas Legends . Yi benefited from the new collective bargaining agreement rules which allowed players with more than two years of NBA experience to be assigned to the D @-@ League with the players ' consent . On 9 January 2012 , after playing two games for the Texas Legends , averaging 23 points per game and 12 rebounds per game , he was recalled by Dallas . The team faced the Oklahoma City Thunder in the playoffs and in game 3 of the playoff series , Yi played in his first NBA playoffs game in which he scored two points for the team in five minutes .
= = International career = =
Yi 's first major international experience came at the 2003 FIBA Under @-@ 19 World Championship in which he averaged 18 @.@ 9 points per game and 11 @.@ 5 rebounds per game . He made his debut with the Chinese national basketball team during the 2004 Summer Olympics and averaged 6 points per game and 6 rebounds per game at the 2006 FIBA World Championship . His performance impressed coaches on the Chinese national team as well as the coaches from other countries .
In 2008 , Yi was once again selected to play for the Chinese national team at the 2008 Summer Olympics . In China 's first two group stage matches , Yi scored 9 and 4 points respectively , and China lost both their games against the United States and Spain . But in a win against Angola , Yi recorded a double @-@ double , and in a win against Germany , Yi scored 9 points and 11 rebounds , and hit the crucial shot with 28 seconds left to help China advance to the quarterfinals . However , Lithuania ended China 's run by beating them 94 @-@ 68 , as Yi scored 11 points for his side .
Yi , along with former NBA player Sun Yue , was a member of the Chinese national team that played at the 2009 FIBA Asia Championship and the 2011 FIBA Asia Championship . Yi was named as the most valuable player of the 2011 FIBA Asia Championship , averaging 16 @.@ 6 points per game and 10 @.@ 8 rebounds per game . Yi also played for the Chinese national team during the 2012 Summer Olympics , ranking first in rebounds per game with 10 @.@ 2 per game and ranking second in blocks with 2 @.@ 2 per game .
= = Off the court = =
= = = Personal life = = =
Yi is fluent in both Mandarin and his native tongue of Cantonese . He is under contract with Coca @-@ Cola and Yili , a Chinese dairy company , as sponsorship to endorse their products in China , and after a bidding war with Adidas , Nike signed Yi to a six @-@ figure endorsement deal . He was ranked fourth on Forbes ' China Celebrity 100 in income and popularity in 2008 . In 2008 , Yi donated 100 @,@ 000 yuan to support the 2008 Sichuan earthquake victims and also participated in the 2008 Summer Olympics ' torch relay by carrying the torch during the Hainan leg of the relay .
= = = Age controversy = = =
In 2004 , Yi was listed as being born in 1984 during the Four Nation Tournament , but Chinese officials said that it was probably a typographical error . Two years later , Fran Blinebury of The Houston Chronicle reported that Yi told Shane Battier he was 24 years old in an exhibition game before the 2006 FIBA World Championship , but the story was refuted by both Yi and Battier . Yi is not the first Chinese basketball player to come under scrutiny for age discrepancy , as former NBA player Wang Zhizhi had been listed as being born in both 1977 and 1979 .
In 2006 , a senior Chinese official admitted that past youth squads had included players above the permitted age and Yi 's longtime American teammate in the Guangdong Southern Tigers , Jason Dixon , said to Chad Ford that Yi was " 21 or 22 .... It 's pretty common over to change ages " . In 2007 , a Chinese government registration website made public by hackers showed Yi 's date of birth as 27 October 1984 , and in December 2008 , a Chinese reporter discovered a high school enrollment form from 1997 that listed Yi as being born on 27 October 1984 .
= = Career statistics = =
= = = CBA statistics = = =
= = = NBA statistics = = =
= = = = Regular season = = = =
= = = = Playoffs = = = =
= = = = D @-@ League = = = =
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= Ontario Highway 21 =
King 's Highway 21 , commonly referred to as Highway 21 , is a provincially maintained highway in the Canadian province of Ontario that begins at Highway 402 midway between Sarnia and London and ends at Highway 6 , Highway 10 and Highway 26 in Owen Sound . The roadway is referred to as the Bluewater Highway because it remains very close to the eastern shoreline of Lake Huron .
Highway 21 was first designated by the Department of Highways ( DHO ) between Highway 3 and Highway 7 in mid @-@ 1927 and extended to Goderich in 1934 . A year later , a final extension completed the route to Owen Sound . In 1997 and 1998 , the portion of the route south of Highway 402 was transferred to the counties in which it laid .
Highway 21 is often subject to winter closures due to lake effect caused by snowsquall , which can create sudden whiteout conditions along the Lake Huron shoreline . Several Emergency Detour Routes have been established further inland to guide drivers around such closures . Care should be taken during the winter months , as these storms can progress rapidly and unexpectedly .
= = Route description = =
Highway 21 is a long lakeside route through southwestern Ontario which serves numerous communities along the eastern shoreline of Lake Huron . Once over 100 kilometres ( 62 mi ) longer than it is today , the highway now begins at Highway 402 near the community of Warwick , where it progresses north through the towns of Forest , Grand Bend , Goderich , Point Clark , Kincardine , Tiverton , Port Elgin , and Southampton . At Southampton , the highway veers away from the Lake Huron shoreline and travels east to Owen Sound .
The route is generally smoothly @-@ flowing , but can be somewhat congested through towns during the summer from tourists and cottagers . Highway 21 is often subject to closures at various points as it lies on the lee shore of Lake Huron . Lake effect snow squalls frequently subject motorists to poor visibility and slippery conditions , leading to whiteout conditions . Because of this , the Ontario Provincial Police claim that the road is the most often closed in the province . Highway 23 provides an alternative inland route .
The highway begins at Exit 34 and progresses north towards Lake Huron . This mostly straight section of the route lies within Lambton County and passes through the town of Forest . Near Kettle Point , the route abruptly curves north west and begins to parallel the shore of the lake , providing access to the village of Port Franks and The Pinery Provincial Park prior to entering Grand Bend . North of that village , the highway crosses into Huron County and intersects former Highway 83 . Between this point and Goderich , the west side of the highway is dominated by roads providing access to shoreline cottages .
At Goderich , the route encounters Highway 8 , then crosses the Maitland River along a bypass constructed during the early 1960s ; the original routing followed portions of Saltford Street and River Ridge Crescent . The highway proceeds straight north as the baseline at the shore of Lake Huron until it reaches Sheppardton . There the surveying grid changes orientation , and Highway 21 follows a forced road allowance that meanders approximately 2 km ( 1 @.@ 2 mi ) inland from lake north to Amberley , where it encounters former Highway 86 , which travels to Waterloo , and enters . The route curves northeast as it enters Bruce County to align with the surveying grid and proceeds out of Amberley towards Kincardine .
Between Atherley and Tiverton , Highway 21 travels straight @-@ as @-@ an @-@ arrow along what was originally a rural concession road through the hamlets of Reid 's Corners , Pine River , Huron Ridge and Slade . It bypasses inland of Kincardine , intersecting the western terminus of Highway 9 . Within Tiverton , which acts as the primary town serving Bruce Nuclear Generating Station , traffic must turn to remain on Highway 21 . As it exits southeast from the town , the highway makes a broad curve to the northeast and continues through the hamlets of Underwood and North Bruce .
As it approaches the southern end of the Bruce Peninsula , the route bisects Port Elgin , then curves abruptly towards Lake Huron and passes through Southampton before curving to the east towards Owen Sound . Between those two places , the highway is generally straight , except at the boundary between Bruce and Grey Counties as well as the descent of the Niagara Escarpment at Springmount . Several communities line this inland stretch of highway , including Chippewa Hill , Kelly 's Corners , Elsinore , Allenford , Alvanley and Jackson . At Springmount , the route encounters Highway 6 , which joins Highway 21 to form Ontario 's only wrong @-@ way concurrency east to Owen Sound .
= = History = =
Highway 21 was the first King 's Highway in Lambton County when it was assumed in 1927 between Highway 3 at Morpeth and Highway 7 at Reece 's Corners . This original section of highway changed from a mudhole to a plank road circa 1860 . When James Miller Williams , a Hamilton businessman , set out one day from during a drought to dig a well , he chose a spot downhill from an existing oil seep in the village of Black Creek . Instead of encountering water , Williams hit a shallow oil deposit . As a result of the ensuing oil @-@ boom , which would begin the petroleum industry in North America , Williams laid out the village and changed its name to Oil Springs . Two competing plank road companies were formed , the Black Creek Plank Road Company ( of which Williams was a principal investor ) and the Sarnia to Florence Plank Road Company , both of which aimed their roads through Oil Springs . Although both roads were constructed , the former company was more prosperous in its endeavours ; in 1886 , a significant portion of the Sarnia to Florence Plank Road was closed up and turned over to local property owners . The Black Creek Plank Road Company meanwhile had transformed the muddy quagmire of a path into a well @-@ maintained road . By 1863 , three miles of road south of Wyoming had been paved , and the remainder south to Oil Springs planked ( the Sarnia Road followed two years later ) . However , as the oil boom faded , so too did improvement to the road .
On May 23 , 1927 , the Department of Highways assumed the unpaved road between Highway 7 at Reece 's Corner and Highway 3 at Morpeth , via Dresden , Thamesville and Ridgetown as Provincial Highway 21 ; this was changed to the current King 's Highway 21 in 1930 . That year , the department set out to improve the new highway . Concrete slabs were laid between Petrolia and Highway 7 , as well as along a 7 @.@ 25 @-@ kilometre ( 4 @.@ 50 mi ) section between Thamesville and Dresden . The following year , the route was paved between Dresden and Edys Mills before the effects of the Great Depression forced the department to concentrate on paving Highway 22 . The election of a new government in mid @-@ 1934 led to the resumption of work in June as a depression relief project . New equipment ( namely a Caterpillar Excavator ) , as well as the expertise of Andy Newman , an engineer who was hired when he demonstrated his abilities with the machinery upon passing a construction site on his drive home . Newman , who helped design the machine that nobody else could operate , allowed work to proceed at a much faster rate than before . The machinery could dig quicker than 50 men , and this effort showed when the gap between Petrolia and Edys Mills and the remaining gaps between Dresden and Thamesville were graded and paved by the end of the summer . On October 19 , 1934 , Highway 21 was officially opened by Robert Mellville Smith , deputy minister of the Department of Highways .
On April 4 , 1934 , Highway 21 was assumed through Huron County as far north as Goderich . This was followed by the assumption of a section through Bosanquet Township on April 18 , creating a 40 @.@ 6 kilometres ( 25 @.@ 2 mi ) concurrency with Highway 7 from Reece 's Corners to Thedford . From there , the route travelled through Thedford to Port Franks , where it merged into the present highway . A final 137 @.@ 4 @-@ kilometre ( 85 @.@ 4 mi ) extension to Owen Sound was assumed on May 15 , 1935 , bringing the highway to its greatest length of 333 @.@ 1 kilometres ( 207 @.@ 0 mi ) .
Meanwhile , on April 11 , 1934 , the department assumed control of a road connecting Highway 7 with Forest as Highway 21A . It was later extended to connect with Highway 21 at Port Franks on August 19 , 1936 . By 1938 , Highway 21A had been renumbered as Highway 21 , and Highway 21 through Thedford renumbered as Highway 82 .
Beginning in 1960 , a small bypass of Highway 21 was constructed on the north side of Goderich , avoiding a nearby hairpin turn . The 160 m ( 520 ft ) curving structure over the Maitland River was completed in mid @-@ 1961 at a cost of C $ 1 @.@ 39 million and opened ceremoniously on July 17 , 1962 .
During the early 1980s , the construction of Highway 402 east from Sarnia resulted in a shift in the route of the highway . The route was extended north from Reece 's Corners to Exit 25 , while the section from Highway 7 north to Exit 34 was " downloaded " , or transferred to the local municipality in which it resided . Further transfers were performed in 1997 and 1998 . On April 1 , 1997 , the section of Highway 21 from Highway 401 south to Morpeth was transferred to Kent County . On January 1 , 1998 , the section between Highway 401 and Highway 402 was transferred to Kent and Lambton counties .
= = Major intersections = =
The following table lists the major junctions along Highway 21 , as noted by the Ministry of Transportation of Ontario .
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= Cushing House =
Cushing House ( formerly called Cushing Hall ) is a four @-@ story co @-@ ed dormitory on Vassar College 's campus in the town of Poughkeepsie , New York . A response to freshmen overcrowding , the college 's Board of Trustees hurried the Allen & Collens @-@ designed building , named for college librarian and alumna trustee Florence M. Cushing , to construction and completion in 1927 . Cushing was originally designed as eight smaller houses with euthenic principles in mind , but ended up as a single U @-@ shaped dormitory in the Old English manor house style with Jacobean interior furnishings . Students of all grades may live in the house which houses up to 202 in single , double , and triple rooms and are referred to as " Cushlings " . Throughout Cushing 's history , various proposals and plans have incited controversy among the building 's residents , including designating one of its wings as all @-@ black housing and converting one of its common areas into eight single rooms . Contemporary reviewers have looked favorably upon Cushing 's aesthetic qualities , declaring it to be one of Vassar 's most beautiful buildings .
= = History = =
Before Cushing House 's construction , Vassar College in the town of Poughkeepsie , New York , faced a surplus of students and too few available rooms , a situation deemed an " emergency " by the Board of Trustees . For the first quarter of the twentieth century , one third of the college 's freshmen were housed off campus due to rising enrollment over that period . The Board voted in 1925 to move all students to on @-@ campus housing , acknowledging the lack of adequate space for the move but pledging that they would swiftly build more . The following year , the Board voted to begin construction on the new hall without first securing funding for the building , trusting that the " friends of the College " would meet the financial demands of the project . In the meantime , the house was built using loaned funds , with the total project cost coming to $ 400 @,@ 000 .
Original plans for Cushing House , then called Cushing Hall , saw the building as a model of Vassar 's euthenics program . The term euthenics was first defined by Ellen Swallow Richards of Vassar 's class of 1870 as " [ t ] he betterment of living conditions , though conspicuous endeavor for the purpose of securing more efficient human beings " . In accordance with these principles , initial schematics saw the dormitory divided into eight separate houses all surrounded by a brick wall . Cushing was ultimately designed by architectural firm Allen & Collens which was also responsible for several other buildings on Vassar 's campus including the Thompson Memorial Library and its wings before Cushing 's completion , Wimpfheimer Nursery School concurrently , and Skinner Hall of Music afterwards in 1932 . The Cushing project was completed in 1927 and the dormitory was named for the college 's first alumnae trustee , Florence M. Cushing , who was a member of the Vassar class of 1874 and the college 's librarian from the year of her graduation until 1876 . On account of her death in September 1927 , Cushing Hall was not dedicated in time for the incoming class of freshman for the 1927 – 28 school year ; instead , the dedication which was marked by an informal reception was put off until October 29 of the same year .
In 1954 , Cushing residents were " perturbed " by the possibility of a new language hall being built within the dormitory 's sightlines , citing the concern that any artificial construction would ruin their views . Another controversy arose in April 1970 after students from Cushing objected to a plan put forth by a contingent of black students and approved by the Board of Trustees that would designate one wing of Cushing as a co @-@ ed housing space for black students of all grades . Prior to the plan 's formulation , upperclassmen black students could opt to live in a student community in Kendrick House while underclassmen could live in an analogous community in Main Building . Cushing residents were not notified of the plan until after its approval and a public meeting was held at which objections were raised by both Cushing residents and black students that one wing of the dorm might not be enough space to foster a black community and that Kendrick House should instead be repurposed as elective all @-@ black housing . After the college 's administration expressed the possibility that this plan might be in violation of U.S. Department of Health , Education , and Welfare standards on segregation , all but four black students walked out of the meeting and the assembly decided that the Board of Trustees needed to be better informed of the racial climate on campus . In 1974 , Vassar 's Master Planning Committee voted to convert one of Cushing 's common areas , then a dining room , to eight single dorms . An emergency meeting was held and students organized a Save Cushing Dining Room movement which collected 800 signatures against the plan in 24 hours . Other instances have seen one of Cushing 's parlors converted to a quad dorm used to house students temporarily when no other housing could be found for them , first in 1989 then again during the first semester of the 1998 – 99 school year .
= = Architecture and features = =
Cushing House was built on the north side of campus and sits apart from most of the school 's other dorms , with the exception of Noyes House to its west . Cushing stands four stories tall and is configured in a U shape with two wings of student rooms connected by center common areas on the ground floor and more halls of student housing on the upper " trans " ( inter @-@ wing ) levels . Between the wings is a courtyard covered by a lawn and trees . Two articles published in Vassar 's weekly Miscellany News in 1975 identified some of the species present at the time : Cryptomeria japonica , Ilex opaca ( American holly ) , several crab apple trees , and a Fagus sylvatica ( European beech ) . The exterior of the house is built in an Old English manor house style designed to mimic the nearby Pratt House which was designed by architects York and Sawyer and completed in 1916 . The roof of the hall is made of slate , with walls of patterned brickwork covered with half @-@ timbered decorations as well as leaded windows and towers . A smaller wing , sometimes referred to as the " maid 's wing " , abuts the center common area and includes a pantry and kitchen on its ground floor and smaller dorm rooms that originally housed servants on the floors above .
Inside the dorm , common area furnishings are Jacobean in style and architectural features include plaster ceilings , windows with tracery , and wood paneling . Within rooms , closets and windows are also notably large and soft light is present throughout the hall . The building was designed to house 130 students split between two double rooms and 126 singles , but now fits up to 202 students , demonymously referred to as " Cushlings " . The house presently includes single dorms , one @-@ room doubles , and two @-@ room doubles and triples . Upon opening in 1927 ( prior to Vassar 's 1969 transition from being an all @-@ female to co @-@ ed college ) , the dormitory was limited to housing freshmen . It is now co @-@ ed and acts as home to students from all grades including , as of 1999 , the highest proportion of upperclassmen of any dorm at the school . Bathrooms are shared by all members of a hall . A minor renovation in summer 1995 and funded by the Estée Lauder Companies included more efficient lighting , rewiring , and new furniture for the house . Like all other Vassar dorms , Cushing houses a game room , a laundry room , and a Steinway grand piano .
In 1928 , a year after Cushing opened , Keene Richards , Vassar College 's general manager , wrote to college president Henry Noble MacCracken that Cushing was " neither luxurious nor extravagant . " Authors Karen Van Lengen and Lisa Reilly countered this sentiment in their 2004 architectural guide to the campus , noting that " Cushing 's cozy domesticity is a far cry from the institutional nature of collegiate residential architecture found on other college campuses " and concluding that the dorm was one of the most beautiful buildings on campus . Another guide , compiled in 2003 by the staff of the Yale Daily News , identified the dorm as one of the two most popular at the college , along with Jewett House . Cushing has drawn comparisons to the fictitious Hogwarts School for Witchcraft and Wizardry according to The Miscellany News . The building 's parlor was singled out in College Prowler 's 2012 guide to the college as the most beautiful at Vassar .
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= The Coon =
" The Coon " is the second episode of the thirteenth season of the American animated television series South Park . The 183rd episode of the series , it originally aired on Comedy Central in the United States on March 18 , 2009 . In the episode , Cartman poses as a superhero vigilante named " The Coon " , who grows increasingly jealous of the popularity and success of a rival superhero named " Mysterion " .
The episode was written and directed by series co @-@ founder Trey Parker , and was rated TV @-@ MA L in the United States . It was originally conceived as an episode about the economic recession , but those elements were later adapted into the future episode , " Margaritaville " . " The Coon " generated a great deal of speculation about the true identity of Mysterion . Parker and Stone originally said there was no specific answer to the question . However , his identity is finally revealed in the fourteenth season episode " Mysterion Rises " .
The episode parodied several dark @-@ toned comic book films that had been recently released at the time , including The Spirit , Watchmen and The Dark Knight . It received generally positive reviews and , according to Nielsen Media Research , was seen by 3 @.@ 27 million households the week it aired . Comedian Bruce Vilanch , who is mocked in the episode , sent a thank you card to Parker and Stone after the episode aired . " The Coon " was released on DVD and Blu @-@ ray along with the rest of the thirteenth season on March 16 , 2010 . " The Coon " was also released on DVD in The Little Box of Butters on September 28 , 2010 . " The Coon " was re @-@ released once more on DVD and Blu @-@ ray as a " bonus episode " with the complete fourteenth season .
= = Plot = =
Donning a disguise modeled after a raccoon , Cartman becomes a vigilante dubbed " The Coon " , who attempts to wipe out crime in South Park . Though Cartman tries to raise awareness about The Coon through word of mouth , nobody pays much attention to the Coon 's efforts . When he reports " crimes " ( such as mistaking a man innocently trying to kiss his date for a rapist ) to the police department , he is threatened with jail time and snubbed off . During class , Cartman tries to hype up an appearance from the Coon , saying he will be on roof of a Walgreens later that evening . Cartman ( as the Coon ) shows up to the spot to find another child superhero named " Mysterion " , who is far more successful in garnering appreciation as a crime stopping icon from the police and South Park citizens who want to know just " Who is Mysterion ? " Cartman is angered by his lack of popularity and the attention Mysterion is receiving .
Coon decides to rid the town of Mysterion , enlisting the help of Professor Chaos ( Butters ) and his sidekick General Disarray ( Dougie ) . Unlike the Coon , Professor Chaos and General Disarray have become as familiar to the residents of South Park as Mysterion . Butters also wants to know the identity of Mysterion but can only narrow the list of suspects to the boys from Mr. Garrison 's 4th grade class whose shapes do not differ greatly from that of others . In contrast , he has nearly pinned down Coon 's identity to a few fat celebrities , and Cartman . In a scheme to uncover Mysterion 's identity , the Coon convinces Professor Chaos to threaten the destruction of a hospital unless Mysterion reveals his identity . After the Coon plants the TNT and leaves to buy detonators , Mysterion unexpectedly arrives . He points out that this is not Professor Chaos ' usual style , and fights Professor Chaos and General Disarray on top of the building . A crowd forms below and cheers on Mysterion as the police take no actions , believing that their bullets are no match for Professor Chaos ' aluminum foil armor . Dramatically , the Coon appears to fight on the side of Mysterion , with the hopes that he too will be hailed as a hero . At that point , Professor Chaos and General Disarray run off in defeat . After their victory , the Coon convinces Mysterion to unmask himself by claiming such threats to public safety will continue until Mysterion 's secret is revealed .
Despite the threat of imprisonment , Mysterion unmasks himself , showing the television viewers only the portion of his face that looks similar to almost all of Mr. Garrison 's 4th grade class . The crowd , however , is shocked to learn Mysterion 's identity and , much to the regret of all except Coon , who says that he knew who Mysterion was , even calling him out on it at one point ( though this helps the audience little as Cartman claimed that practically everyone in his class was Mysterion at times ) , Mysterion is hauled to prison . With Professor Chaos , General Disarray and Mysterion defeated , Cartman now perceives that he is the superhero in South Park and that every town should have a Coon like him .
= = Production = =
" The Coon " was written and directed by series co @-@ founder Trey Parker . It first aired on March 18 , 2009 in the United States on Comedy Central . Like most South Park episodes , " The Coon " was first conceived by Parker and fellow co @-@ founder Matt Stone within a week of the episode 's broadcast date . Kenny , Kyle and Stan were originally planned to be made superheroes as well as Cartman , and for the episode to revolve around a group of superheroes in the style of Watchmen , a graphic @-@ novel @-@ based film that had been released earlier that month . They started working on sketches of the other superhero costumes , but Cartman and his alter @-@ ego , the Coon , were finished first . From the start , Parker and Stone wrote Cartman as caring more about his superhero image than fighting crime , but as they worked further on the episode , it began to take up more and more of the story until they decided to make Cartman the only superhero of the four boys .
Parker and Stone long planned to create an episode about the economic recession , and originally planned for Cartman to dress as a superhero named " The Coon " and fight the economy . This is why the opening scene of " The Coon " involves Cartman discussing the poor economic state of the nation and the election of U.S. President Barack Obama . Eventually , Cartman would discover the recession stemmed from the sale of Jimmy Buffett 's Margaritaville blenders , and he would have to battle singer Jimmy Buffett and investor Warren Buffett , who would be portrayed as Jimmy 's brother . Eventually , the idea was scrapped , and " The Coon " turned into an episode revolving entirely around a comic book film parody . Elements of the economic recession and the Margaritaville blenders were eventually incorporated into future episode " Margaritaville " .
The identity of Mysterion is never revealed in " The Coon " . After the episode aired , the question " Who is Mysterion ? " became a frequently asked question at the FAQ for the official South Park website , South Park Studios . The answer posted at that site was that " there is no answer " , and that only Trey Parker and Matt Stone actually know . Parker said it was one of the most common questions he was asked about the show , along with the identity of Cartman 's father , which was resolved in the fourteenth season episode " 201 " . Parker and Stone originally said there was no actual answer to Mysterion 's identity , as they never chose a specific character to be him . In the original ending of the episode , after Mysterion is arrested , Kyle is shown to be in prison and it is believed he is the superhero . However , the real Mysterion visits him , and Kyle explains he pretended to be Mysterion so the real superhero could remain free and continue fighting crime . As a thank you , Mysterion revealed his identity by showing his face , but like in the actual episode , the viewer cannot determine who he is because all the children look alike without hats . The ending was ultimately cut because Parker and Stone decided it took too much time for a simple throwaway gag and to show that Kyle was not Mysterion . The clip is available as a deleted scene in the thirteenth season DVD and Blu @-@ ray sets . The superhero characters from " The Coon " returned in the fourteenth season episodes " Coon 2 : Hindsight " , " Mysterion Rises " and " Coon vs. Coon and Friends " , in which Mysterion is revealed .
Keo Thongkham and Kevin Dalton , who serve as South Park storyboard artists , drew the detailed image of Mysterion that appeared in a news broadcast within the episode . Within a week of the episode 's original broadcast , the online retailer Zazzle and South Park Studios , the official South Park website , released T @-@ shirts and hooded sweatshirts based on the episode , including one with an image of Cartman as the Coon , and one of Mysterion with the words , " Who is Mysterion ? "
= = Cultural references = =
" The Coon " is primarily a parody of dark @-@ toned comic book movies . The Dark Knight ( 2008 ) , The Spirit ( 2008 ) and Watchmen ( 2009 ) are the most commonly referred to films , but others such as Spider @-@ Man 3 ( 2007 ) are also frequently referenced . Matt Stone said the episode started as a parody specifically of Watchmen , but then elements of other comic book films were added as the writing progressed . The music used in " The Coon " is inspired by the style of film scores by James Newton Howard and Hans Zimmer , both of whom collaborated on the scores for Batman Begins ( 2005 ) and The Dark Knight . To promote the Coon , Cartman uses a similar tagline as was used to promote Darkman , printing shirts asking " Who is The Coon ? " The Coon and Mysterion use deep and ominous voices similar to that used by Christian Bale in the Batman films and Jackie Earle Haley as Rorschach in Watchmen . Stone said he found Bale 's voice particularly annoying in The Dark Knight , and found it amusing that so many comic book movies had heroes whose voices were so low , it sounded like they were " whispering , like you 've been up all night smoking " .
Cartman and Mysterion both refer to themselves as " the symbol this town needs " , a line from The Dark Knight , and Cartman encourages Butters to film a video threatening to blow up a hospital , the same as the Joker from a scene in that film . The opening shot of " The Coon " is also inspired by a sequence from Watchmen : both feature a close @-@ up of a city sidewalk and zoom out to someone looking down from the top of a tall skyscraper . A poster of the Coon shown at Cartman 's Coonicon 2009 is inspired by the front cover of The Dark Knight Returns , the Batman graphic novel by Frank Miller . Other common comic book film traits parodied in " The Coon " include costumes that do little to actually conceal secret identities , trophies adorning superhero secret lairs , and sudden disappearing exits and entrances .
Cartman 's Coonicon 2009 convention is held at the Airport Hilton , the same place where he holds his " ginger pride " event in the episode " Ginger Kids " and the AIDS benefit in the episode " Tonsil Trouble " . Butters dresses up as Professor Chaos , and Dougie dresses as General Disarray , both of which are the supervillain alter egos they first take on in the sixth season episode " Professor Chaos " . Based on the physique of the Coon , Butters considers heavyset gay entertainers Bruce Vilanch and Harvey Fierstein as suspects for his secret identity . Vilanch sent a card to Parker and Stone after " The Coon " aired , thanking them for referring to him in the episode . Cartman plans to purchase detonators for his TNT from Ace Hardware , a real @-@ life Illinois @-@ based hardware company chain . Cartman refers to the economic recession as one of the primary factors that has led to an increase in crime . News footage of a group of South Park residents talking about Mysterion which focuses on a man with gold teeth and a blue baseball cap was inspired by the Crichton Leprechaun sighting YouTube video .
= = Reception = =
In its original American broadcast , " The Coon " was watched by 3 @.@ 27 million overall households , according to the Nielsen Media Research . The episode received a 1 @.@ 8 rating / 5 share among adults aged between 18 and 49 , making it the most watched cable entertainment program in that age group for the week of March 16 to 22 .
The episode received generally positive reviews . Carlos Delgado of iF magazine said , " The mockery of comic book based movies is perfectly done ... Though not quite as funny as last week ’ s ' The Ring ' , ' The Coon ' is right up there as a classic episode , ... A beacon of hope in the sometimes drab world of television , " while at the same time , he believed the episode title , " The Coon " ( being a well @-@ known ethnic slur against black people ) was a jab intended for Barack Obama , the first African American U.S. President .
Percy Olsen , television editor for Student Life , said " The Coon " was an improvement over " The Ring " because it was less heavy @-@ handed in its morals . Olsen also said it raised the question , " What ever happened to the goofy superhero movies ? From Batman to the Hulk , it seems like every comic book hero movie has been given a splotch of mud and some dim lighting before being sent out the door . " Genevieve Koski of The A.V. Club gave the episode a B + grade , although she did not like the " non @-@ reveal " ending . She also said the target material for " The Coon " is too easy , but she said the episode was " really likable " and she particularly liked Cartman 's growing frustration when his superhero persona is ignored . Travis Fickett of IGN also said he did not like the ending and , although he liked Butters ' part in the episode and the riffing on comic book stereotypes , Fickett felt the episode lacked any " brilliant moments " and " ultimately runs out of steam with the super @-@ hero riff " . Mitchell Geller of The Tufts Daily said the episode would be more enjoyable to people familiar with the comic book film franchise it was spoofing than it would be for those who are not , although he said Cartman " never ceases to be funny " .
= = Home release = =
" The Coon " , along with the thirteen other episodes from South Park 's thirteenth season , were released on a three @-@ disc DVD set and two @-@ disc Blu @-@ ray set in the United States on March 16 , 2010 . The sets included brief audio commentaries by Parker and Stone for each episode , a collection of deleted scenes , and a special mini @-@ feature Inside Xbox : A Behind @-@ the @-@ Scenes Tour of South Park Studios , which discussed the process behind animating the show with Inside Xbox host Major Nelson .
" The Coon " was also released as a special " bonus episode " , on the season fourteen DVD on April 26 , 2011 .
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= Aviation in Indonesia =
Aviation in Indonesia serves as a critical means of connecting the thousands of islands throughout the archipelago . Indonesia is the largest archipelagic country in the world , extending 5 @,@ 120 kilometres ( 3 @,@ 181 mi ) from east to west and 1 @,@ 760 kilometres ( 1 @,@ 094 mi ) from north to south , comprising 13 @,@ 466 islands , with 922 of those permanently inhabited . With an estimated population of over 255 million people — making it the world 's fourth @-@ most @-@ populous country — and also due to the growth of the middle @-@ class and the advent of low @-@ cost carriers in the recent decade , Indonesia is widely regarded as an emerging market for air travel in the region . Between 2009 and 2014 , the number of Indonesian air passengers increased from 27 @,@ 421 @,@ 235 to 94 @,@ 504 @,@ 086 , an increase of over threefold .
However , safety issues continue to be a persistent problem in Indonesian aviation . Several accidents have given Indonesia 's air transport system the reputation of the least safe in the world . Indonesian aviation faces numerous challenges , including poorly maintained , outdated , and often overwhelmed infrastructure , the factor of human error , bad weather , haze problems caused by plantation fires , and volcanic ash spewed by numerous area volcanoes that disrupts air transportation .
In Indonesia , there are 22 commercial scheduled airlines that carry more than 30 passengers , and 32 commercial scheduled airlines that transport 30 or less passengers , as well as chartered airlines . Garuda Indonesia is the flag carrier of Indonesia .
The Indonesian Air Force has 34 @,@ 930 personnel equipped with 224 aircraft , among them 110 combat aircraft . The Indonesian Air Force possesses and operates numerous military air bases and military airstrips across the archipelago .
The International Air Transport Association ( IATA ) has predicted that Indonesia will become the world 's sixth largest air travel market by 2034 . Around 270 million passengers are predicted to fly from and within Indonesia by 2034 .
= = Air transit policy = =
As a large country spanning over three timezones , Indonesia possesses a vast airspace . However , Indonesia is not a participant of the International Air Services Transit Agreement ( IASTA ) , therefore both Indonesian airspace and airports are closed for foreign commercial airlines ' freedoms of the air , unless there were bilateral transit agreements negotiated with other countries . Indonesia and Australia for example , signed a bilateral agreement relating to air service on 7 February 2013 . According to this agreement , each nations grants to the other party the right to fly across its territory without landing , and the right to make stops in its territory for non @-@ traffic purposes ( 1st and 2nd freedom ) , and the rights for designated airlines to operate services .
Indonesia is the largest aviation market in the Association of Southeast Asian Nations ( ASEAN ) . However , Indonesia is not yet a full member of the ASEAN open sky agreement , which plans to lift regional flying restrictions throughout Southeast Asia on member country airlines by the end of 2015 or early 2016 . Indonesia is considering opening up only five of its international airports under this policy ; they are Jakarta , Medan , Bali , Surabaya and Makassar . To date , Indonesia has agreed to open access to Jakarta , yet , Indonesia remains opposed to opening up its secondary cities . Currently Indonesia adopt limitations for foreign airlines to operate in Indonesia . This rather protectionist stance was meant to protect Indonesian aviation business against competitors , particularly from Singapore and Malaysia . Basically , this stance is stemmed from a systematic imbalance between ASEAN nations ; as a large nation , Indonesia is able to offer hundreds of access points , while other fellow ASEAN members may offer far less points of access . Singapore for example has only one point of access , while Malaysia may offer two or three access points . This systematic imbalance for exchange of traffic rights has led Indonesian carriers to lobby their government to refrain from entering into multilateral agreement on ASEAN Single Aviation Market .
Access to foreign carriers on domestic routes is disallowed , while international flights will be subject to bilateral agreements . To get around this policy , in order to operate within Indonesia , foreign airlines first have to own and operate an Indonesian @-@ based airline . An example of this practice is Indonesia AirAsia , a branch of Malaysian AirAsia ; it previously operated as local airline Awair in 2004 , before changed to Indonesia AirAsia in 2005 .
= = History = =
= = = Colonial era = = =
Aviation service was pioneered in the early 20th century in colonial Dutch East Indies . On 1 October 1924 , KLM started its first intercontinental flight , connecting Amsterdam to Batavia ( now Jakarta ) in a Fokker F @-@ VII airplane . By September 1929 KLM had started regularly scheduled service between Amsterdam and Batavia . The route connected Amsterdam to Marseille , Rome , Brindisi , Athens , Merza Matruh , Cairo , Gaza , Baghdad , Bushire , Lingeh , Ojask , Gwadar , Karachi , Jodhpur , Allahabad , Calcutta , Akyab , Rangoon , Bangkok , Alor Star , Medan , Palembang , and Batavia , and extended to Bandung . Until the outbreak of the Second World War , this was the world 's longest @-@ distance scheduled service .
The Koninklijke Nederlandsch @-@ Indische Luchtvaart Maatschappij ( KNILM ) — the airline of the former Dutch East Indies — was established on 16 July 1928 . Its first regular operations were between Batavia – Bandung , and Batavia – Semarang , starting on 1 November 1928 . The inaugural ceremony was held at Cililitan airport in Batavia ( now Halim Perdanakusuma International Airport ) . The Batavia @-@ Semarang flight was later extended to Surabaya . Gradually , the services were expanded to include other islands in the archipelago , namely Palembang and Medan in Sumatra , Balikpapan and Tarakan in Kalimantan , and Denpasar in Bali . Immediately before the Pacific War , KNILM also created a network in the east of the East Indies archipelago , serving towns such as Ambon . For this purpose , amphibious aircraft such as the Sikorsky S @-@ 42 and S @-@ 43 and the Grumman G @-@ 21 seaplanes were used , due to the lack of airstrip facilities in the region .
As early as 1930 , KNILM began its first international flight to Singapore . In June 1937 , several cities in the Dutch East Indies were visited by Amelia Earhart during her attempted circumnavigation . From Singapore , Earhart flew to Bandung , Surabaya , and Kupang before continuing her journey to Darwin , Australia . On 3 July 1938 , KNILM began operations to Sydney , stopping at Darwin , Cloncurry , and Charleville . KNILM did not fly to the Netherlands , as the Amsterdam @-@ Batavia weekly service was operated by KLM .
During the Japanese attack of the Dutch East Indies , KNILM was utilized for evacuation flights and transport of troops . KNILM could not operate in East Indies because of World War II and the ensuing Indonesian war for independence , and disbanded completely on 1 August 1947 . Its remaining assets were transferred to KLM , which created the KLM Interinsulair Bedrijf ( Interinsular Service ) .
= = = Republic era = = =
The Republic of Indonesia declared its independence on 17 August 1945 and the war of independence ensued . After enduring five years of war and securing recognition of Indonesian Independence in late 1949 , the aviation service reopened for business . The KLM Interinsulair Bedrijf was nationalized by the Indonesian government in December 1949 as Garuda Indonesia , the national airline of the republic , and began to operate air services in the Indonesian archipelago .
In the early years of the Indonesian Republic , Garuda Indonesia dominated the air transport service in the country , connecting major cities in the archipelago . In 1956 , the Garuda Indonesia operated its first hajj flight to Mecca with Convair aircraft , carrying 40 Indonesian pilgrims . In 1963 , the airline launched flights to Hong Kong . By the mid 1960s , the airline took delivery of its first Douglas DC @-@ 8 and grew beyond the Asian market , beginning scheduled flights to Amsterdam and Frankfurt via Colombo , Bombay , and Prague . Rome and Paris became the airline 's third and fourth European destinations , with flights stopping in Bombay and Cairo to refuel . Flights to the People 's Republic of China began that same year , with service to Canton via Phnom Penh .
In 1962 , the government @-@ owned Merpati Nusantara Airlines was established to serve penerbangan perintis ( pioneer flights ) with small aircraft to connect remote locations in the archipelago . The airline however , ceased its operations in February 2014 and subsequently filed for bankruptcy .
In 1969 , Indonesia 's private aviation service began to grow with the establishment of Mandala Airlines , followed by Bouraq in 1970 . These two airlines directly competed against the government @-@ owned Garuda Indonesia and Merpati Nusantara airlines , and survived until the 2000s . The Bouraq ceased its operations in 2005 . Mandala was bought by Singapore @-@ based Tigerair Group in 2012 , but Tigerair Mandala ceased its operation in 2014 .
In 2000 , the Indonesian government announced the aviation deregulation policy , which makes it easier to acquire a permit to establish a new airline company . The policy was meant to stimulate air transportation investments and increase air @-@ travel business in the country , as well as to serve and stimulate tourism industry in the region . As a result , many new airlines began to spring up in Indonesia , among them Lion Air ( est . 1999 ) , Sriwijaya Air ( est . 2003 ) , Adam Air ( operating from 2002 to 2008 ) , and Batavia Air ( operating from 2002 to 2013 ) . The deregulation also spurred the low @-@ cost carrier service in Indonesia . Previously , air travel service was dominated by well @-@ established airlines such as Garuda Indonesia and Merpati .
Due to poor government control and supervision , however , aviation service deregulation provoked price wars among low @-@ cost carriers , resulting in fierce commercial competition at the expense of poor maintenance and service breakdown . Consequently , throughout the 2000s , the number of Indonesian aviation accidents and incidents spiked tremendously . The most notable aviation accidents that occurred during this period were Lion Air Flight 538 in Surakarta ( 30 November 2004 , killing 25 ) and the Adam Air Flight 574 crash into the Makassar Strait ( 1 January 2007 , killing 107 ) . The aviation safety records in Indonesia continued to plummet in a series of flight accidents , including Garuda Indonesia Flight 421 emergency landing on the Bengawan Solo River ( 16 January 2002 , killing 1 stewardess ) , and Garuda Indonesia Flight 200 in Yogyakarta ( 7 March 2007 , killing 21 ) .
In June 2007 , the European Union banned Garuda Indonesia , along with all other Indonesian airlines , from flying into any European country due to poor safety records . The ban on Garuda Indonesia was lifted in July 2009 .
By the 2010s , the condition of Indonesian aviation began to improve compared to the previous decade . The air travel incident rate in 2010 also dropped by 40 % compared to 2009 . Nevertheless , several accidents occurred in the ensuing period .
The most significant current problems in Indonesian aviation are poor development and maintenance of air transportation infrastructure , especially in remote areas . Other significant problems include overcapacity ; the massive surge of air travelers in recent years , prompted by the growth of low @-@ cost carrier passengers , has put intense stress on the aging airport infrastructure in Indonesia .
= = Airports = =
Indonesia possesses 673 airports in 2013 , ranging from grand international airports to modest unpaved airstrips on remote islands or inland interior areas located throughout the archipelago . In November 2011 , Indonesia had more than 230 conventional airports , most of them operated by Transportation Ministry technical operation units and state @-@ owned PT Angkasa Pura I & II . Major airports are managed by Angkasa Pura ; Angkasa Pura I operates 13 airports in Eastern Indonesia , while Angkasa Pura II operates 13 airports in Western Indonesia . After the 2000 aviation deregulation , Indonesian airports endured a surge of passengers , especially catalyzed by the advent of low @-@ cost carriers . According to the Indonesian Transportation Ministry , 9 of the 13 airports managed by PT Angkasa Pura I have exceeded their passenger capacity .
Jakarta 's Soekarno – Hatta International Airport serves as the country 's main air transportation hub as well as the nation 's busiest . Since 2010 , it has become the busiest airport in Southeast Asia , surpassing Suvarnabhumi and Changi airports . In May 2014 , it became the eighth busiest airport in the world with 62 @.@ 1 million passengers . It is also the busiest airport in the Southern Hemisphere . In October 2015 , the airport is named as Asia 's largest megahub , and ranked the 17th most @-@ connected airport in the world .
Next to Soekarno @-@ Hatta , the top five busiest airports in Indonesia which serve as the nation 's regional hubs are Juanda ( Surabaya ) , Ngurah Rai ( Bali ) , Sultan Hasanuddin ( Makassar ) , and Kuala Namu ( Medan ) .
The surge of air travellers , catalyzed by low @-@ cost carriers and the rise of air @-@ transport demands among Indonesia 's rising middle class , has put intense stress on Indonesia 's aging airports . Nevertheless , there has been some efforts to improve and upgrade airport facilities , such as the construction of Medan 's brand @-@ new Kuala Namu Airport to replace the overwhelmed , aging , and accident @-@ prone Polonia Airport . Other newly built airports include Lombok Airport , replacing the old Selaparang Airport in Lombok ; and Minangkabau Airport , replacing the old Tabing Airport in Padang . Existing airports that have undergone massive expansion and upgrades include Ngurah Rai Airport in Bali , Juanda Airport in Surabaya , and Sultan Hasanuddin Airport in Makassar . There are plans to build a second Bali airport in Kubu Tambahan near Singaraja , northern Bali , a new larger airport in Kulon Progo near Yogyakarta to replace the crowded and overwhelmed Adisutjipto Airport , and a new airport in Kertajati , Majalengka , to replace Bandung 's Husein Sastranegara Airport and also to serve the vicinity of Cirebon . To improve transportation interconnectivity , the government plans to build railways connecting airports all over Indonesia with nearby city centers . Currently , only Kuala Namu and Adisutjipto airports have a railway connection to the city center , while airport railways are currently under construction in Soekarno – Hatta and Minangkabau airports .
Airports – with paved runways
Airports – with unpaved runways
Heliports
= = Airlines = =
In Indonesia , there are 22 commercial scheduled airlines with flights carrying than 30 passengers ( AOC 121 ) , and 32 airlines that only operate flights with fewer than 30 passengers ( AOC 135 ) . Some notable Indonesian airlines , among others , include :
Garuda Indonesia , the government @-@ owned flag carrier of Indonesia .
Citilink , the low @-@ cost carrier subsidiary of Garuda Indonesia group .
Lion Air , currently the largest private low @-@ cost carrier airline in Indonesia .
Batik Air , the premium subsidiary of Lion Air group .
Wings Air , the regional short @-@ haul subsidiary of Lion Air group , connecting towns and small regional airports .
Sriwijaya Air , currently the largest medium service carrier in Indonesia , also the country 's third largest carrier .
NAM Air , regional short @-@ haul subsidiary of Sriwijaya Air , also using " Medium Service " concept .
Indonesia AirAsia , the Indonesian branch of Malaysian @-@ based AirAsia .
Express Air , a medium service airline . Mostly serving cities in eastern and central Indonesia , but also have several routes in western Indonesia .
Kalstar , a medium service regional airline serving towns and small regional airports with small aircraft . Mainly serving Kalimantan ( Indonesian Borneo ) .
Trigana Air , a medium service regional airline serving towns and small regional airports with small aircraft . Mainly serving eastern and central Indonesia .
TransNusa Air Services , a medium service regional airline serving towns and small regional airports with small aircraft . Mainly serving Nusa Tenggara routes .
Susi Air , regional airline serving towns and small regional airports with small aircraft . Started as a chartered cargo airline carrying fresh seafood from Pangandaran to Jakarta , owned by Susi Pudjiastuti .
In mid 2015 , Lion Air rules Indonesia 's domestic air travel market share by 41 @.@ 6 percent , while Garuda Indonesia came in second with 23 @.@ 5 percent share . Sriwijaya Air came in third with a market share of 10 @.@ 4 percent , followed by Garuda 's low @-@ cost subsidiary Citilink ( 8 @.@ 9 percent ) and Lion Air 's short @-@ haul subsidiary Wings Air ( 4 @.@ 7 percent ) . Indonesia AirAsia , a unit of the Malaysian budget airline , had a 4 @.@ 4 percent market share .
Overall , Indonesian domestic air travel business is overwhelmingly ruled by two groups ; Lion Air group and Garuda Indonesia group . By mid 2015 , Lion Air group accounted for 43 @.@ 17 percent of market share , while Garuda Indonesia group had a 37 @.@ 08 percent market share .
= = Military and government = =
The Indonesian Air Force has 34 @,@ 930 personnel , equipped with 224 aircraft , among them 110 are combat aircraft . The inventory includes Su @-@ 27 and Su @-@ 30 as the main fighters supplemented by F @-@ 16 Fighting Falcons . Major military transportation aircraft include Lockheed L @-@ 100 @-@ 30 Hercules , CN @-@ 235 , and Puma helicopter .
The Indonesian Air Force possess and operate numerous military airbases and military airstrips across the archipelago . The notable ones are Halim Perdana Kusuma Airbase in Jakarta , serving Indonesia 's VVIP , where Indonesian Presidential Aircraft stationed . While airforce bases such as Iswahyudi Air Force Base in Madiun , Abdulrachman Saleh in Malang , Sultan Hasanuddin in Makassar , Supadio in Pontianak , and SSK II in Pekanbaru , are especially vital for regional air defense . Since 2014 , Indonesian Airforce also had upgrading its military airbase in Ranai , Natuna islands , and increasing its presence in South China Sea region .
= = Aircraft industry = =
PT . Industri Pesawat Terbang Nurtanio was officially established in Bandung in 1976 as a state @-@ owned aircraft manufacturer company . It was expanded from a research and industrial facility under the auspices of the Indonesian Air Force , namely Lembaga Industri Penerbangan Nurtanio ( LIPNUR ) . Dr. BJ . Habibie was appointed as the President Director , and he has developed the company capability as an aircraft manufacturer .
In 1985 the company 's name changed to Industri Pesawat Terbang Nusantara ( IPTN ) . In 2000 the company assumed its new name as Indonesian Aerospace ( IAe ) ( Indonesian : PT . Dirgantara Indonesia ( DI ) ) . Its notable product is CN @-@ 235 civil , military , and maritime version ( joint development with CASA Spain ) .
The Indonesian aircraft manufacture industry took the hardest hit during 1997 Asian financial crisis . Many of its projects , such as N @-@ 250 were discontinued for a certain period due to financial constraints . Nevertheless , other projects such as N @-@ 219 are being restarted and continued to be developed .
= = Incidents and accidents = =
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= Ontario Highway 35 =
King 's Highway 35 , also known as Highway 35 , is a provincial highway in the Canadian province of Ontario , linking Highway 401 with Peterborough , Kawartha Lakes , and Algonquin Park . The highway travels from west of Newcastle , through Lindsay and the Kawarthas and into Haliburton before terminating at Highway 60 to the west of Algonquin Park , the province 's largest . The winding course of the highway , combined with the picturesque views offered along its length , have led some to declare it the most scenic highway in Ontario .
Most of the highway , including a portion of today 's Highway 60 , was assumed by the Department of Highways by 1940 . In 1961 , Highway 115 was signed concurrently with Highway 35 for 19 kilometres ( 12 mi ) . This was widened to a divided expressway in the late eighties . In the mid @-@ 1950s , several bypasses were constructed to divert Highway 35 away from town centres such as Lindsay , Fenelon Falls and Minden .
Highway 35 is patrolled along its entirety by the Ontario Provincial Police . The speed limit for most of the length of the highway is 80 kilometres per hour ( 50 mph ) , slowing to 50 km / h ( 31 mph ) within built @-@ up areas , and increasing to 90 km / h ( 56 mph ) when it connects with Highway 115 .
= = Route description = =
Highway 35 begins at a trumpet interchange with Highway 401 , and is concurrent with Highway 115 for 18 @.@ 9 km ( 11 @.@ 7 mi ) to Enterprise Hill . For the length of this concurrency , it is a divided four lane expressway with no left turns , known as right @-@ in / right @-@ out ( RIRO ) . At Enterprise Hill , Highway 35 exits the divided highway ( which continues as Highway 115 east to Peterborough ) and proceeds north as a two lane road . The highway crosses the Oak Ridges Moraine as it passes into the City of Kawartha Lakes . The terrain flattens approaching Lindsay , which the highway bypasses . Between Lindsay and Coboconk , the route is generally straight and crosses through a mix of agricultural lands and forest . After passing through Coboconk , it descends from the flat limestone plateau into the rocky Canadian Shield south of Norland . The highway hugs the Gull River north of Norland and cuts through granite along its route into the Haliburton Highlands . After passing Minden , the scenic highway begins diving into valleys and along cliffs overlooking several lakes .
Highway 35 generally follows the former Bobcaygeon Colonization Road north of Minden , though several realignments over the years have led to its current winding route . At Carnarvon , it meets with Highway 118 . Heading northward into increasingly mountainous terrain , the highway crosses into Muskoka near Dorset , and shortly thereafter reaches its terminus at Highway 60 west of Algonquin Park .
Traffic volumes on Highway 35 vary considerably over the length of the highway , as well as over the course of the year due to its use for recreational purposes , including snowmobiling , cottaging and camping . Along the Highway 35 and Highway 115 concurrency , the average daily vehicle count is above 20 @,@ 000 . This drops as Highway 35 splits off at Enterprise Hill to under 10 @,@ 000 . This volume is fairly consistent as far north as Minden , at which point the vehicle count drops below 5 @,@ 000 and tapers off as low as 2 @,@ 000 at Highway 60 .
= = History = =
Highway 35 , like many highways that begin at Lake Ontario and eventually cross into the Canadian Shield , began as several trails connecting settlements . Most of the southern portion of the highway follows various sidelines and concessions . Between Lindsay and Fenelon Falls , Highway 35 follows the former Fenelon Road , while north of there it follows The Cameron Road , a trail carved in the 1850s between Fenelon and Minden . North of Minden , the highway generally follows The Bobcaygeon Road , a colonization road built as far north as Dwight in the 1850s .
The Highway 35 designation was first applied in 1931 to the road between Lindsay and Fenelon Falls . In 1934 it was extended along the road between Fenelon Falls and Rosedale , bringing the length of the highway up to 38 @.@ 9 km ( 24 @.@ 2 mi ) . The Department of Northern Development had meanwhile spent the early 1930s upgrading the trails north of the Trent – Severn Canal that fell under their jurisdiction . A new road was constructed north of Dorset as part of the Ontario Northern Highways Program , avoiding the straight Bobcaygeon Road . The entire route from Rosedale to Huntsville became part of Highway 35 on April 1 , 1937 when the Department of Northern Development merged into the Department of Highways , adding 138 @.@ 4 km ( 86 @.@ 0 mi ) to the route . Finally in 1938 , Highway 35 was extended south to Newcastle .
At this point , much of the assumed route was a gravel road . Only the section south of Orono was paved . The Lindsay to Norland section was paved in the 1940s , and north of that point beginning in 1954 . It would take until 1958 for paving to commence south of Lindsay .
In 1953 , Highway 115 was built as a two lane road eastward from Highway 35 near Pontypool . It was completed to Peterborough by 1954 , and co @-@ designated with Highway 35 southwards in 1961 . Construction began to widen both to four lanes beginning in 1984 , which was completed in the late 1980s and early 1990s . The concurrency with Highway 60 was removed from Highway 35 after 1961 , but before 1969 .
Beginning in 1954 , several bypasses were constructed around the towns and villages along the route . The first of these was in Minden , bypassing the old route along the Bobcaygeon Road and South Water Street . This was followed by the bypassing of Fenelon Falls in 1955 . Highway 35 followed present day Kawartha Lakes Road 121 and Kawartha Lakes Road 8 into and out of the village until the Seventh Concession Line was paved and the highway rerouted onto it . In 1956 , Newcastle was bypassed and Highway 35 connected directly to the then eastern terminus of Highway 401 west of the village . The former route is now Durham Regional Road 19 . By 1958 , construction had begun on several bypasses of Lindsay , including the Lindsay Bypass that Highway 7 and 35 follow today . Prior to the opening of the bypass , Highway 35 followed Lindsay Street to Kent Street and jogged northwest along William Street and Colborne Street . It then followed today 's Kawartha Lakes Road 4 north and west to the current intersection with Highway 35 . This routing became Highway 35B when the bypass opened in 1959 . In the 1960s , the route through Pontypool ( now known as John Street ) was bypassed .
Prior to 2007 , the highway was extensively rehabilitated between Kawartha Lakes Road 121 , near Fenelon Falls and Highway 118 in Carnarvon . This included widening the highway for a third passing lane , as well as the resurfacing of several sections .
On the day before Remembrance Day , 2009 , the section of Highway 35 between Lindsay and Norland was renamed the Midland Regiment Commemorative Highway , in honour of veterans of World War II . Signs are placed along the highway at regular intervals to acknowledge the designation . On April 25 , 2012 , four bridges along the highway were renamed in memory of police officers killed in the line of duty : The Constable Randall F. Skidmore Bridge over the Trent – Severn Waterway in Rosedale ; the Constable Eric Nystedt Bridge over the Gull River in Moore Falls ; and the Corporal James Smith Bridge and Detective Sergeant Lorne J. Chapitis Bridge between Miners Bay and Minden .
= = Future = =
The MTO is currently performing an environmental assessment on Highway 35 between the Highway 115 split and Lindsay , in preparation for a four @-@ lane expansion . Work has also commenced on the widening of the Lindsay Bypass section of Highways 35 and 7 from two lanes to four .
= = Major intersections = =
The following table lists the major junctions along Highway 35 , as noted by the Ministry of Transportation of Ontario .
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= Mélanie Laurent =
Mélanie Laurent ( French pronunciation : [ melani loʁɑ ̃ ] ; born 21 February 1983 ) is a French actress , singer , screenwriter and director . Born in Paris to a Jewish family , she was introduced to acting at the age of sixteen by French filmmaker Gérard Depardieu , who cast her in a minor role in the romantic drama The Bridge ( 1999 ) . The recipient of two César Awards , a Étoiles d 'or du cinéma français , and a Lumières Award , Laurent has established herself as an accomplished actress in the French film industry .
Laurent gained recognition for her supporting work in several French films , most notably the 2006 Franco @-@ Belgian comedy Dikkenek for which she won Étoiles d 'Or for Best Female Newcomer . Her breakthrough role came in the 2006 French drama film Don 't Worry , I 'm Fine for which she later won the César Award for Most Promising Actress , and the Prix Romy Schneider . Laurent made her Hollywood debut in 2009 with the starring role as Shosanna Dreyfus in Quentin Tarantino 's blockbuster war film Inglourious Basterds . She garnered critical acclaim for her performance in the film and won the Online Film Critics Society and the Austin Film Critics Association Award for Best Actress .
While she has worked mainly in independent films , including Paris ( 2008 ) and Enemy ( 2013 ) , Laurent has also appeared in commercially successful Hollywood films including , the comedy drama Beginners ( 2011 ) , and the caper film Now You See Me ( 2013 ) , the former earning her a nomination at the San Diego Film Critics Society Award for Best Supporting Actress . Laurent 's other notable works include the art @-@ house drama The Round Up ( 2010 ) , the comedy drama Et soudain , tout le monde me manque ( 2011 ) , and Night Train to Lisbon ( 2013 ) . She is also known for voicing Mary Katherine and Disgust in the French dubs of Epic ( 2013 ) and Inside Out ( 2015 ) respectively .
In addition to her film career , Laurent has appeared in stage productions in France . She made her theater debut in 2010 in Nicolas Bedos 's Promenade de santé . The short film De moins en moins ( 2008 ) marked her debut as a filmmaker . Her feature film directorial debut Respire ( 2014 ) was screened at the International Critics ' Week section at the 2014 Cannes Film Festival . She made her singing debut with a studio album En t 'attendant in May 2011 ; the album contains twelve songs , five of which are co @-@ written and co @-@ produced by Irish folk musician Damien Rice .
= = Early life = =
Laurent was born in Paris , France the daughter of Annick , a ballerina , and Pierre Laurent , a voiceover actor ( who dubs the character Ned Flanders in the French version of The Simpsons ) . She is Jewish , of both Ashkenazi ( from Poland ) and Sephardic ( from Tunisia ) ancestry . Her grandfather survived deportation by the Nazis . Her maternal grandparents were film poster editors . She grew up in the 9th arrondissement of Paris . Her Jewish grandfather was deported from Poland during the Nazi occupation .
Laurent visited the set of Asterix and Obelix with her friend and the latter 's father . Her acting career began when actor Gérard Depardieu , seeing Laurent there , asked her if she wanted to be in films . Laurent replied , " Why not ? " . He strongly advised her not to take acting classes because he believe she already had the necessary skills . When Laurent was 16 , Depardieu gave her a part in The Bridge , a drama he starred in and co @-@ directed with Fréderic Auburtin . Laurent played the role of Lisbeth Daboval , the daughter of one of the protagonist of the film , Claire Daboval .
= = Career = =
= = = Debut and early success ( 2006 @-@ 2008 ) = = =
Laurent played minor roles in a number of films early in her career . She appeared in Michel Blanc 's drama Summer Things , Jackie Chan 's comedy @-@ drama Rice Rhapsody , Jacques Audiard 's drama The Beat That My Heart Skipped and the war film Days of Glory about the Free French Forces .
Laurent breakthrough role came in 2006 , when she played a sullen 19 @-@ year @-@ old who longed for her lost twin brother , in Philippe Lioret 's Don 't Worry , I 'm Fine . She won a César Award for Most Promising Actress for her performance . In a review for Variety , Ronnie Scheib praised Laurent and wrote that she , " makes her vibrant character ’ s downward spiral totally believable without indulging in moody sullenness " . That same year , she and Belgian actor Jérémie Renier were awarded France 's Romy Schneider and Jean Gabin Prizes for most promising actor and actress . Laurent then starred in the Franco @-@ Belgian Dikkenek , a comedy directed by Olivier Van Hoofstadt that has attained a cult film over the years owing to its Belgian @-@ style humour . For her performance in the film , Laurent won the Étoiles d 'Or for Best Female Newcomer .
In 2007 , Laurent appeared in films including Le tueur and Hidden Love . She was nominated for the Lumières Award for Best Actress for her performance in La Chambre des morts . Laurent next appeared in Cédric Klapisch 's 2008 comedy drama Paris , a French film concerning a diverse group of people . The film has an ensemble cast including Laurent , Juliette Binoche , Romain Duris , Fabrice Luchini , and François Cluzet . The film was well received by the critics with praise directed majorly towards Laurent and the rest of its cast .
Laurent made her directorial debut with De moins en moins , which she also wrote , a 7 @-@ minute film about a patient who " remembers less and less " in front of her psychiatrist . The film was nominated for Best Short Film at the 61st Annual Cannes Film Festival . She also directed À ses pieds , an erotic short film aired on the French television channel Canal + on 25 – 26 October 2008 , as part of a series of short films , called X Femmes .
= = = Hollywood debut and breakthrough ( 2009 @-@ 2010 ) = = =
Laurent was scheduled to direct her first play , Mi @-@ cuit cœur pistache ( the name of a dessert she particularly likes ) in January 2009 at the Théâtre Marigny in Paris . She had to abandon the project when she was cast as Shosanna Dreyfus , a Parisian theater owner whose family was killed by Nazi Colonel Hans Landa ( Christoph Waltz ) , who seizes the opportunity to lure the S.S. into her theater for murderous revenge in the Quentin Tarantino film Inglourious Basterds alongside Brad Pitt , Diane Kruger and Christoph Waltz . It was a French @-@ language role for which she learned to speak English for a few scenes . The film was a huge commercial and critical success , grossing over $ 321 million in theaters worldwide . Laurent 's performance was praised by several critics . Kyle Buchanan of Movieline wrote : " Mélanie Laurent provides Inglourious Basterds its heart and soul . It falls to the 26 @-@ year @-@ old French actress to anchor some of the World War II film 's most challenging scenes as Shosanna . "
Owen Gleiberman of Entertainment Weekly wrote that Laurent should have received the nomination at the 16th Screen Actors Guild Awards saying , " In drawing attention to one performer , in particular , whom they left out of the Best Supporting Actress category , [ ... ] I flat @-@ out adore this performance and I suspect that many others do too , " and further lauding Laurent 's performance added , " [ Laurent ] is radiant and , in a unique Tarantino way , heartbreaking . Sexy and luminous in the heat of her valor . Putting out fire – and setting it . It becomes an anthem of noirish dread and excitement , a sign that Laurent , as Shosanna , has found her destiny . "
In an interview , Laurent said that she went into Inglourious Basterds with an adoration for Quentin Tarantino . " [ The French ] don 't see him like an independent director ; we just see him as the best director , ever , [ from the United States ] . " About the process of auditioning , Laurent said that she knew right from the start that this was a film she had to be in as she felt a connection to her role in the film , because the history of her Jewish family .
In addition , Laurent won a number of accolades for her portrayal of Shosana including Austin Film Critics Association Award for Best Actress and Online Film Critics Society Award for Best Actress , and nominations at the Detroit Film Critics Society Awards , Empire Award for Best Actress , and Saturn Award for Best Actress among others . The highly anticipated film , which had been in development since 1998 , marked Laurent 's first major role in an American film and Laurent found herself pushed into mainstream success in North America .
Laurnet 's partner Julien Boisselier , as well as Marie Denarnaud , Mélanie Doutey , and Louise Monot were to act in the production while short film clips were to be projected on stage , some of them shot at the nightclub Le Baron , which Laurent used to frequent during the writing period .
In 2010 , Laurent starred in The Round Up , a French film directed by Roselyne Bosch , and produced by Alain Goldman , alongside Jean Reno , Sylvie Testud , and Gad Elmaleh . Based on the true story of a young Jewish boy , the film depicts the Vel ' d 'Hiv Roundup , the mass arrest of Jews by French police who were Nazi accomplices in Paris in July 1942 . The film and the Laurent 's performance was well received by the critics , with Peter Bradshaw of The Guardian deeming it " well acted " . John Anderson of Newsday lauded Laurent saying that she gave an " inspiring performance as a gentile nurse " .
= = = Continued success ( 2011 – present ) = = =
Laurent had also planned another feature film , Putain de pluie ! , produced by Alain Attal 's Productions du Trésor , whose script she co @-@ wrote with Morgan Perez and which she intended to direct . Originally set for filming in the spring of 2009 , it was postponed because of her work on Inglourious Basterds . Knowing that she could speak French , and had already acted in French in one of the short films in Paris , je t 'aime , she offered the first role to Natalie Portman , who declined because of the script 's language .
Laurent played the part of the violinist in Radu Mihăileanu 's Le Concert — she called it " a smart movie and a popular movie " , and added that she was , " glad because French people wanted to watch a movie with classical music . " Mick LaSalle of San Francisco Chronicle called it a " role with great technical demands " and praising Laurent wrote , " she 's extremely subtle and reserved [ ... ] " The Concert " constitutes a breakthrough for her , in that it unlocks her emotional floodgates " .
Laurent hosted both the opening and closing ceremonies of the 64th Cannes Film Festival . In 2011 , she teamed with Mike Mills , appearing opposite Ewan McGregor and Christopher Plummer in Beginners , a comedy drama that marked Laurent 's second English @-@ speaking role in Hollywood . Laurent plays Anna , an irreverent French actress . Loosely based on Mills ’ own life , the film depicts the story of a father coming out of the closet at the age of 75 after the death of his wife of 45 years . The film opened to critical acclaim and Laurent 's performance was well received , with Calvin Wilson of St. Louis Post @-@ Dispatch remarking that Laurent imbued a " soulful charisma " into the role .
Laurent made her singing debut in May 2011 with a studio album En t 'attendant , under the label of Atmosphériques . Produced by Joel Shearer , the album contains twelve songs , five of which are co @-@ written and co @-@ produced by Irish folk musician Damien Rice . The album peaked at number 22 and number 35 on the Belgian Albums Charts and French Albums Charts respectively . She recorded the album with Rice , living between Woodstock , New York and his home in Ireland . In an interview , Laurent revealed that spending time at Rice 's home in Ireland inspired her to maintain a compost heap and eat organic food .
Laurent then starred opposite Jeremy Irons in Night Train to Lisbon , a 2013 drama film based on the novel of the same name directed by Bille August . Jessica Kiang of Indie Wire noted that Laurent was " given less to do " but lauded her performance writing that she , " makes the most of her truncated screen time " .
Laurent appeared in the Louis Leterrier 's 2013 caper film Now You See Me as a French Interpol agent who investigates the bank theft alongside Mark Ruffalo and an ensemble cast . The film was a major commercial success grossing over 351 @.@ 7 million dollars , receiving mixed reviews but praise for the performances of the entire cast . Todd McCarthy of The Hollywood Reporter gave Laurent the highest praise and wrote , " [ Laurent ] is responsible for the only measurable amount of warmth the film exudes . "
Laurent 's next release , the Canadian @-@ Spanish psychological thriller film Enemy , directed by Denis Villeneuve , was screened at the Special Presentation section at the 2013 Toronto International Film Festival . Loosely adapted by Javier Gullón from José Saramago 's 2002 novel The Double , the film opened to critical acclaim . The film starred Jake Gyllenhaal as two men who are physically identical , but different in terms of personality . Laurent and Sarah Gadon co @-@ star as the romantic partners of the men .
In 2014 , Laurent appeared in Aloft , a 2014 drama film written and directed by Claudia Llosa , alongside Jennifer Connelly and Cillian Murphy . The film premiered in competition at the 64th Berlin International Film Festival . Laurent voiced Mary Katherine in Blue Sky Studios ' Epic , and Disgust in Pixar 's Inside Out in the French dubs of the animated films .
In 2015 , Laurent starred alongside Laurent Lafitte , in François Favrat 's French drama film Booemerang adapted from the bestseller entitled A Secret Kept by Tatiana De Rosnay . The film released on 23 September 2013 to positive critical reviews . The Hollywood Reporter wrote , " Boomerang is a solid if somewhat conventionally made whodunit that benefits from a strong cast and a plot that hooks you for most of the running time . " Laurent then starred as Léa in Angelina Jolie 's By the Sea , an American drama film , written and directed by Jolie . The film also stars Jolie and Brad Pitt , and was released on 13 November 2015 , by Universal Pictures .
= = Personal life and off @-@ screen work = =
Laurent was in a long @-@ term relationship with fellow French actor Julien Boisselier which ended in 2009 . In March 2013 , she revealed that she had married but refused to name her spouse . She told The Independent , " he was a crew member and I was an actress . " Her first child with her husband , a son named Léo , was born in September 2013 . Laurent described recording artist Damien Rice and filmographer Quentin Tarantino as two " masters " in terms of their art .
The men 's web portal AskMen ascribed Laurent 's sex appeal to her " pixie @-@ like charm and big , expressive eyes " and added that she " radiates a natural , understated magnetism on screen " . She has established herself as a major young talent in French cinema . In a 2009 interview , Laurent explained that she does not have ambitions to be a crossover actress . She stated that she loved France , her street , her café , and not having to use a car . Rather than go on to work on a big budget American film after Inglourious Basterds , her next role was in a small theater piece in France .
Laurent has written and directed several French films and in an interview with Indiewire admitted she loves writing : " [ Writing is ] especially super exciting because you have everything to do and most of your ideas come from that first part … you just imagine things , and you imagine actors . " She described the shooting process as " the fun part " because of : " working with people I love — it ’ s always a great human moment because we ’ re sharing things and it ’ s good to see people who are here for you and your story , to tell your story . It ’ s really beautiful , it ’ s why I love making movies . "
Laurent has visited a Climate Defenders Camp in the peatlands of the Indonesian Rainforest with Greenpeace activists . She is one of the Climate Ambassadors for Kofi Annan 's Global Humanitarian Forum " Tck Tck Tck " Campaign . Laurent has also joined the campaign against overfishing at the invitation of the Blue Marine Foundation , and was cast for the voice @-@ over of the documentary The End of the Line . She was one of the leading celebrities in the successful campaign Fish Fight France , which asked for a new European law lowering the level of fish discards in European seas .
= = Filmography and awards = =
= = = Selected filmography = = =
= = = Accolades = = =
For her role in Don 't Worry , I 'm Fine Laurent won the César Award and Lumières Award in the Most Promising Actress category . She received numerous accolades for her role in Inglorious Bastards including Best Actress Award at the Austin Film Critics Association Awards and Online Film Critics Society Awards among others . Laurent 's film Demain won the César Award for Best Documentary Film .
= = Discography = =
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= Mark Oliphant =
Sir Marcus " Mark " Laurence Elwin Oliphant , AC , KBE , FRS , FAA ( 8 October 1901 – 14 July 2000 ) was an Australian physicist and humanitarian who played an important role in the first experimental demonstration of nuclear fusion and also the development of nuclear weapons .
Born and raised in Adelaide , South Australia , Oliphant graduated from the University of Adelaide in 1922 . He was awarded an 1851 Exhibition Scholarship in 1927 on the strength of the research he had done on mercury , and went to England , where he studied under Sir Ernest Rutherford at the University of Cambridge 's Cavendish Laboratory . There , he used a particle accelerator to fire heavy hydrogen nuclei ( deuterons ) at various targets . He discovered the nuclei of helium @-@ 3 ( helions ) and tritium ( tritons ) . He also discovered that when they reacted with each other , the particles that were released had far more energy than they started with . Energy had been liberated from inside the nucleus , and he realised that this was a result of nuclear fusion .
Oliphant left the Cavendish Laboratory in 1937 to become the Poynting Professor of Physics at the University of Birmingham . He attempted to build a 60 @-@ inch ( 150 cm ) cyclotron at the university , but its completion was postponed by the outbreak of the Second World War in Europe in 1939 . He became involved with the development of radar , heading a group at the University of Birmingham that included John Randall and Harry Boot . They created a radical new design , the cavity magnetron , that made microwave radar possible . Oliphant also formed part of the MAUD Committee , which reported in July 1941 , that an atomic bomb was not only feasible , but might be produced as early as 1943 . Oliphant was instrumental in spreading the word of this finding in the United States , thereby starting what became the Manhattan Project . Later in the war , he worked on it with his friend Ernest Lawrence at the Radiation Laboratory in Berkeley , California , developing electromagnetic isotope separation .
After the war , Oliphant returned to Australia as the first Director of the Research School of Physical Sciences and Engineering at the new Australian National University , where he initiated the design and construction of the world 's largest ( 500 megajoule ) homopolar generator . He retired in 1976 , but was appointed Governor of South Australia on the advice of Premier , Don Dunstan . He assisted in the founding of the Australian Democrats political party , and he was the chairman of the meeting in Melbourne in 1977 at which the party was launched . Late in life he watched his wife , Rosa , suffer before her death in 1987 , and he became an advocate for voluntary euthanasia . He died in Canberra in 2000 .
= = Early life = =
Marcus " Mark " Laurence Elwin Oliphant was born on 8 October 1901 in Kent Town , a suburb of Adelaide . His father was Harold George " Baron " Oliphant , a civil servant with the South Australian Engineering and Water Supply Department and part @-@ time lecturer in Economics with the Workers ' Educational Association . His mother was Beatrice Edith Fanny Oliphant , née Tucker , an artist . He was named after Marcus Clarke , the Australian author , and Laurence Oliphant , the British traveller and mystic . Most people called him Mark ; this became official when he was knighted in 1959 . He had four younger brothers , Roland , Keith , Nigel and Donald . His parents were theosophists , and as such were opposed to eating meat . Marcus became a lifelong vegetarian while a boy , after witnessing the slaughter of pigs on a farm . He was found to be completely deaf in one ear and he needed glasses for severe astigmatism and short @-@ sightedness .
Oliphant was first educated at primary schools in Goodwood and Mylor , after the family moved there in 1910 . He attended Unley High School in Adelaide , and , for his final year in 1918 , Adelaide High School . After graduation he failed to obtain a bursary to attend university , and so got a job cleaning floors for a jewellery manufacturer . He then got a cadetship with the State Library of South Australia , which allowed him to take courses at the University of Adelaide at night .
In 1919 , Oliphant began studying at the University of Adelaide . At first he was interested in a career in medicine , but later in the year Kerr Grant , the physics professor , offered him a cadetship in the Physics Department . It paid 10 shillings a week ( equivalent to AUD $ 34 in 2010 ) , the same amount that Oliphant received for working at the State Library , but it allowed him to take any university course that did not conflict with his work for the department . He received his Bachelor of Science ( BSc ) degree in 1921 and then did honours the following year , supervised by Kerr Grant . Roy Burdon , who acted as head of the department when Kerr went on sabbatical in 1925 , worked with Oliphant to produce two papers in 1927 on the properties of mercury , " The Problem of the Surface Tension of Mercury and the Action of Aqueous Solutions on a Mercury Surface " and " Absorption of Gases on the Surface of Mercury " . Oliphant later recalled that Burdon taught him " the extraordinary exhilaration there was in even minor discoveries in the field of physics " .
Oliphant married Rosa Louise Wilbraham , who was also from Adelaide , on 23 May 1925 . The two had known each other since they were teenagers . He made Rosa 's wedding ring in the laboratory from a gold nugget ( from the Coolgardie Goldfields ) that his father had given him .
= = Cavendish Laboratory = =
In 1925 , Oliphant heard a speech given by the New Zealand physicist , Sir Ernest Rutherford , and he decided he wanted to work for him – an ambition that he fulfilled by earning a position at the Cavendish Laboratory at the University of Cambridge in 1927 . He applied for an 1851 Exhibition Scholarship on the strength of the research he had done on mercury with Burdon . It came with a living allowance of £ 250 per annum ( equivalent to AUD $ 17 @,@ 000 in 2010 ) . When word came through that he had been awarded a fellowship , he wired Rutherford and Trinity College , Cambridge . Both accepted him .
Rutherford 's Cavendish Laboratory was carrying out some of the most advanced research into nuclear physics in the world at the time . Oliphant was invited to afternoon tea by Rutherford and Lady Rutherford . He soon got to meet other researchers at the Cavendish Laboratory , including Patrick Blackett , Edward Bullard , James Chadwick , John Cockcroft , Charles Ellis , Peter Kapitza , Philip Moon and Ernest Walton . There were two fellow Australians : Harrie Massey and John Keith Roberts . Oliphant would become especially close friends with Cockcroft . The laboratory had considerable talent but not a lot of money to spare , and tended to use a " string and sealing wax " approach to experimental equipment . Oliphant had to buy his own equipment , at one point spending £ 24 ( equivalent to AUD $ 800 in 2010 ) of his allowance on a vacuum pump .
Oliphant submitted his PhD thesis on " The Neutralization of Positive Ions at Metal Surfaces , and the Emission of Secondary Electrons " in December 1929 . For his viva , he was examined by Rutherford and Ellis . Receiving his degree was the attainment of a major life goal , but it also meant the end of his 1851 Exhibition Scholarship . Oliphant secured an 1851 Senior Studentship , of which there were five awarded each year . It came with a living allowance of £ 450 per annum ( equivalent to A $ 30 @,@ 000 in 2010 ) for two years , with the possibility of a one @-@ year extension in exceptional circumstances , which Oliphant was also awarded .
A son , Geoffrey Bruce Oliphant , was born 6 October 1930 , but he died of meningitis on 5 September 1933 , and was interred in an unmarked grave in the Ascension Parish Burial Ground in Cambridge alongside Timothy Cockcroft , the infant son of Sir John and Lady Elizabeth Cockcroft , who had died the year before . Unable to have more children , the Oliphants adopted a four @-@ month @-@ old boy , Michael John , in 1936 , and a daughter , Vivian , in 1938 .
In 1932 and 1933 , the scientists at the Cavendish Laboratory made a series of ground @-@ breaking discoveries . Cockroft and Walton bombarded lithium with high energy protons and succeeded in transmuting it into energetic nuclei of helium . This was one of the earliest experiments to change the atomic nucleus of one element to another by artificial means . Then Chadwick devised an experiment that discovered a new , uncharged particle with roughly the same mass as the proton : the neutron . In 1933 , Blackett discovered tracks in his cloud chamber that confirmed the existence of the positron and revealed the opposing spiral traces of positron – electron pair production .
Oliphant followed up the work by constructing a particle accelerator that could fire protons with up to 600 @,@ 000 electronvolts of energy . He soon confirmed the results of Cockroft and Walton on the artificial disintegration of the nucleus and positive ions . He produced a series of six papers over the following two years . In 1933 , the Cavendish Laboratory received a gift from the American physical chemist Gilbert N. Lewis of a few drops of heavy water . The accelerator was used to fire heavy hydrogen nuclei ( deuterons , which Rutherford called diplons ) at various targets . Working with Rutherford and others , Oliphant thereby discovered the nuclei of Helium @-@ 3 ( helions ) and tritium ( tritons ) .
Oliphant used electromagnetic separation to separate the isotopes of lithium . He was the first to experimentally demonstrate nuclear fusion . He found that when deuterons reacted with nuclei of Helium @-@ 3 , tritium or with other deuterons , the particles that were released had far more energy than they started with . Binding energy had been liberated from inside the nucleus . Following Arthur Eddington 's 1920 prediction that energy released by fusing small nuclei together could provide the energy source that powers the stars , Oliphant speculated that nuclear fusion reactions might be what powered the sun . With its higher cross section , the deuterium – tritium nuclear fusion reaction became the basis of a hydrogen bomb . Oliphant had not foreseen this development :
... we had no idea whatever that this would one day be applied to make hydrogen bombs . Our curiosity was just curiosity about the structure of the nucleus of the atom , and the discovery of these reactions was purely , as the Americans would put it , coincidental .
In 1934 , Cockcroft arranged for Oliphant become a fellow of St John 's College , Cambridge , which paid about £ 600 . When Chadwick left the Cavendish Laboratory for the University of Liverpool in 1935 , Oliphant and Ellis both replaced him as Rutherford 's Assistant Director for Research . The job came with a salary of £ 600 ( equivalent to AUD $ 49 @,@ 900 in 2010 ) . With the money from St John 's , this gave him a comfortable income . Oliphant soon fitted out a new accelerator laboratory with a 1 @.@ 23 MeV generator at a cost of £ 6 @,@ 000 ( equivalent to AUD $ 499 @,@ 000 in 2010 ) while he designed an even larger 2 MeV generator . He was the first to conceive of the proton synchrotron , a new type of cyclic particle accelerator . In 1937 , he was elected to the Royal Society . When he died he was its longest @-@ serving fellow .
= = University of Birmingham = =
Samuel Walter Johnson Smith 's imminent mandatory retirement at age 65 prompted a search for a new Poynting Professor of Physics at the University of Birmingham . The University wanted not just a replacement , but a well @-@ known name , and was willing to spend lavishly in order to build up nuclear physics expertise at Birmingham . Neville Moss , its Professor of Mining Engineering and the Dean of its Faculty of Science approached Oliphant , who presented his terms . In addition to his salary of £ 1 @,@ 300 ( equivalent to AUD $ 103 @,@ 000 in 2010 ) , he wanted the University to spend £ 2 @,@ 000 ( equivalent to A $ 158 @,@ 000 in 2010 ) to upgrade the laboratory , and another £ 1 @,@ 000 per annum ( equivalent to A $ 79 @,@ 000 in 2010 ) on it . And he did not wish to start until October 1937 , to enable him to wrap up his work at the Cavendish Laboratory . Moss agreed to Oliphant 's terms .
To obtain funding for the 60 @-@ inch ( 150 cm ) cyclotron that he wanted , Oliphant wrote to the prime minister , Neville Chamberlain , who was from Birmingham . Chamberlain took up the matter with his friend Lord Nuffield , who provided £ 60 @,@ 000 ( equivalent to AUD $ 5 @,@ 000 @,@ 000 in 2010 ) for the project , enough for the cyclotron , a brand new building to house it , and a trip to Berkeley , California , so Oliphant could confer with Ernest Lawrence , the inventor of the cyclotron . Lawrence was supportive of the project , sending Oliphant the plans of the 60 @-@ inch cyclotron that he had under construction at Berkeley , and inviting Oliphant to visit him at the Radiation Laboratory . Oliphant sailed for New York on 10 December 1938 , and met Lawrence in Berkeley . The two men got along very well , dining at Trader Vic 's in Oakland . Oliphant was aware of the problems in building cyclotrons encountered by Chadwick at the University of Liverpool and Cockcroft at the Cavendish Laboratory , and intended to avoid these and get his cyclotron built on time and on budget by following Lawrence 's specifications as closely as possible . He hoped that it would be running by Christmas 1939 , but the outbreak of the Second World War quashed his hopes . The Nuffield Cyclotron would not be completed until after the war .
= = = Radar = = =
In 1938 , Oliphant became involved with the development of radar , then still a secret . While visiting prototype radar stations , he realised that shorter @-@ wavelength radio waves were needed urgently , especially if there was to be any chance of building a radar set small enough to fit into an aircraft . In August 1939 , he took a small group to Ventnor , on the Isle of Wight , to examine the Chain Home system first hand . He obtained a grant from the Admiralty to develop radar systems with wavelengths less than 10 centimetres ( 3 @.@ 9 in ) ; the best available at the time was 150 centimetres ( 59 in ) .
Oliphant 's group at Birmingham worked on developing two promising devices , the klystron and the magnetron . Working with James Sayers , Oliphant managed to produce an improved version of the klystron capable of generating 400W . Meanwhile , two more members of his Birmingham team , John Randall and Harry Boot , worked on a radical new design , a cavity magnetron . By February 1940 , they had an output of 400W with a wavelength of 9 @.@ 8 centimetres ( 3 @.@ 9 in ) , just the kind of short wavelengths needed for good airborne radars . The magnetron 's power was soon increased a hundred @-@ fold , and Birmingham concentrated on magnetron development . The first operational magnetrons were delivered in August 1941 . This invention was one of the key scientific breakthroughs during the war and played a major part in defeating the German U @-@ boats , intercepting enemy bombers , and in directing Allied bombers .
In 1940 , the Fall of France , and the possibility that Britain might be invaded , prompted Oliphant to send his wife and children to Australia . The Fall of Singapore in February 1942 led him to offer his services to John Madsen , the Professor of Electrical Engineering at the University of Sydney , and the head of the Radiophysics Laboratory at the Council for Scientific and Industrial Research , which was responsible for developing radar . He embarked from Glasgow for Australia on QSMV Dominion Monarch on 20 March . The voyage , part of a 46 @-@ ship convoy , was a slow one , with the convoy frequently zigzagging to avoid U @-@ boats , and the ship did not reach Fremantle until 27 May .
The Australians were already preparing to produce radar sets locally . Oliphant persuaded Professor Thomas Laby to release Eric Burhop and Leslie Martin from their work on optical munitions to work on radar , and they succeeded in building a cavity magnetron in their laboratory at the University of Melbourne in May 1942 . Oliphant worked with Martin on the process of moving the magnetrons for the laboratory to the production line . Over 2 @,@ 000 radar sets were produced in Australia during the war .
= = = Manhattan Project = = =
At the University of Birmingham in March 1940 , Otto Frisch and Rudolf Peierls examined the theoretical issues involved in developing , producing and using atomic bombs in a paper that became known as the Frisch – Peierls memorandum . They considered what would happen to a sphere of pure uranium @-@ 235 , and found that not only could a chain reaction occur , but it might require as little as 1 kilogram ( 2 @.@ 2 lb ) of uranium @-@ 235 to unleash the energy of hundreds of tons of TNT . The first person they showed their paper to was Oliphant , and he immediately took it to Sir Henry Tizard , the chairman of the Committee for the Scientific Survey of Air Warfare ( CSSAW ) . As a result , a special subcommittee of the CSSAW known as the MAUD Committee was created to investigate the matter further . It was chaired by Sir George Thomson , and its original membership included Oliphant , Chadwick , Cockcroft and Moon . In its final report in July 1941 , the MAUD Committee concluded that an atomic bomb was not only feasible , but might be produced as early as 1943 .
Great Britain was at war and authorities there thought that the development of an atomic bomb was urgent , but there was much less urgency in the United States . Oliphant was one of the people who pushed the American program into motion . Oliphant flew to the United States in late August 1941 in an unheated bomber , ostensibly to discuss the radar @-@ development program , but was assigned to find out why the United States was ignoring the findings of the MAUD Committee . He later recalled : " the minutes and reports had been sent to Lyman Briggs , who was the Director of the Uranium Committee , and we were puzzled to receive virtually no comment . I called on Briggs in Washington [ DC ] , only to find out that this inarticulate and unimpressive man had put the reports in his safe and had not shown them to members of his committee . I was amazed and distressed . "
Oliphant then met with the Uranium Committee . Samuel K. Allison , a new member of the Committee , was a talented experimental physicist and a protégé of Arthur Compton at the University of Chicago . Oliphant " came to a meeting " , Allison recalls , " and said ' bomb ' in no uncertain terms . He told us we must concentrate every effort on the bomb , and said we had no right to work on power plants or anything but the bomb . The bomb would cost 25 million dollars , he said , and Britain did not have the money or the manpower , so it was up to us . " Allison was surprised that Briggs had kept the committee in the dark . Oliphant visited his friend Ernest Lawrence , and also spoke with James Conant and Enrico Fermi . He not only managed to convince the Americans that an atomic bomb was feasible , but also inspired Lawrence to convert his 37 @-@ inch ( 94 cm ) cyclotron into a giant mass spectrometer for isotope separation , a technique Oliphant had pioneered in 1934 . Leo Szilard later wrote , " if Congress knew the true history of the atomic energy project , I have no doubt but that it would create a special medal to be given to meddling foreigners for distinguished services , and that Dr Oliphant would be the first to receive one . "
On 26 October 1942 , Oliphant embarked from Melbourne , taking Rosa and the children back with him . The wartime sea voyage on the French Desirade was again a slow one , and they did not reach Glasgow until 29 February 1943 . But he had to leave them behind once more in November 1943 after he joined the Manhattan Project in the United States as part of the British Mission . Oliphant was one of the scientists whose services the Americans were most eager to secure , and Robert Oppenheimer , the head of the Los Alamos Laboratory attempted to persuade Oliphant to join . The work on the bomb itself made him uneasy , and he preferred to head the team assisting his friend Lawrence at the Radiation Laboratory in Berkeley to develop the electromagnetic uranium enrichment – a vital but less overtly military part of the project .
