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= Deeping Fen =
Deeping Fen is a low @-@ lying area in the South Holland district of Lincolnshire , England , which covers approximately 47 square miles ( 120 km2 ) . It is bounded by the River Welland and the River Glen , and is extensively drained , but the efficient drainage of the land exercised the minds of several of the great civil engineers of the 17th and 18th centuries .
Drainage schemes were first authorised during the reign of Queen Elizabeth I , but from 1632 , a group of Adventurers took control of the drainage , in return for which they were granted land . They faced the problem that the outfalls of the River Welland and the River Glen were not sufficiently low to enable proper drainage by gravity , and most schemes included improvement to the rivers . John Perry , an engineer of some repute , who had set the standard for engineering reports in 1727 , began work in 1730 , and was followed by John Grundy , Sr. , a pioneer in applying scientific principles to civil engineering problems . His son , John Grundy , Jr . , was another capable engineer , who was retained as a consultant after he resigned as full @-@ time Surveyor of Works .
In 1800 the civil engineers William Jessop and John Rennie assisted local engineers with plans for improvements , the chief of which was for a steam pumping station . This plan was not implemented immediately , but two steam engines fitted with scoop wheels were installed at Pode Hole in 1823 . The pumping station was the largest in the Fens at the time , and remained so for many years . Steam gradually gave way to diesel engines and scoop wheels were replaced by centrifugal pumps , and the diesel engines were then replaced by electric motors . However , the beam engine and scoop wheel at Pinchbeck Marsh , which ran from 1833 to 1952 , was not scrapped , and can be visited by the public .
From 1801 the fen was managed by trustees , appointed under the terms of an act of Parliament obtained in that year , and this remained the case until 1939 when the administrative structure was replaced by the Welland & Deepings Internal Drainage Board .
= = Location = =
Deeping Fen is a low @-@ lying area bounded by the River Welland and the River Glen , which meet at its northern tip , covering around 47 square miles ( 120 km2 ) . It was originally an extra @-@ parochial liberty , as it was formed of waste land which had previously belonged to a number of other parishes , but because it had been reclaimed by Adventurers , was free from land tax and ecclesiastical tithes . About half of the fen became the parish of Deeping St Nicholas in 1846 , which became a civil parish in reforms authorised by an act of Parliament of 1856 .
The name of the fen is derived from the Old English ' Deoping ' , which means a " deep or Low place " . The village was listed as " Estdeping " in the Domesday Book , an inventory of the country compiled in 1086 .
= = History = =
People of Market Deeping , Deeping Gate and Deeping St James , together with other villages along the River Welland , presented a petition to Elizabeth I , requesting that the fens should be drained , as the banks of the river and of the neighbouring River Glen were in a poor state of repair . They suggested that Thomas Lovell should undertake the work , which he did , at a cost of £ 12 @,@ 000 , for which he received 15 @,@ 000 acres ( 6 @,@ 100 ha ) of the land which was reclaimed as a result of the work . Unrest in the early 1600s resulted in most of the works being destroyed , but in 1632 a group of adventurers led by the Earl of Bedford were granted permission to drain Deeping Fen , South Fen and Croyland . The work included making the Welland deeper and wider from Deeping St James to its outfall beyond Spalding , and the construction of side drains . These included a drain running from Pode Hole to below Spalding , which is still known as Vernatt 's Drain , after one of the adventurers called Sir Philibert Vernatti . Although declared completed in 1637 , efficient drainage would have to wait until the construction of Pode Hole pumping station in 1827 .
The drainage of the fen was again addressed in 1664 , when the Deeping Fen Act awarded the Earl of Manchester and others 10 @,@ 000 acres ( 4 @,@ 000 ha ) of land in return for the drainage works . They were also obliged to maintain the banks of the Welland . The inadequacy of its outfall and a spate of bad weather stopped them from completing their task . They tried renting out the land they had been granted , but many tenants were unable to pay the rent , due to the poor state of the drainage which reduced crop yields . In April 1729 , the Deeping Fen Adventurers received a letter from Captain John Perry , expressing the opinion that the only way to improve the drainage was to improve the river outfalls , and proposing the construction of scouring sluices on the river at Spalding , on Vernatt 's drain at its outfall , and on the River Glen at Surfleet . Perry was an engineer of some repute , who had set the standard for engineering reports in 1727 , when he published his recommendations for the North Level of the Fens . His plans were approved , and the Adventurers offered to give him land covering nearly 6 @,@ 000 acres ( 2 @,@ 400 ha ) in payment for the work . He sold one third of the land to finance the project , and began work in 1730 . Cowbit sluice on the Welland had six 6 @-@ foot ( 1 @.@ 8 m ) wide gates which were operated by chains connected to a treadwheel . At high tide , water was penned in Cowbit Wash , between banks which were set well back from the main channel . At low tide , the sluice gates were opened , and the flow scoured out silt from the river bed for some 3 miles ( 4 @.@ 8 km ) downstream . Perry died in February 1733 , before the other works were completed , and was buried in Spalding churchyard .
= = = Scientific Drainage = = =
Perry was succeeded by John Grundy , Sr. , who had arrived in the region in 1731 at the request of the Duke of Buccleuch , who wanted his estates surveyed . Perry was building the Spalding sluice at the time , and Grundy 's work allowed him to study drains , banks , sluices and outfalls . He formed the opinion that mathematical and philosophical principles should be applied to the drainage of low @-@ lying regions . In 1733 , he surveyed the parish of Moulton , a little further downstream , to assess how drainage could be improved for the Commissioners of Sewers . He demonstrated the use of a telescopic spirit level , which enabled him to achieve accurate levels , with errors of less than 1 inch per mile ( 2 cm per km ) . Next he addressed the issue of flow in open drains . Using his mathematical principles , he calculated that water in a drain which was 4 miles ( 6 @.@ 4 km ) long , and had a fall of 12 inches ( 30 cm ) over its length should travel at around 4 feet per second ( 1 @.@ 2 m / s ) , taking 1 hour and 28 minutes to travel the length of the drain . Observations in the field showed him that other factors , such as fluid friction , resulted in the actual flow rate being less than half of this . He published a paper of his findings in April 1734 , and insisted that accurate mapping and levels , together with physical observation of drains and rivers , were essential to deciding how fenland could best be drained . In the same month , he began working for the Adventurers of Deeping Fen , to produce a drainage scheme . He spent some time mapping 22 miles ( 35 km ) of the Welland , and his chief recommendation was for a reservoir and sluice at the outfall of the River Glen , which would enable the outfall to be scoured at low tide , by releasing water from the reservoir .
In July 1737 Grundy and Humphry Smith set out their plans for the fen , and a bill was put before Parliament , to allow the Adventurers to raise the £ 15 @,@ 000 estimated cost by taxes . The act was granted in 1738 , and Smith and Grundy were appointed " Surveyors and Agents of Deeping Fen . " They oversaw a programme of repairs to the Deeping Bank , which ran for 12 miles ( 19 km ) along the south @-@ eastern edge of the fen , protecting it from the Welland . John Scribo did the same for the Country Bank , which ran for 6 miles ( 9 @.@ 7 km ) on the far side of the river . Grundy made the river deeper above Spalding , and also constructed a sluice and reservoir at the mouth of the Glen . The reservoir covered 8 acres ( 3 @.@ 2 ha ) and provided water to scour the channel below the sluice . Two drainage mills were constructed , each with a 16 @-@ foot ( 4 @.@ 9 m ) scoop wheel , one on Vernatt 's Drain and the other on Hill 's Drain . The bed of the Glen had also been regraded and its banks raised by 1742 , when Smith retired and Grundy took sole charge of the works . He oversaw the job of making the Welland through Spalding deeper and wider , and suggested that the outfall of Vernatt 's Drain should be moved 2 @.@ 5 miles ( 4 @.@ 0 km ) downstream from its existing position . Although not implemented immediately , his son completed this task in 1774 . Grundy died in 1748 , having been a pioneer in applying scientific principles to civil engineering problems .
= = = Civil Engineers = = =
John Grundy , Jr . , took over as Surveyor of Works after the death of his father in 1748 , and spent nearly £ 10 @,@ 000 on repairs to the Deeping Bank and the Country bank between then and 1764 . He rebuilt Perry 's sluice on the Welland soon after 1750 , with taller doors and a set of tide gates to prevent the tide moving upstream . In 1755 three more drainage mills were built on Hills Drain , while a sluice on the Forty Foot Drain followed in 1758 . From 1759 to 1761 he was engaged in lowering the bed of the Welland below the outfall sluice by 2 @.@ 5 feet ( 0 @.@ 76 m ) . After 1764 , Thomas Hogard became the Surveyor of Works , but Grundy continued to act as a consultant engineer .
Hogard devised a scheme to cut a new channel from the junction of the Welland and the Glen to Wyberton , on the estuary of the River Witham below Boston . At the end of the 7 @.@ 5 @-@ mile ( 12 @.@ 1 km ) cut , there would be a huge sluice and a navigation lock . The Adventurers asked Thomas Tofield for a second opinion , who suggested a shorter 5 @-@ mile ( 8 @.@ 0 km ) cut from Spalding to Fosdyke . They requested help from Grundy , who proposed a 1 @.@ 5 @-@ mile ( 2 @.@ 4 km ) cut to Fosdyke , and that the outfall of Vernatt 's drain should be moved downstream as his father had suggested . Improvements to the drain were carried out under an act of Parliament obtained in 1774 , and an act was obtained in 1794 to sanction the Wyberton cut , although the work was not carried out , and Grundy 's shorter cut was built under a new act of 1801 .