Oliphant secured the services of fellow Australian physicist Harrie Massey , who had been working for the Admiralty on magnetic mines , along with James Stayers and Stanley Duke , who had worked with him on the cavity magnetron . This initial group set out for Berkeley in a B @-@ 24 Liberator bomber in November 1943 . Oliphant became Lawrence 's de facto deputy , and was in charge of the Berkeley Radiation Laboratory when Lawrence was absent . Although based in Berkeley , he often visited Oak Ridge , Tennessee , where the separation plant was , and was an occasional visitor to Los Alamos . He made efforts to involve Australian scientists in the project , and had Sir David Rivett , the head of the Council for Scientific and Industrial Research , release Eric Burhop to work on the Manhattan Project . He briefed Stanley Bruce , the Australian High Commissioner to the United Kingdom , on the project , and urged the Australian government to secure Australian uranium deposits .
Oliphant returned to England in March 1945 , and resumed his post as a professor of physics at the University of Birmingham . He was on holiday in Wales with his family when he first heard of the atomic bombing of Hiroshima and Nagasaki . He was later to remark that he felt " sort of proud that the bomb had worked , and absolutely appalled at what it had done to human beings " . Oliphant became a harsh critic of nuclear weapons and a member of the Pugwash Conferences on Science and World Affairs , saying , " I , right from the beginning , have been terribly worried by the existence of nuclear weapons and very much against their use . " His wartime work would have earned him a Presidential Medal of Freedom with Gold Palm , but the Australian government vetoed this honour , as government policy at the time was not to confer honours on civilians .
= = Later years in Australia = =
In April 1946 , the Prime Minister , Ben Chifley , asked Oliphant if he would be a technical advisor to the Australian delegation to the newly formed United Nations Atomic Energy Commission ( UNAEC ) , which was debating international control of nuclear weapons . Oliphant agreed , and joined the Minister for External Affairs , H. V. Evatt and the Australian Representative at the United Nations , Paul Hasluck , to hear the Baruch Plan . The attempt at international control was unsuccessful , and no agreement was reached .
Chifley , and the Minister for Post @-@ War Reconstruction , Dr H. C. " Nugget " Coombs , also discussed with Oliphant a plan to create a new research institute that would attract the world 's best scholars to Australia and lift the standard of university education nationwide . They hoped to start by attracting three of Australia 's most distinguished expatriates : Oliphant , Howard Florey and Keith Hancock .
It was academic suicide ; Australia was far from the centres where the latest research was being carried out , and communications were much poorer at that time . But Oliphant accepted , and in 1950 returned to Australia as the first Director of the Research School of Physical Sciences and Engineering at the Australian National University . Within the school he created a Department of Particle Physics , which he headed himself , a Department of Nuclear Physics under Ernest Titterton , a Department of Geophysics under John Jaeger , a Department of Astronomy under Bart Bok , a Department of Theoretical Physics under Kevin LeCouter and a Department of Mathematics under Bernhard Neumann .
Oliphant was an advocate of nuclear weapons research . He served on the post @-@ war Technical Committee that advised the British government on nuclear weapons , and publicly declared that Britain needed to develop its own nuclear weapons independent of the United States to " avoid the danger of becoming a lesser power " . The establishment of a world @-@ class nuclear physics research capability in Australia was intimately linked with the government 's plans to develop nuclear power and weapons . Locating the new research institute in Canberra would place it close to the Snowy Mountains Scheme , which was planned to be the centrepiece of a new nuclear power industry . Oliphant hoped that Britain would assist with the Australian program , and the British were interested in cooperation because Australia had uranium ore and weapons testing sites , and there were concerns that Australia was becoming too closely aligned with the United States . Arrangements were made for Australian scientists to be seconded to the British Atomic Energy Research Establishment at Harwell , but the close cooperation he sought was stymied by security concerns arising from Britain 's commitments to the United States .
Oliphant envisaged Canberra one day becoming a university town like Oxford or Cambridge . A threat to the future of the University arose in the wake of the 1949 election , when the Liberal Party of Australia led by Robert Menzies won . Many Liberals were opposed to the University , which they saw as an extravagance . Menzies defended it , but in 1954 he announced that it had entered a period of consolidation , with a funding ceiling , ending the possibility of successful competition with universities in Europe and North America . A further blow came in 1959 , when the Menzies government amalgamated it with the Canberra University College . Henceforth , it would no longer be a research university , but a regular one , with responsibility for teaching undergraduates . Nonetheless , parts of the university stayed committed to the old mission , and the ANU remained a university where research is central to its activities . Despite the setbacks , by 2014 the vision of Canberra as a university town would be well on its way to becoming a reality .
In September 1951 , Oliphant applied for a visa to travel to the United States for a nuclear physics conference in Chicago . The visa was not refused , nor was Oliphant accused of subversive activities , but neither was it issued . This was the height of the Red Scare . The American McCarran Act restricted travel to the United States , and in Australia the Menzies government was attempting to ban the Communist Party , and was not inclined to support Oliphant against the American government . A subsequent request to travel to Canada via Hawaii in September 1954 was refused by the United States Department of State . Although Oliphant was granted a special waiver that allowed him to transit the US , he preferred to cancel the trip rather than accept this humiliation . The Menzies government subsequently excluded him from participating in or observing the British nuclear tests at Maralinga , nor was he allowed access to classified nuclear information for fear of antagonising the US .
In 1955 , Oliphant initiated the design and construction of a 500 megajoule homopolar generator ( HPG ) , the world 's largest . This massive machine contained three discs 3 @.@ 5 metres ( 11 ft ) in diameter and weighing 38 tonnes ( 37 long tons ) . He obtained £ 40 @,@ 000 ( equivalent to A $ 1 @,@ 000 @,@ 000 in 2010 ) initial funding from the Australian Atomic Energy Commission . Completed in 1963 , the HPG was intended to be the power source for a synchrotron , but this was not built . Instead , it was used to power the LT @-@ 4 Tokamak and a large @-@ scale railgun that was used as a scientific instrument for experiments with plasma physics . It was decommissioned in 1985 .
Oliphant founded the Australian Academy of Science in 1954 , teaming up with David Martyn to overcome the obstacles that had frustrated previous attempts . Oliphant was its president until 1956 . Deciding that the Academy of Science should have its own special building , Oliphant raised the required money from donations . As chairman of the Building Design Committee , he selected and oversaw the construction of one of Canberra 's most striking architectural designs . He also delivered the Academy of Science 's 1961 Matthew Flinders Lecture , on the subject of " Faraday in his time and today " .
Oliphant retired as Professor of Particle Physics in 1964 , and was appointed Professor of Ionised Gases . In this chair he produced his first research papers since the 1930s . He was appointed Professor Emeritus in 1967 . He was invited by the premier , Don Dunstan , to become the Governor of South Australia , a position he held from 1971 to 1976 . During this period , he caused great concern to Dunstan when he strongly supported the decision of the Governor @-@ General , Sir John Kerr , in the 1975 Australian constitutional crisis .
The Age reported in 1981 that " Sir Mark Oliphant warned the Dunstan Government of the ' grave dangers ' of appointing an Australian Aborigine , Sir Douglas Nicholls , to succeed him as South Australia 's Governor " . Oliphant had secretly written , " [ t ] here is something inherent in the personality of the Aborigine which makes it difficult for him to adapt fully to the ways of the white man . " The authors of Oliphant 's biography noted that " that was the prevailing attitude of almost the entire white population of Australia until well after World War II " .
Oliphant was created a Knight Commander of the Order of the British Empire ( KBE ) in 1959 , and was made a Companion of the Order of Australia ( AC ) in 1977 " for eminent achievement and merit of the highest degree in the field of public service and in service to the crown " .
Late in life he watched his wife , Rosa , suffer before her death in 1987 , and he became an advocate for voluntary euthanasia . On 14 July 2000 , he died in Canberra , at the age of 98 . His body was cremated . He was survived by his daughter Vivian , his son Michael having died from colon cancer in 1971 .
= = Legacy = =
Places and things named in honour of Sir Mark Oliphant include the Oliphant Building at the Australian National University , the Mark Oliphant Conservation Park , a South Australian high schools science competition , the Oliphant Wing of the Physics Building at the University of Adelaide , and a high school in Munno Para West , South Australia . His papers are in the Adolph Basser Library at the Australian Academy of Science , and the Barr Smith Library at the University of Adelaide . Oliphant 's nephew , Pat Oliphant , is a Pulitzer Prize @-@ winning cartoonist .
= = Honours and awards = =
1937 Elected Fellow of the Royal Society
1943 Awarded Hughes Medal by the Royal Society
1946 Awarded Silvanius Thomson Medal , Institute of Radiology
1948 Awarded Faraday Medal by the Institution of Engineers
1954 Elected ( Foundation ) Fellow of the Australian Academy of Science
1954 Elected ( Foundation ) President of the Australian Academy of Science
1955 Invited to deliver the Bakerian Lecture by the Royal Society
1955 Invited to deliver the Rutherford Memorial Lecture by the Royal Society
1956 Awarded Galathea Medal by King Frederick IX of Denmark
1959 Created Knight Commander of the Order of the British Empire
1961 Awarded Matthew Flinders Medal and Lecture
1977 Appointed Companion of the Order of Australia
Memorials to Mark Oliphant
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= Cliff Compton =
Clifford " Cliff " Compton ( born November 2 , 1979 ) is an American professional wrestler signed to Global Force Wrestling , better known by his ring name Domino . Best known for his work in World Wrestling Entertainment ( WWE ) , he works for Ring of Honor ( ROH ) as a free agent , while also working on the independent circuit .
Before being promoted to the main WWE roster , Compton was assigned to WWE 's developmental territory Ohio Valley Wrestling ( OVW ) in Louisville , Kentucky in 2005 . While situated at OVW , he wrestled under the name Dice Domino and was placed in tag team competition , alongside Deuce Shade . Together , the pair won the OVW Southern Tag Team Championship on three occasions . It was also during this time that he and Deuce , alongside their manager Cherry , were known as " The Throw @-@ Backs " and later as " The Untouchables " .
The team 's name was changed to Deuce ' n Domino for their main roster debut in January 2007 , as part of the SmackDown ! brand . Three months later , Deuce ' n Domino went on to win the WWE Tag Team Championship . The team lost the title in August 2007 . The group disbanded in June 2008 , after a series of losses . After the split , Compton played an enhancement talent on SmackDown ! . Following his release from WWE in August 2008 , he resumed wrestling on the independent circuit .
= = Professional wrestling career = =
= = = Early career = = =
Compton began his professional wrestling career after being trained in Larry Sharpe 's Monster Factory . Compton became a regular for World Xtreme Wrestling , where he formed a tag team with Jake Bishop , known as Double Threat . On July 11 , 2003 , the duo won the WXW Tag Team Championship . He also wrestled a dark match for Total Nonstop Action Wrestling .
= = = World Wrestling Entertainment = = =
= = = = Ohio Valley Wrestling ( 2005 – 2007 ) = = = =
On September 26 , 2005 , Compton was defeated by Danny Basham in a dark match prior to WWE Raw and was soon signed by World Wrestling Entertainment ( WWE ) . Upon signing with WWE , Compton was sent to the Ohio Valley Wrestling ( OVW ) developmental territory . After four months at OVW , Compton began working as " Dice Domino " , teaming with Deuce Shade under the management of his storyline sister Cherry Pie , using a 1950s greaser in @-@ ring persona , forming the faction " The Throw @-@ Backs " .
During their time together they underwent an image change , including changing the group 's name to " The Untouchables " and dropping Dice , Shade , and Pie from their respective names . On March 19 , the team would become OVW Southern Tag Team Champions after Deuce defeated The Miz in a singles match after Miz 's partner , Chris Cage , left the organization and forced The Miz to defend the title on his own . The Untouchables lost their titles on April 5 , in a three @-@ way match to Roadkill and Kasey James , which also involved Kenny and Mikey of The Spirit Squad . The group soon began a scripted rivalry with the team of CM Punk and Seth Skyfire before later engaging into a long and heated rivalry with Shawn Spears and Cody Runnels , which even saw Cherry leave The Untouchables to side with Spears and Runnels briefly before betraying them . The feud culminated in a street fight between the two teams , with Spears and Runnels winning the match .
The Untouchables won the OVW Tag Team Title another two times , as well as the DSW Tag Team Championship once in October 2006 , before being called up to the main WWE roster in January 2007 .
= = = = SmackDown ! ( 2007 – 2008 ) = = = =
In their first match with WWE , where they debuted on the SmackDown ! brand , the team 's name was changed again , this time to " Deuce ' n Domino " . They debuted on the January 19 , 2007 , episode , where they were placed in a tag team match , in which Deuce ' n Domino won . On the February 2 episode of SmackDown ! , the team defeated the then @-@ WWE Tag Team Champions Paul London and Brian Kendrick in a non @-@ title match . Deuce ' n Domino faced London and Kendrick in a WWE Tag Team Championship match at February 's pay @-@ per @-@ view event , No Way Out . At the event , they lost when Kendrick pinned Deuce via a roll @-@ up . On the April 20 episode of SmackDown ! , they defeated London and Kendrick for the WWE Tag Team Championship when London was , in storyline , injured after missing a moonsault to the outside . Kendrick was left to defend the title by himself , and was pinned after being hit with the West Side Stomp , a finishing move performed by Deuce ' n Domino . Three weeks later , London and Kendrick competed against William Regal and Dave Taylor . Deuce ' n Domino interfered , causing Regal and Taylor to be disqualified . This made both teams number one contenders leading to a triple threat tag team match the following week where Deuce ' n Domino retained the tag title .
During a tag team match with Cryme Tyme ( Shad Gaspard and Jayson Paul ) in late June , Domino suffered an injury , which was diagnosed as a broken nose and a possible broken orbital bone socket in his eye . The injury kept him out of the ring for a month . After coming back from his injury , Deuce ' n Domino engaged in short rivalries with Batista and Ric Flair . On the August 31 episode of SmackDown ! , he and Deuce lost their tag team championship to Matt Hardy and the reigning United States Champion Montel Vontavious Porter . During the last few months of 2007 , Deuce ' n Domino had short scripted rivalries with Hardy and MVP , Jimmy Wang Yang and Shannon Moore , Jesse and Festus , and Finlay and Hornswoggle .
At the beginning of 2008 , the team suffered a series of losses . At WrestleMania XXIV in March , Deuce and Domino competed as singles competitors in a 24 @-@ man Interpromotional Battle Royal , in which the winner would face then ECW Champion Chavo Guerrero later that night ; however , neither was able to win the match . On the May 23 episode of SmackDown , Deuce ' n Domino parted ways with Cherry ; WWE Diva Maryse would take over as the team 's on @-@ screen manager .
On the June 20 , 2008 , episode of SmackDown , following a loss to Jesse and Festus , their second straight loss in two weeks , Deuce and Domino fought after the match , ending with Deuce laying out Domino with the Crack ' em in da Mouth . Deuce then threw his jacket over Domino , dissolving their partnership . The split was then further cemented when Deuce was drafted to the Raw brand as part of the 2008 WWE Supplemental Draft . Following the draft , Domino was predominantly featured as an enhancement talent on SmackDown weekly .
Domino 's last television appearance was on the August 1 episode of SmackDown , when he suffered a loss to The Big Show . Compton was then released from his WWE contract on August 8 , 2008 .
= = = = Florida Championship Wrestling ( 2010 ) = = = =
In 2010 , Compton returned to WWE and was sent to Florida Championship Wrestling where he wrestled under his real name of Cliff Compton . His first match came on February 18 , where he took on the FCW Florida Heavyweight Champion Justin Gabriel but would lose via DQ . Later in the night , Compton and Wade Barrett lost to Gabriel and Michael Tarver . He would go on to have one more match before leaving WWE .
= = = Return to OVW ( 2010 – present ) = = =
Compton returned to Ohio Valley Wrestling in September 2010 , using the ring name " Mr. Media " Cliff Compton . After a four month undefeated streak , on January 8 , 2011 , Compton defeated then – champion " Low Rider " Matt Barela and Mike Mondo in a three @-@ way match to win the OVW Heavyweight Championship for the first time . Two months later on March 5 , the three faced off for the championship again , this time in a ladder match , which Mondo won . During the match , Compton suffered a broken ankle , torn ligaments , and a strained calf muscle . Compton regained the OVW Heavyweight Championship on May 14 , when he defeated Mondo in a Brass Knuckles on a Pole match for the vacant championship . He lost the title to Elvis Pridemoore , following interference from Mondo , just eleven days later . On January 25 , Compton 's profile was removed from OVW 's website , signalling his departure from the company .
On May 12 , 2012 , Compton returned to OVW in a dark match with Mike Mondo going up against Raphael Constantine and Sean Casey . On May 31 , Compton wrestled a tryout dark match for Total Nonstop Action Wrestling ( TNA ) , losing to Crimson . On October 17 , Compton won the OVW Television Championship from Alex Silva . He held the championship for three weeks , before it was vacated due to Compton suffering an injury . Following his return from injury , he defeated Jamin Olivencia to regain the championship on January 5 , 2013 . Following a two @-@ month reign , he lost the championship to Rockstar Spud on March 13 . Compton returned to OVW again on September 3 , 2014 , declaring his intention to win the OVW Heavyweight Championship again . On October 4 , Compton won his third OVW Heavyweight Championship after pinning Marcus Anthony in a three @-@ way match , also involving champion Melvin Maximus . However , he lost the title two months later , while being injured , against Adam Revolver .
= = = Ring of Honor ( 2013 – present ) = = =
On March 2 , 2013 , Compton made his debut for Ring of Honor ( ROH ) at their 11th Anniversary Show iPPV , where he , Jimmy Rave , Matt Hardy and Rhett Titus , revealed themselves as the newest members of S.C.U.M. by attacking numerous members of the ROH roster following the main event , joining Kevin Steen , Jimmy Jacobs , Rhino and Steve Corino as members of the group . After Steen lost the ROH World Championship , Compton and the rest of S.C.U.M turned on Steen and made Steve Corino the new leader . At Best in the World 2013 , Compton and Rhett Titus lost a three @-@ way tag team match for the ROH World Tag Team Championship . On June 23 , S.C.U.M. was forced to disband after being defeated by Team ROH in a Steel Cage Warfare match . Compton returned to ROH in early 2014 , feuding with Steen . Compton repeatedly attacked Steen on shows leading up to the 12th Anniversary Show . He lost to Steen in an Unsanctioned Street Fight at the 12th Anniversary Show , in which he suffered a concussion . In May , Compton and Steen found common enemies and defeated Eddie Kingston and Homicide in a Charm City Street Fight . Almost one year later , March 14 , 2015 , Cliff " The Charlie Sheen of Professional Wrestling " would return to challenge Jay Lethal for a chance to earn a shot at the ROH World Television Championship on the spot . Jay defeated Cliff in a Chicago Street Match to retain the title .
= = = Global Force Wrestling ( 2015 – present ) = = =
On May 11 , 2015 , Compton was announced as part of roster of the Global Force Wrestling ( GFW ) promotion .
= = Other media = =
In March 2014 , Compton and Colt Cabana appeared in a commercial for KFC . In April 2014 , a documentary titled , The Wrestling Road Diaries Too featuring Compton , Colt Cabana and Drew Hankinson , was released on DVD . Cliff was the latest guest on The Kevin Steen Show , released in July 2014 .
= = In wrestling = =
Finishing moves
Cliffhanger / Domino Effect ( Springboard tornado DDT )
Domino Driver ( Fisherman buster )
Media Blitz ( Sitout scoop slam piledriver )
Managers
Cherry
Maryse
Mo Green
Nicknames
" Mr. 1859 "
" Mr. Media "
Entrance themes
" I 'm All About Cool " by Jim Johnston ( WWE )
" Hold Tight ! " by Dave Dee , Dozy , Beaky , Mick & Tich ( OVW )
= = Championships and accomplishments = =
Deep South Wrestling
DSW Tag Team Championship ( 1 time ) – with Deuce Shade
NWA Southern All @-@ Star Wrestling
NWA Southern Heavyweight Championship ( 1 time )
Ohio Valley Wrestling
OVW Heavyweight Championship ( 3 times )
OVW Southern Tag Team Championship ( 3 times ) – with Deuce Shade
OVW Television Championship ( 2 times )
Ninth OVW Triple Crown Champion
Pro Wrestling Illustrated
PWI ranked him 169 of the best 500 singles wrestlers in the PWI 500 in 2008
World Wrestling Entertainment
WWE Tag Team Championship ( 1 time ) – with Deuce
World Xtreme Wrestling
WXW Tag Team Championship ( 1 time ) – with Jake Bishop
|
= Timothy L. Pflueger =
Timothy Ludwig Pflueger ( September 26 , 1892 – November 20 , 1946 ) was a prominent architect , interior designer and architectural lighting designer in the San Francisco Bay Area in the first half of the 20th century . Together with James R. Miller , Pflueger designed some of the leading skyscrapers and movie theaters in San Francisco in the 1920s , and his works featured art by challenging new artists such as Ralph Stackpole and Diego Rivera . Rather than breaking new ground with his designs , Pflueger captured the spirit of the times and refined it , adding a distinct personal flair . His work influenced later architects such as Pietro Belluschi .
Pflueger , who started as a working @-@ class draftsman and never went to college , established his imprint on the development of Art Deco in California architecture yet demonstrated facility in many styles including Streamline Moderne , neo @-@ Mayan , Beaux @-@ Arts , Mission Revival , Neoclassical and International . His work as an interior designer resulted in an array of influential interior spaces , including luxurious cocktail lounges such as the Top of the Mark at the Mark Hopkins Hotel , the Patent Leather Bar at the St. Francis Hotel and the Cirque Room at The Fairmont , three of the most successful San Francisco bars in their day .
Pflueger 's social and business connections spanned the city , including three private men 's clubs which he joined : the Bohemian Club , the Olympic Club and The Family . He designed buildings and interior architecture for the latter two . Pflueger was highly placed in several important planning organizations : He was the chairman of a committee of consulting architects on the Bay Bridge project and he served on the committee responsible for the design of the Golden Gate International Exposition in 1939 . Pflueger was a board member of the San Francisco Art Association starting in 1930 , and served variously as chair and director . While on the board , Pflueger helped the organization found the San Francisco Museum of Modern Art ( SFMOMA ) .
= = Early life = =
Pflueger was born the second of seven sons in the Potrero Hill area of San Francisco to German immigrants August Pflueger and Ottilie Quandt who had met in Los Angeles and married . Other Quandt relatives lived in the Noe Valley neighborhood , and , in 1904 , the Pflueger family moved closer , to 1015 Guerrero Street in the Mission District , a melting pot neighborhood of blue @-@ collar workers . At age 11 , Pflueger took his first job working for a picture @-@ framing firm near his home .
After the 1906 San Francisco earthquake , Pflueger continued his grade @-@ school education , graduating at age 13 in a mass ceremony held in Golden Gate Park for all the city 's devastated public schools . By 1907 , Pflueger was working as a draftsman and soon joined the architectural firm Miller and Colmesnil , under the guidance of James Rupert Miller , senior partner . Young Pflueger sketched ornamental details based on ideas from his bosses , and attended Mission High Evening School to further his education . In 1911 , Pflueger joined the San Francisco Architectural Club ( SFAC ) , an organization that helped budding architects receive training in the informal Atelier Method where older experts taught the practical side of architecture including waterproofing , lighting and structural concerns to students who had no hope or wish to study Beaux @-@ Arts in an established school abroad . Pflueger became thoroughly involved with SFAC 's collegial activities and was chosen director in 1914 .
= = Early career = =
In 1912 , while Miller and Colmesnil were busy with their entry in the competition to redesign San Francisco City Hall as well as with the design of many new hotels , apartments and private homes , Timothy L. Pflueger was given the opportunity to serve as chief architect on a rural church project funded by The Family , a club to which Miller belonged . Pflueger designed Our Lady of the Wayside Church with a main theme of Spanish Mission Revival based on his childhood familiarity with Mission San Francisco de Asís ( locally known as Mission Dolores ) but added his own personal statement : a striking Georgian main entrance topped by a scrolled pediment . After working with sub @-@ contractor members of The Family on the project , Pflueger joined the club himself . The rural church was declared California Historical Landmark number 909 in 1977 .
Colmesnil left the firm some time around 1913 , leaving Miller to conduct business as " J. R. Miller " . Subsequently , Pflueger was assigned by Miller to work closely with the firm 's major client , Metropolitan Life Insurance Company , who engaged in a succession of expansion projects at their San Francisco location at 600 Stockton Street . The first expansion , completed in 1914 , gave the building a roof garden , dining room , kitchen and subbasement .
Pflueger volunteered for World War I in 1917 , working for the Quartermaster Corps to design base facilities . He was first stationed in Washington , D.C. and then sent to San Juan , Puerto Rico to take part in base expansion there . Returning to San Francisco in 1919 , Pflueger once again focused on the Metropolitan Life Insurance Company , who now wished for a further doubling in size , extending their Stockton Street frontage 140 feet to California Street , and adding a seventh floor . A massive new entrance incorporating 17 Ionic columns was erected , topped by a pediment displaying a tableau carved by Armenian sculptor Haig Patigian . The Neoclassic @-@ style project was completed in 1920 . In 1984 , the building was designated San Francisco Landmark No. 167 .
= = 1920s = =
In June 1920 , Pflueger passed his architecture licensing exams to become a certified California architect . He was elected president of the SFAC later that year , taking office in early 1921 .
J. R. Miller , relying more and more on Pflueger 's hard @-@ working energy , social conviviality and artistic talent , gave him a wide variety of assignments including designs for an automobile showroom , a firehouse and a number of private homes . Pflueger extended his proposed styles to include Aztec elements and Spanish Colonial Revival themes , the latter favored by several clients for their homes .
Miller made Pflueger his junior partner following their completion of the US $ 80 @,@ 000 San Francisco Stock Exchange building at 350 Bush Street in 1923 . The firm conducted business as Miller and Pflueger . The building at 350 Bush , a neoclassic design topped with a pediment displaying a sculpture by Jo Mora and later called the San Francisco Mining Exchange , is currently empty ; it was designated San Francisco Landmark No. 113 in 1980 .
= = = Skyscrapers = = =
Miller and Pflueger were selected in 1923 to build an expansive new headquarters tower for Pacific Telephone & Telegraph . In June 1924 , Pflueger showed his plans for a $ 3 million skyscraper , 26 stories high , designed with continuous vertical elements and a progression of step @-@ backs narrowing the floors near the top . Arthur Frank Mathews was brought in to paint a mural in the boardroom on the 18th floor . The structure was fully devoted to offices for 2 @,@ 000 employees , mostly female . Pflueger 's vision was strongly influenced by Eliel Saarinen 's second @-@ place entry in the competition to design the Tribune Tower in Chicago . In June , 1925 , the Pacific Telephone & Telegraph Company Building was completed for $ 4 million ( $ 54 million in current value ) , becoming the tallest building in San Francisco for the next 40 years , tied by the Russ Building in 1927 .
450 Sutter Street was completed on October 15 , 1929 , using a primarily unbroken exterior verticality without step @-@ backs , featuring triangular thrust window bays , the whole decorated with stylized Mayan designs impressed on the terra cotta sheathing and inscribed in metals , marble and glass within the luxurious lobby . In 1983 , Pietro Belluschi said that the vertical triangular faceted lines of 450 Sutter formed part of the inspiration for the similarly faceted exterior of 555 California .
As the Telephone Building was being completed in 1925 , a group of Methodist Episcopalians came to Pflueger , asking him to design a new skyscraper containing both a church and a hotel for them at 100 McAllister Street . After a dispute , Miller and Pflueger were fired from the project to be replaced by Lewis P. Hobart . Miller and Pflueger sued for $ 81 @,@ 600 , alleging that Hobart 's design was not significantly changed from Pflueger 's original . Three months after the hotel and church opened in January 1930 , Miller and Pflueger won $ 38 @,@ 000 in court , equivalent to $ 538 @,@ 000 today .
= = = Artists = = =
By the late 1920s , Pflueger was already working with a number of artists such as Haig Patigian , Jo Mora and Arthur Mathews who provided fine detail and craftsmanship to his larger designs .
In March 1928 , Pflueger published his submission for a new building to house the San Francisco Stock Exchange , featuring strong Zigzag Moderne themes with classicist notes . Miller and Pflueger won the competition for the commission . Eight months later , the Exchange committee decided instead to rebuild the Sub @-@ treasury building at 301 Pine Street while keeping its Tuscan columns and entrance steps , requiring a completely new approach . Pflueger 's first response was a sketch with little ornamentation . Construction began in December 1928 . By January 1929 , Pflueger 's plans indicated prominent sculptures , bas @-@ reliefs , inscriptions and carvings , to be detailed by local artists .
Also in January , Pflueger booked a flight in a small mail plane heading for New York but a winter storm forced the pilot and his two passengers down in the Sierras . The three men waited 36 hours exposed to the cold before being rescued . Pflueger immediately continued his trip and met with his Metropolitan Life Insurance clients regarding a third expansion project .
Early in 1929 , Pflueger met Ralph Stackpole , an art professor at California School of Fine Arts and a former student of Mathews , who agreed to sculpt monumental figures for the stock exchange project as well as recommending and supervising other artists . Stackpole wrote later of his experience that " the artists were in from the first . They were called in conference and assumed responsibility and personal pride in the building . " Pflueger hired nine artists to help decorate the neighboring Stock Exchange Tower at 155 Sansome , and instructed them only to keep their themes light and airy . Diego Rivera was brought with some difficulty from Mexico to paint a two @-@ story mural in the stairwell between the 10th and 11th floors of the Stock Exchange Luncheon Club ( now the City Club ) . Stackpole himself worked with a crew of assistants to direct carve heroic figures in stone above the tall 155 Sansome entrance , as well as carving two large sculpture groups flanking the Tuscan columns of 301 Pine Street .
= = = Architectural lighting design = = =
Over the Stock Exchange floor , Pflueger mounted a ceiling composed of interconnected sheet metal strips above which he used indirect lighting to soften the edges and reduce shadows made by traders on the floor below . The result was so effective that Pflueger used it on a much larger scale above the audience seating at the Paramount Theatre in Oakland , where it extended from and formed a continuity with the incised art on the proscenium . In Oakland , Pflueger flanked the stage with structures that appeared to be pillars supporting the proscenium but were instead layered , curved sheets of thin metal behind which lighting instruments cast light indirectly to give the columns a suffused glow . In 1931 , he used the same concept to frame the stage at the Bal Tabarin ( now Bimbo 's 365 Club ) , and to bring a changing palette of color to the ceiling above the dance floor . Pflueger filed for and , in 1934 , received two architectural lighting design patents , one for his ceiling grid with indirect lighting and one for the thin metal panels hiding lighting instruments . He used the patented ceiling grid once more in the Patent Leather Bar , in 1939 .
Metropolitan Life Insurance expanded their 600 Stockton location yet again in 1929 , with Pflueger designing a new wing on the Pine Street side .
= = = Movie palaces = = =
The three Nasser brothers , William , Elias and George , specifically requested Pflueger in 1920 after they received financing for a grand movie palace on Castro Street . In a hurry to see the 2 @,@ 000 @-@ seat project completed , the Nasser Brothers gave Pflueger a free hand in its design . The Castro Theatre was finished in June 1922 for $ 300 @,@ 000 ( $ 4 @,@ 241 @,@ 000 in today 's dollars ) in a largely Spanish Baroque style which evoked cathedrals in Spain and Mexico . Churrigueresque elements were used sparingly on the facade , and ornate tile detailing was employed in the vestibule , ticket booth and the lobby . A canopy modeled after ancient Roman silk brocade shelters was fashioned of steel lath and plaster and painted with Asian and Buddha figures to overhang the main theater seating area . The whole was an eclectic assemblage of styles .
In 1925 , Michael Naify and William Nasser turned to Pflueger again for a new neighborhood theater design based on the Alhambra in Grenada , Spain . The Alhambra Theatre opened on November 5 , 1926 with a grand facade flanked by twin minarets that glowed red at night . Pflueger 's vision stayed firmly planted in the Moorish Revival style , complete to the iron scrollwork and amber shade redesign of two municipal streetlamps standing outside of the theater . Pflueger worked with muralist Arthur Frank Mathews to achieve a rich palette of color most prominently displayed in a geometric floral pattern on the main ceiling . The Alhambra was named San Francisco Landmark No. 217 in 1996 .
The Nassers and Naify contracted with Pflueger in early 1926 to build three large movie theaters in central California cities . They assigned Pflueger the design of the Tulare Theatre ( 1927 ) in Tulare , the Senator Theatre ( 1928 ) in Chico and the State Theatre ( 1928 ) in Oroville . The $ 250 @,@ 000 Tulare Theatre ( now demolished ) featured motifs based on the Ishtar Gate of Babylon . Pflueger included zigzag patterns in the twin @-@ towered facade trimmed in neon accents , and brought Streamline Moderne stylings to the interior via sweeping curves in steel banister railings as well as Mayan touches in the stepped mirrors . The $ 250 @,@ 000 State Theatre appeared Spanish Colonial with its tiled roof and concrete bas @-@ relief exterior , but turned to Streamline Moderne in a 1 @,@ 529 @-@ seat interior that featured chrome railings , plush carpet and indirect lighting . Aztec elements were incorporated in the proscenium design . The $ 300 @,@ 000 Senator Theatre was delayed in construction by the discovery of running water under the foundation , a condition that required channelization and pumps . The movie palace 's eclectic theme was largely Egyptian with Moorish , Asian and Aztec details dominated by a landmark tower topped by a giant faceted amber glass gem lit from within .
Back in San Francisco , Pflueger designed the Nasser Brothers ' 1 @,@ 830 @-@ seat El Rey Theatre ( 1931 ) at 1970 Ocean Avenue in pure Moderne style , including a sleek tower topped by an aircraft warning beacon . A mirrored foyer in black and gold held floral and geometric accents , and twin curved stairways to the balcony flanked the foyer .
Shortly before the Wall Street Crash of 1929 , investors including William Henry Crocker bought adjoining parcels of land in Oakland for the purpose of erecting a movie palace to rival the nearby Fox Orpheum , intending that Miller and Pflueger build it . One of the largest studio and theater chains in the country , Paramount Publix , showed great interest , but wanted to use their own East Coast architect instead . Pflueger went to New York and convinced Paramount Publix to use his firm by demonstrating that past projects of his had stayed within budget , a concern of increasing importance in the cautious financial climate of early 1930 .
For the 3 @,@ 200 @-@ seat design , Pflueger took his inspiration from Green Mansions , a romantic fantasy novel by William Henry Hudson set in the Guyana jungle of Venezuela . Tropical rain forest motifs were used throughout the theater , including climbing vines , waterfalls , parrots and emerald green lighting . As with his other works , Pflueger mixed together sources from around the world , adding images of Greek and Egyptian gods and goddesses as well as Egyptian lotuses to the primarily jungle theme . Plans were complete in November and in December 1930 ground was broken in a ceremony that called for " prosperity celebration " .
The grand opening was held December 16 , 1931 with a crowd which extended out to the street . Live action variety performances alternated with film showings . Unfortunately for the theater , the number of tickets sold in the subsequent months was not enough to keep the theater in the black . It closed in June 1932 , reopening in 1933 as only a movie theater , devoid of the extravagant live pieces .
Increasingly tough economic times in the early 1930s caused many theater owners to cancel plans for new construction and concentrate on attracting customers to existing theaters . Only one more cinema , the 2 @,@ 168 @-@ seat Alameda Theatre ( 1932 ) in Alameda , California would ever be built by Pflueger . Commissioned by the Nasser Brothers , the eclectic Alameda 's exterior incorporated deeply incised and intricate Moorish Revival rosettes on cream @-@ colored smoothly curved sides on either side of Art Nouveau flowers in bas relief rising between eight vertical Moderne speed lines . The Art Deco interior design used imitation silver and gold leaf for accents and warm colors for a stylized mezzanine mural with a hint of Cubism . In the interest of economy , the Alameda 's floor plan was nearly identical to that of the El Rey Theatre , including twin curved staircases , and some floral and geometric elements were borrowed from the Paramount .
= = 1930s = =
During the Great Depression , Pflueger continued to win commissions , but because of the straitened financial climate , the most noteworthy examples were no longer prominent downtown skyscrapers . Pflueger designed a handful of unique schools for San Francisco Unified School District , including two elementary schools , a junior high , two high schools and every major building on the first campus ( Ocean campus ) of San Francisco Junior College , an institution that would later expand to become City College of San Francisco .
In 1932 , Pflueger renovated the Nasser brother 's New Mission Theater , bringing Art Deco stylings to the lobby in contrast to the Spanish Mission trimmings in the main auditorium . In 1993 , the theater closed . The theater , now designated San Francisco Landmark No. 245 , was purchased by Alamo Drafthouse Cinemas and completely renovated to its original splendor , opening its doors once again to patrons in December 2015 . Pflueger simultaneously worked on the remodeling of the Nasser 's New Fillmore Theater , a sister design similar in many respects . The New Fillmore closed in 1957 and was demolished to make way for an urban redevelopment project .
= = = Cocktail lounges = = =
During Prohibition , Pflueger designed bars for private clubs such as the Stock Exchange Luncheon Club where members kept their personal bottles in small lockers behind the bar , and two bars for The Family , one at the Family Farm in Woodside and one at the clubhouse in San Francisco . Pflueger created a cocktail bar and nightclub for Frank Martinelli and Tom Gerun in 1931 , the Bal Tabarin , featuring a stage for live music and colorful indirect lighting from above metal fins in the ceiling and behind curved metal strips upstage . When Prohibition ended in December 1933 , Bal Tabarin received an immediate renovation by Pflueger along with a liquor license from the state . Pflueger was then asked to design cocktail lounges for several hotels , completing the Cirque for the Fairmont Hotel in 1935 , adorned with finely painted murals by Esther Bruton , and in 1939 , both the Patent Leather Bar for the St. Francis Hotel and the Top of the Mark for the Mark Hopkins Hotel . The Patent Leather Bar used a metal @-@ finned ceiling much like that which Pflueger had installed above the audience at the Paramount Theatre in Oakland . A padded , serpentine bar snaked through the room 's mirror , chrome and black leather decor . Ansel Adams was retained by C. Templeton Crocker to show off the new cocktail lounge in photographs .
= = = Bay Bridge = = =
Pflueger was invited by California governor James " Sunny Jim " Rolph to chair the committee of architects who were given nominal oversight of the San Francisco – Oakland Bay Bridge project . Arriving two years into the design phase of the bridge , Pflueger was stymied at every turn by civil engineers citing the inflexible budget in his attempts to bring a more artistic theme to the bridge . A heroic figure of a giant man standing at the central anchorage between the two main suspension spans was suggested and quickly canceled ; all that remains of the proposal is a 14 @-@ inch study modeled by Ralph Stackpole . The committee of architects succeeded mainly in making the suspension bridge towers more streamlined in appearance by getting rid of the civil engineer 's plans for a greater number of horizontal cross members . Pflueger very likely designed the stepped semicircular tunnel entrance and exit portals and , by mounting a campaign of public pressure , prevented the bridge from being painted black , successfully substituting a silvery aluminum @-@ based paint instead . When the bridge was completed , Pflueger designed the Transbay Terminal , the main transit center for the train lines built on the lower deck of the Bay Bridge .
= = = Golden Gate International Exposition = = =
For the Golden Gate International Exposition of 1939 – 1940 on Treasure Island , Pflueger joined a committee of well @-@ known Beaux @-@ Arts architects and was frustrated in establishing a more modern design scheme , though his own Federal Building amply demonstrated the new direction he espoused . Pflueger 's contributions were among the few buildings at the Exposition that received positive reviews . When the Exposition 's investors failed to turn a profit in 1939 , they decided to extend the fair another year . For the summer of 1940 , Pflueger put together a large exhibit of Art in Action , showing a number of artists on display , engaged in creating works . Alfred Frankenstein of The New York Times visited in June and wrote " Here the visitor is privileged to observe a kind of twenty @-@ ring circus of art ... On the floor , in a series of little ateliers , sculptors , painters , lithographers , etchers , ceramicists , weavers and whatnot are at work under the direct observation of the public . " Pflueger once again brought Diego Rivera to San Francisco , this time to serve as the main attraction at " Art in Action " . Rivera painted Pan American Unity on ten steel @-@ framed panels spanning 74 feet in width and reaching 22 feet in height . For the second time , Rivera included Pflueger in a mural of his . Some 68 artists had participated by the end of September when the Exposition was closed . Rivera was not finished , however ; he and two assistants labored for two more months in the empty exposition hall . On November 30 and December 2 , 30 @,@ 000 – 35 @,@ 000 visitors came to Treasure Island to view the completed mural . On December 8 , 1940 , Rivera 's 54th birthday , Kahlo and Rivera were married for the second time in a civil ceremony at San Francisco City Hall .
= = 1940s = =
In 1938 , Pflueger sailed to Paris with Grover Magnin , head of the I. Magnin department store chain , aboard RMS Queen Mary . The two men investigated French shopping ideas that could be brought back and used at American department stores . Pflueger gained ideas from the ship 's famous Art Deco adornments . Magnin and Pflueger went to Venice and Milan as well , but found very little of use to them on their short European trip . The $ 3 million I. Magnin store on Wilshire ( currently the Wilshire Galleria ) opened in Los Angeles on February 10 , 1939 with an interior completely devoted to Pflueger 's concept of luxuriously separate boutique spaces within which individual sales items would receive unique attention . Pflueger 's interior was attuned to women 's fashions : the ground level floor was laid with rose @-@ beige marble from France , pink velvet counter tops held gloves for trying on , rose @-@ beige leather panels covered the walls of the shoe salon and the same leather served as covering for sofas and chairs that were provided by Neel D. Parker , interior designer and Pflueger 's fellow club member from The Family . Grover Magnin continued to work with Pflueger on three more stores into the 1940s .
In 1939 , plans for an underground garage at Union Square were given to Pflueger for political reasons . George Applegarth 's 1935 design was actively opposed from several directions and Pflueger 's social contacts and his friendship with mayor Angelo Joseph Rossi were needed to get the project started . Union Square garage opened in 1943 with Pflueger 's touch making it a full @-@ service valet garage complete with a waiting room and rest rooms for shoppers and the option of having shopping packages sent directly from a nearby store to the garage or for the car to be delivered to the store . The concept of an underground garage below a city park was influential : New York builder Robert Moses requested copies of Pflueger 's plans ( little changed from Applegarth 's ) and Pershing Square in Los Angeles was excavated and rebuilt in 1952 along the same lines .
In 1942 , while America geared up for front line involvement in World War II , Pflueger received fewer assignments than he had been seeing previously . Grover Magnin kept a flow of work with I. Magnin designs , and Pflueger also helped the Army with a depot building in Ogden , Utah . He began to draw up plans for a 12 @-@ story cross @-@ shaped medical teaching hospital for the University of California , San Francisco ( eventually to be built at 505 Parnassus in 1955 with additional design work performed by his brother Milton Pflueger ) . His firm accepted a commission to excavate below the Mark Hopkins Hotel in order to create a bomb @-@ resistant radio transmission center for AM station KSFO and shortwave programs of the Voice of America . This space became the hotel 's underground parking garage after the war .
= = Death and legacy = =
Timothy L. Pflueger died suddenly at the age of 54 on November 20 , 1946 of a heart attack on Post Street outside of the Olympic Club after taking his usual evening swim . At his death , Pflueger was not finished with the radical interior and exterior transformation of the I. Magnin flagship store at Union Square , a sleek International design that remained influential for years afterward .
All his adult life , Pflueger maintained his residence at his childhood home on Guerrero Street . When entertaining downtown late into the evening , he was known to spend an occasional night at the Olympic Club . Pflueger drove a green Cadillac convertible and was often seen with his steady lady friend on his arm . Pflueger never married and left no children . His brother Milton , fifteen years younger , had been working with the firm since the 1930s and , at Tim 's death , Milton reorganized and headed the company , doing business as Milton T. Pflueger , Architect .
In 1990 , a bas @-@ relief of influential San Franciscans was sculpted over the facade of 235 Pine Street , a 26 @-@ story skyscraper . Timothy L. Pflueger was the only architect among those memorialized . In 2008 , the San Francisco Board of Supervisors voted unanimously to change the name of Chelsea Place , a small alley leading to the garage of the 450 Sutter Street building , to Timothy Pflueger Place .
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= Learned Hand =
Billings Learned Hand ( / ˈlɜːrnᵻd / LURN @-@ id ; January 27 , 1872 – August 18 , 1961 ) was a United States judge and judicial philosopher . He served on the United States District Court for the Southern District of New York and later the United States Court of Appeals for the Second Circuit . Hand has been quoted more often by legal scholars and by the Supreme Court of the United States than any other lower @-@ court judge .
Born and raised in Albany , New York , Hand majored in philosophy at Harvard College and graduated with honors from Harvard Law School . After a short career as a lawyer in Albany and New York City , he was appointed at the age of 37 as a Federal District Judge in Manhattan in 1909 . The profession suited his detached and open @-@ minded temperament , and his decisions soon won him a reputation for craftsmanship and authority . Between 1909 and 1914 , under the influence of Herbert Croly 's social theories , Hand supported New Nationalism . He ran unsuccessfully as the Progressive Party 's candidate for Chief Judge of the New York Court of Appeals in 1913 , but withdrew from active politics shortly afterwards . In 1924 , President Calvin Coolidge promoted Hand to the Court of Appeals for the Second Circuit , which he went on to lead as the Senior Circuit Judge ( later retitled Chief Judge ) from 1939 until his semi @-@ retirement in 1951 . Scholars have recognized the Second Circuit under Hand as one of the finest appeals courts in the country 's history . Friends and admirers often lobbied for Hand 's promotion to the Supreme Court , but circumstances and his political past conspired against his appointment .
Hand possessed a gift for the English language , and his writings are admired as legal literature . He rose to fame outside the legal profession in 1944 during World War II after giving a short address in Central Park that struck a popular chord in its appeal for tolerance . During a period when a hysterical fear of subversion divided the nation , Hand was viewed as a liberal defender of civil liberties . A collection of Hand 's papers and addresses , published in 1952 as The Spirit of Liberty , sold well and won him new admirers . Even after he criticized the civil @-@ rights activism of the 1950s Warren Court , Hand retained his popularity .
Hand is also remembered as a pioneer of modern approaches to statutory interpretation . His decisions in specialist fields , such as patents , torts , admiralty law , and antitrust law , set lasting standards for craftsmanship and clarity . On constitutional matters , he was both a political progressive and an advocate of judicial restraint . He believed in the protection of free speech and in bold legislation to address social and economic problems . He argued , however , that the United States Constitution does not empower courts to overrule the legislation of elected bodies , except in extreme circumstances . Instead , he advocated the " combination of toleration and imagination that to me is the epitome of all good government " .
= = Early life = =
Billings Learned Hand was born on January 27 , 1872 , in Albany , New York , the second and last child of Samuel Hand ( 1833 – 86 ) and Lydia Hand ( née Learned ) . His mother 's family traditionally used surnames as given names ; and Hand was named for a maternal uncle and a grandfather , both named Billings Peck Learned . The Hands were a prominent family with a tradition of activism in the Democratic Party . Hand grew up in comfortable circumstances on Albany 's main residential street . The family had an " almost hereditary " attachment to the legal profession and has been described as " the most distinguished legal family in northern New York " .
Samuel Hand was an appellate lawyer , who had risen rapidly through the ranks of an Albany @-@ based law firm in the 1860s and , by age 32 , was the firm 's leading lawyer . In 1878 , he became the leader of the appellate bar and argued cases before the New York Court of Appeals in " greater number and importance than those argued by any other lawyer in New York during the same period " . Samuel Hand was a distant , intimidating figure to his son ; Learned Hand later described his relations with his father as " not really intimate " . Samuel Hand died from cancer when Learned was 14 . Learned 's mother thereafter promoted an idealized memory of her husband 's professional success , intellectual abilities , and parental perfection , placing considerable pressure on her son .
Lydia Hand was an involved and protective mother , who had been influenced by a Calvinist aunt as a child ; and she passed on a strong sense of duty and guilt to her only son . Learned Hand eventually came to understand the influences of his parents as formative . After his father 's death , he looked to religion to help him cope , writing to his cousin Augustus Noble Hand : " If you could imagine one half the comfort my religion has given to me in this terrible loss , you would see that Christ never forsakes those who cling to him . " The depth of Hand 's early religious convictions was in sharp contrast to his later agnosticism .
Hand was beset by anxieties and self @-@ doubt throughout his life , including night terrors as a child . He later admitted he was " very undecided , always have been — a very insecure person , very fearful ; morbidly fearful " . Especially after his father 's death , he grew up surrounded by doting women — his mother , his aunt , and his sister Lydia ( Lily ) , eight years his elder . Hand struggled with his name during his childhood and adulthood , worried that " Billings " and " Learned " were not sufficiently masculine . While working as a lawyer in 1899 , he ceased using the name " Billings " — calling it " pompous " — and ultimately took on the nickname " B " .
Hand spent two years at a small primary school before transferring at the age of seven to The Albany Academy , which he attended for the next 10 years . He never enjoyed the Academy 's uninspired teaching or its narrow curriculum , which focused on Ancient Greek and Latin , with few courses in English , history , science , or modern languages . Socially , he considered himself an outsider , rarely enjoying recesses or the school 's military drills . Vacations , spent in Elizabethtown , New York , were happier times . There , Hand developed a life @-@ long friendship with his cousin and future colleague Augustus Noble Hand , two years his senior . The two were self @-@ confessed " wild boys " , camping and hiking in the woods and hills , where Hand developed a love of nature and the countryside . Many years later , when he was in his 70s , Hand recorded several songs for the Library of Congress that he had learned as a boy from Civil War veterans in Elizabethtown . After his father 's death , he felt more pressure from his mother to excel academically . He finished near the top of his class and was accepted into Harvard College . His classmates — who opted for schools such as Williams and Yale — thought it a " stuckup , snobbish school " .
= = Harvard = =
Hand started at Harvard College in 1889 , initially focusing on classical studies and mathematics as advised by his late father . At the end of his sophomore year , however , he changed direction . He embarked on courses in philosophy and economics , studying under the eminent and inspirational philosophers William James , Josiah Royce and George Santayana .
At first , Hand found Harvard a difficult social environment . He was not selected for any of the social clubs that dominated campus life , and he felt this exclusion keenly . He was equally unsuccessful with the Glee Club and the football team ; for a time he rowed as a substitute for the rowing club . He later described himself as a " serious boy " , a hard worker who did not smoke , drink , or consort with prostitutes . He mixed more in his sophomore and senior years . He became a member of the Hasty Pudding Club and appeared as a blond @-@ wigged chorus girl in the 1892 student musical . He was also elected president of The Harvard Advocate , a student literary magazine .
Hand 's studious ways resulted in his election to Phi Beta Kappa , an elite society of scholarly students . He graduated with highest honors , was awarded a master 's as well as a bachelor 's degree , and was chosen by his classmates to deliver the Class Day oration at the 1893 commencement . Family tradition and expectation suggested that he would study law after graduation . For a while , he seriously considered post @-@ graduate work in philosophy , but he received no encouragement from his family or philosophy professors . Doubting himself , he " drifted " toward law .
Hand 's three years at Harvard Law School were intellectually and socially stimulating . In his second year , he moved into a boarding house with a group of fellow law students who were to become close friends . They studied hard and enjoyed discussing philosophy and literature and telling bawdy tales . Hand 's intellectual reputation proved less of a hindrance at law school than it had as an undergraduate . He was elected to the Pow @-@ Wow Club , in which law students practiced their skills in moot courts . He was also chosen as an editor of the Harvard Law Review , although he resigned in 1894 because it took too much time from his studies .
During the 1890s , Harvard Law School was pioneering the casebook method of teaching introduced by Dean Christopher Langdell . Apart from Langdell , Hand 's professors included Samuel Williston , John Chipman Gray , and James Barr Ames . Hand preferred those teachers who valued common sense and fairness , and ventured beyond casebook study into the philosophy of law . His favorite professor was James Bradley Thayer , who taught him evidence in his second year and constitutional law in his third . A man of broad interests , Thayer became a major influence on Hand 's jurisprudence . He emphasized the law 's historical and human dimensions rather than its certainties and extremes . He stressed the need for courts to exercise judicial restraint in deciding social issues .
= = Albany legal practice = =
Hand graduated from Harvard Law School in 1896 at the age of 24 . He returned to Albany to live with his mother and aunt , and started work for the law firm in which an uncle , Matthew Hale , was a partner . Hale 's unexpected death a few months later obliged Hand to move to a new firm , but by 1899 , he had become a partner . He had difficulty attracting his own clients , however , and found the work trivial and dull . Much of his time was spent researching and writing briefs , with few opportunities for the appellate work he preferred . His early courtroom appearances , when they came , were frequently difficult , sapping his fragile self @-@ confidence . He began to fear that he lacked the ability to think on his feet in court .
For two years , Hand tried to succeed as a lawyer by force of will , giving all his time to the practice . By 1900 , he was deeply dissatisfied with his progress . For intellectual stimulation , he increasingly looked outside his daily work . He wrote scholarly articles , taught part @-@ time at Albany Law School , and joined a lawyers ' discussion group in New York City . He also developed an interest in politics .
Hand came from a line of loyal Democrats , but in 1898 he voted for Republican Theodore Roosevelt as governor of New York . Though he deplored Roosevelt 's role in the " militant imperialism " of the Spanish – American War , he approved of the " amorphous mixture of socialism and laisser faire [ sic ] " in Roosevelt 's campaign speeches . Hand caused further family controversy by registering as a Republican for the presidential election of 1900 . Life and work in Albany no longer fulfilled him ; he began applying for jobs in New York City , despite family pressure against moving .
= = Marriage and New York = =
After reaching the age of 30 without developing a serious interest in a woman , Hand thought he was destined for bachelorhood . But , during a 1901 summer holiday in the Québec resort of La Malbaie , he met 25 @-@ year @-@ old Frances Fincke , a graduate of Bryn Mawr College . Though indecisive in most matters , he waited only a few weeks before proposing . The more cautious Fincke postponed her answer for almost a year , while Hand wrote to and occasionally saw her . He also began to look more seriously for work in New York City . The next summer , both Hand and Fincke returned to La Malbaie , and at the end of August 1902 , they became engaged and kissed for the first time . They married on December 6 , 1902 , shortly after Hand had accepted a post with the Manhattan law firm of Zabriskie , Burrill & Murray . The couple had three daughters : Mary Deshon ( born 1905 ) , Frances ( born 1907 ) , and Constance ( born 1909 ) . Hand proved an anxious husband and father . He corresponded regularly with his doctor brother @-@ in @-@ law about initial difficulties in conceiving and about his children 's illnesses . He survived pneumonia in February 1905 , taking months to recover .
The family at first spent summers in Mount Kisco , with Hand commuting on the weekends . After 1910 , they rented summer homes in Cornish , New Hampshire , a writers ' and artists ' colony with a stimulating social scene . The Hands bought a house there in 1919 , which they called " Low Court " . As Cornish was a nine @-@ hour train journey from New York , the couple were separated for long periods . Hand could join the family only for vacations . The Hands became friends of the noted artist Maxfield Parrish , who lived in nearby Plainfield . The Misses Hand posed for some of his paintings .
The Hands also became close friends of Cornish resident Louis Dow , a Dartmouth College professor . Frances Hand spent increasing amounts of time with Dow while her husband was in New York , and tension crept into the marriage . Despite speculation , however , there is no evidence that she and Dow were lovers . Hand regretted Frances ' long absences and urged her to spend more time with him , but he maintained an enduring friendship with Dow . He blamed himself for a lack of insight into his wife 's needs in the early years of the marriage , confessing his " blindness and insensibility to what you wanted and to your right to your own ways when they differed from mine " . Fearing he might otherwise lose her altogether , Hand came to accept Frances ' desire to spend time in the country with another man .
While staying in Cornish in 1908 , Hand began a close friendship with the political commentator and philosopher Herbert Croly . At the time , Croly was writing his influential book The Promise of American Life , in which he advocated a program of democratic and egalitarian reform under a national government with increased powers . When the book was published in November 1909 , Hand sent copies to friends and acquaintances , including former president Theodore Roosevelt . Croly 's ideas had a powerful effect on Roosevelt 's politics , influencing his advocacy of New Nationalism and the development of Progressivism .
Hand continued to be disappointed in his progress at work . A move to the firm of Gould & Wilkie in January 1904 brought neither the challenges nor the financial rewards for which he had hoped . " I was never any good as a lawyer , " he later admitted . " I didn 't have any success , any at all . " In 1907 , deciding that at the age of 35 success as a Wall Street lawyer was out of reach , he lobbied for a potential new federal judgeship in the United States District Court for the Southern District of New York , the federal court headquartered in Manhattan . He became involved briefly in local Republican politics to strengthen his political base . In the event , Congress did not create the new judgeship in 1907 ; but , when the post was finally created in 1909 , Hand renewed his candidacy . With the help of the influential Charles C. Burlingham , a senior New York lawyer and close friend , he gained the backing of Attorney General George W. Wickersham , who urged President William Howard Taft to appoint Hand . One of the youngest federal judges ever appointed , Hand took his judicial oath at age 37 in April 1909 .
= = Federal judge = =
Hand served as a federal judge in the Southern District of New York from 1909 to 1924 . He dealt with fields of common law , including torts , contracts , and copyright , and admiralty law . His initial unfamiliarity with some of these specialties , along with his limited courtroom experience , caused him anxiety at first . Most of Hand 's early cases concerned bankruptcy issues , which he found tiresome , and patent law , which fascinated him .
Hand made some important decisions in the area of free speech . A frequently cited 1913 decision is United States v. Kennerley , an obscenity case concerning Daniel Carson Goodman 's Hagar Revelly , a social @-@ hygiene novel about the " wiles of vice , " which had caught the attention of the New York Society for the Suppression of Vice . Hand allowed the case to go forward on the basis of the Hicklin test , which stemmed back to a seminal English decision of 1868 , Regina v. Hicklin . In his opinion , Hand recommended updating the law , arguing that the obscenity rule should not simply protect the most susceptible readers but should reflect community standards :
It seems hardly likely that we are even to @-@ day so lukewarm in our interest in letters or serious discussion as to be content to reduce our treatment of sex to the standard of a child 's library in the supposed interest of a salacious few , or that shame will for long prevent us from adequate portrayal of some of the most serious and beautiful sides of human nature .
Following his appointment as a judge , Hand became politically active in the cause of New Nationalism . With reservations , in 1911 he supported Theodore Roosevelt 's return to national politics . He approved of the former president 's plans to legislate on behalf of the underprivileged and to control corporations , as well as of his campaign against the abuse of judicial power . Hand sought to influence Roosevelt 's views on these subjects , both in person and in print , and wrote articles for Roosevelt 's magazine , The Outlook . His hopes of swaying Roosevelt were often dashed . Roosevelt 's poor grasp of legal issues particularly exasperated Hand .
Despite overwhelming support for Roosevelt in the primaries and polls , the Republicans renominated the incumbent President Taft . A furious Roosevelt bolted from the party to form the Progressive Party , nicknamed the " Bull Moose " movement . Most Republican progressives followed him , including Hand . The splitting of the Republican vote , however , harmed both Roosevelt 's and Taft 's chances of winning the November 1912 presidential election . As Hand expected , Roosevelt lost to the Democratic Party 's Woodrow Wilson , though he polled more votes than Taft .
Hand took the defeat in his stride . He considered the election merely as a first step in a reform campaign for " real national democracy " . Though he had limited his public involvement in the election campaign , he now took part in planning a party structure . He also accepted the Progressive nomination for chief judge of New York Court of Appeals , then an elective position , in September 1913 . He refused to campaign , however , and later admitted that " the thought of harassing the electorate was more than I could bear " . His vow of silence affected his showing , and he received only 13 % of the votes . Hand came to regret his candidacy : " I ought to have lain off , as I now view it ; I was a judge and a judge has no business to mess into such things . "
By 1916 , Hand realized that the Progressive Party had no future , as the liberal policies of the Democratic government were making much of its program redundant . Roosevelt 's decision not to stand in the 1916 presidential election dealt the party its death blow . Hand had already turned to an alternative political outlet in Herbert Croly 's The New Republic , a liberal magazine which he had helped launch in 1914 . Hand wrote a series of unsigned articles for the magazine on issues of social reform and judicial power ; his only signed article was " The Hope of the Minimum Wage " , published in November 1916 , which called for laws to protect the underprivileged . Often attending staff dinners and meetings , Hand became a close friend of the gifted young editor Walter Lippmann . The outbreak of war in Europe in 1914 had coincided with the founding of the magazine , whose pages often debated the events in Europe . The New Republic adopted a cautiously sympathetic stance towards the Allies , which Hand supported wholeheartedly . After the United States entered the war in 1917 , Hand considered leaving the bench to assist the war effort . Several possible war @-@ related positions were suggested to him . Nothing came of them , aside from his chairing a committee on intellectual property law that suggested treaty amendments for the Paris Peace Conference .
Hand made his most memorable decision of the war in 1917 in Masses Publishing Co. v. Patten . After the country joined the war , Congress had enacted an Espionage Act that made it a federal crime to hinder the war effort . The first test of the new law came two weeks later when the postmaster of New York City refused to deliver the August issue of The Masses , a self @-@ described " revolutionary journal " . The edition contained drawings , cartoons , and articles criticizing the government 's decision to go to war .
The publishing company sought an injunction to prevent the ban , and the case came before Judge Hand . In July 1917 , he ruled that the journal should not be barred from distribution through the mail . Though The Masses supported those who refused to serve in the forces , its text did not , in Hand 's view , tell readers that they must violate the law . Hand argued that suspect material should be judged on what he called an " incitement test " : only if its language directly urged readers to violate the law was it seditious — otherwise freedom of speech should be protected . This focus on the words themselves , rather than on their effect , was novel and daring ; but Hand 's decision was promptly stayed , and later overturned on appeal . He always maintained that his ruling had been correct . Between 1918 and 1919 , he attempted to convince Supreme Court Justice Oliver Wendell Holmes , a man he greatly admired , of his argument . His efforts at first appeared fruitless , but Holmes ' dissenting opinion in Abrams v. United States in November 1919 urged greater protection of political speech . Scholars have credited the critiques of Hand , Ernst Freund , Louis Brandeis , and Zechariah Chafee for the change in Holmes 's views . In the long @-@ term , Hand 's decision proved a landmark in the history of free speech in the country . In Brandenburg v. Ohio ( 1969 ) , the Supreme Court announced a standard for protecting free speech that in effect recognized his Masses opinion as law .
Hand had known that ruling against the government might harm his prospects of promotion . By the time of the case , he was already the most senior judge of his district . The United States Court of Appeals for the Second Circuit often summoned him to sit with that court to hear appeals , a task he found stimulating . In 1917 , he lobbied for promotion to the Second Circuit , but the unpopularity of his Masses decision and his reputation as a liberal stood against him . He was passed over in favor of Martin T. Manton .
In the final months of the war , Hand increasingly supported President Woodrow Wilson 's post @-@ war foreign policy objectives . He believed the United States should endorse the League of Nations and the Treaty of Versailles , despite their flaws . This position estranged him from Croly and others at The New Republic , who vehemently rejected both . Alienated from his old circle on the magazine and by the reactionary and isolationist mood of the country , Hand found himself politically homeless .
= = Between the wars = =
The next Second Circuit vacancy arose in 1921 , but with the conservative Warren G. Harding administration in power , Hand did not put himself forward . Nonetheless Hand 's reputation was such that by 1923 , Supreme Court Justice Oliver Wendell Holmes , Jr. wanted him on the Supreme Court , and in 1924 Harding 's successor , Calvin Coolidge , appointed Hand to the Second Circuit . It was a sign of Hand 's increased stature that figures such as Coolidge and Chief Justice William Howard Taft now endorsed him . Coolidge sought to add new blood to a senior judiciary that was seen as corrupt and inefficient . In 1926 and 1927 , the Second Circuit was strengthened by the appointments of Thomas Walter Swan and Hand 's cousin Augustus Noble Hand .
After the demise of the Progressive Party , Hand had withdrawn from party politics . He committed himself to public impartiality , despite his strong views on political issues . He remained , however , a strong supporter of freedom of speech , and any sign of the " merry sport of Red @-@ baiting " troubled him . In 1920 , for example , he wrote in support of New York Governor Al Smith 's veto of the anti @-@ sedition Lusk Bills . The New York Assembly had approved these bills in a move to bar five elected Socialist Party legislators from taking their seats . In 1922 , Hand privately objected to a proposed limit on the number of Jewish students admitted to Harvard College . " If we are to have in this country racial divisions like those in Europe , " he wrote , " let us close up shop now " .
In public , Hand discussed issues of democracy , free speech , and toleration only in general terms . This discretion , plus a series of impressive speaking engagements , won him the respect of legal scholars and journalists , and by 1930 he was viewed as a serious candidate for a seat on the Supreme Court . His friend Felix Frankfurter , then a Harvard Law School professor , was among those lobbying hard for Hand 's appointment . President Herbert Hoover chose to bypass him , possibly for political reasons , and appointed Charles Evans Hughes , who had previously served on the Court for six years before resigning to become the Republican candidate for President in 1916 , as Chief Justice . With Hughes and another New Yorker , Harlan Fiske Stone , on the Court , the promotion of a third New Yorker was then seen as impossible .
Hand had voted for Hoover in 1928 , and he did so again in 1932 ; but in 1936 , he voted for the Democrats and Franklin D. Roosevelt , as a reaction to the economic and social turmoil that followed the Wall Street Crash of 1929 . With the Great Depression setting in , Hand favored a policy of interventionist central government . He came to accept Frankfurter 's view that redistribution of wealth was essential for economic recovery . Hoover resisted this approach , favoring individualism and free enterprise . Roosevelt , on the other hand , promised the voters a New Deal . They elected him on a platform of strong executive leadership and radical economic reform . Hand voted for Roosevelt again in 1940 and 1944 , but he remained vigilant on the constitutional dangers of big government . Like others , including Walter Lippmann , he sensed the dictatorial potential of New Deal policies . He had no hesitation in condemning Roosevelt 's 1937 bill to expand the Supreme Court and pack it with New Dealers .
Hand was increasingly called upon to judge cases arising from the flood of New Deal legislation . The line between central government authority and local legislation particularly tested his powers of judgment . In 1935 , the case of United States v. Schechter came before the Second Circuit . Hand and his two colleagues had to judge whether a New York poultry firm had contravened New Deal legislation on unfair trade practices . They ruled that the National Industrial Recovery Act did not apply to the Schechter Poultry Corporation , which traded solely within the state . " The line is no doubt in the end arbitrary , " Hand wrote in a memorandum , " but we have got to draw it , because without it Congress can take over all the government . " The Supreme Court later affirmed Hand 's decision .
Hand became an acknowledged expert on New Deal statutes . He relished the challenge of interpreting such legislation , calling it " an act of creative imagination " . In a 1933 broadcast , he explained the balancing act required of a judge in interpreting statutes :
On the one hand he must not enforce whatever he thinks best ; he must leave that to the common will expressed by the government . On the other , he must try as best he can to put into concrete form what that will is , not by slavishly following the words , but by trying honestly to say what was the underlying purpose expressed .
= = World War II = =
When war broke out in Europe in 1939 , Learned Hand adopted an anti @-@ isolationist stance . He rarely spoke out publicly , not only because of his position but because he thought bellicosity unseemly in an old man . In February 1939 , he became his court 's senior circuit leader ( in effect , chief judge , although the title was not created until 1948 ) . In this post , Hand succeeded Martin Manton , who had resigned after corruption allegations that later led to Manton 's criminal conviction for bribery . Not an admirer of Manton , Hand nonetheless testified at his trial that he had never noticed any corrupt behavior in his predecessor . Having sat in two cases in which Manton accepted bribes , Hand worried for years afterward that he should have detected his colleague 's corruption .
Hand still regarded his main job as judging . As circuit leader , he sought to free himself and his judges from too great an administrative burden . He concentrated on maintaining good relations with his fellow judges and on cleansing the court of patronage appointments . Despite the Manton case and constant friction between two of the court 's judges , Charles Edward Clark and Jerome Frank , the Second Circuit under Hand earned a reputation as one of the best appeal courts in the country 's history .
In 1942 , Hand 's friends once again lobbied for him to fill a Supreme Court vacancy , but Roosevelt did not appoint him . The president gave age as the reason , but philosophical differences with Hand may also have played a part . Another explanation lies in one of Justice William O. Douglas 's autobiographies , where Douglas states that , despite Roosevelt 's belief that Hand was the best person for the job , Roosevelt had been offended by the pressure Justice Felix Frankfurter placed on the president during a vigorous letter @-@ writing campaign on Hand 's behalf . D.C. Circuit Judge Wiley Blount Rutledge , whom Roosevelt appointed , died in 1949 , while Hand lived until 1961 . In a February 1944 correspondence with Frankfurter , Hand expressed a low opinion of Roosevelt ’ s new appointees , referring to Justice Hugo Black , Justice Douglas , and Justice Frank Murphy as " Hillbilly Hugo , Good Old Bill , and Jesus lover of my Soul " . Deeply disappointed at the time , Hand later regretted his ambition : " It was the importance , the power , the trappings of the God damn thing that really drew me on . "
Hand was relieved when the United States entered the war in December 1941 . He felt free to participate in organizations and initiatives connected with the war effort , and was particularly committed to programs in support of Greece and Russia . He backed Roosevelt for the 1944 election , partly because he feared a return to isolationism and the prolonging of the wartime erosion of civil liberties . In 1943 , the House Un @-@ American Activities Committee or " Dies Committee " , for example , had aroused his fears with an investigation into " subversive activities " by government workers . Hand 's contemporary at Harvard College , Robert Morss Lovett , was one of those accused , and Hand spoke out on his behalf . As the end of the war approached , there was much talk of international peace organizations and courts to prevent future conflict , but Hand was skeptical . He also condemned the Nuremberg war @-@ crimes trials , which he saw as motivated by vengeance ; he did not believe that " aggressive war " could be construed as a crime . " The difference between vengeance and justice , " he wrote later , " is that justice must apply to all . "
Hand had never been well known to the general public , but a short speech he made in 1944 won him fame and a national reputation for wisdom that lasted until the end of his life . On May 21 , 1944 , he addressed almost one and a half million people in Central Park , New York , at the annual " I Am an American Day " event , where newly naturalized citizens swore the Pledge of Allegiance . He stated that all Americans were immigrants who had come to America in search of liberty . Liberty , he said , was not located in America 's constitutions , laws , and courts , but in the hearts of the people . In what would become the speech 's most quoted passage , Hand asked :
What then is the spirit of liberty ? I cannot define it ; I can only tell you my own faith . The spirit of liberty is the spirit which is not too sure that it is right ; the spirit of liberty is the spirit which seeks to understand the minds of other men and women ; the spirit of liberty is the spirit which weighs their interests alongside its own without bias ; the spirit of liberty remembers that not even a sparrow falls to earth unheeded ; the spirit of liberty is the spirit of Him who , near two thousand years ago , taught mankind that lesson it has never learned , but has never quite forgotten ; that there may be a kingdom where the least shall be heard and considered side by side with the greatest .
Extracts of the speech appeared in The New Yorker on June 10 . Several weeks later , The New York Times printed the whole text , quickly followed by Life magazine and Reader 's Digest . Hand 's message that liberty is safeguarded by everyday Americans struck a popular chord , and he suddenly found himself a folk hero . Though he enjoyed the acclaim , he thought it unmerited . His biographer Gerald Gunther , noting the paradox of the agnostic Hand 's use of religious overtones , suggests that the most challenging aspect of the speech was that the spirit of liberty must entertain doubt .
= = Postwar years = =
Learned Hand 's 75th birthday in 1947 was much celebrated in the press and in legal circles . C. C. Burlingham , Hand 's former sponsor , for example , called him " now unquestionably the first among American judges " . Hand remained modest in the face of such acclaim . He continued to work as before , combining his role as presiding judge of the Second Circuit with his engagement in political issues . In 1947 , he voiced his opposition to a proposed " group libel " statute that would have banned defamation of racial or minority groups . He argued that such a law would imply that intolerance could base itself upon evidence . The effect of the proposed prosecutions , he said , would be " rather to exacerbate than to assuage the feelings which lie behind the defamation of groups " .
In the postwar period , Hand shared the dismay of his compatriots about Stalinism and the onset of the Cold War . At the same time , he was sensitive to the domestic problems created by what he saw as a hysterical fear of international Communism . Already in 1947 , he noted that " the frantic witch hunters are given free rein to set up a sort of Inquisition , detecting heresy wherever non @-@ conformity appears " . Hand was distressed by the crusade against domestic subversion that became part of American public life after the war . He particularly despised the anti @-@ Communist campaign of Senator Joseph McCarthy that began in 1950 and which became known as McCarthyism . Though Hand expressed his horror of McCarthyism privately , he hesitated to do so publicly because cases arising from it were likely to come before his court .
During this period , Hand took part in three notable cases that posed a particular challenge to his impartiality on Cold War issues : United States v. Coplon , United States v. Dennis , and United States v. Remington . Department of Justice worker Judith Coplon had been sentenced to 15 years in prison for stealing and attempting to pass on defense information . In 1950 , her appeal came before a Second Circuit panel that included Learned Hand . It rested on her claim that her rights under the Fourth Amendment had been infringed by a warrantless search , and that details of illegal wiretaps had not been fully disclosed at her trial . Hand made it clear that Coplon was guilty of the charges . However , he rejected the trial judge 's conclusion that a warrantless arrest had been justified . He ruled therefore that papers seized during the arrest had been inadmissible as evidence . The trial judge 's failure to disclose all the wiretap records , Hand concluded , made a reversal of Coplon 's conviction necessary . In his written opinion , Hand stated that " [ F ] ew weapons in the arsenal of freedom are more useful than the power to compel a government to disclose the evidence on which it seeks to forfeit the liberty of its citizens . " Many followers of the trial sent Hand hate mail for his decision . By contrast , in the 1950 case United States v. Dennis , Hand affirmed the convictions under the 1940 Smith Act of eleven leaders of the Communist Party of the United States for subversion . He ruled that calls for the violent overthrow of the American government posed enough of a " probable danger " to justify the invasion of free speech . After the case , he was attacked from the opposite political direction for appearing to side with McCarthyism .
In 1953 , Hand wrote a scathing dissent from a Second Circuit decision to affirm the perjury conviction of William Remington , a government economist accused of Communist sympathies and activities . In 1951 , the same panel had overturned Remington 's previous conviction for perjury , but in the appeal of the later case Hand was outvoted two to one . The prosecution produced stronger evidence against Remington this time , much of it obtained from his wife . Sentenced to three years imprisonment , Remington was murdered in November 1954 by three fellow inmates , who beat him over the head with a brick wrapped in a sock . According to Hand 's biographer Gunther , " The image of Remington being bludgeoned to death in prison haunted Hand for the rest of his life . "
Only after stepping down as a full @-@ time judge in 1951 did Hand join the public debate on McCarthyism . Shortly after announcing his semi @-@ retirement , he gave an unscripted speech that was published in The Washington Post , an anti @-@ McCarthy newspaper .
[ M ] y friends , will you not agree that any society which begins to be doubtful of itself ; in which one man looks at another and says : " He may be a traitor , " in which that spirit has disappeared which says : " I will not accept that , I will not believe that — I will demand proof . I will not say of my brother that he may be a traitor , " but I will say , " Produce what you have . I will judge it fairly , and if he is , he shall pay the penalties ; but I will not take it on rumor . I will not take it on hearsay . I will remember that what has brought us up from savagery is a loyalty to truth , and truth cannot emerge unless it is subjected to the utmost scrutiny " — will you not agree that a society which has lost sight of that , cannot survive ?
Hand followed this up with an address to the Board of Regents of the University of the State of New York the next year . Once again , his attack on McCarthyism won approval from many liberals . Asked to send a copy of his views to McCarthy , Hand replied that he had Richard Nixon in mind as well . Despite his concerns about Nixon as vice president , Hand voted for Dwight Eisenhower in the 1952 election , later crediting Eisenhower with bringing about McCarthy 's downfall in 1954 .
= = Semi @-@ retirement and death = =
In 1951 , Hand retired from " regular active service " as a federal judge . He assumed senior status , a form of semi @-@ retirement , and continued to sit on the bench , with a considerable workload . The following year , he published The Spirit of Liberty , a collection of papers and addresses that neither he nor publisher Alfred A. Knopf expected to make a profit . In fact , the book earned admiring reviews , sold well , and made Hand more widely known . A 1958 paperback edition sold even better , though Hand always refused royalties from material he never intended for publication .
Louis Dow had died in 1944 , with Frances Hand at his side . The Hands ' marriage then entered its final , happiest phase , in which they rediscovered their first love . Former law clerks have provided intimate details of Hand 's character during the last decade of his life . Legal philosopher Ronald Dworkin recalls that Hand , scrupulous about public economy , used to turn out the lights in all the offices at the end of each day . For the same reason , he refused Dworkin the customary month 's paid vacation at the end of his service . Shortly afterward , to Dworkin 's surprise , Hand wrote him a personal check for an extra month 's pay as a wedding present . Hand was known for his explosive temper . Gunther remembers him throwing a paperweight in his direction which narrowly missed . Hand had a habit of turning his seat 180 ° on lawyers whose arguments annoyed him , and he could be bitingly sarcastic . In a typical memo , he wrote , " This is the most miserable of cases , but we must dispose of it as though it had been presented by actual lawyers . " Despite such outbursts , Hand was deeply insecure throughout his life , as he fully recognized . In his 80s , he still fretted about his rejection by the elite social clubs at Harvard College . He was convinced that his wife had rescued him from a life as a " melancholic , a failure [ because ] I should have thought myself so , and probably single and hopelessly hypochondriac " .
Learned Hand remained in good physical and mental condition for most of the last decade of his life . In 1958 , he gave the Holmes Lectures at Harvard Law School . These lectures proved to be Hand 's last major critique of judicial activism , a position he had first taken up in 1908 with his attack on the Lochner ruling . They included a controversial attack on the Warren Court 's 1954 decision in Brown v. Board of Education , which in Hand 's opinion had exceeded its powers by overruling Jim Crow segregation laws . His views were widely criticized as reactionary and unfortunate , with most deploring the fact that they might encourage segregationists who opposed libertarian judicial rulings . Published as The Bill of Rights , the lectures nevertheless became a national bestseller .
By 1958 , Hand was suffering from intense pain in his back and faced difficulty in walking . " I can just manage , with not infrequent pauses , to walk about a third of a mile , " he wrote to Felix Frankfurter . " My feet get very numb and my back painful . The truth is that 86 is too long . " Soon , he was obliged to use crutches , but he remained mentally sharp and continued to hear cases . In 1960 , he worked briefly on President Dwight Eisenhower 's " Commission on National Goals " , but he resigned because " it involved more work than in the present state of my health I care to add to the judicial work that I am still trying to do " .
By June 1961 , Hand was in a wheelchair . He joked that he felt idle because he had taken part in no more than about 25 cases that year , and that he would start another job if he could find one . The following month , he suffered a heart attack at Cornish . He was taken to St Luke 's Hospital in New York City , where he died peacefully on August 18 , 1961 . The New York Times ran a front @-@ page obituary . The Times of London wrote : " There are many who will feel that with the death of Learned Hand the golden age of the American judiciary has come to an end . "
He was buried next to his wife in the family plot at Albany Rural Cemetery near Menands , New York .
= = Philosophy = =
Hand 's study of philosophy at Harvard left a lasting imprint on his thought . As a student , he lost his faith in God , and from that point on he became a skeptic . Hand 's view of the world has been identified as relativistic ; in the words of scholar Kathryn Griffith , " [ i ] t was his devotion to a concept of relative values that prompted him to question opinions of the Supreme Court which appeared to place one value absolutely above the others , whether the value was that of individual freedom or equality or the protection of young people from obscene literature . " Hand instead sought objective standards in constitutional law , most famously in obscenity and civil liberties cases . He saw the Constitution and the law as compromises to resolve conflicting interests , possessing no moral force of their own . This denial that any divine or natural rights are embodied in the Constitution led Hand to a positivistic view of the Bill of Rights . In this approach , provisions of the Constitution , such as freedom of press , freedom of speech , and equal protection , should be interpreted through their wording and in the light of historical analysis rather than as " guides on concrete occasions " . For Hand , moral values were a product of their times and a matter of taste .
Hand 's civil instincts were at odds with the duty of a judge to stay aloof from politics . As a judge he respected even bad laws ; as a member of society he felt free to question the decisions behind legislation . In his opinion , members of a democratic society should be involved in legislative decision @-@ making . He therefore regarded toleration as a prerequisite of civil liberty . In practice , this even meant that those who wish to promote ideas repugnant to the majority should be free to do so , within broad limits .
Hand 's skepticism extended to his political philosophy : he once described himself as " a conservative among liberals , and a liberal among conservatives " . As early as 1898 , he rejected his family 's Jeffersonian Democratic tradition . His thoughts on liberty , collected in The Spirit of Liberty ( 1952 ) , began by recalling the political philosophies of Thomas Jefferson and Alexander Hamilton . Jefferson believed that each individual has a right to freedom , and that government , though necessary , threatens that freedom . In contrast , Hamilton argued that freedom depends on government : too much freedom leads to anarchy and the tyranny of the mob . Hand , who believed , following Thomas Hobbes , that the rule of law is the only alternative to the rule of brutality , leaned towards Hamilton . Since the freedom granted to the American pioneers was no longer feasible , he accepted that individual liberty should be moderated by society 's norms . He nevertheless saw the liberty to create and to choose as vital to peoples ' humanity and entitled to legal protection . He assumed the goal of human beings to be the " good life " , defined as each individual chooses .
Between 1910 and 1916 , Hand tried to translate his political philosophy into political action . Having read Croly 's The Promise of American Life and its anti @-@ Jeffersonian plea for government intervention in economic and social issues , he joined the Progressive Party . However , he discovered that party politicking was incompatible not only with his role as a judge but with his philosophical objectivity . The pragmatic philosophy Hand had imbibed from William James at Harvard required each issue to be individually judged on its merits , without partiality . In contrast , political action required partisanship and a choice between values . After 1916 , Hand preferred to retreat from party politics into a detached skepticism . His belief in central planning resurfaced during the 1930s in his growing approval of Franklin D. Roosevelt 's New Deal , as he once again — though this time as an observer — endorsed a program of government intervention . Hand was also an interventionist on foreign policy , supporting U.S. involvement in both world wars , and disdained isolationism .
= = Jurisprudence = =
Hand has been called one of the United States ' most significant judicial philosophers . A leading advocate of judicial restraint , he took seriously Alexander Hamilton 's formulation that " the judiciary ... may truly be said to have neither force nor will , but merely judgement . " Any judicial ruling that had the effect of legislating from the bench troubled Hand . In 1908 , in his article " Due Process of Law and the Eight @-@ Hour Day " , he attacked the 1905 Supreme Court ruling in Lochner v. New York , which had struck down a law prohibiting bakery staff from working more than ten hours a day . The Supreme Court went on to strike down a series of similar worker @-@ protective laws on the grounds that they restricted freedom of contract . Hand regarded this principle as undemocratic . " For the state to intervene " , he argued , " to make more just and equal the relative strategic advantages of the two parties to the contract , of whom one is under the pressure of absolute want , while the other is not , is as proper a legislative function as that it should neutralize the relative advantages arising from fraudulent cunning or from superior force . "
The issue concerned Hand again during the New Deal period , when the Supreme Court repeatedly overturned or blocked Franklin D. Roosevelt 's legislation . As an instinctive democrat , Hand was appalled that an elected government should have its laws struck down in this way . He viewed it as a judicial " usurpation " for the Supreme Court to assume the role of a third chamber in these cases . As far as he was concerned , the Constitution already provided a full set of checks and balances on legislation . Nevertheless , Hand did not hesitate to condemn Roosevelt 's frustrated attempt to pack the Supreme Court in 1937 , which led commentators to warn of totalitarianism . The answer , for Hand , lay in the separation of powers : courts should be independent and act on the legislation of elected governments .
Hand 's democratic respect for legislation meant that he hardly ever struck down a law . Whenever his decisions went against the government , he based them only on the boundaries of law in particular cases . He adhered to the doctrine of presumptive validity , which assumes that legislators know what they are doing when they pass a law . Even when a law was uncongenial to him , or when it seemed contradictory , Hand set himself to interpret the legislative intent . Sometimes , however , he was obliged to draw the line between federal and state laws , as in United States v. Schechter Poultry . In this important case , he ruled that a New Deal law on working conditions did not apply to a New York poultry firm that conducted its business only within the state . Hand wrote in his opinion : " It is always a serious thing to declare any act of Congress unconstitutional , and especially in a case where it is part of a comprehensive plan for the rehabilitation of the nation as a whole . With the wisdom of that plan we have nothing whatever to do ... " Hand also occasionally went against the government in the area of free speech . He believed that courts should protect the right to free speech even against the majority will . In Hand 's view , judges must remain detached at times when public opinion is hostile to minorities and governments issue laws to repress those minorities . Hand was the first judge to rule on a case arising from the Espionage Act of 1917 , which sought to silence opposition to the war effort . In his decision on Masses Publishing Co. v. Patten , he defined his position on political incitement :
Detestation of existing policies is easily transformed into forcible resistance of the authority which puts them in execution , and it would be folly to disregard the causal relation between the two . Yet to assimilate agitation , legitimate as such , with direct incitement to violent resistance , is to disregard the tolerance of all methods of political agitation which in normal times is a safeguard for free government . The distinction is not scholastic subterfuge , but a hard @-@ bought acquisition in the fight for freedom .
In the case of United States v. Dennis in 1950 , Hand made a ruling that appeared to contradict his Masses decision . By then , a series of precedents had intervened , often based on Oliver Wendell Holmes 's " clear and present danger " test , leaving him less room for maneuver . Hand felt he had " no choice " but to agree that threats against the government by a group of Communists were illegal under the repressive Smith Act of 1940 . In order to do so , he interpreted the " clear and present danger " in a new way . " In each case , " he wrote , " [ courts ] must ask whether the gravity of the ' evil ' , discounted by its improbability , justifies such invasion of free speech as is necessary to avoid the danger . " This formula allowed more scope for curbing free speech in cases where , as the government believed with Communism , the danger was grave , whether it was immediate or not . Critics and disappointed liberals accused Hand of placing his concern for judicial restraint ahead of freedom of speech . Hand confided to a friend that , if it had been up to him , he would " never have prosecuted those birds " .
In the opinion of Kathryn Griffith , " The importance of Learned Hand 's philosophy in terms of practical application to the courts lies generally in his view of the pragmatic origin of all law , but most specifically in his unique interpretation of the Bill of Rights . " Hand proposed that the Bill of Rights was not law at all but a set of " admonitory " principles to ensure the fair exercise of constitutional powers . He therefore opposed the use of its " due process of law " clauses as a pretext for national intervention in state legislation . He even advocated the removal of those clauses from the Constitution . In Hand 's analysis , " due process " is no more than a stock phrase to cover a long tradition of common law procedure . He contended that the term had inflated in scope beyond the meaning intended in the Bill of Rights . The result was the misuse of due process to invade rights that the Constitution was designed to protect . For Hand , a law passed by an elected body should be presumed to meet the test of due process . A court that decides otherwise and strikes down such a law is acting undemocratically . Hand maintained this stance even when the Supreme Court struck down anti @-@ liberal laws that he detested . His reasoning has never been widely accepted . Critics of his position included his colleague on the Second Circuit , Jerome Frank , who wrote : " [ I ] t seems to me that here , most uncharacteristically , Judge Hand indulges in a judgement far too sweeping , one which rests on a too @-@ sharp either @-@ or , all or nothing , dichotomy . ... Obviously the courts cannot do the whole job . But just as obviously , they can sometimes help to arrest evil popular trends at their inception . "
Richard Posner , an influential appellate judge reviewing a biography of Hand , asserts that Hand " displayed a positive antipathy toward constitutional law . To exaggerate only a little , he didn 't think judges should have anything to do with it . " Posner suggests that although Hand is remembered today as one of the three greatest judges in American history , his status as a truly " great judge " was not based on his " slight " contributions to First Amendment jurisprudence or other fields of constitutional law , but rather on his decisions in other areas such as antitrust , intellectual property , and tort law .
= = Influence = =
Learned Hand wrote approximately four thousand judicial opinions during his career . Admired for their clarity and analytic precision , they have been quoted more often in Supreme Court opinions and by legal scholars than those of any other lower @-@ court judge . Both Hand 's dissent in United States v. Kennerley and his ruling in United States v. Levine have often been cited in obscenity cases . Hand 's view that literary works should be judged as a whole and in relation to their intended readership is now accepted in American law . His use of historical data to gauge legislative intent has become a widespread practice . According to Archibald Cox : " The opinions of Judge Hand have had significant influence both in breaking down the restrictions imposed by the dry literalism of conservative tradition and in showing how to use with sympathetic understanding the information afforded by the legislative and administrative processes . " Hand 's decision in the 1917 Masses case influenced Zechariah Chafee 's widely read book , Freedom of Speech ( 1920 ) . In his dedication , Chafee wrote , " [ Hand ] during the turmoil of war courageously maintained the traditions of English @-@ speaking freedom and gave it new clearness and strength for the wiser years to come . "
Learned Hand played a key role in the interpretation of new federal crime laws in the period following the passing of the U.S. Criminal Code in 1909 . In a series of judicial opinions and speeches , he opposed excessive concern for criminal defendants , and wrote " Our dangers do not lie in too little tenderness to the accused . Our procedure has always been haunted by the ghost of the innocent man convicted . ... What we need to fear is the archaic formalism and watery sentiment that obstructs , delays and defeats the prosecution of crime . " He insisted that harmless trial errors should not automatically lead to a reversal on appeal . Hand balanced these views with important decisions to protect a defendant 's constitutional rights concerning unreasonable searches , forced confessions and cumulative sentences .
His opinions have also proved lasting in fields of commercial law . Law students studying torts often encounter Hand 's 1947 decision for United States v. Carroll Towing Co . , which gave a formula for determining liability in cases of negligence . Hand 's interpretations of complex Internal Revenue Codes , which he called " a thicket of verbiage " , have been used as guides in the gray area between individual and corporate taxes . In an opinion sometimes seen as condoning tax avoidance , Hand stated in 1947 that " there is nothing sinister in so arranging one 's affairs as to keep taxes as low as possible " . He was referring to reporting of individual income through corporate tax forms for legitimate business reasons . In tax decisions , as in all statutory cases , Hand studied the intent of the original legislation . His opinions became a valuable guide to tax administrators . Hand 's landmark decision in United States v. Aluminum Company of America in 1945 influenced the development of antitrust law . His decisions in patent , copyright , and admiralty cases have contributed to the development of law in those fields .
Hand was also a founding member of the American Law Institute , where he helped develop the influential Restatements of the Law serving as models for refining and improving state codes in various fields . One American Law Institute recommendation was to decriminalize sexual conduct such as adultery and homosexuality , for which reason the July – August 1955 issue of the Mattachine Society Review , the magazine of the country 's first nationwide homosexual organization , published a salute to Judge Hand featuring his photograph on the cover .
After Hand 's lectures and publications became widely known , his influence reached courts throughout the country . On the occasion of his 75th birthday on January 27 , 1947 , The Washington Post reported : " He has won recognition as a judges ' judge . His opinions command respect wherever our law extends , not because of his standing in the judicial hierarchy , but because of the clarity of thought and the cogency of reasoning that shape them . "
To the wider public , who knew little of his legal work , Hand was by then a folk hero . Social scientist Marvin Schick has pointed out that this mythic status is a paradox . Because Hand never served on the Supreme Court , the majority of his cases were routine and his judgments rooted in precedent . On Hand 's retirement in 1951 , Felix Frankfurter predicted that his " actual decisions will be all deader than the Dodo before long , as at least many of them are already " . Working for a lower court , however , saved Hand from the taint of political influence that often hung over the Supreme Court . Hand 's eloquence as a writer played a larger part in the spread of his influence than the substance of his decisions ; and Schick believes that the Hand myth brushes over contradictions in his legal philosophy . Hand 's reputation as a libertarian obscures the fact that he was cautious as a judge . Though a liberal , he argued for judicial restraint in interpreting the Constitution , and regarded the advancement of civil liberties as a task for the legislature , not the courts . In his 1958 Holmes Lectures , for example , he voiced doubts about the constitutionality of the Warren Court 's civil rights rulings . This philosophy of judicial restraint failed to influence the decisions of the Supreme Court during Hand 's lifetime and afterwards .
Finally , in an essay called Origin of a Hero discussing his novel the Rector of Justin , author Louis Auchincloss says the main character was not based on a headmaster ; certainly not as was often speculated Groton 's famous Endicott Peabody . " If you want to disguise a real life character , " Auchincloss advised fellow novelists , " just change his profession . " His actual model for the Rector of Justin was " the greatest man it has been my good luck to know " – Judge Learned Hand .
= = Selected works = =
Hand , Learned ( 1941 ) , Liberty , Stamford , CT : Overbrook , OCLC 2413475 .
Hand , Learned ( 1952 ) , Irving Dilliard , eds . , The Spirit of Liberty : Papers and Addresses of Learned Hand , New York : Knopf , OCLC 513793 .
Hand , Learned ( 1958 ) , The Bill of Rights , Cambridge , MA : Harvard University Press , OCLC 418364 . ( Oliver Wendell Holmes Lectures )
Hand , Learned ( 1968 ) , Hershel Shanks , eds . , The Art and Craft of Judging : The Decisions of Judge Learned Hand , New York : Macmillan , OCLC 436539 .
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= Frilled shark =
The frilled shark ( Chlamydoselachus anguineus ) is one of two extant species of shark in the family Chlamydoselachidae , with a wide but patchy distribution in the Atlantic and Pacific Oceans . This species is found over the outer continental shelf and upper continental slope , generally near the bottom , though there is evidence of substantial upward movements . It has been caught as deep as 1 @,@ 570 m ( 5 @,@ 150 ft ) , although it is uncommon below 1 @,@ 200 m ( 3 @,@ 900 ft ) . In Suruga Bay , Japan , it is most common at depths of 50 – 200 m ( 160 – 660 ft ) . Exhibiting several " primitive " features , the frilled shark has often been termed a " living fossil " . It reaches a length of 2 m ( 6 @.@ 6 ft ) and has a dark brown , eel @-@ like body with the dorsal , pelvic , and anal fins placed far back . Its common name comes from the frilly or fringed appearance of its six pairs of gill slits , with the first pair meeting across the throat .
Seldom observed , the frilled shark may capture prey by bending its body and lunging forward like a snake . The long , extremely flexible jaws enable it to swallow prey whole , while its many rows of small , needle @-@ like teeth make it difficult for the prey to escape . It feeds mainly on cephalopods , leavened by bony fishes and other sharks . This species is aplacental viviparous : the embryos emerge from their egg capsules inside the mother 's uterus , where they survive primarily on yolk . The gestation period may be as long as three and a half years , the longest of any vertebrate . Litter sizes vary from two to fifteen , and there is no distinct breeding season . Frilled sharks are occasional bycatch in commercial fisheries , but have little economic value . The International Union for Conservation of Nature has assessed it as Near Threatened , since even incidental catches may deplete its population given its low reproductive rate . This shark , or a supposed giant relative , is a suggested source for reports of sea serpents .
= = Taxonomy and phylogeny = =
The frilled shark was first scientifically recognized by German ichthyologist Ludwig Döderlein , who visited Japan between 1879 and 1881 and brought two specimens to Vienna . However , his manuscript describing the species was lost , so the first description of the frilled shark was authored by American zoologist Samuel Garman , working from a 1 @.@ 5 @-@ metre ( 4 ft 11 in ) -long female caught from Sagami Bay in Japan . His account , " An Extraordinary Shark " , was published in an 1884 volume of Proceedings of the Essex Institute . Garman placed the new species in its own genus and family , and gave it the name Chlamydoselachus anguineus from the Greek chlamy ( " frill " ) and selachus ( " shark " ) , and the Latin anguineus for " eel @-@ like " . Other common names for this species include frill shark , lizard shark , scaffold shark , and silk shark .
Several early authors believed the frilled shark to be a living representative of otherwise long @-@ extinct groups of elasmobranchs ( sharks , rays , and their ancestors ) , based on its multiple @-@ pointed teeth , the articulation of its upper jaw directly to the cranium behind the eyes ( called " amphistyly " ) , and its " notochord @-@ like " spinal column with indistinct vertebrae . Garman proposed that it was allied with the " cladodonts " , a now @-@ obsolete taxonomic grouping containing forms that thrived during the Palaeozoic era , such as Cladoselache from the Devonian period ( 416 – 359 Mya ) . His contemporaries Theodore Gill and Edward Drinker Cope suggested it was instead related to the hybodonts , which were the dominant sharks during the Mesozoic era . Cope went as far as to assign this species to the fossil genus Didymodus .
More recent investigations have found the similarities between the frilled shark and extinct groups may have been overstated or misinterpreted , and this shark exhibits a number of skeletal and muscular traits that firmly place it with the neoselachians ( modern sharks and rays ) , and more specifically with the cow sharks in the order Hexanchiformes ( though systematist Shigeru Shirai has proposed that it be placed in its own order , Chlamydoselachiformes ) . Nevertheless , the frilled shark belongs to one of the oldest still @-@ extant shark lineages , dating back to at least the Late Cretaceous ( about 95 Mya ) and possibly to the Late Jurassic ( 150 Mya ) . Because of their ancient ancestry and " primitive " characteristics , the frilled shark and other members of this lineage have been described as a " living fossil " . However , the frilled shark itself is a relatively recent species , with the earliest known fossil teeth belonging to this species dating to the early Pleistocene epoch .
= = Distribution and habitat = =
Rather uncommon , the frilled shark has been recorded from a number of widely scattered locations in the Atlantic and Pacific Oceans . In the eastern Atlantic , it occurs off northern Norway , northern Scotland , and western Ireland , from France to Morocco including Madeira , and off Mauritania . In the central Atlantic , it has been caught at several locations along the Mid @-@ Atlantic Ridge , from north of the Azores to the Rio Grande Rise off southern Brazil , as well as over the Vavilov Ridge off West Africa . In the western Atlantic , it has been reported from waters off New England , Georgia , and Suriname . In the western Pacific , it is known from southeastern Honshu , Japan , to Taiwan , off New South Wales and Tasmania in Australia , and around New Zealand . In the central and eastern Pacific , it has been found off Hawaii , California , and northern Chile . The frilled sharks off southern Africa were described as a different species , C. africana , in 2009 .
The frilled shark inhabits the outer continental shelf and upper to middle continental slope , seeming to favor upwellings and other biologically productive areas . Though it has been caught from a depth of 1 @,@ 570 m ( 5 @,@ 150 ft ) , it usually does not occur deeper than 1 @,@ 000 m ( 3 @,@ 300 ft ) . In Suruga Bay , it is most common at a depth of 50 – 200 m ( 160 – 660 ft ) , except from August to November when the temperature at the 100 m ( 330 ft ) water layer exceeds 15 ° C ( 59 ° F ) and the sharks shift into deeper water . On rare occasions , this species has been seen at the surface . The frilled shark is usually found close to the bottom , with one individual observed swimming over an area of small sand dunes . However , its diet suggests that it does make substantial forays upward into open water . This species may make vertical migrations , approaching the surface at night to feed . There is spatial segregation by size and reproductive condition .
= = Description = =
With its elongated , eel @-@ like body and strange appearance , the frilled shark has long been likened to the mythical sea serpent . The head is broad and flattened with a short , rounded snout . The nostrils are vertical slits , separated into incurrent and excurrent openings by a leading flap of skin . The moderately large eyes are horizontally oval and lack nictitating membranes ( protective third eyelids ) . The very long jaws are positioned terminally ( at the end of the snout ) , as opposed to the underslung jaws of most sharks . The corners of the mouth are devoid of furrows or folds . The tooth rows are rather widely spaced , numbering 19 – 28 in the upper jaw and 21 – 29 in the lower jaw . The teeth number around 300 in all ; each tooth is small , with three slender , needle @-@ like cusps alternating with two cusplets . There are six pairs of long gill slits with a " frilly " appearance created by the extended tips of the gill filaments , giving this shark its name . The first pair of gill slits meet across the throat , forming a " collar " .
The pectoral fins are short and rounded . The single , small dorsal fin is positioned far back on the body , about opposite the anal fin , and has a rounded margin . The pelvic and anal fins are large , broad , and rounded , and also positioned well back on the body . The caudal fin is very long and roughly triangular , without a lower lobe or a ventral notch on the upper lobe . There are a pair of thick skin folds of unknown function running along the belly , separated by a groove . The midsection is relatively longer in females than in males , with the pelvic fins pushed closer to the anal fin . The dermal denticles are small and shaped like the tip of a chisel , becoming enlarged and sharp on the dorsal margin of the caudal fin . This species is a uniform dark brown or gray . The frilled shark differs from its southern African relative , C. africana , in having more vertebrae ( 160 – 171 vs 147 ) and more turns in the spiral valve intestine ( 35 – 49 versus 26 – 28 ) , as well as in various proportional measurements such as a longer head and shorter gill slits . The maximum known length is 1 @.@ 7 m ( 5 @.@ 6 ft ) for males and 2 @.@ 0 m ( 6 @.@ 6 ft ) for females .
= = Biology and ecology = =
Highly specialized for life in the deep sea , the frilled shark has a reduced , poorly calcified skeleton and an enormous liver filled with low @-@ density lipids , allowing it to maintain its position in the water column with little effort . It is one of the few sharks with an " open " lateral line , in which the mechanoreceptive hair cells are positioned in grooves that are directly exposed to the surrounding seawater . This configuration is thought to be basal in sharks and may enhance its sensitivity to the minute movements of its prey . Many frilled sharks are found with the tips of their tails missing , probably from predatory attacks by other shark species . Parasites identified from this shark include a tapeworm in the genus Monorygma , the fluke Otodistomum veliporum , and the nematode Mooleptus rabuka .
= = = Feeding = = =
The long jaws of the frilled shark are highly distensible with an extremely wide gape , allowing it to swallow whole prey over one @-@ half its size . However , the length and articulation of its jaws means that it cannot deliver as strong a bite as more conventionally built sharks . Most captured individuals are found with no or barely identifiable stomach contents , suggesting a fast digestion rate and / or long intervals between feedings . This species preys on cephalopods , bony fishes , and smaller sharks . One 1 @.@ 6 m ( 5 @.@ 2 ft ) long individual , caught off Chōshi , was found to have swallowed a 590 g ( 1 @.@ 30 lb ) Japanese catshark ( Apristurus japonicus ) . Squid comprise some 60 % of the diet of sharks in Suruga Bay ; this includes not only slow @-@ moving , deep @-@ dwelling types , such as Chiroteuthis and Histioteuthis , but also relatively large , powerful swimmers of the open ocean , such as Onychoteuthis , Sthenoteuthis , and Todarodes .
How the ostensibly weak @-@ swimming frilled shark captures active , fast @-@ moving squid is a matter of speculation . One possibility is that it takes advantage of injured squid , or those that are exhausted and dying after spawning . Alternatively , it may surprise its prey by curving its body and , bracing itself with its posteriorly positioned fins , launching a quick strike forward in the manner of a snake . It may also be able to close its gill slits and create negative pressure to suck prey into its mouth . The many small , sharp , recurved teeth of the frilled shark are functionally similar to squid jigs and could easily snag the body or tentacles of a squid , particularly as they are rotated outwards when the jaws are protruded . Observations of captive frilled sharks swimming with their mouths open suggest that the small teeth , light against the dark mouth , may even fool squid into attacking and entangling themselves .
= = = Life history = = =
The frilled shark is aplacental viviparous ; the developing embryos are mainly nourished by yolk , though the difference in weight between the egg and the newborn indicates that the mother also provides additional nutrition via unknown means . Adult females have two functional ovaries and one functional uterus , on the right . Unsurprisingly , there is no defined breeding season for either sex , as this shark inhabits depths at which there is little to no seasonal influence . A possible mating aggregation of 15 male and 19 female sharks has been recorded over a seamount on the Mid @-@ Atlantic Ridge . The litter size ranges from two to fifteen , with an average of six . Females ovulate eggs into the uterus about once every two weeks ; vitellogenesis ( yolk formation ) and the growth of new ovarian eggs halt during pregnancy , apparently due to insufficient space inside the body cavity .
Newly ovulated eggs and early @-@ stage embryos are enclosed in a thin , ellipsoid , golden @-@ brown capsule . When the embryo is 3 cm ( 1 @.@ 2 in ) long , the head is pointed when seen from above or below , the jaws are barely developed , the external gills have begun to appear , and all the fins are present . The egg capsule is shed when the embryo grows to 6 – 8 cm ( 2 @.@ 4 – 3 @.@ 1 in ) long , and is expelled from the female 's body ; at this time the embryo 's external gills are fully developed . The size of the yolk sac remains mostly constant until around an embryonic length of 40 cm ( 16 in ) , whereupon it begins to shrink , mostly or completely disappearing by an embryonic length of 50 cm ( 20 in ) . The embryonic growth rate averages 1 @.@ 4 cm ( 0 @.@ 55 in ) per month , and therefore the entire gestation period may last three and a half years , far longer than any other vertebrate . Newborn sharks measure 40 – 60 cm ( 16 – 24 in ) long ; males attain sexual maturity at 1 @.@ 0 – 1 @.@ 2 m ( 3 @.@ 3 – 3 @.@ 9 ft ) long , and females at 1 @.@ 3 – 1 @.@ 5 m ( 4 @.@ 3 – 4 @.@ 9 ft ) long .
= = Human interactions = =
The frilled shark has seldom been encountered alive , and thus poses no danger to humans ( though scientists have accidentally cut themselves examining its teeth ) . On August 27 , 2004 , the first observation of this species in its natural habitat was made by the ROV Johnson Sea Link II , on the Blake Plateau off the southeastern United States . On January 21 , 2007 , a Japanese fisherman discovered a 1 @.@ 6 m ( 5 @.@ 2 ft ) long female alive at the surface , perhaps there because of illness or weakness from the warm water . It was brought to Awashima Marine Park in Shizuoka , where it died after a few hours . Garman , and numerous authors since , have advanced the frilled shark as an explanation for sea serpent sightings . Because of the shark 's modest size , some cryptozoologists have posited the existence of a giant relative , particularly as larger Chlamydoselachus species are known from the fossil record .
Small numbers of frill sharks are caught incidentally by various deepwater commercial fisheries around the world , using trawls , gillnets , and longlines . In particular , it is regularly taken in Suruga Bay in bottom gillnets meant for sea bream and gnomefish , and in midwater trawls meant for the shrimp Sergia lucens . Japanese fishermen regard it as a nuisance , as it damages the nets . This shark is sometimes sold for meat or processed into fishmeal , but is not economically significant . Because of its very low reproductive rate and the continuing expansion of commercial fisheries into its habitat , the International Union for Conservation of Nature ( IUCN ) has listed it as Near Threatened .
In December 2014 , trawler skipper David Guillot caught a 1 @.@ 5 metre frilled shark while ' fishing in water more than a kilometre deep near Lakes Entrance ' , in Victoria , Australia . The shark was taken to the Commonwealth Scientific and Industrial Research Organisation , where its identification was confirmed .
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= Mom & Me & Mom =
Mom & Me & Mom ( 2013 ) is the seventh and final book in author Maya Angelou 's series of autobiographies . The book was published shortly before Mother 's Day and Angelou 's 85th birthday . It focuses , for the first time in her books , on Angelou 's relationship with her mother , Vivian Baxter . The book explains Baxter 's behavior , especially Baxter 's abandonment of Angelou and Angelou 's older brother when they were young children , and fills in " what are possibly the final blanks in Angelou 's eventful life " . The book also chronicles Angelou 's reunion and reconciliation with Baxter . Angelou was well @-@ respected as a poet and writer , and was one of the first African @-@ American female writers to openly discuss her life through autobiography .
Mom & Me & Mom is an overview of Angelou 's life and revisits many of the same anecdotes she relates in her previous books . The first section , entitled " Mom & Me " , centers on Angelou 's early years , before the age of 17 , and her transition from resentment and distrust of her mother to acceptance , support , and love towards her . After Baxter helps her through the birth of her son , Angelou goes from calling Baxter " Lady " to " Mom " . In the book 's second section , entitled " Me & Mom " , Angelou chronicles the unconditional love , support , and assistance they gave to each other , as Baxter helps her through single motherhood , a failed marriage , and career ups and downs . As she had begun to do in I Know Why the Caged Bird Sings , and continued throughout her series , Angelou upheld the long traditions of African @-@ American autobiography . At the same time she made a deliberate attempt to challenge the usual structure of the autobiography by critiquing , changing , and expanding the genre . She had become recognized and highly respected as a spokesperson for Blacks and women . Angelou was , as scholar Joanne Braxton has stated , " without a doubt , ... America 's most visible black woman autobiographer " . She had also become " a major autobiographical voice of the time " .
Like Angelou 's previous autobiographies , Mom & Me & Mom received mostly positive reviews . Most reviewers state that Baxter is presented well in the book . Angelou celebrates the unconditional acceptance and support of her mother , who comes across " as a street @-@ smart , caring woman who shaped the author 's life and legacy by her words and example " . The book has been called " a profoundly moving tale of separation and reunion , and an ultimately optimistic portrait of the maternal bond " .
Pictures of Angelou , Baxter , and members of their family appear through the book and enhance the text . An audio version , read by Angelou , was released in CD form and as a digital download .
= = Background = =
Mom & Me & Mom ( 2013 ) is the seventh of Maya Angelou 's series of autobiographies . It was completed 11 years after the publication of her previous autobiography , A Song Flung Up to Heaven ( 2002 ) , and over thirty years after she wrote her first autobiography , I Know Why the Caged Bird Sings ( 1969 ) . Mom & Me & Mom , in which Angelou relates her relationship with her mother Vivian Baxter , was published shortly before Mother 's Day and Angelou 's 85th birthday . In the time period between the publication of her sixth and seventh autobiographies , Angelou was the first African @-@ American woman and living poet selected by Sterling Publishing , who placed 25 of her poems in a volume of their Poetry for Young People series in 2004 . In 2009 , Angelou wrote " We Had Him " , a poem about Michael Jackson , which was read by Queen Latifah at his funeral , and wrote " His Day is Done " , a poem honoring Nelson Mandela after his death in 2013 . She published a book of essays , Letter to My Daughter , in 2009 , and two cookbooks , Hallelujah ! The Welcome Table in 2004 and Great Food , All Day Long in 2010 . During this period , she was awarded the Lincoln Medal in 2008 and the Presidential Medal of Freedom in 2011 .
Angelou had become recognized and highly respected as a spokesperson for Blacks and women and was , as scholar Joanne Braxton has stated , " without a doubt , ... America 's most visible black woman autobiographer " . She had also become " a major autobiographical voice of the time " . Angelou was one of the first African @-@ American female writers to publicly discuss her personal life , and one of the first to use herself as a central character in her books . Writer Julian Mayfield , who called her first autobiography " a work of art that eludes description " , stated that Angelou 's series set a precedent not only for other Black women writers , but for the genre of autobiography as a whole . Scholar Hilton Als called Angelou one of the " pioneers of self @-@ exposure " , willing to focus honestly on the more negative aspects of her personality and choices . For example , while Angelou was composing her second autobiography , Gather Together in My Name , she was concerned about how her readers would react to her disclosure that she had been a prostitute . Her husband Paul Du Feu talked her into publishing the book by encouraging her to " tell the truth as a writer " and to " be honest about it " .
For the first time , Angelou focuses on her relationship with her mother in this book , and fills in what reviewer Fiona Sturges calls " possibly the final blanks in Angelou 's eventful life " . According to Candace Smith , who reviewed the audio version of the book for Booklist , Angelou and Baxter 's relationship was " touched upon but never fully described " in Caged Bird , but Mom & Me & Mom explains Baxter 's actions , especially the reasons she sent Angelou and her older brother Bailey to live with their grandmother in Stamps , Arkansas . The book also chronicles Angelou 's initial uncomfortable reunion and eventual reconciliation with Baxter . Pictures of Baxter , Angelou , and their family and close friends appear throughout the book and enhance the text . An audio version of the book , read by Angelou , was released in CD form and as a digital download .
Angelou explains in the book 's prologue why she wrote the book , which was to explain how she became , despite being born poor , Black , and female , a renowned author and poet . The book is divided into two sections : the first 13 chapters are grouped into the first section , called " Mom & Me " , and the remaining chapters make up the second section , called " Me & Mom " . Angelou thanks her mother , " who generously taught me how to be a mother " , which allowed her to dedicate the book to her son , Guy Bailey Johnson , whom she calls " one of the most courageous and generous men I know " .
= = Plot summary = =
Angelou 's mother , Vivian Baxter , was born in St. Louis , Missouri , at the turn of the 20th century , the oldest of six children of her Trinidadian father and her Irish mother . Baxter 's family was violent , yet religious and musical . Baxter , " who was to remain a startling beauty " , met Angelou 's father , Bailey Johnson , a dietitian and cook , in 1924 , upon Johnson 's return from serving in World War I. They married and moved to California , where Angelou and her older brother , Bailey , Jr . , were born . When she was three and Bailey was five , their parents divorced and sent their children , by train with identification tags and no adult supervision , to live with their paternal grandmother , Annie Henderson , in Stamps , Arkansas .
Angelou and her brother lived with their grandmother and her son , Uncle Willie , until Angelou was thirteen . They briefly visited their mother in St. Louis , but at the age of eight Angelou was raped , and in retaliation the rapist was killed by members of her family . She felt so guilty for his death that she chose to stop talking to everyone but Bailey for several years . They were sent back to Stamps , but when Bailey turned 14 , they returned to their mother 's care in San Francisco for his protection . At first , Angelou was resistant and angry towards her mother for abandoning her and Bailey , choosing to call her " Lady " , and it took her several years to warm to her .
One summer , Bailey and Angelou made separate trips to visit their father in San Diego , in what Kirkus Reviews called " a seriously ugly meeting " . Angelou did not get along with her stepmother . During her visit , her father took Angelou to Mexico ; he became so drunk , she had to drive him back across the border , even though she had never driven a car before . When they returned to San Diego , Angelou 's stepmother cut Angelou with a pair of scissors during an argument . Angelou chose to live on the streets until her wound was healed . When she returned to San Francisco , she decided she wanted a job as a streetcar conductor ; at first , she was not hired because she was Black , but upon her mother 's encouragement , she was persistent with the streetcar company until she became the first Black to work on the railway . Baxter provided security by following Angelou with a pistol .
When Angelou was seventeen , she became pregnant after a one @-@ time encounter with a neighbor boy . She told Bailey , who advised her to hide it from their mother and stepfather until she graduated from high school . Three weeks before the birth of her son , she told them . Baxter 's reaction was to run a bath ; as Angelou said , " In our family , for some unknown reason , we consider it an honor to run a bath , to put in bubbles and good scents for another person " . Baxter helped Angelou through the birth ; from then on , Angelou began to call her " Mother " , and later , " Mom " .
The rest of the book consists of a series of anecdotes about the ways that Baxter supported and accepted her daughter and continued to win her love and respect , through unwed motherhood , a failed marriage , and career ups and downs . Angelou relates several stories of Baxter , including her support of Angelou as an independent single mother , her life @-@ saving intervention after a jealous ex @-@ boyfriend beat Angelou , and her initial resistance and then acceptance of Angelou 's first marriage to Greek sailor Tosh Angelos . Angelou recounts the beginning of her career as a dancer and entertainer in San Francisco ; Baxter cared for her grandson as Angelou traveled Europe as a member of the Gershwin opera Porgy and Bess . Angelou felt so guilty about leaving her son that she returned and resumed her relationship with her mother and son , eventually moving to New York City and starting a new career as a writer and poet .
Angelou relates , with pride , her mother 's social activities , in the Order of the Eastern Star and black women 's charitable organizations in Stockton , California , as well as her career as one of the first black female merchant marines . At one point , Baxter drops everything and comes to her daughter 's aid while Angelou was working on a movie in Stockholm . Baxter supports Angelou 's decision to live in Africa for a while and then , after Angelou returned to the U.S. , to become a teacher at Wake Forest University in Winston @-@ Salem , North Carolina . Angelou describes Baxter 's marriage , late in her life , to Angelou 's fourth stepfather , whom Baxter called her greatest love and who was Angelou 's favorite . There is a difficult scene between Angelou and her brother , who despite his seemingly easy reentry into their mother 's life when they were teenagers ( she calls them " the new lovers " ) , had descended into struggles with drug abuse .
Angelou closes Mom & Me & Mom with a description of Vivian Baxter 's death in 1991 , and of Angelou 's final words to her on her deathbed . In 1995 , the city of Stockton honored Baxter for her many years of service by naming a park after her .
= = Style and genre = =
Starting with Caged Bird , Angelou made a deliberate attempt while writing all her autobiographies , including Mom & Me & Mom , to challenge the usual structure of the autobiography by critiquing , changing , and expanding the genre . Her use of fiction @-@ writing techniques such as dialogue , characterization , and thematic development has often led reviewers to categorize her books as autobiographical fiction . Valerie Sayers , in her review of Mom & Me & Mom in The Washington Post , calls Angelou 's books memoirs because of their limited focus , but praises her for describing what it was like to grow up Black in " Jim Crow America " . Sayers states : " She manages to fully reveal that national sore without picking at it , a neat trick that ... requires considerable restraint and her own steely goodwill " . Angelou stated in a 1989 interview that she was the only " serious " writer to choose the genre to express herself . As critic Susan Gilbert stated , Angelou was reporting not one person 's story , but the collective 's . Scholar Selwyn R. Cudjoe agreed , and viewed Angelou as representative of the convention in African @-@ American autobiography as a public gesture that spoke for an entire group of people . Angelou 's editor Robert Loomis was able to convince her to write Caged Bird by challenging her to write an autobiography that could be considered " high art " , which she continued throughout her series . Although Angelou was successful , she was , as Sayers insisted , smart and gifted enough to write for any audience , but chose not to write for " a highbrow literary audience " , but for " readers as open , playful and straightforward as herself " .
Angelou 's autobiographies conform to the genre 's standard structure : they are written by a single author , they are chronological , and they contain elements of character , technique , and theme . In a 1983 interview with African @-@ American literature critic Claudia Tate , Angelou called her books autobiographies . When speaking of her unique use of the genre , she acknowledged that she has followed the slave narrative tradition of " speaking in the first @-@ person singular talking about the first @-@ person plural , always saying I meaning ' we ' " . Angelou recognized that there were fictional aspects to all her books ; she tended to " diverge from the conventional notion of autobiography as truth " . Her approach paralleled the conventions of many African @-@ American autobiographies written during the abolitionist period in the US , when truth was often censored for purposes of self @-@ protection . Author Lyman B. Hagen has placed Angelou in the long tradition of African @-@ American autobiography , but insisted that she has created a unique interpretation of the autobiographical form .
In a 1998 interview with journalist George Plimpton , Angelou discussed her writing process , and " the sometimes slippery notion of truth in nonfiction " and memoirs . When asked if she changed the truth to improve her story , she stated , " Sometimes I make a diameter from a composite of three or four people , because the essence in only one person is not sufficiently strong to be written about . " Although Angelou has never admitted to changing the facts in her stories , she has used these facts to make an impact with the reader . As Hagen stated , " One can assume that ' the essence of the data ' is present in Angelou 's work " . Hagen also stated that Angelou " fictionalizes , to enhance interest " . Angelou 's long @-@ time editor , Robert Loomis , states that she could rewrite any of her books by changing the order of her facts to make a different impact on the reader . Like Caged Bird , the events in Mom & Me & Mom and the rest of her autobiographies are episodic and crafted as a series of short stories , yet do not follow a strict chronology , something that Angelou uses to compel her readers forward . Sayers agrees , saying that Angelou pays little attention to chronological order in the book . Sayers also states , " Time races through this narrative " . Major characters , like Angelou 's stepfather Daddy Clidell , disappear after their initial mention . Even though Angelou repeats many anecdotes found in her earlier autobiographies , the focus in Mom & Me & Mom is on her mother ; according to reviewer Stacy Russo , " that focus makes this a distinct addition to Angelou 's autobiographical writings " . Reviewer Pam Kingsbury , who highly recommended the book for all audiences , stated those familiar with Angelou 's previous works " will be rewarded with a more complete picture of her life " , while new readers " will discover a well @-@ crafted and insightful introduction to the author " .
Critics have judged Mom & Me & Mom and Angelou 's other autobiographies " in light of the first " , and Caged Bird generally receives the highest praise . Marjorie Kehe of The Christian Science Monitor , considers the book a sequel to Caged Bird . Many of the events described in Angelou 's previous autobiographies are revisited in this one , some with more detail than others , such as her period of homelessness , which was described in Caged Bird , and her serious beating by her jealous boyfriend , which was first disclosed in Letter to My Daughter ( 2008 ) , Angelou 's third book of essays . According to Fiona Sturges , who reviewed Mom & Me & Mom in the British publication The Independent , " As in her previous books , these tales are told with clear @-@ sightedness and an absence of self @-@ pity , and they are no less grim for their familiarity . Angelou has never been one for florid prose , and here she maintains a precise and economical style which makes these bleak moments more vivid , like a film from which you can 't look away " . Sayers states that major dramatic events , such as the incident when Angelou was beaten , " are delivered without much amplification or further reference " .
Angelou describes her writing process as regimented . Beginning with Caged Bird , she has used the same " writing ritual " for many years . She gets up at five in the morning and checks into a hotel room , where the staff has been instructed to remove any pictures from the walls . She writes on legal pads while lying on the bed , with a bottle of sherry , a deck of cards to play solitaire , Roget 's Thesaurus , and the Bible , and leaves by the early afternoon . She averages 10 – 12 pages of material a day , which she edits down to three or four pages in the evening . Angelou goes through this process to " enchant " herself , and as she said in a 1989 interview with the BBC , to " relive the agony , the anguish , the Sturm und Drang " . She places herself back in the time she is writing about , even during traumatic experiences like her rape in Caged Bird , to " tell the human truth " about her life . Angelou has stated that she plays cards to reach that place of enchantment , to access her memories more effectively . She has stated , " It may take an hour to get into it , but once I 'm in it — ha ! It 's so delicious ! " She does not find the process cathartic ; rather , she has found relief in " telling the truth " .
= = Critical reception = =
Mom & Me & Mom debuted at number 8 on The New York Times bestseller list the week of its release , April 21 , 2013 . The book , like Angelou 's previous autobiographies , received mostly positive reviews . Fiona Sturges , who reviews the book in the British publication The Independent , and reviewer Stacy Russo of Library Journal both state that Angelou 's readers would recognize many of the passages in Mom & Me & Mom from her earlier autobiographies . Bernardine Evaristo of the British publication The Observer , in one of the few negative reviews of Mom & Me & Mom , calls the book " a slight , anecdotal and badly edited book that rehashes stories from previous memoirs " . Evaristo questions the veracity of Angelou 's anecdotes , and states that some of them contradict earlier versions . Evaristo also believes that Mom & Me & Mom undermines Caged Bird , which she calls " a ground @-@ breaking triumph " .
According to reviewer Heid Erdrich , Mom & Me & Mom does not center on Angelou 's childhood trauma , as described in Caged Bird , but " rather constructs a portrait of self via details of her relationship to the mother who abandoned her and with whom she reunited as a teenager " . Erdrich states that Angelou 's prose is " very simply written " , and calls her tone " mostly light , even sweet , filled with affection for her younger self " . Erdrich states that even though it could have been written for young women experiencing the same difficulties Angelou faced , the book does not preach , but " presents Angelou ’ s life path scattered with enormous obstacles endured and conquered through knowledge of self and a singular brand of mother love " . Publishers Weekly agrees , stating , " The lessons and love presented here will speak to those trying to make their way in the world " . Erdrich also states that Angelou 's narrative of her " hard @-@ won love for her extraordinary mother " is compelling , and that Angelou portrays Baxter " as extraordinarily self @-@ aware , liberated from what others might think , and independent beyond any feminist of her era " and " the stuff of fiction but real and responsible in unexpected ways for the gift of her talented daughter " .
Most critics feel that Baxter is presented well in Mom & Me & Mom . Candace Smith , who reviews the audio version of the book , states that Angelou celebrates the unconditional acceptance and support of her mother , who comes across " as a street @-@ smart , caring woman who shaped the author 's life and legacy by her words and example " . Vanessa Bush of Booklist calls the book a " loving recollection of a complicated relationship " and a " remarkable and deeply revealing chronicle of love and healing " . Russo states that the book is " a beautiful tribute to Baxter 's independent , vibrant , and courageous spirit " . Evaristo disagrees , and states that Baxter comes across as " less rounded , less interesting , more sanctified and less credible " than Angelou describes her elsewhere . Sturges calls the book " a profoundly moving tale of separation and reunion , and an ultimately optimistic portrait of the maternal bond " . The most interesting part of the book , according to Sturges , is " Angelou 's casual overturning of the idea of the mother who abandons her children as monstrous and inhumane " . Sturges also says that Baxter is presented as unapologetic , charismatic , independent , and resilient , traits that " have seemingly been passed on to her daughter " . Reviewer Valerie Sayers insists that the scenes that depict Angelou 's " halting steps " towards her forgiveness and acceptance of her mother are among the best in the book . Sayers labels Mom & Me & Mom " an account of forgiveness " , and like Angelou and Baxter , " just revealing enough , and pretty irresistible " . Like her mother expected from her , Angelou expects her readers to move past their resentments and " whatever was unbearable " . Sayers also calls both Baxter and Angelou " a Large Dramatic Presence " , and says that Angelou matches her mother 's spirit .
According to Sayers , the book contains Angelou 's " trademark good humor and fierce optimism " . Kirkus Reviews states that true to Angelou 's style , her writing " cuts to the chase with compression and simplicity " , and that it contains a " calypso smoothness , flurries and showers of musicality between the moments of wickedness " . Kirkus also calls the book a " tightly strung , finely tuned memoir " . According to Candace Smith in her review of the book 's audio version , Angelou performs it " in her characteristic slow and thoughtful tones , and with careful enunciation " . Although some of her anecdotes are painful to hear , Angelou is " unquestionably honest " . Smith also states , " Although her voice doesn 't show much outward emotion , her words are so powerful and the stories so fascinating that we remain riveted " .
Most critics agreed that the book would be popular with readers familiar with Angelou 's writings and to her new readers . Marjorie Kehe of The Christian Science Monitor , who calls it " a story of redemption " and " a tender read and a lovely tribute " , anticipates that Angelou 's readers would delight in it . Russo predicts that due to Angelou 's popularity and " approachable writing " , the book would have wide appeal for many readers .
= = Explanatory notes = =
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= Stranger in Moscow =
" Stranger in Moscow " is a song by American recording artist Michael Jackson from his ninth studio album HIStory : Past , Present and Future , Book I. The song was released worldwide in November 1996 , but was not released in the United States until August 1997 by Epic Records . The track was written by Jackson in September 1993 , at the height of the highly publicized child abuse accusations made against him , while on the Dangerous World Tour stop in Moscow . It was originally written as a poem by Jackson , then adapted into a song .
The song 's music video depicts the lives of six individuals , including Jackson , who are left isolated and disconnected from the world around them . This is Jackson 's lowest charting song on the Billboard Hot 100 peaking at 91 . The song was performed on the HIStory World Tour in 1996 – 97 . It was covered a few times by other artists .
= = Context , production and music = =
In the book The Many Faces of Michael Jackson , author Lee Pinkerton , like many other reviewers , noted that HIStory 's album tracks like " Stranger in Moscow " were Jackson 's response to recent events in his personal life . In 1993 , the relationship between Jackson and the press soured entirely when he was accused of child sexual abuse . Although never charged with a crime , Jackson was subject to intense media scrutiny while the criminal investigation took place . Complaints about the coverage and media included using sensational headlines to draw in readers and viewers when the content itself did not support the headline , accepting stories of Jackson 's alleged criminal activity in return for money , accepting leaked material from the police investigation in return for money paid , deliberately using pictures of Jackson 's appearance at its worst , a lack of objectivity and using headlines that strongly implied Jackson 's guilt .
At the time , Jackson said of the media reaction , " I will say I am particularly upset by the handling of the matter by the incredible , terrible mass media . At every opportunity , the media has dissected and manipulated these allegations to reach their own conclusions " . A few months after the allegations became news , Jackson had lost approximately 10 pounds ( 4 @.@ 5 kg ) in weight and had stopped eating . Jackson 's health had deteriorated to the extent that he canceled the remainder of his Dangerous World Tour and went into rehabilitation . Jackson booked the whole fourth floor of the clinic , and was put on a Valium IV to wean him from painkillers . The singer 's spokesperson told reporters that Jackson was " barely able to function adequately on an intellectual level " . While in the clinic , Jackson took part in group and one @-@ on @-@ one therapy sessions .
When Jackson left the US to go into rehabilitation , the media showed the singer little sympathy . The Daily Mirror held a " Spot the Jacko " contest , offering readers a trip to Walt Disney World if they could correctly predict where the entertainer would appear next . A Daily Express headline read , " Drug Treatment Star Faces Life on the Run " , while a News of the World headline accused Jackson of being a fugitive . These tabloids also falsely alleged that Jackson had traveled to Europe to have cosmetic surgery that would make him unrecognizable on his return . Geraldo Rivera set up a mock trial , with a jury made up of audience members , even though Jackson had not been charged with a crime .
" Stranger in Moscow " is an R & B ballad , penned by Jackson in 1993 during his Dangerous World Tour stop in Moscow . The instrumental portion of the song is based on the end credits theme of Sonic the Hedgehog 3 ( 1994 ) , a video game which Jackson and his tour keyboardist Brad Buxer were brought in to compose music for . Jackson dropped out of the project after scandals involving him arose around this time . The lyrics for the song are based upon a poem written by Jackson . A background guitar was played by Steve Lukather while keyboards , synthesizers and bass are credited to David Paich and Steve Porcaro . Originally , HIStory was planned as a greatest hits release , with a few new tracks . However , Jackson and his collaborators were so pleased with the result of " Stranger in Moscow " that they decided to give HIStory a full studio album as the second disc . Jackson used elements of Russian imagery and symbolism to help promote the concept of fear and alienation in the track , in a similar fashion to Simply Red 's album Love and the Russian Winter several years later . It concludes with a narrative , spoken in Russian , by a KGB interrogator ( Ed Wiesnieski ) . The narrative , translated into English is , " Why have you come from the west ? Confess ! To steal the great achievements of the people , the accomplishments of the workers ... " .
= = Music and critical reception = =
Stranger in Moscow has a tempo of 66 beats per minute , making it one of Jackson 's slowest songs . The song received praise from music reviewers and producers . James Hunter of Rolling Stone commented " [ Jackson is ] angry , miserable , tortured , inflammatory , furious about what he calls , in ' Stranger in Moscow ' , a ' swift and sudden fall from grace ' ... HIStory feels like the work of someone with a bad case of Thriller nostalgia . Occasionally this backward focus works to Jackson 's advantage : On ' Stranger in Moscow ' he remembers the synth @-@ pop ' 80s while constructing wracked claims of danger and loneliness that rival any Seattle rocker 's pain . "
Jon Pareles of The New York Times stated , " The ballads are lavishly melodic . ' Stranger In Moscow ' , with odd lyrics like ' Stalin 's tomb won 't let me be , ' has a gorgeous chorus for the repeated question " How does it feel ? " . Fred Shuster of the Daily News of Los Angeles described it as , " a lush , gorgeous minor @-@ key ballad with one of the album 's catchiest choruses "
Stephen Thomas Erlewine of Allmusic noted of HIStory , " Jackson produces some well @-@ crafted pop that ranks with his best material ... ' Stranger in Moscow ' is one of his most haunting ballads . Longtime collaborator Bruce Swedien , has described " Stranger in Moscow " as one of the best songs Jackson had ever done . Patrick Macdonald of The Seattle Times described " Stranger in Moscow " as " a pretty ballad interspersed with sounds of rain . " Further praise came in 2005 when it was felt that the song had successfully portrayed " eerie loneliness " and was characterized as beautiful by Josephine Zohny of PopMatters . Tom Molley of the Associated Press described it as " [ a ] ethereal and stirring description of a man wounded by a ' swift and sudden fall from grace ' walking in the shadow of the Kremlin " .
Chris Willman of Los Angeles Times stated " ' Stranger in Moscow ' , is a step removed from the focused paranoia of much of the rest of the album , more akin to the deeper , fuzzier dread of a past perennial like ' Billie Jean ' . Jackson imagines himself alone and adrift in a psychic Russia , pre @-@ glasnost , hunted by an unseen KGB : ' Here abandoned in my fame / Armageddon of the brain ' , he sings in the somber , constricted verses , before a sweeping coda kicks up four minutes in and the stalkee suddenly breaks his cool to wail about a desolate , inconsolable loneliness . Here , in this song , is the real genius — and probably real personhood — of Michael Jackson " .
Rod Temperton , one of Jackson 's songwriters from his earlier career , believes that this is his best song .
= = Music video plot and influence = =
The song 's music video , directed by Nick Brandt , and shot in Los Angeles , is focused around six unrelated people living in a cityscape while the rest of the world moves around them in slow motion . The first half of the video introduces these figures . Five of the figures are a man looking down at the city from his bedroom window , a woman sitting alone in a coffee shop , a homeless man lying on the damp street , a lone figure feeding pigeons , and a boy ostracized from a game of baseball . The sixth figure is Jackson himself , seen walking the city streets while he sings . Special effects are used to show birds and wasps flying , glass breaking and coffee spilling , all in slow motion .
In the second half of the scenario , heavy rain descends on the city and the citizens try to flee , all again seen in slow motion . From the safety of shelter , the six " strangers " watch everyone 's futile attempts to avoid the sudden change in weather . Eventually they decide to go outside , where they look up at the sky and allow the rain to soak them . The video ends with Michael whipping his hair . During this scene , you hear a voicing softly in Russian , a reference to Moscow .
The music video also appears on Jackson 's video albums HIStory on Film , Volume II and Michael Jackson 's Vision .
Jackson 's biographer J. Randy Taraborrelli , has stated that the video is based on Jackson 's real life . He used to walk alone at night looking for new friends , even at the peak of his musical popularity . The 1980s saw him become deeply unhappy ; Jackson explained , " Even at home , I 'm lonely . I sit in my room sometimes and cry . It 's so hard to make friends ... I sometimes walk around the neighborhood at night , just hoping to find someone to talk to . But I just end up coming home . "
= = Live performances = =
Jackson first performed the song during the HIStory World Tour , which also turned out to be the last live performance of the song . Jackson always performed the song wearing golden jacket and pants . The song was always lipsynced , instead focusing on Jackson 's robotic and gliding dance moves . Along with ' Shake Your Body ( Down To The Ground ) , " " Billie Jean , " and " Smooth Criminal , " it was one of the songs where Jackson did the moonwalk . The song was also due to be performed for the This Is It concert series , but the shows were cancelled due to his death .
= = Cover versions = =
The German electronica group Transformer di Roboter released a cover version of " Stranger in Moscow " on their MySpace page on January 1 , 2002 . The bass line of the track was replicated using the iconic Apple Macintosh startup chime .
The British act Alpines uploaded a cover version on their ' covers ' MySpace page on January 1 , 2010 .
British singer Leona Lewis did a live rendition at the Michael Forever – The Tribute Concert
Kevin Parker released a cover by his Australian psychedelic rock band Tame Impala on SoundCloud on March 12 , 2014 .
= = Charts = =
= = Track listing = =
= = Personnel = =
Written , composed and produced by Michael Jackson
Vocal arrangement by Michael Jackson and John Barnes
Solo and background vocals by Michael Jackson
Keyboard , synthesizer and bass by David Paich
Keyboard and synthesizer by Steve Porcaro
Background guitar by Steve Lukather
Michael Jackson 's heartbeat recording by Dr. Eric Chevlen : digitally processed in the Synclavier
Rhythm arrangement by Michael Jackson and John Barnes
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= Zanzibar women 's national football team =
The Zanzibar women 's national football team , nicknamed the " Zanzibar Queens " , is the women 's representative team from Zanzibar , a semi @-@ autonomous part of Tanzania . Founded in 1988 , the team has limited recognition as the regional governing body , the Zanzibar Football Association , is a full member of the Council for East and Central Africa Football Associations ( CECAFA ) and Confederation of African Football ( CAF ) , but Zanzibar Football Association is not recognised by Fédération Internationale de Football Association ( FIFA ) as an independent national association . The national team was supposed to have its first international matches in the CECAFA Women 's Challenge Cup in October 2007 , but the event was cancelled . The team plays domestically against men 's sides in Zanzibar . The development of women 's football in Zanzibar faces several challenges specific to Africa and their own islands , including efforts to politicize the game .
= = Background and development of women 's football = =
Zanzibar is a territory consisting of two main islands , Unguja / Zanzibar and Pemba , and is a semi @-@ autonomous part of Tanzania with its own government . As of the 2002 census , it had a total population of 984 @,@ 625 . Women 's football in Africa has not developed compared to elsewhere because of a variety of factors , including limited access to education , poverty amongst women in the wider society , and fundamental inequality present in the society that occasionally allows for female specific human rights abuses . Another problem with the development of the game throughout the continent is that higher ability players leave to play in Europe or the United States . According to Kuhn , funding for the game on a regional level is problematic as national associations do not fund the women 's game adequately .
Zanzibar has unique problems relating to the development of the women 's game including pressures for female players to wear the hijab while playing and pressure from male family members not to participate as their involvement may bring shame to the family . There is minimal support for the game at schools , with the national federation not responding to requests from the national team coach to work harder to get girls to play the sport in school . A national women 's league was created in 2004 after a 26 @-@ year effort . Five teams competed in the inaugural season : Women Fighters , Nyuki FC , Koani Sisters , Bungi Sisters and Policewomen FC . Women Fighters won the first two editions of the league , however , the league has since collapsed .
= = Team = =
Founded in 1988 by Nassra Juma Mohammed of Tanzania , the Women Fighters was Zanzibar 's first women 's football club , which the national team was built on , and the team was created at a time when there were very few women 's national teams in existence . Prior to 1988 , women had played informally or on men 's only teams ; several of these players , as well as those from other sports , including badminton , made up the inaugural team . The team soon played a game against the touring Swedish women 's club side , Tyresö FF in Zanzibar 's largest football stadium , losing the game 0 – 15 at Amaan Stadium . At the time the team was created , there were few opportunities for it to compete against other women 's teams in Zanzibar , but they have played and sometimes beaten men 's teams in Zanzibar while receiving support from the Zanzibar Football Association and Zanzibar 's Ministry of Sport . The players do not wear a hijab or cover up as part of their kit , which has led to criticism from religious leaders for playing in public while wearing shorts and jersey tops , instead of covering their bodies according to Muslim custom . The team trains in Stone Town at the Mao Tse Tung Stadium . Player recruitment and retention has been a problem because some members of the national team have been prohibited from playing by their husbands or family members . Male relatives of the Fighters team have beaten players because they " disgrace them " . National team players are eligible to play for Tanzania in all competitions . Aziza Mwadini and Sabai Yusuf are two Zanzibar based players who have participated in a Tanzanian national team training camp . As of 2011 , Mohammed remained the team 's head coach .
The national association , founded in 1926 , is recognised by the Council for East and Central Africa Football Associations ( CECAFA ) , but not by Fédération Internationale de Football Association ( FIFA ) despite repeated attempts for such recognition . The federation is a member of CAF and the national team is limited in their ability to compete in sanctioned events by these organisations .
Zanzibar were meant to play in the inaugural CECAFA Women 's Challenge Cup in October 2007 , but the tournament was ultimately cancelled because of an inability to attain funding from CECAFA to cover costs connected to the competition . The competition was to have been jointly funded by CAF and CECAFA . The CECAFA secretary , Nicholas Musonye said of the event , " CAF wants to develop women football in this region in recognition of the milestones CECAFA has achieved over the years . CAF appreciates what CECAFA has done despite the hardships the association has gone through , from financial problems to political instability in member states and poor management of associations . Member states in the CECAFA region have not taken women 's football seriously . CAF now wants to sponsor a long @-@ term campaign to attract women from this region into the game . "
In 2007 , a movie was made about the team called Zanzibar Soccer Queens . The film was featured at the BFI London Film Festival in 2007 .
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= Wordless novel =
The wordless novel is a narrative genre that uses sequences of captionless pictures to tell a story . As artists have often made such books using woodcut and other relief printing techniques , the terms woodcut novel or novel in woodcuts are also used . The genre flourished primarily in the 1920s and 1930s and was most popular in Germany .
The wordless novel has its origin in the German Expressionist movement of the early 20th century . The typically socialist work drew inspiration from mediaeval woodcuts and used the awkward look of that medium to express angst and frustration at social injustice . The first such book was the Belgian Frans Masereel 's 25 Images of a Man 's Passion , published in 1918 . The German Otto Nückel and other artists followed Masereel 's example . Lynd Ward brought the genre to the United States in 1929 when he produced Gods ' Man , which inspired other American wordless novels and a parody in 1930 by cartoonist Milt Gross with He Done Her Wrong . Following an early @-@ 1930s peak in production and popularity , the genre waned in the face of competition from sound films and anti @-@ socialist censorship in Nazi Germany and the US .
Following World War II , new examples of wordless novels became increasingly rare , and early works went out of print . Interest began to revive in the 1960s when the American comics fandom subculture came to see wordless novels as prototypical book @-@ length comics . In the 1970s , the example of the wordless novel inspired cartoonists such as Will Eisner and Art Spiegelman to create book @-@ length non @-@ genre comics — " graphic novels " . Cartoonists such as Eric Drooker and Peter Kuper took direct inspiration from wordless novels to create wordless graphic novels .
= = Characteristics = =
Wordless novels use sequences of expressive images to tell a story . Socialist themes of struggle against capitalism are common ; scholar Perry Willett calls these themes " a unifying element of the genre 's aesthetic " . In both formal and moral aspects , they draw from Expressionist graphics , theatre , and film . Wordless novelists such as Frans Masereel appropriated the awkward aesthetic of mediaeval woodcuts to express their anguish and revolutionary political ideas and used simple , traditional iconography . Text is restricted to title and chapter pages , except where text is a part of the scene , such as in signs .
The storytelling tends to be melodramatic , and the stories tend to focus on struggles against social oppression in which characters are silenced by economic , political , and other social forces . The characters are clearly delineated as good or evil — the good drawn sympathetically and the evil with the contempt of the artist 's moral indignation .
Most wordless novelists were not prolific ; few besides Masereel and Lynd Ward produced more than a single book . The books were designed to be mass @-@ produced for a popular audience , in contrast to similar but shorter portfolios by artists such as Otto Dix , George Grosz , and Käthe Kollwitz , which were produced in limited editions for collectors . These portfolios of typically from eight to ten prints also were meant to be viewed in sequence . Wordless novels were longer , had more complex narratives , and were printed in sizes and dimensions comparable to those of novels . A large influence was the most popular silent visual medium of the time : silent films . Panning , zooming , slapstick , and other filmic techniques are found in the books ; Ward said that in creating a wordless novel , he first had to visualize it in his head as a silent film .
Typically , wordless novels used relief printing techniques such as woodcuts , wood engraving , metalcuts , or linocuts . One of the oldest printing techniques , relief printing has its origins in 8th @-@ century China and was introduced to Europe in the 15th century . It requires an artist to draw or transfer an image to a printing block ; the areas not to be printed ( the white areas ) are cut away , leaving raised areas to which ink is applied to make prints . The monochrome prints were usually in black ink , and occasionally in a different colour such as sienna or orange . Relief printing is an inexpensive but labour @-@ intensive printing technique ; it was accessible to socially conscious artists who wanted to tell wordless stories of the working classes .
= = History = =
In 15th @-@ century mediaeval Europe , woodcut block books were printed as religious guides ; particularly popular was the Ars moriendi . The early 16th century saw block books disappear in favour of books printed with the movable type of Gutenberg 's presses . Woodcut printing persisted into the 16th century under artists such as Dürer , Holbein , and Amman , after which engraving techniques superseded woodcuts . Pioneered by Thomas Bewick , wood engraving enjoyed popularity beginning in the 18th century , until the method gave way by the 19th century to more advanced printing methods such as lithography .
Post @-@ impressionist artist Paul Gauguin revived woodcut printing in the late @-@ 19th century , favouring it for its primitivist effect . Early in the 20th century , woodcut artists such as Käthe Kollwitz ( 1867 – 1945 ) and Max Klinger ( 1857 – 1920 ) published portfolios of woodcuts , thematically linked by themes of social injustice . Expressionist graphic artists such as Max Beckmann ( 1884 – 1950 ) , Otto Dix ( 1891 – 1969 ) , Kollwitz , and Karl Schmidt @-@ Rottluff ( 1884 – 1976 ) were inspired by an early @-@ 20th @-@ century revival of interest in mediaeval graphic arts — in particular Biblical woodcut prints such as the Biblia pauperum . These artists used the awkward look of woodcut images to express feelings of anguish .
= = = In Europe = = =
The wordless novel grew out of the Expressionist movement . The Belgian Frans Masereel ( 1889 – 1972 ) created the earliest example , 25 Images of a Man 's Passion , in 1918 . It was a commercial success and was followed by Passionate Journey , which at 167 images was Masereel 's longest book . It was also the most commercially successful , particularly in Germany , where copies of his books sold in the hundreds of thousands throughout the 1920s and had introductions by writers such as Max Brod , Hermann Hesse , and Thomas Mann . Masereel 's books drew strongly on Expressionist theatre and film in their exaggerated but representational artwork with strong contrasts of black and white .
Masereel 's commercial success led other artists to try their hands at the genre ; themes of oppression under capitalism were prominent , a pattern set early by Masereel . At age thirteen , Polish @-@ French artist Balthus drew a wordless story about his cat ; it was published in 1921 with an introduction by poet Rainer Maria Rilke . In Destiny ( 1926 ) , Otto Nückel ( 1888 – 1955 ) produced a work with greater nuance and atmosphere than Masereel 's bombastic works ; where Masereel told tales of Man 's struggle against Society , Nückel told of the life of an individual woman . Destiny appeared in a US edition in 1930 and sold well there .
Clément Moreau ( 1903 – 1988 ) first tried his hand at the genre with the six @-@ plate Youth Without Means in 1928 . István Szegedi @-@ Szüts ( 1892 – 1959 ) , a Hungarian immigrant to England , made a wordless book in brush and ink called My War ( 1931 ) . In simple artwork reminiscent of Japanese brush painting , Szegedi @-@ Szüts told of a Hungarian cavalryman disillusioned by his World War I experiences . Helena Bochořáková @-@ Dittrichová ( 1894 – 1980 ) was the first woman to produce a wordless novel , Childhood ( 1931 ) , which presented middle @-@ class life , rather than the working @-@ class struggle found in the works of Masereel or Nückel . Bochořáková described her books as " cycles " rather than novels . Surrealist artist Max Ernst made the silent collage novel Une semaine de bonté in 1934 . Following World War II , Werner Gothein ( 1890 – 1968 ) , a member of the German Expressionist group Die Brücke , produced The Tightrope Walker and the Clown ( 1949 ) .
= = = In North America = = =
In 1926 , the American Lynd Ward ( 1905 – 1985 ) moved to Leipzig to study graphic arts ; while there , he discovered the works of Masereel and Otto Nückel . He produced six such works of his own ; he preferred to call them " pictorial narratives " . The first , Gods ' Man ( 1929 ) , was his most popular . Ward used wood engraving rather than woodcutting and varied image sizes from page to page . Gods ' Man sold 20 @,@ 000 copies , and other American artists followed up on this success with their own wordless novels in the 1930s .
Cartoonist Milt Gross 's He Done Her Wrong ( 1930 ) was a parody of the genre ; the book uses varying panel designs akin to those of comics : the action sometimes takes place outside the panel borders and " dialogue balloons " show in images what the characters are saying . Cartoonist and illustrator William Gropper 's Alay @-@ oop ( 1930 ) tells of three entertainers ' disappointed dreams . In Abraham Lincoln : Biography in Woodcuts ( 1933 ) Charles Turzak documented the American president . Animator Myron Waldman ( 1908 – 2006 ) wrote a wordless tale of a plump young woman looking for a glamorous husband . The book , Eve ( 1943 ) , also uses " picture balloons " as He Done Her Wrong does .
Inspired by mediaeval religious block books and working in an Art Deco style , American illustrator James Reid ( 1907 – 1989 ) produced one wordless novel , The Life of Christ ( 1930 ) ; due to the book 's religious content , the Soviet Union barred its importation under its policies on religion .
In 1938 , Italian @-@ American Giacomo Patri ( 1898 – 1978 ) produced his only wordless novel , the linocut White Collar . It chronicles the aftermath of the 1929 stock market crash and was intended to motivate white @-@ collar workers to unionize . It also deals with controversial topics such as abortion , accessibility of health care for the poor , and loss of Christian faith . From 1948 to 1951 , Canadian Laurence Hyde ( 1914 – 1987 ) produced his single wordless novel , the woodcut Southern Cross , in response to the American atomic tests in the Bikini Atoll . The work tells of an American evacuation of an island for nuclear tests , where one family is left behind . Polish @-@ American Si Lewen 's ( 1918 – ) first book , The Parade : A Story in 55 Drawings ( 1957 ) , won praise from Albert Einstein for its anti @-@ war message . Canadian George Kuthan 's Aphrodite 's Cup ( 1964 ) is an erotic book drawn in an ancient Greek style . In the early 21st century , Canadian George Walker made wordless woodcut novels , beginning with Book of Hours ( 2010 ) , about the lives of those in the World Trade Center complex just before the September 11 attacks .
= = = Decline = = =
The popularity of wordless novels peaked around 1929 to 1931 , when " talkies " were introduced and began to supersede silent films . In the 1930s the Nazis in Germany suppressed and detained many printmakers and banned Masereel 's works as " degenerate art " . Following World War II , US censors suppressed books with socialist views , including the works of Lynd Ward , on whom the FBI kept files over his socialist sympathies ; this censorship has made early editions of wordless novels scarce collectors ' items in the US .
By the 1940s , most artists had given up on the genre . The most devoted practitioners , Masereel and Ward , moved on to other work for which they became better known ; Masereel 's obituary did not even mention his wordless novels . Many wordless novels remained out of print until the rise of the graphic novel revived interest amongst readers and publishers in the early 21st century .
= = Relation to comics and graphic novels = =
" ... Ward 's roots were not in comics , though his work is part of the same large family tree ... "
There have been sporadic examples of textless comics throughout the medium 's history . In the US , there were comic strips such as Otto Soglow 's The Little King , begun in 1931 , and Carl Anderson 's Henry , begun in 1932 . German cartoonist E. O. Plauen 's wordless domestic comic strip Father and Son ( 1934 – 37 ) was popular in Germany , and was collected in three volumes . Antonio Prohías 's textless Mad magazine feature Spy vs. Spy began in 1961 .
Cartoonist Will Eisner ( 1917 – 2005 ) first came upon the work of Lynd Ward in 1938 . Eisner was an early pioneer in the American comic book industry and saw in Ward 's work a greater potential for comics . Eisner 's ambitions were rebuffed by his peers , who saw comics as no more than low @-@ status entertainment . Eisner withdrew from the commercial comics industry in the early 1950s to do government and educational work . He returned in the 1970s when the atmosphere had changed and his readers and peers seemed more receptive to his ambitions . In 1978 , he began a career of creating book @-@ length comics , the first of which was A Contract with God ; the book was marketed as a " graphic novel " , a term that became standard towards the end of the 20th century . Eisner called Ward " perhaps the most provocative graphic storyteller " of the 20th century . He wrote that Ward 's Vertigo ( 1937 ) required considerable investment from readers in order to fill in the story between images .
Interest in the wordless novel revived with the rise of the graphic novel . Comics fans discussed the works of Masereel and others in fanzines , and the discussions turned to talk of the Great American Novel being made in comics . These discussions inspired cartoonist Art Spiegelman ( b . 1942 ) , who in 1973 made a four @-@ page strip , " Prisoner on the Hell Planet " , in an Expressionist style inspired by Ward 's work . Spiegelman later incorporated the strip into his graphic novel Maus ( 1992 ) .
While graphic novels generally use captions and dialogue , cartoonists such as Eric Drooker , Peter Kuper , Thomas Ott , Brian Ralph , Masashi Tanaka , and Lewis Trondheim have made wordless graphic novels . As Gross did in He Done Her Wrong , Hendrik Dorgathen 's wordless oeuvre uses textless word balloons containing symbols , icons , and other images . The influence of the wordless novel is prominent in Drooker 's Flood ( 1992 ) and Kuper 's The System ( 1997 ) , both metaphorical stories that focus on social themes . Since 2011 , the Pennsylvania State University Libraries and the Pennsylvania Center for the Book have awarded the annual Lynd Ward Prize for Graphic Novel , a cash prize established by Ward 's daughters to highlight their father 's influence on the development of the graphic novel .
= = = = Books = = = =
= = = = Magazines and journals = = = =
= = = = Web = = = =
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= Midnight Madness ( basketball ) =
Midnight Madness is an annual event celebrating the upcoming college basketball season in which a team opens its first official practice to the public , often combining it with a pep rally and other fan friendly activities . The tradition originated from teams holding public practices at midnight on the earliest day that the National Collegiate Athletic Association ( NCAA ) would allow a practice to be held . In 2013 , a new NCAA rule established some flexbility around the opening of a team 's practice sessions . As a result , the dates on which teams celebrate Midnight Madness can vary , but most stick with the traditional date of a Friday night closest to October 15 .
= = History = =
Prior to the 2013 – 14 NCAA Division I men 's basketball season men 's and women 's basketball teams were not permitted to practice prior to the Friday closest to October 15 . Maryland Terrapins head coach Lefty Driesell began the Midnight Madness tradition at 12 : 03 a.m. on October 15 , 1971 by inviting the public to a 1 @.@ 5 mile team run . The early practice session was attended by 3 @,@ 000 fans at the track surrounding Byrd Stadium on the University of Maryland campus . Driesell continued the annual midnight practice session throughout his tenure at Maryland , and brought the tradition with him when he became head coach at Georgia State University . In 2008 , that school delayed the event until sunrise for the first time since Driesell established the tradition .
In 1982 , coach Joe B. Hall and the Kentucky Wildcats men 's basketball team began to officially promote a celebration dubbed " Midnight Madness " as a school event with formal entertainment acts and an invited student audience . This event was held in Memorial Coliseum and held 8 @,@ 500 people in the 12 @,@ 500 seat gym . Big Blue Madness is now televised and hosts celebrities including Drake , who performed in 2014 . Another of the more famous events is " Late Night in the Phog " at Kansas , which was started in 1985 by Larry Brown and is now broadcast in live streaming video via the Internet . The event has caught on on most campuses ; various programs have given away T @-@ shirts and allowed players do stunt dunks and half court shots . Some schools schedule intrasquad scrimmages , three @-@ point shooting contests and / or slam dunk contests . The event is often a co @-@ ed event , in which both the men 's and women 's team participate in the celebration , especially at schools like the University of Connecticut , where the men 's and women 's teams have a combined 13 championships . Scout.com estimated that in 2007 , approximately 160 of the top blue chip high school basketball recruits in the country were attending a Midnight Madness event during the weekend that opens the basketball season .
In 2013 , the NCAA ruled that men 's practices could begin two weeks earlier than the traditional date , so long as teams held no more than 30 days of practice in the six weeks prior to the first regular season game . This change was made to provide more flexible scheduling that accommodated off days in the preseason practice schedule . However , the women 's programs rejected moving the date forward so as not to conflict with recruiting . As a result of practices beginning so early , several teams opted to celebrate midnight madness later in the six week practice window .
= = Details = =
In the 21st century , most basketball programs from large Division I schools have planned a pep rally with MCs , music , dancing and other festivities to encourage support of the program . Celebrity guests and alumni participate in entertaining the students . Often , there is significant publicity surrounding the event , which may include televised broadcasts , published press releases and various new media exposure .
Some of the more outlandish occurrences during such events included coach participation , such as Michigan State Spartans men 's basketball coach Tom Izzo riding a Harley @-@ Davidson motorcycle onto the court and Florida Gators men 's basketball coach Billy Donovan rising out of a coffin . Although signing week , when top recruits sign letters of intent that commit them to specific schools , does not occur until November , blue chip high school recruits are sometimes welcomed at these events even in their junior years . Usually a prescribed number of fans ( such as the first 1000 ) receive a gifts such as t @-@ shirts , posters , autographs , road game vacation packages , and other free paraphernalia . At many such events , a student is chosen for a half court shot giveaway . Sometimes the events are televised live by sports networks such as the Big Ten Network , and other times highlights are shown on highlight shows such as ESPN 's SportsCenter . ESPNU has begun extensive yearly coverage of midnight madness events and in 2008 televised events at Davidson College , the University of Kansas , Georgetown University , Gonzaga University and Indiana University . The events have been reported for years in print media such as newspapers , magazines and the internet . Although Midnight Madness has become a prime time event for many premier basketball programs , some schools have continued the tradition of having their first practice at 12 : 00 on the first day regular practice is allowed .
As of 2006 , the University of Kentucky held the record for attendance at this type of sports rally with an attendance of 23 @,@ 312 at Rupp Arena . Kentucky has sold out Rupp Arena multiple times for what they call " Big Blue Madness " and in the 2008 – 09 Kentucky Wildcats men 's basketball season fans had to camp out in lines for days in advance to obtain tickets .
One celebratory function of the evening is often to raise NCAA Men 's Division I Basketball Championship or Final Four banners to the rafters in an official ceremony . In 2008 , both 2008 NCAA Men 's Division I Basketball Tournament finalists , the Kansas Jayhawks men 's basketball and Memphis Tigers men 's basketball teams , did so during their respective Midnight Madness event . The October 16 , 2009 celebrations occurred on many campuses and a sampling were aired on the ESPN family of networks . Five Big Ten Conference schools celebrated Midnight Madness .
= = Exceptions = =
In 2008 , some teams attempted to host Midnight Madness in association with special early restricted practices instead of the first day of regular practices . These universities felt that since their football teams had home games the week before the opening date of formal practices , which had become the traditional Midnight Madness date , they would be better off holding Midnight Madness on the weekend before . In 2008 , teams were allowed to practice two hours per week between September 15 and October 17 under what is known as the " Offseason Workout Rule , " and at least four notable public " practice " session ( by Illinois , Kentucky , Marshall and West Virginia ) were held during these weekly practices before daily practices were permitted . At the University of Illinois , the Illinois Fighting Illini men 's basketball and women 's basketball teams hosted scrimmages at Memorial Stadium after an October 11 game between the Illinois Fighting Illini football team and the Minnesota Golden Gophers football team . Since the attendance for the football game was 62 @,@ 870 , this event was described as the " World 's Largest Basketball Practice " . Charlie Zegers reports that the practice session events occurred both at halftime and after the game .
Kentucky was one of the schools that held their public practice event a week early in part because they could lure more recruiting prospects during a week when most other programs were not hosting similar events . The National Association of Basketball Coaches asked the Southeastern Conference to force Kentucky to adhere to the traditionally scheduled practice to no avail . They then belatedly petitioned the NCAA to legislate conformity unsuccessfully . Kentucky coach Billy Gillispie had contacted the Kentucky 's compliance office , the SEC and the NCAA to ensure that no rules were being violated .
Illinois head coach Bruce Weber , had also received permission for the early practice festivities from the NCAA . He had proposed having a September 13 session in association with a home football game against University of Louisiana at Lafayette . The date with the Louisiana – Lafayette Ragin ' Cajuns would have in all likelihood been a more favorable day in terms of the climate , but this date preceded even the Offseason Workout Rule dates . It is anticipated that in the future , public basketball practices linked to the Offseason Workout Rule will be banned . Illinois claimed that their date change was not intended to give it a recruiting advantage in terms of scheduling conflicts .
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= Bristol Old Vic =
Bristol Old Vic is a British theatre company based at the Theatre Royal , Bristol . The present company was established in 1946 as an offshoot of the Old Vic in London . It is associated with the Bristol Old Vic Theatre School , which became a financially independent organisation in the 1990s . Bristol Old Vic runs a popular , and highly successful Young Company for young people aged 7 – 25 .
The Theatre Royal , the oldest continually @-@ operating theatre in the English speaking world , was built during 1764 – 66 on King Street in Bristol . The Coopers ' Hall , built 1743 – 44 , was incorporated as the theatre 's foyer during 1970 – 72 . Together , they are designated a Grade I listed building by Historic England . Daniel Day @-@ Lewis called it " the most beautiful theatre in England . "
In 2012 the theatre complex completed the first phase of a £ 19 million refurbishment , increasing seating capacity and providing up to ten flexible performance spaces . Besides the main Theatre Royal auditorium , the complex includes the Studio theatre and the Side Stage , Paint Shop and Basement performance areas . Whilst the theatre was closed , the company continued to present work in the Studio and Basement spaces , as well as at other sites around Bristol . The Theatre Royal re @-@ opened in 2012 with Wild Oats .
= = History of the theatre = =
The theatre is situated on King Street , a few yards from the Floating Harbour . Since 1972 , the public entrance has been through the Coopers ' Hall , the earliest surviving building on the site . The Coopers ' Hall was built in 1744 for the Coopers ' Company , the guild of coopers in Bristol , by architect William Halfpenny . It has a " debased Palladian " façade with four Corinthian columns . It only remained in the hands of the Coopers until 1785 , subsequently becoming a public assembly room , a wine warehouse , a Baptist chapel and eventually a fruit and vegetable warehouse .
The theatre was built between 1764 and 1766 . The design of the auditorium has traditionally been taken to have been based , with some variations , on that of the Theatre Royal , Drury Lane in London . Although Bristol architect Thomas Paty supervised construction , the theatre was built to designs by James Saunders , David Garrick 's carpenter at Drury Lane . Saunders had provided drawings for the theatre in Richmond , Surrey , built in 1765 . A long section ( 1790 , at Harvard University Theatre Collection ) and a survey plan ( 1842 , at the Local Studies Library ) of the Richmond theatre show close similarities with the Bristol theatre in the proportions and in the relationship between the actors on stage and the spectators surrounding them on three sides . The site chosen was Rackhay Yard , a roughly rectangular empty site behind a row of medieval houses and to one side of the Coopers ' Hall . Two ( and possibly three ) new passageways built through the ground floor of the houses fronting King Street gave access to Rackhay Yard and the " New Theatre " inside it .
The theatre opened on 30 May 1766 with a performance which including a prologue and epilogue given by David Garrick . As the proprietors were not able to obtain a Royal Licence , productions were announced as " a concert with a specimen of rhetorick " to evade the restrictions imposed on theatres by the Licensing Act 1737 . This ruse was soon abandoned , but a production in the neighbouring Coopers ' Hall in 1773 did fall foul of this law .
Legal concerns were alleviated when the Royal Letters Patent were eventually granted in 1778 , and the theatre became a patent theatre and took up the name " Theatre Royal " . At this time the theatre also started opening for the winter season , and a joint company was established to perform at both the Bath Theatre Royal and in Bristol , featuring famous names including Sarah Siddons , whose ghost , according to legend , haunts the Bristol theatre . The auditorium was rebuilt with a new sloping ceiling and gallery in 1800 . After the break with Bath in 1819 the theatre was managed by William M 'Cready the elder , with little success , but slowly rose again under his widow Sarah M 'Cready in the 1850s . Following her death in 1853 the M 'Creadys ' son @-@ in @-@ law James Chute took over , but he lost interest in the Theatre Royal , which fell into decline when he opened the Prince 's Theatre , originally known as the New Theatre Royal , in 1867 . A new , narrow entrance was constructed through an adjacent building in 1903 .
= = Formation of the Bristol Old Vic = =
Chute relinquished his lease on the Theatre Royal in 1861 , concentrating his business at the Prince 's Theatre , which was destroyed by bombing during the Second World War . In 1942 the lease owners put the building up for sale . The sale was perceived as a possible loss of the building as a theatre and a public appeal was mounted to preserve its use , and as a result a new Trust was established to buy the building . The Council for the Encouragement of Music and the Arts ( CEMA ) leased the building from the Trust and in 1946 CEMA 's successor , the Arts Council , arranged for a company from the London Old Vic to staff it , thus forming the Bristol Old Vic .
Early members of the company included Peter O 'Toole ( making his first appearance in Major Barbara in 1956 ) , John Neville , Timothy West , Barbara Leigh @-@ Hunt and Dorothy Tutin . The first artistic director was Hugh Hunt .
An early triumph for the Bristol Old Vic occurred when the 1954 première production of Salad Days transferred to the West End and became the longest @-@ running musical on the London stage at that time . The Arts Council remained involved until 1963 when their role was taken over by the City Council . In the same year the London Old Vic was disbanded and the Bristol company became fully independent . The Bristol Old Vic also put plays on in the council @-@ owned Little Theatre from then until 1980 .
The present theatre complex , designed by Peter Moro , was completed in 1972 . The 1903 entrance building was demolished , as were a number of surrounding buildings and , more controversially , the stage area of the 1766 theatre . A new stage and fly tower were built along with technical facilities and offices . The 150 seat New Vic Studio ( now the Studio ) theatre was built in place of the old entrance , and the Coopers ' Hall provided the theatre with the grand façade and foyer area it had previously lacked .
Throughout the 1970s and 80s Bristol Old Vic productions were well received both locally and on tour , but by the late 80s faced chronic underfunding . A revival under the leadership of Andrew ( Andy ) Hay brought an increase in audience numbers ; there followed a new Arts Council funding package , and in 2003 the appointment of joint artistic directors David Farr and Simon Reade . They briefly branded the organisation the " new bristol old vic " .
In 2005 Reade became the sole artistic director . Artistic highlights during these times included the production of A. C. H. Smith ’ s Up The Feeder , Down the Mouth and Back Again during Andy Hay ’ s tenure , and some well @-@ received Shakespeare productions under David Farr and Simon Reade .
= = Refurbishment = =
In July 2007 , the board of trustees took the controversial decision to close the theatre for refurbishment . Many members of the theatre profession feared for the future of the Old Vic . Following several public meetings in the winter of 2007 / 2008 a newly formed board of trustees appointed Dick Penny , the director of the Watershed Media Centre as executive chairman .
In February 2009 the company announced that Tom Morris , at that time an associate director at the Royal National Theatre and formerly artistic director at Battersea Arts Centre , had been appointed as artistic director . Emma Stenning , who had previously worked with Tom Morris at BAC , became executive director .
In October 2010 there was a merger of the Old Vic and the Theatre Royal Bristol Trust , into a combined charity to be chaired by Laura Marshall , the managing director of Icon Films .
A fundraising campaign for the £ 19 million planned refurbishment was assisted by appearances from , among others , Richard Briers , Stephanie Cole , Judi Dench , Prunella Scales , Patrick Stewart and Timothy West . £ 5 @.@ 3 million was provided by the Arts Council . During the closure the company staged productions in the Studio theatre , the Basement and in other locations around Bristol , including Sally Cookson ’ s Treasure Island on King Street in summer 2011 and Melly Still ’ s revival of Coram Boy at the Colston Hall at Christmas 2011 .
The plan was for a flexible theatre complex , where up to ten areas are available for performance . Tom Morris has cited as inspiration the Théâtre des Bouffes du Nord in Paris . The main auditorium gained an optional thrust stage , and an increase in seating to 540 . The Side Stage area was redeveloped , with additional capacity of 250 , creating the option of a separate second auditorium . Other spaces redeveloped as performance areas included the Paint Shop and the rehearsal room . The Theatre Royal re @-@ opened in September 2012 , with Wild Oats . Further work ( mainly in the area of the foyer ) is planned for the refurbishment 's next phase , to be completed in 2016 , to coincide with the 250th anniversary of the theatre opening .
= = Touring = =
The Bristol Old Vic has a long history of taking productions on tour both within the United Kingdom and overseas . Notable production toured include Hamlet , Arms and the Man and A Man for all Seasons to Ceylon and Pakistan in 1962 – 63 ; Hamlet and Measure for Measure to America , Holland and Belgium in 1966 – 67 and Man and Superman to the June Schauspielhaus Festival in Zurich , 1958 . The company has also made frequent visits to the Edinburgh Festival and productions have toured to the Theatre Royal Bath , Oxford Playhouse , Royal Court Theatre , London and the Young Vic , London amongst others . Co @-@ productions have taken Bristol Old Vic plays to most of Britain 's major theatres .
More recently , Bristol Old Vic has co @-@ produced with companies such as Kneehigh Theatre , the Royal National Theatre , West Yorkshire Playhouse and other regional theatres and companies across the UK .
Tom Morris ’ production of Swallows and Amazons recently transferred to the Vaudeville Theatre in London ’ s West End followed by a major UK tour . Simon Godwin ’ s production of Brian Friel ’ s Faith Healer is playing in the 2012 Hong Kong Arts Festival . Other recent touring productions include the Bristol Old Vic / Shakespeare at the Tobacco Factory co @-@ production of Uncle Vanya .
Bristol Old Vic ’ s Ferment artist development strand also sees work developed at the theatre touring across the UK and internationally .
= = Artistic directors of the Bristol Old Vic = =
= = Bristol Old Vic Theatre School = =
The Bristol Old Vic Theatre School , opened by Laurence Olivier in 1946 , is an affiliate of the Conservatoire for Dance and Drama , an organisation securing the highest standards of training in the performing arts , and is an associate school of the University of the West of England . The School began life in October 1946 , only eight months after the founding of its parent Bristol Old Vic Theatre Company , in a room above a fruit merchant 's warehouse in the Rackhay near the stage door of the Theatre Royal . ( The yard of the derelict St Nicholas School adjacent to the warehouse was still used by the Company for rehearsals of crowd scenes and stage fights as late as the early 1960s , notably for John Hale 's productions of Romeo and Juliet starring the Canadian actor Paul Massie and Annette Crosbie , a former student of the School , and Rostand 's Cyrano de Bergerac with Peter Wyngarde . Students from the Theatre School frequently played in these crowd scenes and fights . )
The School continued in these premises until 1954 when royalties from the musical , Salad Days by Julian Slade and Dorothy Reynolds were given to the School towards the purchase and conversion of two large adjoining Victorian villas in Clifton , which remain their base today .
In 1995 , that donation was formally recognised when a new custom @-@ built dance and movement studio in the School 's back garden was named the Slade / Reynolds Studio . The School provides comprehensive training courses for theatre , radio , film , and television professionals and its graduates are to be found in key positions as actors , directors , set designers , costumer designers , lighting designers and stage and company managers throughout the world .
Among the most notable of the many distinguished actors on the School 's list of alumni are the Academy Award winners Daniel Day @-@ Lewis and Jeremy Irons .
See Alumni of Bristol Old Vic Theatre School .
= = = Peter O 'Toole Prize = = =
To coincide with their re @-@ opening in 2012 , the theatre launched an award called the Patron ’ s Prize , which was later renamed the Peter O ’ Toole prize following the actors death . The award is a six @-@ month contract at the Bristol Old Vic offered to two graduating actors from the Bristol Old Vic Theatre School . The inaugural winners were Emily May Smith and Isaac Stanmore .
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= The Post @-@ American World =
The Post @-@ American World is a non @-@ fiction book by American journalist Fareed Zakaria . It was published in hardcover and audiobook formats in early May 2008 and became available in paperback in early May 2009 ; the Updated and Expanded Release 2 @.@ 0 followed in 2011 . In the book , Zakaria argues that , thanks to the actions of the United States in spreading liberal democracy across the world , other countries are now competing with the US in terms of economic , industrial , and cultural power . While the US continues to dominate in terms of political @-@ military power , other countries such as China and India are becoming global players in many fields .
The book peaked at # 2 on The New York Times non @-@ fiction hardcover best @-@ seller list and at # 47 on the USA Today Top 150 Best @-@ Selling Books list . Reviewers commented that Zakaria 's writing was intelligent and sharp , yet accessible to general audiences . A few reviewers also wrote that the book was similar to an extended essay with journalistic style writing .
= = Background = =
At the time of publication author Fareed Zakaria was a 48 @-@ year @-@ old married man living in New York and working as an editor for Newsweek International . Zakaria had immigrated to the United States from India during his university career . He graduated from Harvard University with a Ph.D. in political science in 1993 after earning a B.A. from Yale University . He worked as the managing editor of Foreign Affairs magazine before accepting the editor position at Newsweek . Labeled a liberal hawk , Zakaria 's political views have shifted from supporting Reagan 's pro @-@ democracy agenda to Clinton 's pro @-@ market stances and to the point where Zakaria felt that the US was " unstoppable " . In subsequent years , he watched as other countries set records for the world 's tallest building , largest factory , largest refinery , and richest person . Meanwhile , he watched the US get bogged down in war in Iraq . In 2003 , his book The Future of Freedom : Illiberal Democracy at Home and Abroad , in which he examines the necessary conditions for liberal democracy to survive , was published . While he initially supported US intervention in Iraq , Zakaria criticized the Bush Administration 's methods of nation @-@ building and for trying to force Iraq into a liberal democracy without the preconditions of economic liberalisation and rule @-@ of @-@ law . Over the next few years , Zakaria developed his theory on shifting global power as he contributed or wrote articles profiling emerging national powers and participating in economic forums and organizations .
= = Synopsis = =
The content is divided into seven chapters . The first chapter introduces the thesis of the book : that a ' post @-@ American ' world order is emerging in which the United States will continue to be the most powerful nation but its relative power will be diminished . He believes that there have been three power shifts in the last 500 years : a shift of power to the West during the Renaissance , a shift of power to the US making it a superpower , and now a shift to several surging countries , especially China and India , and to non @-@ governmental organizations . Zakaria believes that international organizations are not adapting well to emerging challenges and that there is too much focus on problems arising from potential market failures or general crises ( e.g. terrorism ) at the expense of focus on problems stemming from success ( e.g. development causing environmental degradation , or rising demand creating high commodity prices ) .
The second and third chapters examine factors that led to the current power balance . Power shifted to the West because it fostered trade with foreign peoples and developed superior labour productivity per capita . Power shifted to the US because of its strong democracy and capitalist market . Zakaria argues that the success of the US in promoting free market capitalism and globalization has led to power being dispersed to several other countries . Economies have been surging for decades , in part due to large new players entering the global market place . He compares this era 's economic growth to the economic surges of the 1890s and the 1950s which also saw new players become global powers . At the same time , Zakaria sees attitudes in the US becoming insular and distrustful of foreigners .
The fourth chapter focuses on China . Its strategy of small , gradual reforms have allowed it to quietly modernize . It has become the second most powerful nation , but still unlikely to match the US for decades to come . China 's strengths include a philosophy that reflects Confucian ideals of practicality , ethics and rationalism . Its non @-@ combative foreign policy is more appealing , most notably in Africa , over interventionist Western @-@ style policy that demands reforms in other countries . China 's weakness , though , is a fear of social unrest .