The fen was inundated in 1798 , and the civil engineers William Jessop and John Rennie were asked to assist the local engineers Edward Hare and George Maxwell . There was a clear understanding that the outfalls were too high to allow proper drainage by gravity , and two possible solutions were considered . The first was an outfall at a lower level , which would involve hugh expense in its construction , and the second , favoured by Jessop and Rennie , was the provision of steam pumping engines at Pode Hole . These would pump water from the internal drains of the fen to Vernatt 's Drain , and the lower internal water levels would allow the existing wind @-@ powered drainage mills to work efficiently . A report was produced , which formed the basis for the Deeping Fen Act of 1801 . The channel of the Welland above Spalding was made deeper , the north bank was made stronger , and the North and South Drove Drains which crossed the fen to join Vernatt 's Drain at Pode Hole were made deeper . At the time there were no steam engines working in the fens , and Rennie 's recommendation of a steam pumping station at Pode Hole was not implemented .
= = = Pumping Stations = = =
After reports by Rennie and Thomas Pear in 1815 , and by Rennie alone in 1818 and 1820 , the provision of steam engines was authorised by an act in 1823 . The land which formed the North Drove was at a lower level to that in the South Drove , and so it was intended to keep the water at different levels in each drain , so that a less powerful engine could be built to pump the South Drove Drain . By the time the details had been finalised , engines of 60 horsepower ( 45 kW ) and 80 horsepower ( 60 kW ) were ordered . Both engines were beam engines . The larger one was manufactured by Butterley , was called the Holland engine , and drove a scoop wheel which was 28 feet ( 8 @.@ 5 m ) in diameter . The wheel had 40 scoops and lifted the water by 5 feet ( 1 @.@ 5 m ) . The smaller engine , which was called the Kesteven engine , was made by Fenton & Murrey , and drove a similar scoop wheel . They were operational by August 1825 , having cost £ 26 @,@ 673 . The pumping station was the largest in the Fens at the time , and remained so for many years .
Upgrading of the plant occurred several times . The Kesteven and Holland engines were overhauled in 1881 and 1883 respectively . Flow into the wheel pits was restricted by the provision of shuttles , and rising breasts were fitted on the outflow , so that the height at which the water was discharged could be varied as the water level in Vernatt 's drain varied . Five new boilers , which could supply either engine , were fitted in 1883 , and had been replaced by five more some time before 1928 , for the new boilers failed in that year . The Kesteven engine had its scoop wheel removed , although the rest of the plant was not scrapped until 1952 .
Two 100 @-@ horsepower ( 75 kW ) twin @-@ cylinder diesel engines were installed to aid the steam plant , the first in 1914 and the second in 1920 . They were made by Mirrlees , and were scrapped in 1956 . Following the demise of the steam engines , a Mirrlees 250 @-@ horsepower ( 190 kW ) five @-@ cylinder diesel engine , which drove a 54 @-@ inch ( 140 cm ) pump was obtained . The first electric pump was installed in 1939 , to be joined by three more in 1957 , once the Mirrlees engines had been decommissioned . A new engine house was built in 1964 , which held two 650 @-@ horsepower ( 480 kW ) Ruston diesel engines driving 60 @-@ inch ( 150 cm ) Gwynnes Limited pumps , and a third 410 @-@ horsepower ( 310 kW ) Ruston unit , fitted with a 50 @-@ inch ( 130 cm ) Gwynnes pump . The remaining Mirrlees engine and the first electric pump were scrapped at this time .
= = = Other Districts = = =
Pinchbeck South Fen is a region covering 1 @,@ 700 acres ( 690 ha ) lying on the west side of Vernatt 's Drain . It was originally managed as the Fourth District by the Deeping Fen trustees , but was independent in 1828 , when the occupants approached the trustees with a plan to drain some of the water from the fen to the Pode Hole pumps . A tunnel already existed under Vernatt 's drain , and so the trustees agreed . However , the charges levied by the trustees for this service rose dramatically , so that the South Fen residents decided to build their own pumping engine at Pode Hole in 1830 . A Fenton & Murray beam engine driving a 20 @-@ foot ( 6 @.@ 1 m ) scoop wheel was installed , at a cost of £ 3 @,@ 000 , which was considerably less than the charge the trustees wanted to make . The engine was replaced by a suction gas engine and Ruston pump in 1919 , which was decommissioned in 1943 when a Petter oil engine with a 20 @-@ inch ( 51 cm ) Gwynnes pump was installed . This only lasted for ten years , as two electric motors driving 24 @-@ inch ( 61 cm ) and 20 @-@ inch ( 51 cm ) pumps were fitted in 1953 .
Pinchbeck Marsh was also part of Deeping Fen , but following the failure of the work carried out under the 1801 Act to effectively drain the area , an act of Parliament was obtained in 1832 to create a separate district , called the Spalding and Pinchbeck District , or Blue Gowt , as water from the 6 @,@ 000 acres ( 2 @,@ 400 ha ) feeds into the River Glen from the Blue Gowt Drain . A 20 @-@ horsepower ( 15 kW ) Butterley beam engine driving a 22 @-@ foot ( 6 @.@ 7 m ) scoop wheel was installed in 1833 . Although a new boiler was installed in 1895 , the engine and wheel continued to operate until 1952 , making it the last beam engine and scoop wheel combination to be used in the Fens , and also the one which ran for the longest time . Its function was replaced by the two electric pumps fitted in 1953 , which also pump the Pinchbeck South Fen , but the plant was retained , and is now open to the public , although the steam engine is now turned by an electric motor .
The management of Deeping Fen by trustees , appointed under the terms of the 1801 Act , continued until they were replaced in 1939 by the Deeping Fen , Spalding and Pinchbeck Internal Drainage Board , subsequently renamed the Welland & Deepings Internal Drainage Board .
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= Red @-@ capped robin =
The red @-@ capped robin ( Petroica goodenovii ) is a small passerine bird native to Australia . Found in drier regions across much of the continent , it inhabits scrub and open woodland . Like many brightly coloured robins of the family Petroicidae , it is sexually dimorphic . Measuring 10 @.@ 5 – 12 @.@ 5 cm ( 4 – 5 in ) in length , the robin has a small thin black bill , and dark brown eyes and legs . The male has a distinctive red cap and red breast , black upperparts , and a black tail with white tips . The underparts and shoulders are white . The female is an undistinguished grey @-@ brown . This species uses a variety of songs , and males generally sing to advertise territories and attract females . Birds are encountered in pairs or small groups , but the social behaviour has been little studied .
The position of the red @-@ capped robin is unclear ; it and its relatives are unrelated to European or American robins but appear to be an early offshoot of the songbird infraorder Passerida . The red @-@ capped robin is a predominantly ground @-@ feeding bird and its prey consists of insects and spiders . Although widespread , it is uncommon in much of its range and has receded in some areas from human activity .
= = Taxonomy = =
The red @-@ capped robin was described by Nicholas Aylward Vigors and Thomas Horsfield in 1827 , having been collected in the northern Spencer Gulf in South Australia . They named it Muscicapa goodenovii , and placed it among the Old World flycatcher family Muscicapidae . The specific epithet goodenovii honours the Reverend Samuel Goodenough , Bishop of Carlisle and first treasurer of the Linnean Society .
The red @-@ capped robin was later moved to the genus Petroica ; the generic name is derived from the Ancient Greek words petro- " rock " and oikos " home " , from the bird 's habit of sitting on rocks . Within the genus , it is one of five red- or pink @-@ breasted species colloquially known as " red robins " as distinct from the " yellow robins " of the genus Eopsaltria . It is not closely related to the American robin or the European robin ; however , it is named after the European robin . Molecular research ( and current consensus ) places the Red @-@ capped robin and its relatives — the Australian robin family Petroicidae — as a very early offshoot of the Passerida , or " advanced " songbirds , within the songbird lineage .
No subspecies are recognised , and the only geographic variation recorded in plumage is a tendency for females from more arid regions to have paler plumage . Testing of the nuclear and mitochondrial DNA of Australian members of the genus Petroica suggests the red @-@ capped robin 's closest relative within the genus is the scarlet robin .
Officially known as the red @-@ capped robin , it has also been referred to as redhead , redcap , robin red @-@ breast or red @-@ throated robin . Kuburi is a name used in the Kimberley . Across southwestern Australia , it was known as menekedang by the local indigenous people .
= = Description = =
The smallest of the red robins , the red @-@ capped robin is 10 @.@ 5 – 12 @.@ 5 cm ( 4 – 5 in ) long with a wingspan of 15 – 19 @.@ 5 cm ( 6 – 8 in ) , and weighs around 7 – 9 g ( 0 @.@ 25 – 0 @.@ 31 oz ) . Males and females are of similar size . It has longer legs than the other robins of the genus Petroica . The male has a distinctive scarlet cap and breast . Its upperparts are jet black with white shoulder bars , and its tail black with white tips . The underparts and shoulder are white . All colours are sharply delineated from one another . The female is an undistinguished grey @-@ brown above with a reddish tint to the crown , and paler underneath with dark brown wings and pale buff wing patch . Some females have a reddish tint to the breast . Both sexes have a small black bill , and dark brown eyes and legs . Immature birds initially resemble the female ; it is only with their second moult , which takes place at around or just over a year of age that males adopt their distinctive adult plumage . The red @-@ capped robin moults once a year , after the breeding season which takes place between December and April .
Two red keto @-@ carotenoid pigments , canthaxanthin and adonirubin , are responsible for the redness in the red @-@ capped robin 's plumage . The birds are unable to synthesize these compounds themselves , and hence need to obtain them from their food . Carotenoids are costly to metabolise and are also required for use in immune function , hence birds need to be in good condition to have enough left for use in red feathers . This makes red plumage a good advertisement to prospective mates . A 2001 field study at Terrick Terrick National Park in Victoria found that males who had greater reproductive success and were in better condition moulted into a brighter plumage the following year . However , male age and condition at the time were more likely to predict mating success for the following breeding season . Adult males can breed at one year of age and may do so while yet in non @-@ breeding plumage , but they are less successful at reproducing at this age . The oldest recorded age is 5 years and 7 months for a bird banded near Beverley , Western Australia , in 1990 .
A variety of calls have been recorded , described as ' tinkle ' and ' blurt ' songs . These are similar across mainland Australia but distinct on Rottnest Island ; on the isolated island , birds rarely linked successive songs .
This species may be confused with the related flame robin ( P. phoenicea ) and scarlet robin ( P. boodang ) , but the male can be distinguished by its red crown ( white in the other two species ) and smaller size ; furthermore , the male flame robin has dark grey rather than black upperparts . Female and immature birds are harder to distinguish , but can be differentiated by the reddish tinge of the crown and whiter underparts .
= = Distribution and habitat = =
The red @-@ capped robin is found across Australia except for Tasmania , Cape York , the Top End and most of the Kimberley ( there have been occasional sightings in the southernmost parts ) . Offshore populations exist on Rottnest Island , as well as Greenly and Pearson Islands off the Eyre Peninsula , but it is not found on Kangaroo Island . Although widespread , it is uncommon in many areas ; it is rare east of the Great Dividing Range , in coastal regions in the south of the continent , and in the northern parts of its range — it is seldom encountered north of 20 ° S. Its movements are generally poorly known , particularly outside the breeding season . It is sedentary in much the southern parts of its range , although the red @-@ capped robin is a spring and summer visitor to the Nullarbor Plain and Adelaide region in South Australia , and central Victoria . It is a winter visitor in the northern parts of its range .
The red @-@ capped robin prefers more arid habitat than its relatives , and inhabits dryer areas while the scarlet robin occupies wetter forests where they co @-@ occur . The red @-@ capped robin 's preferred habitat is dry Acacia , Callitris or mixed scrubland or woodland , dominated by such species as mulga ( Acacia aneura ) , Georgina gidgee ( Acacia georginae ) , raspberry jam ( Acacia acuminata ) , black cypress @-@ pine ( Callitris endlicheri ) , white cypress @-@ pine ( C. columellaris ) , and slender cypress @-@ pine ( C. preissii ) with understory shrubs such as Cassia , hop @-@ bush ( Dodonaea ) , emu bush ( Eremophila ) and spinifex ( Triodia ) .
= = = Threats = = =
The species has generally fared badly with human change to the landscape . Once common on the Cumberland Plain in Sydney 's western suburbs , it has now almost disappeared from the Sydney Basin . It has also disappeared from the vicinity of Rockhampton in Queensland , and declined on Rottnest Island , and in the Wheatbelt region of Western Australia . Field studies in small patches of remnant vegetation indicate reduced survival rates there .
The feral cat is known to prey on the red @-@ capped robin , and several bird species including the Australian raven ( Corvus coronoides ) , grey shrike @-@ thrush ( Colluricincla harmonica ) , grey butcherbird ( Cracticus torquatus ) and white @-@ browed babbler ( Pomatostomus superciliosus ) raid nests and take young . There is one record of a brown @-@ headed honeyeater ( Melithreptus brevirostris ) feeding on an egg . Predation is the commonest cause of nest failure .
= = Behaviour = =
The red @-@ capped robin is generally encountered alone or in pairs , although groups of up to eight birds — a mated pair and their young — may be seen in autumn and winter . The species may join mixed @-@ species flocks with other small insectivorous passerines ; species recorded include the willie wagtail ( Rhipidura leucophrys ) , southern whiteface ( Aphelocephala leucopsis ) , rufous whistler ( Pachycephala rufiventris ) and black @-@ faced woodswallow ( Artamus cinereus ) in Queensland , and the chestnut @-@ rumped thornbill ( Acanthiza uropygialis ) , buff @-@ rumped thornbill ( A. reguloides ) or inland thornbill ( A. apicalis ) in Western Australia .
The red @-@ capped robin typically perches in a prominent location low to the ground , often flicking its wings and tail . It is very active and does not stay still for long . The female has been reported as being fairly tame , while the male is more wary of human contact .
The red @-@ capped robin is territorial during the breeding season ; the area occupied has been measured between 0 @.@ 25 and 1 @.@ 2 ha ( 0 @.@ 6 – 3 acres ) . A pair lives and forages within their territory before dispersing in autumn . The male proclaims ownership by singing loudly from a suitable perch at the territory boundary , and confronts other males with a harsh scolding call should they make an incursion . Two males have been seen to face one another 30 cm to 1 m ( 12 – 40 in ) apart , flicking wings and manoeuvring for position in a threat display while the female is incubating her eggs . Both sexes also react to the playback of song recordings . The male will also defend against incursions by male scarlet robins , and conversely avoid foraging in the latter species ' territories . Most juvenile red @-@ capped robins are unable to live in territories occupied by adult birds , and need to travel to find unoccupied land ; the furthest dispersal recorded to date has been 36 km ( 22 mi ) , from Terrick Terrick National Park across farmland to Gunbower State Forest in northern Victoria .
= = = Feeding = = =
The diet consists of insects and other small arthropods . One study of red @-@ capped robin faeces conducted near Kambalda , Western Australia , revealed 96 % of their diet was made up of beetles , while ants made up the remainder . Other prey recorded include spiders , and insects such as grasshoppers including the Australian Plague Locust ( Chortoicetes terminifera ) , adult and larval butterflies and moths , including geometer moths , dragonflies and damselflies , mantises , antlions , true bugs , including chinch bugs of the family Lygaeidae and shield bugs , various types of beetles , earwigs , and flies such as blow @-@ flies and horse @-@ flies .
The red @-@ capped robin mostly pounces on prey on the ground , although it can swoop and catch creatures while airborne . Less often , it gleans ( takes prey while perched ) in low @-@ lying vegetation , almost always less than 3 m ( 10 ft ) above the ground . The prey is most commonly on the ground when caught , although airborne insects are sometimes taken . A low branch may be used as a vantage point in hunting .
= = = Breeding = = =
The breeding season takes place over five months from August to January with up to three broods raised . The male proposes suitable nest sites to the female by rubbing his body over a suitable tree fork , all the while trilling continuously . He may indicate several sites before the female ultimately makes the decision where to build , at which point she constructs the nest alone . The nest is a neat , deep cup made of soft dry grass and bark . Spider webs , feathers and fur are used for binding or filling , and the nest is generally placed in a tree fork or even a mistletoe bush . It may be decorated with lichen and camouflaged to blend in with its surroundings . Two to three dull white eggs tinted bluish , greyish or brownish and splotched with dark grey @-@ brown are laid on consecutive days , measuring 16 mm × 13 mm ( 0 @.@ 6 × 0 @.@ 5 in ) . Females alone develop brood patches and incubate , although both sexes feed the young . The male will keep lookout either on the nest or perched on a nearby branch , rather than brood while the female is foraging , and parents will feed young and dart off quickly if there are predators in the vicinity . Extra @-@ pair mating and fertilisation is fairly common , with 23 % of nestlings and 37 % of broods having a different father to the one rearing them , and there is some evidence that extra @-@ pair couplings are more likely to produce male birds .
Like all passerines , the chicks are altricial ; they are born blind and covered only by a thin layer of down . By seven days , they are stretching wings and preening , and at two weeks they are able to fly . Parents feed young for at least three weeks after leaving the nest , and have been recorded giving them spiders , and insects such as flies and moths . Males take over feeding young when females begin renesting for the next brood . In a field study near Cooma in southern New South Wales , fledglings were observed to disperse from the natal territory after four to six weeks for a single brood year , and in less than a week on both occasions in a pair which raised two broods in the season . The long breeding season and multiple broods therein are an adaptation to mild climate and high levels of predation . Despite this , on average only two young are successfully fledged per year .
The brush cuckoo ( Cacomantis variolosus ) , pallid cuckoo ( C. pallidus ) , Horsfield 's bronze cuckoo ( Chrysococcyx basalis ) , and black @-@ eared cuckoo ( C. osculans ) have been recorded as brood parasites of the red @-@ capped robin ; female cuckoos lay their eggs in robin nests , which are then raised by the robins as their own . Red @-@ capped robins have been observed to be particularly aggressive in driving Horsfield 's bronze cuckoos from their territories in Terrick Terrick National Park in a field study , and no nests were found parasitised there .
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= History of the Montreal Canadiens =
The Montreal Canadiens ice hockey club , formally Le Club de Hockey Canadien , was founded on December 4 , 1909 . The Canadiens are the oldest professional hockey franchise in the world . Created as a founding member of the National Hockey Association ( NHA ) with the aim of appealing to Montreal 's francophone population , the Canadiens played their first game on January 5 , 1910 , and captured their first Stanley Cup in 1916 . The team left the NHA and helped found the National Hockey League ( NHL ) in 1917 . They returned to the Stanley Cup finals in 1919 , but their series against the Seattle Metropolitans was canceled without a winner due to the Spanish flu pandemic that killed defenceman Joe Hall . The Canadiens have won the Stanley Cup 24 times : once while part of the National Hockey Association ( NHA ) , and 23 times as members of the NHL . With 25 NHL titles overall , they are the most successful team in league history .
The Canadiens ' home rink , the Montreal Arena , was destroyed by fire in January 1918 . The team moved into the Jubilee Arena , which subsequently burned down in 1919 . After spending seven seasons in the Mount Royal Arena , the Canadiens moved into the Montreal Forum in 1926 , sharing it with the rival Montreal Maroons until 1938 . After 72 years in the Forum , they moved to the Bell Centre in 1996 . The club struggled during the Great Depression , nearly relocating to Cleveland , Ohio , in 1935 and contemplated suspending operations in 1939 . Their fortunes rebounded following World War II as they reached the Stanley Cup finals each year from 1951 to 1960 , winning six championships , including a record five consecutive titles from 1956 to 1960 .