The fifth chapter focuses on India . Contrasted to China , India has a bottom @-@ up democratic political system constantly subject to social unrest with only a few politicians losing elections . Its political system is characterized by strong regionalism — often placing high priority on regional interests rather than national . Zakaria lists India 's advantages : independent courts that enforce contracts , private property rights , rule of law , an established private sector , and many business savvy English @-@ speaking people .
The sixth chapter compares the American rise to superpower status and its use of power . He draws parallels between the British Empire in the 1890s and starting the Boer War , with the US in the 2000s and starting the Iraq War . The difference between them is that the British had unsurpassed political power but lost its economic dominance , whereas the US , in the 2000s , had huge economic power but faltering political influence . Zakaria defends the US from indicators that suggest American decline but warns that internal partisan politics , domestic ideological attack groups , special interest power , and a sensationalistic media are weakening the federal government 's ability to adapt to new global realities .
The final chapter outlines how the US has used its power and provides six guidelines for the US to follow in the ' post @-@ American world ' envisioned by Zakaria .
= = Style and comparisons = =
The Post @-@ American World , at 292 pages long , was described as " a book @-@ length essay " and a " thin book that reads like one long , thoughtful essay " . Written with an optimistic tone , it features little new research or reporting , but rather contains insights and identification of trends . The reviewer for The Wall Street Journal described the tone as " infectious ( though not naive ) sunniness ... but without Panglossian simplicity " . The American Spectator reviewer noted that the prose had a journalistic style while the reviewer for The Guardian noticed the writing sometimes displayed " news magazine mannerisms " .
Zakaria 's view on globalization was said to be similar to journalist and author Thomas Friedman . Friedman reviewed The Post @-@ American World and called it " compelling " . The review in American Conservative compared this book with Rudyard Kipling 's poems " Recessional " and " The White Man 's Burden " , both written at the height of British power and warning against imperial hubris . The American Spectator review listed it as adding to similar themed books , comparing it to Oswald Spengler 's The Decline of the West ( 1918 ) , Arnold Toynbee 's A Study of History , Paul Kennedy 's The Rise and Fall of the Great Powers ( 1987 ) , and Robert Kagan 's The Return of History and the End of Dreams ( 2008 ) . Kagan labeled The Post @-@ American World as " declinist " ; however , Martin Woollacott of The Guardian labeled Zakaria an exceptionalist . The Commentary review added the works of Samuel P. Huntington and Francis Fukuyama to the list of comparisons and suggested there is now a subgenre of books that consider the decline or demise of American hegemony .
= = Publication and sales = =
The book was published by W. W. Norton & Company and the hardcover released in early May 2008 . Excerpts were published in Newsweek , the National Post , and The New York Times . The book entered The New York Times ' non @-@ fiction best @-@ seller list at # 11 on May 18 , 2008 . It spent 13 weeks within the top thirteen spots , peaking at # 2 on June 1 . It spent 8 weeks on the USA Today Top 150 Best @-@ Selling Books list , peaking at # 47 . An 8 @.@ 5 hour audiobook , narrated by Zakaria , was released at the same time . A review in Publishers Weekly said that Zakaria 's narration , with his light Indian accent and deliberate pacing , creates a sense of ease and allows for listeners to appreciate and understand the content . The paperback was released a year later late @-@ April 2009 . It spent several weeks on The New York Times non @-@ fiction paperback best @-@ seller list peaking at # 11 on May 22 , 2009 . The book was short @-@ listed for the 2009 Lionel Gelber Prize for best non @-@ fiction book that seeks to deepen public debate on global issues . The book was published in United Kingdom by Penguin Press imprint Allen Lane and in Germany by Bertelsmann publisher Siedler .
= = Reception = =
Various reviewers called the writing intelligent and sharp . The review in the Pittsburgh Post @-@ Gazette called it a " succinct , short and comprehensible volume ... full of sharp , almost aphoristic , amusing observations " . John Ikenberry of Foreign Affairs saw Zakaria 's characteristic elegance and insight reflected in the book . The reviewers in Policy and Economic Affairs identified Zakaria 's strengths as being the breadth of evidence used to support the points and his use of personal accounts to summarize the research . The reviewer for USA Today Magazine wrote that " Zakaria analyzes problems brilliantly " . The ability to communicate complex situations clearly in plain language made the book accessible to a wide range of readers . Several media outlets picked up the story of Barack Obama reading this book while campaigning for the 2008 presidential election .
Critics commented on Zakaria 's teleological point @-@ of @-@ view . In a review published in The Progressive , Johann Hari called Zakaria 's assertions Thatcherist referring to the belief that there is no alternative to globalization and free market capitalism . Hari cited examples where policies such as what Zakaria advocated led to disasters , like the 1999 collapse of Argentinian economy , and financial deregulation resulting in the financial crisis of 2007 – 2010 , which had begun just after the book was published . In the book , Zakaria maintains that economic dysfunctions are caused by , and can be solved through , specific government policies . When asked , in February 2009 , about the financial crisis , Zakaria asserted that the financial practices that created the collapse were American practices , and that it contributed to the post @-@ American mentality that the US does not have all of the answers . Hari also disagreed with Zakaria 's view of the economic histories of Britain and America , which in Zakaria portrayal ignores extended periods of protectionism during which their industries were developed to the point where they were capable of competing with other countries . Likewise , academic and author Brendan Simms found that Zakaria too closely co @-@ related national wealth with national power in his argument that dispersal of global prosperity will necessarily affect global balance of power .
The Economist review found a disconnection between the book 's arguments and its sources in that the book addresses international and national ( especially analysis of China and India ) , but nearly all the people behind the sources cited are based , or spent most of their careers , in the New York @-@ Washington corridor . Richard Florida in The Globe and Mail and Michael Vlahos in The American Interest commented that Zakaria state @-@ centric framework distorts the real base of power , which , for commentator Florida , is in cities like Shanghai and Hong Kong rather than all of China . Vlahos likened Zakaria to a courtier mirroring back the ruling narrative to meet the global elite 's emotional needs . Regarding the book 's focus , one reviewer criticized it by writing " The Post @-@ American World is missing precisely what its title promises : a discussion of what a world might look like that is not dominated by the United States " . Errors concerning characterization of Buddhism as Indian religion and Buddha 's birthplace as India rather than Lumbini resulted in Nepali politicians demanding an apology from Zakaria or a printed correction .
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= Gomer Pyle , U.S.M.C. =
Gomer Pyle , U.S.M.C. is an American situation comedy that originally aired on CBS from September 25 , 1964 , to May 2 , 1969 . The series was a spin @-@ off of The Andy Griffith Show , and the pilot episode was aired as the season finale of the fourth season of its parent series on May 18 , 1964 . The show ran for five seasons and a total of 150 episodes . In 2006 , CBS Home Entertainment ( distributed by Paramount ) began releasing the series on DVD . The final season was released in November 2008 .
Gomer Pyle , U.S.M.C. was a hit , never placing lower than tenth in the Nielsen ratings , and ended its run as the second @-@ highest @-@ rated series in the United States . It has enjoyed continued popularity through reruns and DVD releases . The series was created by Aaron Ruben , who also produced the show with Sheldon Leonard and Ronald Jacobs . Filmed and set in California ( originally set in North Carolina ) , it stars Jim Nabors as Gomer Pyle , a naive but good @-@ natured gas station attendant from the town of Mayberry , North Carolina , who enlists in the United States Marine Corps . Frank Sutton plays Gomer 's high @-@ octane , short @-@ fused Gunnery Sergeant Vince Carter , and Ronnie Schell plays Gomer 's friend Duke Slater . Allan Melvin played in the recurring role of Gunnery Sergeant Carter 's rival , Sergeant Charley Hacker .
= = History = =
Everett Greenbaum and Jim Fritzell , writers for The Andy Griffith Show , are credited with creating the character of Gomer Pyle . The character was based on an " incompetent " gas station attendant whom Greenbaum met and named after Gomer Cool ( a writer ) and Denver Pyle ( an actor on The Andy Griffith Show ) . Jim Nabors was cast to play Gomer ; he had been performing for a Santa Monica nightclub , The Horn , when Andy Griffith discovered him . Though originally intended to appear only in one episode , Gomer proved popular , and after one year on the show , Nabors was given his own spin @-@ off produced by Aaron Ruben . The pilot episode of Gomer Pyle was filmed in 1963 as part of The Andy Griffith Show , but was not aired until 1964 , as the finale of The Andy Griffith Show 's fourth season .
The 1960s had a return to " the more mundane sensibilities of comedy , " due to viewers ' wishes for television programming to be a " cultural antidepressant . " Thus , fantasy and rural @-@ oriented comedies gained popularity and dominated the Nielsen ratings . Like other comedies at the time , Gomer Pyle was a " deep escapist " show ; it avoided political commentary and offered viewers a distraction from the social changes of the 1960s . Despite being a military @-@ themed show and airing during the peak of the Vietnam War , the show never discussed the war . Instead , the show focused on " Gomer 's innocent simplicity [ and ] Sergeant Carter 's frustration and later concern for Gomer 's well @-@ being . " This , compounded with the popularity of rural comedies in the 1960s , made the show popular . Frank Sutton , who played Carter , also ascribed the show 's popularity to its concentration on its two main characters , and the plots being built around their respective personalities . The program remained in the top 10 of the ratings throughout its run — in the top three for all but its third season when CBS moved it from Fridays to Wednesdays . Nabors quit because he desired to move to something else , ' reach for another rung on the ladder , either up or down ' .
After Gomer Pyle left the air , Jim Nabors hosted his own variety show , The Jim Nabors Hour , from 1969 to 1971 . As well as showcasing Nabors ' singing and rich baritone voice , the show included comedy sketches that featured Nabors 's Gomer Pyle co @-@ stars Frank Sutton and Ronnie Schell . Though told that he should not leave Gomer Pyle , Nabors felt that the show would still be exciting and noted that every character he portrayed in his sketches " turn [ ed ] out to be Gomer . "
Similarly , in 1987 , some 18 years after Gomer Pyle finished its broadcast run , Stanley Kubrick 's film Full Metal Jacket was released . In it , the nickname " Gomer Pyle " is derogatorily given to Private Leonard Lawrence ( played by Vincent D 'Onofrio ) during boot camp , after incurring the drill instructor 's wrath ( Gunnery Sergeant Hartman played by R. Lee Ermey ) for being unable to turn off his idiot 's grin and his perceived incompetence .
= = Production = =
The show was produced by creator Aaron Ruben , Andy Griffith Show producer Sheldon Leonard ( in partnership with Griffith ) , and Ronald Jacobs ; it was co @-@ produced by Bruce Bayley Johnson and Duke Vincent . Among the writers were Sam Bobrick , Harvey Miller , Aaron Ruben , Jack Elinson , and Bill Idelson ; Andy Griffith Show writers Everett Greenbaum and Jim Fritzell also wrote episodes . Coby Ruskin was the primary director in the first four seasons , before John Rich took over the role for the fifth season ; other directors included Gary Nelson , Peter Baldwin , and Alan Rafkin . Ruth Burch was in charge of the casting , and John Finger directed the cinematography . The theme song was composed by Earle Hagen , who also composed the themes for shows such as The Andy Griffith Show , The Dick Van Dyke Show , and That Girl . The show was filmed at Camp Pendleton , Desilu Studios 's Desilu @-@ Cahuenga , and RKO Forty Acres backlot , where The Andy Griffith Show was filmed . Though Ruben preferred the use of a multiple @-@ camera setup for comedy programs , Gomer Pyle used a single @-@ camera setup because much of the shooting was conducted outdoors . In his book And The Show Goes On , Sheldon Leonard explained that the armed forces offer levels of " cooperation " with filmmakers . Because the Marines felt that the show would be good for the branch 's image , Gomer Pyle was given " total cooperation , " meaning that the show was allowed unlimited access to military equipment .
Nabors and Sutton were the only actors credited in every episode ( however , Sutton did not actually appear in every episode ) . Ronnie Schell ( who played Duke Slater ) left after the third season to star in Good Morning , World , though he returned for the fifth season , promoted to corporal , after graduating from non @-@ commissioned officer training . Roy Stuart , who played Corporal Chuck Boyle , made his debut in the second season and left after the fourth . Andy Griffith , Frances Bavier , Ron Howard , and George Lindsey made guest appearances on the series reprising their respective roles from The Andy Griffith Show . Denver Pyle and Allan Melvin , who both had roles on The Andy Griffith Show , appeared in Gomer Pyle , but did not reprise their original roles . Denver Pyle , who had played Briscoe Darling in six episodes of The Andy Griffith Show , played tomato farmer Titus Purcell in the Gomer Pyle episode " The Price of Tomatoes " . Allan Melvin , who had played Clarence " Doc " Malloy and other antagonists on The Andy Griffith Show , played Sergeant Carter 's rival , Staff Sergeant Hacker , for four seasons . Nabors also carried the Gomer Pyle character to fellow CBS series The Lucy Show , in which he made a cameo appearance in a 1966 episode .
= = List of Gomer Pyle , U.S.M.C. episodes = =
see List of Gomer Pyle , U.S.M.C. episodes
= = Premise = =
The premise of Gomer Pyle is similar to and perhaps inspired by Andy Griffith 's movie No Time for Sergeants , which was based on the Mac Hyman novel of the same name . Like Leonard 's other shows , Gomer Pyle was character @-@ driven ; the main characters were " accessible " and " engaging " , and the supporting characters were often eccentric . In the show 's pilot episode , Gomer , a gas @-@ station attendant from Mayberry , joins the Marines . Gomer 's naivete immediately exasperates his drill instructor , Gunnery Sergeant Carter ( Frank Sutton ) . " Sergeant " Carter was referred to as Gunnery Sergeant only in the pilot episode ; for the rest of the series , he was always mistakenly addressed as Sergeant . Originally situated in Camp Wilson in North Carolina , the setting was moved to the fictional Camp Henderson in California . The show was a fish @-@ out @-@ of @-@ water piece , which , like its contemporary The Beverly Hillbillies , featured rural characters out of their normal settings . Like other comedies of the 1960s , the show avoided political commentary ( especially concerning the Vietnam War ) and focused instead on the predicaments that ensued from Gomer 's unintentional breaking of the rules or sticking his foot in his mouth .
Among the themes explored were the honesty and " strong family values supposedly inherent in small town life " ; according to author Gerard Jones , Gomer Pyle 's basic message was " far simpler than any corporate suburban sitcoms with their lessons in compromise and role @-@ following [ ... ] It said merely that the oldest , most basic , least sophisticated sort of sweetness could redeem even the toughest modern types " . Author Elizabeth Hirschman noted that Gomer represented a " uniquely American archetype " — a " large , powerful man physically " with the " simple , honest nature of a child or animal " . She also noted that , like stories with characters of such an archetype , Gomer 's trusting nature was often taken advantage of , though in the end he " reaps happiness " because of his innocence . In his book Watching M * A * S * H , Watching America , media and communications scholar James Wittebols said that Gomer Pyle illustrated how class differences " supposedly negated or diminished by military training " appeared in military hierarchy .
= = Characters = =
Gomer Pyle ( played by Jim Nabors ) , from Mayberry , North Carolina , is a good @-@ natured and innocent private whose naivete constantly annoys his drill instructor , Sergeant Carter . Eventually , however , his " unquestioning love and trust of the world " lead those in his platoon to befriend him . Gomer was created as a stereotype of a rural American ; according to Time , he " wears a gee @-@ whiz expression , spouts homilies out of a lopsided mouth and lopes around uncertainly like a plowboy stepping through a field of cow dung . He is a walking disaster area . " Though never promoted beyond private first class during the show 's run , Jim Nabors ( who played Gomer ) was given an honorary promotion to lance corporal in 2001 and again to corporal in 2007 by the Marines .
Vince Carter ( played by Frank Sutton ) , a gunnery sergeant from Kansas , is Gomer 's irritable drill instructor ( later his platoon sergeant ) who is constantly annoyed by Gomer 's well @-@ intentioned mistakes . Due to the audience 's demand for more family @-@ oriented programming , he eventually revealed his softer side : Carter became a father figure to Gomer as well as his best friend . Sutton stated that his character was created " out of whole cloth for the show " and , as the actor played him " by ear " , Carter greatly changed during the first season . Barbara Stuart played his girlfriend " Miss Bunny " for 3 seasons .
Mark Slade appeared in eight episodes in 1964 in the role of " Eddie " though in the first of those appearances he was billed as " Private Swanson . "
Duke Slater ( played by Ronnie Schell ) is Gomer 's friend and platoon @-@ mate . Schell left the show in the fourth season to star in the short @-@ lived show Good Morning , World but returned in the final season as the corporal of Gomer 's platoon .
Chuck Boyle ( played by Roy Stuart ) is Gomer 's corporal . He often serves as Carter 's conscience and sticks up for Gomer when Sergeant Carter is annoyed over his mistakes . Stuart debuted in the second season and left the show after the fourth season ; Boyle was replaced by Duke Slater as corporal for the final season .
Lou @-@ Ann Poovie ( played by Elizabeth MacRae ) is Gomer 's girlfriend . She debuts in the third season as a singer for a nightclub , but leaves the job at Gomer 's urging to return home to Turtle Creek , North Carolina , and marry her beau Monroe Efford . In a later episode in the same season , she returns to California and reveals that she called the wedding off . At the end of the episode , she reveals that she wants Gomer to be her boyfriend , to the dismay of Carter and Duke . After she loses her job at the nightclub , Gomer finds her a job as a salesclerk at a record shop .
= = Ratings and timeslots = =
= = Media = =
E. Kitzes Knox wrote a novel based on the series , also titled Gomer Pyle , U.S.M.C. The paperback was published by Pyramid and released in 1966 . Jim Nabors recorded Shazam ! , the official soundtrack of the show , and released it on the Columbia Records label .
= = = DVD releases = = =
CBS DVD ( distributed by Paramount ) has released all five seasons of Gomer Pyle , USMC on DVD in Region 1 . All episodes have been restored and digitally remastered , but due to clearance issues , some episodes that feature Nabors ( and other cast members ) singing have been edited to remove those performances .
On March 10 , 2015 , CBS DVD released Gomer Pyle , U.S.M.C.- The Complete series on DVD in Region 1 .
In Region 4 , Shock Entertainment has released all five seasons on DVD in Australia .
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= Perfect Dark Zero =
Perfect Dark Zero is a first @-@ person shooter video game developed by Rare and published by Microsoft Game Studios . It was exclusively released as a launch title for the Xbox 360 video game console on November 22 , 2005 in North America and December 2 , 2005 in Europe . The game is part of the Perfect Dark series and a prequel to the original Perfect Dark . The story of the game follows protagonist Joanna Dark as she joins the Carrington Institute agency to prevent rival corporation dataDyne from getting possession of an ancient artefact which endows individuals with superhuman powers .
Perfect Dark Zero features a campaign mode consisting of 14 missions that can be played co @-@ operatively , and a multiplayer mode where a maximum of 32 players can compete against each other in numerous types of deathmatch and objective @-@ based games . Both the co @-@ operative and multiplayer modes support split @-@ screen , system link , and the Xbox Live online service . The game was under development for five years and was originally intended to be released for the Nintendo GameCube and later the Xbox .
Perfect Dark Zero sold more than one million copies worldwide and received generally positive reviews from critics , garnering a score of 81 out of 100 at review aggregate website Metacritic . The game 's numerous multiplayer modes singled out as strong features . However , some critics felt that the game did not meet the expectations , criticizing single @-@ player aspects such as its story and voice acting . Two sequel novels , Perfect Dark : Initial Vector and Perfect Dark : Second Front , as well as a comic series , Perfect Dark : Janus ' Tears , were released to continue the story of the game .
= = Gameplay = =
Perfect Dark Zero is a first @-@ person shooter where players control the player character mostly from a first @-@ person perspective . The combat features mechanics such as an evasive dodge roll and a cover system in which the gameplay switches to a third @-@ person perspective , allowing the player to strategically aim without taking damage and be more aware of the surroundings . Players cannot jump but have the ability to automatically climb obstacles as long as they can reasonably reach them . It is also possible to climb ladders . By doing so , the camera shifts into a third @-@ person perspective . The player has a certain amount of health which decreases when attacked by enemies . The health can recharge a bit if the player steps out of the line of fire for a few seconds , but it may not necessarily refill completely depending on how much damage the player took .
Players can only carry a limited number of weapons since the inventory features a 4 @-@ slot system in which single hand held pistols usually take a weapon slot whereas heavy weapons like sniper rifles or rocket launchers can take up to three weapon slots . The player 's movement speed is also altered by the weight of the weapon the player is currently holding . Besides the primary function , all of the weapons in Perfect Dark Zero have one or two additional function modes that generally grant the player with special abilities . For example , the Shockwave Rifle features an X @-@ ray function which allows the player to see enemies through walls , while the Plasma Rifle has a cloak function that renders the player character invisible to enemies at cost of its batteries . Some weapons also feature more unorthodox secondary functions . For instance , the Laptop Gun can be deployed as a sentry gun , while the SuperDragon assault rifle can launch bouncing grenades .
= = = Campaign = = =
The campaign is divided into 14 missions in which the player plays as Joanna Dark . Each mission provides a number of objectives that the player has to complete to progress . To successfully clear a mission , the player must complete all primary objectives , and if Joanna is killed or fails an objective , the player will have to start the level again . The missions also feature optional objectives that are not critical but add to the player 's overall completion score . Some objectives require the player to use numerous high @-@ tech gadgets . For example , a device called Datathief allows the player to hack into electronic devices , while another called Loctopus can be used to open locked doors . Stealth is another important element of the gameplay , as the player is often given the freedom to kill enemies without being detected by sneaking up behind them . Unlike the original Perfect Dark , every mission contains a single checkpoint at which the player may restart if Joanna is killed or loses beyond that checkpoint . However , checkpoints are removed as the player plays through a higher difficulty . There are four difficulty settings through which a mission can be played : Agent , Secret Agent , Perfect Agent , and an extra one called Dark Agent , which becomes available once the player completes the entire game on Perfect Agent . As the player plays on higher difficulties , the game adds more objectives and makes enemies tougher to increase the challenge .
The game also provides a co @-@ operative mode where two players may play through the game 's campaign together via split @-@ screen , system link , or through the Xbox Live online service . In co @-@ operative , the missions are slightly altered to suit both players . For instance , some doors may require two players to open them . Additionally , in certain missions , the second player can occasionally start far away from the main player and takes over an allied character that was AI @-@ controlled in the single player campaign . The respawn procedure is also altered substantially , as if one player dies , the other has to find and revive the partner 's corpse to bring it back to life .
= = = Multiplayer = = =
In addition to the campaign mode , Perfect Dark Zero features a multiplayer where a maximum of 32 players may compete in numerous types of deathmatch and objective @-@ based games via split @-@ screen , system link , or Xbox Live . The multiplayer offers two main modes with their own customisable options : DeathMatch and DarkOps . DeathMatch is a standard gametype where players spawn in rooms , collect weapons that are available on the map itself , and continue to the actual map . The overall objective of the game is determined by the scenario being played . Scenarios range from Killcount or Team Killcount , where the goal is to kill as many opposing players as possible , to objective @-@ based games such as Capture the Flag and Territorial Gains . DarkOps , on the other hand , is a slower @-@ paced and team @-@ only gametype where weapons must be purchased from a player 's stock of credits and credits are earned by killing enemies and completing objectives . Scenarios in this mode include Eradication , where the last team with any members left alive wins ; Infection , where players score points by either infecting others or surviving infection ; Sabotage , where the team that causes the most damage to the other team 's property wins ; and Onslaught , where one team must defend a base while the other has to attack it .
Players can either choose to play a ranked Deathmatch or DarkOps , where they will be matched with other players using a system called TrueSkill Matchmaking , or they may choose a player match where they can choose their game from a list of player hosted games . Like the original Perfect Dark , these games can be highly customized and can also include computer game bots . Features such as their difficulty and behavior can be changed to match player preference . For example , the Judge bot always attacks leading players with the highest kills score . Players can also issue commands to them as long as they are on their respective team , such as follow or hold position , and set waypoints for them to walk to . The game includes by default six different maps and each has two variants ; the only change is the placement of the bases . Most of the maps are large ones , ideal for 32 players at once , with small variants for 4 @-@ 16 player games .
= = Plot = =
Perfect Dark Zero is set in 2020 where a large percentage of the world is controlled by corporations . The most notable of these corporations are dataDyne , headed by Zhang Li , and the Carrington Institute , headed by Daniel Carrington . The player is cast as Joanna Dark , a bounty hunter working with her father Jack Dark and computer hacker Chandra Sekhar . The team is after Nathan Zeigler , an independent researcher who has been captured by a Hong Kong triad gang led by a man named Killian . Joanna and her father successfully rescue Zeigler , but Killian manages to escape . Zeigler explains that Killian was trying to obtain his research , which contains information about a dangerous weapon . As Zeigler refuses to go anywhere without his research , Joanna is sent to retrieve it while her father stays with Zeigler . After Joanna retrieved a case with Zeigler 's research from a nearby safe house , Zeigler takes a device called neurodrive from the case and uses it to implant his research data into Jack 's mind . Afterwards , Zeigler succumbs to his injuries sustained by Killian and dies . Before dying , Zeigler says that they must find a scientist named Dr. Eustace Caroll .
While escaping , Jack and Joanna are attacked by a dataDyne assault team assisted by Killian in a dropship . Joanna manages to kill Killian and escape with Sekhar , but Jack is captured by dataDyne . With the help of Sekhar , Joanna learns that her father has been taken to a mansion where Zhang Li lives . Joanna infiltrates the mansion and finds her father in a cell . He has been tortured , and begins speaking gibberish to her , an after effect of the neurodrive . The pair fights their way out of the complex , but their extraction is interrupted by Zhang Li 's daughter , Mai Hem , who kills Jack before Joanna escapes in a hovercraft . Joanna and Sekhar decide to pursue Zeigler 's lead and seek out Dr. Caroll , who works aboard a research platform on the Pacific Ocean . Upon meeting with Joanna , Dr. Caroll uses a neurodrive to extract Zeigler 's data from Joanna 's memory , which she gained when she rescued her father . Soon after , Sekhar betrays Joanna and shoots Dr. Caroll , stating that she decided to join dataDyne because Zhang Li had made her a large offer . A team of Carrington Institute agents arrives and saves Joanna , but Sekhar eventually escapes with the data . Joanna agrees to join the Carrington Institute to stop dataDyne .
Daniel Carrington informs Joanna that Zeigler had been working on an algorithm capable of decoding extraterrestrial glyphs at a dig site in South America . Traveling to Peru , Joanna learns that the glyphs are leading dataDyne to search for an ancient artefact which acts as a power @-@ source for the Graal , a device which endows individuals with superhuman powers . Joanna plants a tracking device onto the artefact before sneaking aboard a dataDyne dropship . The dropship takes her to Africa , where Zhang Li has located the Graal buried under the African sands . The Carrington Institute plans an offensive on dataDyne forces with the battle taking place on a large bridge . Joanna rescues several Carrington Institute agents before avenging her father 's death by killing Mei Hem . Joanna infiltrates an arena and faces off against Zhang Li , who dispatches Sekhar after using the Graal . Despite the advantage , Joanna defeats Zhang Li in a final battle .
= = Development = =
Development of Perfect Dark Zero began on the Nintendo GameCube with a very small team of roughly ten people . At the time , Nintendo had a 49 % stake in Rare , making Rare a Nintendo second @-@ party developer . According to lead designer Chris Tilston , " It was basically prototyping , finding out where we could go and how we could get there . " The multiplayer mode was initially designed to be played offline because the team was told the GameCube would not support online play , even though some modem adapters were produced by Conexant later . In 2002 , Rare was fully purchased by Microsoft . As a result , the project was transferred to the Xbox and the multiplayer was redesigned to support the Xbox Live online gaming service . Tilston revealed that at one point they got to 50 players online simultaneously , but the graphics " just couldn 't handle it . "
When the Xbox 360 was conceived , it gave the developers more possibilities to include what they always wanted , since the initial version of the game pushed the original Xbox hardware very hard . Tilston credited the new hardware for allowing them to create the game 's co @-@ operative mode , which was one of the first that could be played via Xbox Live . Designing the co @-@ operative mode over Xbox Live was very challenging for the developers . According to Duncan Botwood , who was responsible for most of the multiplayer , " It was quite an effort to put it in , to be honest . You have to cater for a number of eventualities you just don 't get normally . We think we pulled it off , and because we pulled it off , other people might feel inspired to put the effort in , and we think that 's a good thing . The co @-@ op over Live , yeah , we 're very proud of that ... we 're proud indeed . "
Perfect Dark Zero is also one of the first games to use the Havok 's HydraCore physics engine , which was specifically designed for multi @-@ core video game systems such as the Xbox 360 . The game 's renderer engine employs more advanced graphic technologies than was possible in the sixth generation of video game consoles , including parallax mapping , ambient occlusion , subsurface scattering , and high dynamic range . Initially , the game had a heavy anime style and Joanna Dark received several alterations throughout the development process . Lead Art Director Wil Overton explained , " We kind of wanted to bring her back in line with the way Rare do things . [ ... ] We sorta wanted to stylize her up a bit and make her more iconic . " However , the designers ultimately decided to tone down the styling of the game a bit . According to Overton , " I think it 's now sort of a hybrid . It 's sort of a hybrid of Japanese and Western comic book look . "
The cover mode was designed to enhance the stealth aspect of the game , and the third @-@ person perspective was needed to get into and get out of quickly . It also allowed players to see the character they were playing . The idea of bringing the game into a total third @-@ person perspective was rejected as the shooting " works better " in first @-@ person view , explained Tilston . Like Rare 's earlier first @-@ person shooters GoldenEye 007 and Perfect Dark , developers decided not to include a jumping function since they felt it goes against the nature of the genre . Botwood pointed out that it can " look damn stupid when you see other players doing it " . For this reason , the team implemmented moves such as climbing obstacles or , more specifically , the combat roll , which makes players harder to hit since it breaks the game 's auto @-@ aim lock . The transition between first and third @-@ person view with some moves took a lot of work so that they did not become disorientating . A first @-@ person roll was implemented at one time , but it was ultimately dropped .
The game was intended to be a launch title for the Xbox 360 . As a result , the last stage of development was very challenging and several intended features were canceled so that the game could meet the launch deadline . The number of players in multiplayer matches had to be reduced from 50 to 32 , which was still twice the standard , and a " dataDyne TV " mode that would have allowed players to upload and watch multiplayer matches over Xbox Live was eventually rejected . Final development for the Xbox 360 was very rushed . The order was given to produce the discs five days before the Microsoft certification was complete . Rare later stated they felt very confident they would pass , but it was a significant risk producing 700 @,@ 000 disks if a bug turned up . According to Botwood , " very few people believed we could make launch , but everything came together in time and it was out there for day one . "
The actual development of the game took overall five years to complete and spanned three platforms : the Nintendo GameCube , the Microsoft Xbox and the Xbox 360 . Tilston remarked that , throughout the course of development , the team noticed how the video game industry had evolved as computing and graphics power increased , and how earlier games like GoldenEye 007 and Donkey Kong Country where their development costs were minimal could easily be profitable with a few programmers . Tilston also revealed that the team behind Perfect Dark Zero was composed of roughly 25 people for most of the project , which was " ridiculously " small compared to the seventh generation 's standards where there are 100 or 200 people working on a team . Despite this , Perfect Dark Zero , from a development cost , made four times its money back .
= = Marketing and release = =
Perfect Dark Zero made its first appearance at Spaceworld 2000 , an annual video game trade show hosted by Nintendo in Tokyo . The demo briefly showed a 3D real @-@ time render of Joanna Dark . Some reports further suggested the development of the game with Rare applying to trademark the names " After Dark " , " Perfect Dark Evolution " and the phrase " Shot in the Dark " . The next year , at the Electronic Entertainment Expo in June 2001 , Nintendo advertised the title " Perfect Dark Zero " on a list of upcoming GameCube releases , but it was quickly removed . In January 2002 , it was allegedly announced that its release was pushed back to 2004 due to internal team problems at Rare .
When Rare was purchased by Microsoft in September 2002 , several cartoony images of Joanna Dark were released , but few other official announcements were made in the following years . On May 10 , 2005 , one of the rewards in the OurColony viral marketing campaign for Microsoft 's Xbox 360 console was a new image of Joanna Dark . At the official unveiling of the Xbox 360 , it was revealed that Perfect Dark Zero would be a launch title for the new system in the fall of 2005 . A demo was shown during the Electronic Entertainment Expo 2005 shortly afterwards . Prior to its release , Microsoft arranged several deals with different publishers to promote interest in the game . Two novels , Perfect Dark : Initial Vector and Perfect Dark : Second Front , which were written by Greg Rucka , and a comic book , Perfect Dark : Janus ' Tears , which was written by Eric Trautmann and illustrated by Cold FuZion Studios , were released before and after the game . Around the same time , Joanna Dark made an appearance on the cover of FHM magazine . An official soundtrack produced by Nile Rodgers , Perfect Dark Zero Original Soundtrack , was also made available on November 8 , 2005 .
The first release of the game came on November 17 , 2005 in North America . The game was subsequently playable at the Xbox 360 Zero Hour Launch event , along with other Xbox 360 launch titles such as Rare 's Kameo : Elements of Power and Activision 's Call of Duty 2 . Other releases followed on December 2 in Europe and on December 10 in Japan . In Europe , Microsoft organized a party by simulating an apartment as Joanna Dark 's home , where several journalists could try out the Xbox 360 and the game . During the Japanese launch weekend , Perfect Dark Zero became the second best @-@ selling 360 game with roughly 15 @,@ 000 units sold , behind Namco 's Ridge Racer 6 .
Perfect Dark Zero was released in two forms : the standard version and a " Limited Collector 's Edition " . The collector 's edition features a second disc of content , a black metal game case , images of the staff and most of the in @-@ house testers which gave a glimpse behind the scenes at Rare , a special @-@ edition comic booklet which sets the scene for the game , titled Hong Kong Sunrise , and one of nine holographic collectible cards . The game has reportedly sold in excess of one million units worldwide . As a result , it was one of the first games to be re @-@ released under the " Platinum Hits " list . In 2015 , it was announced that Perfect Dark Zero could be played on the Xbox One via emulation . The game is also included in the Rare Replay video game compilation .
= = Additional content = =
Shortly after the game 's release , new multiplayer scenarios and a counter @-@ operative mode like the one found in the original Perfect Dark were said to eventually become freely available as downloadable content . Senior game designer Duncan Botwood later clarified that it was unlikely to happen due to technical issues . According to him , " It would have required much groundwork to be laid in the core AI code , which meant that it was unlikely to be available as downloadable content post @-@ release . " He also remarked that the counter @-@ operative mode was planned during the development of the game , but was eventually rejected due to the pressure to cut planned content .
In May 2006 , an auto @-@ update was made available on Xbox Live , responsible for fixing some bugs and adding additional multiplayer options to the game . The bug fixes included code to prevent an ongoing problem where players could walk through the air , an issue where some weapons could make use of rapid fire , and a map @-@ exiting glitch , among others . The new multiplayer options provide seven additional new bot types and the ability to use bots in DarkOps matches , since bots had only one AI variant and were only available in DeathMatch scenarios when the game was released . Additionally , a playable demo of the game was made freely available on the Xbox Live Marketplace shortly afterwards . The demo includes one campaign mission that can be played in solo mode or co @-@ operatively , and a new multiplayer map .
Rare released a multiplayer map pack , called Perfect Dark Zero Map Pack One , to the Xbox Live Marketplace on June 7 , 2006 . It contains the demo 's new multiplayer map as well as three other new maps to add to the game 's original six . Unlike the game 's default maps , the new maps only have one variant instead of two . On October 31 , 2006 , Rare announced that a special platinum edition of Perfect Dark Zero would be released , and would include the first map pack and two additional maps . The two new maps were later released for free in a pack called Perfect Dark Zero Map Pack Two . These maps are updated versions of two maps from the original Perfect Dark : Felicity and Ruins . The pack was released on November 1 , 2006 for Gold Members and on November 8 , 2006 for Silver Members .
= = Reception = =
Critical reception for Perfect Dark Zero was divided but generally positive , garnering a Metacritic aggregated review score of 81 out of 100 respectively . GameSpot 's Greg Kasavin awarded the game a rating of 9 @.@ 0 out of 10 and an Editors Choice , stating that Perfect Dark Zero " champions the Xbox 360 with its excellent assortment of single and multiplayer game types , as well as its incredible good looks and dynamic , intense action . " He also concluded that the game " delivers just about everything you could hope for from a first @-@ person shooter . " Charles Onyett of IGN praised the game 's replay value , but also criticized single @-@ player aspects such as the weak artificial intelligence of enemies , commenting that " they never display any advanced assault tactics . "
The graphics were highlighted positively . Kasavin was impressed with the amount of lighting and motion blur effects , and noted that the " excellent character animation helps make the guns feel as powerful as they look . " Bryn Williams of GameSpy considered the graphics as a " stunning look at what the 360 hardware is capable of " , but also admitted that the animation " is a little too slow and sometimes creates an unwelcome sense of cartoonishness " . IGN credited the attractive gun models , explosions , and sprawling vistas , but also felt that some areas such as the South American Ruins can unnecessarily look too shiny . The game 's audio was said to feature " heavy @-@ hitting weapon effects [ and ] fantastic , moody soundtrack that gives each mission its own pulsing rhythms " .
The game 's weapons were very well received . Reviewers praised the gun management and the implementation of the guns . GameSpot commented , " It doesn 't stray too far from convention , but it features some interesting twists in weapon and enemy design , making for a much more entertaining experience than the average shooter . " Critics generally agreed that the roll and cover system worked well and that they did not feel overpowered , but some criticized the fact that players need to be in a specific spot to use the cover mode . Reviewers considered the story and voice acting to be weak . IGN said that it is almost impossible not to notice how " laughably bad it is " , and that many plot twists are presented then never resolved , but also admitted that it does not really factor into the gameplay . GameCritics reviewer Mike Bracken commented , " It 's always sad when there 's voice acting in a game and I find myself being embarrassed for the voice actors . " Nevertheless , GameSpot added that the game 's weapon fire and musical score " easily drown this out . "
Publications judged the co @-@ op aspect of the game well . Kristan Reed of Eurogamer praised the fact that the missions were " designed with co @-@ op in mind . " He noted that , for example , the third level " has Joanna providing cover fire for her father Jack as he hops from one point of the level to the next . In the single player campaign Jack 's AI controlled , but co @-@ op lets you take direct control of his actions , making the experience a much more engaging affair all @-@ round . " Multiplayer matches of Perfect Dark Zero were widely well received . GameSpot stated that " the excellent weapon selection , flexibility of options , high @-@ quality maps , and smooth online performance ... make for a rock @-@ solid competitive shooter . " IGN stated similar pros , calling it " enormous " . 1UP.com reviewer Che Chou also praised the multiplayer , but observed that " constantly roll @-@ dodging to avoid enemy fire at close range [ ... ] combined with the exceptionally slow movement speed of your character ... can occasionally be highly frustrating for beginners . "
Despite solid reviews , numerous publications remarked that Perfect Dark Zero did not meet the expectations . According to GameCritics , " It took Rare a whole console generation to do it ... and the wait wasn 't really worth it " . Game Informer found it to be quite disappointing and gave the game a 7 out of 10 , reviewing it under the tagline " Don 't believe the hype " . In a positive review , GameSpy observed that " Perfect Dark Zero is a lot of fun and does a lot of things very well , but it 's just not the killer @-@ app that we 'd all hoped for " . In 2010 , GameTrailers placed the game 6th in their list of the " Top 10 Disappointments of the Decade " and 10th in their " Top 10 Worst Sequels " list .
= = = Accolades = = =
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= Mountain Railways of India =
Mountain railways of India are the six or seven odd " chhotey " ( Hindi for small ) lines , out of around 20 similar such narrow or metre gauge remaining in operation around the world . Built during the nineteenth and early twentieth century of British colonial rule ( the Raj ) , these lines have been running since then . Today the Indian Railways runs them , along with the Kashmir Railway , operational since 2005 . While four of these seven : the Darjeeling Himalayan Railway ( 1881 ) , the Kalka – Shimla Railway ( 1898 ) , the Kangra Valley Railway Pathankot ( 1924 ) , and the Kashmir Railway ( 2005 ) , are in the rugged hill regions of the Himalayas of Northern India , two are further down south in the Western Ghats : the Nilgiri Mountain Railway in Tamil Nadu , and the Matheran Hill Railway in Maharashtra ; while the Lumding – Silchar line , built at the turn of the 20th century , lies deep inside Assam , in the Barak river valley of the Cachar Hills . The Darjeeling Himalayan Railway , the Nilgiri Mountain Railway and the Kalka – Shimla Railway have collectively been designated as a UNESCO World Heritage Site .
These lines connect important hill resorts with the foot hills , winding their way up through rugged yet scenic mountainous landscape . Given the terrain they were constructed on during the British colonial period , they were considered " outstanding examples of the interchange of values on developments in technology " and engineering marvels .
= = History = =
The mountain railways in the hills emerged as a result of the delayed interest evinced during the British Raj for establishing control over the Himalayas and other mountain ranges of India . It was in 1844 that Sir John Lawrence , the then Viceroy of India , had mooted the idea of a phased colonization of the hills , particularly as military garrisons . The British , in a proposal termed simply as ‘ Hill Railway ’ , considered establishing geographically and culturally rich , stations across the country . The hill stations chosen for this purpose were Shimla , the then ' summer capital ' of British India ; Darjeeling , known for its tea gardens and scenic views of the eastern Himalayas in the state of West Bengal , the Kangra Valley in Himachal Pradesh , Ootacamund in the Nilgiri mountains of Tamil Nadu and the Matheran hill station in the Western Ghats near Mumbai were considered .
The pioneering effort to link the mountainous terrain of enchanting beauty with a hill passenger railway commenced in 1878 with the building of the Darjeeling Himalayan Railway line , when Franklin Prestage of the then Eastern Bengal Railway initiated plans for the building of a hill tramway along the alignment of the Hill Cart Road from Siliguri to Darjeeling . Construction subsequently began , and in 1881 the line was commissioned up to Darjeeling .
The next project launched was of the Nilgiri Mountain Railway in Tamil Nadu , initially proposed in 1854 . Work started in 1894 , but the railway was not completed until 1908 , as the terrain was very difficult , given the big difference in altitude ranging between 326 meters ( 1 @,@ 070 ft ) and 2 @,@ 203 meters ( 7 @,@ 228 ft ) over a distance of 46 kilometers ( 29 mi ) . The building of the 96 kilometers ( 60 mi ) Kalka – Shimla railway link commenced in 1898 to open up the remote hill regions to the rest of the country and was inaugurated by the then Viceroy , Lord Curzon , in November 1903 . The Matheran – Neral ' toy train ' was commissioned in 1907 ; Matheran is a hill station 108 kilometers ( 67 mi ) away from Mumbai . The Kangra line was built in 1929 in the picturesque Kangra valley .
The UNESCO 's ' World Heritage site ' recognition to three of the mountain railways of India has been for " outstanding examples of bold , ingenious engineering solutions for the problem of establishing an effective rail link through a rugged , mountainous terrain . " The Darjeeling Himalayan Railway got it first in 1999 , the Nilgiri Mountain Railway followed suit in 2005 , and the Kalka – Shimla Railway , in 2008 ; the three together have been titled as ' Mountain Railways of India ' under Criteria : ii , iv under the region in the Asia @-@ Pacific . The claims of the Matheran Railway , the fourth hill line , is pending acceptance by the international body .
The mountain railway systems in India include :
= = Darjeeling Himalayan Railway = =
The Darjeeling Himalayan Railway ( DHR ) , given the epithet , the " Toy Train " , is a 610 mm ( 2 ft ) narrow – gauge railway that runs for 88 kilometers ( 55 mi ) from Siliguri to Darjeeling in the Indian state of West Bengal , operated by the Indian Railways . Highly regarded in India to this day , the railway line was built by the British Government . Darjeeling was a major summer hill station and the centre of a flourishing tea @-@ growing district . The elevation level along this line starting with about 100 meters ( 330 ft ) at Siliguri rose to about 2 @,@ 200 meters ( 7 @,@ 200 ft ) at Darjeeling but attained highest elevation at Ghoom station of 2 @,@ 300 meters ( 7 @,@ 500 ft ) .
The Siliguri town was connected with Calcutta ( now called Kolkata ) in 1878 while an alternative journey to Darjeeling used to be performed by tongas ( horse @-@ driven carts ) along a dust track . On the recommendations of a Committee appointed by Sir Ashley Eden , the then Lt. Governor of the Government of West Bengal , and the request of Franklyn Prestage , the Agent of the Eastern Bengal Railway Company , work on the railway commenced in 1879 and was completed by July 1881 . The railway line underwent several improvements over the years to ease the gradient of the line for convenience of manoeuvrability . By 1909 – 1910 , Darjeeling Himalayan Railway was carrying 174 @,@ 000 passengers and 47 @,@ 000 tonnnes of goods annually .
Important features incorporated in the line consisted of four loops ( spirals ) and four ‘ Z ’ reverses ( zigzags ) . The introduction of the first bogie carriages service replaced the very basic four wheel carriages and extensive improvements were made to the track and stations after the earthquake of 1897 and underwent further modernization under the Northeast Frontier Railway Zone of Indian Railway . It is still powered by a steam engine , although a modern diesel engine is used for the Darjeeling Mail train .
In 1999 , this mountain line in India was the first to be recognized by the UNESCO and inscribed on the World Heritage List . An assurance recorded was that apart that from creating a buffer zone under the declared heritage site , the steam trains would be retained within the site .
Another feature along this line is the pithy signages located at key vantage points along the route which proclaim to the passengers travelling by the train , and creates excitement to explore the locations , such as the ‘ Agony Point ’ , the ' Sensation Corner ' and so forth . The loop points or spirals constructed on precipitous hills are also view points , which provide spectacular views of the valley down below .
= = Nilgiri Mountain Railway = =
The Nilgiri Mountain Railway is a single track , 46 kilometers ( 29 mi ) long metre gauge single line . Coonoor was initially the final hill station on the line in June 1899 but this was extended up to Fernhill in September 1908 and up to Udagmandalam by October 15 , 1908 . It now connects the town of Mettupalayam with the hill station of Udagamandalam ( Ootacamund ) , in the Nilgiri hills , popularly known as the ' Blue Mountains ' of Southern India . Both towns are in the state of Tamil Nadu . The only rack railway in India , it uses the alternate biting system ( Abt ) commonly termed as ' rack and pinion ' rail system and is operated with special steam locomotives . This system is described in Sir Gulford L. Molesworth ’ s report of 1886 , which says :
Two distinct functions – 1st that of traction by adhesion as in an ordinary loco ; 2nd that of traction by pinions acting on the track bars . The brakes are four in number – two handbrakes , acting by friction ; and two acting by preventing the free escape of air from cylinder and thus using compressed air in retarding the progress of the engine . The former are used for shunting whilst the later for descending steep gradients . One of the handbrakes acts on the tyres of the wheels in the ordinary manner and the second acts on grooved surfaces of the pinion axle , but can be used in those places where the rack is laid .
The trains that run on this line cover a distance of 46 kilometers ( 29 mi ) , travel through 208 curves , 16 tunnels , and 250 bridges . The uphill journey takes around 290 minutes ( 4 @.@ 8 hours ) , and the downhill journey takes 215 minutes ( 3 @.@ 6 hours ) .
The Nilgiri Mountain Railway was inscribed as World Heritage Site by UNESCO in July 2005 . The unique feature of this line , which is still fully operational , is its oldest and the steepest ‘ rack and pinion technology ’ . As it now operates , the line has a metre gauge section for 7 @.@ 2 kilometers ( 4 @.@ 5 mi ) up to the foothill station of Kallar from where the rack rail system begins and runs hugging the hills , passing through tunnels , 12 in number with the longest tunnel measuring 97 meters ( 318 ft ) , for 7 @.@ 2 kilometers ( 4 @.@ 5 mi ) up the hills at a gradient of 1 : 12 @.@ 5 up to Coonoor.Steam locomotives are used in this section . Beyond Coonoor , up to the last station at Ooty or Oottacamund , the track has a ruling gradient of 1 : 23 .
= = Kalka – Shimla Railway = =
Shimla , the modern capital city of Himachal Pradesh , is located at 7 @,@ 234 feet ( 2 @,@ 205 m ) , in the foothills of the Himalayas . It was the summer capital of British India in 1864 and it was also the headquarters of the British Army in India . Kalka is a town in the Panchkula district of Haryana .
Prior to construction of the railway communication , connection with the outside world was via a village cartway . The railway line was constructed by the Delhi – Ambala – Kalka Railway Company commencing in 1898 in the Siwalik Hills ranges . However , several plans with alternative routes were surveyed between 1884 and 1898 , and the contract to build this line was finally awarded to Delhi – Ambala – Kalka Railway Company . The 95 @.@ 66 kilometers ( 59 @.@ 44 mi ) long , 2 ft 6 in ( 762 mm ) narrow gauge line was opened for traffic on November 9 , 1903 .
The line has 103 tunnels and 864 bridges ( multi @-@ arched gallery type , like the Roman aqueducts ) , except for one bridge of 18 @.@ 29 meters ( 60 @.@ 0 ft ) length with plate girder span and steel truss . The ruling gradient is 1 : 33 or 3 % , with 919 curves , the sharpest being 48 degrees ( a radius of 37 @.@ 47 meters ( 122 @.@ 9 ft ) and climbs from 656 meters ( 2 @,@ 152 ft ) and terminates at an elevation of 2 @,@ 076 meters ( 6 @,@ 811 ft ) at Shimla . The Barog Tunnel ( No. 33 ) is the longest tunnel on the line at 1 @,@ 144 meters ( 3 @,@ 753 ft ) in length between Dagshai and Solan ( 270 meters ( 890 ft ) below the road ) and is named after the engineer who had commenced digging the tunnel from both sides of the mountain but could not complete it and hence committed suicide ( he was buried near the site of the tunnel ) . His Indian counterpart , known by the name Bhalku , who helped H. S. Harrington to build another tunnel about 1 kilometer ( 0 @.@ 62 mi ) away from the abandoned tunnel , was honoured with a medal and turban as an appreciation for his contribution to building tunnels , by the then Viceroy of India .
The route from Kalka to Shimla involves journey through the Koti tunnel 3 @.@ 2 kilometers ( 2 @.@ 0 mi ) long , the Dharampur main station , 32 kilometers ( 20 mi ) from Kalka , three loops at Taksal , Gumman and Dharampur to attain flatter gradients , Taradevi , Prospect Hill to Jatogh , Inverarm to the terminus at old Dovedell chambers at Shimla . Other important stations on this route , distance wise from Kalka include Dagshai – 38 @.@ 4 kilometers ( 23 @.@ 9 mi ) , at an elevation of 1 @,@ 600 meters ( 5 @,@ 200 ft ) – and Solan . Special luxury trains called the Shivalik Express and Shivalik Palace Saloon operate during the summer months to cater for heavy traffic from tourism , apart from several passenger and cargo ( potato , in particular ) trains , in addition to catering to the requirements of the armed services .
This line was added to the list of World Heritage Sites in 2008 , joining the Nilgiri and Darjeeling lines .
= = Matheran Hill Railway = =
Matheran Hill Railway , a heritage railway in Maharashtra , was built between 1901 and 1907 by Abdul Hussein Adamjee Peerbhoy and was financed by his father , Sir Adamjee Peerbhoy of the Adamjee Group . The railway line , a 610mm ( 2 ft ) gauge line , covers a distance of 20 kilometers ( 12 mi ) , over large swathes of forest territory connecting Neral to Matheran in the Western Ghats hills near Karjat and Mumbai . The plan , formulated in 1900 , began construction in 1904 and the line was opened to traffic by 1907 . Originally , the tracks were laid with 30 lb / yard rails but now use heavier 42 lb / yard rails . Ruling gradient is 1 : 20 ( 5 % ) with tight curves and speeds are limited to 20 kilometres per hour ( 12 mph ) . The line , which generally used to be closed during the monsoons because of the danger of landslides , has , since the 1980s , been kept operational throughout the year . This railway line is administered by the Central Railways .
The unique feature of this line is the horseshoe embankment , which was built to avoid a reversion station , seen when the train curves markedly . Important stations and special features include this , the initial Neral Station , the Herdal Hill section , the Bhekra Khud steep gradient , the only tunnel on the route , popularly known as the " One Kiss Tunnel " ( time to pass through this is just sufficient to exchange a kiss with one 's partner ) , a " Water Pipe " station ( no longer in use due to change over to diesel locos ) , Mountain Berry with two sharp ' Zig Zags ' , Panorama Point and finally terminating at Matheran Bazaar . The Broad gauge line between Mumbai and Pune runs close to this line and the road also crosses the railway line at two locations .
= = Kangra Valley Railway = =
The Kangra Valley Railway lies in the sub @-@ Himalayan region and covers a distance of 163 kilometers ( 101 mi ) between Pathankot and Joginder Nagar , a valley known for its natural beauty and ancient Hindu shrines . The line , which is part of the Northern Railway and is made with a 2 ft 6 in ( 762 mm ) gauge , was planned in May 1926 and commissioned in 1929 and is popularly known as the “ Kangra Toy Train ” . The highest point on this line is at Ahju station at an elevation of 1 @,@ 291 meters ( 4 @,@ 236 ft ) and the terminus at Joginder Nagar is at 1 @,@ 189 meters ( 3 @,@ 901 ft ) . The line has 971 uniquely designed bridges and two tunnels . Two particularly important bridge structures are the steel arch bridge over the Reond nalah and the girder bridge over the Banganga River . Though the gradient of the line is generally gentle , the critical reach with steep slopes is at the 142 kilometers ( 88 mi ) stretch , which is of 210 meters ( 690 ft ) width with 1 : 19 slope with approach slopes of 1 : 31 and 1 : 25 . The terminus stretch between Baijnath and Jogindernagar is 1 : 25 . The train journey on this line provides beautiful views of peaks of the Dhauladhar mountain range , particularly in the stretch between Kangra and Mangwal , and also the ruins of the Kangra Fort .
= = Lumding – Haflong – Badarpur hill section ( Assam ) = =
The Northeast Frontier Railway plans to preserve the 120 km @-@ long Mahur – Harangajao hill section while the metre @-@ gauge track on the Lumding – Silchar line gets converted into broad gauge . It has 37 tunnels , 586 bridges and 24 stations on the way with the steepest gradient of 1 in 37 on the Harangajao – Jatinga section .
= = Kashmir Railway = =
The Kashmir Railway is a railway line being built in India to connect the state of Jammu and Kashmir with the rest of the country . Officially termed the ' Jammu Udhampur Srinagar Baramulla Railway Link ' ( JUSBRL ) , the railway starts from Jammu and , when completed , will travel for 345 kilometres ( 214 mi ) to the city of Baramulla on the northwestern edge of the Kashmir Valley . The route crosses major earthquake zones , and is subjected to extreme temperatures of cold and heat , as well as inhospitable terrain , making it an extremely challenging engineering project . The project has had a long and chequered history but serious progress was made only after it was declared a National Project in 2002 . The scheduled date of completion was August 15 , 2007 . However , several unforeseen complications have pushed back the final completion deadline to 2017 at the earliest so a through service from central India to Kashmir will not be possible till then .
= = Other proposed projects = =
Bilaspur @-@ Mandi @-@ Leh Railway is expected to become the highest railway track in the world by its completion overtaking the current record of China 's Qinghai @-@ Tibet Railway .
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= School Reunion ( Doctor Who ) =
" School Reunion " is the third episode in the second series of the British science fiction television series Doctor Who . It first aired on 29 April 2006 . The episode 's narrative takes place some time after the events of " The Christmas Invasion " . In the episode 's TARDISODE , Mickey Smith alerts the Doctor and Rose Tyler to a comprehensive school where strange things are happening , such as UFO sightings . At the school , the Doctor encounters his former companion Sarah Jane Smith and the robotic dog , K9 Mark III , he sent her , who likewise were interested by the current events . Together , they discover the force behind the events , a race known as the Krillitanes , and work to prevent them gaining control of the universe .
The use of the Doctor 's previous companions , in particular Sarah Jane and K9 , was first proposed in 2003 to the BBC . After the episode was produced , Elisabeth Sladen was approached by the BBC to star in a spin @-@ off , The Sarah Jane Adventures , which also included K9 in several stories . The episode was positively reviewed , with an Appreciation Index of 85 % ( " Excellent " ) .
= = Plot = =
Mr. Finch , the headmaster of Deffry Vale School , has been changing the school to improve the students ' performance ; his changes include free lunches with special chips . The Doctor , under the alias " John Smith " , is undercover as a science teacher in the school , and his companion , Rose Tyler , is working undercover in the school 's cafeteria . The Doctor is surprised by the good behavior of the students and intrigued by the uncommon intelligence of one of his physics students . Both the Doctor and Rose relate the mysterious events around the school to the chips : Rose observes that the chip oil has an adverse effect on the other kitchen staff , who must use hazmat suits to handle the oil , while the Doctor notes that the chips themselves are making children more intelligent .
Mr. Finch 's successes have aroused media attention — in particular , the attention of investigative journalist Sarah Jane Smith . While at first the Doctor feigns ignorance ( but is barely able to restrain his pleasure at seeing her again ) , when Sarah Jane discovers the TARDIS during the night , he reveals his identity to her . Sarah Jane meets Rose and Mickey , with an immediate rivalry sparking between the two women . As the group searches the school , they find thirteen bat @-@ like creatures asleep in Finch 's office . Returning to Sarah Jane 's car , the journalist reveals a battered , inactive K9 Mark III , who — once repaired — identifies the chip oil as Krillitane oil . Rose , unaware that the Doctor had even had past companions , confronts him ; he replies sadly that , while she can spend the rest of her life with him , he cannot spend the rest of his life with her , so he must remain aloof .
The following day , the group returns to the school to investigate further . The Doctor confronts Mr. Finch , who confirms that he and the others are Krillitanes — a composite species that takes desirable attributes of the species they conquer . He attempts to subvert the Doctor , without success . Meanwhile , Sarah Jane and Rose , now getting on better than at their first meeting , try to unlock the programming on the school 's computers ; Mickey and K9 remain in Sarah Jane 's car for surveillance . With the Doctor 's help , they discover that the computers — bolstered by the students ' enhanced intelligence — are part of a Krillitane effort to solve the " Skasis Paradigm " , a theory of everything . As the paradigm is nearly solved , which would allow the Krillitanes full control over time and space , they seal the school . Mr. Finch propositions the Doctor a second time , tempting him with the ability to save the Time Lords and override human mortality . With Sarah Jane 's counseling , the Doctor refuses , and they run from Mr. Finch . After Kenny ( a student who had not eaten the chips ) alerts Mickey to the students ' plight , Mickey crashes Sarah Jane 's car through the school 's doors and unplugs the computers , allowing the children to flee . The Doctor leads the Krillitanes to the kitchen . Upon their arrival , K9 detonates the chip oil container , saturating the Krillitanes . The Krillitanes suddenly explode , destroying the school and K9 .
At episode 's end , Rose , Sarah Jane , Mickey , and the Doctor are standing in the TARDIS . Sarah Jane declines a second chance of travelling in the TARDIS , having finally decided to move on with her life and stop waiting for the Doctor . Mickey says he would like to join the TARDIS crew , a suggestion of which Sarah Jane approves . She then asks Rose to stay with the Doctor , and to find her one @-@ day if she needs to . Sarah Jane then gets a chance to part properly with the Doctor , who leaves her with a brand new K9 as a parting gift .
= = = Continuity = = =
" School Reunion " is the first appearance of Sarah Jane Smith and K9 since The Five Doctors . It answers the question of where Sarah was left at the end of The Hand of Fear : Aberdeen . Rose mentions visiting " the year 5 billion " , a reference to her first trip with the Ninth Doctor in The End of the World . The bragging match between Sarah and Rose also references other stories : Sarah has met the Daleks , " lots of robots " , anti @-@ matter monsters , mummies , dinosaurs , and the Loch Ness Monster , whereas Rose has met ghosts , " Slitheen in Downing Street " , the Dalek Emperor , gas @-@ masked zombies , and a werewolf .
= = Production = =
The concept of Sarah @-@ Jane and K9 returning to Doctor Who was an idea of Russell T Davies from pitching the show in 2003 . Such a use would show what would happen after a companion left the Doctor , without dwelling too much on the classic series . It was Davies ' full intention for Sarah Jane to be used for this , and while Sladen originally declined a request , thinking her role would not be important , she changed her mind when she realised she would be the focal point of the adventure . After production of the episode was finished , Sladen was approached about a full spin @-@ off series , The Sarah Jane Adventures , which was formally announced on 14 September 2006 .
The episode went through several changes in production : working titles included " Old Friends " and " Black Ops " , the latter being set in an army base . Davies requested that Whithouse set it in a school instead , mainly for simplicity , but also for a desire for the Doctor to masquerade as a school teacher . Additionally , the Krillitanes were to be named " Krillians " until the BBC found the name was trademarked , and Finch 's forename was originally Hector , until the BBC found a real teacher by the same name , and renamed him Lucas . K9 's eye grill was initially filmed flashing in sync with his lines , not unlike the Daleks , until Phil Collinson saw the footage and nixed the practice ( which was inconsistent with the robot dog 's past appearances ) . A scene that was cut was of Milo 's brain being " shorted out " by the Doctor 's rapid @-@ fire questions at the beginning of the episode , which was later alluded to in the episode .
The episode , originally in the second production block , was produced in the first block along with " The Christmas Invasion " and " New Earth " . Two high schools in Wales were used for filming : Fitzalan High School in Leckwith was used on 23 August and 24 August 2005 , for filming the first conversation between the Doctor and Finch , and for the playground , kitchen , and cafeteria scenes , and Duffryn High School in Newport , which was used between 25 August and 6 September for the remainder of the episode , with filming delayed due to asbestos being discovered in Duffryn High School 's structure . The scenes in the schools utilised dozens of children as extras . Pick @-@ up shots were later completed on 7 September and 8 September , with filming of the cafe scene delayed due to drunk and disorderly conduct from members of the public .
= = Broadcast and reception = =
The episode was watched by 8 @.@ 3 million viewers , the twelfth most @-@ watched programme of the week , with an Appreciation Index score of 85 % . Jacob Clifton of Television Without Pity gave the episode an A + rating , and jokingly stated that he " didn 't know why the Doctor was fucking around [ during the Physics lesson ] : he taught Physics at Coal Hill School way back in ' 63 " . Ahsan Haque of IGN gave the episode an 8 @.@ 7 out of 10 ( " Great " ) and commented that the episode had " fantastic character moments " and " brilliant CGI effects " , and that " if you 're willing to accept the Scooby @-@ Doo storyline , then the strong nostalgic vibes present in this episode should be enough to carry this episode into a must @-@ see category . " , and K9 and Sarah @-@ Jane alone made the episode worth watching for fans of the classic series . The episode was subsequently nominated for the 2007 Hugo Award for Best Dramatic Presentation , Short Form , an award that was won by the following episode " The Girl in the Fireplace " .
= = = Reviews = = =
" School Reunion " reviews at Outpost Gallifrey
" School Reunion " reviews at The Doctor Who Ratings Guide
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= The Roof ( Back in Time ) =
" The Roof " is a song by American singer @-@ songwriter Mariah Carey , taken from her sixth studio album , Butterfly ( 1997 ) . It was released as the third single from the album in Europe , on March 20 , 1998 by Columbia Records . Similar to the treatments of " Butterfly " and " Breakdown " , " The Roof " received a limited worldwide release due to Carey 's conflict at the time with Sony . The song was written and produced by Carey and Trackmasters , and is built around a sample from " Shook Ones part II " by Mobb Deep . The song 's lyrics recount an intimate roof @-@ top encounter between lovers , and how the memory affects the protagonist . The extended remix features a rap verse by Mobb Deep ; both versions were well received by contemporary music critics .
In the music video , Carey is seen in a limousine recounting an encounter she shared on a rainy night . Additionally , past scenes of the event are shown , with Carey caressing her lover at a roof @-@ top party . During the videos climax , Carey open the limousines sun @-@ roof and stands in the rain , trying to recapture the moments she shared in the rain . Aside from the Japanese concerts , Carey performed the song live during her Butterfly World Tour in 1998 . Due to the song 's limited release , " The Roof " did not chart in most major music markets , with the exception of The Netherlands and the United Kingdom , where it peaked at numbers 63 and 96 , respectively .
In addition , " The Roof " was added to Carey 's compilation album The Ballads ( 2009 ) .
= = Composition = =
" The Roof " was released on July 28 , 1998 by Columbia Records . The song is a slow and sultry song , which blends hip @-@ hop and contemporary R & B genres . It incorporates drum notes , including heavy beats and grooves . The song 's second version features a rap version from Trackmasters . The song samples the melody from " Shook Ones Part II " by Mobb Deep , incorporating it into chorus and bridge . As part of " layering the song , " background vocals are featured throughout the chorus and sections of the bridge . It is set in the signature common time , and is written in the key of E ♭ major . It features a basic chord progression of A ♭ -F ♭ 1 . Carey 's vocal range in the song spans from the low note of E ♭ 3 to the high note of F ♭ 5 ; the piano and guitar pieces range from F ♭ 3 to G ♭ 5 as well . The song contains choral lyrics written by Carey , who produced the song 's melody and chorus as well . Aside from assisting with its chord progression , Cory Rooney co @-@ arranged and produced the track as well . Author Chris Nickson felt the song was extremely important for Carey 's musical transition , writing " Lyrically , this was some of her best work ever , the melody slinky and overtly sexy , confirmation – as if any was needed at this point ! – that this was the new Mariah . "
= = Critical reception = =
" The Roof " was commended by contemporary music critics for its choice of vocal work , instrumentation and lyrics . David Browne from Entertainment Weekly praised the song as well as Carey 's choice of vocals , writing " Carey is still a vocal grandstander capable of turning all into a six @-@ syllable word . Yet for most of the album she keeps her notorious octave @-@ climbing chops at bay . Showing some admirable restraint , she nestles herself into the downy @-@ soft beats of ' The Roof ' . " Rich Juzwiak from Slant wrote " Little more than yearning , kissing , and remembering happens during the course of ' The Roof , ' a rough @-@ enough R & B revision of Mobb Deep 's ' The Shook Ones . ' But lyrically Mariah the writer is vivid , sometimes shockingly clever ( rhyming ' liberated ' with ' Moet ' is a stroke of genius ) . "
= = Chart performance = =
" The Roof " was chosen as the third single from Butterfly , receiving an airplay @-@ only release . Because of conflict between Carey and her record label at the time , Sony Music Entertainment , it was only given a commercial release in Europe , while " Breakdown " was released throughout Oceania . In the UK , the song peaked at number 87 during the week of May 9 , 1998 . " The Roof " stayed in the UK Singles Chart for one week before falling outside the top 100 . In the Netherlands , it performed weakly as well , peaking at number 63 while spending five weeks fluctuating in the Single Top 100 .
= = Music video = =
The music video for " The Roof " garnered critical acclaim , and was ranked 18th on Slant 's " 100 Greatest Music Videos " . Sal Ciquemani , from Slant , gave the video a positive review , complimenting Carey 's choice to pair the sultry song with a " sophisticated tale of a sexy rooftop encounter " . The video re @-@ tells a story of Carey reminiscing a past love and a night they shared together on a rainy roof @-@ top . The video 's setting revolves around a dark limousine , a decrepit NYC apartment , and a rainy roof @-@ top , where " Carey is featured at her most vulnerable , with runny mascara and drenched in the cold rainy night . " In the conclusion of his review of the video , Ciquemani wrote : " When Carey rises through the limo 's sunroof and relishes the warm November rain , she 's not drunk on the bubbly but on the memory of past delights . "
The video was directed by Carey and Diane Martel during the spring of 1998 . The music video begins with Carey sitting alone in a limousine , recalling a night she shared some time previous . As scenes of Carey reminiscing in the limo are shown , clips of her dressing in an old apartment are presented . Eventually , Carey joins a roof @-@ top party one night , where she begins dancing and caressing her lover . As the passion between them grown , rain begins to fall , showering everyone atop the edifice . As these scenes end , Carey in the present opens the sun @-@ roof of the limo and stands into the rainy night , trying to recapture those magical moments she shared on that rainy roof @-@ top encounter . The video ends with a wet Carey lying in the back of the limousine , sad and lonely .
= = Live performances = =
" The Roof " was performed few times throughout Carey 's career . The song was performed during her Butterfly World Tour in 1998 . During the performances , live male and female dancers were present on stage , grooving and performing classic routines . Carey wore a short beige ensemble and performed light classical dances , alongside a male partner . The song was performed on select dates of Carey 's 2014 The Elusive Chanteuse Show tour .
= = Tracks listing and formats = =
= = Credits and personnel = =
Credits adapted from Butterfly liner notes .
Mariah Carey – co @-@ production , songwriting , vocals
Jean Claude Oliver – songwriting , vocals
Samuel Barnes – songwriting , vocals
Cory Rooney – mixing , special effects
Albert Johnson – songwriting
Kejuan Waliek Muchita – songwriting
= = Charts = =
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= Lillehammer Olympic Bobsleigh and Luge Track =
Lillehammer Olympic Bobsleigh and Luge Track ( Norwegian : Lillehammer Olympiske Bob- og Akebane ) is a bobsleigh , luge and skeleton track located at Hunderfossen in Lillehammer , Norway , 15 kilometers ( 9 mi ) north of the town center of Lillehammer . It was completed in 1992 for the 1994 Winter Olympics , where it hosted the bobsleigh events and luge events . It has since also hosted the FIBT World Championships 1995 in skeleton and the FIL World Luge Championships 1995 , and is scheduled to host the 2016 Winter Youth Olympics .
Original plans called for the track to be located at Fåberg . Later it was proposed moved to Kanthaugen in the town center and then Holmenkollen in Oslo , before Hunderfossen was decided upon . The track is 1 @,@ 710 meters ( 5 @,@ 610 ft ) , giving a competition length of 1 @,@ 365 meters ( 4 @,@ 478 ft ) for bobsleigh and men 's singles luge , and 1 @,@ 185 meters ( 3 @,@ 888 ft ) for other luge competitions . The bobsleigh course has a vertical drop of 114 meters ( 374 ft ) , giving an 8 @.@ 5 percent average grade . The track has been part of the proposed Oslo 2018 and 2022 Winter Olympics bids .
= = History = =
Prior to the Lillehammer Olympics , there was no bobsleigh and luge track in Norway . During the 1952 Winter Olympics in Oslo , Korketrekkeren had been built as a temporary venue , but it was made of snow and was not reused after the Olympics . In its bid for the 1994 Winter Olympics , Lillehammer had proposed placing the bobsleigh and luge track next to Balbergbakken in Fåberg . By May 1989 , plans for most of the venues were being reshuffled and the track was then proposed located at Kanthaugen as part of an Olympic Park at Stampesletta . The Kanthaugen proposal was estimated to cost NOK 231 million .
Lillehammer Municipal Council , Oppland County Council and the Norwegian Directorate for Cultural Heritage rejected the location because of the environmental impact . These institutions instead proposed that the track be built at Huseskogen at Hunderfossen . The Lillehammer Olympic Organizing Committee initially disapproved of the location and in 1990 started looking at the possibility of constructing the track at Holmenkollen in Oslo . Two routes were considered , one in the same route as Korketrekkeren and one which would run from Gratishaugen at Holmenkollbakken to Midtstuen . Internationally there was support from the International Bobsleigh & Skeleton Federation and the International Luge Federation to build Norway 's track in the capital . Concerns about the environmental impact of a Hunderfossen location were raised , particularly regarding visual pollution . However , Hunderfossen was confirmed along with a grant issued by the Parliament of Norway on 24 August 1990 .
The designers of the tracks at Altenberg and Oberhof , East Germany , the Olympic tracks in La Plagne , France , and Calgary , Canada , were consulted during planning . Five companies bid for the concrete construction work , which was awarded to a joint venture between Aker Entreprenør and Veidekke for NOK 45 million . Also the construction of the buildings was awarded to the same group . The track was the first of the Olympic venues for the 1994 games for which construction started . After construction started , Minister of Culture Åse Kleveland ( Labour Party ) suggested in March 1991 , in an attempt to reduce costs , that the 1994 Olympic bobsleigh and luge events be held at La Plagne , the site of the events for the 1992 Winter Olympics in Albertville . The French authorities were positive , given that Norway pay for part of the construction costs , but the idea was rejected by LOOC @-@ president Gerhard Heiberg . Also fellow party members reacted , who emphasized that NOK 30 million had already been used on blasting the track route .
Construction was undertaken by spraying 1 @,@ 300 tonnes ( 1 @,@ 300 long tons ; 1 @,@ 400 short tons ) of shotcrete intertwined with 180 tonnes ( 180 long tons ; 200 short tons ) of reinforcement bars . It is the first track in the world to build the cooling pipes into an underground culvert . It consists of 31 reinforced concrete sections . The concrete work was completed on 31 October 1991 . Representatives for the Norwegian Society for the Conservation of Nature stated that they were satisfied with the end result . It is the only artificially frozen bobsleigh and luge track in the Nordic Countries . The venue was completed on 1 October 1992 and cost NOK 201 million . After the Olympics , the ownership of the venue was transferred to Lillehammer Olympiapark , owned by Lillehammer Municipality .
= = Specifications = =
The track is 1 @,@ 710 meters ( 5 @,@ 610 ft ) long , including braking distance . The competitive length — excluding braking distance — for bobsleigh , skeleton and luge men 's singles it is 1 @,@ 365 meters ( 4 @,@ 478 ft ) long and for luge men 's doubles and women 's singles it is 1 @,@ 065 meters ( 3 @,@ 494 ft ) long . The track has 16 turns and contains 24 photocells for timekeeping . The track has a vertical drop of 112 meters ( 367 ft ) for the entire course , with an average 8 percent and maximum 15 percent grade . The start is located at 384 meters ( 1 @,@ 260 ft ) above mean sea level . It allows for a maximum speed of 130 kilometres per hour ( 81 mph ) . The spectator capacity is 10 @,@ 000 .
The refrigeration system contains 90 metric tons ( 89 long tons ; 99 short tons ) of ammonia circulating in 94 sections with a total length of 80 kilometers ( 50 mi ) of pipe . This allows a capacity of 3 @,@ 100 kilowatts of ( 10 @.@ 6 million British thermal units or 880 short tons of refrigeration ) cooling , which allows the track to be iced in outdoor temperatures up to 20 ° C ( 68 ° F ) . The facility produces 4 @.@ 5 gigawatt hours per year of district heating , gaining the nickname " Norway 's largest refrigerator " .
The venue is operated by Lillehammer Olympiapark , which also operates the four other Olympic venues within Lillehammer , Lysgårdsbakken , Birkebeineren Ski Stadium , Håkons Hall and Kanthaugen Freestyle Arena . The track is staffed with seven employees , in addition to up to 20 more people during large events . The venue both serves local sports clubs and more than 20 nations have sledding sports training in Lillehammer . In addition the track serves up to 10 @,@ 000 tourists per year ; during summer rides are provided on wheeled bobsleighs . The track is operated eleven months per year . As of 2004 , the venue received subsidies of between NOK 1 @.@ 5 to 2 @.@ 0 million per year .
The following table shows the physical statistics for the track for the various sports . It contains the competition length ( start to finish , excluding braking length ) , the number of turns , the vertical drop and the average grade .
= = Events = =
= = = Bobsleigh at the 1994 Winter Olympics = = =
Both two @-@ man and four @-@ man were competed during the 1994 Winter Olympics . Both were contested in four heats over two days : two @-@ man took place on 19 and 20 February , while four @-@ man took place on 26 and 27 February .
= = = Luge at the 1994 Winter Olympics = = =
Luge was contested in three events at the 1994 Winter Olympics . Singles was contested over four heats in two days , while doubles was contested in two heats on one day . Men 's singles took place on 13 and 14 February , women 's singles took place on 15 and 16 February , and men 's doubles took place on 18 February .
= = = FIBT World Championships 1995 = = =
The FIBT World Championships 1995 was split between Altenburg and Lillehammer , with bobsleigh taking place in Altenburg and skeleton in Lillehammer . The skeleton events took place on 4 and 5 March .
= = = FIL World Luge Championships 1995 = = =
The FIL World Luge Championships 1995 was competed between 30 nations in four events . It was the second to take place in Norway , after the inaugural 1955 edition in Oslo .
= = = Future = = =
Lillehammer is scheduled to host the 2016 Winter Youth Olympics , which is scheduled to take place between 12 February and 21 February . Lillehammer Olympic Bobsleigh and Luge Track is scheduled to host the bobsleigh , luge and skeleton events .
Three Norwegian cities , Tromsø , Oslo and Trondheim , announced intentions to bid for the 2018 Winter Olympics . Oslo planned a joint bid with Lillehammer and planned to use the sliding center along with the Alpine skiing hills of Hafjell and Kvitfjell in their bid . Tromsø originally planned to build their own track , but later in the bidding process also Tromsø announced that they intended to bid using the Lillehammer track , despite a distance of 1 @,@ 500 kilometers ( 930 mi ) between Tromsø and Lillehammer . This was after the International Olympic Committee signaled that they wanted more moderation in venue construction costs and that they would prefer bid which used existing venues , even if it increased distances . This was backed by the International Luge Federation and the International Bobsleigh & Skeleton Federation , who both did not want additional tracks built in the world because of the difficulties funding their operation . The 2018 proposals were shelved , but a renewed Oslo bid process for the 2022 Olympics also calls for the use of Lillehammer .
= = Track records = =
The following is an incomplete list of track records ; while including luge and women 's skeleton , it excludes bobsleigh and men 's skeleton . The list contains both start times and track times , as well , as the athlete and their nationality , and the date of the record .
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= The Empathic Civilization =
The Empathic Civilization : The Race to Global Consciousness in a World in Crisis is a 2010 non @-@ fiction book written by Jeremy Rifkin . It connects the evolution of communication and energy development in civilizations with psychological and economic development in humans . Rifkin considers the latest phase of communication and energy regimes — that of electronic telecommunications and fossil fuel extraction — as bringing people together on the nation @-@ state level based on democratic capitalism , but at the same time creating global problems , like climate change , pandemics , and nuclear proliferation . Rifkin extrapolates the observed trend into the future , predicting that Internet and mobile technology along with small @-@ scale renewable energy commercialization will create an era of distributed capitalism necessary to manage the new energy regime and a heightened global empathy that can help solve global problems .
The book was published by Jeremy P. Tarcher Inc. as a hardcover in January 2010 . It was noted as being well @-@ researched and covering a significant breadth of academic fields . However , reviews were mixed ; several reviewers found that while Rifkin provided a convincing overview of the development of empathy , he did not provide sufficient proof that increased empathy would necessarily bring people together to co @-@ operatively solve global problems .
= = Background = =
Author Jeremy Rifkin had previously written several books that , like The Empathic Civilization , have attempted to extrapolate trends in the economy , technology , and society . For example , his 1995 book The End of Work concerns the changes that tele @-@ commuting would have on the workplace , his 1998 book The Biotech Century concerns the expected impacts of genetic engineering , and his 2002 book The Hydrogen Economy concerns the economic and social effects that will result from the expected replacement of fossil fuels with hydrogen as an energy storage medium . His last book before writing The Empathic Civilization was The European Dream , published in 2004 , comparing the American Dream with the values expressed by Europeans in the post @-@ industrial economy . At the time of publication , the 64 @-@ year @-@ old Rifkin was working as an advisor to the European Union concerning issues relating to the economy , climate change , and energy security , as well as president of the American non @-@ profit organization the Foundation on Economic Trends . Rifkin argues that the global crisis of 2008 and 2011 marks the end of a particular energy regime – fossil fuels . The new global economy will be based upon renewable energy , like wind power , solar energy , natural gas , etc . He calls this distributed capitalism because these energy sources are dispersed rather than centralized . They are best controlled by individuals or small communities . This will entail a very different power structure from fossil fuel , financial capitalism . This new structure is networked and decentralized , and an inherently much more democratic form of globalization .
= = Synopsis = =
The Empathic Civilization is divided into three parts with an introductory chapter that summarizes the contents and arguments of the book . The first part consists of four chapters and analyses empathy from the perspective of psychology , biology , and philosophy . Rifkin provides a history of empathy in psychology , including how it relates to the works of Freudian psychology , Melanie Klein , Ronald Fairbairn , Heinz Kohut , and Donald Winnicott , leading to John Bowlby and Attachment Theory . As psychological theory has evolved , empathy has played a larger and larger role , especially in the emotional and intellectual development of children . In terms of biology , Rifkin connects the biological function of mirror neurons with the capacity for empathy . Philosophically , Rifkin explores empathy @-@ altruism , the faith versus reason debate , and truth versus reality debate . Rifkin argues in favour of relationalism , that the meaning of existence is to enter into relationships . From the lens of empathy , he deconstructs the concepts of truth , freedom , democracy , equality , mortality .
The second part consists of five chapters and focuses on the rise , development , and fall of civilizations . Rifkin connects the qualitative changes in energy regimes and communication techniques with changes in how people understand and organize reality . Hunter @-@ gatherer societies were all oral cultures and thus only existed in geographically @-@ limited small groups and identified themselves symbiotically in terms of that group . Spiritually , these societies believed in local gods who were only known to others through oral tales . The development of writing , as well as hydraulics and irrigation , allowed agricultural societies to better organize themselves so that a larger geographic area and a larger population could be controlled . Hydraulic power was labour @-@ intensive , requiring large populations of subservient people . With scripts , there was a shift from a mythological consciousness to a theological consciousness ; individuals thought of themselves less in terms of a small , local group and more with a monotheistic religion which included a personal relationship with a god .
Decentralization followed the collapse of the Roman Empire , as each town operated a water or wind mill and the printing press distributed literature , empowering more people . Autobiographies started to be written , more people married for love rather than other arrangements , and the concept of privacy , democracy , and market capitalism was more prevalent . People began to organize themselves more into nation @-@ states . Steam and fossil fuels became the dominant energy regime and electronic communications , like telegraphs , radios , telephones , and television , became the dominant means of communication . With vastly more interaction with other people and cultures , there was more emphasis on studying people and psychology . Personal investments , social exploration , and creativity became highly valued .
The third part consists of the remaining five chapters . Rifkin extrapolates the changes in energy regimes to predict a shift in production towards renewable sources like wind and solar power under distributed ( i.e. personal ) management . Rifkin also extrapolates the changes in communication to predict a proliferation of wireless , mobile personal communication that allows people to be constantly connected to others regardless of distance , language , or other barriers . This will evolve people 's sense of empathy to create a biosphere @-@ wide consciousness and a mode of production he calls distributed capitalism . Rifkin believes this new system will allow people to solve more complex issues , such as climate change and pathogenic pandemics , focus more on quality of life ( rather than materialistic ) issues , and value collaboration over competition .
= = Style and genre = =
The book was noted for its heft , in terms of its actual page numbers , exhaustive research , and dense academic language . The writing does occasionally include illustrative anecdotes and some plain language . Rifkin synthesizes research and material from fields such as literature and the arts , theology , philosophy , anthropology , sociology , political science , psychology , and communication theory . The book was described as sociobiology . The Empathic Civilization was contrasted to the book Crisis Economics by Nouriel Roubini and Stephen Mihm , as reaching different conclusions but being complementary by offering valid alternative futures different from contemporary belief in social progress .
John N. Gray 's review in The Guardian described the theme of Rifkin 's argument as " a struggle between the polar forces of empathy and entropy " and that " as civilisation has extended the reach of empathy beyond the family and the tribe ... the expanding infrastructure of industry and transport has needed ever larger inputs of energy , increasing entropy and wrecking the planet " .
= = Publication = =
The Empathic Civilization was published in January 2010 by Jeremy P. Tarcher Inc . , an imprint of Penguin Group ( USA ) , in North America and by Cambridge Polity Press in the United Kingdom . Cambridge Polity Press also published the book in Australia and New Zealand beginning in March 2010 . A German translation was published by Campus Verlag and Spanish language version was released by Mexican publisher Paidós Méxicana . Excerpts were published in the Huffington Post and Arianna Huffington named it one of the best books of the year .
= = Reception = =
The book received mixed reviews by critics . Philosopher John N. Gray 's review in The Guardian found that Rifkin spent most of the book defending his " view that humans are essentially empathic animals " and ultimately " fails to substantiate its central thesis " that empathy in humans will make them able to deal with a world @-@ wide crisis , like global warming . In The Globe and Mail , the reviewer expressed a similar view that Rifkin " doesn 't explain how ... empathy can vanquish a physical principle , entropy " .
The reviewer in the Edmonton Journal admitted the book is well @-@ researched and presents " an immense amount of engaging evidence " on empathy , but ultimately dismisses it as " a shallow intellectual hit " due to its " simple thesis , souped up unnecessarily " and " impression of having been written in a hurry , with a marketing rep scribbling catchphrases over Rifkin 's shoulder " . Along with the Edmonton Journal review , numerous others noted either the book 's eurocentric interpretation of history or selective historiography .
Michael Dudly , reviewing for the Winnipeg Free Press , labelled the book " ambitious " , " deserving of a wide audience " and " at times fascinating but ultimately underwhelming " . Dudley found the book " covers so many topics that few of them are given the depth they deserve " and that " despite the book 's considerable length , it is also surprisingly limited in scope " . For example , Dudley was disappointed with the few references made to Marshall McLuhan and the lack of reference to the works of Julian Jaynes . Likewise , the reviewer in Journal of Psychohistory was disappointed with the one reference to Lloyd deMause who the reviewer believed would have helped Rifkin 's case . The book was reviewed in the journal Integral Leadership Review from a spiral dynamics point @-@ of @-@ view , noting that it speaks more towards people at green and turquoise .
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= Washington State Route 31 =
State Route 31 ( SR 31 ) is a Washington state highway located entirely in Pend Oreille County . The highway , which is 26 @.@ 79 miles ( 43 @.@ 11 km ) long , starts at an intersection with SR 20 in Tiger and travels north to the Canada – US border north of Metaline Falls . At the border , SR 31 becomes British Columbia Highway 6 ( BC 6 ) . The route parallels the Pend Oreille River for most of its route and the primary functions of the highway is to serve and connect Tiger , Ione , Metaline and Metaline Falls with British Columbia .
Before 1964 , the route from Newport to BC 6 was the northernmost section of Primary State Highway 6 , which ran from Spokane to BC 6 . Originally created in 1964 , SR 31 extended southeast to an intersection with U.S. Route 2 ( US 2 , formerly US 195 ) in Newport . The North Cascades Highway ( SR 20 ) was extended to Newport in 1973 and SR 31 from Newport to Tiger became SR 20 . SR 31 had one auxiliary route , SR 311 , which became SR 211 after SR 20 was extended .
= = Route description = =
State Route 31 ( SR 31 ) is 26 @.@ 79 miles ( 43 @.@ 114 km ) long within Pend Oreille County , Washington from SR 20 in Tiger north to British Columbia Highway 6 ( BC 6 ) at the Canadian border , located north of Metaline Falls . The highway parallels the Pend Oreille River for most of its route and connects Tiger , Ione , Metaline and Metaline Falls with British Columbia . The route also parallels the Pend Oreille Valley Railroad from Tiger to Metaline Falls ; the railroad extends south to Newport along SR 20 and east to Dover , Idaho .
SR 31 starts at an intersection with SR 20 and Tiger East Road in the small community of Tiger . The road turns northwest after the intersection and then curves north after intersecting Vogel Road . After crossing the railroad , the highway forms the eastern boundary of Ione Municipal Airport and later passes Sullivan Lake Road . At the Sullivan Lake Road junction , SR 31 is named McKay Road and crosses the Ione Millpond to enter the city of Ione . There , the route is renamed Second Street and leaves the city to parallel the Pend Oreille Valley Railroad and the shoreline of the Pend Oreille River . The name of the road changes to Lehigh Avenue , a name that stays with SR 31 until the Canadian border . The railroad crosses the road and later bridges the Pend Oreille River , as the highway turns northwest and reverts northeast . The route reaches Metaline and curves southeast to cross the Pend Oreille River on the Pend Oreille Bridge into Metaline Falls . After turning south and back north , the highway starts to curve multiple times until intersecting Sullivan Lake Road and being directed northeast . The road turns north and crosses two streams before curving northwest and then northeast to Lake Lucerene . After passing Lake Lucerene , SR 31 passes Crescent Lake and Boundary Lake before ending at the Canadian border . SR 31 's northern end at the Canadian border is the easternmost crossing in Washington and is located east of Crawford State Park .
= = History = =
= = = Pre – SR 31 ( 1923 – 1964 ) = = =
In 1923 , a system of roads to connect cities throughout Washington was established . One of the roads , State Road 6 , followed a route from Spokane to the Canadian border . The road was named the Pend O 'Reille Highway , a name that would identify the route until 1964 . The state road system was later expanded into a new system in 1937 .
During the creation of the Primary and Secondary Highways in 1937 , the road that was State Road 6 became Primary State Highway 6 ( PSH 6 ) . PSH 6 ran from U.S. Route 10 ( US 10 ) and US 195 ( future US 2 ) , north to the Canadian border ; the route was co @-@ signed as US 195 from Spokane to Newport . US 2 was signed over PSH 6 from Spokane to Newport in 1948 and the route became SR 31 from Newport to the Canadian border during the 1964 highway renumbering . During the renumbering , WSDOT replaced the previous system of Primary and Secondary Highways with a new system called State Routes , which is still in use today .
= = = SR 31 : Newport – BC 6 ( 1964 – 1973 ) = = =
SR 31 's previous route ran a total of 73 @.@ 31 miles ( 117 @.@ 98 km ) from Newport northwest to Tiger and north to the Canadian border at BC 6 . The route started in Newport at the intersection of W. Walnut Street ( SR 31 northbound and US 2 eastbound ) and N. Union Avenue ( US 2 westbound ) . Next , the highway went northwest and left Newport to parallel the Pend Oreille River for the rest of its route . The road would also join the Pend Oreille Valley Railroad north to the current southern terminus . SR 31 turned west and passed Lake Newport State Park , located on the shores of the river , before curving northwest and entering the community of Dilkena . From Dilkena , the road goes north to pass SR 311 's northern terminus in Usk and pass the towns of Cusick , Locke and Jared . The highway turned east at Jared and back northwest at Ruby . After Blue Slide and Lost Creek , SR 31 would continue north out of Tiger , which was the eastern terminus of SR 294 . SR 31 from Newport to Tiger later became SR 20 after it was extended on SR 294 and SR 31 in 1973 .
= = = = SR 311 ( 1964 – 1973 ) = = = =
From 1964 until 1973 , SR 31 had an auxiliary route called State Route 311 . The highway ran from US 2 west of Newport , north 15 @.@ 24 miles ( 24 @.@ 53 km ) to SR 31 in Usk . The road was entirely located within Pend Oreille County ; the southern terminus was located east of Pend Oreille State Park on US 2 and west of Diamond Lake and the community of the same name . SR 311 advanced north past Sacheen Lake and Davis Lake to the northern terminus , which was 2 @.@ 39 miles ( 3 @.@ 85 km ) south of Cusick . SR 311 was established as SSH 6B in 1937 during the creation of the primary and secondary highway system . In the 1964 renumbering , SR 311 was created over SSH 6B . When SR 20 was extended over SR 294 and SR 31 , SR 311 became SR 211 , which it is still currently designated as .
= = Major intersections = =
The entire highway is in Pend Oreille County .
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= Puerto Rico at the 2008 Summer Olympics =
Puerto Rico competed in the 2008 Summer Olympics which was held in Beijing , People 's Republic of China from August 8 to August 24 , 2008 . The American territory with a population of four million people qualified 22 athletes in eight different sports . The appearance of the Puerto Rican delegation at the Beijing Olympics marked the commonwealth 's sixteenth consecutive appearance at the Summer Olympics , and its twenty @-@ second appearance at any Olympic games , since its debut at the 1948 Summer Olympics in London , England . Of its competitors participating in events that involve progression by heats , six athletes advanced at least one round in their events , and two advanced at least two rounds , with Asunción Ocasio almost medaling bronze in taekwondo . However , there were no Puerto Rican medalists at the Beijing Olympics . McWilliams Arroyo , a boxer , bore Puerto Rico 's flag at the ceremonies .
= = Background = =
Puerto Rico is a large island on the northern rim of the Caribbean Sea that is home to approximately 4 million people . It lies due east of the Dominican Republic and to the west of the United States Virgin Islands . Puerto Rico was first colonized by the Spanish , but was ceded to the United States in the wake of the Spanish – American War in 1898 . Puerto Ricans were granted American citizenship in 1917 , although it remained apart from the United States and has a constitution that provides for self @-@ government . 41 years after Puerto Ricans became American citizens , Puerto Rico sent its first delegation to the Olympics at the 1948 Summer Olympics in London , England . The American commonwealth has sent a delegation to all sixteen Summer Olympics between then and the 2008 Beijing Olympics in addition to six Winter Olympic games .
Between its 1948 debut and its arrival at the Beijing Olympics , Puerto Rican athletes had won six medals ( one silver and five bronze ) . The last medal earned by a Puerto Rican was a bronze medal by Daniel Santos at the 1996 Summer Olympics in Atlanta . No medals were won by Puerto Ricans at Beijing . During the course of the 2008 Olympics , 22 athletes represented Puerto Rico — 17 men and five women — in eight sports ( track and field , boxing , artistic gymnastics , judo , shooting , swimming , taekwondo , and weightlifting ) . The size of the delegation was 21 athletes smaller than the Puerto Rican delegation that arrived at the 2004 Summer Olympics in Athens , and 58 athletes smaller than Puerto Rico 's largest Olympic team , which included 80 athletes participating in the 1976 Summer Olympics in Montréal , Canada . The oldest member of the Beijing delegation was Lucas Bennazar , a sharpshooter , who was 39 years old at the time ; boxer Jonathan González , in contrast , was the youngest at 19 years old . Boxer McWilliams Arroyo was the nation 's flag bearer at the ceremonies .
= = Athletics = =
= = = Men 's team = = =
= = = = Men 's 400 meters = = = =
Félix Martínez participated in the Beijing Olympics in the men 's 400 meters dash on behalf of Puerto Rico . Martínez competed at Beijing while he was 23 years old . He had not previously competed at any Olympic games . During the August 17 qualification round , Martínez participated in the sixth heat , which included eight athletes . At the end of the event , Martínez placed seventh after achieving a time of 46 @.@ 46 seconds . He ranked ahead of Poland 's Daniel Dabrowski ( 47 @.@ 83 seconds ) and behind Grenada 's Joel Phillips ( 46 @.@ 30 seconds ) , while Great Britain 's Andrew Steele ( 44 @.@ 94 seconds ) and Trinidad and Tobago 's Renny Quow ( 45 @.@ 13 seconds ) lead Martínez 's heat . Of the 55 finishing athletes , Martínez ranked 44th . He did not advance to later rounds .
= = = = Men 's 1 @,@ 500 meters = = = =
David Freeman competed for Puerto Rico at the Beijing Olympics , participating in the men 's 1 @,@ 500 meters race . He was 26 at the time of his participation in Beijing , which marked the first time he competed in any Olympic event . During the August 15 qualification round , Freeman was placed in the third heat versus 12 other athletes . He finished the event in 3 : 39 @.@ 70 , placing tenth . Nicholar Kemboi of Kenya placed behind Freeman ( 3 : 41 @.@ 56 ) , while Estonia 's Tildrek Nurme placed ahead of him ( 3 : 38 @.@ 59 ) . The Puerto Rican runner 's heat was led by South African athlete Juan van Deventer ( 3 : 36 @.@ 32 ) and Spain 's Arturo Casado ( 3 : 36 @.@ 42 ) . Overall , David Freeman ranked 25 out of the 48 finishing athletes . He did not advance to later rounds .
= = = = Men 's 110 meters hurdles = = = =
Héctor Cotto Gonzalez participated for Puerto Rico in the men 's 110 meters hurdles race , the only Puerto Rican participating in the event . Cotto was born in Fajardo , a city on Puerto Rico 's far northeastern coast , and participated in the Olympics for the first time in Beijing at age 23 . Cotto participated in the August 17 quarterfinals in the third heat , ranking sixth out of the heat 's eight athletes after achieving a time of 13 @.@ 72 seconds . He defeated Haiti 's Dudley Dorival ( 13 @.@ 78 seconds ) , but fell behind the Cayman Islands ' Ronald Forbes ( 13 @.@ 59 seconds ) in a heat that was led by Colombia 's Paulo Villar ( 13 @.@ 37 seconds ) and Barbados ' Ryan Brathwaite ( 13 @.@ 38 seconds ) . Of the 40 athletes who finished the event , Cotto ranked 28th . He progressed to the next round .
During the August 19 quarterfinals , Héctor Cotto Gonzalez participated in the first heat . He finished the event in 13 @.@ 73 seconds , placing last in a heat of eight athletes . He fell behind Russian hurdler Igor Peremota ( 13 @.@ 70 seconds ) and Trinidad and Tobago 's Mikel Thomas ( 13 @.@ 62 seconds ) in a heat that was led by the United States ' David Payne ( 13 @.@ 24 seconds ) and the Czech Republic 's Petr Svoboda ( 13 @.@ 41 seconds ) . 30 of the athletes who progressed to the quarterfinal round completed their races ; of these , Cotto ranked 27th . He did not advance to later rounds .
= = = = Men 's 400 meters hurdles = = = =
Javier Culson Rodríguez ( or Javier Culson Perez ) participated in the Beijing Olympics on the behalf of the Puerto Rican track team , participating in the men 's 400 meters hurdles . Culson was 24 at the time of his participation in the Beijing Olympics . He had not previously competed in any Olympic games . During the August 15 qualification heat , Culson participated in the third heat , which was composed of six athletes . The Puerto Rican runner ranked fourth of the six athletes , finishing the race in 49 @.@ 60 seconds . He ranked ahead of China 's Meng Yan ( 49 @.@ 73 seconds ) and behind Poland 's Marek Plawgo ( 49 @.@ 60 seconds ) in a heat that was led by Jamaica 's Markino Buckley ( 48 @.@ 65 seconds ) and South Africa 's LJ van Zyl ( 48 @.@ 86 seconds ) . Of the 25 finishing athletes , Culson ranked 15th . He progressed to the semifinal round .
Puerto Rico 's sole representative in the event participated in the first heat during the August 16 semifinal round , where he faced seven other athletes . Culson finished the race in 49 @.@ 85 seconds , ranking last . South Africa 's Pieter de Villiers ranked ahead of him in seventh place ( 49 @.@ 44 seconds ) , as did Russia 's Alexander Derevyagin , who ranked in sixth place ( 49 @.@ 23 seconds ) . Culson 's heat was led by American hurdlers Angelo Taylor ( 47 @.@ 94 seconds ) and Bershawn Jackson ( 48 @.@ 02 seconds ) . Of the 16 semifinalists , Javier Culson ranked 14th . He did not advance to later rounds .
= = = Women 's team = = =
= = = = Women 's 200 meters = = = =
Carol Ann Rodríguez Taylor competed for Puerto Rico at the 2008 Beijing Olympics in the women 's 200 meters dash . She was the sole female Puerto Rican representative participating in track and field during that year . Born in Pomona , a northerly suburb of Los Angeles , Rodríguez attended the University of Southern California . She attended the Beijing Olympics at age 22 , and had not previously attended any Olympic games as a competitor . During the August 18 qualification round , Rodríguez competed in the second heat against seven other athletes , achieving a time of 24 @.@ 07 seconds . Of those seven , six finished the event . Rodríguez ranked seventh in the heat behind Mariely Sanchez Hichez of the Dominican Republic ( 24 @.@ 05 seconds ) and Bulgaria 's Ivet Lalova ( 23 @.@ 13 seconds ) . She placed ahead only of Belgium 's Kim Gevaert , who did not participate in the race . The leaders of Rodríguez 's heat included first place finalist Muna Lee of the United States ( 22 @.@ 71 seconds ) and French second place finalist Muriel Hurtis @-@ Houari ( 22 @.@ 72 seconds ) . Of the 46 athletes who finished the race , Rodríguez tied Benin 's Fabienne Fereaz for 40th place . She did not advance to later rounds .
= = = = Women 's 400 meters = = = =
During her debut at the Beijing Olympics , Carol Rodríguez participated in the women 's 400 meters race alongside her entry into the women 's 200 meters dash . She was placed in the third heat during the August 16 qualification round , which included seven athletes in total . Rodríguez completed the event in 53 @.@ 08 seconds , defeating Haiti 's Ginou Etienne ( 53 @.@ 84 seconds ) but falling behind Barbara Petrahn of Hungary ( 53 @.@ 06 seconds ) . The leaders of Rodríguez 's heat included Russia 's Anastasia Kapachinskaya in first place ( 51 @.@ 32 seconds ) and Mary Wineberg of the United States in second place ( 51 @.@ 46 seconds ) . Of the 50 athletes competing in the event , the Puerto Rican sprinter placed 36th . She did not advance to later rounds .
= = = Summary = = =
Key
Note – Ranks given for track events are within the athlete 's heat only
Q
= Qualified for the next round
q =
Qualified for the next round as a fastest loser or , in field events , by position without achieving the qualifying target
NR
= National record
N / A =
Round not applicable for the event
Bye = Athlete not required to compete in round
Men
Women
= = Boxing = =
= = = Men 's team = = =
Puerto Rico qualified five boxers for the Olympic boxing tournament . The Arroyo twins both qualified at the 2007 World Championships . Negron became the third Puerto Rican boxer to qualify , at the first American qualifying tournament . Pedraza and Gonzalez qualified at the second American continental qualifying tournament .
= = = = Men 's flyweight class ( 48 – 51 kg ) = = = =
McWilliams Arroyo Acevedo represented Puerto Rico as a boxer in the flyweight class ( 51 kilograms in weight or below ) . Born in Ceiba , one of Puerto Rico 's easternmost cities , Arroyo is the twin brother of fellow Olympian boxer McJoe Arroyo . He participated in the Beijing Olympics at age 22 , marking his first ever appearance at an Olympic games . The Puerto Rican was placed in the first bout during the August 16 first round ( known also as the Round of 16 ) , where he faced Hungary 's Norbert Kalucza . Arroyo scored 14 punches on Kalucza , while the Hungarian scored six punches in return . Thus , Arroyo defeated Norbert Kalucza and advanced to quarterfinals .
During the quarterfinal round of August 20 , McWilliams Arroyo participated in the first bout . He challenged Cuba 's Andris Laffita Hernandez and lost , scoring only two punches on Laffita while he scored 11 punches on Arroyo . As a result , the Puerto Rican boxer did not advance to the semifinal round on August 22 .
= = = = Men 's bantamweight class ( 51 – 54 kg ) = = = =
McJoe Arroyo Acevedo also represented Puerto Rico in boxing , competing in the bantamweight class ( under 54 kilograms in weight ) . Like his twin brother , McWilliams Arroyo , McJoe Arroyo was born in the city of Ceiba on Puerto Rico 's eastern end and participated in the Beijing Olympics at the age of 22 . Arroyo had not previously competed in any Olympic games . The preliminary round of the event took place on August 12 , where Arroyo challenged Russia 's Sergey Vodopyanov in the sixth bout . Arroyo was defeated , scoring only five punches on Vodopyanov , who scored 10 in return . The Puerto Rican boxer did not advance to the next round .
= = = = Men 's lightweight class ( 57 – 60 kg ) = = = =
José " Sniper " Pedraza González competed for Puerto Rico in boxing . Participating in the men 's lightweight class ( under 60 kilograms in weight ) , Pedraza was 19 years old at the time he entered the Beijing Olympics . The boxer had not previously participated in any Olympic games or events . During the preliminary round of the event , which took place on August 11 , Pedraza competed in the ninth bout against Turkey 's Onur Sipal . By the match 's end , Sipal had been defeated , scoring only three punches on Pedraza while Pedraza scored ten in return . The Puerto Rican boxer advanced to the August 15 Round of 16 , where he was pitted against Fance 's Daouda Sow . Pedraza lost this round , scoring nine punches on Sow , who scored 13 in return . He did not advance to later rounds .
= = = = Men 's light welterweight class ( 60 – 64 kg ) = = = =
Jonathan " Mantequilla " González Ortíz competed at the Beijing Olympics on Puerto Rico 's behalf , participating in the light welterweight class ( 64 kilograms in weight or less ) . Born in July 1989 , González was 19 at the time he participated at the Beijing Olympics . He did not previously compete at any Olympic games . During the preliminary round of his event , which occurred on August 10 , González was placed in the eighth bout against a Romanian boxer named Ionut Gheorghe . González lost the bout , scoring four punches on Gheorghe , who scored 21 in return . He did not advance to later rounds .
= = = = Men 's light heavyweight class ( 75 – 81 kg ) = = = =
Carlos Negrón Colón participated in boxing events on Puerto Rico 's behalf at the Beijing Olympics . Born in the southern inland town of Villalba , Negrón was 21 years old at the time of his participation in the Beijing Olympics of 2008 in the light heavyweight class ( less than 81 kilograms in weight ) . Negrón had not previously competed in any Olympic games . The preliminary round of his event took place on August 9 , when he faced Iran 's Mehdi Ghorbani in the eleventh bout . Negrón defeated Ghorbani , scoring four punches on him while receiving 13 in return . The Puerto Rican advanced to the next round .
The Round of 16 in Negrón 's event took place on August 14 , where the Puerto Rican boxer competed in the eighth bout . He was defeated by Yerkebulan Shynaliyev of Kazakhstan , who scored nine punches on Negrón . Carlos Negrón scored three punches in return . He did not advance to later rounds .
Official Olympic Boxing Schedule
= = Gymnastics = =
= = = Artistic = = =
Luis Rivera represented Puerto Rico in artistic gymnastics , and was the only Puerto Rican gymnast to appear at the Beijing Olympics . Born in Humacao , a city on Puerto Rico 's southeastern coast , Rivera has been affiliated with the Federación Puertorriqueña de Gimnasia ( English : Puerto Rican Federation of Gymnastics ) and participated in Beijing at age 21 . He had not previously competed in any Olympic games . During the preliminary round , which took place on August 9 , Rivera competed against 97 other athletes . During the floor exercise , Rivera scored 15 @.@ 125 points , placing 24th of the 98 athletes in this event . During the horse vault , Rivera ranked 13th after scoring 16 @.@ 225 ( this was on his first jump ; his second jump scored 15 @.@ 200 ) . Next , during the parallel bars event , Luis Rivera ranked 61st after earning 14 @.@ 575 points , and later earned 14 @.@ 675 points in the horizontal bar . Rivera ranked 22nd in the still rings event after earning 15 @.@ 250 points and placing 22nd , and finished out the qualification round on the pommel horse by ranking 20th with a score of 14 @.@ 750 . Overall , the Puerto Rican gymnast ranked 13th of the 27 advancing athletes , ending with a total score of 90 @.@ 600 points . He placed ahead of Russia 's Maxim Devyatovskiy ( 90 @.@ 350 points ) and behind Belarus ' Dmitry Savitski ( 90 @.@ 650 points ) . He advanced to the final round .
At finals , which took place on August 13 , Rivera competed in all the events in which he had previously participated . He earned 15 @.@ 250 points on the floor ; 16 @.@ 025 points on the horse vault ; 14 @.@ 375 points on the parallel bars ; 14 @.@ 275 points on the horizontal bar ; 15 @.@ 225 points on the still rings ; and 15 @.@ 025 points on the pommel horse . Overall , he earned 90 @.@ 175 points and finished in 14th place . Rivera placed ahead of Canadian athlete Adam Wong ( 98 @.@ 800 points ) and behind German gymnast Philipp David Boy ( 90 @.@ 675 points ) in a heat led by China 's gold medalist Wei Yang ( 94 @.@ 575 points ) and tailed by China 's Chen Yibing ( 74 @.@ 225 points ) .
Q = Qualified for finalOfficial Olympic Artistic Gymnastics Schedule
= = Judo = =
Alexis Chiclana Melendez represented Puerto Rico in men 's judo . He took part in the men 's middleweight class , which includes athletes under 90 kilograms in weight . Chiclana , born in February 1987 , participated in Beijing as a 21 @-@ year @-@ old . He had not previously competed in any Olympic events . During the August 13 first round ( also known as the Round of 32 ) , Chiclana challenged Spain 's David Alarza in the fourteenth match . Alarza defeated Chiclana using uchi mata , scoring ippon in the event . Chiclana did not progress to further rounds .
Pablo Figueroa Carillo participated in the sport of judo at the Beijing Olympics , representing Puerto Rico . He was born in 1981 , and , in Beijing , took part in the men 's heavyweight class alongside other athletes over 100 kilograms in weight . He had not participated earlier in any Olympic games or events . Figueroa took part in the fifth match during the first round ( or the Round of 32 ) on August 15 against Iceland 's Thormodur Arni Jonsson . Pablo Figueroa was defeated by Jonsson , who used kosoto gari and scored ippon in the process . Figueroa did not progress to later rounds .
Abderramán Brenes la Roche also competed as a judoka on Puerto Rico 's behalf . Born in1978 , Brenes participated in Beijing as a 29 @-@ year @-@ old , taking part in the competitions of the half middleweight class ( less than 81 kilograms in weight ) . Brenes had not previously competed in any Olympic games . During the August 12 first round ( or Round of 32 ) , the judoka faced Italy 's Giuseppe Maddaloni in the sixteenth match Maddaloni defeated the Puerto Rican athlete with a morote gari , scoring yuko . Brenes did not advance to later rounds .
= = Shooting = =
Lucas Rafael Bennazar Ortíz participated in the Beijing Olympics as Puerto Rico 's only sharpshooter . Born in the northern city of Guaynabo , Bennazar first participated in the Olympics as a 35 @-@ year @-@ old in Athens that competed in the men 's trap shooting and double trap . He again participated in the double trap when he returned to the Olympics as a 39 @-@ year @-@ old . Bennazar took part in the preliminary round of the event , which took place on August 11 . During this time , Bennazar earned 45 points in the first round ; 39 points in the second round ; and 39 points again in the third round . His overall score during preliminaries was 123 points , placing 17th out of 19 athletes . He defeated New Zealand 's Graeme Ede ( 113 points ) and fell behind Russia 's Vitaly Fokeev ( 130 points ) , falling behind heat leader Walton Eller of the United States who set an Olympic record with his score ( 145 points ) . His score remained the same in the final round on August 12 , and he remained in 17th place .
Men
= = Swimming = =
= = = Men 's team = = =
Daniel Velez represented Puerto Rico as one of its two male swimmers at the Beijing Olympics . He was born in December 1983 , making him 24 at the time of his participation at the 2008 Olympic Games . He swam in the 100 meters breaststroke , marking the first time he ever competed at an Olympic games . During the August 9 preliminary round , Velez participated in the third heat against seven other athletes . He completed the event in 1 : 01 @.@ 80 , placing first in the heat ahead of India 's second place finalist Sandeep Sejwal ( 1 : 02 @.@ 19 ) and Paraguay 's third place finalist Genaro Prono ( 1 : 02 @.@ 32 ) . Of the 63 competitors who finished the event , Velez placed 33rd . He did not advance to later rounds .
Douglas Lennox @-@ Silva represented Puerto Rico in swimming events . Born in Fort Lauderdale , Florida , Lennox @-@ Silva has been affiliated with the Lake Forest Swim Club in the Chicago area . He is the brother of Kristina Lennox @-@ Silva , who also competed in the Beijing Olympics as a swimmer . The Puerto Rican swam in the men 's 100 meters butterfly , which held its preliminary round on August 14 . Lennox @-@ Silva participated in the fifth heat against seven other athletes , placing fifth after finishing the race in 53 @.@ 34 seconds . He displaced Canada 's Adam Sioui ( 53 @.@ 38 seconds ) , who placed sixth , but fell behind fifth @-@ place finalist Francois Heersbrandt of Belgium ( 53 @.@ 33 seconds ) . South Africa 's Lyndon Ferns ( 52 @.@ 04 seconds ) and Croatia 's Mario Todorovic ( 52 @.@ 26 seconds ) led the heat . Of the 65 athletes who finished the preliminary round , Douglas Lennox @-@ Silva placed 38th . He did not advance to later rounds .
Douglas Lennox @-@ Silva also competed for Puerto Rico in the men 's 200 meters butterfly race . During the August 11 preliminary round , Lennox @-@ Silva was placed in the second heat , where he challenged seven other athletes . He finished the race in 2 : 01 @.@ 69 , placing sixth in the heat ahead of Serbia 's Vladan Markovic ( 2 : 03 @.@ 13 ) , who placed seventh , and behind Venezuela 's Alexis Márquez Rivas ( 2 : 01 @.@ 25 ) , who placed fifth . The heat itself was led by Filipino swimmer James Walsh ( 1 : 59 @.@ 39 ) and Spain 's Javier Núñez ( 2 : 00 @.@ 24 ) . 44 swimmers competed in the first round of the event , and Lennox @-@ Silva placed 38th . He did not advance to later rounds .
= = = Women 's team = = =
Vanessa García Vega participated in the women 's 50 meters freestyle for Puerto Rico . Born in the territorial capital of San Juan , García first participated in the Olympics at the age of 20 , when she represented Puerto Rico in both the women 's 50 meters freestyle and women 's 100 meters freestyle at the 2004 Olympics in Athens . She returned to the Olympics at age 24 , this time only in the 50 meters freestyle in Beijing . During the preliminary round , which took place on August 15 , García participated in the ninth heat against seven other athletes . She finished the event in 25 @.@ 81 seconds , placing last in the heat behind Greece 's Martha Matsa ( 25 @.@ 68 seconds ) . The leaders of García 's heat included Estonia 's Triin Aljand ( 25 @.@ 29 seconds ) and Slovakia 's Martina Moravcova ( 25 @.@ 47 seconds ) . Of the 90 athletes who finished the event , García placed 35th . She did not advance to later rounds .
Kristina Lennox @-@ Silva also represented Puerto Rico as a female swimmer in the 400 meters freestyle . Similar to her brother Douglas Lennox @-@ Silva , Kristina Lennox @-@ Silva swam for Villanova Swimming and Diving , at Villanova University just outside Philadelphia , Pennsylvania . She participated in the Beijing Olympics at age 23 , and had not previously participated in any Olympic games . In the women 's 400 meters freestyle , Lennox @-@ Silva participated during the seven @-@ person second heat of the August 10 preliminary round . She ranked fourth in the heat , having finished the event in 4 : 20 @.@ 17 . She placed ahead of South Korea 's Lee Ji @-@ Eun ( 4 : 21 @.@ 53 ) and behind Finland 's Eva Lehtonen ( 4 : 20 @.@ 07 ) in a heat led by Venezuela 's Yanel Andreina Pinto Perez ( 4 : 18 @.@ 09 ) and the Ukraine 's Nataliya Khudyakova ( 4 : 18 @.@ 34 ) . Of the 41 athletes who participated in and completed the preliminary round , Lennox @-@ Silva ranked 36th . She did not progress to the next round .
Kristina Lennox @-@ Silva also participated in the women 's 200 meters butterfly . She was placed in the first heat during the preliminary round of the event , which took place on August 12 . Three other athletes participated in her heat . Kristina Lennox @-@ Silva placed last of four athletes , earning a time of 2 : 17 @.@ 27 . She placed behind Ingvild Snildal of Norway ( 2 : 14 @.@ 53 ) in a heat that was led by Greek first @-@ place swimmer Eleftheria Evgenia Efstathiou ( 2 : 13 @.@ 27 ) and Turkey 's second @-@ place athlete Gulsah Gunenc ( 2 : 14 @.@ 44 ) . Overall , 34 athletes finished the event 's preliminary round . Lennox @-@ Silva ranked last of those , and did not advance to later rounds .
= = = Summary = = =
Men
Women
= = Taekwondo = =
Ángel Román Martínez competed for Puerto Rico in taekwondo . Born in 1984 , Román entered Beijing at age 24 , competing in the men 's welterweight class ( which includes athletes under 80 kilograms in weight ) . Román had not previously competed in any Olympic games or events . During the course of the competition 's first round , which took place on August 22 , Román faced Canada 's Sébastien Michaud in the sixth match . The Puerto Rican judoka won a total of two deuk @-@ jeom ( points ) , with one in the first round and one in the third round , but lost a deuk @-@ jeom to a deduction . His Canadian opponent scored a total of three deuk @-@ jeom , but lost one to a deduction . Thus , as Michaud ended with a score higher than Román 's score , Michaud won the round . Román did not advance to later rounds .
Asunción Ocasio Rodríguez represented Puerto Rico in taekwondo at the Beijing Olympics , and was the only female athlete from Puerto Rico that Games to represent the commonwealth in the sport . Born in June 1987 , Ocasio participated in the Beijing Olympics at age 21 in the welterweight division , which includes athletes under 67 kilograms in weight . During the qualification round of the event , Ocasio faced Greek athlete Elisavet Mystakidou . Both athletes scored one point on the other , but Ocasio defeated Mystakidou and advanced to the next round . Ocasio received a bye and skipped the first round 's repechage round . During the quarterfinal round , Ocasio again participated in the first match , this time facing German athlete Helena Fromm . In this match , the Puerto Rican athlete scored two points on Fromm , who scored none in return . Ocasio defeated her German opponent and progressed to the next round . During the semifinal round , Asunción Ocasio now faced Canada 's Karine Sergerie . Sergerie scored two points on Ocasio , who did not score any in return . Thus , Ocasio 's Canadian opponent progressed to the gold medal match , while she challenged Croatia 's Sandra Saric for the bronze medal . Saric defeated Ocasio by scoring five points on her , while Ocasio was only able to return one . She placed fifth in the event , tying Australia 's Tina Morgan .
= = Weightlifting = =
Geralee Vega Morales participated on Puerto Rico 's behalf as its only weightlifter . Born in 1986 , Vega was 22 at the time of her participation in Beijing . She took part in the women 's lightweight event , which includes athletes under 58 kilograms in weight . She had not previously participated in any Olympic games . Vega 's event took place on August 11 , and included 12 athletes in total . During the snatch phase of the event , Vega was given three attempts . She unsuccessfully attempted to lift 90 kilograms of weight during her first two attempts , but succeeded on her third , tying eighth in that part of the event . She then attempted 112 kilograms during the clean and jerk phrase of the event , successfully lifting it on her first attempt . She did not succeed in lifting 115 kilograms on her second attempt , or 116 kilograms on her third . Overall , the combination of her highest scores in snatch ( 90 ) and clean and jerk ( 112 ) yielded a score of 202 points . Geralee Vega Morales ranked ninth in the event , ahead of Poland 's Marieta Gotfryd ( 200 points ) and behind Romania 's Roxana Cocos ( 204 points ) . China 's Chen Yanqing set an Olympic record when she took the gold medal with 244 points .
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= Hurricane Dora ( 2011 ) =
Hurricane Dora was the strongest tropical cyclone in the northeastern Pacific in 2011 . Dora developed from a tropical wave south of Honduras on July 18 . Moving northwestward in favorable conditions , the system quickly intensified to tropical storm status and attained hurricane intensity the next day . Rapid intensification ensued shortly thereafter , bringing the storm to its peak intensity on July 21 as a Category 4 hurricane , with a minimum barometric pressure of 929 mbar ( hPa ; 27 @.@ 43 inHg ) and maximum sustained winds of 155 mph ( 250 km / h ) . However , the storm 's path into an area with cool sea surface temperatures and wind shear caused Dora to quickly deteriorate and weaken . By July 24 , Dora had degenerated into a remnant low @-@ pressure area west of the Baja California Peninsula . Dora brought stormy conditions to the southwestern Mexico coast and the Baja California Peninsula throughout its existence . Remaining off the coast from its formation to dissipation , Dora 's effects on land were slight . However , the outer rainbands of the hurricane caused flooding and mudslides in southern Mexico and Guatemala , while rough surf toppled a lighthouse and damaged 60 restaurants along the coast . The hurricane 's remnants contributed to heightened shower and thunderstorm activity across New Mexico and Arizona in late July .
= = Meteorological history = =
The origins of Hurricane Dora can be traced back to a tropical wave that emerged off the western African coast on July 7 . The disturbance tracked into the Caribbean Sea seven days later without any signs of development . However , the system encountered an enhanced flow of moisture in the southwestern Caribbean , allowing for organization and the formation of a broad low @-@ pressure area on July 15 . Upon tracking into the eastern Pacific , the National Hurricane Center ( NHC ) judged the storm to have had a low chance developing into a tropical cyclone . The next day , thunderstorm activity erupted around the system , and at 1500 UTC on July 18 , the NHC declared the vigorous disturbance to have reached tropical depression status ; in post @-@ season analysis , the NHC found that Dora was already a tropical storm by this point after developing six hours earlier .
After development , Dora was steered towards the northwest by a ridge over the Southwestern United States . Situated in an area of favorable atmospheric conditions and warm sea surface temperatures , the tropical cyclone quickly strengthened , developing an intermittent eye before being classified as a hurricane at 1800 UTC on July 19 . At the time , the storm was roughly 245 mi ( 400 km ) south @-@ southwest of Puerto Escondido , Oaxaca . Upon reaching hurricane status , Dora began an episode of rapid intensification as its inner structure became more well @-@ defined and its eye more permanent . At the same time , mesovorticies within the eye — often indicators of intense tropical cyclones — were noted on satellite imagery . By 1800 UTC on July 20 , Dora had attained the threshold for major hurricane status . After acquiring some characteristics of an annular hurricane early on July 21 , Dora reached its peak intensity at 1200 UTC that day with a minimum barometric pressure of 929 mbar ( hPa ; 27 @.@ 43 inHg ) and maximum sustained winds of 155 mph ( 250 km / h ) , making it a high @-@ end Category 4 on the Saffir – Simpson hurricane wind scale .
Dora held its peak strength for just six hours before it began to weaken due to cooler waters and the presence of wind shear . Although the hurricane 's initial weakening phase was gradual , the overall structure of Dora quickly deteriorated in response to increasingly hostile wind shear around the storm . The storm 's eye abruptly dissipated less than 12 hours after Dora 's peak intensity , By 1800 UTC on July 22 , the tropical cyclone had weakened to tropical storm intensity , undergoing an 80 mph ( 130 km / h ) decrease in winds in just 24 hours . Continued weakening prompted the NHC to downgrade Dora to a tropical depression two days later at 1200 UTC as the system curved west of the Baja California Peninsula . Twelve hours later , the system degenerated into a remnant low pressure area devoid of any thunderstorm activity . The low persisted for a day as it tracked north @-@ northwestward , eventually dissipating 70 mi ( 110 km ) south @-@ southwest of Bahía Asunción on July 26 .
= = Preparations and impact = =
On July 20 , the Government of Mexico issued a tropical storm watch for a portion of the southwestern Mexico coast from Lázaro Cárdenas , Michoacán to Cabo Corrientes ; this watch remained posted until the early hours of July 21 . Several hours later , another tropical storm watch was issued for coastal areas of the Baja California Peninsula from Agua Blanca to Buenavista , and was later upgraded to a tropical storm warning as Dora neared the coast . However , the warning was lifted after the hurricane weakened and moved away from land . In Guerrero , the threat of flooding prompted the state government to prepare 900 shelters , while boaters were ordered to exercise caution due to rough seas generated by the nearby tropical cyclone .
The outer rainbands of the tropical cyclone caused flooding in the states of Chiapas , Guerrero , and Chiapas , resulting in some damage . Several mudslides in southern Mexico and Guatemala were attributed to these rains . Off the Mexican coast , waves from Dora peaked at 13 ft ( 4 @.@ 0 m ) . These high waves toppled a lighthouse roughly 35 mi ( 56 km ) east of Acapulco and also damaged or swept away 60 thatch @-@ roofed restaurants around La Penitas and La Bocana . After passing southwestern Mexico , Dora was expected to track near the Baja California Peninsula , forcing port authorities in Los Cabos Municipality to suspend boat tours and other tourist services . Four elementary schools were converted into emergency shelters in preparation for potential flooding . Residual moisture from Dora enhanced the monsoonal flow over Arizona and New Mexico , producing showers across the region .
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= Out of Mind ( Tove Lo song ) =
" Out of Mind " is a song by Swedish recording artist Tove Lo for her debut extended play , Truth Serum ( 2014 ) . It was written by Lo alongside Alx Reuterskiöld and produced by The Struts with Reuterskiöld . The song was released on 16 October 2013 as the lead single from Truth Serum by Universal Music . It was also her third single overall , after " Love Ballad " and " Habits " . Musically , " Out of Mind " is a pop song featuring synthesizers , guitars , bass and keys instrumentation . Its lyrics speak of the singer 's inability to completely forget a former boyfriend . Its lyrical content was described by Lo and music critics alike as a sequel to " Habits ( Stay High ) " . The song was well received by some critics , who commended its production and considered it one of the best tracks from the extended play . However , it attained little commercial success , peaking at number 39 on the Official Finnish Airplay Chart .
A music video for " Out of Mind " , directed by Andreas Öhman , was released on 16 October 2013 . Its imagery was based on Lo 's diary and was filmed in the woods and other deserted places in Stockholm , Sweden . It shows the singer having an out @-@ of @-@ body experience where she releases her " demons and dark thoughts " and runs away from them . Lo performed the song several occasions , including on Swedish radio station P3 , at the Norwegian by : Larm festival and at Notting Hill Arts Club in London .
= = Background and release = =
" Out of Mind " is a pop song written by Tove Lo alongside Alx Reuterskiöld and produced by The Struts with Reuterskiöld . It has a minimal instrumentation which incorporates " a mesh of fizzing synthesizers " . It was released as a single on 16 October 2013 , and was later featured on the singer 's debut extended play , Truth Serum ( 2014 ) . According to the artist , the songs on the EP talk about her " most intense " failed relationship . In an interview with Coup de Main Magazine , she said that " ' Out Of Mind ' for me is kind of the step after ' Habits ' ... Picked up the pieces again and now just trying to glue them back together , you know ? But it never really works " . In another interview , she told that :
In its entirety , [ Truth Serum tells ] a love story from beginning to end . The song ' Love Ballad ' is about the moment you decide to give everything to another person , while ' Habits ' shows what happens when everything is screwed up and you just want to freak out . ' Out of Mind ' deals with the stage after that , when your broken heart has mended , but the scars are still there .
Some critics had similar opinions about the song 's meaning . Lauren Down of The Guardian expressed that " Wrapped up in the aftermath of a relationship , ' Out Of Mind ' [ ... ] allows the pain of an ending love affair to breath " . Mark Savage of BBC wrote that an indifferent person tells the singer that " time will heal her broken heart " . According to Andrew Hampp of Billboard , the singer " tells off " a former boyfriend for expecting her to get over quickly their former relationship . Sam Lansky of Idolator felt that the artist shows " frustrated resignation " while she sings the line " I 'll forget you , seriously " . In the pre @-@ chorus , the music vanishes and she sings " Are you kidding me ? " . Lansky felt that the " emotion " on the pre @-@ chorus was " chill @-@ inducing " , while Savage wrote that " it 's pained and bruised and thrilling and glorious . A moment where meaning and musical intent align perfectly " . In the chorus , the singer repeats the line " You 're out of your mind to think that I " and later finishes it with " could keep you out of mind " , representing the " heartbreaking resolution " of the relationship .
= = Reception = =
The song was met with positive reaction by critics . Gaffa Norway critic Tord Litleskare considered it " the most positive song from Truth Serum with its strong chorus and subdued verses " . Additionally , he called it a " must @-@ hear track " alongside " Habits " and " Not On Drugs " . Richard S. Chang of Redbull.com ranked it at number 3 on his Top 5 Best Tove Lo songs list and wrote that " ' Out Of Mind ' provides the blueprint for Tove Lo 's hits : soft and spare verse , followed by an explosive chorus — all fitting in nicely at just over three minutes " . Under the Gun Review 's Tarynn Law called it a " powerful shadow pop track " that " shows off [ Tove 's ] outstanding vocals and just how much promise she has " . Mark Savage of BBC wrote that the pre @-@ chorus of the song was " a moment on [ Truth Serum ] that will take your breath away " . Idolator critic Sam Lansky called it " a cinematic anthem , perfectly suited for some big heartbreak montage , with a big , gorgeous stampeding chorus that crashes in out of nowhere " . He also noted that , with the song , the singer positions as " the next great Swedish pop act " . " Out of Mind " entered the Official Finnish Airplay Chart at number 39 on the last week of 2013 . In doing so , it became the first charting song by Tove Lo on that chart . The following week , it fell to number 52 . It spent a total of six weeks on the chart .
= = Music video = =
On 10 August 2013 , Lo announced that she had started filming the music video for her new single . The music video for " Out of Mind " was directed by Andreas Öhman , a member of Swedish production company Naive . It was filmed in the woods and in different deserted places in Stockholm . The imagery was based on Lo 's diary ; in an interview with Swedish website PSL , she explained that :
It started with the idea that all of my " demons and dark thoughts " would literally fly out of my head in the video . I 'm trying to get rid of them , but I can 't . I got help from a friend of mine to develop the idea , and when I said I was willing to lend the excerpts of my diary as inspiration for the illustrations he simply said , ' I have the perfect artist for this ' . Then , the artist , Anton Ingvarsson , got a letter from me — which he later promised to burn — with excerpts I plucked out of my diary . It was incredibly scary and a little embarrassing at the same time . Then , Anton sent me some really cool graphics that he painted that set the whole tone for the video . The whole video gives me a lot of disclosure , both on the inside and on the outside but I like it . It gives me so much anxiety and pride at the same time ! .
On 11 October 2013 , Universal Music Sweden posted a 16 seconds teaser of the video on its YouTube channel . On 16 October 2013 , it was released on Lo 's VEVO channel on YouTube . The video begins with Lo lying in bed next to her boyfriend . When she starts to sing , she has an out @-@ of @-@ body experience . In the next scene , Lo appears in a room where she cuts her head open and releases her " demons and dark thoughts " . In an interview with Artistdirect , she explained that the demons represent " those thoughts about this other person [ that ] will always haunt you a bit " and " always stick with you " . Then , she is walking on the city streets when the demons start to follow her . She runs barefoot through the woods , where she stops and sings around the entities . At the end of the video , they flow back inside of her and Lo returns to her bedroom .
= = Live performances = =
Tove Lo performed " Out of Mind " and " Not Made For This World " for the first time alongside " Habits " and " Love Ballad " at Swedish radio station P3 on 10 April 2013 . She performed it later at Swedish radio station NRJ Sverige on 27 November 2013 . The following year , she performed the song at Finnish radio station Radio Xtremellä on 25 February 2014 . Two days later , she performed it at the Norwegian by : Larm festival . She performed it later at Swedish TV show Nyhetsmorgon on 22 March 2014 . Three days later , the artist performed the track at Tavastia Club in Helsinki , Finland .
Lo performed " Out of Mind " alongside the other songs from Truth Serum and " Run On Love " at Notting Hill Arts Club on 2 April 2014 . This was her first UK show . For the performance , she was accompanied by two drummers . A reviewer from Discopop stated that he was " blown away " and that it was " so refreshing to be at a pop show that engages the heart as well as the senses " . Also , Michael Cragg of The Guardian rated the show with 4 stars out of 5 and deemed it as " a punchy UK debut " . She performed the same set list at her Hoxton Square Bar & Kitchen show on 6 May 2014 . Two months later , she performed the song on US music TV show JBTV . On 1 October , the singer performed the song among others at Webster Hall in Manhattan , New York City . " Out of Mind " was included on the set list of Lo 's first tour , the Queen of the Clouds Tour ( 2015 ) .
= = Credits and personnel = =
Credits are adapted from the Truth Serum liner notes .
= = Charts = =
= = Release history = =
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= Inception =
Inception is a 2010 science fiction heist thriller film written , co @-@ produced , and directed by Christopher Nolan , and co @-@ produced by Emma Thomas . The film stars Leonardo DiCaprio as a professional thief who steals information by infiltrating the subconscious , and is offered a chance to have his criminal history erased as payment for a task seemingly @-@ impossible : " inception " , the implantation of another person 's idea into a target 's subconscious . The ensemble cast additionally includes Ellen Page , Joseph Gordon @-@ Levitt , Marion Cotillard , Ken Watanabe , Tom Hardy , Dileep Rao , Cillian Murphy , Tom Berenger , and Michael Caine .
After the 2002 completion of Insomnia , Nolan presented to Warner Bros. a written 80 @-@ page treatment about a horror film envisioning " dream stealers " based on lucid dreaming . Emphasizing on professional @-@ scale experience , Nolan retired the project and instead worked on 2005 's Batman Begins , 2006 's The Prestige , and The Dark Knight in 2008 . The treatment was revised over 6 months and was purchased by Warner in February 2009 . Inception was filmed in six countries , beginning in Tokyo in June 19 and ending in Canada in November 22 . Its official budget was US $ 160 million , split between Warner Bros and Legendary . Nolan 's reputation and success with The Dark Knight helped secure the film 's $ 100 million in advertising expenditure .
Inception 's première was held in London on July 8 , 2010 ; its wide release to both conventional and IMAX theaters began on July 16 , 2010 . A box office success , Inception has grossed over $ 800 million worldwide . The home video market also had strong results , with $ 68 million in DVD and Blu @-@ ray sales . Inception opened to acclaim from critics , who praised its story , score , and ensemble cast . It won four Academy Awards for Best Cinematography , Best Sound Editing , Best Sound Mixing , and Best Visual Effects , and was nominated for four more : Best Picture , Best Original Score , Best Art Direction , and Best Original Screenplay .
= = Plot = =
Dominick " Dom " Cobb ( Leonardo DiCaprio ) and Arthur ( Joseph Gordon @-@ Levitt ) are " extractors " , who perform corporate espionage using an experimental military technology to infiltrate the subconscious of their targets and extract valuable information through a shared dream world . Their latest target , Japanese businessman Saito ( Ken Watanabe ) , reveals that he arranged their mission himself to test Cobb for a seemingly @-@ impossible job : planting an idea in a person 's subconscious , or " inception " .
To break up the energy conglomerate of ailing competitor Maurice Fischer ( Pete Postlethwaite ) , Saito wants Cobb to convince Fischer 's son and heir , Robert ( Cillian Murphy ) , to dissolve his father 's company . In return , Saito promises to use his influence to clear Cobb of a murder charge , allowing Cobb to return home to his children . Cobb accepts the offer and assembles his team : Eames ( Tom Hardy ) , a conman and identity forger ; Yusuf ( Dileep Rao ) , a chemist who concocts a powerful sedative for a stable " dream within a dream " strategy , Ariadne ( Ellen Page ) , an architecture student tasked with designing the labyrinth of the dream landscapes , recruited with the help of Cobb 's father @-@ in @-@ law , Professor Stephen Miles ( Michael Caine ) . While dream @-@ sharing with Cobb , Ariadne learns his subconscious houses an invasive projection of his late wife Mal ( Marion Cotillard ) .
When the elder Fischer dies in Sydney , Robert Fischer accompanies the body on a ten @-@ hour flight back to Los Angeles , which the team ( including Saito , who wants to verify their success ) uses as an opportunity to sedate and take Fischer into a shared dream . At each dream level , the person generating the dream stays behind to set up a " kick " that will be used to awaken the other sleeping team members from the deeper dream level ; to be successful , these kicks must occur simultaneously at each dream level , a fact complicated due to the nature of time which proceeds much faster in each successive level .
The first level is Yusuf 's dream of a rainy Los Angeles . The team abducts Fischer , but they are attacked by armed projections from Fischer 's subconscious , which has been trained to defend against extraction . The team takes Fischer and a wounded Saito to a warehouse , where Cobb reveals that while dying in the dream would normally wake Saito up , the powerful sedatives needed to stabilize the multi @-@ level dream will instead send a dying dreamer into " limbo " , a world of infinite subconscious from which escape is difficult and a dreamer risks forgetting they are in a dream . Despite these setbacks , the team continues with the mission .
Eames impersonates Fischer 's godfather , Peter Browning ( Tom Berenger ) , to suggest Fischer reconsider his father 's will . Yusuf drives the van as the other dreamers are sedated into the second level .
In the second level , a hotel dreamed by Arthur , Cobb convinces Fischer that he has been kidnapped by Browning and Cobb is his subconscious protector . Cobb persuades him to go down another level to explore Browning 's subconscious ( in reality , it is a ruse to enter Fischer 's ) .
The third level is a snowy mountain fortress dreamed by Eames . The team has to infiltrate it and hold off the guards as Cobb takes Fischer into the equivalent of his subconscious .
Yusuf , under pursuit by Fischer 's projections in the first level , deliberately drives off a bridge and initiates his kick too soon . This removes the gravity of Arthur 's level , forcing him to improvise a new kick that will synchronize with the van hitting the water , and causes an avalanche in Eames ' level . Mal 's projection emerges and kills Fischer , Cobb kills Mal , and Saito succumbs to his wounds ; all three fall into Limbo . While Eames sets up a kick by rigging the fortress with explosives , Cobb and Ariadne enter Limbo to rescue Fischer and Saito .
Cobb reveals to Ariadne that he and Mal went to Limbo while experimenting with the dream @-@ sharing technology . Sedated for a few hours of real time , they spent fifty years in dream time constructing a world from their shared memories . When Mal refused to return to reality , Cobb used a rudimentary form of inception by reactivating her totem ( an object dreamers use to distinguish dreams from reality ) and reminding her subconscious that their world was not real . However , when she woke up , Mal was still convinced that she was dreaming . In an attempt to " wake up " for real , Mal committed suicide and framed Cobb for her death to force him to do the same . Facing a murder charge , Cobb fled the U.S. , leaving his children in the care of Professor Miles .
Through his confession , Cobb makes peace with his guilt over Mal 's death . Ariadne kills Mal 's projection and wakes Fischer up with a kick . Revived at the mountain fortress , Fischer enters a safe room to discover and accept the planted idea : a projection of his dying father telling him to be his own man . While Cobb remains in Limbo to search for Saito , the other team members ride the synchronized kicks back to reality . Cobb eventually finds an aged Saito in Limbo and reminds him of their agreement . The dreamers all awaken on the plane and Saito makes a phone call .
Upon arrival at Los Angeles Airport , Cobb passes the U.S. immigration checkpoint and Professor Miles accompanies him to his home . Cobb tests reality using his totem , a spinning top that spins indefinitely in a dream world , but ignores its result and instead joins his children in the garden .
= = Cast = =
Leonardo DiCaprio as Dom Cobb , a professional thief who specializes in conning secrets from his victims by infiltrating their dreams . DiCaprio was the first actor to be cast in the film . Nolan had been trying to work with the actor for years and met him several times , but was unable to convince him to appear in any of his films until Inception . Both Brad Pitt and Will Smith were offered the role , according to The Hollywood Reporter .
Joseph Gordon @-@ Levitt as Arthur , Cobb 's partner who manages and researches the missions . Gordon @-@ Levitt compared Arthur to the producer of Cobb 's art , " the one saying , ' Okay , you have your vision ; now I 'm going to figure out how to make all the nuts and bolts work so you can do your thing ' " . The actor did all of his stunts but one scene and said the preparation " was a challenge and it would have to be for it to look real " . James Franco was in talks with Christopher Nolan to play Arthur , but was ultimately unavailable due to scheduling conflicts .
Ellen Page as Ariadne , a graduate student of architecture who is recruited to construct the various dreamscapes , which are described as mazes . The name Ariadne alludes to a princess of Greek myth , daughter of King Minos , who aided the hero Theseus by giving him a sword and a ball of string to help him navigate the labyrinth which was the prison of the Minotaur . Nolan said that Page was chosen for being a " perfect combination of freshness and savvy and maturity beyond her years " . Page said her character acts as a proxy to the audience , as " she 's just learning about these ideas and , in essence , assists the audience in learning about dream sharing " . Evan Rachel Wood was Christopher Nolan 's first choice to play Ariadne , but she turned it down . Before Ellen Page was offered and accepted the role , Nolan considered casting Emily Blunt , Rachel McAdams , Taylor Swift , Emma Roberts , Jessy Schram , and Carey Mulligan .
Tom Hardy as Eames , a sharp @-@ tongued associate of Cobb . He is referred to as a fence but his specialty is forgery , more accurately identity theft . Eames uses his ability to impersonate others inside the dream world in order to manipulate Fischer . Hardy described his character as " an old , Graham Greene @-@ type diplomat ; sort of faded , shabby , grandeur – the old Shakespeare lovey mixed with somebody from Her Majesty 's Special Forces " , who wears " campy , old money " costumes .
Ken Watanabe as Mr. Saito , a Japanese businessman who employs Cobb for the team 's mission . Nolan wrote the role with Watanabe in mind , as he wanted to work with him again after Batman Begins . Inception is Watanabe 's first work in a contemporary setting where his primary language is English . Watanabe tried to emphasize a different characteristic of Saito in every dream level : " First chapter in my castle , I pick up some hidden feelings of the cycle . It 's magical , powerful and then the first dream . And back to the second chapter , in the old hotel , I pick up [ being ] sharp and more calm and smart and it 's a little bit [ of a ] different process to make up the character of any movie " .
Dileep Rao as Yusuf . Rao describes Yusuf as " an avant @-@ garde pharmacologist , who is a resource for people , like Cobb , who want to do this work unsupervised , unregistered and unapproved of by anyone " . Co @-@ producer Jordan Goldberg said the role of the chemist was " particularly tough because you don 't want him to seem like some kind of drug dealer " , and that Rao was cast for being " funny , interesting and obviously smart " .
Cillian Murphy as Robert Michael Fischer , the heir to a business empire and the team 's target . Murphy said Fischer was portrayed as " a petulant child who 's in need of a lot of attention from his father , he has everything he could ever want materially , but he 's deeply lacking emotionally " . The actor also researched the sons of Rupert Murdoch , " to add to that the idea of living in the shadow of someone so immensely powerful " .
Tom Berenger as Peter Browning , Robert Fischer 's godfather and fellow executive at the Fischers ' company . Berenger said Browning acts as a " surrogate father " to Robert , who calls the character " Uncle Peter " , and emphasized that " Browning has been with [ Robert ] his whole life and has probably spent more quality time with him than his own father " .
Marion Cotillard as Mal Cobb , Dom 's deceased wife . She is a manifestation of Dom 's guilt about the real cause of Mal 's suicide . He is unable to control these projections of her , challenging his abilities as an extractor . Nolan described Mal as " the essence of the femme fatale , " and DiCaprio praised Cotillard 's performance saying that " she can be strong and vulnerable and hopeful and heartbreaking all in the same moment , which was perfect for all the contradictions of her character " .
Pete Postlethwaite as Maurice Fischer , Robert Fischer 's father and the dying founder of a business empire .
Michael Caine as Professor Stephen Miles , Cobb 's mentor and father @-@ in @-@ law , and Ariadne 's college professor who recommends her to the team .
Lukas Haas as Nash , an architect in Cobb 's employment who betrays the team and is later replaced by Ariadne .
Talulah Riley as a woman whom Eames disguises himself as in a dream . Riley liked the role , despite it being minimal : " I get to wear a nice dress , pick up men in bars , and shove them in elevators . It was good to do something adultish . Usually I play 15 @-@ year @-@ old English schoolgirls . "
= = Production = =
= = = Development = = =
Initially , Nolan wrote an 80 @-@ page treatment about dream @-@ stealers . Originally , Nolan had envisioned Inception as a horror film , but eventually wrote it as a heist film even though he found that " traditionally [ they ] are very deliberately superficial in emotional terms . " Upon revisiting his script , he decided that basing it in that genre did not work because the story " relies so heavily on the idea of the interior state , the idea of dream and memory . I realized I needed to raise the emotional stakes . " Nolan worked on the script for nine to ten years . When he first started thinking about making the film , Nolan was influenced by " that era of movies where you had The Matrix ( 1999 ) , you had Dark City ( 1998 ) , you had The Thirteenth Floor ( 1999 ) and , to a certain extent , you had Memento ( 2000 ) , too . They were based in the principles that the world around you might not be real . "
Nolan first pitched the film to Warner Bros. in 2001 , but then felt that he needed more experience making large @-@ scale films , and embarked on Batman Begins and The Dark Knight . He soon realized that a film like Inception needed a large budget because " as soon as you 're talking about dreams , the potential of the human mind is infinite . And so the scale of the film has to feel infinite . It has to feel like you could go anywhere by the end of the film . And it has to work on a massive scale . " After making The Dark Knight , Nolan decided to make Inception and spent six months completing the script . Nolan states that the key to completing the script was wondering what would happen if several people shared the same dream . " Once you remove the privacy , you 've created an infinite number of alternative universes in which people can meaningfully interact , with validity , with weight , with dramatic consequences . "
Leonardo DiCaprio was the first actor to be cast in the film . Nolan had been trying to work with the actor for years and met him several times , but was unable to convince him to appear in any of his films until Inception . DiCaprio finally agreed because he was " intrigued by this concept — this dream @-@ heist notion and how this character 's going to unlock his dreamworld and ultimately affect his real life . " He read the script and found it to be " very well written , comprehensive but you really had to have Chris in person , to try to articulate some of the things that have been swirling around his head for the last eight years . " DiCaprio and Nolan spent months talking about the screenplay . Nolan took a long time re @-@ writing the script in order " to make sure that the emotional journey of his character was the driving force of the movie . " On February 11 , 2009 , it was announced that Warner Bros. purchased Inception , a spec script written by Nolan .
= = = Locations and sets = = =
Principal photography began in Tokyo on June 19 , 2009 , with the scene where Saito first hires Cobb during a helicopter flight over the city .
The production moved to the United Kingdom and shot in a converted airship hangar in Cardington , Bedfordshire , north of London . There , the hotel bar set which tilted 30 degrees was built . A hotel corridor was also constructed by Guy Hendrix Dyas , the production designer , Chris Corbould , the special effects supervisor , and Wally Pfister , the director of photography ; it rotated a full 360 degrees to create the effect of alternate directions of gravity for scenes set during the second level of dreaming , where dream @-@ sector physics become chaotic . The idea was inspired by a technique used in Stanley Kubrick 's 2001 : A Space Odyssey ( 1968 ) . Nolan said , " I was interested in taking those ideas , techniques , and philosophies and applying them to an action scenario " . The filmmakers originally planned to make the hallway only 40 ft ( 12 m ) long , but as the action sequence became more elaborate , the hallway 's length grew to 100 ft ( 30 m ) . The corridor was suspended along eight large concentric rings that were spaced equidistantly outside its walls and powered by two massive electric motors . Joseph Gordon @-@ Levitt , who plays Arthur , spent several weeks learning to fight in a corridor that spun like " a giant hamster wheel " . Nolan said of the device , " It was like some incredible torture device ; we thrashed Joseph for weeks , but in the end we looked at the footage , and it looks unlike anything any of us has seen before . The rhythm of it is unique , and when you watch it , even if you know how it was done , it confuses your perceptions . It 's unsettling in a wonderful way " . Gordon @-@ Levitt remembered , " it was six @-@ day weeks of just , like , coming home at night battered ... The light fixtures on the ceiling are coming around on the floor , and you have to choose the right time to cross through them , and if you don 't , you 're going to fall . " On July 15 , 2009 , filming took place at University College London for the sequences occurring inside a Paris college of architecture in the story , including the library , Flaxman Gallery and Gustav Tuck Theatre .
Filming moved to France where they shot Cobb entering the college of architecture ( the place used for the entrance was the Musée Galliera ) and the pivotal scenes between Ariadne and Cobb , in a bistro ( a fictional one set up at the corner of Rue César Franck and Rue Bouchut ) and then on the Bir @-@ Hakeim bridge . For the explosion that takes place during the bistro scene , the local authorities would not allow the actual use of explosives . High @-@ pressure nitrogen was used to create the effect of a series of explosions . Pfister used six high @-@ speed cameras to capture the sequence from different angles and make sure that they got the shot . The visual effects department then enhanced the sequence , adding more destruction and flying debris . For the " Paris folding " sequence and when Ariadne " creates " the bridges , green screen and CGI were used on location .
Tangier , Morocco , doubled as Mombasa , where Cobb hires Eames and Yusuf . A foot chase was shot in the streets and alleyways of the historic medina quarter . To capture this sequence , Pfister employed a mix of hand @-@ held camera and steadicam work . Tangier was also used to film an important riot scene during the initial foray into Saito 's mind .
Filming moved to the Los Angeles area , where some sets were built on a Warner Brothers sound stage , including the interior rooms of Saito 's Japanese castle ( the exterior was done on a small set built in Malibu beach ) . The dining room was inspired by the Nijo Castle built around 1603 . These sets were inspired by a mix of Japanese architecture and Western influences . The production also staged a multi @-@ vehicle car chase on the streets of downtown Los Angeles , which involved a freight train crashing down the middle of a street . To do this , the filmmakers configured a train engine on the chassis of a tractor trailer . The replica was made from fiberglass molds taken from authentic train parts and then matched in terms of color and design . Also , the car chase was supposed to be set in the midst of a downpour but the L.A. weather stayed typically sunny . The filmmakers were forced to set up elaborate effects ( e.g. , rooftop water cannons ) to give the audience the impression that the weather was overcast and soggy . L.A. was also the site of the climactic scene where a Ford Econoline van flies off the Schuyler Heim Bridge in slow motion . This sequence was filmed on and off for months with the van being shot out of a cannon , according to actor Dileep Rao . Capturing the actors suspended within the van in slow motion took a whole day to film . Once the van landed in the water , the challenge for the actors was not to panic . " And when they ask you to act , it 's a bit of an ask , " explained Cillian Murphy . The actors had to be underwater for four to five minutes while drawing air from scuba tanks ; underwater buddy breathing is shown in this sequence . Cobb 's house was in Pasadena . The hotel lobby was filmed at the CAA building in Century City . Limbo was made on location in Los Angeles and Morocco with the beach scene filmed at Palos Verdes beach with CGI buildings . N Hope St. in Los Angeles was the primary filming location for Limbo , with green screen and CGI being used to create the dream landscape .
The final phase of principal photography took place in Alberta in late November 2009 . The location manager discovered a temporarily closed ski resort , Fortress Mountain . An elaborate set was assembled near the top station of the Canadian chairlift , taking three months to build . The production had to wait for a huge snowstorm , which eventually arrived . The ski @-@ chase sequence was inspired by Nolan 's favorite James Bond film , On Her Majesty 's Secret Service ( 1969 ) : " What I liked about it that we 've tried to emulate in this film is there 's a tremendous balance in that movie of action and scale and romanticism and tragedy and emotion . "
= = = Cinematography = = =
The film was shot primarily in the anamorphic format on 35 mm film , with key sequences filmed on 65 mm , and aerial sequences in VistaVision . Nolan did not shoot any footage with IMAX cameras as he had with The Dark Knight . " We didn 't feel that we were going to be able to shoot in IMAX because of the size of the cameras because this film given that it deals with a potentially surreal area , the nature of dreams and so forth , I wanted it to be as realistic as possible . Not be bound by the scale of those IMAX cameras , even though I love the format dearly " . In addition Nolan and Pfister tested using Showscan and Super Dimension 70 as potential large format high frame rate camera systems to use for the film , but ultimately decided against either format . Sequences in slow motion were filmed on a Photo @-@ Sonics 35mm camera at speeds of up to 1000 frames per second . Wally Pfister tested shooting some of these sequences using a high speed digital camera , but found the format to be too unreliable due to technical glitches . " Out of six times that we shot on the digital format , we only had one useable piece and it didn 't end up in the film . Out of the six times we shot with the Photo @-@ Sonics camera and 35mm running through it , every single shot was in the movie . " Nolan also chose not to shoot any of the film in 3D as he prefers shooting on film using prime lenses , which is not possible with 3D cameras . Nolan has also criticized the dim image that 3D projection produces , and disputes that traditional film does not allow realistic depth perception , saying " I think it 's a misnomer to call it 3D versus 2D . The whole point of cinematic imagery is it 's three dimensional ... You know 95 % of our depth cues come from occlusion , resolution , color and so forth , so the idea of calling a 2D movie a ' 2D movie ' is a little misleading . " Nolan did test converting Inception into 3D in post @-@ production but decided that , while it was possible , he lacked the time to complete the conversion to a standard he was happy with . In February 2011 Jonathan Liebesman suggested that Warner Bros were attempting a 3D conversion for Blu @-@ ray release .
Wally Pfister gave each location and dream level a distinctive look to aid the audience 's recognition of the narrative 's location during the heavily crosscut portion of the film : the mountain fortress appears sterile and cool , the hotel hallways have warm hues , and the scenes in the van are more neutral .
Nolan has said that the film " deals with levels of reality , and perceptions of reality which is something I 'm very interested in . It 's an action film set in a contemporary world , but with a slight science @-@ fiction bent to it , " while also describing it as " very much an ensemble film structured somewhat as a heist movie . It 's an action adventure that spans the globe " .
= = = Visual effects = = =
For dream sequences in Inception , Nolan used little computer @-@ generated imagery , preferring practical effects whenever possible . Nolan said , " It 's always very important to me to do as much as possible in @-@ camera , and then , if necessary , computer graphics are very useful to build on or enhance what you have achieved physically . " To this end , visual effects supervisor Paul Franklin built a miniature of the mountain fortress set and then blew it up for the film . For the fight scene that takes place in zero gravity , he used CG @-@ based effects to " subtly bend elements like physics , space and time . "
The most challenging effect was the " limbo " city level at the end of the film because it continually developed during production . Franklin had artists build concepts while Nolan gave his ideal vision : " Something glacial , with clear modernist architecture , but with chunks of it breaking off into the sea like icebergs " . Franklin and his team ended up with " something that looked like an iceberg version of Gotham City with water running through it . " They created a basic model of a glacier and then designers created a program that added elements like roads , intersections and ravines until they had a complex , yet organic @-@ looking , cityscape . For the Paris @-@ folding sequence , Franklin had artists producing concept sketches and then they created rough computer animations to give them an idea of what the sequence looked like while in motion . Later during principal photography , Nolan was able to direct Leonardo DiCaprio and Ellen Page based on this rough computer animation Franklin had created . Inception had close to 500 visual effects shots ( in comparison , Batman Begins had approximately 620 ) which is considered minor in comparison to contemporary visual effects epics that can have around 1 @,@ 500 or 2 @,@ 000 special effects images .
= = = Music = = =
The score for Inception was written by Hans Zimmer , who described his work as " a very electronic , dense score " , filled with " nostalgia and sadness " to match Cobb 's feelings throughout the film . The music was written simultaneously to filming , and features a guitar sound reminiscent of Ennio Morricone , played by Johnny Marr , former guitarist of The Smiths . Édith Piaf 's " Non , je ne regrette rien " ( " No , I Do Not Regret Anything " ) pointedly appears throughout the film , used to accurately time the dreams , and Zimmer reworked pieces of the song into cues of the score . A soundtrack album was released on July 11 , 2010 by Reprise Records . The majority of the score was also included in high resolution 5 @.@ 1 surround sound on the 2nd disc of the 2 disc Blu @-@ ray release Hans Zimmer 's music was nominated for an Academy Award in the Best Original Score category in 2011 , losing to Trent Reznor and Atticus Ross of The Social Network .
= = Themes = =
= = = Reality and dreams = = =
In Inception , Nolan wanted to explore " the idea of people sharing a dream space ... That gives you the ability to access somebody 's unconscious mind . What would that be used and abused for ? " The majority of the film 's plot takes place in these interconnected dream worlds . This structure creates a framework where actions in the real or dream worlds ripple across others . The dream is always in a state of production , and shifts across the levels as the characters navigate it . By contrast , the world of The Matrix ( 1999 ) is an authoritarian , computer @-@ controlled one , alluding to theories of social control developed by Michel Foucault and Jean Baudrillard . Nolan 's world has more in common with the works of Gilles Deleuze and Félix Guattari .
David Denby in The New Yorker compared Nolan 's cinematic treatment of dreams to Luis Buñuel 's in Belle de Jour ( 1967 ) and The Discreet Charm of the Bourgeoisie ( 1972 ) . He criticized Nolan 's " literal @-@ minded " action level sequencing compared to Buñuel , who " silently pushed us into reveries and left us alone to enjoy our wonderment , but Nolan is working on so many levels of representation at once that he has to lay in pages of dialogue just to explain what 's going on . " The latter captures " the peculiar malign intensity of actual dreams . "
Deirdre Barrett , a dream researcher at Harvard University , said that Nolan did not get every detail accurate regarding dreams , but their illogical , rambling , disjointed plots would not make for a great thriller anyway . However , " he did get many aspects right , " she said , citing the scene in which a sleeping Cobb is shoved into a full bath , and in the dream world water gushes into the windows of the building , waking him up . " That 's very much how real stimuli get incorporated , and you very often wake up right after that intrusion " .
Nolan himself said , " I tried to work that idea of manipulation and management of a conscious dream being a skill that these people have . Really the script is based on those common , very basic experiences and concepts , and where can those take you ? And the only outlandish idea that the film presents , really , is the existence of a technology that allows you to enter and share the same dream as someone else . "
= = = Dreams and cinema = = =
Others have argued that the film is itself a metaphor for film @-@ making , and that the filmgoing experience itself , images flashing before one 's eyes in a darkened room , is akin to a dream . Writing in Wired , Jonah Lehrer supported this interpretation and presented neurological evidence that brain activity is strikingly similar during film @-@ watching and sleeping . In both , the visual cortex is highly active and the prefrontal cortex , which deals with logic , deliberate analysis , and self @-@ awareness , is quiet . Paul argued that the experience of going to a picturehouse is itself an exercise in shared dreaming , particularly when viewing Inception : the film 's sharp cutting between scenes forces the viewer to create larger narrative arcs to stitch the pieces together . This demand of production parallel to consumption of the images , on the part of the audience is analogous to dreaming itself . As in the film 's story , in a cinema one enters into the space of another 's dream , in this case Nolan 's , as with any work of art , one 's reading of it is ultimately influenced by one 's own subjective desires and subconscious . At Bir @-@ Hakeim bridge in Paris , Ariadne creates an illusion of infinity by adding facing mirrors underneath its struts , Stephanie Dreyfus in la Croix asked " Is this not a strong , beautiful metaphor for the cinema and its power of illusion ? "
= = Cinematic technique = =
= = = Genre = = =
Nolan combined elements from several different film genres into the film , notably science fiction , heist film , and film noir . Marion Cotillard plays " Mal " Cobb , Dom Cobb 's projection of his guilt over his deceased wife 's suicide . As the film 's main antagonist , she is a frequent , malevolent presence in his dreams . Dom is unable to control these projections of her , challenging his abilities as an extractor . Nolan described Mal as " the essence of the femme fatale " , the key noir reference in the film . As a " classic femme fatale " her relationship with Cobb is in his mind , a manifestation of Cobb 's own neurosis and fear of how little he knows about the woman he loves . DiCaprio praised Cotillard 's performance saying that " she can be strong and vulnerable and hopeful and heartbreaking all in the same moment , which was perfect for all the contradictions of her character " .
Nolan began with the structure of a heist movie , since exposition is an essential element of that genre , though adapted it to have a greater emotional narrative suited to the world of dreams and subconscious . Or , as Denby surmised , " the outer shell of the story is an elaborate caper " . Kristin Thompson argued that exposition was a major formal device in the film . While a traditional heist movie has a heavy dose of exposition at the beginning as the team assembles and the leader explains the plan , in Inception this becomes nearly continuous as the group progresses through the various levels of dreaming . Three @-@ quarters of the film , until the van begins to fall from the bridge , are devoted to explaining its plot . In this way , exposition takes precedence over characterisation . Their relationships are created by their respective skills and roles . Ariadne , like her ancient namesake , creates the maze and guides the others through it , but also helps Cobb navigate his own subconscious , and as the sole student of dream sharing , helps the audience understand the concept of the plot .
Nolan drew inspiration from the works of Jorge Luis Borges , the anime film Paprika ( 2006 ) by the late Satoshi Kon as an influence on the character " Ariadne " , and Blade Runner ( 1982 ) by Ridley Scott .
= = = Ending = = =
The film cuts to the closing credits from a shot of the top apparently starting to show an ever so faint wobble , inviting speculation about whether the final sequence was reality or another dream . Nolan confirmed that the ambiguity was deliberate , saying , " I 've been asked the question more times than I 've ever been asked any other question about any other film I 've made ... What 's funny to me is that people really do expect me to answer it . " The film 's script concludes with " Behind him , on the table , the spinning top is STILL SPINNING . And we – FADE OUT " . Nolan said , " I put that cut there at the end , imposing an ambiguity from outside the film . That always felt the right ending to me — it always felt like the appropriate ' kick ' to me ... The real point of the scene — and this is what I tell people — is that Cobb isn 't looking at the top . He 's looking at his kids . He 's left it behind . That 's the emotional significance of the thing . " Also , Michael Caine explained his interpretation of the ending , saying , " If I 'm there it 's real , because I 'm never in the dream . I 'm the guy who invented the dream . "
Some pundits have pointed out that the top was not in fact Cobb 's totem , rendering the discussion irrelevant . They point out that the top was Mal 's totem ; Cobb 's was his wedding ring , as he can be seen wearing it whenever he is in a dream and without it whenever he isn 't . As he hands his passport to the immigration officer , his hand is shown with no ring ; thus he was conclusively in reality when seeing his children . Furthermore , the children were portrayed by different actors , indicating they had aged .
Mark Fisher argued that " a century of cultural theory " cautions against accepting the author 's interpretation as anything more than a supplementary text , and this all the more so given the theme of the instability of any one master position in Nolan 's films . Therein the manipulator is often the one who ends up manipulated and Cobb 's " not caring " about whether or not his world is real may be the price of happiness and release .
= = Release = =
= = = Marketing = = =
Warner Bros. spent $ 100 million marketing the film . Although Inception was not part of an existing franchise , Sue Kroll , president of Warner 's worldwide marketing , said the company believed it could gain awareness due to the strength of " Christopher Nolan as a brand " . Kroll declared that " We don 't have the brand equity that usually drives a big summer opening , but we have a great cast and a fresh idea from a filmmaker with a track record of making incredible movies . If you can 't make those elements work , it 's a sad day . " The studio also tried to maintain a campaign of secrecy — as reported by the Senior VP of Interactive Marketing , Michael Tritter , " You have this movie which is going to have a pretty big built in fanbase ... but you also have a movie that you are trying to keep very secret . Chris [ Nolan ] really likes people to see his movies in a theater and not see it all beforehand so everything that you do to market that — at least early on — is with an eye to feeding the interest to fans . "
A viral marketing campaign was employed for the film . After the revelation of the first teaser trailer , in August 2009 , the film 's official website featured only an animation of Cobb 's spinning top . In December , the top toppled over and the website opened the online game Mind Crime , which upon completion revealed Inception 's poster . The rest of the campaign unrolled after WonderCon in April 2010 , where Warner gave away promotional T @-@ shirts featuring the PASIV briefcase used to create the dream space , and had a QR code linking to an online manual of the device . Mind Crime also received a stage 2 with more resources , including a hidden trailer for the movie . More pieces of viral marketing began to surface before Inception 's release , such as a manual filled with bizarre images and text sent to Wired magazine , and the online publication of posters , ads , phone applications , and strange websites all related to the film . Warner also released an online prequel comic , Inception : The Cobol Job .
The official trailer released on May 10 , 2010 through Mind Game was extremely well received . It featured an original piece of music , " Mind Heist " , by recording artist Zack Hemsey , rather than music from the score . The trailer quickly went viral with numerous mashups copying its style , both by amateurs on sites like YouTube and by professionals on sites such as CollegeHumor . On June 7 , 2010 , a behind @-@ the @-@ scenes featurette on the film was released in HD on Yahoo ! Movies .
= = = Home media = = =
Inception was released on DVD and Blu @-@ ray on December 3 , 2010 , in France , and the week after in the UK and USA ( December 7 , 2010 ) . Warner Bros. also made available in the United States a limited Blu @-@ ray edition packaged in a metal replica of the PASIV briefcase , which included extras such as a metal replica of the spinning top totem . With a production run of less than 2000 , it sold out in one weekend .
= = = Putative video game = = =
In a November 2010 interview , Nolan expressed his intention to develop a video game set in the Inception world , working with a team of collaborators . He described it as " a longer @-@ term proposition " , referring to the medium of video games as " something I 've wanted to explore " .
= = Reception = =
= = = Box office = = =
Inception was released in both conventional and IMAX theaters on July 16 , 2010 . The film had its world premiere at Leicester Square in London , United Kingdom on July 8 , 2010 . In the United States and Canada , Inception was released theatrically in 3 @,@ 792 conventional theaters and 195 IMAX theaters . The film grossed $ 21 @.@ 8 million during its opening day on July 16 , 2010 , with midnight screenings in 1 @,@ 500 locations . Overall the film made $ 62 @.@ 7 million and debuted at No.1 on its opening weekend . Inception 's opening weekend gross made it the second @-@ highest @-@ grossing debut for a science @-@ fiction film that was not a sequel , remake or adaptation , behind Avatar 's $ 77 million opening weekend gross in 2009 . The film held the top spot of the box office rankings in its second and third weekends , with drops of just 32 % ( $ 42 @.@ 7 million ) and 36 % ( $ 27 @.@ 5 million ) respectively , before dropping to second place in its fourth week , behind The Other Guys .
Inception grossed US $ 292 million in the United States and Canada , US $ 56 million in the United Kingdom , Ireland and Malta and US $ 475 million in other countries for a total of $ 823 million . Its five highest @-@ grossing markets after the USA and Canada ( US $ 292 ) were China ( US $ 68million ) , the United Kingdom , Ireland and Malta ( US $ 56 million ) , France and the Maghreb region ( US $ 43 million ) , Japan ( US $ 40 million ) and South Korea ( US $ 38 million ) . It was the sixth @-@ highest @-@ grossing film of 2010 in North America , and the fourth @-@ highest internationally , behind Toy Story 3 , Alice in Wonderland and Harry Potter and the Deathly Hallows - Part 1 . The film currently stands as the 44th @-@ highest @-@ grossing of all time . Inception is the third most lucrative production in Christopher Nolan 's career — behind The Dark Knight and The Dark Knight Rises — and the second most for Leonardo DiCaprio — behind Titanic .
= = = Critical reception = = =
Rotten Tomatoes gave the film a score of 86 % based on reviews from 331 critics , with an average score of 8 @.@ 1 / 10 . The website offers the consensus : " Smart , innovative , and thrilling , Inception is that rare summer blockbuster that succeeds viscerally as well as intellectually . " Metacritic , another review aggregator , assigned the film a weighted average score of 74 ( out of 100 ) based on 42 reviews from mainstream critics , considered to be " generally favorable reviews . " In polls conducted by CinemaScore during the opening weekend cinemagoers gave Inception an average score of " B + " .
While some critics have tended to view the film as perfectly straightforward , and even criticize its overarching themes as " the stuff of torpid platitudes , " online discussion has been much more positive . Heated debate has centered on the ambiguity of the ending , with many critics like Devin Faraci making the case that the film is self @-@ referential and tongue @-@ in @-@ cheek , both a film about film @-@ making and a dream about dreams . Other critics read Inception as Christian allegory and focus on the film 's use of religious and water symbolism . Yet other critics , such as Kristin Thompson , see less value in the ambiguous ending of the film and more in its structure and novel method of storytelling , highlighting Inception as a new form of narrative that revels in " continuous exposition " .
The film has had excellent reviews in general . Perhaps playing off the film 's game imagery , Rolling Stone magazine 's Peter Travers called Inception a " wildly ingenious chess game , " and concluded " the result is a knockout . " In Variety , Justin Chang praised the film as " a conceptual tour de force " and wrote , " applying a vivid sense of procedural detail to a fiendishly intricate yarn set in the labyrinth of the unconscious mind , the writer @-@ director has devised a heist thriller for surrealists , a Jungian 's Rififi , that challenges viewers to sift through multiple layers of ( un ) reality . " Jim Vejvoda of IGN rated the film as perfect , deeming it " a singular accomplishment from a filmmaker who has only gotten better with each film . " Relevant Magazine 's David Roark called it Nolan 's greatest accomplishment , saying , " Visually , intellectually and emotionally , Inception is a masterpiece . "
Empire magazine rated it five stars in the August 2010 issue and wrote , " it feels like Stanley Kubrick adapting the work of the great sci @-@ fi author William Gibson ... Nolan delivers another true original : welcome to an undiscovered country . " Entertainment Weekly gave the film a B + rating and Lisa Schwarzbaum wrote , " It 's a rolling explosion of images as hypnotizing and sharply angled as any in a drawing by M.C. Escher or a state @-@ of @-@ the @-@ biz video game ; the backwards splicing of Nolan 's own Memento looks rudimentary by comparison . " The New York Post gave the film a four @-@ star rating and Lou Lumenick wrote , " DiCaprio , who has never been better as the tortured hero , draws you in with a love story that will appeal even to non @-@ sci @-@ fi fans . " Roger Ebert of the Chicago Sun @-@ Times awarded the film a full four stars and said that Inception " is all about process , about fighting our way through enveloping sheets of reality and dream , reality within dreams , dreams without reality . It 's a breathtaking juggling act . " Richard Roeper , also of the Sun @-@ Times , gave Inception a perfect score of " A + " and called it " one of the best movies of the [ 21st ] century . "
BBC Radio 5 Live 's Mark Kermode named Inception as the best film of 2010 , stating , " Inception is proof that people are not stupid , that cinema is not trash , and that it is possible for blockbusters and art to be the same thing . "
In his review for the Chicago Tribune , Michael Phillips gave the film 3 stars out of 4 and wrote , " I found myself wishing Inception were weirder , further out ... the film is Nolan 's labyrinth all the way , and it 's gratifying to experience a summer movie with large visual ambitions and with nothing more or less on its mind than ( as Shakespeare said ) a dream that hath no bottom . " Time magazine 's Richard Corliss wrote the film 's " noble intent is to implant one man 's vision in the mind of a vast audience ... The idea of moviegoing as communal dreaming is a century old . With Inception , viewers have a chance to see that notion get a state @-@ of @-@ the @-@ art update . " Los Angeles Times ' Kenneth Turan felt that Nolan was able to blend " the best of traditional and modern filmmaking . If you 're searching for smart and nervy popular entertainment , this is what it looks like . " USA Today rated the film three @-@ and @-@ a @-@ half stars out of four and Claudia Puig felt that Nolan " regards his viewers as possibly smarter than they are — or at least as capable of rising to his inventive level . That 's a tall order . But it 's refreshing to find a director who makes us stretch , even occasionally struggle , to keep up . "
Not all reviewers gave the film positive reviews . New York magazine 's David Edelstein claimed in his review to " have no idea what so many people are raving about . It 's as if someone went into their heads while they were sleeping and planted the idea that Inception is a visionary masterpiece and — hold on ... Whoa ! I think I get it . The movie is a metaphor for the power of delusional hype — a metaphor for itself . " Rex Reed of The New York Observer explained the film 's development as " pretty much what we 've come to expect from summer movies in general and Christopher Nolan movies in particular ... [ it ] doesn 't seem like much of an accomplishment to me . " A. O. Scott of The New York Times commented " there is a lot to see in Inception , there is nothing that counts as genuine vision . Mr. Nolan 's idea of the mind is too literal , too logical , and too rule @-@ bound to allow the full measure of madness . " David Denby , writing in The New Yorker , considered the film not nearly as much fun as Nolan imagined it to be , concluding , " Inception is a stunning @-@ looking film that gets lost in fabulous intricacies , a movie devoted to its own workings and to little else . "
Several sources have noted many plot similarities between the film and the 2002 Uncle Scrooge comic The Dream of a Lifetime by Don Rosa .
In April 2014 , The Daily Telegraph placed the title on its top ten list of the most overrated films . Telegraph 's Tim Robey stated , " It 's a criminal failing of the movie that it purports to be about people ’ s dreams being invaded , but demonstrates no instinct at all for what a dream has ever felt like , and no flair for making us feel like we 're in one , at any point . " The film won an informal poll by The Los Angeles Times as the most overrated movie of 2010 .
In March 2011 , the film was voted by BBC Radio 1 and BBC Radio 1Xtra listeners as their ninth favorite film of all time . In 2012 , Inception was ranked the 35th Best Edited Film of All Time by the Motion Picture Editors Guild . In the same year , Total Film named it the most rewatchable movie of all time . In 2014 , Empire ranked Inception the tenth greatest film ever made on their list of " The 301 Greatest Movies Of All Time " as voted by the magazine 's readers , while Rolling Stone magazine named it the second best science fiction film since the turn of the century . Inception was ranked 84th on Hollywood 's 100 Favorite Films , a list compiled by The Hollywood Reporter in 2014 , surveying " Studio chiefs , Oscar winners and TV royalty " .
= = = Top ten lists = = =
Inception was listed on many critics ' top ten lists .
= = = Accolades = = =
Inception appeared on over 273 critics ' lists of the top ten films of 2010 , being picked as No.1 on 55 of those lists . It was the second most mentioned film in both the top ten and No.1 lists only behind The Social Network and was one of the most critically acclaimed films of 2010 , alongside the former , Toy Story 3 , The King 's Speech , and Black Swan .
The film won many awards in technical categories , such as Academy Awards for Best Cinematography , Best Sound Editing , Best Sound Mixing , and Best Visual Effects , and the British Academy Film Awards for Best Production Design , Best Special Visual Effects and Best Sound . In most of its artistic nominations , such as Film , Director , and Screenplay at the Oscars , BAFTAs and Golden Globes , the film was defeated by The Social Network and The King 's Speech . However , the film did win the two highest honors for a science fiction or fantasy film : the 2011 Bradbury Award for best dramatic production and the 2011 Hugo Award for best dramatic presentation , long form .
= = In popular culture = =
Asaf Avidan 's " The Labyrinth Song " , from his album " Gold Shadow " , is set in the film and speaks from one of the character 's perspectives . Numerous pop and hip @-@ hop songs reference Inception , including Common ( Blue Sky ) , N.E.R.D. ( Hypnotize U ) , XV ( The Kick ) , The Black Eyed Peas ( Just Can ’ t Get Enough ) , Lil Wayne ( 6 Foot 7 Foot feat . Cory Gunz ) , J. Lo ( On The Floor feat . Pitbull ) , and B.O.B. ( Strange Clouds ) , while TI had Inception @-@ based artwork in two of his mixtapes . An instrumental track by Joe Budden is titled Inception .
Numerous television shows have also made reference to or have parodied Inception .
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= Watch n ' Learn =
" Watch n ' Learn " is a song recorded by Barbadian recording artist Rihanna , for her sixth studio album Talk That Talk ( 2011 ) . It was written by Priscilla Renea , Chauncey Hollis , Rihanna and Alja Jackson . The production was done by Hollis under his stage @-@ name Hit @-@ Boy . When Renea came with an idea and concept for the song , Hollis had already started working on the composition , without having in mind any particular artist . With the work on the track being finished , it was forwarded to Rihanna and her label , which eagerly accepted it .
" Watch n ' Learn " is a dancehall song with prominent reggae characteristics . The song 's instrumentation uses finger @-@ snapping , percussions , background clicks , synths and " island @-@ flavored " drum beat . Lyrically , it is about a woman who teaches her partner how to love her in the right way , throughout which she uses sexual references . " Watch n ' Learn " received predominantly positive reviews from music critics , with many of them praising its composition and sound . Upon the release of Talk That Talk , the song debuted at number 80 on the singles chart in South Korea .