Maurice " Rocket " Richard emerged as the team 's star in the 1940s , and during the 1944 – 45 season became the first player in NHL history to score 50 goals in a single season . Richard sparked the Richard Riot in March 1955 when he was suspended for attacking a linesman . The incident highlighted growing tensions between French Quebec and English Canada , and is regarded as one of the first manifestations of Quebec 's Quiet Revolution . In 1959 , Jacques Plante revolutionized the game when he became the first goaltender to consistently wear a mask during play . Under general manager Sam Pollock , the Canadiens won nine championships between 1964 and 1978 . The 1976 – 77 team , often regarded as the greatest in NHL history , won 60 games while losing only 8 , a record for fewest losses in an 80 @-@ game season . With the entry of the World Hockey Association 's Quebec Nordiques to the NHL in 1979 , a rivalry grew between the Canadiens and the Nordiques , peaking in 1984 when the Canadiens eliminated the Nordiques in six games , but not before the Good Friday Massacre made headlines .
Led by goaltender Patrick Roy , the Canadiens won their 23rd Stanley Cup in 1986 and their 24th in 1993 . Roy won the Conn Smythe Trophy as the playoffs ' most valuable player both times . The 1993 team set an NHL record with 10 consecutive overtime victories in one playoff year and is the most recent Canadian team to win the Stanley Cup . In 2003 , Montreal participated in the first regular season outdoor game in NHL history , defeating the Edmonton Oilers in the Heritage Classic .
The Hockey Hall of Fame has inducted over 50 former Canadiens players , as well as ten executives . The team has retired 15 numbers , representing 17 players , and has honoured ten off @-@ ice personnel in its Builder 's Row .
= = Founding = =
In November 1909 , industrialist Ambrose O 'Brien of Renfrew , Ontario , was in Montreal to purchase supplies for a railway contract . At the request of the Renfrew Creamery Kings hockey team , he attended the Eastern Canada Hockey Association ( ECHA ) meetings , held at the Windsor Hotel , to represent Renfrew in its application to join the league . At the meeting , the ECHA team owners rejected Renfrew 's application . Later that day the ECHA 's owners chose to disband their league and form the Canadian Hockey Association ( CHA ) in a bid to exclude the Montreal Wanderers , who had upset the other owners when they moved into a smaller arena that would reduce the visiting team 's share of gate receipts . In the lobby of the hotel , O 'Brien met Jimmy Gardner , manager of the Wanderers , and discussed forming a new league which would include Renfrew , the Wanderers , and two teams that O 'Brien owned in the Ontario mining towns of Cobalt and Haileybury . Gardner suggested that O 'Brien start a team of francophone players based in Montreal , forming a rivalry with the Wanderers . As a result , the National Hockey Association ( NHA ) was founded on December 2 , 1909 , and Les Canadiens were created two days later , initially financed by O 'Brien with the intent of transferring ownership to francophone sportsmen in Montreal as soon as possible .
At the time , francophone teams were not considered to be good enough to play with the top anglophone teams : the Montreal Gazette warned potential fans of the new team not to get too excited , as " French @-@ Canadian players of class are not numerous " . The Canadiens stocked their team with francophone stars including Newsy Lalonde , Georges Poulin and Didier Pitre . Before being allowed to play , Pitre had to resolve a lawsuit with the Montreal Nationals , to whom he was already under contract .
= = 1910 – 17 : National Hockey Association = =
The Canadiens played their first game on January 5 , 1910 , coached by Jack Laviolette . Before a sellout crowd of 3 @,@ 000 , they defeated Cobalt 7 – 6 in overtime . The victory was erased from the history books shortly after , as the CHA collapsed after only two weeks of play , and the NHA chose to restart the season after absorbing the CHA 's Ottawa Senators and the Montreal Shamrocks . The Canadiens ' first game of the new season was played January 19 , a 9 – 4 loss to the Renfrew Creamery Kings . They lost three more games before finally recording their first victory of the new season on February 7 , when they defeated the Haileybury Hockey Club by a score of 9 – 7 . They won only two of their 12 games that season , and finished last in the eight @-@ team league .
George Kennedy , owner of the Club Athlétique Canadien ( CAC ) , claimed rights to the " Canadiens " team name following the season . He settled the dispute by buying the team from O 'Brien for $ 7 @,@ 500 . That same year , the team adopted its now @-@ famous red sweater with a blue stripe across the front . In the middle of the stripe was an elongated red C encompassing a red A to represent the CAC .
The Canadiens reached the playoffs for the first time in 1913 – 14 when they tied the Toronto Blueshirts for the league lead with 26 points . The two teams played a two @-@ game series for the championship , with the winner based on total goals . Georges Vezina shut out the Blueshirts 2 – 0 in the first game , but the Canadiens were defeated 6 – 0 in the second and lost the series . Two years later , in 1915 – 16 , the Canadiens won the NHA championship , the O 'Brien Cup , with a 16 – 7 – 1 record , three wins better than the second place Senators . The title earned the Canadiens their first berth in the Stanley Cup finals , where they faced the Portland Rosebuds of the Pacific Coast Hockey Association ( PCHA ) . With the best @-@ of @-@ five series tied at two wins apiece , the deciding game was held at Westmount Arena in Montreal on March 30 , 1916 . Montreal 's Goldie Prodgers scored the winning goal with less than four minutes to play , giving the Canadiens their first Stanley Cup championship .
In 1916 , the CAC faced financial difficulty after a January fire destroyed its gymnasium and the Montreal Canadians lacrosse team failed . Kennedy separated the hockey club from the CAC and incorporated it in March 1916 as " Le club de Hockey Canadien " . The Canadiens changed their logo to a red " C " interlocked with a white " H " . The H in the logo stands for " hockey , " though the long @-@ standing misconception that it stands for " Habitants " led to the team being nicknamed " the Habs " .
The NHA met its demise in the winter of 1917 following several long @-@ running disputes between Blueshirts owner Eddie Livingstone and the league 's other four teams over who owned the rights to various players . Kennedy especially disliked Livingstone , and the two nearly came to blows numerous times during league meetings . However , the Canadiens , Wanderers , Senators and Quebec Bulldogs discovered that while they were united in their distaste for Livingstone , the league constitution didn 't allow them to simply vote him out . To solve this problem , on November 26 they created a new league , the National Hockey League ( NHL ) , and didn 't invite Livingstone to join them . They nominally remained members of the NHA and had enough votes to suspend the league 's operations , effectively leaving Livingstone in a one @-@ team league . Kennedy was the dominant force in the new league ; he not only owned the Canadiens , but had loaned Tommy Gorman the money he used to buy the Senators . However , the four teams still desired to have a team from Toronto in their league . They also needed a fourth team to balance the schedule after financial difficulties forced the Bulldogs to suspend operations ( as it turned out , they wouldn 't take the ice until 1919 ) . With this in mind , they granted a " temporary " franchise to the Toronto Arena Company , which eventually evolved into the Canadiens ' rivals , the Toronto Maple Leafs .
= = 1917 – 32 : early National Hockey League = =
Joe Malone recorded five goals for the Canadiens in their NHL debut , a 7 – 4 victory over the Senators , en route to a league leading 44 goal season . The fledgling league nearly collapsed on January 2 , 1918 , after a fire destroyed the Montreal Arena , home to both the Wanderers and the Canadiens . The Canadiens relocated to the 3 @,@ 000 @-@ seat Jubilee Arena , but the Wanderers ceased operations , reducing the NHL to three teams . Playing a revamped split season schedule , Montreal won the first half title , but lost the league championship to second half winning Toronto by a score of 10 – 7 in a two @-@ game , total goals series .
The Canadiens won the NHL championship against the Senators in 1918 – 19 , and traveled west to meet the PCHA champion Seattle Metropolitans for the Stanley Cup . The series is best remembered for its cancellation due to the Spanish flu pandemic . Several players from both teams became ill , prompting health officials in Seattle to cancel the sixth , and deciding , game . With his entire team either in the hospital or confined to bed , Kennedy attempted to borrow players from the PCHA 's Victoria Aristocrats , only to be turned down by PCHA president Frank Patrick . With no way to field a team , Kennedy announced he was forfeiting the game — and the Cup — to the Metropolitans . However , the Metropolitans turned it down ; coach Pete Muldoon felt that with the Canadiens decimated by the flu , it wouldn 't be sportsmanlike to claim the title . Star defenceman Joe Hall never recovered , and died on April 5 , 1919 .
During the following summer , the Jubilee Rink burned down , forcing the Canadiens to build Mount Royal Arena as a replacement . The team also lost their star player Malone , who had been on loan from the dormant Bulldogs as Quebec rejoined the league in 1919 – 20 . Kennedy died in 1921 ; he had never recovered from the 1919 flu . His widow sold the team to Leo Dandurand , former player Joseph Cattarinich and Louis A. Letourneau .
Regarded as one of the NHL 's first superstars , Howie Morenz made his debut in 1923 – 24 alongside Aurel Joliat . The club placed second in the league to Ottawa , but defeated the Senators in the playoffs to win the league championship and reach the Stanley Cup final . Montreal hosted the 1924 Stanley Cup Finals against the Calgary Tigers of the Western Canada Hockey League ( WCHL ) . The Canadiens won the best @-@ of @-@ three series in two games , and captured their second Stanley Cup . Morenz was the offensive star of the series , scoring a hat trick in game one and a goal in game two .
The Montreal Forum , which in later decades became synonymous with the Canadiens , was opened in 1924 to house the expansion Montreal Maroons . The Canadiens were invited to inaugurate the arena as the natural ice surface at the Mount Royal Arena was not ready to host NHL games . The team played the first game in Forum history on November 29 , 1924 , a 7 – 1 victory over the Toronto St. Patricks . The Canadiens took residence at the Forum in 1926 , sharing it with the Maroons until the latter ceased operations in 1938 .
For the 1924 – 25 season , the Canadiens celebrated their world champion status with a special jersey design . The team moved their CH logo to their sleeves and played with a large world globe logo crest on their jersey fronts . Montreal finished third in the league standings and defeated Toronto in the semi @-@ final . The players on the first place Hamilton Tigers refused to participate in a playoff series unless they were paid an additional $ 200 each . When they failed to relent on their demands , NHL president Frank Calder suspended the entire team , and declared the Canadiens to be the league champions . The Habs thus traveled to the Pacific Coast to play the WCHL 's Victoria Cougars in the 1925 Stanley Cup Final . The Cougars won the best @-@ of @-@ five series 3 – 1 ; it was the last time a non @-@ NHL team won the Stanley Cup .
Georges Vezina collapsed during the first game of the 1925 – 26 season . He was diagnosed with tuberculosis and never played again , succumbing to the illness in March 1926 . In his honour , the team donated a new award to the league , the Vezina Trophy , to be given to the goaltender who allowed the fewest goals over the course of the season . The first recipient was his replacement , George Hainsworth . Vezina was inducted into the Hockey Hall of Fame upon its creation in 1945 .
During the 1927 – 28 season , Morenz became the first player in NHL history to score 50 points in a single season . Morenz was the first NHL player to score a second Stanley Cup winning goal , with the Canadiens ' victory in the 1930 Stanley Cup Finals over the Boston Bruins . The Bruins , who finished with a 38 – 5 – 1 record and at one point during the season went 23 games without a defeat , lost consecutive games to Montreal in the finals , 3 – 0 and 4 – 3 . The Canadiens became the fourth team in Stanley Cup history to repeat as champions , defeating the Chicago Black Hawks in five games to capture the 1931 Stanley Cup Championship .
= = 1932 – 46 : Howie Morenz and Rocket Richard = =
Attendance was in decline across the league as the Great Depression took hold . The Habs posted a losing record in 1932 – 33 , leading to still smaller crowds . Averaging only 2 @,@ 000 fans per game , the team sold Morenz to the Chicago Black Hawks in 1934 as part of an effort to cut costs . The move was not a popular one , and fans voiced their opinion of the deal by giving Morenz a standing ovation when he scored against the Canadiens on the last day of the 1934 – 35 season .
With losses of $ 60 @,@ 000 over the previous two seasons , the Canadiens were put up for sale in 1935 . Dandurand and Cattarinich entered negotiations to sell the club and move it to Cleveland , Ohio , but a syndicate of local Montreal businessmen led by Maurice Forget and Ernest Savard stepped forward to buy the team and prevent the transfer . The Canadiens struggled on the ice , finishing with the worst record in the league in 1935 – 36 . The new owners asked Cecil Hart to coach the team , in the hopes that he would bring the Habs back to respectability . Hart agreed with one stipulation : that the Canadiens bring back Morenz . The team agreed , and acquired an overjoyed Morenz in a trade with the New York Rangers .
Morenz 's return to Montreal lasted less than a season : in January 1937 , while being checked by Chicago 's Earl Seibert , his skate caught on the ice and Morenz broke his leg in four places . He never recovered , and died of a coronary embolism on March 8 . Aurel Joliat offered a different explanation of his death : " Howie loved to play hockey more than anyone ever loved anything , and when he realized that he would never play again , he couldn 't live with it . I think Howie died of a broken heart . " On the day of his funeral , 50 @,@ 000 people filed past Morenz 's casket at centre ice of the Montreal Forum to pay their last respects to the man the media called " the Babe Ruth of hockey " . A benefit game in November 1937 raised $ 20 @,@ 000 for Morenz 's family as the NHL All @-@ Stars defeated the Montreal Canadiens 6 – 5 . Morenz was one of the first players elected to the Hockey Hall of Fame when it was created in 1945 .
The Canadiens continued to finish near the bottom of the league standings for several seasons . The low point came in 1939 – 40 : Babe Siebert , who was named the Habs ' coach following his retirement as a player in 1939 , drowned before the season began , and Pit Lepine was named as his replacement . With an aging roster , the Canadiens finished last , winning only 10 games . That team 's .260 winning percentage is still the worst in franchise history . Largely due to the team 's poor play , the Canadiens only drew 3 @,@ 000 fans per game , leading Savard and his partners to consider suspending operations at least for the duration of World War II . Instead , they sold the franchise to the team 's landlord , the Canadian Arena Company .
At this point , relief arrived from an unexpected quarter — Maple Leafs owner Conn Smythe . The Depression had already forced three teams to either shut down outright or suspend operations never to return . Additionally , the New York Americans had been wards of the league since 1936 , and it was considered to be only a matter of time before they folded ( they eventually did , in 1942 ) . Smythe did not want to see the Canadiens fold , and suggested that the Arena Company hire the Maple Leafs ' former coach , Dick Irvin . Irvin was a proven winner , having led the Maple Leafs to seven finals and one Cup in nine years . The Arena Company readily accepted Smythe 's suggestion , and turned to Irvin to lead the once @-@ proud team 's revitalization .
By 1943 , the war effort had a devastating effect on many rosters . The Red Wings lost nine players and the Maple Leafs lost six to the military . The Rangers lost ten players and had to be persuaded by the other teams not to suspend operations . In contrast , the Canadiens lost only one key player in Ken Reardon . Young phenom Maurice Richard tried to enlist , but was turned down due to his medical history . Canadiens General Manager Tommy Gorman reportedly ensured his players obtained jobs in key wartime industries to avoid conscription .
Led by the " Punch Line " of Richard , Toe Blake and Elmer Lach , the Habs won their fifth Stanley Cup in 1944 , losing only five games in the regular season . In 1944 – 45 , the team won 38 games and lost only eight , and Richard was the focus of the media and fans as he attempted to be the first player in league history to score 50 goals in a 50 @-@ game season . Richard set a single @-@ game scoring record , recording five goals and three assists in a 9 – 1 victory over Detroit on December 28 , 1944 . He later broke Joe Malone 's goal scoring record when he scored his 45th goal , after which opposing teams did all they could to prevent him from reaching the 50 @-@ goal mark . He was slashed , elbowed and held as no team wanted to be known as the one that gave up the milestone goal . Richard finally scored his 50th goal in Boston at 17 : 45 of the third period of Montreal 's final game of the season . The record , previously considered nearly impossible to achieve , elevated Richard to the status of provincial hero in Quebec .
= = 1946 – 67 : the Original Six = =
Prior to the expansion of the NHL in 1967 , the league was reduced to six franchises , which would become known after 1967 as the " Original Six " . Frank J. Selke replaced Tommy Gorman as general manager of the Canadiens in 1946 , and held the post until 1964 . Selke spent several years attempting to sign teenage star Jean Beliveau to play for the Canadiens . Beliveau played brief stints with the Habs in 1950 and 1952 , but his loyalty to the Quebec Aces of the Quebec Senior Hockey League led him to turn the Canadiens down repeatedly when they pressed him to move to Montreal full @-@ time . The Canadiens finally bought the entire Quebec senior league in 1953 and turned it professional in order to bring Beliveau into the fold , and he signed a five @-@ year contract for $ 100 @,@ 000 . He spent his entire 18 @-@ year , Hall of Fame NHL career with the Habs .
In March 1955 , Richard was suspended for the remainder of the season , including the playoffs , after he received a match penalty for slashing Boston 's Hal Laycoe and subsequently punching a linesman who intervened . The suspension touched off a wave of anger toward league president Clarence Campbell , who was warned not to attend a scheduled game in Montreal after receiving numerous death threats , mainly from French @-@ Canadians accusing him of anti @-@ French bias . Campbell dismissed the warnings , and attended the March 17 game as planned . His presence at the game was perceived by many fans as a provocation and he was booed and pelted with eggs and fruit . An hour into the game , a fan lobbed a tear @-@ gas bomb in Campbell 's direction , causing fire officials to clear the building . Fans leaving the Forum were met by a growing mob of angry demonstrators who overwhelmed the 250 police officers on the scene and rioted outside of the Forum . Seventy people were arrested , 37 people injured , 50 stores were looted and $ 100 @,@ 000 in property damage was reported as a result of the melee , which became known as l 'affaire Richard , or the Richard Riot . The incident highlighted the growing cultural gap between French Quebec and English Canada and the riot is often described as an early manifestation of Quebec 's Quiet Revolution .
The following day , Richard went on a French @-@ language Montreal radio station to ask the fans to stop rioting and instead to support the Canadiens in the playoffs . He also said he would accept his punishment and return the following year to win the Cup . While the Canadiens were defeated in the 1955 Stanley Cup Finals , Richard led Montreal to the 1956 Stanley Cup as he promised .
The 1955 – 56 season was the first as head coach for Toe Blake , who was hired to help control Richard 's temper . The 1956 victory began an unprecedented streak of five consecutive Stanley Cups for the Canadiens from 1956 to 1960 ; the 1960 final was Montreal 's tenth consecutive appearance in the championship series . Richard , the first player to score 500 career goals in NHL history , retired in 1960 with 544 career goals and was elected to the Hockey Hall of Fame in 1961 . The customary three @-@ year waiting period was waived in honour of his accomplishments .
Goaltender Jacques Plante had been wearing a mask during practices for some time , but did not wear it during games due to the objections of Blake and Selke who held the traditional view that players should not wear facial protection . That changed on November 1 , 1959 , after he was struck in the face early in a game at Madison Square Garden . As teams did not dress backup goaltenders during this time , the game was delayed 20 minutes while doctors frantically stitched Plante up . When Blake asked him if he was ready to return to play , Plante refused to return to the ice unless he was allowed to wear a mask . Blake was livid , but agreed only if Plante removed the mask when his face was healed . Wearing the mask , Plante led the Canadiens on an 18 game unbeaten streak . He finally removed the mask at Blake 's urging and promptly lost the next game . Defeated , Blake relented . Plante 's mask became a permanent fixture as he led the Canadiens to their fifth consecutive Stanley Cup . Other goalies followed Plante 's lead soon after .