= = Background and development = =
" Watch n ' Learn " was written by Priscilla Renea , Chauncey Hollis , Rihanna and Alja Jackson . The production of the song was helmed by Hollis under his stage @-@ name Hit @-@ Boy . Hollis had previously worked with music artists like Lil Wayne , The Throne , Eminem and Jennifer Lopez . " Watch n ' Learn " wasn 't originally meant for any particular artist when Hit @-@ Boy started to work on it . In an interview with Jocelyn Vena from MTV News he explained : " I was at the studio with this amazing [ songwriter ] Priscilla Renea , and I was going to tell her to go home , but I was like , ' Stay here and see if you could come up with an idea for this [ the song ] ' " . Renea previously penned Rihanna 's 2011 single " California King Bed " ( Loud , 2010 ) . Hollis further explained that by the time he left the studio and came home , Renea already sent him the idea and concept for the song through IChat . He was eventually satisfied with it and sent the song to Rihanna , in which her team " went crazy " when they heard it . Rihanna then recorded the song for inclusion on her sixth studio album Talk That Talk ( 2011 ) .
In the same interview for the publication , Hollis explained the title of the song : " It 's called ' Watch n ' Learn , ' and people will understand what it 's about once it comes out . It 's a very sexy record , but it 's fun . It 's [ got ] great melodies ; it 's catchy ; the beat knocks . It 's so many different elements to it . " When asked how is he satisfied with Rihanna 's vocals and his prediction on the song he further stated : " She definitely murdered it vocally . I was just at the studio last week listening to a mix of it , and man , she killed it . I really feel like , this song , it 's going to be big . I 'm really excited about it . " " Watch n ' Learn " was recorded at Roc the Mic Studios in New York City and at Sofitel Paris Le Faubourg in Paris . The song was mixed by Marcos Tovar . Its vocal production was completed by Kuk Harrell and assisted by TT. and Jennifer Rosales .
= = Composition = =
" Watch n ' Learn " is a dancehall song with prominent reggae characteristics that runs for 3 minutes and 31 seconds . It begins with a reggae drum fill that according to Melissa Maerz of Entertainment Weekly originates from Bob Marley 's 1983 single " Buffalo Soldier " ( Confrontation , 1983 ) . " Watch n ' Learn " uses finger @-@ snapping , percussions , background clicks , " swirling / swelling " synths and " island @-@ flavored " drum beat .
Jason Lipshutz of Billboard complimented the balance between the synths and percussion while calling it " taut and engaging " . Flavour Magazine 's Maz Halima thought that the beat sounds futuristic and reminds her of a new version of an old beat that was predominantly used in the songs performed by rapper Kanye West . Edward Keeble from Gigwise wrote that " Watch n ' Learn " cares influence from the works by American hip hop and R & B band TLC , as well as sounds like a " call back to the " synthpop group Art of Noise .
Lyrically , the song is about a woman who teaches her partner how to love her in the right way , throughout which she uses sexual references . MTV News ' Jocelyn Vena concluded that song has " sassy " lyrics , but its melody is soft enough and makes you forget that " the track is actually kind of dirty " . Chris Coplan of Consequence of Sound stated that during the interpretation of the lyrics , Rihanna is proud and sexual and her confidence comes from elsewhere . Rihanna reveals her sex fantasies through singing the lyrics : " I 'mma do it do it do it / On the bed on the floor on the couch / Only cause your lips say make it to my mouth / Just because I can 't kiss back / Doesn 't mean you can 't kiss that " , which were described as the " nastiest " on the song by Brad Wete of Complex . As the song continues further , Rihanna is " not @-@ so @-@ subtly " instructing her lover within the lines " It ’ s your turn now / Watch and learn now / Watch and learn how / If you learn how / I 'll stay " .
= = Critical reception = =
Chris Coplan of Consequence of Sound called " Watch n ' Learn " a " reggae jam " and further concluded that " low @-@ key Rihanna , without heaps of easily identifiable help or loads of over @-@ saturated gimmicks , is still a knockout " . Matthew Horton of Virgin Media called the song a " wonderfully sunny tribal disco " track with a thematics regarding oral sex . In a review of Talk That Talk , Mesfin Fekadu of The Boston Globe stated that Rihanna is " raunchy " on the new album and it works . Regarding the song he further commented that she 's [ Rihanna ] schooling her man in the bedroom on the fun " Watch N ' Learn . " . Giovanny Caquais of CultureBlues concluded that the track " strips away " from the techno and David Guetta influences which according to him the album is " drowning in " . He further thought that " sassy women will absolutely love to sing [ the song ] in their cars . " Maz Hallima of Flavour Magazine positively reviewed " Watch n ' Learn " , considering her favorite song from the album together with " Cockiness ( Love It ) " and " You da One " . Hallima thought that the song has Rihanna 's signature sound and wrote she " really enjoyed the contrast between the light beat and her husky voice – pure catchiness . "
Glenn Gamboa of Newsweek considered " Watch n ' Learn " an " answer to Janet Jackson 's " Doesn 't Really Matter " for its similar production and " playful " nature . Los Angeles Times ’ Randal Roberts while reviewing the song stated : Rihanna " reels off her carnal intentions with an impressive though not entirely believable candor . " Julianne Shepherd of Spin called the track Rihanna 's game in which there is a very little chance for winning — " but she 'd love it if you tried " . Andy Kellman of Allmusic commended the melody of the song and noted that " Watch n ' Learn " is more unique than Hit @-@ Boy 's work on Kanye West and Jay @-@ Z 's 2011 single " Niggas in Paris " ( Watch the Throne , 2011 ) . Chelsea Lewis from The Celebrity Cafe concluded that Rihanna " is expressing her independence as a woman in the music industry , as she is making a statement with ' Watch n ’ Learn ' and Talk That Talk as a whole . " Herald Sun 's Cameron Adams while comparing the song with the other sexual themes on the album , stated that " Watch n ' Learn " is " at least instructional " . Jon Caramanica from The New York Times linked " Watch N ' Learn " to Beyoncé Knowles ' " Party " , however he concluded that even though it has " good mouth feel but no taste " .
= = Credits and personnel = =
Recording
Recorded at Roc the Mic Studios , New York City , New York ; Sofitel Paris Le Faubourg , Room 538 , Paris , France
Personnel
Credits adapted from the liner notes of Talk That Talk , Def Jam Recordings , SRP Records .
= = Charts = =
Upon the release of Talk That Talk , due to digital downloads " Watch n ' Learn " charted in lower regions on the singles chart in South Korea . It debuted on the South Korea Gaon International Chart at number 80 on November 26 , 2011 , with sales of 6 @,@ 049 digital copies .
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= Oblivion ( roller coaster ) =
Oblivion is a steel roller coaster located at Alton Towers in England . The ride opened as the world 's first dive coaster on 14 March 1998 , amidst a large publicity campaign . It was the second in a long line of ' Secret Weapon ( SW4 ) ' rollercoasters to have opened at Alton Towers . The ride has a height restriction of 55 inches ( 140 cm ) . With a maximum speed of 68 mph , it is the third fastest roller coaster in the UK , behind Stealth at Thorpe Park and the Big One at Blackpool Pleasure Beach .
= = History = =
= = = Construction = = =
During 1997 , Fantasy World ( the area of Alton Towers in which Oblivion was eventually situated ) was closed off and all the old fantasy @-@ themed rides were removed except the Black Hole . Details about Oblivion were not revealed until March 1998 .
The " SW4 " codename stood for " Secret Weapon 4 " . SW3 was Nemesis , and SW 1 and 2 were unbuilt roller coasters originally intended for the Nemesis site .
Oblivion 's opening was accompanied by a massive publicity drive , including appearances on Blue Peter , The Gadget Show , news channels and cereal boxes . In 1997 , before Oblivion opened , some marketing memorabilia was released , including its own brand of deodorant .
= = = Opening = = =
When Oblivion did open , the area was re @-@ themed to look like a sinister government facility , unlike Fantasy World 's fairground theme , and renamed X @-@ Sector . The only surviving ride from Fantasy World , the Black Hole roller coaster , was also changed ; the large tent that it was situated in was repainted to blue and silver instead of green and yellow stripes . To make the new X @-@ Sector a major ride area , Alton Towers added two old rides from other parts of the park : Energizer and Enterprise ( both from Festival Park , now Dark Forest ) . Both rides were repainted to fit to the new theme .
= = = Sponsorship = = =
On 21 April 2011 the area around Oblivion was given a slight revamp to incorporate promotion for Fanta , the ride 's new sponsor . The sponsorship included posters saying ' 15 @,@ 000 ft drop , bring it on ' , despite the fact that the drop is actually 180 ft ( 60m ) . However , these were later removed after complaints from riders .
= = = 2012 incident = = =
On 8 May 2012 , a 20 @-@ year @-@ old man climbed over safety fences and accessed the underground ride area . He reportedly dropped into the hole from which the roller coaster track re @-@ emerges from the underground tunnel , walked through the underground section and emerged on a ledge where the track enters the ground . Neither he nor any guests on the ride were harmed following the ride cars being held at the boarding station . He was arrested for a public order offence , and the ride returned to normal operation the following day .
= = = 2013 = = =
With the new roller coaster The Smiler opening in 2013 , Oblivion is no longer the only coaster in X Sector , as it had been since Black Hole 's closure in 2005 . In late January / early February 2013 , Alton Towers began a process of repainting Oblivion 's fading grey track , which had become very worn since opening in 1998 .
The repaint took over 6 weeks to complete , with some cosmetic upgrades also being made to the station building and queue line structures . The coaster is now the same dark grey colour as its neighbour The Smiler .
In June , Oblivion suffered downtime owing to a gearbox component failing . The ride remained closed for a few weeks while a replacement part was manufactured . The ride re @-@ opened on 25 June .
= = Ride experience = =
While riders queue they are shown three briefing videos featuring actor Renny Krupinski as a sinister man surrounded in darkness , who explains at length the physical and psychological effects of riding on Oblivion . Although based on scientific facts , his speeches are deliberately exaggerated with hyperbole and dark humour to give riders a sense of intimidation while preparing for Oblivion . The man remains unnamed throughout the videos , although the character was originally referred to as the Lord of Darkness during production . The final preshow video features a second character whose image appears inverted and therefore glowing white , who argues with the Lord of Darkness as to whether Oblivion is really safe for riders to experience ; to which he is repeatedly ignored . The Lord of Darkness maintains that the ride is safe , before the video ends with the sound of his ominous laughter .
The queue line takes riders through a large , drawn out upwards helix , repeatedly passing under , through and over various buildings of abstract architecture , before traversing metal bridges into the elevated station building . Here they are batched into rows and board their ride cars , while various technical graphics are displayed on overhead screens . As the cars dispatch , the screens play an automated video featuring the Lord of Darkness in his final appearance as he recites the following monologue :
For some things , there is no rational explanation . There is no way out . There is no happy ending to the story . Welcome to the unknown ; welcome to eternal darkness ; welcome ... to Oblivion .
The roller coaster has a simple layout with a 150 ft drop at 89 @.@ 5 degrees , and is the world 's first vertical drop rollercoaster The car slowly ascends 60 feet at a 45 degree angle to build tension , then levels out , slowly travelling around a curve on a unique chain system , seen only on Oblivion , as the cars approach the drop . As each car reaches the drop it is held by a holding chain for a maximum of five seconds , giving the rider a clear view of the long drop , before a brake is released allowing the car to drop into the tunnel . This is followed by a highly banked turn that climbs up and makes the train lie on its side as it goes through . Then after dropping out of the turn the train climbs over a small rise in the track to the brakes , slowing down , and then pulls around back to the station . The open design cars accommodate sixteen passengers in two rows of eight . The back row is slightly raised to give passengers a clear view of the drop . A pre @-@ recorded and disembodied voice saying ' don 't look down ' was played just before release . In 2004 , this sound effect was removed due to sound restrictions on the park and the words " Don 't look down " have instead been painted on the floor of the guest observation area which is visible to riders when the train is hanging over the edge .
= = Reception = =
When Oblivion opened , it was very well received , partly due to a massive advertising campaign by Alton Towers However , it never appeared in the top 25 list of the Golden Ticket Awards . In Mitch Hawker 's worldwide Best Roller Coaster Poll , it peaked at number 43 in 1999 , and has had a mixed performance since
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= SM U @-@ 10 ( Austria @-@ Hungary ) =
SM U @-@ 10 or U @-@ X was the lead boat of the U @-@ 10 class of submarines for the Austro @-@ Hungarian Navy ( German : Kaiserliche und Königliche Kriegsmarine or K.u.K. Kriegsmarine ) during World War I. She was originally a German Type UB I submarine commissioned into the German Imperial Navy ( German : Kaiserliche Marine ) as SM UB @-@ 1 .
SM UB @-@ 1 was constructed in Germany and shipped by rail to Pola where she was assembled and launched in January 1915 . She was commissioned into the German Imperial Navy later that same month and sank an Italian torpedo boat in June . The boat was handed over to Austria @-@ Hungary and commissioned as SM U @-@ 10 in July . In May 1917 , U @-@ 10 was fired upon by a British submarine , but both of the torpedoes that were launched missed . In July 1918 , U @-@ 10 hit a mine and was beached with heavy damage . She was towed to Trieste for repairs which remained unfinished at the war 's end . U @-@ 10 was handed over to Italy as a war reparation and scrapped in 1920 .
= = Design and construction = =
U @-@ 10 was a small , coastal submarine that displaced 127 tonnes ( 125 long tons ) surfaced and 142 tonnes ( 140 long tons ) submerged . She featured a single shaft , a single 60 bhp ( 45 kW ) Daimler diesel engine for surface running , and a single 120 shp ( 89 kW ) electric motor for submerged travel . U @-@ 10 was capable of up to 6 @.@ 5 knots ( 12 @.@ 0 km / h ; 7 @.@ 5 mph ) while surfaced and 5 @.@ 5 knots ( 10 @.@ 2 km / h ; 6 @.@ 3 mph ) while submerged at a diving depth of up to 50 metres ( 160 ft ) . She was designed for a crew of 17 officers and men .
U @-@ 10 was equipped with two 45 cm ( 17 @.@ 7 in ) torpedo tubes located in the front and carried a complement of two torpedoes . German Type UB I submarines were additionally equipped with a 8 mm ( 0 @.@ 31 in ) machine gun , but it is not clear from sources if U @-@ 10 , as a former German boat , was either equipped with one or , if so , retained it in Austro @-@ Hungarian service . In October 1916 , U @-@ 10 's armament was supplemented with a 37 @-@ mm / 23 ( 1 @.@ 5 in ) quick @-@ firing ( QF ) gun . This gun was replaced by a 47 @-@ mm / 23 ( 1 @.@ 9 in ) QF gun in November 1917 .
Construction of UB @-@ 1 was started on 1 November 1914 at Germaniawerft in Kiel . After her assembly was complete UB @-@ 1 was launched on 22 January 1915 .
After extended negotiations between Austria @-@ Hungary and Germany , in March 1915 it was decided for Germany to supply five submarines of the UB I type . This model was familiar to the Austro @-@ Hungarian Navy since the Imperial German Navy had reassembled UB3 , UB 8 , and UB 9 at the Pola factory . The first boat was bought on April 4 , 1915 , a " sample " UB 1 boat . This submarine was shipped by rail in sections to Pola , where the sections were riveted together . Though there is no record of how long it took for UB @-@ 1 's parts to be assembled , a sister boat , UB @-@ 3 , shipped from Germany in mid @-@ April 1915 , was assembled in about two weeks .
= = Operational history = =
SM UB @-@ 1 was commissioned into the German Imperial Navy under the command of Oberleutnant zur See Franz Wäger on 29 January . An Austro @-@ Hungarian Navy officer was assigned to the boat for piloting and training purposes . On 26 June 1915 , UB @-@ 1 sank an Italian torpedo boat Torpediniere 5 Pn in the Gulf of Venice .
On 4 June 1915 , after being disassembled into three sections and transported by rail to Pola for reassembling , UB @-@ 1 was handed over to the Austro @-@ Hungarian Navy and commissioned as U @-@ 10 under the command of Linienschiffsleutnant Karl Edler von Unczowski .
British submarine H4 had an encounter with U @-@ 10 on 11 May 1917 . While cruising off Pola , H4 came across U @-@ 10 and fired a spread of two torpedoes at the submarine . The torpedoes were aimed to be 5 ° apart at a distance of 365 metres ( 400 yd ) which was apparently too wide , because the captain of H4 observed the torpedoes miss just ahead and just astern of U @-@ 10 .
On 9 July 1918 , U @-@ 10 hit an Italian mine near Caorle in the northern Adriatic Sea at position 45 ° 30 ′ N 13 ° 00 ′ E , and was beached with heavy damage . Although she was looted by Austro @-@ Hungarian Army troops , she was later towed to Trieste for repairs , which remained unfinished at war 's end ; all of the 13 crew personnel were saved . U @-@ 10 was handed over to Italy as a war reparation and scrapped at Pola by 1920 . U @-@ 10 sank no ships in her Austro @-@ Hungarian service .
= = Summary of raiding history = =
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= International Gendarmerie =
The International Gendarmerie was the first law enforcement agency of the Principality of Albania . It was established by the decision of the ambassadors of the six Great Powers that participated in the London Peace Conference . This decision was made on the basis of the London Treaty signed on May 30 , 1913 . Since most of the members were from the Netherlands , this force was also known as the Dutch Military Mission .
The first gendarmerie members arrived in Albania on November 10 , 1913 . They were soon faced with a peasant revolt . One International Gendarmerie officer was killed and many were imprisoned after the revolt erupted in June 1914 . Dutch officers were gradually replaced by officers from Austria @-@ Hungary and Germany , who arrived in Durrës on July 4 . Soon , World War I broke out and by August 4 , most of the Dutch officers had returned to the Netherlands . By September 19 , 1914 , the last two imprisoned officers were released .
= = Background = =
The ambassadors of the six Great Powers decided to constitute the Principality of Albania on July 29 , 1913 during the 54th meeting of the London Conference . The new country needed a sovereign , borders , government and military police force . To ensure the gendarmerie 's neutrality , the Powers decided that its members should come from a different country . Their first choice was Sweden , but that country was already busy with a similar mission in Persia , they chose the Netherlands for its neutrality , lack of direct interest in Albania and extensive colonial experience in the Dutch East Indies . On October 15 , 1913 they established the International Commission of Control to administer the country until its own political institutions were established . Wilhelm of Wied was selected as the first prince .
= = Leadership = =
The Netherlands ' War Minister initially chose Major Lodewijk Thomson to head the Gendarmerie , but after a Dutch unrelated political crisis and the formation of a new government , the new Minister appointed Colonel Willem De Veer instead , placing Thomson as his second @-@ in @-@ command on October 20 , 1913 .
De Veer and Thomson prepared a classified 150 @-@ page report on the setting up of the gendarmerie . There were discussions of 5 @,@ 000 gendarmes led by Dutch officers provided by the government of the Netherlands . On February 24 , 1914 , 13 Dutch officers arrived at Vlorë : Captain Fabius , Major Kroon , Major De Waal , Major Sluys , Captain Doorman , Major Roelfsema , Dr. De Groot , Captain Sar , Major Verhulst , Major Snellen van Vollenhoven , First Lieutenant Mallinckrodt , Captains Reimers and Sonne .
= = Mission = =
The International Gendarmerie was only one of numerous armed groups in the principality during Wilhelm 's reign . Others included irregular bands of southerners led by local leaders ; native outlaws ; Bulgarian outlaw Komitadjis ; Greek rebels from the Northern Epirus ; peasant rebels in central Albania ; Essad Pasha 's gendarmerie ; volunteers from Kosovo led by Isa Boletini ; and Mirdita Catholic volunteers from the northern mountains under the command of Prênk Bibë Doda .
One of the first tasks of the new gendarmerie was to train Albanian recruits in order to take control of southern Albania after the Northern Epirote Declaration of Independence of February 28 , 1914 .
Essad Pasha Toptani , as minister of war and interior , was against a peaceful solution of the problem . He opposed the International Commission of Control which believed that the problem could be solved by diplomatic means . The Prince and his cabinet accepted Essad Pasha 's proposals for a military solution . Several thousand Italian rifles and Austrian machine and mountain guns were purchased and distributed to the ( predominantly Muslim ) population of central Albania . They believed that the new regime was a tool of the ( Christian ) Great Powers and the landowners that owned half of the arable land . On the basis of those beliefs they revolted .
When thousands of rebels surrounded Shijak on May 17 , only 10 km ( 6 @.@ 2 mi ) from Durrës , Essad Pasha was accused of fomenting the revolt against William of Wied . He was exiled to Italy on May 20 , without trial .
The revolt intensified after Essad 's exile . In order to gain support from the 1 @,@ 000 Mirdita Catholic paid volunteers from the northern mountains , Prince of Wied appointed their leader , Prênk Bibë Doda , as foreign minister . Isa Boletini and his men , mostly from Kosovo , also joined the International Gendarmerie to fight the rebels . Dutch gendarmes together with the Mirdita attempted to capture Shijak , but when they engaged on May 23 , they were surrounded and captured , along with another expedition from Durrës which attempted to release the captured gendarmes . Captain Sar did not know that the northern Catholic tribes refused to fight the rebels because General Besa was agreed when the Prince of Wied took over the throne . Rebels attacked Durrës , firing on it with light weapons . The people in Durrës panicked , and the Prince took his family to shelter in an Italian ship anchored in the bay .
During the early morning surprise attack , on June 15 , 1914 , Thomson was shot in the chest ( despite the fact that rebels were attacking behind him ) and died within a few minutes . It is probable that an Italian sniper was responsible .
Captain Fabius established a volunteer artillery unit . According to the Austrian government , the volunteers who bombarded the rebels were recruited by the Albanian Committee in Vienna . Till the end of June 1914 Dutch officers were captured by rebels in most of the central Albania . They were gradually replaced with officers from Austria @-@ Hungary and Germany , who arrived in Durrës on July 4 . On July 27 , 1914 Colonel De Veer officially tendered the officers ' resignations . Soon the First World War broke out and by August 4 most of the officers had returned home . The rebels captured Berat on July 12 and Vlore , without fight , on August 21 . The last two captured officers ( Verhulst and Reimers ) were released on September 19 , 1914 .
= = End of the Mission = =
In autumn 1914 Essad Pasha accepted an invitation from the Senate of Central Albania ( established by the rebelling towns in mid and north Albania ) to return to Albania to take control . His first task was to provide financial backing for his government . Therefore , he travelled to Niš , Kingdom of Serbia , where he and Serbian prime minister Pašić signed a secret treaty of Serbian @-@ Albanian alliance on September 17 . In October 1914 Essad Pasha returned to Albania . With Italian and Serbian financial backing he established armed forces in Dibër and captured the interior and Durrës at the beginning of October , without a fight .
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= Italian cruiser Umbria =
Umbria was a protected cruiser of the Italian Regia Marina ( Royal Navy ) built in the 1890s . She was the lead ship of the Regioni class , which included five other vessels . All of the ships were named for current or former regions of Italy . The ship was equipped with a main armament of four 15 cm ( 5 @.@ 9 in ) and six 12 cm ( 4 @.@ 7 in ) guns , and she could steam at a speed of 18 knots ( 33 km / h ; 21 mph ) .
Umbria spent much of her career abroad , including several years in American waters . In service during a period of relative peace , Umbria never saw combat . In 1911 , she was sold to Haiti and renamed Consul Gostrück , though she did not serve for very long under the Haitian flag . Her crew was too inexperienced to operate the ship , and she foundered shortly after being transferred to the Haitian Navy
= = Design = =
Umbria was 84 @.@ 8 meters ( 278 ft ) long overall and had a beam of 12 @.@ 03 m ( 39 @.@ 5 ft ) and a draft of 5 @.@ 35 m ( 17 @.@ 6 ft ) . She displaced up to 3 @,@ 110 metric tons ( 3 @,@ 060 long tons ; 3 @,@ 430 short tons ) at full load . Her propulsion system consisted of a pair of horizontal triple @-@ expansion engines , with steam supplied by four cylindrical water @-@ tube boilers . On her speed trials , she reached a maximum of 19 knots ( 35 km / h ; 22 mph ) at 7 @,@ 400 indicated horsepower ( 5 @,@ 500 kW ) . The ship had a cruising radius of about 2 @,@ 100 nautical miles ( 3 @,@ 900 km ; 2 @,@ 400 mi ) at a speed of 10 knots ( 19 km / h ; 12 mph ) . She had a crew of between 213 @-@ 78 .
Umbria was armed with a main battery of four 15 cm ( 5 @.@ 9 in ) L / 40 guns mounted singly , with two side by side forward and two side by side aft . Six 12 cm ( 4 @.@ 7 in ) L / 40 guns were placed between them , with three on each broadside . Light armament included one 75 mm ( 3 @.@ 0 in ) gun , eight 57 mm ( 2 @.@ 2 in ) guns , two 37 mm ( 1 @.@ 5 in ) guns , and a pair of machine guns . She was also equipped with two 45 cm ( 18 in ) torpedo tubes . Umbria was protected by a 50 mm ( 2 @.@ 0 in ) thick deck , and her conning tower had 50 mm thick sides .
= = Service history = =
Umbria was built by the Odero @-@ Terni @-@ Orlando shipyard in Livorno . Her keel was laid down on 1 August 1888 . Shortages of funding slowed the completion of Umbria and her sister ships . Tight budgets forced the navy to reduce the pace of construction so that the funds could be used to keep the active fleet in service . As a result , her hull was not ready to be launched until 23 April 1891 , and fitting @-@ out work took another almost three years to complete . Umbria finally joined the fleet on 16 February 1894 . On 1 February 1897 , Umbria was assigned to the Cruiser Squadron of the main Italian fleet , along with her sister Liguria and the cruisers Marco Polo and Dogali .
In September 1904 , Umbria stopped in Rio de Janeiro , Brazil , to supervise the transfer of sailors who had been killed by a yellow fever outbreak on her sister Lombardia in 1896 . The men , 134 in all , had been buried in various cemeteries , but were re @-@ interred in a large mausoleum in São Francisco Xavier . On 29 December , Umbria stopped in Valparaiso , where she met the German cruiser SMS Falke and the United States ' cruisers USS New York and USS Marblehead and the gunboat USS Bennington . In June 1905 , Umbria represented Italy at the Lewis and Clark Centennial Exposition in Portland , Oregon . She was joined there by the United States ' cruisers USS Chicago and USS Boston . Umbria ran aground outside Kingston , Jamaica in July 1906 , while en route from Puerto Rico . The salvage ship SS Premier assisted in pulling the ship free .
By 1910 , the Regia Marina had decided to dispose of the obsolescent cruiser . Rumors that year of a potential sale to the Ecuadorian Navy prompted Peru to buy the old French cruiser Dupuy de Lôme , though Ecuador did not end up purchasing Umbria . Instead , in December 1910 , the Regia Marina sold Umbria to the Haitian Navy , but she did not arrive in Port @-@ de @-@ Paix , Haiti , until 13 June 1911 . After the sale , the ship was renamed Consul Gostrück . The ship was rumored to be carrying Cipriano Castro , the deposed president of Venezuela , though they later proved to be false . A German captain , Willy Meyer , was hired to take command of the ship upon its arrival in Haiti , but due to the lengthy delays , he quit . The cruiser sank shortly after entering service because her crew was not experienced in handling the ship . Umbria was eventually raised and towed to Rotterdam , the Netherlands , for disposal in 1913 .
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= Threatening the President of the United States =
Threatening the President of the United States is a class E felony under United States Code Title 18 , Section 871 . It consists of knowingly and willfully mailing or otherwise making " any threat to take the life of , to kidnap , or to inflict bodily harm upon the President of the United States " . The United States Secret Service investigates suspected violations of this law and monitors those who have a history of threatening the President . Threatening the President is considered a political offense . Immigrants who commit this crime can be deported .
Because the offense consists of pure speech , the courts have issued rulings attempting to balance the government 's interest in protecting the President with free speech rights under the First Amendment to the Constitution of the United States . According to the book Stalking , Threatening , and Attacking Public Figures , " Hundreds of celebrity howlers threaten the President of the United States every year , sometimes because they disagree with his policies , but more often just because he is the President . "
The prototype for Section 871 was the English Treason Act 1351 , which made it a crime to " compass or imagine " the death of the King . Convictions under 18 U.S.C. § 871 have been sustained for declaring that " President Wilson ought to be killed . It is a wonder some one has not done it already . If I had an opportunity , I would do it myself . " ; and for declaring that " Wilson is a wooden @-@ headed son of a bitch . I wish Wilson was in hell , and if I had the power I would put him there . " In a later era , a conviction was sustained for displaying posters urging passersby to " hang [ President ] Roosevelt " .
There has been some controversy among the federal appellate courts as to how the term " willfully " should be interpreted . Traditional legal interpretations of the term are reflected by Black 's Law Dictionary 's definition , which includes descriptions such as " malicious , done with evil intent , or with a bad motive or purpose , " but most courts have adopted a more easily proven standard . For instance , the U.S. Court of Appeals for the Seventh Circuit held that a threat was knowingly made if the maker comprehended the meaning of the words uttered by him . It was willingly made , if in addition to comprehending the meaning of his words , the maker voluntarily and intentionally uttered them as a declaration of apparent determination to carry them into execution . According to the U.S. Attorney 's Manual , " Of the individuals who come to the Secret Service 's attention as creating a possible danger to one of their protectees , approximately 75 percent are mentally ill . "
= = Frequency = =
The first prosecutions under the statute , enacted in 1917 , occurred during the highly charged , hyperpatriotic years of World War I , and the decisions handed down by the courts in these early cases reflected intolerance for any words demonstrating even a vague spirit of disloyalty . There was a relative moratorium on prosecutions under this statute until the World War II era . The number increased during the turbulent Vietnam War era . They have tended to fall when the country has not been directly embroiled in a national crisis situation .
The number of reported threats rose from 2 @,@ 400 in 1965 to 12 @,@ 800 in 1969 . According to some reports , President George W. Bush received about 3 @,@ 000 threats a year , while his successor Barack Obama received about four times that many . This figure has been disputed by Secret Service Director Mark Sullivan , who says that Obama receives about as many threats as the previous two Presidents .
According to the U.S. Attorneys ' Manual , " Media attention given to certain kinds of criminal activity seems to generate further criminal activity ; this is especially true concerning Presidential threats which is well documented by data previously supplied by the United States Secret Service . For example , in the six @-@ month period following the March 30 , 1981 , attempt on the life of President Reagan , the average number of threats against protectees of the Secret Service increased by over 150 percent from a similar period during the prior year . " For this reason , the agency recommends considering the use of sealed affidavits to keep news of threats from leaking to the press .
= = Incidents = =
Convictions under 18 U.S.C. § 871 have been sustained for declaring that " President Wilson ought to be killed . It is a wonder some one has not done it already . If I had an opportunity , I would do it myself . " ; and for declaring that " Wilson is a wooden @-@ headed son of a bitch . I wish Wilson was in hell , and if I had the power I would put him there . " In a later era , a conviction was sustained for displaying posters urging passersby to " hang [ President Franklin D. ] Roosevelt " .
In a 1971 interview , comedian Groucho Marx told Flash magazine , " I think the only hope this country has is Nixon ’ s assassination . " U.S. Attorney James L. Browning , Jr. opined , " It is one thing to say that ' I ( or we ) will kill Richard Nixon ' when you are the leader of an organization which advocates killing people and overthrowing the Government ; it is quite another to utter the words which are attributed to Mr. Marx , an alleged comedian . "
In July 2003 , the Los Angeles Times published a Sunday editorial cartoon by conservative Michael Ramirez that depicted a man pointing a gun at President Bush ’ s head ; it was a takeoff on the 1969 Pulitzer Prize @-@ winning photo by Eddie Adams that showed South Vietnamese National Police Chief Nguyễn Ngọc Loan executing a Viet Cong prisoner ( Capt. Nguyễn Văn Lém ) at point @-@ blank range . The cartoon prompted a visit from the Secret Service , but no charges were filed .
In 2005 , a teacher instructed her senior civics and economics class to take photographs to illustrate the rights contained in the United States Bill of Rights . One student " had taken a photo of George Bush out of a magazine and tacked the picture to a wall with a red thumb tack through his head . Then he made a thumb 's @-@ down sign with his own hand next to the President 's picture , and he had a photo taken of that , and he pasted it on a poster . " A Wal @-@ Mart photo department employee reported it to police , and the Secret Service investigated . No charges were filed .
In 2007 , Purdue University teaching assistant Vikram Buddhi was convicted of posting messages to Yahoo Finance criticizing the Iraq War and stating , " Call for the assassination of GW Bush " and " Rape and Kill Laura Bush . " The defense had argued that the defendant never explicitly threatened anyone .
In September 2009 the Secret Service investigated Facebook polls that asked whether President Barack Obama should be assassinated . Some question has arisen as to how to handle Facebook groups such as " LETS KILL BUSH WITH SHOES " ( a reference to the 2008 Muntadhar al @-@ Zaidi shoe incident ) which had 484 members as of September 2009 ; similar issues have arisen on MySpace . Tweets have come under Secret Service investigation , including ones that said " ASSASSINATION ! America , we survived the Assassinations and Lincoln & Kennedy . We 'll surely get over a bullet to Barrack [ sic ] Obama 's head , " and " The next American with a Clear Shot should drop Obama like a bad habit . 4get Blacks or his claims to b [ e ] Black . Turn on Barack Obama . "
In 2010 , Johnny Logan Spencer Jr. was sentenced in Louisville , Kentucky , to 33 months in prison for posting a poem entitled " The Sniper " about the President 's assassination on a white supremacist website . He apologized in court , saying that he was , as WHAS news put it , " upset about his mother 's death and had fallen in with a white supremacist group that had helped him kick a drug habit . "
In 2010 , Brian Dean Miller was sentenced in Texas to 27 months in prison for posting to Craigslist : " People , the time has come for revolution . It is time for Obama to die . I am dedicating my life to the death of Obama and every employee of the federal government . As I promised in a previous post , if the health care reform bill passed I would become a terrorist . Today I become a terrorist . "
Later in 2010 , a 77 @-@ year @-@ old white man named Michael Stephen Bowden , who said that President Obama was not doing enough to help African Americans , was arrested after making murder @-@ suicide threats against Obama .
On July 19 , 2011 , the 9th Circuit U.S. Court of Appeals reversed the conviction of Walter Bagdasarian for making online threats against Obama . The court found that his speech urging Obama 's assassination ( " Re : Obama fk the niggar [ sic ] , he will have a 50 cal in the head soon " and " shoot the nig country fkd for another 4 years + , what nig has done ANYTHING right ? ? ? ? long term ? ? ? ? never in history , except sambos " ) was protected by the First Amendment .
= = History = =
The prototype for Section 871 was the British Treason Act 1351 , which made it a crime to " compass or imagine " the death of the King . The statute prohibiting threats against the President was enacted by Congress in 1917 . The maximum fine it allowed was $ 1 @,@ 000 . The law was amended in 1994 to increase the maximum fine to $ 250 @,@ 000 .
Among the justifications that have been given for the statute include arguments that threats against the President have a tendency to stimulate opposition to national policies , however wise , even in the most critical times ; to incite the hostile and evil @-@ minded to take the President 's life ; to add to the expense of the President 's safeguarding ; to be an affront to all loyal and right @-@ thinking persons ; to inflame their minds ; to provoke resentment , disorder , and violence ; and to disrupt Presidential activity and movement . It has also been argued that such threats are akin to treason and can be rightly denounced as a crime against the people as the sovereign power . Congressman Edwin Y. Webb noted , " That is one reason why we want this statute – in order to decrease the possibility of actual assault by punishing threats to commit an assault ... A bad man can make a public threat , and put somebody else up to committing a crime against the Chief Executive , and that is where the harm comes . The man who makes the threat is not himself very dangerous , but he is liable to put devilment in the mind of some poor fellow who does try to harm him . "
Prisoners are sometimes charged for threatening the President though they lack the ability to personally carry out such a threat . The courts have upheld such convictions , reasoning that actual ability to carry out the threat is not an element of the offense ; prisoners are able to make true threats as they could carry out the threat by directing people on the outside to harm the President . Sometimes prisoners make such threats to manipulate the system ; e.g. , a case arose in which an inmate claiming to be " institutionalized " threatened the President in order to stay in prison ; there was a case in which a state prisoner threatened the President because he wanted to go to a federal institution .
= = Penalties = =
Threatening the President of the United States is a class E felony under United States Code Title 18 , Section 871 . The offense is punishable by up to 5 years in prison , a $ 250 @,@ 000 maximum fine , a $ 100 special assessment , and 3 years of supervised release . Internet restrictions such as a prohibition on access to email have been imposed on offenders who made their threats by computer . The U.S. Sentencing Guidelines set a base offense level of 12 for sending threatening communication , but when a threat to the President is involved , a 6 @-@ level " official victim " enhancement applies . Moreover , " an upward departure may be warranted due to the potential disruption of the governmental function . " Further enhancements can apply if the offender evidenced an intent to carry out the threat ( 6 @-@ level enhancement ) ; made more than two threats ( 2 @-@ level enhancement ) ; caused substantial disruption of public , governmental , or business functions or services ( 4 @-@ level enhancement ) ; or created a substantial risk of inciting others to harm federal officials ( 2 @-@ level enhancement ) . Since each 6 @-@ level increase approximately doubles the Guidelines sentencing range , it is not particularly rare for an offender who threatens the President to receive a sentence at or near the maximum , especially if he has a criminal history and / or does not qualify for a reduction for acceptance of responsibility . There is a 4 @-@ level decrease available for a threat involving a " single instance evidencing little or no deliberation " , which would usually apply to spur @-@ of @-@ the @-@ moment verbal threats . The maximum penalty for threatening a United States judge or a Federal law enforcement officer is 10 years imprisonment — double the maximum penalty for threatening the President .
= = Interpretation = =
There has been some controversy among the federal appellate courts as to how the term " willfully " should be interpreted . Traditional legal interpretations of the term are reflected by Black 's Law Dictionary 's definition , which includes descriptions such as " malicious , done with evil intent , or with a bad motive or purpose . " In U.s. v. Patillo , the U.S. Court of Appeals for the Fourth Circuit held that a threat to the President could lead to a verdict of guilty " only if made with the present intention to do injury to the President " . Specifically , the court opined that " The word [ willfully ] often denotes an act which is intentional , or knowing , or voluntary , as distinguished from accidental . But when used in a criminal statute it generally means an act done with a bad purpose ... We believe that a ' bad purpose ' assumes even more than its usual importance in a criminal prosecution based upon the bare utterance of words . "
Most of the other circuits have held that it is not necessary that the threat be intended to be communicated to the President or that it have tendency to influence his action . The legislative history , which contains debate over a rejected amendment that would have eliminated the words " knowingly and willfully " from the statute , reflects that the word " willfully " was included in order to avoid criminalizing behavior carried out with innocent intent ( e.g. mailing to a friend , for informational purposes , a newspaper article containing a threat to the President ) . The U.S. Court of Appeals for the Seventh Circuit held that a threat was knowingly made if the maker comprehended the meaning of the words uttered by him . It was willingly made , if in addition to comprehending the meaning of his words , the maker voluntarily and intentionally uttered them as a declaration of apparent determination to carry them into execution .
= = = Watts v. United States = = =
In the case of Watts v. United States ( 1969 ) , the United States Supreme Court ruled that mere political hyperbole must be distinguished from true threats . At a DuBois Club public rally on the Washington Monument grounds , a member of the assembled group suggested that the young people present should get more education before expressing their views . The defendant , an 18 @-@ year @-@ old , replied :
They always holler at us to get an education . And now I have already received my draft classification as 1 @-@ A and I have got to report for my physical this Monday coming . I am not going . If they ever make me carry a rifle the first man I want to get in my sights is L. B. J.
According to court testimony , the defendant in speaking made a gesture of sighting down the barrel of a rifle . The audience responded with laughter and applause , which the Court of Appeals would later view as potentially ominous :
[ I ] t has not been unknown for laughter and applause to have sinister implications for the safety of others . History records that applause and laughter frequently greeted Hitler 's predictions of the future of the German Jews . Even earlier , the Roman holidays celebrated in the Colosseum often were punctuated by cheers and laughter when the Emperor gestured thumbs down on a fallen gladiator .
The boy was arrested and found to be in possession of cannabis , but a Court of General Sessions Judge suppressed the cannabis because he found that there had been no probable cause for the Secret Service agents to believe the defendant 's words constituted a threat to the President . This did not prevent a federal court from convicting him for threatening the President . The United States Court of Appeals for the District of Columbia Circuit affirmed his conviction , but the Supreme Court reversed , stating , " We agree with petitioner that his only offense here was ' a kind of very crude offensive method of stating a political opposition to the President . ' Taken in context , and regarding the expressly conditional nature of the statement and the reaction of the listeners , we do not see how it could be interpreted otherwise . " In a concurring opinion , William O. Douglas noted , " The Alien and Sedition Laws constituted one of our sorriest chapters ; and I had thought we had done with them forever ... Suppression of speech as an effective police measure is an old , old device , outlawed by our Constitution . "
= = = Other cases = = =
Courts have held that a person is guilty of the offense if certain criteria are met . Specifically , he must intentionally make a threat in a context , and under such circumstances , that a reasonable person would foresee that the statement would be interpreted by persons hearing or reading it as a serious expression of an intention to harm the President . The statement must also not be the result of mistake , duress or coercion . A true threat is a serious threat and not words uttered as a mere political argument , idle talk , or jest . The standard definition of a true threat does not require actual subjective intent to carry out the threat .
A defendant 's statement that if he got the chance he would harm the President is a threat ; merely because a threat has been conditional upon the ability of the defendant to carry it out does not render it any less of a threat . It has been ruled that taken together , envelopes containing ambiguous messages , white powder , and cigarette butts that were mailed to the President after the 9 / 11 anthrax outbreaks conveyed a threatening message . The sending of non @-@ toxic white powder alone to the President has been deemed to be a threat . A broad statement that the President must " see truth " and " uphold Constitution " or else the letter writer will put a bullet in his head count as not expressly conditional as it does not indicate what events or circumstances will prevent the threat from being carried out . However , the statement " if I got hold of President Wilson , I would shoot him " was not an indictable offense because the conditional threat was ambiguous as to whether it was an expression of present or past intent .
The posting of a paper in a public place with a statement that it would be an acceptable sacrifice to God to kill an unjust President was ruled not to be in violation of the statute . The statute does not penalize imagining , wishing , or hoping that the act of killing the President will be committed by someone else . Conversely , the mailing of letters containing the words " kill Reagan " and depicting the President 's bleeding head impaled on a stake was considered a serious threat . An oral threat against the President unheard by anyone does not constitute a threat denounced by statute .
Since other statutes make it a crime to assault or to attempt to kill the President , some question has arisen as to whether it is necessary to have a statute banning threats . As the Georgetown Law Journal notes , " It can be argued that the punishment of an attempt against the life of the President is not sufficient ; by the time all the elements of an attempt have come into existence the risk to the President becomes too great . On the other hand , the punishment of conduct short of an attempt runs the risk of violating the established principle that intent alone is not punishable ... While ordinarily mere preparation to commit an offense is not punishable , an exception may perhaps be justified by the seriousness of the consequences of an executed threat on the President 's life . "
= = Psychiatric matters = =
According to the U.S. Attorney 's Manual , " Of the individuals who come to the Secret Service 's attention as creating a possible danger to one of their protectees , approximately 75 percent are mentally ill . " The Secret Service notes , " These are probably Secret Service 's most serious cases because it must be determined whether the person making the threat really wants to hurt [ Secret Service protectees ] or whether they may have some medical problems of their own , for which they need help . " It is not uncommon for judges to order psychological evaluations of defendants charged under this statute in accordance with United States federal laws governing offenders with mental diseases or defects . Psychiatrists divide people who threaten the President into three classes : Class 1 includes persons who have expressed overt threatening statements but have made no overt action , Class 2 comprises individuals who have a history of assaultive behaviors toward authority figures , and Class 3 includes person who are considered dangerous and typically have been prosecuted under Section 871 .
Dilemmas related to patient confidentiality sometimes arise when a mentally ill subject makes a threat against the President . The termination of nurse Linda Portnoy was upheld after she reported such a statement to the Secret Service . The court noted that the patient was restrained and unable to act on his threats , so he wasn 't an immediate safety risk . It also considered the patient 's psychiatrist , not Portnoy , the appropriate person to assess the gravity of his threats . In a study found that in those who threaten the President , the primary differentiating variable related to lethality was " opportunity and happenstance " . Conversely , a defendant 's writings in his anger management workbook threatening to kill the President upon the defendant 's release from the penitentiary were ruled to have fallen within the dangerous patient exception to psychotherapist @-@ patient privilege .
Federal law provides that the director of the facility in which a person is hospitalized due to being found incompetent to stand trial or not guilty only by reason of insanity of a Section 871 violation shall prepare annual or semiannual reports concerning the mental condition of the person and containing recommendations about the need for his continued hospitalization ; a copy of the reports shall be submitted to the Director of the United States Secret Service to assist it in carrying out its protective duties . The Ninth Circuit ruled that it is constitutional to hold a presidential threatener beyond Section 871 's prescribed five @-@ year statutory maximum if he is found to be dangerous and mentally ill . It is possible under federal law to hold some presidential threateners indefinitely .
= = Other articles = =
Finer ( 1976 ) , Mens Rea , the First Amendment , and Threats Against the Life of the President 18 , Ariz L Rev , p . 863
Logan , William S. ; Reuterfors , David L. ; Bohn Jr . , Martin J. ; Clark , Charles L. ( 13 Feb 2006 ) , " The description and classification of presidential threateners " , Behavioral Sciences & the Law 2 ( 2 ) : 151 – 167
Megargee , Edwin I. ( 1986 ) , " A Psychometric Study of Incarcerated Presidential Threateners " , Criminal Justice and Behavior 13 ( 3 ) : 243 – 260 , doi : 10 @.@ 1177 / 0093854886013003001
" 2 @.@ 36 : Threats Against the President " , Criminal Pattern Jury Instructions ( PDF ) , p . 137
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= United Kingdom national football team =
No United Kingdom national football team currently exists , as there currently are separate teams representing each of the nations of the United Kingdom ( England , Scotland , Wales and Northern Ireland ) in international football .
These national teams compete in the FIFA World Cup and UEFA European Championships and other internationals . A United Kingdom team has played in friendly matches , though never in a full FIFA international and not since 1955 . However , the United Kingdom has competed in the association football tournament at the Olympic Games , where it is represented by the Great Britain Olympic football team .
= = Background = =
When the world 's first football association , The Football Association ( FA ) , was formed in 1863 , its geographical remit was not clear : there was no specification of whether it covered just England , all of the United Kingdom , the British Empire or even the entire world . The question was answered when the Scottish Football Association ( SFA ) was founded in 1873 .
The third national football association , the Football Association of Wales ( FAW ) was founded in 1876 and a fourth , the Irish Football Association ( IFA ) , was founded in 1880 . Football therefore developed with separate associations and national teams for each of the countries of the United Kingdom or " Home Nations " .
Representative international matches between England and Scotland were played as far back as 1872 , and the Home Nations formed the International Football Association Board ( IFAB ) in 1886 to co @-@ ordinate matches between their teams . FIFA was formed by non @-@ British associations in 1904 , and by 1913 the Home Nations were in FIFA and FIFA was on the IFAB . In 1921 , around the time of the partition of Ireland , the Football Association of Ireland ( FAI ) split from the IFA and disputed its authority .
In 1923 , an agreement between the IFAB and FIFA meant the FAI would represent the Irish Free State and the IFA Northern Ireland ; also , FIFA agreed that relationships between the Home Nations would be outside its remit . England and Scotland separately played internationals against various European teams , but the Home Nations withdrew from FIFA in 1928 , in an dispute over amateurism , and did not rejoin till 1946 , missing the first three World Cups .
England have been the only Home Nation to have any major success internationally , winning the 1966 World Cup . Scotland have qualified for the final tournaments of eight World Cups and two European Championships , but have never progressed beyond the group stage of any international tournament . Northern Ireland have not qualified for a World Cup finals tournament since 1986 , and Wales since 1958 .
This is sometimes raised as an argument in favour of a single United Kingdom national team : based on statistical analysis . In June 2006 , it was estimated that a United Kingdom national team would have had a one @-@ third greater chance of winning the 2006 World Cup , than England did at the tournament 's outset . Opponents of the plan argue that the existing footballing identities of the fans of the Home Nations should not be sacrificed simply to stand a better chance of success .
There has been limited support for the creation of a permanent British national team . Although often hypothetical in nature , such a proposal has been put forward by prominent government ministers , including Jack Straw and Tony Banks . In July 2014 , after England performed poorly in the 2014 World Cup , Conservative MP Laurence Robertson submitted an early day motion , calling for a United Kingdom Football Team .
= = Matches = =
Despite this , the Home Nations have previously united to play two friendly internationals against ' Rest of Europe ' representative sides . On both occasions , they included all four Home Nations : England , Scotland , Wales and Northern Ireland . Despite Northern Ireland 's participation , both matches were played under the name of ' Great Britain ' .
10 May 1947 ; Hampden Park , Glasgow : Great Britain 6 – 1 Rest of Europe
13 August 1955 ; Windsor Park , Belfast : Great Britain 1 – 4 Rest of Europe
= = = 1947 : the Match of the Century = = =
The 1947 game , dubbed the ' Match of the Century ' , was played to celebrate the return of the Home Nations to FIFA , which they had left in 1920 . For the match , played at Scotland 's Hampden Park in front of 135 @,@ 000 spectators , the Great Britain side wore a navy blue strip in honour of the host association . The gate receipts , totalling £ 35 @,@ 000 , helped boost the finances of FIFA , which had been damaged by the lack of competition during World War II . On that occasion , the Great Britain team consisted of :
Frank Swift ( England ) , George Hardwick ( England ) , Billy Hughes ( Wales ) , Archie Macaulay ( Scotland ) , Jackie Vernon ( Ireland ) , Ron Burgess ( Wales ) , Stanley Matthews ( England ) , Wilf Mannion ( England ) , Tommy Lawton ( England ) , Billy Steel ( Scotland ) , Billy Liddell ( Scotland ) .
Goals : UK 1 – 0 ROE , Mannion 22nd minute ; 1 – 1 Nordahl 24 ; 2 – 1 Mannion 33 pen . ; 3 – 1 Steel 35 ; 4 – 1 Lawton 37 ; 5 – 1 Parola 74 o.g. ; 6 – 1 Lawton 82 .
= = = 1955 : Irish FA 's anniversary = = =
The 1955 game was played to celebrate the Irish Football Association 's seventy @-@ fifth anniversary . For this reason , the match was held at Belfast 's Windsor Park , and the British team took to the field wearing Northern Ireland 's green strip . The Great Britain team fielded comprised :
Jack Kelsey ( Wales ) , Peter Sillett ( England ) , Joe McDonald ( Scotland ) , Danny Blanchflower ( Northern Ireland ) , John Charles ( Wales ) , Bertie Peacock ( Northern Ireland ) , Stanley Matthews ( England ) , Bobby Johnstone ( Scotland ) , Roy Bentley ( England ) , Jimmy McIlroy ( Northern Ireland ) , Billy Liddell ( Scotland ) .
= = = Other matches = = =
Two other games were played between Wales and a team representing the rest of the United Kingdom , with players from England , Scotland , and Northern Ireland . The first match , in 1951 , commemorated the seventy @-@ fifth anniversary of the Football Association of Wales . The second match , in 1969 , commemorated the investiture of the Prince of Wales . In both cases , the England , Scotland and Northern Ireland select team played under the name of ' Rest of the United Kingdom ' .
3 December 1951 ; Ninian Park , Cardiff : Wales 3 – 2 Rest of the United Kingdom
21 July 1969 ; Ninian Park , Cardiff : Wales 0 – 1 Rest of the United Kingdom
There was also a match played at Wembley in 1973 to commemorate the entry of the United Kingdom , Ireland and Denmark into the European Economic Community . This match , called " The Three " v " The Six " , involved a select team from those three countries playing against a selection of players from the original six members of the EEC : West Germany , Belgium , Netherlands , Luxembourg , France and Italy .
Ten of the thirteen players used by " The Three " were from the United Kingdom , with only Johnny Giles and two Danish players representing the other two countries . Henning Jensen and Colin Stein scored as The Three won 2 – 0 .
A Great British team lined up against another Rest of Europe XI in 1965 for Stanley Matthews ' testimonial . Europe won 6 – 4 . A Scotland XI team played a Rest of Great Britain team in a testimonial match for Alan Mullery . Scotland were defeated 3 – 2 at Craven Cottage on 22 March 1976 .
= = Olympic team = =
From the 1904 Summer Olympics to the 1972 Summer Olympics , and again for the 2012 Summer Olympics , the UK has competed in either the Olympic football tournament or its qualifying competition . During the first tournament , played as a demonstration sport at the 1900 Summer Olympics but retrospectively accredited by the IOC , Upton Park F.C. represented the UK and won gold . Following this Great Britain won gold medals at the 1908 and 1912 Games .
All ' Great Britain ' Olympic football teams were organised by The Football Association ( FA ) with the acquiescence of the other Home Nations ' football associations , and after the FA scrapped the distinction between professional and amateur players in 1974 , no more British Olympic teams were entered .
Although professional players were allowed into the Olympics from 1992 , no British teams were entered because the individual home nations , rather than a unified team , participated in the qualifying competition .
The 2012 Summer Olympics were hosted by London , which meant that Great Britain qualified as right of being host nation . After much discussion between the Home Nations and opposition from the Northern Irish , Scottish and Welsh associations , men 's and women 's teams organised by the ( English ) FA were entered to the 2012 Olympics .
= = Universiade team = =
At the Universiade , the United Kingdom team won three medals : two silver medals in 2011 and 2013 and a bronze medal in 1991 .
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= Lee Choon Seng =
Lee Choon Seng ( Chinese : 李俊承 ; pinyin : Lǐ Jùn Chéng ; Pe ̍ h @-@ ōe @-@ jī : Lí Tsùn @-@ sîng ; 1888 — 5 June 1966 ) was a businessman and philanthropist in pre @-@ independence Singapore . He founded several companies , cultivated rubber plantations in Malaya and started Chinese banks in the region . Lee held leadership roles in several Chinese community organisations in Singapore , notably the Singapore Chinese Chamber of Commerce and Industry ( SCCCI ) , and supported Sun Yat @-@ Sen 's revolutionary cause in China . In addition , he promoted the growth of Buddhism in Singapore by setting up several Buddhist institutions , including the Singapore Buddhist Lodge , Singapore Buddhist Federation and Poh Ern Shih Temple . In 2008 , his life and contributions to society were commemorated in a memorial hall at the Ee Hoe Hean Club .
= = Early years and personal life = =
In 1888 , Lee was born in Yongchun County , Fujian , China ; he had an elder stepbrother and a younger sister . To seek better fortunes , his father , Lee Lip Chai , emigrated to Negri Sembilan , Malaysia , where he started a horse @-@ drawn transport service and a provision shop , then initiated a series of charitable projects , including setting up a clan association and schools . Lee later joined his father in Negri Sembilan to help him run the family business and participate in his charitable projects . Lee grew up as a Taoist , but converted to Buddhism in adulthood , with Venerable Hong Choon , the abbot of Kong Meng San Temple , acting as his spiritual mentor . He married twice and had at least fifteen children .
= = Business = =
Lee moved to Singapore to set up another branch of his family business , called Thye Hin Limited . In Singapore , he founded Eng Hin Company , the Thye Hong Biscuit Factory and Thye Ann Investment , a property firm . He also cultivated large rubber plantations across Malaya . Realising that many newly arrived businessmen had difficulty obtaining loans from established Western banks , Lee and his business associates started several local Chinese banks , including Ho Hong Bank . In 1931 , Lee became the managing director of Ho Hong Bank and after it merged with two other banks to form the Oversea @-@ Chinese Banking Corporation ( OCBC ) , he became a director of OCBC and eventually its chairman .
= = Contributions to the Chinese community = =
= = = Support of Sun Yat Sen = = =
An ardent supporter of the Kuomintang , Lee was involved in secret meetings with Sun Yat @-@ Sen at the Wan Qing Yuan , a two @-@ storey villa at Tai Gin Road . He also helped the Chinese diaspora in Southeast Asia raise funds to support the Kuomintang in their struggles against the Empire of Japan and Communist Party of China . In 1937 , Lee and five other Chinese community leaders bought the Wan Qing Yuan to preserve it as a historical site ; it was later handed over to the Singapore Chinese Chamber of Commerce and Industry ( SCCCI ) , which renovated it and turned it into a national monument , the Sun Yat Sen Villa ( now Sun Yat Sen Nanyang Memorial Hall ) .
= = = Chinese community organisations = = =
From 1927 , Lee was actively involved with the SCCCI , initially as General @-@ Secretary , then as President . Under his leadership , the SCCCI supported the establishment of Nanyang University and convinced the British to grant citizenship to Chinese immigrants who had lived in Singapore for eight years . Lee was Chairman of the Ee Hoe Hean Club from 1933 – 1935 and 1941 – 1945 . Lee was also one of six Hokkien representatives in the Overseas Chinese Association ( OCA ) , which acted as a bridge between the Chinese community and Japanese military administration during the Japanese Occupation of Singapore . During an OCA assignment to the Endau Settlement in Malaysia , his convoy was ambushed by the Malayan People 's Anti @-@ Japanese Army and everyone in the convoy was shot . Only Lee survived , as a bullet hit a Buddhist medallion on his chest ; this inspired him to spread Buddhism in Singapore .
= = Contributions to Buddhism in Singapore = =
= = = Poh Ern Shih Temple = = =
During World War II , many Japanese soldiers , British soldiers and civilians died in the crossfire and bombings of the Battle of Pasir Panjang at Chwee Chian Hill . On advice from Venerable Hong Choon , Lee purchased the hill from the British colonial government , with the aim of building a Buddhist temple dedicated to the bodhisattva Ksitigarbha , to liberate the spirits of the people who were sacrificed during the Japanese invasion . In 1950 , Lee incorporated the 46 @,@ 938 square feet ( 4 @,@ 360 @.@ 7 m2 ) Poh Ern Shih Temple ( Hokkien for " temple of thanksgiving " ) as a limited company without shares , and in April 1954 , he officiated its opening .
= = = Singapore Buddhist Lodge = = =
In 1943 , the Singapore Buddhist Lodge ( 新加坡佛教居士林 ) was set up with about 100 members , mostly from the Chinese social elite . Its fixed address , a double @-@ storey house at 26 Blair Road , was donated by Lee , who also contributed S $ 1 @,@ 000 for furniture and other expenses , a considerable sum at that time . The Lodge grew to over 2000 members by 1946 , so Zhang Jiamei and Zhong Tianshui decided to rent bigger premises at 17 Kim Yam Road . In 1950 , Zhang and Lee donated S $ 10 @,@ 000 and started a drive to raise funds to purchase the rented premises .
= = = Singapore Buddhist Federation = = =
The rate of growth of Buddhist temples and Buddhists doubled after the war , but without an umbrella organisation , each temple , headed by a chief monk or management committee , had its own way of conducting its affairs and relied on itself for financial support . Lee invited representatives from all Chinese temples to the Singapore Buddhist Lodge to discuss the formation of an umbrella organisation , and on 30 October 1949 , the Singapore Buddhist Federation was registered , with Lee elected as its chairman and Venerable Hong Choon as its vice @-@ chairman . In its first decade , its notable achievements included having Vesak Day gazetted as a public holiday in 1955 , getting government approval to set up a Buddhist cemetery of about 110 acres ( 0 @.@ 45 km2 ) at Choa Chu Kang Road and managing two schools , Maha Bodhi School and Mee Toh School .
= = = The Chinese Temple in Sarnath = = =
In the early 1930s , Lee learned that Venerable Tao Chiai wanted to restore a dilapidated Chinese temple in Sarnath ( the deer park where the Buddha gave his first sermon after his enlightenment ) that a Chinese emperor of the Tang Dynasty built in the 8th century AD . Venerable Tao Chiai died before he could accomplish this task ; however , his chief disciple , Venerable Teh Yue , continued the restoration project , which Lee personally funded . Lee went on a pilgrimage to India with Venerable Teh Yue and brought along an English engineer , A. H. King , to assess and assist the restoration works . This temple still stands today in Sarnath and is called simply The Chinese Temple in Sarnath .
= = Death and commemoration = =
On 5 June 1966 , Lee was found dead in his home at Pasir Panjang Road . On 9 November 2008 , his life and contributions to society were commemorated in a gallery , called The Pioneers ' Memorial Hall , on the ground floor of the Ee Hoe Hean Club at Bukit Pasoh Road .
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= Porcelain ( song ) =
" Porcelain " is a song by American electronica musician Moby . It was released as the sixth single from his fifth studio album Play on June 12 , 2000 . Its melancholy lyrics describe a break @-@ up and were written by Moby – who also performs lead vocals on the track – based on his experiences with an unidentified woman . An electronic song , it also incorporates reversed string samples ( from the song " Fight for Survival " from the Exodus soundtrack ) and piano rhythms into its instrumentation . While Moby initially expressed disdain over the song and its production , he was eventually talked into including it on Play .
The song was well received by music critics , who praised its arrangement and named it a standout track on Play . It became one of the most successful singles from the album upon release , becoming a top five hit in the United Kingdom and managing to chart highly in several other countries . Moby later licensed " Porcelain " , along with the remainder of Play , for use in several forms of media . Two different music videos were produced for the song , directed by Jonas Åkerlund and Nick Brandt . The song has received remixes by Rob Dougan , Futureshock , Torsten Stenzel & Force Mass Motion .
= = Background and composition = =
" Porcelain " was written and produced by Moby for his fifth studio album Play ( 1999 ) and recorded in his Little Italy , Manhattan apartment . He found the inspiration to compose the song from his experiences with an unidentified woman ; speaking to Billboard , he explained : " I was involved with this really , really wonderful woman , and I loved her very much . But I knew deep in my heart of hearts that we had no business being romantically involved . So , it 's sort of about being in love with someone but knowing you shouldn 't be with them . " Moby initially disliked the track , criticizing his production as " mushy " and his vocals as " really weak " . He had dismissed " Porcelain " as " average " and later recalled that he " couldn 't imagine anyone else wanting to listen to it " – however , he was eventually talked into including it on Play .
Featuring vocals performed by Moby , " Porcelain " is a mid @-@ tempo , downtempo and electronica song . The song 's introspective , wistful lyrics describe " loving someone , but having to break up with them anyway . " Composed in the key of E @-@ flat major and running at a tempo of 96 beats per minute , " Porcelain " follows a constant four @-@ chord progression ( Gm − B ♭ − Fm − A ♭ ) in the B ♭ mixolydian mode , with the exception of a bridge midway through the song . Its instrumentation incorporates reversed string samples and piano rhythms . " Porcelain " also makes use of the drum machine and includes several layered elements , including vocal samples , synthesizer chords and a cello line . Pilar Basso performs additional vocals on the song .
= = Critical reception = =
" Porcelain " received generally positive reviews from music critics . Alexandra Marshall of MTV called the song a " lush little snippet which sounds like a basement tape from a Magnetic Fields EP . " A writer for the Birmingham Evening Mail wrote that its " sweeping melody and atmospheric vocals " create a " distinctive soundscape " . Brent DiCrescenzo of Pitchfork Media remarked that the song " tenderly glides down throats like lithium . " While commenting that Play " need [ s ] of a bit of pruning " , David Browne of Entertainment Weekly cited " Porcelain " as an exception and praised it as " gorgeous " . In their " Chartslot " feature , the Daily Record described the song as " ideal for chilling out to on a summer 's evening . " Jim DeRogatis of the Chicago Sun @-@ Times characterized the Play songs " Honey " and " Porcelain " as " emotional and gripping " and wrote that if " [ they ] didn 't move you ( in every sense of the word ) , then you probably had no pulse . " Playlouder named " Porcelain " the twenty @-@ sixth best single of 2000 , calling it the album 's " most crushingly heavenly track " and praising its combination of piano melodies with Moby 's " hauntingly haunted " vocals . The song ranked at number fifty @-@ six on The Village Voice 's annual Pazz & Jop critics ' poll . Q placed " Porcelain " at number 253 on their list of the 1 @,@ 001 Best Songs Ever .
= = Commercial performance = =
The song was released as the sixth single from Play on June 12 , 2000 . Like all other songs from its parent album , it was licensed for use in several commercials , television programs and films . English film director Danny Boyle featured " Porcelain " in his 2000 film The Beach , with Moby crediting its inclusion in the film for raising awareness of the record . Other notable uses include commercials for the Volkswagen Polo , Bosch and France Télécom . " Porcelain " became one of the most successful singles from Play upon release – Moby has since referred to it as the " most signature song " on the album . It debuted at number five on the UK Singles Chart and spent a total of six weeks on the chart . The single became a top thirty hit in Ireland and Poland , where it peaked at numbers 26 and 14 respectively . " Porcelain " also managed to chart in several other European countries , including France , Germany , the Netherlands and Switzerland . In North America , it peaked at number 50 on the Canadian RPM singles chart and charted on the United States Billboard Adult Pop Songs , Alternative Songs and Hot Dance Club Songs charts . Liana Jonas of AllMusic wrote that the song 's commercial success " helped bring electronica music into the limelight " , calling it a " groundbreaking recording " .
= = Music videos = =
Two separate music videos were produced for " Porcelain " . The first version , directed by Jonas Åkerlund , is primarily a simple close @-@ up of a human eye ; various images are reflected onto the eye throughout the course of the video , including Moby performing the song , people smiling and a piano being played .
The second video , directed by Nick Brandt , features Moby sitting in the back seat of a moving car without a driver as it drives through a city , on a highway where an oncoming car with a girl in the back , looking at Moby , had to go in the other lane when the DeVille drifted into their lane . The car then left turns into a field and drives through a forest , past cattle , and finally down the hills going into the distance . The Åkerlund @-@ directed version only aired in European markets and was not released in the United States until its inclusion on the video album Play : The DVD .
= = Formats and track listings = =
= = Charts = =
= = Release history = =
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= Francis William Reitz =
Francis William Reitz , Jr . ( Swellendam , 5 October 1844 – Cape Town , 27 March 1934 ) was a South African lawyer , politician , statesman , publicist , and poet who was a member of parliament of the Cape Colony , Chief Justice and fifth State President of the Orange Free State , State Secretary of the South African Republic at the time of the Second Boer War , and the first president of the Senate of the Union of South Africa .
Reitz had an extremely varied political and judicial career that lasted for over forty @-@ five years and spanned four separate political entities : the Cape Colony , the Orange Free State , the South African Republic , and the Union of South Africa . Trained as a lawyer in Cape Town and London , Reitz started off in law practice and diamond prospecting before being appointed Chief Justice of the Orange Free State . In the Orange Free State Reitz played an important role in the modernisation of the legal system and the state 's administrative organisation . At the same time he was also prominent in public life , getting involved in the Afrikaner language and culture movement , and cultural life in general .
Reitz was a popular personality , both for his politics and his openness . When State President Brand suddenly died in 1888 , Reitz won the presidential elections unopposed . After being re @-@ elected in 1895 , subsequently making a trip to Europe , Reitz fell seriously ill , and had to retire . In 1898 , now recovered , he was appointed State Secretary of the South African Republic , and became a leading Afrikaner political figure during the Second Boer War . Reluctant to shift allegiance to the British , Reitz went into voluntary exile after the war ended . Several years later he returned to South Africa and set up a law practice again , in Pretoria . In the late 1900s he became involved in politics once more , and upon the declaration of the Union of South Africa in 1910 , Reitz was chosen the first president of the Senate .
Reitz was an important figure in Afrikaner cultural life during most of his life , especially through his poems and other publications .
= = Biography = =
= = = Family = = =
Francis William Reitz , Jr . , was born in Swellendam on 5 October 1844 , as the son of Francis William Reitz , Sr. MLC , model farmer , agriculturalist and politician , and Cornelia Magdalena Deneys . He was the seventh child in a family of twelve . He grew up at Rhenosterfontein , the model farm ( Afrikaans : plaas ) of his father , situated on the borders of the Breederivier ( Broad River ) in the Cape Colony .
Reitz married twice . His first marriage ( Cape Town 24 June 1874 ) was to Blanka Thesen ( Stavanger , Norway , 15 October 1854 – Bloemfontein , 5 October 1887 ) . She was the sister of Charles Wilhelm Thesen , and the daughter of Arnt Leonard Thesen , tradesman , and Anne Cathrine Margarethe Brandt . The Thesen family had settled in Knysna , Cape Colony , from Norway in 1869 . The couple had seven sons and one daughter . After the death of his first wife Reitz remarried ( Bloemfontein , 11 December 1889 ) with Cornelia Maria Theresia Mulder ( Delft , Netherlands , 25 December 1863 – Cape Town 2 January 1935 ) , daughter of Johannes Adrianus Mulder , typesetter , and Engelina Johanna van Hamme . At the time of her marriage Mulder was acting director of the Eunice Ladies ' Institute at Bloemfontein . With his second wife he had six sons and one daughter .
Deneys , his son , fought against the British in the Second Boer War , commanded the First Battalion , Royal Scots Fusiliers during World War I and served as a Member of the Union Parliament , Cabinet Minister , Deputy Prime Minister ( 1939 – 1943 ) , and South African High Commissioner ( 1944 ) to the Court of St. James 's . His book , Commando : A Boer Journal Of The Boer War , has for many years been regarded as one of the best narratives of war and adventure in the English language .
= = = Education = = =
Reitz received his earliest schooling at home , from a governess , and at a neighbouring farm . When he was nine years old , he went to the Rouwkoop Boarding School in Rondebosch ( Cape Town ) . Here he stood out for his academic achievements and was subsequently elected Queen 's Scholar by the Senate of the South African College in Cape Town . In the six years he spent at the College , after arriving in 1857 , he received a broad education in arts and sciences , and developed himself into a well @-@ balanced young man with obvious leadership qualities . He graduated from South African College in September 1863 with the equivalent of a modern bachelor 's degree in arts and sciences .
By then , Reitz had developed a keen interest in law , and he continued his studies at South African College , reading law with professor F.S. Watermeyer . The latter 's death only months after Reitz started working with him , made Reitz decide to continue his studies in London , at the Inner Temple . It was a decision that needed deliberation , as his father was hoping for his son to return to the farm in due time , and the financial situation of the family was not strong . However , Reitz did go to London , and finished his studies successfully . He was called to the bar at Westminster on 11 June 1867 . During his time in England Reitz became interested in politics , and regularly attended sessions of the House of Commons . Before returning to South Africa he made a tour of Europe . Back in South Africa , Reitz established himself as a barrister in Cape Town , where he was called to the bar on 23 January 1868 .
= = = Early career = = =
In the beginning Reitz found it hard to make a living , as competition among lawyers in Cape Town was quite severe at this time . Nevertheless , he succeeded in making a name for himself , due to his sharp legal mind and his social intelligence . Being part of the western Circuit Court of the Cape Colony gave him a lot of experience in a very short time . At the same time , Reitz nurtured his political interests by writing lead articles for the Cape Argus newspaper , for which he also reported on the proceedings of the Cape Parliament and acted as deputy editor . In 1870 Reitz moved his legal practice to Bloemfontein in the Orange Free State . The discovery of diamonds on the banks of the Vaal River , Reitz thought , would lead to a growth of legal work and enable him to set up a thriving practice . This was not to be , however , and after a few months Reitz left Bloemfontein to set up as a diamond prospector in Griqualand West , where he bought a small claim near Pniel from the Berlin Missionary Society . This enterprise also proved unsuccessful , and again after only a few months Reitz returned to Cape Town . This time , his Cape Town law practice was successful , ironically because of the British annexation of the Orange Free State diamondfields ( 1871 ) and the economic prosperity this emanated for the Cape Colony .
In 1873 Reitz was asked to represent the district of Beaufort West in the Cape Parliament . The day he took his seat , 30 May , his father , who was the representative for Swellendam , announced his retirement from the Assembly . As so many of Reitz 's activities up to that point , his parliamentary career was short @-@ lived . Only two months later , President Johannes Brand of the Orange Free State offered Reitz the position of chairman of the newly formed Appellate Court of the Orange Free State , despite the fact that Reitz was not fully qualified ( inter alia too young ) . Reitz refused the offer for this reason , but when another candidate also refused , Brand insisted on the nomination of Reitz , and convinced the Volksraad to appoint him .
= = = Judge and State official in the Orange Free State = = =
With his appointment to the judiciary of the Orange Free State , Reitz came into his own . His arrival – now almost thirty years old and just married – in Bloemfontein in August 1874 was the start of a residency of twenty @-@ one years , as well as the start of a glowing career , to be crowned with his election as State President .
Before the mid @-@ 1870s , the judicial system of the Orange Free State was rather amateurish and haphazard in character , particularly because most of the judges were legally unqualified . Most of the judicial procedures were in the hands of district magistrates , the so @-@ called Landdrosts , whose main task was administrative . Reitz 's first task was to ameliorate this situation , which he did with much vigour . Well within his first year of tenure the Volksraad passed an Ordinance , in which both a professional Circuit Court and a Supreme Court were called into being . Reitz became the first president of the Supreme Court and consequently also the first Chief Justice of the Orange Free State . Right from the beginning Reitz showed himself to be a fighter , opposing the Volksraad on more than one occasion , tackling deeply ingrained political traditions that stood in the way of the modernisation of the judicial system , but also fighting hard to get the salaries and pensions of state officials improved . As a colonial – he was born in the Cape Colony after all – he had to win the confidence of the Boer population to have his ideas accepted . This he did by travelling with the Circuit Court through the country for over ten years , acquiring insight into and empathy for their way of life and their often conservative and always God @-@ fearing beliefs . It helped that Reitz himself was a religious person and that he had started out in life in the Afrikaans speaking countryside of the Cape Colony . Eventually he became the symbol of Afrikanerdom for many Orange Free Staters .
Institutionally , Reitz did much for the codification and review of the laws of the Orange Free State . With his colleagues C.J. Vels , O.J. Truter , and J.G. Fraser Reitz published the first Ordonnantie boek van den Oranje Vrijstaat ( Ordinance Book of the Orange Free State ) in 1877 , making the acts and ordinances of the republic available to the larger public . He also played a role in the revision of the constitution of the Orange Free State , with regard to articles on citizenship and the right to vote , was chairman of the examination committee for aspirant practitioners , and contributed to the improvement of the prison system and the district administration .
= = = State President of the Orange Free State = = =
Already in 1878 , voices sounded for Reitz to run for the presidency , but President Brand 's position was still very strong and Reitz openly praised his qualities and refused to stand against him . In the late 1870s and early 1880s the political temperature ran high in the Orange Free State . The annexation of the South African Republic ( Transvaal ) by the British in 1877 and the First Anglo @-@ Boer War of 1880 – 1881 in which that republic regained its autonomy impacted deeply on political sentiments in the Orange Free State . On the one hand there were those who propagated caution in the relationship with the British , on the other there developed a political movement that strongly propagated a ( reawakened ) Afrikaner national consciousness . Reitz was part of the latter , and together with C.L.F. Borckenhagen , editor of the Bloemfontein Express newspaper , he wrote a constitution for the Afrikaner Bond ( Afrikaner Union ) , a political party originally set up by leading Afrikaner politicians in the Cape Colony , like Rev S.J. du Toit and his Genootskap van Regte Afrikaners ( ' Society of True Afrikaners ' ) and Jan Hendrik Hofmeyr and the Zuidafrikaansche Boeren Beschermings Vereeniging ( ' South African Boer Protection Association ' ) . Among the supporters of this new Afrikaner nationalism in the Orange Free State was also Reitz 's successor , M.T. Steyn , then still a young lawyer . The constitution was presented in April 1881 , and several months later Reitz became the chairman of the Bond . His overt political activities earned Reitz criticism from those who feared a breakdown of relations with the British . It is obvious , however , that a wind of change was blowing through the Boer republics and among the Afrikaners in the Cape Colony , which was to change Anglo @-@ Boer relations drastically .
In the Orange Free State President Brand was one of the politicians who held on to a more cautious and consolidating policy towards the British government at the Cape , maintaining strict neutrality . In this position Brand followed the habit of a lifetime , and it earned him a British knighthood . Despite the changing political climate and the polarisation of political positions , Brand remained hugely popular with the burghers of the Orange Free State . The presidential elections of 1883 could on content have become a political battle between the pan @-@ Dutch Afrikaner Bond supporters and followers of the Brand @-@ line . However , Reitz , as the ideal pan @-@ Dutch candidate , again refused to stand against Brand . Only when Brand died in office five years later , the time was ripe for change . Reitz stood candidate and won a landslide victory on the ticket of Afrikaner nationalism . He was inaugurated as state president in the Tweetoringkerk ( Two @-@ Towers Church ) in Bloemfontein on 10 January 1889 .
As president Reitz was one of the first Afrikaners to actively develop a so @-@ called Bantu policy , in philosophy and terminology going beyond contemporary ideas on segregation between white and black . Under his government Indian immigrants were by law forbidden to settle in the Orange Free State ( 1890 ) . This led to a confrontation with the British government and an extensive correspondence between Reitz and the British high commissioner in Cape Town , in which internal sovereignty was claimed and established .
In economic terms , the late 1880s were a period of growth in the Orange Free State . Agriculture picked up , and the railway system became an important source of income as well . Reitz was instrumental in the modernisation of farming , propagating new techniques and a scientific approach to the prevention of plagues . Here Reitz showed himself the agriculturalist and model farmer his father had been before him .
Under Reitz 's presidency the new meeting hall for the Volksraad , the so @-@ called Vierde Raadszaal ( Fourth Council Hall ) was opened ( 1893 ) , and the new Government Building received a second floor ( 1895 ) . Outside Bloemfontein the road network received attention .
As could be expected , immediately after he was inaugurated , Reitz contacted the government of the South African Republic with the objective to establish new and closer political ties . Already on 4 March 1889 the Orange Free State and the South African Republic concluded a treaty of common defence at Potchefstroom . Treaties about trade and the railways were to follow . Even earlier , in January 1889 , the Volksraad charged Reitz to negotiate a customs treaty with both the British South African colonies and the South African Republic . On 20 March 1889 a Customs Conference was held in Bloemfontein which led to an agreement between the Orange Free State and the Cape Colony which was hugely beneficial for the former . The economic benefits grew further when new railway lines were opened between the Cape Colony and Bloemfontein ( 1890 ) and between Bloemfontein and Johannesburg ( 1892 ) , directly connecting Cape Town with Johannesburg and turning the Orange Free State into a transit economy . For Reitz the development of a unified South African railway system was also a political goal : the railways as a means to diminish mutual distrust and create unity and mutual understanding between the white population of South Africa .
Reitz 's policies were appreciated by the Volksraad , reflecting the change in the mood of the Afrikaner electorate towards Afrikaner nationalism . Months before the presidential election of 1893 the Volksraad endorsed Reitz 's candidature with a vote of forty @-@ three against eighteen . Reitz accepted the endorsement on the condition that he be allowed three months leave to Europe . On 22 November 1893 he was re @-@ elected , again with a landslide majority .
The trip to Europe was far from just a family holiday . In Britain Reitz made some strong public statements , defending the republican system of government in South Africa and opposing British intervention in ' Bantu affairs ' . On the continent Reitz was received by several heads of state and political leaders . In October 1894 he returned in Bloemfontein . Soon after Reitz was diagnosed with hepatitis , which moreover affected his already strained nerves and led to sleeplessness . The situation was so serious that he eventually had to resign the presidency . The Volksraad accepted his resignation on 11 December 1895 .
In June 1896 Reitz travelled to Europe once more on a five @-@ month trip to recover from his debilitating illness . On his return to South Africa he established himself in Pretoria in the South African Republic in July 1897 , where he set up a new law practice .
= = = State Secretary of the South African Republic = = =
Reitz did not stay a private person for long . A conflict between the South African Republic legislature and judiciary resulted in the dismissal of the Chief Justice . Reitz then took up an appointment as judge in early 1898 and quickly became part of the inner circle of the Transvaal administration . At the time the relationship with the British was already rapidly deteriorating and the government of the South African Republic was taking action to reinforce its national and international position . One of the measures taken was to replace State Secretary W.J. Leyds , who had the Dutch nationality , with a South African . Leyds was appointed Envoy Extraordinary and Minister Plenipotentiary in Europe to represent the Republic abroad . Reitz took his place as State Secretary in June 1898 , after Abraham Fischer had declined .
As State Secretary Reitz had a complicated and hefty job . After the State President he was the most important member of the Executive Council ( Uitvoerende Raad ) . As the most senior civil servant he was responsible for the oversight over the implementation of the laws and regulations , as well as for all the correspondence of the President , official government reports , etc . He was also an intermediary between the Executive Council and parliament , the First and Second Volksraad , and a key figure in the foreign affairs of the State . Experienced and well organised as he himself was Reitz managed to quickly modernise the structure of the state apparatus , by implementing regulations for the running of the government departments , appointing an archivist for his own , and by prescribing that all correspondence with the government should be in Dutch .
The State President of the South African Republic , Paul Kruger , was not an easy man to work with , and in some circles it was predicted that Reitz would quickly find himself subordinated to Kruger . This was not the case , however . On occasion the two men clashed on matters of policy , but Reitz remained true to his own convictions , gaining some influence over Kruger in the process . Originally praised by the British for his diplomatic courtesy , their attitude quickly changed when they understood that Reitz was a protagonist of Transvaal independence . Reitz was sometimes rather brazen in his political statements , so when he – incorrectly – claimed the South African Republic to be a fully sovereign state , the British jumped on him .
In view of rapidly mounting British pressure and an ensuing armed conflict over the position of the Uitlanders and economic control over the Witwatersrand gold fields , foreign policy in the South African Republic was eventually determined by a triumvirate : State President Kruger , State Secretary Reitz , and State Attorney General J.C. Smuts . During 1899 they decided that an offensive attitude towards British demands was the only way forward , despite the risks this entailed . Reitz sought and received the support of the Orange Free State for this approach . On 9 October 1899 the South African Republic and the Orange Free State issued a joint ultimatum to the British government to retract their demands .
The British government did not give in to the ultimatum , and two days later , on 11 October 1899 , the Second Anglo @-@ Boer War ( South African War ) broke out . When the British army marched on Pretoria in May 1900 , the government was forced to flee the capital . From that moment on , Reitz was responsible for the continuous relocation of its seat throughout the Transvaal , which occurred sixty @-@ two times until March 1902 . In May of that year , Reitz took an active part in the peace negotiations with the British , and he was one of the signatories of the Treaty of Vereeniging , signed in Pretoria on 31 May 1902 .
= = = Self @-@ chosen exile and return to politics = = =
Although instrumental in drafting the Treaty of Vereeniging , Reitz personally did not want to swear allegiance to the British government , and he chose to go into exile . On 4 July 1902 he left South Africa and joined his wife and children in the Netherlands . To alleviate his financial troubles , Reitz set out on a lecture tour in the United States . Due to a waning interest in the Boer cause now that the war was over , the tour failed , forcing Reitz to return to the Netherlands . Here his health failed him again , leading to hospitalisation and an extensive period of convalescing . During this time he was supported by his friends W.J. Leyds and H.P.N. Muller and the Nederlandsch Zuid @-@ Afrikaansche Vereeniging ( Dutch South @-@ African Society ) .
In 1907 , after the old Boer republics received self @-@ government , and in the run @-@ up to the formation of the Union of South Africa , leading Afrikaner politicians J.C. Smuts and L. Botha asked Reitz to return to South Africa and play a role in politics again . Together with his wife , he established himself in Sea Point , Cape Town . In 1910 , already sixty @-@ six years old , he was appointed president of the Senate of the newly formed Union of South Africa .
These were no easy years , again , as former Afrikaner compatriots found each other on two sides of the political fence , in a rapidly changing world . As in his earlier life , Reitz remained a man of outspoken convictions , which he aired freely . As such , he came into conflict with the Smuts government , and in 1920 he was not re @-@ appointed as president of the Senate . He did remain a member of that House until 1929 , however .
= = = Honours and death = = =
As an important public figure , Reitz was honoured and remembered in different ways . In 1923 Reitz the University of Stellenbosch bestowed on him an honorary doctorate in law for his public services . Already in 1889 , a village was named after him in the Orange Free State . In 1894 one also named a village after his second wife , Cornelia . A ship named after him , the President Reitz , sank off Port Elizabeth in 1947 . The Jubilee Diamond , found in the Free State village of Jagersfontein in 1895 was originally named the Reitz Diamond , but renamed in honour of the sixtieth anniversary of the coronation of Queen Victoria in 1897 .
When he finally retired from public life , Reitz moved to Gordon 's Bay , but returned to Cape Town several years later , where he had a house in Tamboerskloof and was taken care of by his daughter Bessie , a medical doctor . He remained active to the end with writing and translating . Reitz died at his house Botuin on 27 March 1934 , and received a state funeral three days later , with a funeral service at the Grote Kerk . He was buried at the Woltemade cemetery at Maitland .
= = = Cultural figure = = =
Reitz was an important figure in Afrikaner cultural life . He was a poet , and published many poems in Afrikaans , making him a progenitor of the development of Afrikaans as a cultural language . As such he sympathised with the Genootskap van Regte Afrikaners ( Society of Real Afrikaners ) , established in the Cape Colony in 1875 . Although he never became a member himself , he was an active contributor to the society 's journal , Die Suid @-@ Afrikaansche Patriot . With his literary work , Reitz was solidly anchored in the so @-@ called First Afrikaans Language Movement , although he was less interested in the didactic drive of that movement than in writing in Afrikaans as a purely cultural activity . Much of his work was based on English texts , which he translated , edited , and adapted . In the process he produced completely new works of art .
For Reitz , Afrikaans was predominantly a language of culture , not of government , where he propagated the use of the official language of the Boer republics , Dutch . During his presidency of the Orange Free State , where the use of English was significant among the burghers , he strongly promoted the use of Dutch , against politicians like John G. Fraser and others who were in favour of English .
Institutionally , Reitz promoted the foundation of the Letterkundige en Wetenschappelijke Vereeniging ( Literary and Scientific Society ) of the Orange Free State , of which he was chairman for a while , the library at Bloemfontein , and the National Museum of the Orange Free State .
= = = Afrikaans and Dutch language = = =
Reitz , F.W. , Hoofregter Reitz over het barbaarsche patois ( Paarl 1880 ) .
Reitz , F.W. , ' De Taalkwestie ' , De Express and Zuid @-@ Afrikaansch Tijdschrift , Sept . 1891 .
Reitz , F.W. , ' De Hollandsche taal in Zuid @-@ Afrika ' , De Zuid @-@ Afrikaan , 13 March 1909 .
= = = Education = = =
Reitz , F.W. , ' Opvoeding en onderwijs : een toespraak ... in het Victoria College , Stellenbosch op 15 Junie 1888 ' , Zuid @-@ Afrikaansch Tijdschrift ( July 1888 ) .
= = = History = = =
Reitz , F.W. , ' Schetsen uit die Oranje Vrijstaat ' , Zuid @-@ Afrikaansch Tijdschrift ( December 1890 ) .
Reitz , F.W. , Brief van den heer F.W. Reitz ... aan den heer P.J. Blignaut ... ( Dordrecht : Morks & Geuze [ c . 1900 ] ) , 12p .
Reitz , F.W. & M.T. Steyn , President Marthinus Theunis Steyn , Mannen en vrouwen van beteekenis in onze dagen 33 ( Haarlem 1903 ) .
Hofmeyr , J.H. & F.W. Reitz , Het leven van Jan Hendrik Hofmeyr ( Onze Jan ) ( Cape Town : Van de Sandt de Villiers 1913 ) , xii , 666p .
Hofmeyr , J.H. & F.W. Reitz , The life of Jan Hendrik Hofmeyr ( Onze Jan ) ( Cape Town : Van de Sandt de Villiers 1913 ) , xii , 666p .
= = = = Translations = = = =
Reitz , F.W. , translator of Jorissen , E.J.P. , Transvaalsche herinneringen ( Amsterdam 1897 ) as Reminiscences of a Transvaal judge . Never published , due to the outbreak of the South African War ( Second Anglo @-@ Boer War ) .