When the NHL instituted the NHL Amateur Draft in 1963 , the Canadiens were given the option to replace their regular first selection with two " Cultural Picks " that could be used to draft up to two French @-@ Canadian players before any other team made any selections . The team used one cultural pick in 1968 , and both in 1969 , when it drafted Rejean Houle and Marc Tardif , two top prospects . This option was eliminated after the 1969 draft .
Selke retired in 1964 and was succeeded by Sam Pollock . Often named the best general manager in NHL history , Pollock led the Canadiens to nine Stanley Cup championships in his 14 years at the helm of the team . One of his key tactics was trading aging stars to expansion teams for draft picks , which led to the team drafting future Hall of Famers Guy Lafleur , Larry Robinson and Ken Dryden . The Canadiens won consecutive titles in 1965 and 1966 , and entered the 1967 Stanley Cup Final against Toronto as a heavy favourite . The City of Montreal was so confident in the Canadiens that they had already built a space for the Stanley Cup on the Expo 67 site , but the Canadiens fell to the Maple Leafs , in the last NHL finals of the Original Six era .
= = 1967 – 79 : expansion era = =
The NHL doubled in size to 12 teams in 1967 – 68 and organized itself into two divisions : the East Division , with the original six teams , and the West Division , which contained the six expansion franchises . The playoff format was constructed so that an established team would face an expansion team in the Stanley Cup Finals . The Canadiens recovered from their loss in 1967 to sweep the St. Louis Blues four games to none in both 1968 and 1969 for their 15th and 16th championships .
The Canadiens missed the playoffs entirely in 1969 – 70 , losing the last playoff spot in the East on a tiebreaker . On the last day of the season , New York defeated the Red Wings 9 – 5 , tying Montreal in points and obtaining a five @-@ goal lead on the Canadiens in total goals scored for the season . Montreal needed to win its game against the Black Hawks , or score at least five goals to qualify for the postseason . Trailing 5 – 2 with eight minutes to play , head coach Claude Ruel pulled his goaltender for an extra skater and watched Montreal surrender five empty net goals while scoring none to lose the game 10 – 2 and the final playoff spot to the Rangers . It was the only time between 1948 and 1995 that the Canadiens failed to make the playoffs .
The team rebounded in 1970 – 71 , winning its 17th Stanley Cup . Rookie Ken Dryden had played only six games in his NHL career when he was named the starting goaltender for the playoffs . He led the team to series wins over Boston , Minnesota and Chicago , winning the Conn Smythe Trophy as the most valuable player of the playoffs . Team captain Jean Beliveau , the fourth player in league history to score 500 career goals , announced his retirement following the season . Despite his Cup triumph , Al MacNeil was removed as coach after just one season amidst conflicts with several players , including Henri Richard , who described MacNeil as being " incompetent " during the playoffs . MacNeil was replaced by Scotty Bowman , a Montreal native and former Blues coach . Bowman coached the Canadiens for eight seasons , winning five Stanley Cups , including four in a row from 1976 to 1979 .
Following the success of the Summit Series in 1972 , a series of exhibition games between NHL and Soviet league clubs known as the Super Series was launched . On New Year 's Eve 1975 , the Canadiens met the Soviet Red Army in a game that is considered to be one of the greatest ever played . A contest between the two greatest hockey teams in the world , the match ended in a 3 – 3 draw following Soviet goaltender Vladislav Tretiak 's 35 @-@ save performance .
The 1976 – 77 Canadiens won 60 games in an 80 @-@ game schedule , losing only eight times , and just once at home . Guy Lafleur led the league in scoring , and won the Hart , Lester B. Pearson , Art Ross and Conn Smythe trophies ; Dryden won the Vezina Trophy , Bowman the Jack Adams Award and Larry Robinson the James Norris Memorial Trophy . The Canadiens were so dominant that Dryden complained to The Hockey News that he was " a little bored " by the lack of competition . The 1976 – 77 Canadiens are widely considered to be the greatest team in NHL history , though arguments exist for the 1955 – 56 and 1975 – 76 Canadiens teams as well .
The 1978 – 79 season capped Montreal 's run of four consecutive championships in dramatic fashion . Facing the Bruins in the seventh game of the league semi @-@ finals , Montreal trailed 4 – 3 with less than two minutes to play when Boston head coach Don Cherry accidentally sent too many players onto the ice during a line change , drawing what would become one of the most famous penalties in NHL history , and eventually costing Cherry his job . During the subsequent power play , Lafleur scored the game @-@ tying goal with 74 seconds remaining in regulation time , and Yvon Lambert scored in overtime to win the game and series . The Canadiens proceeded to defeat the Rangers for the Cup in five games .
The Canadiens ' dominance in the late 1970s was due in part to the presence of the rival World Hockey Association ( WHA ) ( which had begun play in 1972 ) — the Canadiens were far more successful compared to other NHL teams in resisting WHA efforts to lure away top talent . The Canadiens played a central role in the 1979 merger with the WHA , which added the Edmonton Oilers , Hartford Whalers , Quebec Nordiques and Winnipeg Jets to the NHL . After years of talks , a merger agreement was reached between the two leagues , but the NHL 's governors rejected the deal by one vote . Most of the NHL 's American teams were in favour of the merger in part because they thought it would help them challenge Montreal 's dominance , whereas against the deal were the Canadiens , who , along with the Vancouver Canucks and Toronto Maple Leafs , opposed splitting Hockey Night in Canada television revenues six ways instead of three . Upon hearing the result of the vote , fans in Edmonton , Quebec and Winnipeg launched a massive boycott of products sold by Molson , owners of the Canadiens since 1978 . The boycott , along with pressure from the Canadian House of Commons , led Montreal and Vancouver to reverse their positions when a re @-@ vote was held on March 22 , 1979 , allowing the merger to pass .
= = 1980 – 96 : transitions = =
The Canadiens entered the 1980s in transition , as Dryden , Lemaire and team captain Yvan Cournoyer announced their retirements in 1979 , and Serge Savard followed suit in 1981 . A trade during the 1982 – 83 season sent Rod Langway and Doug Jarvis to the Washington Capitals . Among their replacements were Swedish star Mats Naslund and forward Guy Carbonneau . Bob Gainey was appointed by the club to succeed Savard as team captain . Guy Lafleur remained the team 's offensive star , recording his 1,000th career point in 1981 in just 720 games , the fastest anyone had reached that milestone in NHL history , and a record that stood until broken by Wayne Gretzky in 1984 .
Doug Wickenheiser was selected by Montreal with the first pick at the 1980 NHL Entry Draft . The decision was highly controversial as the fans in Montreal had hoped the team would take francophone star Denis Savard . Wickenheiser 's transition to the NHL was difficult ; his popularity was harmed by comparisons of his struggles to Savard 's immediate success with the Black Hawks . He was traded to the Blues midway through the 1983 – 84 season .
Gainey explained the changing fortunes of the franchise following their playoff defeat at the hands of the Nordiques in 1982 : " We can 't put on our sweaters anymore and expect to win . " The Canadiens ' mystique had been broken by consecutive playoff losses to the upstart Minnesota North Stars , the Oilers and the Nordiques . The loss to Quebec in 1982 was the culmination of a vicious series where the players attempted to hurt and intimidate their opponents , while the media argued over which team better represented francophone Quebec . Montreal 's growing rivalry with Quebec peaked two years later in 1984 when they eliminated the Nordiques in six games , but not before the Good Friday Massacre made headlines . A hit by Quebec 's Dale Hunter on Montreal goaltender Steve Penney sparked a bench @-@ clearing brawl at the end of the second period . A second brawl , including some players who were ejected as a result of the first , erupted before the start of the third period . Ten players were ejected from the game , and 198 penalties in minutes were handed out as a result of the incidents , which proved a turning point in the game as Montreal scored five third period goals to win .
Rookie goaltender Patrick Roy led the Canadiens to their 23rd Stanley Cup championship in 1986 over the Calgary Flames in the first all @-@ Canadian Stanley Cup final since 1967 . The 1986 Canadiens were young and led by rookie head coach Jean Perron and forward Claude Lemieux , in addition to Roy , who became the youngest player in NHL history to win the Conn Smythe Trophy . Brian Skrudland , another rookie , scored the game @-@ winning goal just nine seconds into overtime of the second game of the finals — the fastest overtime goal in NHL history . The two teams met again in the 1989 Stanley Cup Finals , the most recent all @-@ Canadian Stanley Cup final , with the Flames emerging victorious in six games . It was the only time a visiting team defeated the Canadiens to win the Cup on Forum ice .
The Stanley Cup celebrated its 100th anniversary in 1993 , returning again to Canada with the Canadiens ' 24th Stanley Cup victory , the most recent NHL championship won by a Canadian team . After losing the first game of their Adams Division semi @-@ final to the Quebec Nordiques in overtime , the Canadiens won ten overtime games en route to the title , setting an NHL record for most consecutive overtime victories in a playoff year . As with the 1986 championship , the team was led by Roy , who won his second Conn Smythe Trophy . The defining moment of the 1993 Stanley Cup Finals occurred in the second game , with less than two minutes to play and Montreal trailing the series 1 – 0 and the game 2 – 1 . Attempting to gain an advantage for his team , head coach Jacques Demers called for a measurement of Los Angeles Kings forward Marty McSorley 's stick . Referee Kerry Fraser determined that the blade had an illegal curve , and assessed a penalty against McSorley . Montreal scored on the power play to tie the game , and then won in overtime 3 – 2 , to tie the series . Montreal also won Games 3 and 4 in overtime before eliminating the Kings in Game 5 , 4 – 1 . The celebration was marred by one of the worst riots in Montreal history , as fans rioted through downtown Montreal causing over $ 2 @.@ 5 million in property damage and 168 injuries .