Reitz , F.W. , translator of Theal , G.M. , Korte geschiedenis van Zuid @-@ Afrika 1486 – 1835 ( Cape Town 1891 ) .
= = = = A Century of Wrong = = = =
At the advent of the South African War ( Second Anglo @-@ Boer War ) , F.W. Reitz , in his capacity of State Secretary of the South African Republic , published an overview of Anglo @-@ Boer relations in the nineteenth century in Dutch , under the title Eene eeuw van onrecht . The book was an important propaganda document in the war .
The actual authorship of the book is unclear . The second Dutch edition of the book carried the text ' Op last van den staatssekretaris der Z.A.R. , F.W. Reitz ' ( ' By order of the State Secretary of the S.A.R. , F.W. Reitz ' ) . J.C. Smuts is indicated as author , but probably only edited the introduction and the end of the book , in co @-@ operation with E. J. P. Jorissen . The rest of the text was probably prepared by J. de Villiers Roos .
In 1900 , translations appeared in German and English . The English translation only carried the name of Reitz , and has a preface by W.T. Stead . The English edition contained more material than the original Dutch edition ( see number of pages ) .
Reitz , F.W. , [ J. de Villiers Roos , J.C. Smuts , E.J.P. Jorissen , ] Eene eeuw van onrecht ( Pretoria [ 1899 ] ) , 49p .
Reitz , F.W. , [ J. de Villiers Roos , J.C. Smuts , E.J.P. Jorissen , ] Ein Jahrhundert voller Unrecht : ein Rückblick auf die süd @-@ afrikanische Politik Englands : autorisierte Uebersetzung aus dem Holländischen , veröffentlicht auf Veranlassung und unter Mitwirkung von F.W. Reitz ( Berlin : Walther 1900 ) , 96p .
Reitz , F.W. , [ J. de Villiers Roos , J.C. Smuts , E.J.P. Jorissen , ] Century of Wrong , Issued by F. W. Reitz ... With preface by W. T. Stead ( London : Review of Reviews [ 1900 ] ) , xxiii , 152p .
= = = Poetry = = =
Reitz , F.W. , ' Klaas Gezwint en zijn paert ' , Het Volksblad 19 July 1870 . [ translation of Robert Burns , ' Tam O 'Shanter 's Ride ' ]
Reitz , F.W. , Die steweltjies van Sannie ' , Het Volksblad 29 November 1873 .
Reitz , F.W. , Klaas Gezwint en zijn paert and other songs and rijmpies of South Africa ( Cape Town 1884 )
Reitz , F.W. ( ed ) , Vijftig uitgesogte Afrikaansche gedigte ( Cape Town 1888 )
[ Fifty selected Afrikaner poems ]
Second edition : Sestig uitgesogte Afrikaansche gedigte ( Cape Town 1897 ) ;
Third edition : Twee @-@ en @-@ Sestig uitgesogte Afrikaansche gedigte ( Cape Town 1898 )
Reitz , F.W. , Oorlogs- en andere gedigte ( Potchefstroom 1910 , 1911 )
[ War and other poems ]
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= Geisel School of Medicine =
The Geisel School of Medicine is the medical school of Dartmouth College , located in Hanover , New Hampshire , in the United States . The fourth @-@ oldest medical school in the United States , it was founded in 1797 by New England physician Nathan Smith and grew steadily over the course of the 19th century . Several milestones in medical care and research have taken place at Dartmouth , including the first clinical X @-@ ray ( 1896 ) , the first intensive care unit in the United States ( 1955 ) , and the Brattleboro rat ( 1961 ) .
Today , Dartmouth 's Geisel School of Medicine continues to grant the Doctor of Medicine ( M.D. ) and Doctor of Philosophy ( Ph.D. ) degrees , as well as a Master of Public Health ( M.P.H. ) and Master of Science ( M.S. ) degrees . The school has a student body of about 700 students and more than 2 @,@ 300 faculty members and researchers . Geisel organizes research through over a dozen research centers and institutes , receiving more than $ 140 million in grants annually . The Geisel School of Medicine is one of seven Ivy League medical schools and is ranked as a " top medical school " by U.S. News & World Report for both primary care and biomedical research . Dartmouth 's medical school has numerous clinical partners , including Dartmouth @-@ Hitchcock Medical Center , White River Junction Veterans Administration Medical Center , California Pacific Medical Center , and Manchester Veterans Administration Medical Center .
= = History = =
= = = Foundation and early years = = =
Dartmouth 's medical school was founded in 1797 as the fourth medical school in the United States , following the University of Pennsylvania School of Medicine ( founded 1765 ) , the medical school of King 's College ( now Columbia University ) ( 1767 ) , and Harvard Medical School ( 1782 ) . The founder was Nathan Smith , a Harvard University and University of Edinburgh Medical School educated physician from Cornish , New Hampshire . Noting the dearth of medical professionals in the rural Connecticut River Upper Valley area , Smith petitioned the Board of Trustees of Dartmouth College in August 1796 to fund the establishment of a medical school to train more physicians for the region . Though Dartmouth College as a whole was financially strapped , the Board approved the request , and Smith began lecturing on November 22 , 1797 .
For much of its early life , the school consisted only of Nathan Smith and a small class of students , operating in borrowed space at Dartmouth College . Students of Smith were educated as apprentices , and received a Bachelor of Medicine degree upon graduation . Like Dartmouth College as a whole , the medical school had continual funding shortages . As time passed , however , the popularity of both the medical instruction and the basic sciences taught at the school drew undergraduates and training physicians alike . Soliciting funds from the state of New Hampshire , Smith was able to obtain medical equipment and , by 1811 , a dedicated physical plant for the school .
Smith acted as the sole administrator and instructor of the medical school until 1810 , when a second faculty member was hired . Smith also revamped the curriculum , allowing the school to begin offering the Doctor of Medicine ( M.D. ) degree in 1812 . Smith ultimately left Dartmouth in 1816 , founding three additional schools of medicine at Yale University , Bowdoin College , and the University of Vermont .
= = = Expansion and difficulties = = =
Smith 's departure provided for a period of expansion , both among the faculty and the student body . Former students of Nathan Smith 's replaced him on the faculty , drawing medical professionals in the northeast such as Oliver Wendell Holmes , Sr. to join them . The first hospital at the school was founded by DMS alumnus Dixi Crosby in 1838 , who used it to integrate academic instruction with hands @-@ on patient care . In 1870 , Carlton Pennington Frost , DMS ' 57 , replaced Crosby as Dean of the school . Under Frost , the curriculum sustained another revamping , this time into a four @-@ year program that included clinical and academic training . Frost also presided over the establishment of Mary Hitchcock Memorial Hospital in 1893 , built to replace Crosby 's defunct hospital .
In 1908 , The Carnegie Foundation for the Advancement of Teaching conducted a survey of medical education institutions in the United States . At the time , the discipline emphasized " bedside teaching " and providing students experience with a broad variety of illnesses and patients . The school 's rural location was deemed too remote for proper clinical training , and the school was advised to stop offering the Doctor of Medicine degree and only provide pre @-@ clinical instruction . The class of 1914 was the last ( until 1974 ) to receive the Doctor of Medicine degree ; subsequent classes of students attended DMS for two years before transferring to other medical schools . The drop of clinical instruction worsened the school 's problems by driving away talented faculty members .
After World War II , the tide of the medical discipline had shifted towards research . Although the school was well regarded for preparing students for clinical education at other institutions , its faculty was criticized for its apparent disinterest in research . The school was also criticized for using Dartmouth College 's undergraduate program as a feeder school . Based on these criticisms , DMS was placed on " confidential probation " in 1956 by the Association of American Medical Colleges and the Council on Medical Education .
= = = From the " refounding " to present = = =
At the time of the probation , Dartmouth College had already anticipated the medical school 's plight , amassing capital to fund a revitalization of the school . In 1956 , the trustees of the College formally agreed to a " refounding " of the school 's academic offerings , physical facilities , and faculty . S. Marsh Tenney , DMS class of 1944 , was appointed to carry out this task . Tenney more than doubled the size of the faculty and the student body , added several new departments , and oversaw the construction of five new campus buildings by 1964 .
In the 1960s , due to a national shortage of physicians and government incentives for schools that increased their class sizes , Dartmouth Medical School graduates began to experience difficulty in trying to transfer to other medical school to complete their final two years of medical school as other medical schools had increased their class size and could not accommodate transfer students . In the meantime , Mary Hitchcock Memorial Hospital had grown to be a 400 @-@ bed medical center , and Dartmouth Medical School had established a partnership with a 224 @-@ bed Veterans Administration Hospital in White River Junction , Vermont . The Doctor of Medicine program , now possible with the expanded local medical centers , was reinstated by a vote of the trustees in 1968 . The admission of M.D. candidates resumed in 1970 . Initially , the medical school curriculum was three years in length , unlike most medical schools , but it later was increased to the usual four years in 1979 .
A cooperative program with Brown Medical School began in 1981 where students received training at both medical schools . Fifteen to twenty students were selected for the program , which combined the first two years of basic science coursework at Dartmouth with the final two years of clinical coursework at Brown . The program balanced Dartmouth 's greater basic science facilities than Brown , but fewer clinical facilities than available at the urban setting of Brown , which is located in Providence , Rhode Island . Graduates of the program received M.D. degrees from Brown . The program was discontinued in 2010 .
In 1991 , the Dartmouth @-@ Hitchcock Medical Center was established on a 225 @-@ acre ( 0 @.@ 91 km2 ) campus in Lebanon , New Hampshire . The three @-@ year project , completed at the cost of $ 228 million , served as a replacement for the Mary Hitchcock Memorial Hospital , which was partially demolished in the early 1990s . A new curriculum was introduced in 1996 entitled " New Directions . " The curriculum , still in place today , seeks to promote small classes , reduce the amount of lectures , and offer students extensive interactive experience with patients . 2009 saw the successful completion of a $ 250 million capital campaign .
On April 4 , 2012 , the Dartmouth Medical School was renamed the Audrey and Theodor Geisel School of Medicine in honor of their many years of generosity to the College .
= = Campus = =
The Geisel School of Medicine has facilities on the campus of Dartmouth College , which is situated in the rural , Upper Valley town of Hanover , New Hampshire as well as at its Lebanon , NH campus at Dartmouth @-@ Hitchcock Medical Center ( DHMC ) .
The medical school facilities at Dartmouth College sit in a complex on the north side of Dartmouth 's campus and includes academic , administrative , research , and presentation facilities . Dartmouth Medical School is served by two libraries , the Dana Biomedical Library and the Matthews @-@ Fuller Health Sciences Library , which together offer over 240 @,@ 000 volumes . Dartmouth Medical School offers on @-@ campus housing for first @-@ year students . Off @-@ campus housing is available through Dartmouth College . In addition , the Class of 1978 Life Sciences Center was completed in August 2011 at a cost of $ 92 million , and as part of its design a central lawn is surrounded by the Remsen and Vail Laboratories and Dana .
The Dartmouth @-@ Hitchcock Medical Center , centered in nearby Lebanon , New Hampshire , is a main affiliated teaching hospital of the Geisel School of Medicine . Mary Hitchcock Memorial Hospital , DHMC 's 396 @-@ bed inpatient facility , acts as the medical school 's teaching hospital and " primary teaching site " . DHMC 's other constituent elements include the Dartmouth @-@ Hitchcock Clinic ( a network of physicians in Vermont and New Hampshire ) and a Veterans Affairs Medical Center in White River Junction , Vermont . In total , DHMC serves an area with a population of 1 @.@ 6 million .
In addition to on @-@ campus instruction in Hanover and Lebanon , third- and fourth @-@ year M.D. students may choose from 75 regional sites for their required clerkships . Most clerkship facilities are located in central New England , although students are also able to clerk at sites in Alaska , Arizona , California , New Mexico , and Florida .
= = Academics = =
The Geisel School of Medicine offers the four @-@ year Doctor of Medicine ( M.D. ) degree and the Doctor of Philosophy ( PhD ) degree in certain fields . In addition , the school offers two joint @-@ degree programs : the combination M.D. / Ph.D. , for which the Ph.D. can be obtained from any doctoral program at Dartmouth , and the combination MD / MBA , offered in conjunction with the Tuck School of Business . The Dartmouth Institute for Health Policy and Clinical Practice , one of a number of DMS research institutes , offers its own degree programs in evaluative clinical sciences , including a Master of Public Health ( MPH ) , a Master of Science ( M.S. ) , a PhD , post @-@ doctoral fellowships , several joint @-@ degree programs , and a residency program for preventive medicine . Mary Hitchcock Memorial Hospital also offers residencies and fellowships which are administered by Dartmouth Medical School faculty .
The curriculum for the Doctor of Medicine degree spans four years , combining required courses with electives . First @-@ year students learn human anatomy and basic biomedical science in classes offered by the basic science departments , while beginning a two @-@ year course of study in clinical studies . Second @-@ year students study pathophysiology and take courses from almost every clinical and basic science department in the school . In their third year , M.D. candidates are required to participate in six eight @-@ week Medical clerkships with area medical institutions , covering both ambulatory clinics and hospitals . The final year is spent on additional clerkships , the designation of an area of focus , and preparation for a post @-@ graduation residency . In addition to imparting medical and clinical knowledge , the M.D. program is designed to teach " interpersonal and communications skills " , " professionalism " , and other practical skills for a medical career .
Dartmouth 's Geisel School of Medicine also offers the Doctor of Philosophy degree to train students as biomedical researchers and scientists . The PhD is available in six fields offered by the basic science departments : pharmacology and toxicology , molecular and cell biology , immunology , molecular pathogenesis , systems biology , and experimental and molecular medicine . Research and teaching positions at DMS and its centers and institutes are available to PhD candidates .
= = = Organization and research = = =
Like the undergraduate portion of Dartmouth College , the Geisel School of Medicine operates on a quarter system . As part of the larger institution , DMS is ultimately administered by Dartmouth 's President and Board of Trustees . The school is directly managed by a Dean who is advised by a 22 @-@ member Board of Overseers . As of the 2008 – 2009 academic year , the school operates on a budget of $ 237 million .
Besides research conducted within the infrastructure of academic departments , research at Geisel is also organized around over a dozen research centers and institutes . The centers cover various medical subjects such as neuroscience , oncology ( Norris Cotton Cancer Center ) , psychiatry , and pediatrics . Funded research at Geisel School of Medicine amounted to $ 140 million during the 2012 @-@ 2013 academic year ;
= = Publications = =
The Medical School publishes a magazine for alumni and friends , Dartmouth Medicine . In addition , the school also publishes an innovative literary journal , Lifelines ( literary journal )
= = = Admissions and rankings = = =
In the fall of 2013 , 85 students enrolled in the Doctor of Medicine program from an applicant pool of 4 @,@ 290 , with the Office of Admissions offering an acceptance rate of 6 percent . Applicants from the previous year had an average score in the numerically graded sections of the Medical College Admission Test ( MCAT ) of 33 and an average undergraduate grade point average ( GPA ) of 3 @.@ 65 . Applicants to the M.D. program are expected to have a background in chemistry , biology , physics , and calculus , and are required to have at least three years of undergraduate education .
In November 2013 , the nation 's sole medical school accrediting body , the Liaison Committee for Medical Education ( LCME ) , granted the Dartmouth Geisel School of Medicine a full eight @-@ year term of accreditation — the longest available from the LCME . None of the residency programs of Mary Hitchcock Medical Center , which are administered by Geisel School of Medicine faculty , are on probation by the Accreditation Council for Graduate Medical Education .
For 2014 , the Geisel School of Medicine was ranked by U.S. News & World Report as 34th on the " Top Medical Schools – Research " list and 18th on the " Top Medical Schools – Primary Care " list .
= = People = =
= = = Student profile and student life = = =
The Geisel School of Medicine 's enrollment as of October 2013 totaled 700 students : 360 M.D. candidates and 340 graduate students . In addition to the student body , over 350 resident physicians and research fellows were on campus as of July 2007 . The student population is split approximately evenly between men and women , while about 25 percent of the student body is made up of international or minority students . From an average class size of 75 , over 60 undergraduate institutions and most of the U.S. states are represented . According to The Princeton Review , the small class size at Geisel helps to establish " a strong sense of community and collaborative spirit " . The school offers dozens of community service , recreational , professional , and other student groups .
= = = Faculty = = =
As of November 2007 , the Geisel School of Medicine employs a staff of 2 @,@ 315 faculty and researchers : 766 full @-@ time faculty , 1 @,@ 301 part @-@ time faculty and non @-@ faculty instructors , and 248 research positions . The ratio of full @-@ time , on @-@ site faculty to students is given by the school as 2 : 1 . Notable current faculty include Stuart Gitlow , palliative care physician Ira Byock , former astronaut and Democratic politician Jay C. Buckey , psychoanalyst Peter A. Olsson , former LFHCfS member Mark R. Spaller , and Jay Dunlap , professor and chair of genetics at the Dartmouth Geisel School of Medicine and a member of the National Academy of Sciences . Notable former faculty include biochemist Mahlon Hoagland , pathologist and geneticist Kurt Benirschke , and former Surgeon General of the United States C. Everett Koop .
= = = Alumni = = =
As of June 2013 , the Geisel School of Medicine claims 4 @,@ 891 living graduates active in medicine around the world . Geisel cites its required clerkships as a mechanism for allowing students to make connections and obtain real @-@ world experience . Fourth @-@ year students are prepared for residency with counseling classes ; recent graduates have most commonly taken their residencies at Geisel itself , Harvard Medical School , Tufts University School of Medicine , and Brown Medical School . Alumni of Geisel / Dartmouth Medical School who have become notable medical practitioners , educators and researchers include physician and freethinker Charles Knowlton , consciousness researcher John C. Lilly , physician Robert O. Blood , ophthalmologist and epidemiologist John D. Bullock , and attending physician at the United States Capitol John Francis Eisold . Alumni in other fields include U.S. Representatives Richard S. Molony and Robert Burns , Governor of New Hampshire Noah Martin , and television personality Ian Smith .
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= Henry Vane the Younger =
Sir Henry Vane ( baptised 26 March 1613 – 14 June 1662 ) , son of Henry Vane the Elder ( often referred to as Harry Vane to distinguish him from his father ) , was an English politician , statesman , and colonial governor . He was briefly present in North America , serving one term as the Governor of the Massachusetts Bay Colony , and supported the creation of Roger Williams ' Rhode Island Colony and Harvard College . A proponent of religious tolerance , he returned to England in 1637 following the Antinomian controversy that led to the banning of Anne Hutchinson from Massachusetts .
He was a leading Parliamentarian during the English Civil War and worked closely with Oliver Cromwell . He played no part in the execution of King Charles I , and refused to take oaths that expressed approval of the act . Vane served on the Council of State that functioned as the government executive during the Interregnum , but split with Cromwell over issues of governance and removed himself from power when Cromwell dissolved Parliament in 1653 . He returned to power during the short @-@ lived Commonwealth period in 1659 – 1660 , and was arrested under orders from King Charles II following his restoration to the throne . After long debate , Vane was exempted from the Indemnity and Oblivion Act , and was thus denied amnesty granted to most people for their roles in the Civil War and Interregnum .
Although he was formally granted clemency by Charles II , he was charged with high treason by Parliament in 1662 . In a court proceeding in which he was denied counsel and the opportunity to properly prepare a defence , he was convicted by a partisan jury . Charles withdrew his earlier clemency , and Vane was beheaded on Tower Hill on 14 June 1662 .
Vane was recognised by his political peers as a competent administrator and a wily and persuasive negotiator and politician . His politics was driven by a desire for religious tolerance in an era when governments were used to establish official churches and suppress dissenting views . Although his views were in a small minority , he was able to successfully build coalitions to advance his agenda . His actions were often ultimately divisive , and contributed to both the rise and downfall of the English Commonwealth . His books and pamphlets written on political and religious subjects are still analyzed today , and Vane is remembered in Massachusetts and Rhode Island as an early champion of religious freedom .
= = Early life = =
Henry Vane was baptised on 26 May 1613 at Debden , Essex . He was the eldest child of Sir Henry Vane the Elder , who came from the landed gentry , and Frances Darcy , who came from minor nobility . The elder Vane used the family 's money to purchase positions at court , rising by 1629 to be Comptroller of the Household . Vane was educated at Westminster School , where his classmates included Arthur Heselrige and Thomas Scot , two other men who would figure prominently in English politics . Vane 's friend and biographer George Sikes wrote that Vane was " [ ignorant ] of God " and of a temperament that made him " acceptable to those they call good fellows " , but that he had a religious awakening at 14 or 15 , after which he " and his former jolly company came to a parting blow . " Vane then enrolled at Magdalen Hall , Oxford , where he studied in spite of his refusal to take the necessary matriculation oaths . He then traveled to Europe , where he was reported to be studying at Leiden and possibly in France and at Geneva .
Vane 's father had been upset by his open adoption of Puritan views , fearing this would hamper his opportunities for advancement at court . In 1631 he sent the young Vane to Vienna as an assistant to Robert Anstruther , the English ambassador . This was apparently a quite privileged role , for Vane 's writings of the time include messages written in French and in cipher . During this trip the elder Vane was sent to negotiate with Swedish King Gustavus for an alliance ; King Charles ' unwillingness to act in the matter meant the effort was in vain . He was introduced to the king after returning to England , and encouraged by his father to seek a position in the privy chamber . His father engaged in numerous attempts to get him to give up his nonconformist views , without success . In order to worship as he chose , Vane then decided to go the New World , joining the Puritan migration .
= = New England = =
Vane left for the Massachusetts Bay Colony , arriving in Boston in October 1635 on a ship also carrying John Winthrop the Younger and Hugh Peter . The elder John Winthrop described Vane as " a young gentleman of excellent parts " , and by the following month he had already been admitted as a freeman in the colony . He began playing a role in its judicial administration , deciding whether legal disputes had sufficient merit to be heard by a full court . Vane was instrumental in brokering the resolution to a dispute between the elder Winthrop and Thomas Dudley concerning matters of judicial conduct . In the spring of 1637 Vane was elected governor of the colony , succeeding John Haynes . The situation he faced was complex , with issues on religious , political and military fronts . His biographers describe his term in office as " disastrous " .
The colony was split over the actions and beliefs of Anne Hutchinson . She had come with her husband and children to the colony in 1634 , and began holding Bible sessions at home , gaining a wide audience and sharing her opinions that the colonial leaders labeled as Antinomianism , the view that existing laws and practices were not necessary for salvation . Most of the older colonial leadership , including Dudley and Winthrop , espoused a more Legalist view . Vane was a supporter of Hutchinson , as was at first the influential pastor John Cotton , and this was the faction that propelled Vane into the governor 's seat in 1636 . Vane , however , immediately alienated some of the colonists by insisting on flying the English flag over Boston 's fort . The flag had recently been the subject of controversy , since its depiction of the Cross of St George was seen by many colonists as a symbol of papacy , and John Endecott had notoriously cut the cross out of the Salem militia 's flag . Vane 's popularity went down further when he learned in December 1636 that there were issues in England requiring his presence , and he attempted to resign . Although the court of assistants accepted his resignation , he withdrew it upon the request of the congregation of the Boston church .
During Vane 's tenure a dispute with the Pequot tribe of present @-@ day southeastern Connecticut boiled over into war . In 1636 the boat of a Massachusetts trader named John Oldham was found near Block Island , overrun by Indians . Further examination by the discoverers ( after the Indians fled in canoes ) uncovered Oldham 's body on board . The attackers were at the time believed to be from tribes affiliated with the Narragansetts , but Narragansett leaders claimed that those responsible had fled to the protection of the Pequots . The Pequots were aggressively expansionist in their dealings with the surrounding native tribes ( including the Narragansett ) , but had until then generally kept the peace with nearby English colonists . Massachusetts authorities were already angry that the Pequots had failed to turn over men implicated in the killing of another trader on the Connecticut River ; the slaying of Oldham led to calls for action . Despite the fact that Roger Williams had warned him that the Narragansetts were more likely responsible for Oldham 's slaying , Governor Vane in August 1636 placed John Endecott at the head of a 90 @-@ man force to extract justice from the Pequots . Endecott 's heavy @-@ handed expedition did little more than destroy Pequot settlements , and sparked a military backlash . The Pequots struck back at settlements recently established on the Connecticut River by colonists from Massachusetts , and at the Saybrook Colony of the younger John Winthrop . In April 1637 the ostensibly pacifist Vane called a session of the general court that authorized the colonial militia to assist the other New England colonies in continuing the war , which resulted in the destruction of the Pequots as a tribal entity .
Vane lost his position to the elder John Winthrop in the 1637 election . The contentious election was marked by a sharp disagreement over the treatment of John Wheelwright , another Hutchinson supporter . Winthrop won in part because the location of the vote was moved to Cambridge , reducing the power of Vane 's Boston support . In the aftermath of the election Anne Hutchinson was put on trial , and eventually banished from the colony . Many of her followers seriously considered leaving after the election . At the urging of Roger Williams , some of these people , including Hutchinson , founded the settlement of Portsmouth on Aquidneck Island in the Narragansett Bay ( later named Rhode Island and joined to Providence to form the Colony of Rhode Island and Providence Plantations ) . Vane decided to return to England , apparently with the notion that he would acquire a royal governorship to trump the colonial administration . Before his departure , he published A Brief Answer to a Certain Declaration , a response to Winthrop 's defense of the Act of Exclusion ; this act was passed after the election to restrict the immigration of people with views not conforming to the colony 's religious orthodoxy .
Despite their political differences , Vane and Winthrop developed an epistolary relationship in the following years . Vane 's legacy from his time in the New World includes the colonial legislation appropriating £ 400 for the establishment of an institute of higher learning now known as Harvard University , and his support of Roger Williams in the acquisition of Aquidneck Island from the local Indians that resulted in the formal beginnings of Rhode Island . The surviving accounts do not say that Vane provide the funds for the acquisition ; Williams credits Vane as being " an instrument in the hand of God for procuring this island " .
According to historian Michael Winship , Vane 's experiences in Massachusetts significantly radicalized his religious views , in which he came to believe that clergy of all types , including Puritan ministers , " were the second beast of Revelations 13 : 11 " , " pretending to visible Saintship " . This conviction drove his political activities in England , where he sought to minimize the power and influence of all types of clergy . Biographer Violet Rowe writes that " Vane 's guiding principles in religious policy seem to have been two : a rooted distrust of clerical power , whether of bishops or presbyters , and a belief that the State should abstain from interference in church matters altogether . "
Vane 's stance can be seen in the way the first Rhode Island patent was drafted in 1643 , when he sat on the Parliamentary committee charged with colonial affairs . Unique among all of the early English colonial charters , it contains provisions guaranteeing freedom of religion . ( Vane assisted Roger Williams again in 1652 , when the latter sought a confirmation of the Rhode Island charter and the revocation of a conflicting charter that had been issued to William Coddington . )
= = Return to England = =
On his return to England , he procured , with the assistance of the Earl of Northumberland and his father , a position as Treasurer of the Royal Navy in 1639 . In this position he had the personally distasteful yet highly profitable task of collecting the hated ship money ( a tax to support the Navy imposed by Charles I without Parliamentary approval ) . In June 1640 he was awarded a knighthood by King Charles . He married Frances Wray , daughter of Sir Christopher Wray , on 1 July 1640 , after which his father settled upon him most of the family 's holdings . These included Fairlawn in Kent , and Raby Castle , where Vane would make his home . According to his biographers , the relationship with Frances was anchored by shared spiritual goals and intimacy , and was happy and fulfilling .
The connection with the admiralty secured for him election to the Short and Long Parliaments representing Hull . Vane had already formed or renewed associations with prominent opponents of Charles ' policies , including John Pym and John Hampden . In the Short Parliament he was noted to be " capable of managing great affairs " , with a " penetrating judgment " and an " easy and graceful manner of speaking . " With others like Nathaniel Fiennes , he represented a younger generation of Puritans in the leadership of the Long Parliament that effectively managed affairs : as identified by Clarendon in his history , these included Hampden , Pym , and Oliver St John in the Commons , and Earl of Bedford and Viscount Saye and Sele in the Lords .
Vane was instrumental in the 1641 impeachment and execution of the Earl of Strafford , a member of the Privy Council . Vane discovered some confidential notes his father had made of a council meeting , and passed them to John Pym . The wording in those notes could be interpreted to mean that Strafford had proposed that Charles use the Irish Army to subjugate England . The evidence against Strafford was weak , and the impeachment failed . Pym consequently orchestrated the passage of a bill of attainder against Strafford , who was then executed in May 1641 . The illicit means by which Pym acquired the notes caused a rift between the Vanes that only healed when the elder Vane eventually came to oppose the king .
In the Root and Branch petition debate in the Commons , from December 1640 and into 1641 , Vane supported , as did Nathaniel Fiennes , the call for radical reforms in the Church of England , a position that put Vane in opposition to his father . Amid a sea of complaints about church governance , he and Fiennes in February 1641 were added to a committee that had been established the previous November to draft a report on the state of the kingdom . Their efforts led Vane to introduce the Root and Branch Bill in May 1641 . The debate on the bill was acrimonious , and resulted in a clear indication of parliamentary support for church reform . In its wake mobs invaded churches , removing " scandalous images " and other signs of " popery " . Vane made an impassioned speech that brought him to the front of his faction , claiming episcopacy ( the governing structure of the Church of England ) was a corrupt doctrine " hastening us back again to Rome . " The bill died without a vote in August , when more critical matters arose to occupy Parliament . When Charles went to Scotland to rally Scottish forces to the royalist cause , the Commons began drafting what became known as the Grand Remonstrance . Many historians have claimed Vane had a role in drafting some of its language ; this matter is disputed , but either way Vane did not participate in the debate . Narrowly passed by the Commons in November 1641 , the document catalogued many grievances against the king and church , and served to further polarize political affairs . The king refused to enact any of the requested reforms . Upon his return from Scotland , the king also deprived both Vanes , father and son , of their administrative posts , in revenge for their roles in the execution of Strafford .
= = Civil War = =
= = = Early years = = =
In the first six months of 1642 , relations between the king and Parliament broke down completely , and factions supporting both sides took up arms . Parliament returned Vane to his post as Treasurer of the Navy , where he used connections to bring significant naval support to the Parliamentary side after Charles attempted to arrest five MPs on charges of high treason in December 1641 . In June 1642 Charles rejected the Nineteen Propositions , the last substantive set of demands made by Parliament prior to the outbreak of the First English Civil War . After hostilities began that June with the Siege of Hull , Vane was given a seat on the Committee of Safety , which oversaw Parliamentary military activities .
After the failure of the Root and Branch Bill , Parliament in 1643 called together the Westminster Assembly of Divines , a body of lay politicians , lords , and clergy whose purpose was to reform church governance . Vane sat on this body , which met periodically until 1648 , as one of the lay representatives of the Independent faction . Not long after its first meeting in July , Vane was sent at the head of a Parliamentary commission seeking military assistance from the Scots . The Scots , who had been opposed to Charles in the Bishop 's Wars ( 1639 – 40 ) over religious issues , were willing to assist the English Parliament if the latter were willing to allow the extension of the Presbyterian system of church polity to England . Vane was opposed to both Presbyterianism and Episcopalianism , but found a way to finesse an agreement . He proposed that the agreement , which covered a combination of religious and political topics , be called the Solemn League and Covenant , and he introduced slippery language into the agreement concerning " the example of the best Reformed churches " . This language permitted the Scots to believe that their ideas would be adopted , while the English could interpret it to mean that English ( i.e. Independent ) practices could be adopted . The league and covenant were eventually approved by authorities in Scotland , England , and Ireland , and paved the way for Scottish entry into the war .
Following Vane 's success in negotiating the Scottish agreement , the death of John Pym at the end of 1643 propelled Vane into the leadership of Parliament , along with Oliver St John , Henry Marten , and Arthur Heselrige . He promoted , and became a chief member of , the Committee of Both Kingdoms , established in February 1644 as a point were English and Scottish authorities could coordinate war activities . Vane was then sent to York in June 1644 , then besieged by three Parliament armies , to urge Sir Thomas Fairfax and the Earl of Manchester to divert some of those forces to face Prince Rupert of the Rhine , who had recently taken Liverpool and was pillaging properties of Parliamentary supporters in Lancashire . While there he also proposed to the generals the establishment of a government without the king . This idea was roundly rejected by the old guard generals who believed Charles could still be accommodated , but found support with the rising star of Oliver Cromwell .
On 13 September 1644 Vane acted with St John and Cromwell in the Commons to set up a " Grand Committee for the Accommodation " , designed to find a compromise on religious issues dividing the Westminster Assembly . He sought in its debate to identify loopholes for religious tolerance on behalf of the Independents . This exposed Vane 's opposition to Presbyterianism , and created a rift between the pro @-@ war Independents , led by Vane and Cromwell , and the pro @-@ peace Scots and other supporters of Presbyterianism . The latter included the Earl of Essex , whose failures in the west of England reduced popular support for his cause , even as the military success of Cromwell at Marston Moor raised his profile . Robert Baillie , on the realization that the Parliamentary Independents , despite previous claims of support by Vane , were not on the side of the Scots , wrote " Sir Henry Vane and The Solicitor [ St John ] ... without any regard for us , who have saved their nation and brought their two persons to the height of power now they enjoy and use to our prejudice " .
= = = Parliamentary victory = = =
Overtures for peace talks were begun in November 1644 between king and Parliament . Vane was one of many negotiators sent to Uxbridge in a failed attempt to negotiate peace . Vane and the Independents were seen by some as a principal reason for the failure of these talks , because the Scots and Charles were prepared to agree on issues of church polity and doctrine and the Independents were not . The talks , which lasted from late January through most of February 1645 , were overshadowed by the execution after impeachment by attainder of Archbishop Laud .
Parliament began discussing a reorganization of its military as early as November 1644 , in part to remove some poorly @-@ performing commanders , and to eliminate the regional character of the existing forces . In debate that principally divided the Commons from the Lords , Vane and Cromwell supported passage of the Self @-@ denying Ordinance , forbidding military officers from serving in Parliament , and the establishment of the New Model Army , which would be capable of fighting anywhere in the country . The provisions of the Self @-@ denying Ordinance also extended to individuals ( like Vane ) who held civil service posts , but included exceptions for those ( like Vane ) who had been turned out office by Charles and restored by Parliament . Vane then began drawing on fees and stipends that he had previously refused , and failed to pay half of his treasurer 's fees to Parliament , as required by the law .
Following the decisive Parliamentary victory at Naseby in June 1645 , the first phase of the civil war was effectively over , but it dragged on for another year , before Charles surrendered to Scottish army commanders . During this time , a new political faction began to rise within the military . Known as Levellers and led by John Lilburne and others , this populist force was in favour of greater press freedoms , and was opposed to at least some of the privileges of the aristocracy , including the existence of the House of Lords .
In January 1646 , amid ongoing peace negotiations , Charles attempted to separate the Independents from other factions by proposing in letters to Vane an alliance with his faction against the Presbyterians . Vane was not amused by this , and responded by pointing out that he preferred the rights of " tender consciences " to be granted by Parliament than by the duplicitous king ( papers exposing the king 's negotiating positions as facades had been captured at Naseby , and had largely silenced the Royalist elements in Parliament ) . The Vane estates were not spared in the maelstrom of war ; Vane 's father reported that Raby Castle had been " visited four times " , suffering damages of £ 16 @,@ 000 . In September 1645 , the Vanes succeeded in getting Parliamentary approval to fortify Raby .
= = = Interwar politics = = =
By the end of the war the Presbyterian group in the Commons , led by Denzil Holles , William Strode , and Sir Philip Stapleton , was slightly stronger than the Independents . They proceeded to introduce legislation hostile to the views on religious tolerance held by Vane and Independents in the army . Vane apparently came to realize that the Presbyterian actions posed a threat equal to that of the Episcopalians , and that military action , having sidelined the latter , might also work against the former . There was also mutual distrust between Vane and the Levellers , because Vane held the somewhat aristocratic view that voting rights should be reserved to the propertied gentry . The Independents attempted to negotiate terms favourable to them with Charles , but these were unsuccessful .
In 1647 Vane and Oliver Cromwell , the leader of the army 's Independents , came to work closely together . The Presbyterian majority sought to disband the army to reduce the threat of those Independents , but issues over pay ( which was in arrears ) , widows ' pensions , and other grievances , prompted the Presbyterians to enter into negotiations with the army . A bitter debate over an army petition led Levellers to charge the Independents , Vane among them , with attempting to " oppress the people " and wanting to " hold the reins of power ... not for a year , but forever . " Cromwell was eventually able to appease the army , but a Parliamentary purge of Independent officers followed , and the army was ordered to disband . Some Parliamentary leaders also began negotiating with the Scots for the return of their army , this time to oppose the English army . The Parliament army mutinied , and under Cromwell 's orders ( possibly prompted by a warning from Vane ) a detachment of troops seized Charles , who had been placed under a comfortable house arrest at Holmby . This forced the Presbyterian leadership to meet the army 's demands for pay . They also established a commission to treat with the army , on which they placed Vane , presumably because of his influence with the military .
The negotiations between the army and Parliament were acrimonious . Mobs in Presbyterian @-@ dominated London threatened Vane and other Independents . More than 50 Independent MPs , Vane among them , fled the city on 2 August for the protection of the army . The army then marched on London , with Vane and others at its head , and the Independents were again seated in Parliament . The Parliament then debated the army 's Heads of Proposals for fixing the term and powers of Parliament and church governance . Key among its terms of interest to Vane was one that effectively stripped the church , either Episcopal or Presbyterian , of any coercive powers . The Heads of Proposals was also sent to Charles , who indicated agreement to some of its terms and opposition to others , and proposed further negotiations .
The king 's proposal split the Independents between those , such as Vane and Cromwell , who were willing to negotiate with the king , and those who were not . Reverend Hugh Peter spoke out in favor of the " non @-@ addresses " ( i.e. no longer negotiating with the king ) , as did the Levellers . John Lilburne was particularly critical , saying " I clearly see Cromwell 's and Vane 's designs , which is to keep the poor people everlastingly ( if they can ) in bondage and slavery . " In November 1647 , while the debate continued , Charles escaped his confinement at Hampton Court and made his way to the Isle of Wight . There he was recaptured and imprisoned in Carisbrook Castle . Offered proposals by the Scots and the Independents , he chose alliance with the Scots . Sectional violence between royalists , Presbyterians , and Independents , spread throughout the country , although the army maintained a tenuous peace in London .
= = = War renewed = = =
Violence flared throughout the country as the various factions armed and organized . A mutiny in the Royal Navy in May thrust Vane into attempts to prevent it from spreading , and to regain the support of the mutineers , who had declared for Charles . By mid @-@ July , the army had regained control of most of England , and Cromwell defeated the Scottish army in August at the Battle of Preston . In the tumult , Vane appeared at times to be in opposition to some of the Independent factions , even having a falling out ( quickly healed ) with Cromwell , and many factions came to distrust him . Despite this he was one of the Parliamentary representatives for negotiations with Charles at Newport in September 1648 . He was widely blamed for the failure of those negotiations over his insistence on " an unbounded liberty of conscience " .
In the debates of late 1648 concerning the king 's fate , Vane argued that the Parliament should constitute a government without the king " to make themselves the happiest nation and people in the world . " His forceful speech on 2 December suggesting that the king would need to be eliminated as a political force was opposed by others , including Nathaniel Fiennes , who claimed that the concessions the king had made to date were sufficient that an agreement might be reached . Others suggested that rather than dividing the house by opposition to the king , it be divided by separating those who had gained in the war from those who had not , and that financial contributions be made from one group to the other . After an impassioned conciliatory speech by William Prynne , Parliament finally voted on 5 December that the king 's concessions were sufficient , but Clement Walker and other opponents of Vane whispered that both Vanes had abused their positions of power during the war for profit . Walker compiled a long list of MPs he claimed had acted corruptly , but Vane was not on it . Instead , Walker charged the Vanes with benefiting by buying at a discount " sleeping pensions " , or debts owed by the public purse to individuals , and then pursuing payment of them to enrich themselves . There is today no substantive way to assess the validity of Walker 's charges .
On 6 December , the military stepped in to take control of matters . Troops led by Thomas Pride surrounded the Houses of Parliament , and systematically arrested arriving MPs who had been supportive of negotiation with the king . Vane did not appear that day — he either was aware of what was going to happen , or he may have stayed away because his side had lost the vote . This action , known as " Pride 's Purge " , resulted in the exclusion of more than 140 MPs . The Parliament that sat became known as the Rump Parliament , and its first main order of business was the trial and execution of King Charles . During this process Vane refused to attend Parliament , although he was present as a spectator when the trial began on 20 January 1649 . He later claimed to oppose putting the king on trial because of " tenderness of blood " , and continued to fulfill the duties of his government posts , signing admiralty papers on the day Charles was executed .
= = The Commonwealth and Oliver Cromwell = =
After the execution of Charles , the House of Commons voted to abolish both the crown and the House of Lords . To replace the executive functions of the crown , it established a Council of State to which Vane was appointed . He refused to be seated until he could do so without taking any oath , in particular the first one , which required an expression of approval for the regicide . Vane served on many of the council 's committees . In his role on committees overseeing the military he directed the provisioning of supplies for Cromwell 's conquest of Ireland . As a leading member of the committee overseeing the navy ( where he was joined by schoolmate Thomas Scot ) , he directed affairs in the naval First Anglo @-@ Dutch War ( 1652 – 1654 ) . After the navy 's disastrous performance against the Dutch in 1652 , Vane headed the committee that reformed the navy , drafting new Articles of War and formally codifying naval law . Vane 's reforms were instrumental in the navy 's successes later in the war . He was also involved in foreign diplomacy , going on a mission to France ( whose purpose is unknown ) in 1652 to meet with Cardinal de Retz , and traveling again to Scotland to organize the government there after Cromwell 's victories in the Third English Civil War .
Vane was also active in domestic affairs . He sat on a committee that disposed of Charles I 's art collection , and made many enemies in his role on the committees for Compounding and Sequestration . These committees , on which Vane had also sat in the 1640s , were responsible for the distribution of assets seized from royalists and other government opponents , and for negotiating with those who had failed to pay taxes and other government charges . Some of the enemies he made while engaged in this work would one day sit in judgment against him .
The process by which the Parliament carried out the duties of the executive was cumbersome , and this became an issue with Cromwell and the army , who sought the ability to act more decisively . This attitude drove a wedge between Cromwell and Vane . Under pressure from Cromwell for new elections , the Parliament began to consider proposals for electoral reform . In January 1653 a committee headed by Vane made one such proposal . It called for suffrage to be allowed on the basis of property ownership , and it specifically sought to eliminate a number of so @-@ called " rotten boroughs " , which had small numbers of voters and were controlled by wealthy patrons . The proposal also called for some of the current members , whose republican credentials were deemed suitable , to retain their seats , so that the fledgling commonwealth might , as Harry Marten put it , would be shepherded by " the mother that brought it forth " . This latter clause was specifically proposed at the urging of the army by Vane , who realised that those who were charged with its implementation would be able to retain power . However , Cromwell , seeking a general election , was opposed to this scheme , and the two sides were unable to reconcile .
Although Parliamentary leaders , Vane among them , had promised Cromwell on 19 April 1653 to delay action on the election bill , Vane was likely one of the ringleaders that sought to have the bill enacted the next day before Cromwell could react . Cromwell was however alerted by a supporter , and interrupted the proceedings that would otherwise have passed the bill . Bringing troops into the chamber , he put an end to the debate , saying " You are no Parliament . I say you are no Parliament . I will put an end to your sitting . " Vane protested , " This is not honest ; yea , it is against morality and common honesty " , to which Cromwell shouted in response , " O Sir Henry Vane , Sir Henry Vane ; the Lord deliver me from Sir Henry Vane ! " This ended the commonwealth , and Cromwell began to rule as Lord Protector . Vane , " daily missed and courted for his assistance " , was invited to sit on Cromwell 's council , but refused .
Effectively in retirement , Vane wrote the Retired Man 's Meditations , published in 1655 amid rumors that Vane was fomenting rebellion against Cromwell , principally among Quakers and Fifth Monarchists . This work , a jargon @-@ laden religious treatise in which Vane wanders between literal and symbolic interpretation of Biblical scriptures , was treated by contemporaries and later analysts , including David Hume , as " absolutely unintelligible " and " cloudily formed " . The same year , after Cromwell called for a fast day to consider methods by which his government might be improved , Vane wrote A Healing Question . In this more carefully structured political work , he proposed a new form of government , insisting as before upon a Parliament supreme over the Army . He was encouraged to publish it by Charles Fleetwood , who had shown it to Cromwell . In a postscript to the work Vane wrote the words " the good old cause " , a coinage that became a rallying cry in the next few years for Vane 's group of republicans .
A Healing Question was seen by John Thurloe , Cromwell 's Secretary of State , as a thinly @-@ veiled attack on Cromwell , and its publication prompted a number of opposition political groups to step up their activities . Rumors circulated that protests raised by fringe religious groups like the Anabaptists and Quakers were due to Vane 's involvement , prompting Cromwell 's council to issue an order on 29 July 1656 , summoning Vane to appear . Vane was ordered to post a bond of £ 5 @,@ 000 " to do nothing to the prejudice of the present government and the peace of the Commonwealth " , but refused . He was arrested shortly afterward and imprisoned in Carisbrooke Castle . While there he addressed a letter to Cromwell in which he repudiated the extra @-@ parliamentary authority Cromwell had assumed . Vane was released , still unrepentant , on 31 December 1656 .
During Vane 's retirement he established a religious teaching group , which resulted in a group of admirers known as " Vanists " . The Puritan pastor Richard Baxter classified Seekers , Ranters , Behmenists and Vanists together , as religious wild men . He also cultivated pamphleteers and other surrogates to promote his political views . Henry Stubbe , introduced to Vane by Westminster head Richard Busby , became a supporter , and defended him in his Essay in Defence of the Good Old Cause , and in Malice Rebuked ( 1659 ) .
= = Richard Cromwell and after = =
Following Oliver Cromwell 's death in September 1658 , his son Richard succeeded him as Lord Protector . The younger Cromwell lacked the political and military skills of his father , and the political factionalism of the earlier Commonwealth began to resurface . When elections were called for a new parliament in December 1658 , Cromwell attempted to prevent the election of both royalists and republicans . Vane , as a leader of the republican faction , was specifically targeted , but managed to win election representing Whitchurch . In the parliament 's session , the republicans questioned Cromwell 's claim to power , argued in favour of limiting it , and spoke against the veto power of the Cromwellian House of Lords , which was packed with supporters of the protector . The republicans were unsuccessful in enacting any substantive changes .
Vane formed an alliance with a group of republican military officers known as the Wallingford House party , who met secretly in violation of laws enacted to limit military participation in political matters . The Cromwellian factions in the parliament overreached in their attempts to control republican sentiment in the military , and Cromwell was forced to dissolve the parliament in April 1659 . Cromwell , with little support in the military , abdicated several days later . Following a purge of pro @-@ Cromwell supporters from the military and a widespread pamphleteering campaign , Cromwell 's council recalled the Rump Parliament in May .
In the reconstituted Rump Parliament , Vane was appointed to the new council of state . He also served as commissioner for the appointment of army officers , managed foreign affairs , and examined the state of the government 's finances , which were found to be in dismal condition . Through his work General John Lambert was sent to quell Booth 's Rebellion , a royalist uprising in August 1659 . Lambert 's support of non @-@ mainstream religious views like Quakerism , however , ensured his political downfall . After he and other officers were stripped of their command by Parliament in October , they rallied their troops and marched on Parliament , forcibly dissolving it . A committee of safety was formed , composed of the army grandees , and including Vane . He agreed to serve in part because he feared the republican cause was destined to fail without army support . This committee only served until December , when the advance of General George Monck 's army from Scotland led to the melting away of Lambert 's military support , and the restoration of the full Long Parliament . For taking part in the committee of safety , Vane was expelled ( over vocal objections from allies like Heselrige ) from the Commons , and ordered into house arrest at Raby Castle . He went to Raby in February 1660 , but only stayed there briefly , and eventually returned to his house at Hampstead .
During the tumultuous year of the late 1650s proposals for how the government should be structured and how powers should be balanced were widely debated , in private , in public debates in Parliament , and through the publication of pamphlets . Vane used all of these methods to promote his ideas . In 1660 he published A Needful Corrective or Balance in Popular Government . This open letter was essentially a response to James Harrington 's The Commonwealth of Oceana , a 1656 treatise describing Harrington 's view of a utopian government , which included limitations on property ownership and a legislature with an elected upper chamber . Harrington 's thesis was that power arose from property ownership , and concentrated land ownership led to oligarchic and monarchic forms of government . Vane disagreed with this , arguing instead that power came from godliness , and presented a somewhat apocalyptic argument in support of his idea . Vane supporter Henry Stubbe stated openly in October 1659 that permanent Senators would be required . These proposals caused a terminal split in Vane 's alliance with Heselrige , whose followers mostly deserted Vane .
= = The Restoration = =
In March 1660 the Long Parliament finally dissolved itself , and elections were held for the Convention Parliament , which sat in May . This body , dominated by royalists and Presbyterians , formally proclaimed Charles II as king , and he was restored to the throne on 29 May 1660 . In order to minimize acts of reprisal and vengeance for acts taken during the Interregnum , the parliament passed the Indemnity and Oblivion Act , under whose terms most actions were forgiven . Specific exceptions were made for those directly involved in the regicide , and after long debate , Vane was also named as an exception . The act was not passed until August 1660 , and Vane was arrested on 1 July 1660 on the orders of the king and imprisoned in the Tower of London . The parliament , after passing the Indemnity Act , petitioned Charles to grant clemency to Vane and others , asking that his life might be spared . This petition was granted .
Despite the clemency , Vane remained in the Tower , and the income from his estates was seized . He suffered the privations of the prison , and was unable to discharge debts that ran to £ 10 @,@ 000 . He was transferred to the Isles of Scilly in October 1661 in order to limit access to him by potential conspirators who might be scheming to free him . He continued to write , principally on religious themes , seeking to come to terms with the political state of affairs and his condition . According to The People 's Case Stated , written by Vane in this time , power originated with God , but resided primarily with the people : " The power which is directive , and states and ascertains the morality of the rule of obedience , is in the hand of God ; but the original , from whence all just power arises , which is magistratical and co @-@ ercitive , is from the will or free gift of the people , who may either keep the power in themselves or give up their subjection and will in the hand of another . " King and people were bound by " the fundamental constitution or compact " , which if the king violated , the people might return to their original right and freedom .
Following Vane 's move to Scilly , the Cavalier Parliament passed a resolution in November 1661 demanding his return to the Tower for trial . Charles temporized , and in January 1662 the Parliament renewed the demand . Vane was moved back to the Tower in April 1662 , and on 2 June 1662 he was arraigned on charges of high treason against Charles II . The trial began on 6 June before the Court of King 's Bench , with four judges headed by Lord Chief Justice Robert Foster presiding , and with the king 's attorney general Sir Geoffrey Palmer prosecuting . As was typical of those accused of treason , Vane was denied legal representation . He defended himself against charges of making war against the king during the civil war by asserting the sovereign power of parliament . Accused of imagining the death of the king in 1659 , he argued that it was not possible to commit treason against a king not in possession of the crown . When the prosecution argued that the king was always in de jure possession , Vane pointed out that this rendered invalid the charges that he conspired to keep Charles II from exercising his power . The judges stepped in to point out this was irrelevant . The jury , which was packed with royalists , convicted him after thirty minutes of debate .
Vane attempted to appeal his conviction , and tried to get the magistrates to sign a Bill of Exclusion in which Vane catalogued all the problems he saw with his trial . However , the magistrates refused . Informed of Vane 's conduct before and during the trial , Charles II now felt that Vane was too dangerous a man to be left alive , and retracted his clemency . ( Unlike Vane , John Lambert at his trial had thrown himself on the mercy of the court , and was consequently exiled to Guernsey after his conviction . ) Although Vane had been sentenced to the commoner 's death of being hanged and then drawn and quartered , Charles was persuaded to grant him the gentleman 's death of beheading . On 14 June 1662 Vane was taken to Tower Hill and beheaded . Noted diarist Samuel Pepys was there and recorded the event :
He made a long speech , many times interrupted by the Sheriff and others there ; and they would have taken his paper out of his hand , but he would not let it go . But they caused all the books of those that writ after him to be given the Sheriff ; and the trumpets were brought under the scaffold that he might not be heard . Then he prayed , and so fitted himself , and received the blow ; but the scaffold was so crowded that we could not see it done .... He had a blister , or issue , upon his neck , which he desired them not hurt : he changed not his colour or speech to the last , but died justifying himself and the cause he had stood for ; and spoke very confidently of his being presently at the right hand of Christ ; and in all things appeared the most resolved man that ever died in that manner , and showed more of heat than cowardize , but yet with all humility and gravity . One asked him why he did not pray for the King . He answered , " Nay , " says he , " you shall see I can pray for the King : I pray God bless him ! "
In his final days Vane had made his peace with God , and had also carefully prepared the speech he intended to make at the execution . In order to preserve the speech , he gave copies to close friends who visited him in those days , which were later printed . Many viewed him as a martyr for continuing to espouse his cause , and some thought the king had lost more than he gained by having him executed . His body was returned to his family , who interred him in the church at Shipbourne , near the family estate of Fairlawn in Kent .
= = Family = =
Vane and his wife Frances had ten children . Of their five sons , only the last , Christopher , had children , and succeeded to his father 's estates . He was created Baron Barnard by William III .
= = Works = =
A number of Vane 's speeches to Parliament and other bodies were printed during his lifetime or shortly after , including The Speech Intended to Have been Spoken on the Scaffold , published in 1662 .
Vane 's other printed works include :
A Brief Answer to a Certain Declaration , 1637
The Retired Man 's Meditations , 1655
A Healing Question Propounded , 1656
Of Love of God and Union with God , 1657 ?
The Proceeds of the Protector ... Against Sir Henry Vane , Knight , 1658
A Needful Corrective or Balance in Popular Government , 1659
Two Treatises : " Epistle General to the Mystical Body of Christ " and " The Face of the Times " , 1662
The Cause of the People of England Stated , 1689 ( written 1660 @-@ 1662 ; the title may have been intended to be " Case " instead of " Cause " )
A Pilgrimage into the Land of Promise , 1664
The Trial of Sir Henry Vane , Knight , 1662
The last work contains , in addition to his last speech and details relating to the trial , The People 's Case Stated , The Valley of Jehoshaphat , and Meditations concerning Man 's Life .
Some contemporary works were incorrectly attributed to him . Clarendon , in his History of the Rebellion , assigns to Vane credit for one speech in support of the Self @-@ Denying Ordinance ; later historians find this attribution spurious . The Speech against Richard Cromwell is probably the composition of a later writer , while The Light Shining out of Darkness may have been written by Henry Stubbe .
= = Reputation = =
Vane was widely recognized by contemporary chroniclers as a gifted administrator and a forceful orator . Even the royalist Clarendon had good words for him , and wrote of him as follows : " He had an unusual aspect , which ... made men think there was something in him of the extraordinary ; and his whole life made good that imagination . " Also , Clarendon credited Vane with having possessed " extraordinary parts , a pleasant wit , a great understanding , a temper not to be moved " , and in debate " a quick conception and a very sharp and weighty expression " . The 1662 biography The Life and Death of Sir Henry Vane the Younger by Vane 's chaplain George Sikes included John Milton 's " Sonnet 17 " , written in 1652 in praise of Vane , and presented to Vane that year .
The religious writings of Vane were so unusual as to have been found difficult to understand , even baffling , by readers as varied as Richard Baxter , Clarendon , Gilbert Burnet and David Hume , and continue to be seen so today . Civil War historian Blair Worden comments that " Vane 's opaque political ideas and religious beliefs are now barely intelligible " , and biographer David Parnham writes " He presented himself as a ' witness ' of light , as a spiritualist , as one dispensing advanced wisdoms in the epistemological setting of an imminent and apocalyptic age of the Spirit " .
Vane 's reputation was at its height in the nineteenth century , especially in the United States . English historian John Andrew Doyle wrote of Vane that he had acquired " a more dazzling reputation than has been granted to the lofty public spirit and statesmanlike foresight of Winthrop . " William Wordsworth referenced Vane in his sonnet Great Men Have Been Among Us ( 1802 ) . Charles Dickens included the exchange between Vane and Cromwell at the end of the Rump Parliament in his A Child 's History of England , part @-@ published in the early 1850s . In English Traits ( 1856 ) , Ralph Waldo Emerson placed Vane on a list of historical English greats . Sean Gabb , a modern British libertarian , notes that Vane was in the vanguard on issues of religious freedom . Although he was " among a small and easily defeated minority " , his successors 150 years later " were responsible for the clearest and most solid safeguards of civil and religious freedom ever adopted into a constitution . "
In 1897 the Royal Society of the Arts marked Vane 's demolished Hampstead house on Rosslyn Hill , Vane House , with a blue plaque .
James Kendall Hosmer , editing Winthrop 's Journal in 1908 , wrote of Vane :
... his heroic life and death , his services to Anglo @-@ Saxon freedom , which make him a significant figure even to the present moment , may well be regarded as the most illustrious character who touches early New England history . While his personal contact with America was only for a brief space , his life became a strenuous upholding of American ideas : if government of , by , and for the people is the principle which English @-@ speaking men feel especially bound to maintain , the life and death of Vane contributed powerfully to cause this idea to prevail .
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= Vortigaunt =
Vortigaunts are a fictional extra @-@ dimensional species in the Half @-@ Life series of video games by Valve Corporation . In Half @-@ Life and its three expansions , Vortigaunts are frequently encountered by the player as hostile non @-@ player characters . The Vortigaunts are depicted in Half @-@ Life as being an enslaved race in an alternative dimension called Xen , subservient to a large creature called the Nihilanth , which itself is a slave to undisclosed masters . In Half @-@ Life 2 , the Vortigaunts have broken free of their slavery , and actively assist the player and other humans in resisting the Combine occupation of Earth .
Vortigaunts are shown as a very communal and cultural race , believing in a force that binds the fabric of the universe and each Vortigaunt together , as well as producing a tradition of poetry and music . Vortigaunts also display the ability to summon and command electrical energy without the need for technology . This ability is used for various activities , such as a means of attack , powering electrical equipment , and healing .
The fictional creatures have received a range of critical responses from their various appearances . In addition to their role within the Half @-@ Life series , Vortigaunts have been adapted for machinima productions and have been made into a plush toy by Valve .
= = Character design = =
Louis Gossett , Jr. provides the voice for the Vortigaunts in Half @-@ Life 2 , and was partially chosen due to his role as the alien in the film Enemy Mine . In Episode Two , the Vortigaunts ' voicing was done by Tony Todd . Graphically , the Vortigaunts in both Half @-@ Life and Half @-@ Life 2 were designed by concept artists Dhabih Eng and Chuck Jones .
Initially , Vortigaunts were planned to begin Half @-@ Life as enemy non @-@ player characters , which the player has to win over as allies and lead in rebellion . This idea , however , proved impractical and was abandoned in favor of keeping the Vortigaunts as adversaries . The plan re @-@ emerged for Half @-@ Life 2 , in which the species are active allies of the player . The Vortigaunts in Half @-@ Life 2 were originally going to be fully integrated in City 17 alongside the humans under Combine rule . This did not reach fruition ; due to the focus on developing the city combat , the resources to accomplish this were not available . As there were so few resulting Vortigaunts in the city , the developers instead decided to involve the Vortigaunts far more substantially in the sections of the game taking place in the countryside surrounding the city . The few Vortigaunts placed inside the city were used to hint at the story arc for the Vortigaunts later in the game . Midway through Half @-@ Life 2 , the player witnesses a scene with a deceased Vortigaunt in a prison . Originally , the developers were intending to feature this Vortigaunt as an ally character who , if players rescue him , would fight enemy characters alongside the player . The developers liked this idea , but it was too late in the development to attempt this ; instead , the idea was preserved for use in Episode Two . The concept was later showcased in an Episode Two trailer shown at the Games Convention in 2006 .
According to series writer Marc Laidlaw , one of the most important goals with Episode Two was to expand on the Vortigaunts as characters , as opposed to just " purveyors of bugbait or Xen koans " . As such , Valve added new behaviours , new animations , and new audio to the Vortigaunts . Combine devices called " Vorti @-@ Cells " were to be encountered in Half @-@ Life 2 . They were meant to siphon power from captive Vortigaunts in City 17 . The player would then be able to free Vortigaunts from these devices to gain their assistance .
= = Attributes = =
= = = Society = = =
Vortigaunts are very intelligent and social creatures . In Half @-@ Life , they serve as basic ground units for the Xen forces , often supporting heavier troops fighting the player and the humans in the Black Mesa Research Facility . They are capable of developing intelligent strategies and tactics to take on their enemies . Initially , Vortigaunts are enslaved to the Nihilanth , a large creature on Xen , who , in turn , claims it is a slave to unknown superiors . On Xen , the Vortigaunts are used as factory workers and drones . In Half @-@ Life 2 , Vortigaunts indicate that this slavery has lasted for generations . Despite this , Vortigaunts are shown to have developed an intellectual culture , valuing poetry , music and philosophy . In addition , Vortigaunts practise the husbandry of antlions , large insectoids that live in underground hives , as an ancestral tradition . The death of the Nihilanth at the hands of Gordon Freeman at the end of Half @-@ Life frees the Vortigaunts from their slavery ; consequently the Vortigaunts see Freeman as a messianic figure .
Vortigaunts possess their own method of vocal communication , " flux shifting " , which they can be heard using in Half @-@ Life 2 . This method of communication involves both speakers vocalising at the same time and cannot be understood by other species who lack the auditory anatomy to interpret the sounds . In addition to standard conversation , flux shifting can be used by Vortigaunts to communicate over long distances . Vortigaunts use scattered English words in Half @-@ Life to taunt the player , although by Half @-@ Life 2 they have learned to speak at least the English language fluently , albeit using archaic words and grammatical structures . In addition , the Vortigaunts believe in a binding life @-@ force referred to as the " Vortessence " . The exact nature of the Vortessence is left unclear , although it is revealed that Vortigaunts believe the Vortessence is the fabric of the universe and connects everything .
= = = Depiction = = =
In general , a Vortigaunt is a somewhat humanoid figure with two legs and two arms , but has an additional arm protruding from its thorax . Vortigaunts have mottled green skin and digitigrade legs , allowing them to move quickly . Typically , Vortigaunts have a slightly hunched posture . In addition , Vortigaunts have sharp teeth , clawed hands , strong senses , and their faces are dominated by a large red eye . In Half @-@ Life , this eye is surrounded by five smaller eyes , although , in Half @-@ Life 2 , this has been reduced to three smaller eyes . A key aspect of the Vortigaunts is their ability to summon energy to their command without the need for any equipment . In @-@ game , this ability is most commonly used as a means of attack , with Vortigaunts ' hurling the energy towards foes in the form of green electrical bolts . In addition , Vortigaunts have been shown to be able to use the energy for other purposes , such as assisting in repair work , removing rubble and blockages , recharging the player 's HEV suit or powering up electrical generators . Enslaved Vortigaunts are depicted with green collars and shackles , although the means by which these control Vortigaunts is not explored . Vortigaunts are not typically seen wearing clothing , although several Vortigaunts are observed wearing lab coats and chef 's clothing in the course of Half @-@ Life 2 and its expansions . Vortigaunts are depicted as meat eaters ; the player can observe Vortigaunts ' eating human corpses in Half @-@ Life and cooking headcrabs in Half @-@ Life 2 , although Half @-@ Life 2 also shows Vortigaunts working in kitchens with chef hats , preparing soups and salads , suggesting that Vortigaunts are omnivores .
= = Appearances = =
= = = Half @-@ Life = = =
Vortigaunts are first introduced as one of the primary enemies in Half @-@ Life . They are frequently encountered by players throughout Half @-@ Life and its three expansions , Opposing Force , Blue Shift and Decay . They are portrayed as one of the sentient races of Xen , often working in groups or with more heavily armored Xen troops . In the later stages of Half @-@ Life , Vortigaunts are seen working in factory @-@ like environments , constructing or maturing the more heavily armored Xen troops in cocoon @-@ like capsules under the direction of other aliens in the Xen hierarchy .
In the cooperative multiplayer expansion Decay , players have the opportunity to assume the role of two Vortigaunts if they score highly on all missions . In this bonus mission , entitled " Xen Attacks " , two Vortigaunts , designated as Drone Subjects X @-@ 8973 and R @-@ 4913 , are given a mission by the Nihilanth to retrieve a number of crystals stolen from Xen by human scientists from the Black Mesa Research Facility .
= = = Half @-@ Life 2 = = =
The role of the Vortigaunts is drastically changed in Half @-@ Life 2 . Now acting as allies to the player , Vortigaunts have been freed as a result of protagonist Gordon Freeman killing the Nihilanth at the end of Half @-@ Life . Instead of acting with hostility towards humanity , the Vortigaunts are actively engaged in assisting the human resistance against the Combine , a multi @-@ dimensional empire that has invaded and occupied Earth in between Half @-@ Life and Half @-@ Life 2 . Vortigaunts are frequently seen at resistance compounds and stations , often performing maintenance work or providing help with experiments , and sometimes assist the player by using their energy abilities to recharge the player 's HEV suit . However , a number of Vortigaunts are still in captivity , as at various points in the game , Vortigaunts are shown used as slave labor by the Combine ; for example , one Vortigaunt is seen cleaning the floor of a Combine train station with a broom , wearing a similar collar to those worn in Half @-@ Life .
Vortigaunts play a greater part in the story of the series in Half @-@ Life 2 's continuations , Episode One and Episode Two . In Episode One , Vortigaunts use unexplained powers to rescue Alyx Vance , the series ' main female character , from the top of the Combine Citadel in City 17 , saving her from the explosion of the Citadel 's reactor at the end of Half @-@ Life 2 . The Vortigaunts also free Gordon Freeman from the stasis imposed on him at the end of Half @-@ Life 2 by his enigmatic employer , the G @-@ Man , much to the G @-@ Man 's irritation . Episode Two dedicates much of the early part of the game to the Vortigaunts , with a group of four Vortigaunts working to heal Alyx Vance after she is mortally wounded by a Combine Hunter , while tracking and killing the Combine Advisors that fled the Citadel . One Vortigaunt accompanies the player and acts as combat support on an expedition into an antlion hive . In the latter stages of Episode Two , a number of Vortigaunts are observed in the White Forest missile silo , performing various tasks to facilitate the launch of a satellite to close a Combine super portal .
= = = Appearances in other media = = =
The use of sandbox applications like Garry 's Mod have allowed for the Vortigaunt to be used in a variety of webcomics and machinima productions . For example , in the webcomic Concerned , the inability for the players to harm allied non @-@ player characters such as the Vortigaunt in Half @-@ Life 2 forms a recurring joke , where the protagonist Gordon Frohman constantly tries to shoot Vortigaunts due to their role as enemies in Half @-@ Life . This eventually backfires on him , as when Vortigaunts try to rescue Frohman from the destruction of the Citadel , his hostile nature leads them to simply abandon him to his fate . Vortigaunts are occasionally featured in machinima productions , often taking on the roles of minor characters , such as janitors under Combine jurisdiction . In addition , Vortigaunts are central to one Half @-@ Life single @-@ player modification , POV – Point of View , in which the player assumes the role of a Vortigaunt slave attacking Black Mesa .
= = Cultural impact = =
= = = Merchandise = = =
The character of the Vortigaunt has been popular enough to inspire the creation of a Vortigaunt plush toy . The toy was designed by Dhabih Eng and was sold and distributed via Valve 's online store . The toy was released in December 2006 and due to the proximity to Christmas , the Vortigaunt was accompanied by a to @-@ scale Santa Claus hat . Reviews of the plush toy were favorable , praising the toy as sturdy , as well as giving credit for its articulation and detail .
= = = Reception = = =
The change of the Vortigaunts from enemy characters to allied characters in Half @-@ Life 2 was described as " intriguing " by reviewers , with PC Zone stating that the Vortigaunts were one of the most interesting characters in the game , playing a role " somewhere between Yoda and ET " .
The role of the Vortigaunts in Episode Two was met with more approval by critics , who described the Vortigaunt who accompanies the player in the early parts of the game as " a great joy to fight alongside " , praising the improved artificial intelligence and noting that " the fact that they 're not trying to intricately imitate real @-@ life people " significantly aided the presentation of the Vortigaunts . In addition , IGN praised the visual and character overhaul given to the Vortigaunt in Episode Two .
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= Brazza 's martin =
Brazza 's martin ( Phedina brazzae ) is a passerine bird in the swallow family , Hirundinidae . It is 12 cm ( 4 @.@ 25 in ) long with grey @-@ brown upperparts , heavily black @-@ streaked white underparts , and a brownish tint to the breast plumage . The sexes are similar , but juvenile birds have more diffuse breast streaking and reddish @-@ brown edges to the feathers of the back and wings . The song consists of a series of short notes of increasing frequency , followed by a complex buzz that is sometimes completed by a number of clicks .
The range of this species falls within the African countries of Angola , the Republic of the Congo , and the Democratic Republic of the Congo . Nesting in burrows in river banks , it lays a clutch of three white eggs . This bird feeds on flying insects , including termites , and may hunt over rivers or open savanna . It forms mixed flocks with other swallows , but is readily identified by its combination of brown upperparts , streaked underparts and a square tail .
Although this little @-@ known bird had been classified as Data Deficient by the International Union for Conservation of Nature ( IUCN ) , it actually appears to be common and widespread , and it has been listed as a species of Least Concern since 2008 . There may be some hunting of this martin for food , but the species does not appear to be facing any serious short @-@ term threats .
= = Taxonomy = =
The Brazza 's martin was first described in 1886 under its current binomial name by French zoologist Émile Oustalet from a specimen obtained at Nganchu in the Ngabé District of what is now the Republic of Congo . The genus name , Phedina , is derived from the Greek phaios ( φαιός ) " brown " and the Italian rondine " swallow " . The species name commemorates Italian @-@ born French explorer Pierre Savorgnan de Brazza , later to become governor @-@ general of the French Congo , who collected the type specimen . This species was often called the " Congo martin " , but this invites confusion with the Congo sand martin or Congo martin , Riparia congica .
The Phedina species are members of the swallow family of birds , and are classed as members of the Hirundininae subfamily , which comprises all swallows and martins except the very distinctive river martins . DNA sequence studies suggest that there are three major groupings within the Hirundininae , broadly correlating with the type of nest built . These groups are the " core martins " , including burrowing species like the sand martin ; the " nest @-@ adopters " , which are birds like the tree swallow that utilise natural cavities ; and the " mud nest builders " , such as the barn swallow , which build a nest from mud . The Phedina species nest in burrows and therefore belong to the " core martins " group .
The genus Phedina is thought to be an early offshoot from the main swallow lineage , although the striped plumage of its two species suggests a distant relationship with several streaked African Hirundo species . The only other member of the genus is the Mascarene martin P. borbonica , although in the past it has sometimes been suggested that Brazza 's martin should be moved to its own genus Phedinopsis due to the significant differences in vocalisations and nest type from its relative . The nearest relative of the Phedina martins is the banded martin , Riparia cincta , which appears not to be closely related to the other members of its current genus and resembles Brazza 's martin in nesting habits and vocalisations . The current Association of European Rarities Committees ( AERC ) -recommended practice is to move the banded martin to its own genus as Neophedina cincta , rather than to merge it into Phedina , since the banded martin 's larger size , different bill and nostril shape and non @-@ colonial nesting are differences from the other Phedina species .
= = Description = =
The Brazza 's martin is 12 cm ( 4 @.@ 25 in ) long with wings averaging 100 @.@ 5 mm ( 4 @.@ 4 in ) . This small hirundine has grey @-@ brown upperparts with a somewhat darker brown head and white underparts heavily streaked with blackish @-@ brown from the throat to vent . There is a brownish tint to the breast plumage . The square tail averages 46 @.@ 8 mm ( 1 @.@ 8 in ) long and has white edges to the brown undertail coverts . The flight feathers are blackish @-@ brown and the bill and legs are black . The eyes are dark brown and the black bill averages 8 @.@ 5 mm ( 0 @.@ 33 in ) long . The sexes are similar , but juvenile birds have more diffuse breast streaking and reddish @-@ brown or buff edges to the feathers of the back and wings . This bird has no subspecies .
The song consists of a series of short notes increasing in frequency which are followed by a complex buzz and sometimes completed by a number of clicks . The song becomes increasingly loud , although the final clicks are quite soft . The song is similar to that of the banded martin , and does not resemble the Mascarene martin , suggesting unresolved taxonomic problems . The flight is variously described as heavy , or like that of a sand martin .
Brazza 's martin can be distinguished from most other swallows within its range by the heavy streaking on the underparts . Although the lesser striped swallow also has white underparts with dark streaking , it is larger , has a deeply forked tail and a very different plumage , with dark blue upperparts , a red rump and a chestnut head . Compared to the Mascarene martin , this species is smaller , has a plainer back and finer dashing on the throat and chest , but there is no range overlap .
= = Distribution and habitat = =
The distribution of the Brazza 's martin was initially poorly known , and until 1922 the type specimen in the Paris Museum was the only recorded example of this species . A Father Callewaert then collected 20 martins near Luluabourg ( now Kananga ) , and this bird is now known to breed in the south of the Democratic Republic of the Congo ( DRC ) , the Republic of the Congo , and in northern Angola . There is one probable sighting from southeast Gabon .
In the breeding season this martin is found near rivers with the steep banks that are needed for the nest burrows . Suitable habitat occurs along lowland tropical rivers like the Congo or rivers with sandbanks in the highlands of Angola . The highland locations have wide grassy riverways running through miombo woodlands , whereas the Congo Basin is tropical forest with over 200 cm ( 80 in ) of rain a year . The lowland habitats are a patchwork of dry , seasonally flooded and permanently wet woodland , and seasonally flooded savanna , and the swamp forests contain trees such as Symphonia globulifera , raffia palms and Mitragyna species , and the riverbanks are often lined with arrowroot . This martin seems to be able to adapt to open savanna habitats containing Hymenocardia acida , in which it will roost overnight when not breeding , and is therefore not heavily dependent on the neighbouring forests as long as the riverine breeding sites survive .
= = Behaviour = =
In a presumed example of courtship behaviour , a male Brazza 's martin perched about 30 cm ( 1 ft ) away from a female and sang for about ten minutes . As it sang , the male leant towards the female , which caused the still @-@ folded wings and tail to rise relative to the body . The Brazza 's martin nests in the vertical banks of forested rivers from July to October , at the end of the dry season but before the river levels are high enough to cause flooding . A small colony of four pairs was recorded breeding near a rocky outcrop on the side of a valley .
The Brazza 's martin nests singly or in loose colonies with sometimes widely separated burrows . The nest is a small heap of soft material such as feathers or dry grass at the end of a typically 50 @-@ cm ( 20 @-@ in ) tunnel . The normal clutch is three white eggs . The eggs measure 18 @.@ 5 x 112 @.@ 5 mm ( 0 @.@ 73 x 0 @.@ 49 in ) and weigh 1 @.@ 5 g ( 0 @.@ 05 oz ) . The incubation and fledging times are unknown , although as with all hirundines the chicks are altricial , hatching naked and blind .
As with other swallows , Brazza 's martin feeds on flying insects , including termites , and may hunt over rivers or open savanna . It can occur in single @-@ species flocks or with other swallows including barn swallows , lesser striped swallows , or rock martins .
= = Status = =
There has been little ornithological research in this part of Africa , and until 2008 the Brazza 's martin was classified as Data Deficient . It was thought to have a much more restricted distribution range , but a 2007 paper presented evidence that extended its known range by 500 km ( 300 mi ) to the north and 175 km ( 90 mi ) southwards , a quadrupling of the area . It has a large range of 402 @,@ 000 km2 ( 155 @,@ 000 sq mi ) although the total population is unknown . Its extensive range and apparently stable population means this bird is classed as Least Concern on the IUCN Red List .
It is likely that this species is dug out for food by humans , but its small , dispersed colonies in firm soil suggests that it is a less rewarding target than the densely packed sandbank nests of species such as the African river martin and rosy bee @-@ eater . Breeding colonies in river sandbars are liable to flooding , but neither natural causes nor hunting appear to be having a serious impact , and this species seems under no immediate threat . Its ability to use degraded habitats also aids its survival . The Brazza 's martin is not a protected species in Angola , the DRC , or the Republic of Congo .
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= Sibling Rivalry ( Family Guy ) =
" Sibling Rivalry " is the 22nd episode of the fourth season of the animated comedy series Family Guy . It originally aired on Fox in the United States on March 26 , 2006 . The episode follows Stewie as he battles with his half @-@ brother , Bertram ( voiced by Wallace Shawn ) , who is born to two lesbians after Peter donates sperm . Meanwhile , Lois begins excessive eating after Peter undergoes a vasectomy and loses his interest in sex .
The episode was written by Cherry Chevapravatdumrong and directed by Dan Povenmire . The episode received mixed reviews from critics for its storyline and many cultural references . According to Nielsen ratings , it was viewed in 7 @.@ 95 million homes in its original airing . The episode featured guest performances by Randy Crenshaw , Gavin Dunne , Bob Joyce , John Joyce , Phil LaMarr , Rick Logan , Wallace Shawn , Tara Strong , Nicole Sullivan and Wally Wingert , as well as several recurring voice actors for the series .
= = Plot = =
After a pregnancy scare , Peter reluctantly agrees to get a vasectomy to prevent further repeats . Before the surgery , he agrees to donate sperm , should he and Lois ever decide to have another baby . While in the sperm bank , Peter accidentally destroys all the existing samples , and decides to replace them with his own to prevent himself from getting into trouble . Nine months later , a lesbian couple , who took away some of Peter 's sperm in order to conceive a child , gives birth to Bertram , Stewie 's half @-@ brother who first appeared in the episode " Emission Impossible " .
After the vasectomy , Peter loses his sex drive , much to the frustration of Lois , who embraces overeating as a substitute . Peter begins to ridicule Lois due to her weight , but stops shortly after they have sex and discovers they prefer " fat sex " , opposed to their regular sex . Peter attempts to make Lois fatter to feed his sexual urges . After becoming even more enormous , Lois suffers a heart attack during sex ; doctors remove all of the fat from her body , and she returns to her normal weight .
Shortly after birth , Bertram declares war with Stewie for control over the playground . They confront each other in the playground with F @-@ 117 Nighthawks and AH @-@ 1 Cobras , firing numerous bullets at each other . After the air battle ends with no winners , Bertram resorts to biological warfare , and infects Stewie with chickenpox . After recovering , Stewie confronts Bertram , and they engage in a sword fight in the play area . Stewie eventually wins by disarming Bertram , and later that night , is seen suspiciously digging a hole with Christopher Moltisanti , but the hole is actually for a young tree . Stewie explains to Christopher that Bertram admitted defeat to Stewie and ran away .
= = Production = =
The song performed after Lois ' pregnancy test comes back negative was written by Alec Sulkin and Alex Borstein , and sung by professional Hollywood studio singers . Orchestrations in this song were performed by Walter Murphy , and described by show producer Seth MacFarlane to be " wonderful " . The sketch of Peter challenging Lois to a race to Boston was removed from television broadcasting in order to save time . As Lois is slowly racing Peter to Boston , a Shania Twain song can be heard on the radio ; Dan Povenmire states on the DVD commentary that he often gets into trouble for adding pieces of music into an episode when they 're so short , yet cost so much . The producers of both Family Guy and the Ice Age series agreed to collaborate in the episode during its reference to Scrat from the Ice Age series .
There was discussion among the producers of the series regarding whether Bertram should be included in the storyline , as he had not appeared in any episodes for several years . An un @-@ used scene was intended for broadcasting which showed Stewie , while trying to find Waldo in an Abercrombie & Fitch catalog , saying to Brian " Oh , turn to the next page . I bet they put him in someone 's utility pocket " , but it was never used as it was not deemed funny enough for the episode . Originally , Peter singing " Milkshake " to inmates at a prison was going to be naked and push his nipples from underneath , but broadcasting standards objected ; as a result , the show broadcasting Peter wearing underpants and pushing his nipples from the side . When Peter and Lois are in the restaurant and Peter leaves to " warn the chef of Lois ' arrival " , Lois was intended to say " If he won 't put something in me , I will " , but the gag was never broadcast .
The unsafe homeless man with whom Peter was seen leaving a youth @-@ baseball team in Stewie 's flashback was originally based on John Wayne Gacy , but people claimed he didn 't look scary enough , so Povenmire changed the character completely to that of a homeless man . The idea of Stewie and Bertram laughing as they go down the slide during their sword fight was pitched by Povenmire 's wife and , although negative about the idea at first , Povenmire included it in the episode because the original sketch not going so well . During Peter and Lois ' " fat sex " , Peter repeatedly states " almost , almost " ; originally , there was going to be approximately twice as many of these , but they were never included in the episode . The DVD version of the episode shows Peter arriving at the sperm bank and saying to the receptionist : " I have an appointment to banish a White Russian from my Kremlin " , to which she replies with " This is a sperm bank , you don 't have to use innuendo " , and Peter concludes the conversation with " Where do I splooge ? " .
In addition to the regular cast , actor Randy Crenshaw , actor Gavin Dunne , actor Bob Joyce , actor John Joyce , voice actor Phil LaMarr , actor Rick Logan , actor Wallace Shawn , voice actress Tara Strong , voice actress Nicole Sullivan , and voice actor Wally Wingert guest starred in the episode . Recurring voice actors Ralph Garman , writer Mike Henry , writer Chris Sheridan , writer Danny Smith , writer Alec Sulkin , and writer John Viener made minor appearances . Actor Patrick Warburton appeared in the episode as well .
= = Cultural references = =
When in the children 's park , Stewie quotes " Did ya get me my Cheez Whiz , boy " and a man throws one to him , this is a reference to The Blues Brothers . Stewie and Brian attempting to find diversity in an Abercrombie and Fitch catalogue is a reference to the children 's books series Where 's Wally ? , as well as to a lawsuit alleging a lack of diversity in Abercrombie and Fitch 's hiring practices . Before the battle between Stewie and Bertram , Stewie says " On my signal , unleash hell . " This is a reference to the opening scene of Gladiator . An Ice Age reference is made when Scrat , a character from the films attempts to steal Peter 's nuts . When Stewie invades Bertram 's camp at the end of the episode Bertram quotes Star Wars Episode IV : A New Hope repeating the line Darth Vader says when he senses Obi @-@ Wan Kenobi on the Death Star . When Peter names his kids , Peter mentions the kids from various shows that are currently airing at Nick at Nite . When Brian mentions this , Peter begins naming Street Fighter characters . Brian again points out this fact , after which Peter names various colors . Sauron , the villain from the Lord of the Rings is shown as the Eye of Sauron in a scene where he is trying to find his lost contact lens . A cutaway scene features Peter in a jail surrounded by inmates who force him to strip , squeeze his boobs together , and sing the chorus from Kelis 's 2003 hit “ Milkshake . ” This is possibly an homage to the scene after the credits in the movie Dodgeball : A True Underdog Story in which Ben Stiller does the same thing in his fatsuit .
After Bertram 's defeat , the scene cuts away to Stewie and Christopher Moltisanti from The Sopranos digging a hole . The viewer is led to assume that the hole is for Bertram but really it is for a tree Stewie and Christopher are planting . Then Stewie states that Bertram admitted to defeat and ran off after which Christopher calls Bertram a " mook . "
= = Reception = =
" Sibling Rivalry " was watched by 7 @.@ 95 million viewers , making it the 77th most @-@ watched program of the week . In a review of the episode , Bob Sassone of TV Squad noted " If there 's one reason I 'm glad I watched tonight 's episode it 's because I learned exactly how a vasectomy is done , " adding that " Peter is going to have a vasectomy , so he decides to freeze his sperm before he does it . This leads to a hysterical , yet truly gross , scene where Peter knocks over an entire shelf of sperm samples , and has to refill them , um , himself . " Geoffrey D. Roberts of Real Talk Reviews reviewed the episode negatively , writing " many viewers will probably be disappointed with an episode about sibling rivalry between Stewie and newfound half @-@ brother Bertram . Both share the same goal – to rule the Universe . With Bertram nothing more than a whinier version of his half @-@ brother , it turns out one Stewie Griffin is more than enough . "
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= Oliver Valentine =
Oliver " Ollie " Valentine is a fictional character from the BBC medical drama Holby City , played by actor James Anderson . He first appeared in the eleventh series episode " Proceed With Caution " , broadcast on 9 June 2009 . Oliver was introduced alongside his older sister , Penny ( Emma Catherwood ) , as a Foundation House Officer 1 ( F1 ) on rotation at Holby City Hospital . Series producer Diana Kyle intended their inclusion to have an " instant impact on the wards . " Anderson was selected to play Oliver ; he spent time with a real F1 doctor and trained with the programme 's medical advisors to prepare for the part . It took him around six months to ease into the role , and a further six to feel comfortable in it .
Oliver was initially portrayed as " the golden boy " compared to his sister . Boyishly charming and medically talented , he nonetheless lacked confidence in his ability . When Oliver reached his F2 training , the series formed an on @-@ screen duo by pairing him with registrar Greg Douglas ( Edward MacLiam ) . Oliver 's lack of competency was highlighted – he endangered patients and landed his colleagues in trouble . In a prominent storyline , Oliver made a series of medical errors , which forced him to admit that he cheated on an exam at medical school . He began a downward spiral , and reached " rock bottom " when Penny was killed off . He was then central to a special flashback episode , which depicted his battle to cope with her death . Though he confessed to Director of Surgery Henrik Hanssen ( Guy Henry ) that he was not truly qualified , Hanssen allowed Oliver to continue practising medicine .
Branded a Lothario @-@ type character , Oliver has been involved in several romantic storylines during his tenure ; Anderson has called him " the hospital bike " . In a toy boy storyline with ward sister Chrissie Williams ( Tina Hobley ) , Oliver was seen to compromise his career . He went on to date ward sister Daisha Anderson ( Rebecca Grant ) , kiss registrar Jac Naylor ( Rosie Marcel ) , and earn the unreciprocated affection of ward sister Frieda Petrenko ( Olga Fedori ) , and marry F1 doctor Tara Lo ( Jing Lusi ) . Anderson decided to leave the series in 2012 and filmed his final scenes in March 2013 . Oliver departed in the episode " Mens Sana In Corpore Sano " , dated 9 July 2013 . He returned on 23 December 2014 , for one episode , before making a full time return on 5 May 2015 .
Responses to the character have generally been negative , with particular criticism for his poor treatment of Penny . Bree Treacy of RTÉ Ten disliked both Valentines , and Jim Shelley of the Daily Mail described him as a " weasel " . Many have questioned Oliver 's medical skills and labelled him an incompetent doctor – as Daniel Maier of The Guardian put it , he is " a doctor with the blue eyes of Fonda and the medical competence of fondue " .
= = Storylines = =
Oliver arrives at Holby City Hospital as an F1 doctor , alongside his sister Penny ( Emma Catherwood ) . He acquires Penny 's preferred rotation on the Acute Assessment Unit ( AAU ) , where he develops a flirtatious relationship with ward sister Chrissie Williams ( Tina Hobley ) . Within weeks , their relationship becomes sexual . Chrissie becomes pregnant , but later miscarries . They break up , and Oliver moves on to date ward sister Daisha Anderson ( Rebecca Grant ) . A transfer to the cardiothoracic surgery ward has him working under registrar Jac Naylor ( Rosie Marcel ) . While Daisha spends Christmas with her family in the Philippines , Oliver kisses Jac . Upon her return , Daisha learns of the tryst . Soon thereafter , she is shot during a hostage situation and Oliver struggles to cope . Although she recovers , she opts to leave Holby and move back to the Philippines .