The Canadiens failed to repeat their success in 1993 – 94 , as the team was eliminated from the playoffs by the Bruins in seven games . Montreal 's loss in Game 6 was the last playoff game ever played at the Montreal Forum . The team missed the playoffs entirely in 1994 – 95 , the first time in 25 years the Canadiens did not qualify , and the third time in 55 seasons . Montreal rebounded to make the playoffs in 1995 – 96 , but the future of the team was altered on December 2 , 1995 , when the Canadiens were embarrassed 11 – 1 by the Red Wings . Patrick Roy allowed nine goals on 26 shots before he was pulled in the second period to mock cheers from the Montreal crowd . Roy was furious , and felt that head coach Mario Tremblay deliberately left him in to be embarrassed . After reaching the bench , he moved past Tremblay to Canadiens President Ronald Corey , who was seated in the first row , and declared , " This is my last game in Montreal . "
Four days later , Roy was dealt to the Colorado Avalanche with Mike Keane in exchange for Jocelyn Thibault , Martin Rucinsky and Andrei Kovalenko . The deal vaulted the Avalanche , the former Nordiques , to the 1996 Stanley Cup . Roy won another title with the Avalanche in 2001 along with a third Conn Smythe Trophy before retiring in 2003 with more wins than any NHL goaltender . The Canadiens , meanwhile , fell into an extended stretch of mediocrity , missing the playoffs in four of their next ten seasons and failing to advance past the second round of the playoffs until 2010 . The team 's lack of playoff success brought an end to its streak of winning a Stanley Cup in each decade from the 1910s to the 1990s .
The sport 's changing economics led the Canadiens to build a new arena in 1996 to increase revenue . The final game at the Forum was held March 11 , 1996 , a 4 – 1 victory over the Dallas Stars . Following the game , an elaborate ceremony was held with many of the franchise 's greatest members welcomed onto the rink . The most boisterous response was reserved for Maurice Richard , who received a ten @-@ minute standing ovation . Finally , Emile Bouchard , the oldest living former captain , came onto the ice bearing a lit torch , and it was passed in a symbolic trail through the Canadiens ' history : Bouchard passed it to Richard , who passed it to Jean Beliveau , and so on in chronological order to each former captain present , ending with Pierre Turgeon . In 72 years at the Forum , the Canadiens won over 1 @,@ 500 games and captured 22 Stanley Cups .
= = 1996 – 2009 : new home and new owners = =
Five days after the closing of the Montreal Forum , the Canadiens played its first game at the Molson Centre ( since renamed the Bell Centre ) . With a capacity of 22 @,@ 500 , the Bell Centre claims to be the largest indoor arena in North America . In the inaugural game , Montreal defeated the Rangers 4 – 2 , with the first goal scored by Vincent Damphousse . The Canadiens struggled to achieve playoff success in the new arena : by 2002 , they had won only a single playoff round since their 1993 championship .
Montreal finished in last place in the Northeast Division in 1998 – 99 and missed the playoffs . Their 75 points was the lowest total in 40 years . The season concluded with rumours of the team being sold and relocated if it did not receive government subsidies to help alleviate pressures from Quebec 's tax system and the record @-@ low value of the Canadian dollar . The Canadiens denied the report , however Molson hired investment bank Morgan Stanley to examine its future involvement in sports . Montreal missed the playoffs again the next two seasons , and annual losses of $ 10 – $ 12 million and a desire to focus on its core brewing business led Molson to put the franchise up for sale in the summer of 2001 .
When no local buyers emerged for the team and a proposed Canadian government assistance program for the six remaining Canadian teams was canceled following public disapproval , it was feared that the Canadiens would follow the Winnipeg Jets and Quebec Nordiques in relocating to the United States . American businessman George N. Gillett Jr. purchased an 80 @.@ 1 % share of the team and 100 % of the Molson Centre for $ 275 million . As part of the deal , Molson retained 19 @.@ 9 % of the team and were granted the right of first refusal for any future sale by Gillett ; in addition , the NHL Board of Governors would be required to unanimously approve any attempt to move to a new city .
Prior to the 2001 – 02 season , the club announced that captain Saku Koivu had been diagnosed with non @-@ Hodgkin lymphoma and would miss the entire season . Koivu managed to return with three games left in the regular season , and along with goaltender Jose Theodore , who would win the Hart Trophy that year , led the Canadiens into the playoffs for the first time in four seasons . The eighth @-@ seeded Canadiens upset the Boston Bruins in the first round of the playoffs , and Koivu led the team in playoff scoring with 10 points in 12 games . In recognition of his tenacity in returning from cancer treatment , the league voted Koivu as the Bill Masterton Memorial Trophy winner for dedication and perseverance .
The first outdoor hockey game in NHL history , the Heritage Classic , was held on November 22 , 2003 , in Edmonton , Alberta , at Commonwealth Stadium . The Canadiens defeated the Oilers 4 – 3 in front of an NHL @-@ record crowd of 57 @,@ 167 , who braved temperatures of − 20 ° C ( − 4 ° F ) . The success of the Heritage Classic led to the creation of the Winter Classic , an annual outdoor game held since 2008 .
The 2004 – 05 NHL lockout cancelled the season entirely . After the Montreal Expos franchise departed for Washington , D.C. , in 2005 , the Canadiens acquired former Expos mascot Youppi to serve as their first @-@ ever mascot . Having missed the playoffs in 2006 – 07 , the Canadiens rebounded to win their first division title in 15 years in 2007 – 08 , as well as their first regular season conference title since 1989 .
= = 2009 @-@ present : Molson family acquires team = =
Ownership of the Canadiens once again passed to the Molson family in 2009 after Gillett sold the team , Bell Centre , and Gillett Entertainment Group to a partnership headed by Geoff Molson and including his brothers Andrew and Justin . The sale price was estimated at over $ 600 million . Unlike the pre @-@ Gillett era , the team is now privately owned by the Molson family and not by the Molson brewery , which is now a division of Molson Coors . The reputed sale price reflected a return to profitability , due both to a new collective bargaining agreement after the 2004 – 05 lockout that fixed player costs to revenues and to a rise in the value of the Canadian dollar back to at or near parity with the U.S. dollar .
On the ice , the team reached the 2010 playoffs as the eighth seed for the second year in a row , yet upset the top @-@ seeded Washington Capitals and the defending champion Pittsburgh Penguins in the first two rounds . The Habs lost the Eastern Conference finals to the Philadelphia Flyers .
The NHL revived the Heritage Classic concept , with the Canadiens facing the Calgary Flames at McMahon Stadium in Calgary on February 20 , 2011 . The Flames defeated the Canadiens , by a score of 4 – 0 , before a crowd of 41 @,@ 022 spectators . The 2011 Heritage Classic was the second outdoors game held during the 2010 – 11 season , following the 2011 NHL Winter Classic .
The Habs finished the 2011 – 12 season last in their conference for the first time in over 80 years , as injuries decimated the team all season . After a disappointing season , the Canadiens started over in the front office . They fired General Manager Pierre Gauthier , and Marc Bergevin was named the new general manager on May 2 , 2012 . The search then began for a new head coach and on June 5 , Michel Therrien was named the new head coach . This would be Therrien 's second stint as the Canadiens head coach after he previously coached the team from 2000 to 2003 ; and Randy Cunneyworth and Randy Ladouceur were relieved of their assistant coaching duties . On June 15 , Gerard Gallant , J. J. Daigneault and Clement Jodoin were added to Montreal 's coaching staff as assistant coaches .
The team rebounded in the lockout @-@ shortened 2012 – 13 season , moving up from 15th place to second , but lost 4 – 1 in the first round against the Ottawa Senators , their fourth @-@ straight playoff series loss . Defenceman P. K. Subban was awarded the James Norris Memorial Trophy as the League 's best defenseman , the first since Chris Chelios in 1989 . The next season , the Canadiens made the playoffs yet again following a 100 @-@ point season and in the first round , eliminated the Tampa Bay Lightning in a four @-@ game series sweep . They then faced the reigning Presidents ' Trophy @-@ winning Boston Bruins , and eliminated them in seven games to make the Eastern Conference Finals for the second time since their 1993 Stanley Cup victory and the first time since 2010 . During game 1 against New York Rangers , Chris Kredier ran into Carey Price injuring his leg . Carey Price wouldn 't return with the Canadiens as they fell to the New York Rangers in six games .
In the 2014 – 15 season , the team won their third division title since 1992 and proceeded to defeat the Senators in six games in the first round . However , they lost in the second round to the Lightning in six games . The season was successful due to a strong performance by goaltender Carey Price , who won the Vezina Trophy , the Hart Memorial Trophy and the Ted Lindsay Award , in addition to sharing the William M. Jennings Trophy for the fewest goals allowed during the regular season .
The Habs started the 2015 – 16 season with a nine @-@ game winning streak , and posted an 18 @-@ 4 @-@ 3 record in the first two months of the season . However , after winning 19 of their first 26 games , the team struggled offensively and lost many players , including Price , to injuries . The Canadiens ultimately finished sixth in the Atlantic Division and did not qualify for the playoffs for the first time since the 2011 @-@ 12 season . The team participated for the first time in the NHL Winter Classic , defeating the Boston Bruins .
= = Retired numbers = =
The Canadiens have retired 15 numbers , honouring 18 players . Howie Morenz 's number 7 was the first jersey to be retired , shortly after his death in 1937 . Maurice Richard 's number 9 followed in 1960 ; his 544 career goals are a franchise record . Henri Richard , brother of Maurice , was honoured in 1975 with the retirement of his number 16 , after 21 seasons and 11 Stanley Cups with the Canadiens . Henri holds the franchise games @-@ played record with 1256 .