Oliver discovers that Penny has been having a relationship with a patient , Scott ( Joshua Bowman ) , endangering her career . She plans to move to Spain with him and abandon her training , but Oliver convinces Scott to leave without her . Keen to earn praise from his consultants , Connie Beauchamp ( Amanda Mealing ) and Elliot Hope ( Paul Bradley ) , Oliver claims Penny 's research as his own , and is awarded her place in an operation . He is promoted to F2 level , and betrays Penny further by revealing her affair with Scott , which results in her failing her cardiothoracic rotation and being moved to the AAU . A rivalry develops between them , but they are forced to call a truce when a series of pranks endanger a patient .
Registrar Greg Douglas ( Edward MacLiam ) shirks his responsibilities by excessively delegating to Oliver ; to his dismay , Connie appoints him as Oliver 's mentor . Oliver pushes himself too far in an attempt to impress Greg , which earns the senior doctor a reprimand for leaving him unsupervised . Oliver tries to earn back Greg 's respect , but panics while attempting to insert a chest drain , and has to be rescued by ward sister Frieda Petrenko ( Olga Fedori ) . He invites her for a drink as thanks , but when Penny discovers that Frieda has romantic feelings for him , Oliver cancels as he does not reciprocate them . Oliver 's confidence is further damaged when he mishandles a case , which results in a mother leaving her son to die alone . He moves back to the AAU , where he is shaken by an encounter with the boy 's mother , which causes him to panic and embarrass himself in theatre . Penny 's career begins to improve , and Oliver resents her when she is given registrar duties for a shift . Having realised that he is close to failing his F2 year , Oliver implicates Penny in a serious surgical error of his own doing , but is caught by registrar Antoine Malick ( Jimmy Akingbola ) .
When a patient unexpectedly dies in his care , Oliver breaks down . He confesses to Penny that he cheated in medical school by swapping one of their exam papers , so he passed on her merit while she was forced to repeat a year . Furious , Penny tells Oliver that he must confess to Director of Surgery Henrik Hanssen ( Guy Henry ) . He writes a letter of resignation , but deletes it after a positive day working alongside Frieda , who encourages him to repeat his F2 year . After giving Oliver a final chance to confess , Penny is called away to the site of a train crash . Oliver is left alone on AAU , where he successfully performs a difficult procedure . Hopeful that Penny will forgive him , Oliver is devastated to learn that she has been killed in an accident at the crash site . Unable to cope in the aftermath of her death , Oliver turns to drugs and alcohol . He sends Hanssen a letter of resignation , which includes a full confession . His father Tony ( Simon Shepherd ) offers him money to choose a new career , and claims that Oliver always had more potential than Penny . This angers Oliver , who endangers his own life to save a patient and feels reinvigorated . Hanssen is impressed by Oliver 's patient treatment , and overlooks his cheating to allow him a fresh start .
Oliver continues and succeeds in his second F2 year under Elliot , who is his mentor . He begins a relationship with F1 Tara Lo ( Jing Lusi ) . He learns she has a brain tumor and becomes fixated on finding a cure . She learns to accept it . Oliver begins spending more time at Tara 's flat and later moves in . Oliver and Tara marry the day before she has a major operation . Oliver and Tara prepare for her operation , but there are complications in surgery and she dies .
= = Development = =
= = = Creation and characterisation = = =
The impending arrival of sibling trainee doctors Oliver and Penny was announced in May 2009 , by executive producer Tony McHale and series producer Diana Kyle . The latter described them both as " full of energy and enthusiasm " , and asserted that they would have an " instant impact on the wards at every level . " They were deemed talented physicians with the desire to achieve by McHale , who noted that " one is more naturally gifted than the other " , and suggested that their personal lives would cause conflict with their professional ones , as they attempted to progress at work .
Actor James Anderson was cast as Oliver . Before assuming the role , he shadowed a real F1 doctor on ward rounds – an experience he found difficult . " We were approaching beds in which people were waking up from heart attacks and coming around quite distressed sometimes . It was really difficult to be there with a patient . It 's harder than you think and I got quite emotional . " Anderson underwent such extensive training with the programme 's medical advisors that he jested in June 2009 , " If I started medical training now , I could probably graduate as a doctor coming out of the show ! " The actor experienced " an extended period of anxiety " upon joining the series , and recalls : " It took me about six months to have any sense of what was going on and then the second six months to feel comfortable [ ... ] but only because it 's such a well @-@ oiled machine . You 're coming in as a little cog , so you have to discover how to work in that and that takes a while . "
BBC Online described Oliver 's positive qualities as being his " boyishly charming " manner and his general determination . Jane Simon of the Daily Mirror deemed him a " soft touch " when he went to great lengths to help a young patient , and a Daily Mail review suggested that Oliver was " really quite sweet " , despite his apparent smugness . Oliver is flawed by a lack of confidence and his deceptive nature . He has a tendency to land his work colleagues in trouble , which has been conveyed through storylines with Daisha and Greg . What 's on TV highlighted Oliver 's " lack of competence " and called him petulant for betraying Penny after his promotion to F2 level . When his career began to deteriorate , the publication deemed him reckless , then found him hapless in the aftermath of her death , in reference to the way he " [ sank ] into despair , finding comfort in drink , drugs and his dead sister 's flatmate . " The Sunday Mirror 's Kevin O 'Sullivan reflected on Oliver 's development since his arrival , with the observation , " Once he was the strutting ladies ' man of the wards , a veritable medical Casanova who exuded confidence and charm . But time has taken its toll on Oliver Valentine – and now he is just a shadow of his former self " – a devastated and broken man , " tormented by the memory of his sibling and his guilty conscience . "
= = = Relationships = = =
Introduced as a Lothario @-@ type character , according to Anderson , Oliver " had a reputation for being the hospital bike . " His first relationship developed when he attracted the attention of ward sisters Chrissie Williams and Daisha Anderson . Daisha showed less interest in him than Chrissie , of whose attentiveness Anderson said , " I think any hot @-@ blooded male would find that attractive " . Oliver appeared to ruin his chances with Daisha when he encouraged a patient to complain about her diagnosis – though Anderson noted , " he does apologise to Daisha , and sweetly gives her a cupcake " . This left Chrissie free to pursue Oliver . Before their relationship began , Anderson opined " She 's gorgeous , and Oliver would be a fool not to go out with her . " He thought that Oliver and Chrissie 's " unflappable " natures made them a good fit for one another , though wondered if they were too alike . As an older woman , their relationship was described as a " toyboy storyline " for Chrissie . Hobley admitted to having fun with the storyline due to the real age gap between herself and Anderson . She described Chrissie 's feelings for Oliver , stating : " Chrissie is having a lot of fun with him . But deep down she 's really hoping to find true love – she 's been quite unlucky so far . She 's not getting any younger and she 's worried about missing out on kids . " Producers Kyle and McHale revealed that the pair could have been a " perfect match " , however said the romance would not run smoothly .
Anderson believed it was a bad idea for his character to get involved with a work colleague . Oliver began to doubt the relationship , and on Penny 's advice , convinced Chrissie to break up with him without ruining his career . Chrissie took the break up well , and Hobley told What 's on TV that her character did not mind , as " it was only a bit of fun . She never planned on settling down with him . " It was then announced Chrissie would become pregnant with Oliver 's child . Hobley assessed that Chrissie was surprised to learn that she was pregnant , but pleased , as she had lost a baby five years previously and did not think that she was capable of conceiving another . Oliver was displeased by the news , but Chrissie had no expectations that he should provide for her . Her father , nursing consultant Mark Williams ( Robert Powell ) , urged him to " stand up to the mark and be a proper man " . However , soon after , Chrissie miscarried their unborn baby .
Oliver went on to share a kiss with Jac , a photograph of which was spread around the hospital by Penny , prompting Oliver to try and hide it from Daisha . Ward sister Frieda Petrenko developed a crush on him , and was pleased when he invited her for a drink , however Oliver did not reciprocate her feelings and later cancelled . Fedori commented in January 2011 that she and Anderson had had little " juicy " material , more " little scenes here and there " . Asked about the future of Frieda and Oliver 's relationship , she was unwilling to divulge potential plots , but noted , " There 's been talk about things heading in all sorts of directions " .
Oliver initially had a " friendly rivalry " with sister Penny . Catherwood believes they always had " a really good relationship " . She characterised the siblings ' relationship as " one of constant rivalry but ultimately unconditional support " , and noted , " Everything always comes more easily to Oliver than Penny – she has spent her life playing catch up " . When Penny considered giving her career up over a patient she was romantically involved with , in order to protect her , Oliver ruined the romance . Their relationship remained unaffected by this : Catherwood revealed , " Well they are brother and sister , so you forgive your family for enormous amounts . So it doesn 't affect their relationship , if anything he is there as soon as she breaks down he 's there to catch her , full of apologies and support . " She said the situation would bring them closer together , because it is a typical scenario siblings go through . When Catherwood quit the series , Penny was killed whilst attempting to rescue a patient from a train crash . Her death was not shown on @-@ screen : a conscious decision made by the production team to fully focus on Oliver 's story . Series producer Myar Craig Brown revealed that the big focus would be on the effect it had on Oliver . Forced to come to terms with her death , he faced an " emotional rollercoaster of feeling that he was second best to her " .
= = = Career = = =
Having arrived at Holby as an F1 , Oliver quickly progressed onto his F2 training . This resulted in " professional jealousy " forming with Penny , and in retaliation to their disagreements , he put her career in jeopardy by revealing her affair . Registrar Greg Douglas was appointed as Oliver 's mentor . The fast @-@ paced storyline saw Greg initially " kick [ ing ] against his newfound responsibility " , before realising that Oliver could be beneficial to his own career , which resulted in an " unlikely friendship " forming between them . Though a " fairly light , buddy @-@ buddy " storyline to begin with , Anderson felt that filming their scenes was " intensive " . Speaking of their friendship , Anderson explained : " We start off on the wrong foot with each other and we 're competitive , which is unhelpful to the patients and ( initially ) we 're not out to help one another at all . But they have similarities ... in terms of dropping people in it . " The pace of the storyline had to be changed when Anderson injured his knee upon falling down a ten foot cellar . The pair clashed over conflicting medical opinions on patient care , and their friendship soon created a negative effect over Oliver 's work ethic . Greg 's jokes at his expense left Oliver unable to carry out simple procedures correctly .
Oliver 's career further deteriorated in early 2011 , when it transpired he was not a qualified doctor . A series of setbacks – failing the exam to progress on to his F3 year , blaming a surgical error on Penny , and the death of a patient in his care – prompted him to admit that he swapped his own exam paper with Penny 's in his final year of medical school . Anderson explained that Oliver could no longer cope with the mounting pressure , hence his confession . Contrasting the siblings , he assessed " [ Oliver ] was seen as the golden boy when he arrived at Holby – but he was trading on his sister 's success . " Issued with the ultimatum of confessing to Director of Surgery Henrik Hanssen , Oliver realised that " he must take responsibility " , lest he " lose the one person who loves him unconditionally . "
Believing himself to be in a " impossible dilemma " , Anderson said that Oliver was trying to make good on what he had done by repeating his F2 exams . " By exposing the lie he 'll end his career , Oliver can 't understand why Penny won 't stand by him . " He added that since Oliver made a serious surgical error , his colleagues had lost trust in his medical capability . When a train crash occurred , he was forced to take control of AAU . Anderson explained : " He 's not fully qualified and that 's all he can think about . He 's struggling . " When he saved a patients life , Oliver thought he should keep his job . However , he was then told that Penny had died , news that would " change Oliver 's life forever . " Following Penny 's death , Craig @-@ Brown stated that " whether he 's good enough to stay in medicine will be [ Oliver 's ] big storyline . " The series explored how Oliver coped with her death through a flashback episode . Henry , who plays Hanssen , observed that Oliver 's return to work saw him make multiple mistakes and " hit rock bottom " . Oliver tried to resign from Holby , though before he left he responded to a dangerous RTA call and saved a patient 's life . When he was summoned by Hanssen about his resignation , he was given " fatherly advice " , and the senior doctor " turned a blind eye " to Oliver 's confession . Henry explained that Hanssen " doesn ’ t think a good doctor should lose his chance at a career in medicine " , after learning Oliver risked his own life on the job .
= = = Departure and return = = =
The character left the show in the episode titled " Mens Sana In Corpore Sano " , which aired on 9 July 2013 . Anderson told producers of his intention to leave one year prior to his departure . They wanted Oliver to leave the show on a positive note and began planning his final storyline . Anderson filmed his final scenes in March 2013 . Producers kept his departure a secret until transmission to surprise viewers . Anderson told Daniel Kilkelly from Digital Spy that Oliver survived the bereavement over the deaths of his sister and wife . Oliver was given redemption in his final scenes so that his fans could believe that he has a future . Oliver resigns and in his final scene tells Elliot that he will return to the hospital . Anderson was pleased that his character has the option of returning in the future .
On 30 October 2014 , it was announced that Anderson had reprised his role . Anderson expressed his pleasure at returning to Holby City saying he was " thrilled to be given the opportunity to bring Ollie back " . He said there would be " lots of surprises in store " for his character , who he dubbed " Oliver 2 @.@ 0 " due to him being older and wiser . Anderson had been approached to return numerous times but only agreed mid 2014 . Oliver 's return was planned to last one episode but Anderson was convinced to return permanently . The BBC later released a promotional video publicising the character 's return . Oliver 's return storyline will see him admitted to the hospital suffering from a serious heart condition . Anderson explained that in the fourteen months since his departure from Holby , Oliver has been working abroad in South America , drinking heavily and self @-@ medicating with several drugs . As he was not taking proper care of himself , he contracted a virus which has affected his heart . Ric Griffin ( Hugh Quarshie ) discovers a " bloodied and badly bruised " Oliver near the hospital entrance , and admits him immediately . When it emerges that Oliver 's condition is potentially fatal , he asks Elliot to fit him with his new surgical device . However , Jac refuses to let the surgery go ahead as the device is only in the experimental stage . Anderson said " Oliver knows that the operation shouldn 't go ahead . It 's legally , ethically and morally not a procedure that he should have , but when Jac says no , he 's disappointed and angry . " However , Elliot refuses to give up on Oliver and makes sure the operation goes ahead .
= = Reception = =
Reviewer 's interpretations of Oliver have generally negative . Early in his tenure , he received positive commentary from Inside Soap , who said , " he may be a whizz @-@ kid trainee doctor , but new Holby recruit Oliver Valentine isn 't all work and no play ! He 's certainly got an eye for the ladies . " Maeve Quigley , writing for the Daily Mirror , opined that Chrissie was more than a match for Oliver . She added that he soon learnt " you underestimate the female staff of Holby at your peril " , after he thought his flirting had Chrissie " wrapped around his little finger . "
Also writing for the Daily Mirror , Simon called Oliver and Penny a " medical tag @-@ team " . She found it odd they did not get along professionally because she thought " a brother @-@ sister relationship would be one of the least troublesome at Holby . " A Liverpool Daily Post review said that Oliver made Penny feel about " two inches tall " when he was promoted to F2 , and supported her question " Who needs enemies when I 've got a brother like you ? " Bree Treacy of RTÉ Ten found both of the Valentines annoying . In June 2010 she preferred Penny , " with Oliver definitely getting the award for the most annoying sibling in the hospital " ; the following month she called them irritating and recommended they " get [ their ] acts together " . On the day Oliver admitted to stealing Penny 's exam paper , Daily Mail critic Jim Shelley featured him in his negative " Down " column and branded him a " weasel " .
Oliver 's lack of medical ability drew several negative reviews . Referring to his " cack @-@ handedness " , Simon described him as " screwing up just about everything he touches " upon his return to the AAU , a sentiment she repeated after Penny 's death . Simon was left baffled when a professor of cardiology was offered the " very best care possible " – which resulted in Oliver treating him . She concluded : " [ this ] begs the question , what 's he doing at Holby being looked after by an F2 ? " The Guardian 's Daniel Maier ridiculed Oliver 's supposed talents , and jested that he was " a doctor with the blue eyes of Fonda and the medical competence of fondue " . One Daily Record columnist said that Oliver " hoped to complete his training on the strength of his nice eyes and pretty " .
A special flashback episode , centered on Oliver dealing with the aftermath of Penny 's death , was selected as recommended viewing by What 's on TV , the Liverpool Daily Post , and the Daily Mirror . The Sunday Mirror 's O 'Sullivan called it poignant , and Rachel Mainwaring of the Western Mail wrote , " It 's easy viewing ( apart from the odd gooey scene ) and full of moral as well as medical issues that leaves you shouting at the screen , ' Do the right thing Oliver , tell them the truth . ' "
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= The Boat Race 1842 =
The 6th Boat Race took place on the River Thames on 11 June 1842 . The Boat Race is a side @-@ by @-@ side rowing race between crews from the Universities of Oxford and Cambridge . In a race substantially interrupted by river traffic , Oxford beat Cambridge by a distance of four @-@ and @-@ a @-@ half lengths .
= = Background = =
The Boat Race , first held in 1829 , is a side @-@ by @-@ side rowing competition between the University of Oxford ( sometimes referred to as the " Dark Blues " ) and the University of Cambridge ( sometimes referred to as the " Light Blues " ) . Cambridge went into the race as reigning champions , having defeated Oxford by 22 lengths in the previous year 's race . They led overall with four wins to Oxford 's one .
Cambridge University Boat Club received the challenge to race from the Oxford University Boat Club secretary Fletcher Menzies in late @-@ 1841 , in which it was proposed that a race between the universities should take place in late June or early July of 1842 . Cambridge rejected the suggestion , maintaining that an Easter race would be preferable . A challenge from their captain , John Ridley , was then sent to Leander Club , whose reply bemoaned the fact that they had insufficient numbers to provide an eight , suggesting a four instead . This counteroffer was also rejected and Cambridge offered to row " any eight @-@ oared crew from any club or clubs whatsoever . " After further , somewhat acrimonious discussion , it was agreed that Oxford would challenge Cambridge on 11 June 1842 , with the caveat that the Light Blues would not row on the Thames before 8 June .
The race took place on a five @-@ and @-@ three @-@ quarter @-@ mile ( 9 @.@ 2 km ) stretch of the Thames between Westminster Bridge and Putney Bridge . The umpire for the race was W. H. Harrison , Commodore of the Royal Thames Yacht Club .
= = Crews = =
The Oxford crew weighed an average of 11 st 9 @.@ 375 lb ( 73 @.@ 9 kg ) , about 5 @.@ 5 pounds ( 2 @.@ 5 kg ) per rower more than their Light Blue opposition . None of the Oxford crew had rowed in previous Boat Races while Cambridge saw five return from the previous year 's event , including John M. Ridley and Francis Penrose who had rowed in the 1840 race .
= = Race = =
Cambridge won the toss and elected to start on the Middlesex side of the river , handing Oxford the Surrey side of the river . Both boats started below the arches of Westminster Bridge . Although Oxford made the better start , Cambridge pulled ahead and led until their course was diverted by river traffic including a steamer and a lighter , allowing the Dark Blues to retake the lead . Between the National Penitentiary and Wandsworth , according to MacMichael " they were not once free from the swell of the steamers " but continued to extend their lead . Once clear of the steamers , Cambridge began to close the gap in the last mile to Putney , but Oxford passed under Putney Bridge with a lead of four @-@ and @-@ a @-@ half lengths in a time of 30 minutes 1 second . It was their first victory since the inaugural race in 1829 , hence their first win on " London water " .
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= Susan B. Anthony dollar =
The Susan B. Anthony dollar was a United States dollar coin minted from 1979 to 1981 , when the series was halted due to poor public reception , and again in 1999 . Proposed as a smaller replacement for the cumbersome Eisenhower dollar , a number of shapes and compositions were tested , but all were opposed by the vending machine industry , a powerful lobby affecting coin legislation . Finally , a round planchet with an eleven @-@ sided inner border was chosen for the smaller dollar .
The original design depicted an allegorical representation of Liberty , but organizations and individuals in Congress called for the coin to depict a woman . Several proposals were submitted , and social reformer Susan B. Anthony was selected as the design subject . The reverse design of the Eisenhower dollar was kept . Both sides of the coin were designed by Frank Gasparro , the Chief Engraver of the United States Mint .
The Mint struck 500 million coins in anticipation of considerable public demand , but the Susan B. Anthony dollar was poorly received , in part because of confusion caused by its similarity in size and metallic composition to the quarter . Despite its poor reception , the coins began seeing use in vending machines and mass transit systems , gradually depleting the surplus . In 1997 , Congress passed a law authorizing mintage of the gold @-@ colored Sacagawea dollar , but production did not begin quickly enough to meet demand . To fill the gap , a final run of Susan B. Anthony dollars was struck in 1999 ; the series was retired the following year .
Special coins for sale to collectors were struck in proof finish through the run of the Susan B. Anthony dollar , and some minting varieties are valuable to collectors . However , most circulation strikes remained in government stockpiles for years after minting , so many are available in uncirculated grades , and the premium over face value is minimal .
= = Background = =
In the early 1960s , as the price of silver rose , Treasury Department vaults were depleted of silver dollars by the public . No silver dollars had been minted in the United States since 1935 , and a shortage developed in the Western United States , especially in areas in which gambling was common . As a result , Congress voted to authorize production of 45 million new silver Peace dollars on August 3 , 1964 . However , the move drew strong condemnation from critics who believed that the issuance of the coins was influenced by special interests , and that they would be quickly removed from circulation . The dollars were subsequently melted , and the Coinage Act of 1965 , enacted on July 23 , 1965 , outlawed all production of dollar coins for a period of five years .
On May 12 , 1969 , the Joint Commission on the Coinage , a panel of 24 individuals organized by the 1965 Coinage Act , recommended resumption of dollar coin production following a study conducted by a Congressional task force . On October 1 and 3 , 1969 , a hearing before the U.S. House of Representatives discussing the proposed legislation to authorize the coin , in a copper @-@ nickel clad composition , with the 1 @.@ 5 @-@ inch ( 38 mm ) diameter of the former silver dollars . A provision was added requiring the coin to depict recently deceased President Dwight D. Eisenhower on the obverse and a design " emblematic of the symbolic eagle of Apollo 11 landing on the moon " on the reverse . President Richard Nixon signed the bill into law on December 31 , 1970 . Both the obverse and reverse designs were created by Frank Gasparro , the Chief Engraver of the United States Mint .
The coin , known as the Eisenhower dollar , proved unpopular with the public , and very few circulated in transactions . In 1976 , the Research Triangle Institute conducted a survey of United States coinage . Among other things , they recommended the half dollar , which also saw little use , be entirely eliminated from production , and the size of the dollar be reduced . Their report read in part :
A conveniently @-@ sized dollar coin would significantly broaden the capabilities of consumers for cash transactions , especially with machines . Members of the automatic merchandising industry have expressed a strong interest in a smaller dollar , indicating their willingness to adapt their machinery to its use .
Numismatic historian David L. Ganz suggested that Eisenhower , a Republican , was chosen as a means of balancing the half dollar , depicting Democrat John F. Kennedy . In a 1977 paper , he agreed with the findings of the Institute , suggesting that both coins should be eliminated ; the half dollar production ceased entirely , and the dollar replaced by one of smaller diameter and with a different design . Treasury officials desired the small dollar coin as a cost @-@ saving measure ; Mint Director Stella Hackel estimated that replacing half of the issued dollar bills with small dollars would save $ 19 million ( $ 68 @.@ 9 million today ) in annual production costs .
= = Design history = =
= = = Liberty design = = =
The Mint began preparation for the reduced @-@ diameter dollar coin in 1976 . Although no legislation had yet been introduced , Treasury officials anticipated a positive reception from Congress , and the coin had near unanimous support from the Mint and the vending machine industry , an influential lobby in the area of coin design and creation . In 1977 , Treasury Secretary Michael Blumenthal publicly endorsed a smaller dollar coin and suggested that an allegorical representation of Liberty would be a suitable subject for the coin .
Chief Engraver Gasparro was tasked with creating a design for the proposed coin . His obverse design depicted a bust of Liberty , while his reverse depicted a soaring eagle . The bust was pictured along with a pole , atop which sat a Phrygian cap , a symbol used to represent freedom . Gasparro 's Liberty design was based on a similar obverse that he created for a 1969 American Numismatic Association convention medal . The reverse , depicting an eagle flying above a mountain against the rising sun , was originally created by Gasparro in 1967 for a proposed commemorative half dollar . Describing the reverse design , Gasparro stated that it was meant to symbolize " a new day being born " .
The design was reviewed by the Commission of Fine Arts , and in an April 29 , 1976 , letter , Commission member J. Carter Brown praised the design :
I believe this would be a superb design for United States Coinage , rooted as it is in a great tradition , being based on the ' Liberty Cap cent ' of 1794 , following Augustin Dupré 's Libertas Americana medal commemorating Saratoga and Yorktown ( 1777 – 1781 ) .
A bill to reduce the diameter of the dollar from 1 @.@ 5 inches ( 38 mm ) to 1 @.@ 043 inches ( 26 @.@ 5 mm ) and the weight from 22 @.@ 68 grams to 8 @.@ 5 grams was introduced to the House of Representatives on May 1 , 1978 . The bill was introduced to the Senate on May 3 , and the proposed weight was reduced from 8 @.@ 5 grams to 8 @.@ 1 grams . The Mint conducted experiments involving eight- , ten- , eleven- and thirteen @-@ sided coins , but it was decided that the dollar would be round , as costly modifications would be required to update vending machinery to accept other shapes . Instead , the bill prescribed an eleven @-@ sided inner border , which was intended to aid identification by sight and by feel for the visually handicapped .
= = = Selection of Susan B. Anthony = = =
Treasury officials officially recommended Gasparro 's design , which they referred to as a " modernized version of the classic Liberty design " . On May 3 , 1978 , Wisconsin 's William Proxmire introduced legislation in the Senate which was identical to the Treasury proposal , except for mandating a design which was altered to social reformer Susan B. Anthony in place of the allegorical Liberty . On May 15 , Representatives Mary Rose Oakar and Patricia Schroeder introduced similar legislation to the House of Representatives . Anthony was also recommended by members of the National Organization for Women , the Congresswomen 's Caucus , the National Women 's Political Caucus and the League of Women Voters . In support of the proposed legislation , the League addressed a letter to Walter E. Fauntroy , chairman of the Subcommittee on Historic Preservation and Coinage , reading in part :
The League believes that the time has come , and is indeed long past , for the likeness of a prominent American woman to be placed on a denomination of U.S. currency . We believe strongly that the likeness should be that of an actual woman and not that of an imaginary or symbolic figure . Susan B. Anthony contributed immeasurably to the advancement of human dignity in this nation . It is entirely fitting and appropriate that her memory be honored through this measure .
In addition , officials tallied suggestions sent to the Mint by the general public as to the subject of the dollar coin , and Susan B. Anthony had received the most support .
Gasparro began work on his Susan B. Anthony design in June 1978 , before the legislation was authorized by Congress . He enlisted the help of a friend in conducting research on Anthony , which he felt was necessary before creating the design . He referenced approximately six different images while creating the portrait of Anthony , but it was based largely on just two . Gasparro created several different designs before receiving final approval . One of his portraits , depicting Anthony at age 28 , was shown to Anthony 's great @-@ niece , Susan B. Anthony III , who rejected it on the grounds that it unnecessarily " prettified " her great @-@ aunt , and she criticized another design depicting Anthony at age 84 , which she believed made her appear too old . Gasparro made several alterations with the intent to depict her at age 50 , at the peak of her influence as a social reformer , but no photographs of her during that period were available . He eventually received approval after modification , later stating his belief that he had accurately portrayed Anthony .
Initially , Gasparro expected that Congress would authorize his soaring eagle reverse design to accompany the Susan B. Anthony obverse . However , an amendment introduced by Utah Senator Jake Garn altered the legislation to maintain the Apollo 11 design in use on the Eisenhower dollar reverse .
The bill was approved by Congress and signed into law by President Jimmy Carter on October 10 , 1978 , and production of Eisenhower dollars ceased during that year . After he signed the bill into law , Carter issued a statement , saying in part that he was confident that " this act — and the new dollar — will substantially improve our coinage system as well as cutting Government coin production costs . " He went on to declare his approval of the decision to depict Anthony on the coins :
I am particularly pleased that the new dollar coin will — for the first time in history — bear the image of a great American woman . The life of Susan B. Anthony exemplifies the ideals for which our country stands . The ' Anthony dollar ' will symbolize for all American women the achievement of their unalienable right to vote . It will be a constant reminder of the continuing struggle for the equality of all Americans .
= = = Design criticism = = =
Gasparro regarded the Anthony design as the most important of his career . Remarking on the public perception of the coin , Gasparro related that " it 's become part of a social movement . This new dollar 's more than a coin ; it 's an issue . " The decision to use a portrait of Susan B. Anthony in place of the allegorical Liberty was met with criticism by numismatists , who believed that the latter had greater artistic merit . Art critic and numismatist Cornelius Vermeule was critical of the obverse design replacement , as well as the decision to continue use of the Apollo 11 design . Vermeule noted that although Eisenhower 's administration established the National Aeronautics and Space Administration , Anthony had no connection to the moon landing or the U.S. space program . Commenting on the obverse and reverse pairing , he stated his belief that it was " a hasty marriage and a bad one " . Although he believed that Gasparro 's design was well executed , sculptor Robert Weinman criticized the decision to depict Anthony . Concerned about the possibility of other groups seeking representation on the coinage in response to its passage , Weinman characterized the Susan B. Anthony dollar legislation as a " billboard or campaign button approach to a national coin " .
= = Reception = =
The first Susan B. Anthony dollars were struck at the Philadelphia Mint on December 13 , 1978 . First strikes at the Denver and San Francisco Mints followed on January 9 , 1979 and January 29 , respectively . Mint officials feared that the coins would be hoarded upon release , so they ordered the creation of a stockpile consisting of 500 million coins prior to the release date in July 1979 . The dollars all bore a mint mark denoting their place of origin : ' P ' for the Philadelphia Mint , ' D ' for the Denver Mint and ' S ' for the San Francisco Mint . The Anthony dollars were the first coin to bear a ' P ' mint mark since the Jefferson nickels issued during World War II ; other coins struck there were left without a mintmark to note their place of origin . In 1980 , the ' P ' mint mark was added to all other circulating coins , except the cent , struck in Philadelphia .
The Treasury Department , in cooperation with the Federal Reserve , undertook a $ 655 @,@ 000 marketing campaign to educate bank employees and members of the public about the new coin , and the vending industry engaged in a $ 100 million effort to retrofit machines to accept the coins .
Despite the marketing attempts , the coin received an overwhelmingly negative reception from the public . Less than two millimeters in diameter larger than the quarter and struck in the same copper @-@ nickel composition , the Susan B. Anthony dollar was widely confused for that denomination in transactions . Mint Director Hackel noted the difference in weight and design between the two coins and expressed her belief that the dollar would eventually find favor with the public , suggesting that the coin would become " customary to the American people in time " . In the months following its release , complaints mounted and public transportation and many establishments throughout the country began refusing to accept them in payment . On July 13 , 1979 , California Representative Jerry Lewis introduced a bill to the House of Representatives with the intent to increase the size of the coin to aid identification . Discussing the bill , which was never approved , Lewis remarked that the Anthony dollar had come to be known derisively as the " Carter quarter " , due to its size and association with the President .
In total , 757 @,@ 813 @,@ 744 dollars dated 1979 were struck for circulation at the Philadelphia , Denver and San Francisco Mints . Demand remained low through 1980 , and the circulation strikes for that year totaled 89 @,@ 660 @,@ 708 . Due to its persistent unpopularity , production of Anthony dollars for circulation was halted , and 9 @,@ 742 @,@ 000 1981 dollars were struck across all three Mints exclusively for sale to collectors ; this mintage marked the end of production . At the close of production , the Treasury encountered a dilemma : the Mint struck a large amount of dollars in anticipation of great public demand , resulting in a surplus of 520 @,@ 000 @,@ 000 coins in 1981 . Melting the coins was impractical ; the cost of manufacture was approximately 2 cents , and the 98 cents earned from seignorage was applied to the national debt . Had the coins been melted , their seignorage would have been added to the debt . Accordingly , the coins were placed in government storage , to be dispensed as needed .
The coin 's design did have repercussions north of the border ; when Canada introduced its new one @-@ dollar coin in 1987 , its dimensions were made similar so that vending machine specifications could be common between nations .
= = Reissue = =
Despite their unpopularity in transactions , Anthony dollars saw heavy use in over 9 @,@ 000 stamp @-@ dispending machines situated in United States Postal Service buildings across the country beginning in 1993 . Additionally , the coins saw use with mass transit authorities . Various propositions were discussed in Congress since the last dollars were produced in 1981 , but no action was taken to issue a new coin until the Treasury 's Anthony dollar stores became depleted in the 1990s . In February 1996 , the stores totaled approximately 229 @,@ 500 @,@ 000 , but that number was reduced to approximately 133 @,@ 000 @,@ 000 by the end of 1997 . Faced with the necessity of striking more Susan B. Anthony dollars to fill the demand , the Treasury supported legislation authorizing a new dollar coin that would not be confused with the quarter . Legislation authorizing a dollar coin in a gold @-@ colored composition and with a plain edge was introduced to the House and Senate in 1997 , where it eventually received approval with a provision calling for it to depict Native @-@ American guide Sacagawea . On December 1 , 1997 , President Bill Clinton signed the 50 States Commemorative Coin Program Act into law . The Act , which authorized the creation of the 50 State Quarters program , included a section entitled " United States $ 1 Coin Act of 1997 " . That section officially authorized what became the Sacagawea dollar .
Following passage of the act , a series of test strikes depicting Martha Washington were carried out to test a variety of gold @-@ colored metallic compositions . Although the act provided for creation of the new coin , it also allowed striking of the Anthony design until production began on the gold @-@ colored dollar . Nearing depletion of Treasury stores , on May 20 , 1999 , the U.S. Mint announced that production of the Susan B. Anthony dollar would resume . In total , 41 @,@ 368 @,@ 000 Susan B. Anthony dollars were struck for circulation dated 1999 . The design was officially retired in 2000 , when the Sacagawea dollar entered production .
= = Collecting = =
As few Susan B. Anthony dollars circulated , many remain available in uncirculated condition and are worth little above face value . However , some date and mint mark varieties are relatively valuable . The 1981 coins , having been issued only to collectors , are valued above the other circulation strikes in the series . In addition , a well @-@ known variety of the 1979 circulation strikes on which the date appears nearer the rim commands a higher price than the normal issue .
All dates of the dollar also exist in proof finish . The 1999 coins were sold as standalone proof strikes , rather than as part of a larger proof set , as the 1979 , 1980 and 1981 issues were offered . The 1999 proof was minted exclusively at the Philadelphia Mint , and bears a ' P ' mint mark , while all other proof Anthony dollars were minted at San Francisco and bear the ' S ' of that Mint . Some 1979 and 1981 proofs bear a mint mark which was applied to the coinage dies with a different punch , causing them to have a more legible appearance . They are considered scarce and are valued considerably higher than normal proofs of the series .
= = Ten Dollar Bill = =
On April 20 , 2016 Treasury Secretary Jacob Lew announced that several denominations of United States currency would be redesigned prior to 2020 , the 100th anniversary of the 19th Amendment . The newly designed $ 10 bill will include images which will pay homage to the women 's suffrage movement and feature the images of not only Anthony , but also Sojourner Truth , Lucretia Mott , Elizabeth Cady Stanton , and Alice Paul .
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= Survivor : Borneo =
Survivor : Borneo is the first season of the American CBS competitive reality television series Survivor . It was originally broadcast under the name Survivor but its official title was changed to Survivor : Pulau Tiga to distinguish it from subsequent installments of the series , and then changed again to Survivor : Borneo . The show filmed from March 13 , 2000 through April 20 , 2000 and premiered on May 31 , 2000 . Hosted by Jeff Probst , it consisted of 39 days of gameplay with 16 competitors . It was set in the South China Sea on the remote Malaysian island of Pulau Tiga in the state of Sabah , about 6 miles ( 9 @.@ 7 km ) off the north coast of Borneo , Malaysia .
The sixteen contestants were initially separated into two tribes , named Tagi and Pagong , which represented the names of their beaches . When ten players remained , the contestants merged into one tribe , named Rattana . While Tagi and Pagong 's names and makeups were picked by the producers , Rattana was named by contestants Sean Kenniff and Jenna Lewis , because of the large amount of Rattan wood on the island . After 39 days of competition , corporate trainer Richard Hatch was named the Sole Survivor , defeating whitewater rafting guide Kelly Wiglesworth in a 4 – 3 jury vote .
On August 23 , 2000 , the Survivor : Borneo finale received the highest ratings of any Survivor episode to date with an average of 51 @.@ 7 million viewers . Nielsen reported that 125 million people watched at least some part of the finale . The season was released on DVD on May 11 , 2004 . In 2006 , it was revealed that Hatch failed to declare his winnings , among other earnings , in his tax return and was sentenced to 51 months imprisonment .
= = Production = =
In 1998 , CBS offered Mark Burnett the chance to present his idea of this reality show to producers . In October 1999 , CBS held a casting call for a new reality show concept . The idea was Survivor , in which sixteen people would be stuck on an island 20 miles ( 32 km ) away from the mainland of Borneo . Ten main cameras were set on the island that would film the castaways every day . Every three days , a Tribal Council would be held in which one castaway would be voted off the island . The last castaway to be on the island would win $ 1 million .
Over 6 @,@ 000 people applied for the show ; 800 were then interviewed in sixteen cities . 48 people were then chosen , and after background checks and psychological evaluations done by the producers , the final sixteen contestants and two alternates were picked .
As the survivors awaited the game 's start , Survivor crews prepared the island for reward and immunity challenges , removing any harmful items , checking for any harmful animals in specific locations , and building a Tribal Council set . Camera and other crews were sent to the island three weeks in advance for testing . On the opposite side of the island from the tribes , headquarters were set up for the producers , and crew to live in on the island . This facility included many traditional trailers with running water , televisions , and one phone line . The Tribal Council set was built two hundred yards from the crew 's facility . The Tribal Council set was 30 by 30 feet ( 9 @.@ 1 by 9 @.@ 1 m ) with no walls and only a platform . In the middle of the set was a fire lava pit providing fire for the torches , which represented the castaways ' life in the game .
On March 7 , 2000 , the contestants were flown to Los Angeles , then to the city of Kota Kinabalu in Malaysian Borneo . From there , they were taken by boat to their island . Contestants were not allowed to speak to one another until they got on the boat headed towards their beaches . The two tribes shared the island of Tiga , which was divided by over 20 miles ( 32 km ) of forest . The castaways were surrounded by wildlife such as pythons , kraits , adders , monkeys , monitor lizards , and white @-@ bellied sea eagles . The show was set to air in the summer of 2000 .
= = Contestants = =
There were sixteen contestants overall , divided into two tribes , Pagong and Tagi . After six contestants were eliminated , the tribes were combined , or merged , to form one tribe , Rattana . Seven contestants made up the jury , who ultimately decided who would win the game and the $ 1 million grand prize .
= = = Future appearances = = =
Rudy Boesch , Richard Hatch , Susan Hawk and Jenna Lewis returned to Survivor for Survivor : All @-@ Stars , respectively placing 17th , 14th , 13th and 3rd . Gervase Peterson returned for Survivor : Blood vs. Water alongside his niece , Marissa , where he placed 3rd . Kelly Wiglesworth returned for Survivor : Cambodia , where she placed 11th .
Outside of Survivor , the Borneo cast have made many appearances on other TV programs and film . Notably , Colleen Haskell appeared in a lead role in 2001 film The Animal , opposite actor Rob Schneider . Hatch later competed in the eleventh season of The Apprentice ( known as the fourth season of The Celebrity Apprentice ) and was fired in week 5 , finished in 11th place . Hatch would later appear on the seventeenth season of The Biggest Loser , and finished in 13th place .
= = Season summary = =
The sixteen contestants were divided into two tribes of eight : Tagi and Pagong . Both tribes fared equally in challenges , but differed in organizational structure . Pagong was dominated by the younger , more carefree members , whereas four contestants on Tagi — Kelly , Richard , Rudy , and Susan — formed an alliance , choosing to vote as a voting bloc to ensure their safety . When ten players remained — five from each tribe — the tribes merged into one , named Rattana . The alliance strategy proved to be successful , and the four took advantage of the other contestants ' lack of voting strategy to gain dominance . There was dissension in the alliance as Kelly was deemed untrustworthy , however she won four consecutive immunity challenges and was ineligible for elimination .
When only the four alliance members remained , the vote initially ended in a draw ; close allies Richard and Rudy voted for Susan , and Susan and Kelly voted for Richard . On the revote , Kelly decided to switch her vote and Susan was eliminated . After winning the final immunity challenge , Kelly decided to eliminate Rudy because she believed she had a better chance against Richard . At the final Tribal Council , Susan lambasted Kelly for switching her vote and proclaimed her support for Richard . Richard 's strategic prowess and leadership was valued over Kelly 's impressive challenge performances , and the jury awarded him the title of Sole Survivor in a vote of 4 @-@ 3 .
In the case of multiple tribes or castaways who win reward or immunity , they are listed in order of finish , or alphabetically where it was a team effort ; where one castaway won and invited others , the invitees are in brackets .
= = = Episodes = = =
= = = Voting history = = =
= = Reception = =
= = = Ratings = = =
By the second week , the show had already gained over 18 million viewers , beating out ABC 's show Who Wants to Be a Millionaire ? in ratings . After the season finale , Carter said that Survivor " built over a 13 @-@ week run to what was expected last night to be the biggest single television audience ever assembled for a summer television series , far eclipsed every expectation the network had when it acquired the rights to the show last year . " Leslie Moonves , the president of CBS Television said that " it has beaten our expectations by about double . " The finale of Survivor was watched by 51 @.@ 7 million viewers , the second @-@ highest viewership of any American television episode during the first decade of the 21st century , exceeded only by the finale of Friends . The finale had higher ratings than the World Series , NBA finals , NCAA men 's basketball finals , and Grammy Awards of that year . CBS was able to make the cost of commercial advertisers up to $ 600 @,@ 000 during the season finale .
Survivor was the surprise summer hit show of the season garnering an average of 28 @.@ 3 million viewers with a 12 @.@ 1 / 36 share in the 18 / 49 market over its 13 @-@ week run . Thus , it achieved the second @-@ highest ranking and the second @-@ highest amount of average viewers of the entire series , behind The Australian Outback . In addition to the highest amount of finale viewers , it also garnered the highest amount of reunion viewers ( 37 million ) .
= = = Critical reception = = =
Survivor : Borneo initially received mixed reactions in the media . Bill Carter , a writer for The New York Times stated that Survivor has " clearly begun to emerge as part of the wider culture , with news and discussion about the show widespread on television and radio talk shows and coverage increasing in newspapers . " On the Late Show with David Letterman , David Letterman began a segment titled , " Top 10 Things That 'll Get You Thrown Off the Survivor Island . " During the first season , USA Today held coverage of the show as if it were a sporting event , listing which participant was voted off . USA Today also held a poll to see who viewers would have voted off . With 26 percent , Susan Hawk won the poll , although it had no effect on the game , as Sue made it to 4th place . CBS 's The Early Show held an interview with each contestant the day after the episode in which they were voted off aired .
Survivor : Borneo was criticized by the People for the Ethical Treatment of Animals ( PETA ) in response to footage showing the contestants trapping rats on the island , initially for fish bait but later for human consumption .
Susan Hawk 's " snakes and rats " speech given during the final Tribal Council has been cited as one of the greatest and more memorable speeches in the show 's history ,
Despite the initially mixed reception at the time , Borneo has undergone significant critical reappraisal in later years , and is now considered one of the best seasons of the entire series . Host Jeff Probst consistently ranks it as his favorite , equating it to a " first girlfriend . " Entertainment Weekly columnist Dalton Ross ranks Borneo as tied for first with Survivor : Micronesia , saying " ... Borneo now seems dated and tame by comparison , but it 's the biggest game changer in the past 20 years of television ... If you ask me which is the most important season , well , obviously it 's Borneo . " Borneo is also ranked as the greatest season of the series by Examiner.com and Zap2it , and is ranked second behind Survivor : Heroes vs. Villains by The Wire . Survivor fan site " Survivor Oz " has consistently ranked Borneo in the top 10 in every one of its annual polls ranking all seasons of the series ; it was 5th in 2012 , 6th in 2013 , and 8th in 2014 . Another prominent Survivor fan site , " The Purple Rock Podcast , " ranked Borneo as the 10th best season in 2015 . Fifteen years later , in the CBS Watch official issue commemorating the 15th anniversary and 30th season of Survivor , Borneo was ranked as the 7th @-@ greatest season of the series by a viewer poll . In another poll in the same magazine , Hatch 's win at the end of the season was voted by viewers as the # 5 most memorable moment in the series . Noel Murray of the A.V. Club noted that the 5th episode , " Pulling Your Own Weight " , was one of the season 's most influential segments . In this episode , the Tagi alliance led by Hatch secretly worked together to vote Dirk off the island , surprising many of the remaining contestants who were shocked to discover there was an alliance . Murray noted that while this sentiment towards alliances at the time seemed controversial and against the spirit of the show , it formed the basis for most future Survivor series and reality television in general , and highlighted the lengths that players on reality television shows would go to form such collusions while deceiving others as to ultimately win the game .
= = DVD release = =
The DVD release of season one was released by CBS Home Entertainment in the U.S. on May 11 , 2004 , after it had completed broadcast on television . As well as every episode from the season , the DVD release features bonus material including commentary , interviews and behind @-@ the @-@ scenes featurettes .
= = Stacey Stillman controversy = =
In early 2001 , Borneo contestant Stacey Stillman sued CBS , claiming that executive producer Mark Burnett arranged her exit and orchestrated the show 's outcome . Her 14 @-@ page lawsuit alleged that two of her fellow tribemates , Dirk Been and Sean Kenniff , were persuaded to change their vote from 72 @-@ year @-@ old Rudy Boesch to her . Stillman sought restitution for lost prize money , plus $ 75 @,@ 000 representing out @-@ of @-@ pocket expenses and punitive damages . While CBS and Burnett denied the allegations , Been supported them ; Kenniff admitted talking to Burnett , but told USA Today that the vote wasn 't influenced and Burnett said only to " vote your conscience . " Burnett counter @-@ sued Stillman for at least $ 5 @,@ 000 @,@ 000 . Eventually the case was settled out of court .
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= Prince Octavius of Great Britain =
The Prince Octavius ( 23 February 1779 – 3 May 1783 ) was the 13th child and 8th son of King George III and his queen consort Charlotte of Mecklenburg @-@ Strelitz . Six months after the death of his brother Prince Alfred , Octavius was inoculated with the smallpox virus . Several days later , he became ill . His subsequent death at the age of four devastated his parents , and in particular his father . George bemoaned the death of his son , of whom he was exceedingly fond ; the king 's later bouts of madness would involve hallucinations of his young son .
= = Life = =
Prince Octavius was born on 23 February 1779 , at Buckingham House , London , England . He was the thirteenth child and eighth son of King George III and his queen consort Charlotte of Mecklenburg @-@ Strelitz . The prince 's name derives from Latin octavus , the eighth , indicating that he was the eighth son of his parents .
Octavius was christened on 23 March 1779 , in the Great Council Chamber at St James 's Palace , by Frederick Cornwallis , The Archbishop of Canterbury . His godparents were The Duke of Brunswick @-@ Wolfenbüttel ( husband of his first cousin twice @-@ removed , for whom The Earl of Hertford , Lord Chamberlain , stood proxy ) ; The Duke of Mecklenburg ( his first cousin once @-@ removed , for whom The Earl of Ashburnham , Groom of the Stole , stood proxy ) ; and The Duchess of Saxe @-@ Weimar @-@ Eisenach ( wife of his sixth cousin , for whom Alicia Wyndham , Countess of Egremont and Lady of the Bedchamber to Queen Charlotte , was proxy ) .
King George was extremely devoted to Octavius , who was too young to cause the kinds of trouble that his elder brothers were by the year of his birth . The king was affectionate and indulgent with his young children , and strove to attend their birthday parties and other events organized for their merriment ; on one occasion a friend witnessed a happy domestic scene that involved George " carrying about in his arms by turns Sophia and the last prince , Octavius . " Another witness wrote George and Charlotte " have their Children always playing about them the whole time " ; during most evenings the children were brought to their parents between 6 and 7 O 'clock to play for an hour or two . The king also was kept informed of his children 's educational progress .
Octavius was close to his nearest sister Sophia , who called Octavius " her son " , and went with her and their siblings , Elizabeth and Edward to Eastborne on the Sussex coast , where he could take in the fresh seaside air during the summer of 1780 . When he was nineteen months old , Octavius became an older brother with the birth of his younger brother Prince Alfred . Octavius was three years of age when Alfred died on 20 August 1782 , and he again became the youngest surviving child . Horace Walpole wrote to Sir Horace Mann that upon Prince Alfred 's death , King George had declared " I am very sorry for Alfred ; but had it been Octavius , I should have died too . " In 1820 , historian Edward Holt would write of the prince 's character , " Though Prince Octavius had not passed his fifth year , he was considered very docile , and possessed good @-@ nature in such an uncommon degree , that he was the delight of all about him . " Biographer John Watkins added Octavius was " reckoned one of the finest of the royal progeny . "
= = Death and aftermath = =
Six months after Alfred 's death , Octavius and Sophia were taken to Kew Palace in London to be inoculated with the smallpox virus . While Sophia recovered without incident , Octavius became ill and died several days later , around 8 o 'clock PM , on 3 May 1783 , at Kew Palace . He was four years old . As was traditional , the household did not go into mourning for the deaths of royal children under the age of fourteen .
Octavius has the distinction of being the last member of the British royal family to suffer from smallpox . On 10 May , he was buried alongside his brother Alfred at Westminster Abbey . Their eldest brother , now King George IV ordered their remains transferred to St. George 's Chapel , Windsor Castle on 11 February 1820 , at about 3 o 'clock .
According to Queen Charlotte , Octavius ' death was unexpected ; she wrote to a friend who faced a similar tragedy that " twice have I felt what you do feel , the last time without the least preparation for such a stroke , for in less than eight and forty hours was my son Octavius , in perfect health , sick and struck with death immediately . " The prince 's death had a marked effect , both mentally and physically on Queen Charlotte , who at the time was pregnant with her youngest child Princess Amelia .
Octavius 's death devastated his father ; Walpole wrote " the King has lost another little child ; a lovely boy , they say , of whom their Majesties were dotingly fond . " Shortly afterward , King George said " There will be no Heaven for me if Octavius is not there . " The day after his son 's death , the King passed through a room where artist Thomas Gainsborough was completing the finishing touches on a portrait of the family . The King asked him to stop , but when he found out that the painting was of Octavius , allowed the painter to continue . When this same painting was exhibited a week later , Octavius ' sisters were so upset that they broke down and cried in front of everyone . Three months after Octavius ' death , his father was still dwelling on his son , writing to Lord Dartmouth that every day " increases the chasm I feel for want of that beloved object [ Octavius ] . " In later years , King George imagined conversations with his two youngest sons . During one of the king 's bouts of madness in 1788 , George mistook a pillow for Octavius , who by that time had been dead for five years .
= = Portraits = =
Several portraits of Octavius survive . Five portraits of him alone and one with his brother Alfred are housed in the Royal Collection of the United Kingdom . The first is the more famous painting by Thomas Gainsborough in 1782 , which is part of a series of paintings of the younger royal children . The second one is after the 1782 portrait by Gainsborough ( see above ) and is dated to about 1782 or 1784 . The third portrait is by Benjamin West and was painted shortly before Octavius 's death . Furthermore , among these five portraits , there are two enamels , both after Gainsborough 's 1782 portrait ; one is by William Bone and the other one is by an anonymous master . The sixth and last portrait represents the apotheosis of Octavius and Alfred ( see above ) and was painted by West . Another portrait , this time of Queen Charlotte , features Octavius . Painted in 1779 by West , this is both a portrait of the Queen and her children , who are featured in the background . Prince Octavius is at the centre of the group , wearing baby clothes and riding in a little phaeton . He is pulled along by Prince Ernest and pushed by Prince Adolphus .
Two other portraits are housed by the National Portrait Gallery in London . The first is an 1817 engraving by Samuel Freeman , after Gainsborough . The second is another engraving , entitled The Apotheosis of the Princes Octavius and Alfred and of the Princess Amelia , published in 1820 by Robert Hicks .
Three more portraits , less known are housed variously overseas . The first one is by West and is housed by the Pennsylvania Academy of Fine Arts . It was painted in 1783 and measures 59 @.@ 21 x 41 @.@ 43 cm . Two more engravings after Gainsborough are scarce throughout the United States .
= = Titles , styles , honours and arms = =
= = = Titles and styles = = =
23 February 1779 – 3 May 1783 : His Royal Highness The Prince Octavius
= = Ancestry = =
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= The Age of Reason =
The Age of Reason ; Being an Investigation of True and Fabulous Theology is an influential work written by English and American political activist Thomas Paine . It follows in the tradition of eighteenth @-@ century British deism , and challenges institutionalized religion and the legitimacy of the Bible . Originally distributed as unbound pamphlets , it was published in three parts in 1794 , 1795 , and 1807 . It was a best @-@ seller in the United States , where it caused a short @-@ lived deistic revival . British audiences , however , fearing increased political radicalism as a result of the French Revolution , received it with more hostility . The Age of Reason presents common deistic arguments ; for example , it highlights what Paine saw as corruption of the Christian Church and criticizes its efforts to acquire political power . Paine advocates reason in the place of revelation , leading him to reject miracles and to view the Bible as " an ordinary piece of literature rather than as a divinely inspired text " . It promotes natural religion and argues for the existence of a creator @-@ God .
Most of Paine 's arguments had long been available to the educated elite , but by presenting them in an engaging and irreverent style , he made deism appealing and accessible to a mass audience . The book was also inexpensive , putting it within the reach of a large number of buyers . Fearing the spread of what they viewed as potentially revolutionary ideas , the British government prosecuted printers and book @-@ sellers who tried to publish and distribute it . Nevertheless , Paine 's work inspired and guided many free thinkers .
= = Historical context = =
= = = Intellectual context : eighteenth @-@ century British deism = = =
Paine 's book followed in the tradition of early eighteenth @-@ century British deism . These deists , while maintaining individual positions , still shared several sets of assumptions and arguments that Paine articulated in The Age of Reason . The most important position that united the early deists was their call for " free rational inquiry " into all subjects , especially religion . Saying that early Christianity was founded on freedom of conscience , they demanded religious toleration and an end to religious persecution . They also demanded that debate rest on reason and rationality . Deists embraced a Newtonian worldview , and they believed all things in the universe , even God , must obey the laws of nature . Without a concept of natural law , the deists argued , explanations of the workings of nature would descend into irrationality . This belief in natural law drove their skepticism of miracles . Because miracles had to be observed to be validated , deists rejected the accounts laid out in the Bible of God 's miracles and argued that such evidence was neither sufficient nor necessary to prove the existence of God . Along these lines , deistic writings insisted that God , as the first cause or prime mover , had created and designed the universe with natural laws as part of his plan . They held that God does not repeatedly alter his plan by suspending natural laws to ( miraculously ) intervene in human affairs . Deists also rejected the claim that there was only one revealed religious Truth or " one true faith " ; religion could only be " simple , apparent , ordinary , and universal " if it was to be the logical product of a benevolent God . They therefore distinguished between " revealed religions " ( which they rejected ) , such as Christianity , and " natural religion " , a set of universal beliefs derived from the natural world that demonstrated God 's existence ( they were , thus , not atheists ) .
While some deists accepted revelation , most argued that revelation 's restriction to small groups or even a single person limited its explanatory power . Moreover , many found the Christian revelations in particular to be contradictory and irreconcilable . According to these writers , revelation could reinforce the evidence for God 's existence already apparent in the natural world , but more often it led to superstition among the masses . Most deists argued that priests had deliberately corrupted Christianity for their own gain by promoting the acceptance of miracles , unnecessary rituals , and illogical and dangerous doctrines ( these accusations were typically referred to as " priestcraft " ) . The worst of these doctrines was original sin . By convincing people that they required a priest 's help to overcome their innate sinfulness , deists argued , religious leaders had enslaved the human population . Deists therefore typically viewed themselves as intellectual liberators .
= = = Political context : French revolution = = =
By the time Part I of The Age of Reason was published in 1794 , many British and French citizens had become disillusioned by the French Revolution . The Reign of Terror had begun , Louis XVI and Marie Antoinette had been tried and executed and Britain was at war with France . Those few British radicals who still supported the French revolution and its ideals were viewed with deep suspicion by their countrymen . The Age of Reason belongs to this later , more radical stage of the British political reform movement , one that openly embraced republicanism and atheism and is exemplified by such texts as William Godwin 's Political Justice ( 1793 ) . By the middle of the decade , the moderate voices had disappeared : Richard Price , the Dissenting minister whose sermon on political liberty had prompted Edmund Burke 's Reflections on the Revolution in France ( 1790 ) , had died in 1791 , and Joseph Priestley had been forced to flee to America after a Church – and – King mob burned down his home and church .
The conservative government , headed by William Pitt , responded to this increasing radicalization by prosecuting several reformers for seditious libel and treason in the famous 1794 Treason Trials . Following the trials and an attack on George III , conservatives were successful in passing the Seditious Meetings Act and the Treasonable Practices Act ( also known as the " Two Acts " or the " gagging acts " ) . These acts prohibited freedom of assembly for groups such as the radical London Corresponding Society ( LCS ) and encouraged indictments against radicals for " libelous and seditious " statements . Afraid of prosecution and disenchanted with the French revolution , many reformers drifted away from the cause . The LCS , which had previously unified religious Dissenters and political reformers , fractured when Francis Place and other leaders helped Paine publish The Age of Reason ; the society 's more religious members withdrew in protest and the LCS lost around one @-@ fifth of its membership .
= = Publishing history = =
In December 1792 , Paine 's Rights of Man , part II was declared seditious in Britain and he was forced to flee to France in order to avoid arrest . Dismayed by the French revolution 's turn toward secularism and atheism , he composed Part I of The Age of Reason in 1792 and 1793 :
It has been my intention , for several years past , to publish my thoughts upon religion . . . . The circumstance that has now taken place in France of the total abolition of the whole national order of priesthood , and of everything appertaining to compulsive systems of religion , and compulsive articles of faith , has not only precipitated my intention , but rendered a work of this kind exceedingly necessary , lest in the general wreck of superstition , of false systems of government and false theology , we lose sight of morality , of humanity and of the theology that is true .
Although Paine wrote The Age of Reason for the French , he dedicated it to his " Fellow Citizens of the United States of America " , alluding to his bond with the American revolutionaries .
It is unclear when exactly Paine drafted Part I although he says in the preface to Part II :
Conceiving ... that I had but a few days of liberty , I sat down and brought the work to a close as speedily as possible ; and I had not finished it more than six hours , in the state it has since appeared , before a guard came there , about three in the morning , with an order ... for putting me in arrestation as a foreigner , and conveying me to the prison of the Luxembourg . I contrived , in my way there , to call on Joel Barlow , and I put the Manuscript of the work into his hands ...
According to Paine scholars Edward Davidson and William Scheick , he probably wrote the first draft of Part I in late 1793 , but Paine biographer David Hawke argues for a date of early 1793 . It is also unclear whether or not a French edition of Part I was published in 1793 . François Lanthenas , who translated The Age of Reason into French in 1794 , wrote that it was first published in France in 1793 , but no book fitting his description has been positively identified . Barlow published the first English edition of The Age of Reason , Part I in 1794 in London , selling it for a mere three pence .
Meanwhile , Paine , considered too moderate by the powerful Jacobin wing of the French revolutionaries , was imprisoned for ten months in France . He only escaped the guillotine by accident : the sign marking him out for execution was improperly placed on his cell door . When James Monroe , at that time the new American Minister to France , secured his release in 1794 , Paine immediately began work on Part II of The Age of Reason , despite his poor health . Part II was first published in a pirated edition by H.D. Symonds in London in October 1795 . In 1796 Daniel Isaac Eaton published Parts I and II , and sold them at a cost of one shilling and six pence . ( Eaton was later forced to flee to America after being convicted of seditious libel for publishing other radical works . ) Paine himself financed the shipping of 15 @,@ 000 copies of his work to America . Later , Francis Place and Thomas Williams collaborated on an edition which sold about 2 @,@ 000 copies . Williams also produced his own edition , but the British government indicted him and confiscated the pamphlets .
In the late 1790s , Paine fled from France to the United States , where he wrote Part III of The Age of Reason : An Examination of the Passages in the New Testament , Quoted from the Old and Called Prophecies Concerning Jesus Christ . Fearing unpleasant and even violent reprisals , Thomas Jefferson convinced him not to publish it in 1802 ; five years later Paine decided to publish despite the backlash he knew would ensue .
Following Thomas Williams 's sentence of one year 's hard labor for publishing The Age of Reason in 1797 , no editions were sold openly in Britain until 1818 when Richard Carlile included it in an edition of Paine 's complete works . Carlile charged one shilling and sixpence for the work , and the first run of 1 @,@ 000 copies sold out in a month . He immediately published a second edition of 3 @,@ 000 copies . Like Williams , he was prosecuted for seditious libel and blasphemous libel . The prosecutions surrounding the printing of The Age of Reason in Britain continued for thirty years after its initial release and encompassed numerous publishers as well as over a hundred booksellers .
= = Structure and major arguments = =
The Age of Reason is divided into three sections . In Part I , Paine outlines his major arguments and personal creed . In Parts II and III he analyzes specific portions of the Bible in order to demonstrate that it is not the revealed word of God .
= = = Analysis = = =
At the beginning of Part I of the Age of Reason , Paine lays out his personal belief :
I believe in one God , and no more ; and I hope for happiness beyond this life .
I believe in the equality of man ; and I believe that religious duties consist in doing justice , loving mercy , and endeavouring to make our fellow @-@ creatures happy .
But , lest it should be supposed that I believe many other things in addition to these , I shall , in the progress of this work , declare the things I do not believe , and my reasons for not believing them .
I do not believe in the creed professed by the Jewish Church , by the Roman Church , by the Greek Church , by the Turkish Church , by the Protestant Church , nor by any church that I know of . My own mind is my own church .
All national institutions of churches , whether Jewish , Christian or Turkish , appear to me no other than human inventions , set up to terrify and enslave mankind , and monopolize power and profit .
I do not mean by this declaration to condemn those who believe otherwise ; they have the same right to their belief as I have to mine . But it is necessary to the happiness of man that he be mentally faithful to himself . Infidelity does not consist in believing , or in disbelieving ; it consists in professing to believe what he does not believe .
Paine 's creed encapsulates many of the major themes of the rest of his text : a firm belief in a creator @-@ God ; a skepticism regarding most supernatural claims ( here the afterlife , later in the text , miracles ) ; a conviction that virtues should be derived from a consideration for others rather than oneself ; an animus against corrupt religious institutions ; and an emphasis on the individual 's right of conscience .
= = = Reason and revelation = = =
Paine begins The Age of Reason by attacking revelation . Revelation , he maintains , can only be verified by the individual receivers of the message and is therefore weak evidence for God 's existence . Paine rejects prophecies and miracles , writing : " it is revelation to the first person only , and hearsay to every other , and consequently they are not obliged to believe it " . He also points out that the Christian revelations appear to have altered over time to adjust for changing political circumstances . Urging his readers to employ reason rather than to rely on revelation , Paine argues that the only reliable , unchanging and universal evidence of God 's existence is the natural world . " The Bible of the Deist " , he contends , should not be a human invention such as the Bible , but rather a divine invention — it should be " creation " . Paine takes this argument even further , maintaining that the same rules of logic and standards of evidence that govern the analysis of secular texts should be applied to the Bible . In Part II of The Age of Reason , he will do just this , pointing out numerous contradictions in the Bible . For example Thomas Paine notes , " The most extraordinary of all the things called miracles , related in the New Testament , is that of the devil flying away with Jesus Christ , and carrying him to the top of a high mountain , and to the top of the highest pinnacle of the temple , and showing him and promising to him all the kingdoms of the World . How happened it that he did not discover America , or is it only with kingdoms that his sooty highness has any interest ? "
= = = = Paine 's analysis of the Bible = = = =
After establishing that he would refrain from using extra @-@ Biblical sources to inform his criticism , but would instead apply the Bible 's own words against itself , Paine questions the sacredness of the Bible , analyzing it as one would any other book . For example , in his analysis of the Book of Proverbs he argues that its sayings are " inferior in keenness to the proverbs of the Spaniards , and not more wise and economical than those of the American Franklin " . Describing the Bible as " fabulous mythology " , Paine questions whether or not it was revealed to its writers and doubts that the original writers can ever be known ( he dismisses the idea that Moses wrote the Pentateuch or that the Gospel 's authors are known , for example ) .
My intention is to show that those books are spurious , and that Moses is not the author of them ; and still further , that they were not written in the time of Moses , nor till several hundred years afterward ; that they are no other than an attempted history of the life of Moses , and of the times in which he is said to have lived , and also of the times prior thereto , written by some very ignorant and stupid pretenders to authorship , several hundred years after the death of Moses . [ ... ] The books called the Evangelists , and ascribed to Matthew , Mark , Luke , and John , were not written by Matthew , Mark , Luke , and John ; ... they have been manufactured , as the books of the Old Testament have been by other persons than those whose names they bear .
Using methods that would not become common in Biblical scholarship until the nineteenth century , Paine tested the Bible for internal consistency and questioned its historical accuracy , concluding that it was not divinely inspired .
Paine also argues that the Old Testament must be false because it depicts a tyrannical God . The " history of wickedness " pervading the Old Testament convinced Paine that it was simply another set of human @-@ authored myths . He deplores people 's credulity : " Brought up in habits of superstition , " he wrote , " people in general know not how much wickedness there is in this pretended word of God . " Citing Numbers 31 : 13 – 47 as an example , in which Moses orders the slaughter of thousands of boys and women , and sanctions the rape of thousands of girls , at God 's behest , Paine calls the Bible a " book of lies , wickedness , and blasphemy ; for what can be greater blasphemy than to ascribe the wickedness of man to the orders of the Almighty ! "
= = = Religion and the state = = =
Paine also attacks religious institutions , indicting priests for their lust for power and wealth and the Church 's opposition to scientific investigation . He presents the history of Christianity as one of corruption and oppression . Paine criticizes the tyrannical actions of the Church as he had those of governments in the Rights of Man and Common Sense , stating that " the Christian theory is little else than the idolatry of the ancient Mythologists , accommodated to the purposes of power and revenue . " This kind of attack distinguishes Paine 's book from other deistic works , which were less interested in challenging social and political hierarchies . He argues that the Church and the State are a single corrupt institution which does not act in the best interests of the people — both must be radically altered :
Soon after I had published the pamphlet " Common Sense , " in America , I saw the exceeding probability that a revolution in the system of government would be followed by a revolution in the system of religion . The adulterous connection of Church and State , wherever it has taken place . . . has so effectually prohibited by pains and penalties every discussion upon established creeds , and upon first principles of religion , that until the system of government should be changed , those subjects could not be brought fairly and openly before the world ; but that whenever this should be done , a revolution in the system of religion would follow . Human inventions and priestcraft would be detected ; and man would return to the pure , unmixed and unadulterated belief of one God , and no more .
As Jon Mee , a scholar of British radicalism , writes : " Paine believed . . . a revolution in religion was the natural corollary , even prerequisite , of a fully successful political revolution . " Paine lays out a vision of , in Davidson and Scheick 's words , " an age of intellectual freedom , when reason would triumph over superstition , when the natural liberties of humanity would supplant priestcraft and kingship , which were both secondary effects of politically managed foolish legends and religious superstitions . " It is this vision that scholars have called Paine 's " secular millennialism " and it appears in all of his works — he ends the Rights of Man , for example , with the statement : " From what we now see , nothing of reform in the political world ought to be held improbable . It is an age of revolutions , in which everything may be looked for . " Paine " transformed the millennial Protestant vision of the rule of Christ on earth into a secular image of utopia , " emphasizing the possibilities of " progress " and " human perfectibility " that could be achieved by humankind , without God 's aid .
= = = Paine 's intellectual debts = = =
Although Paine liked to say that he read very little , his writings belie this statement ; The Age of Reason has intellectual roots in the traditions of David Hume , Spinoza , and Voltaire . Since Hume had already made many of the same " moral attacks upon Christianity " that Paine popularized in The Age of Reason , scholars have concluded that Paine probably read Hume 's works on religion or had at least heard about them through the Joseph Johnson circle . Paine would have been particularly drawn to Hume 's description of religion as " a positive source of harm to society " that " led men to be factious , ambitious and intolerant " . More of an influence on Paine than Hume , however , was Spinoza 's Tractatus Theologico @-@ politicus ( 1678 ) . Paine would have been exposed to Spinoza 's ideas through the works of other eighteenth @-@ century deists , most notably Conyers Middleton . Paine would also more than likely have been familiar with Voltaire 's mocking wit and the works of other deistic French philosophes .
Though these larger philosophical traditions are clear influences on The Age of Reason , Paine owes the greatest intellectual debt to the English deists of the early eighteenth century , such as Peter Annet . John Toland had argued for the use of reason in interpreting scripture , Matthew Tindal had argued against revelation , Middleton had described the Bible as mythology and questioned the existence of miracles , Thomas Morgan had disputed the claims of the Old Testament , Thomas Woolston had questioned the believability of miracles and Thomas Chubb had maintained that Christianity lacked morality . All of these arguments appear in The Age of Reason , albeit less coherently .
= = Rhetoric and style = =
The most distinctive feature of The Age of Reason , like all of Paine 's works , is its linguistic style . Historian Eric Foner argues that Paine 's works " forged a new political language " designed to bring politics to the people , using a " clear , simple and straightforward " style . Paine outlined " a new vision — a utopian image of an egalitarian republican society " and his language reflected these ideals . He originated such phrases as " the rights of man " , " the age of reason " , " the age of revolution " , and " the times that try men 's souls " . Foner also maintains that with The Age of Reason Paine " gave deism a new , aggressive , explicitly anti @-@ Christian tone " . He did this by employing " vulgar " ( that is , " low " or " popular " ) language , an irreverent tone , and even religious rhetoric .
In a letter to Elihu Palmer , one of his most loyal followers in America , Paine describes part of his rhetorical philosophy :
The hinting and intimidating manner of writing that was formerly used on subjects of this kind [ religion ] , produced skepticism , but not conviction . It is necessary to be bold . Some people can be reasoned into sense , and others must be shocked into it . Say a bold thing that will stagger them , and they will begin to think .
Paine 's rhetoric had broad appeal ; his " pithy " lines were " able to bridge working @-@ class and middle @-@ class cultures " and become common quotations .
Part of what makes Paine 's style so memorable is his effective use of repetition and rhetorical questions in addition to the profusion of " anecdote , irony , parody , satire , feigned confusion , folk matter , concrete vocabulary , and . . . appeals to common sense " . Paine 's conversational style draws the reader into the text . His use of " we " conveys an " illusion that he and the readers share the activity of constructing an argument " . By thus emphasizing the presence of the reader and leaving images and arguments half @-@ formed , Paine encourages his readers to complete them independently .
= = = " Vulgar " language = = =
The most distinctive element of Paine 's style in The Age of Reason is its " vulgarity " . In the eighteenth century " vulgarity " was associated with the middling and lower classes and not with obscenity ; thus , when Paine celebrates his " vulgar " style and his critics attack it , the dispute is over class accessibility , not profanity . For example , Paine describes the Fall this way :
The Christian Mythologists , after having confined Satan in a pit , were obliged to let him out again to bring on the sequel of the fable . He is then introduced into the Garden of Eden , in the shape of a snake or a serpent , and in that shape he enters into familiar conversation with Eve , who is no way surprised to hear a snake talk ; and the issue of this tête @-@ à @-@ tête is that he persuades her to eat an apple , and the eating of that apple damns all mankind . After giving Satan this triumph over the whole creation , one would have supposed that the Church Mythologists would have been kind enough to send him back again to the pit : or , if they had not done this , that they would have put a mountain upon him ( for they say that their faith can remove a mountain ) , or have put him under a mountain , as the former mythologists had done , to prevent his getting again among the women and doing more mischief . But instead of this they leave him at large , without even obliging him to give his parole — the secret of which is that they could not do without him ; and after being at the trouble of making him , they bribed him to stay . They promised him ALL the Jews , ALL the Turks by anticipation , nine @-@ tenths of the world beside , and Mahomet into the bargain . After this , who can doubt the bountifulness of the Christian Mythology ? Having thus made an insurrection and a battle in heaven , in which none of the combatants could be either killed or wounded — put Satan into the pit — let him out again — gave him a triumph over the whole creation — damned all mankind by the eating of an apple , these Christian Mythologists bring the two ends of their fable together . They represent this virtuous and amiable man , Jesus Christ , to be at once both God and Man , and also the Son of God , celestially begotten , on purpose to be sacrificed , because they say that Eve in her longing had eaten an apple . [ emphasis Paine 's ]
The irreverent tone that Paine combined with this vulgar style set his work apart from its predecessors . It took " deism out of the hands of the aristocracy and intellectuals and [ brought ] it to the people " .
Paine 's rhetorical appeal to " the people " attracted almost as much criticism as his ridicule of the Bible . Bishop Richard Watson , forced to address this new audience in his influential response to Paine , An Apology for the Bible , writes : " I shall , designedly , write this and the following letters in a popular manner ; hoping that thereby they may stand a chance of being perused by that class of readers , for whom your work seems to be particularly calculated , and who are the most likely to be injured by it . " But it was not only the style that concerned Watson and others , it was also the cheapness of Paine 's book . At one sedition trial in the early 1790s , the Attorney – General tried to prohibit Thomas Cooper from publishing his response to Burke 's Reflections on the Revolution in France , arguing that " although there was no exception to be taken to his pamphlet when in the hands of the upper classes , yet the government would not allow it to appear at a price which would insure its circulation among the people . " Similar concerns drove the prosecution of those who printed , published , and distributed The Age of Reason .
= = = Irreverent tone = = =
Paine 's style is not only " vulgar " , it is also irreverent . For example , he says that once one dismisses the false idea of Moses being the author of Genesis , " The story of Eve and the serpent , and of Noah and his ark , drops to a level with the Arabian tales , without the merit of being entertaining . " Although many early English deists had relied on ridicule to attack the Bible and Christianity , theirs was a refined wit rather than the broad humor Paine employed . It was the early Deists of the middling ranks , and not the educated elite , who initiated the kind of ridicule Paine would make famous .
It was Paine 's " ridiculing " tone that most angered Churchmen . As John Redwood , a scholar of deism , puts it : " the age of reason could perhaps more eloquently and adequately be called the age of ridicule , for it was ridicule , not reason , that endangered the Church . " Significantly , Watson 's Apology directly chastises Paine for his mocking tone :
I am unwilling to attribute bad designs , deliberate wickedness , to you or to any man ; I cannot avoid believing , that you think you have truth on your side , and that you are doing service to mankind in endeavouring to root out what you esteem superstition . What I blame you for is this — that you have attempted to lessen the authority of the Bible by ridicule , more than by reason .
= = = Religious influences = = =
Paine 's Quaker upbringing predisposed him to deistic thinking at the same time that it positioned him firmly within the tradition of religious Dissent . Paine acknowledged that he was indebted to his Quaker background for his skepticism , but the Quakers ' esteem for plain speaking , a value expressed both explicitly and implicitly in The Age of Reason , influenced his writing even more . As the historian E. P. Thompson has put it , Paine " ridiculed the authority of the Bible with arguments which the collier or country girl could understand " . His description of the story of the virgin birth of Jesus demystifies biblical language : it is " an account of a young woman engaged to be married , and while under this engagement she is , to speak plain language , debauched by a ghost " . Quaker conversion narratives also influenced the style of The Age of Reason ; Davidson and Scheick argue that its " introductory statement of purpose , a fervid sense of inward inspiration , a declared expression of conscience , and an evangelical intention to instruct others " resemble the personal confessions of American Quakers .
Paine takes advantage of several religious rhetorics beyond those associated with Quakerism in The Age of Reason , most importantly a millennial language that appealed to his lower @-@ class readers . Claiming that true religious language is universal , Paine uses elements of the Christian rhetorical tradition to undermine the hierarchies perpetuated by religion itself . The sermonic quality of Paine 's writing is one of its most recognizable traits . Sacvan Bercovitch , a scholar of the sermon , argues that Paine 's writing often resembles that of the jeremiad or " political sermon " . He contends that Paine draws on the Puritan tradition in which " theology was wedded to politics and politics to the progress of the kingdom of God " . One reason Paine may have been drawn to this style is because he may have briefly been a Methodist preacher , although this suspicion cannot be verified .
= = Reception and legacy = =
The Age of Reason provoked a hostile reaction from most readers and critics , although the intensity of that hostility varied by locality . There were four major factors for this animosity : Paine denied that the Bible was a sacred , inspired text ; he argued that Christianity was a human invention ; his ability to command a large readership frightened those in power ; and his irreverent and satirical style of writing about Christianity and the Bible offended many believers .
= = = Britain = = =
Paine 's Age of Reason sparked enough anger in Britain to initiate not only a series of government prosecutions but also a pamphlet war . Around 50 unfavorable replies appeared between 1795 and 1799 alone and refutations were still being published in 1812 . Many of these responded specifically to Paine 's attack on the Bible in Part II ( when Thomas Williams was prosecuted for printing Part II , it became clear its circulation had far exceeded that of Part I ) . Although critics responded to Paine 's analysis of the Bible , they did not usually address his specific arguments . Instead , they advocated a literal reading of the Bible , citing the Bible 's long history as evidence of its authority . They also issued ad hominem attacks against Paine , describing him " as an enemy of proper thought and of the morality of decent , enlightened people " . Dissenters such as Joseph Priestley who had endorsed the arguments of the Rights of Man turned away from those presented in The Age of Reason . Even the liberal Analytical Review was skeptical of Paine 's claims and distanced itself from the book . Paine 's deism was simply too radical for these more moderate reformers and they feared being tarred with the brush of extremism .
Despite the outpouring of antagonistic replies to The Age of Reason , some scholars have argued that Constantin Volney 's deistic The Ruins ( translations of excerpts from the French original appeared in radical papers such as Thomas Spence 's Pig 's Meat and Daniel Isaac Eaton 's Politics for the People ) was actually more influential than The Age of Reason . According to David Bindman , The Ruins " achieved a popularity in England comparable to Rights of Man itself " . However , one minister complained that " the mischief arising from the spreading of such a pernicious publication [ as The Age of Reason ] was infinitely greater than any that could spring from limited suffrage and septennial parliaments " ( other popular reform causes ) .
It was not until Richard Carlile 's 1818 trial for publishing The Age of Reason that Paine 's text became " the anti @-@ Bible of all lower @-@ class nineteenth @-@ century infidel agitators " . Although the book had been selling well before the trial , once Carlile was arrested and charged , 4 @,@ 000 copies were sold in just a few months . At the trial itself , which created a media frenzy , Carlile read the entirety of The Age of Reason into the court record , ensuring it an even wider publication . Between 1818 and 1822 , Carlile claimed to have " sent into circulation near 20 @,@ 000 copies of the Age of Reason " . Just as in the 1790s , it was the language that most angered the authorities in 1818 . As Joss Marsh , in her study of blasphemy in the nineteenth century , points out , " at these trials plain English was reconfigured as itself ' abusive ' and ' outrageous . ' The Age of Reason struggle almost tolled the hour when the words ' plain , ' ' coarse , ' ' common , ' and ' vulgar ' took on a pejorative meaning . " Carlile was convicted of blasphemy and sentenced to one year in prison , but spent six years instead because he refused any " legal conditions " on his release .
Paine 's new rhetoric came to dominate popular nineteenth @-@ century radical journalism , particularly that of freethinkers , Chartists and Owenites . Its legacy can be seen in Thomas Wooler 's radical periodical The Black Dwarf , Richard Carlile 's numerous newspapers and journals , the radical works of William Cobbett , Henry Hetherington 's periodicals the Penny Papers and the Poor Man 's Guardian , the works of the Chartist William Lovett , George Holyoake 's newspapers and books on Owenism , and freethinker Charles Bradlaugh 's New Reformer . A century after the publication of The Age of Reason , Paine 's rhetoric was still being used : George Foote 's " Bible Handbook ( 1888 ) . . . systematically manhandles chapters and verses to bring out ' Contradictions , ' ' Absurdities , ' ' Atrocities , ' and ' Obscenities , ' exactly in the manner of Paine 's Age of Reason . " The periodical The Freethinker ( founded in 1881 by George Foote ) argued , like Paine , that the " absurdities of faith " could be " slain with laughter " . In Britain , it was this freethinking tradition that continued Paine 's legacy .
= = = France = = =
The Age of Reason , despite having been written for the French , made very little , if any , impact on revolutionary France . Paine wrote that " the people of France were running headlong into atheism and I had the work translated into their own language , to stop them in that career , and fix them to the first article . . . of every man 's creed who has any creed at all – I believe in God " ( emphasis Paine 's ) . Paine 's arguments were already common and accessible in France ; they had , in a sense , already been rejected .
While still in France , Paine formed the Church of Theophilanthropy with five other families ; this civil religion held as its central dogma that man should worship God 's wisdom and benevolence and imitate those divine attributes as much as possible . The church had no priest or minister , and the traditional Biblical sermon was replaced by scientific lectures or homilies on the teachings of philosophers . It celebrated four festivals honoring St. Vincent de Paul , George Washington , Socrates , and Rousseau . Samuel Adams articulated the goals of this church when he wrote that Paine aimed " to renovate the age by inculcating in the minds of youth the fear and love of the Deity and universal philanthropy " . The church closed , however , in 1801 , when Napoleon concluded a concordat with the Vatican .
= = = United States = = =
In the United States , The Age of Reason initially caused a deistic " revival " , but was then viciously attacked and soon forgotten . Paine became so reviled that he could still be maligned as a " filthy little atheist " by Theodore Roosevelt over one hundred years later .
At the end of the eighteenth century , America was ripe for Paine 's arguments . Ethan Allen published the first American defense of deism , the Oracles of Reason ( 1784 ) , but deism remained primarily a philosophy of the educated elite . Men such as Benjamin Franklin and Thomas Jefferson espoused its tenets , while at the same time arguing that religion served the useful purpose of " social control " . It was not until the publication of Paine 's more entertaining and popular work that deism reached into the middling and lower classes in America . The public was receptive , in part , because they approved of the secular ideals of the French Revolution . The Age of Reason went through seventeen editions and sold thousands of copies in the United States . Elihu Palmer , " a blind renegade minister " and Paine 's most loyal follower in America , promoted deism throughout the country . Palmer published what became " the bible of American deism " , The Principles of Nature , established deistic societies from Maine to Georgia , built Temples of Reason throughout the nation , and founded two deistic newspapers for which Paine eventually wrote seventeen essays . Foner writes that " The Age of Reason became the most popular deist work ever written . . . . Before Paine it had been possible to be both a Christian and a deist ; now such a religious outlook became virtually untenable . " Paine presented deism to the masses and , as in Britain , educated elites feared the consequences of such material in the hands of so many . Their fear helped to drive the backlash which soon followed .
Almost immediately after this deistic upsurge , the Second Great Awakening began . George Spater explains that " the revulsion felt for Paine 's Age of Reason and for other anti @-@ religious thought was so great that a major counter @-@ revolution had been set underway in America before the end of the eighteenth century . " By 1796 every student at Harvard was given a copy of Bishop Watson 's rebuttal of The Age of Reason . In 1815 , Parson Weems , an early American novelist and moralist , published God 's Revenge Against Adultery , in which one of the major characters " owed his early downfall to reading ' PAINE 'S AGE OF REASON ' " . Paine 's " libertine " text leads the young man to " bold slanders of the bible " , even to the point that he " threw aside his father 's good old family bible , and for a surer guide to pleasure took up the AGE OF REASON ! "
Paine could not publish part III of The Age of Reason in America until 1807 because of the deep antipathy against him . Hailed only a few years earlier as a hero of the American Revolution , Paine was now lambasted in the press and called " the scavenger of faction " , a " lilly @-@ livered sinical [ sic ] rogue " , a " loathsome reptile " , a " demi @-@ human archbeast " , " an object of disgust , of abhorrence , of absolute loathing to every decent man except the President of the United States [ Thomas Jefferson ] " . In October 1805 John Adams wrote to his friend Benjamin Waterhouse , an American physician and scientist :
I am willing you should call this the Age of Frivolity as you do , and would not object if you had named it the Age of Folly , Vice , Frenzy , Brutality , Daemons , Buonaparte [ sic ] , Tom Paine , or the Age of the Burning Brand from Bottomless Pit , or anything but the Age of Reason . I know not whether any man in the world has had more influence on its inhabitants or affairs for the last thirty years than Tom Paine . There can be no severer satyr [ sic ] on the age . For such a mongrel between pig and puppy , begotten by a wild boar on a bitch wolf , never before in any age of the world was suffered by the poltroonery of mankind , to run through such a career of mischief . Call it then the Age of Paine .
Adams viewed Paine 's Age of Reason not as the embodiment of the Enlightenment but as a " betrayal " of it . Despite all of these attacks , Paine never wavered in his beliefs ; when he was dying , a woman came to visit him , claiming that God had instructed her to save his soul . Paine dismissed her in the same tones that he had used in The Age of Reason : " pooh , pooh , it is not true . You were not sent with any such impertinent message . . . . Pshaw , He would not send such a foolish ugly old woman as you about with His message . "
The Age of Reason was largely ignored after 1820 , except by radical groups in Britain and freethinkers in America , among them Robert G. Ingersoll and the American abolitionist Moncure Daniel Conway , who edited his works and wrote the first biography of Paine , favorably reviewed by The New York Times . Not until the publication of Charles Darwin 's The Origin of Species in 1859 , and the large @-@ scale abandonment of the literal reading of the Bible that it caused in Britain , did many of Paine 's ideas take hold . As writer Mark Twain said , " It took a brave man before the Civil War to confess he had read the Age of Reason ... I read it first when I was a cub pilot , read it with fear and hesitation , but marveling at its fearlessness and wonderful power . " Paine 's criticisms of the church , the monarchy , and the aristocracy appear most clearly in Twain 's A Connecticut Yankee in King Arthur 's Court ( 1889 ) .
Paine 's text is still published today , one of the few eighteenth @-@ century religious texts to be widely available . Its message still resonates , evidenced by Christopher Hitchens 's statement that " if the rights of man are to be upheld in a dark time , we shall require an age of reason " . His 2006 book on the Rights of Man ends with the claim that " in a time . . . when both rights and reason are under several kinds of open and covert attack , the life and writing of Thomas Paine will always be part of the arsenal on which we shall need to depend . "
= = Modern reprints of The Age of Reason = =
Paine , Thomas . The Age of Reason . Ed . Kerry Walters . Peterborough : Broadview Press , 2011 . ISBN 978 @-@ 1 @-@ 55481 @-@ 045 @-@ 1 .
Paine , Thomas . The Age of Reason , The Complete Edition World Union of Deists , 2009 . ISBN 978 @-@ 0 @-@ 939040 @-@ 35 @-@ 3
Paine , Thomas . The Age of Reason . Ed . Philip Sheldon Foner . New York : Citadel Press , 1974 . ISBN 0 @-@ 8065 @-@ 0549 @-@ 4 .
Paine , Thomas . Thomas Paine : Collected Writings . Ed . Eric Foner . Library of America , 1995 . ISBN 1 @-@ 883011 @-@ 03 @-@ 5 .
Paine , Thomas . The Life and Major Writings of Thomas Paine . Ed . Philip S. Foner . Replica Books , 2000 . ISBN 0 @-@ 7351 @-@ 0077 @-@ 2 .
Paine , Thomas . The Thomas Paine Reader . Eds . Michael Foot and Isaac Kramnick . New York : Penguin Books , 1987 . ISBN 0 @-@ 14 @-@ 044496 @-@ 3 .
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