Jean Beliveau 's number 4 was retired in 1971 after he left the game as the all @-@ time leading scorer in Stanley Cup playoff history . Beliveau was offered , but declined , the position of Governor General of Canada in 1994 ; he is the only hockey player known to have been asked to serve in this capacity . Guy Lafleur 's number 10 followed in February 1985 after his first retirement . Lafleur was a six @-@ time All @-@ Star with the Canadiens , and won three scoring titles and two most valuable player awards . Also in 1985 , Doug Harvey 's number 2 was raised to the rafters . The defenceman won six Norris Trophies as the NHL 's top defenceman in seven years between 1955 and 1961 . Jacques Plante 's number 1 was retired on October 17 , 1995 . Plante revolutionized the way goaltenders played the game , and he leads the Canadiens with 314 career wins .
Leading up to their centennial year , the Canadiens retired the jerseys of several players . They began with three former greats during the 2005 – 06 season . Montreal first retired the number 12 in honour of both Dickie Moore and Yvan Cournoyer . Moore was a member of the Canadiens ' dynasty of 1956 – 1960 , while Cournoyer won ten titles between 1965 and 1979 . Bernie Geoffrion was the third player honoured by the Canadiens . Nicknamed " Boom Boom " , Geoffrion was considered the innovator of the slapshot . He died on March 11 , 2006 , the same day his number 5 was retired .
Serge Savard 's number 18 was retired on November 18 , 2006 . Known for the " Savardian spin @-@ a @-@ rama , " where he protected the puck by spinning around to avoid opponents , Savard also served as the team 's general manager for ten years . His defensive partner Larry Robinson 's number 19 was retired one year later , as was Bob Gainey 's number 23 . Gainey was considered one of the game 's elite defensive forwards , winning four Selke Trophies and five Stanley Cups before serving as coach and general manager of the team . Patrick Roy 's number 33 was retired on November 22 , 2008 . Roy 's jersey retirement was a return " back to the Canadiens family " for the Hall of Fame goaltender , who had not maintained a relationship with the organization after his trade demand in 1995 . Emile Bouchard 's number 3 , and Elmer Lach 's number 16 were retired on December 4 , 2009 , as part of the team 's centennial celebration . ( Lach had played as 16 before Richard did . ) They retired Guy Lapointe 's number 5 during the 2014 – 15 season .
= = = Builders Row = = =
The Canadiens created " Builders Row " in 2006 to honour the off @-@ ice members of the club who helped lead the team to success . Seven people were initially inducted : team founder Ambrose O 'Brien ; former owners Leo Dandurand , Joseph Cattarinich , Louis A. Letourneau and Hartland Molson ; former team president Donat Raymond ; and special advisor William Northey . In 2008 , the team added its three legendary coaches to the Row : Dick Irvin Sr. , Toe Blake and Scotty Bowman . The three served a combined 36 years behind the Canadiens ' bench from 1940 to 1979 .
= = Hockey Hall of Famers = =
The Hockey Hall of Fame was created in 1945 with nine initial player inductees , including two Canadiens : Howie Morenz and Georges Vezina . Morenz was considered hockey 's first superstar , and in 1950 was voted the top hockey player of the half @-@ century . Vezina perfected the " stand up " style of goaltending in an era when goaltenders were not allowed to drop to their knees to cover the puck , and became the standard by which future goaltenders judged themselves .
Maurice Richard , inducted in 1961 , and Jean Beliveau , inducted in 1972 , are two of ten players for whom the selection committee has waived the otherwise @-@ mandatory three @-@ year waiting period before being eligible for induction . Defenceman Doug Harvey was unanimously elected in 1973 , one year after being denied entry due to his drinking habits . Angered by the snub , Harvey refused his induction , stating that he planned to go fishing instead of attending the induction ceremony . Guy Lafleur was one of three players in NHL history ( along with Gordie Howe and Mario Lemieux ) to return to playing after being elected . Lafleur , who had first retired in 1984 after growing frustrated with the Canadiens ' defence @-@ focused system , returned to the league days after his 1988 election , playing for the New York Rangers and Quebec Nordiques before finally retiring in 1991 .
As of 2009 , over 50 former Canadiens players have been elected to the Hall of Fame .
Source : Hockey Hall of Fame
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= Tell Brak =
Tell Brak ( Nagar , Nawar ) was an ancient city in Syria . Its remains constitute a tell located in the Upper Khabur region , near the modern village of Tell Brak , 50 kilometers north @-@ east of Al @-@ Hasaka city , Al @-@ Hasakah Governorate . The city 's original name is unknown . During the second half of the third millennium BC , the city was known as Nagar and later on , Nawar .
Starting as a small settlement in the seventh millennium BC , Tell Brak evolved during the fourth millennium BC into one of the biggest cities in Northern Mesopotamia , and interacted with the cultures of southern Mesopotamia . The city shrank in size at the beginning of the third millennium BC with the end of Uruk period , before expanding again around c . 2600 BC , when it became known as Nagar , and was the capital of a regional kingdom that controlled the Khabur river valley . Nagar was destroyed around c . 2300 BC , and came under the rule of the Akkadian Empire , followed by a period of independence as a Hurrian city @-@ state , before contracting at the beginning of the second millennium BC . Nagar prospered again by the 19th century BC , and came under the rule of different regional powers . In c . 1500 BC , Tell Brak was a center of Mitanni before being destroyed by Assyria c . 1300 BC . The city never regained its former importance , remaining as a small settlement , and abandoned at some points of its history , until disappearing from records during the early Abbasid era .
Different peoples inhabited the city , including the Halafians , Semites and the Hurrians . Tell Brak was a religious center from its earliest periods ; its famous Eye Temple is unique in the Fertile Crescent , and its main deity , Belet @-@ Nagar , was revered in the entire Khabur region , making the city a pilgrimage site . The culture of Tell Brak was defined by the different civilizations that inhabited it , and it was famous for its glyptic style , equids and glass . When independent , the city was ruled by a local assembly or by a monarch . Tell Brak was a trade center due to its location between Anatolia , the Levant and southern Mesopotamia . It was excavated by Max Mallowan in 1937 , then regularly by different teams between 1979 and 2011 , when the work stopped due to the Syrian Civil War .
= = History = =
Tell Brak is the current name of the tell . East of the mound lies a dried lake named " Khatuniah " which was recorded as " Lacus Beberaci " ( the lake of Brak ) in the Roman map Tabula Peutingeriana . The lake was probably named after Tell Brak which was the nearest camp in the area . The name " Brak " might therefore be an echo of the most ancient name which is unknown .
= = = Early settlement = = =
The earliest period A , is dated to the proto Halaf culture c . 6500 BC , when a small settlement existed . Many objects dated to that period were discovered including the Halaf pottery . By 5000 BC , Halaf culture transformed into Northern Ubaid , and many Ubaid materials were found in Tell Brak . Excavations and surface survey of the site and its surroundings , unearthed a large platform of patzen bricks that dates to late Ubaid , and revealed that Tell Brak developed as an urban center slightly earlier than better known cities of southern Mesopotamia , such as Uruk .
= = = The first city = = =
In southern Mesopotamia , the original Ubaid culture evolved into the Uruk period . The people of the southern Uruk period used military and commercial means to expand the civilization . In Northern Mesopotamia , the post Ubaid period is designated Late Chalcolithic / Northern Uruk period , during which , Tell Brak , whose original name is unknown , started to expand .
Period Brak E witnessed the building of the city 's walls , and Tell Brak expansion beyond the mound to form a lower town . By the late 5th millennium BC , Tell Brak reached the size of c . 55 hectares . Area TW of the tell ( see the map for Tell Brak 's areas ) revealed the remains of a monumental building with two meters thick walls and a basalt threshold . In front of the building , a sherd paved street was discovered , leading to the northern entrance of the city .
The city continued to expand during period F , and reached the size of 130 hectares . Four mass graves dating to c . 3800 – 3600 BC were discovered in the surroundings of the tell , and they suggest that the process of urbanization was accompanied by internal social stress , and an increase in the organization of warfare . The first half of period F ( designated LC3 ) , saw the erection of the Eye Temple , which was named for the thousands of small alabaster " Eye idols " figurines discovered in it . Those idols were also found in area TW .
Interactions with the Mesopotamian south grew during the second half of period F ( designated LC4 ) c . 3600 BC , and an Urukean colony was established in the city . With the end of Uruk culture c 3000 BC , Tell Brak 's Urukean colony was abandoned and deliberately leveled by its occupants . Tell Brak contracted during the following periods H and J , and became limited to the mound . Evidence exists for an interaction with the Mesopotamian south during period H , represented by the existence of materials similar to the ones produced during the southern Jemdet Nasr period . The city remained a small settlement during the Ninevite 5 period , with a small temple and associated sealing activities .
= = = Kingdom of Nagar = = =
Around c . 2600 BC , a large administrative building was built and the city expanded out of the tell again . The revival is connected with the Kish civilization , and the city was named " Nagar " , which might be of Simitic origin and mean a " cultivated place " . Amongst the important buildings dated to the kingdom , is an administrative building or temple named the " Brak Oval " , located in area TC . The building have a curved exterior wall reminiscent of the Khafajah " Oval Temple " in central Mesopotamia . However , aside from the wall , the comparison between the two buildings in terms of architecture is difficult , as each building follows a different plan .
The oldest references to Nagar comes from Mari and tablets discovered at Nabada . However , the most important source on Nagar come from the archives of Ebla . Most of the texts record the ruler of Nagar using his title " En " , without mentioning a name . However , the text from Mari record king Amar @-@ An , who could be identical to Mara @-@ Il , a king of Nagar mentioned in one of Ebla 's texts . Thus , Mara @-@ Il is the only king known by name for pre @-@ Akkadian Nagar , he ruled a little more than a generation before the kingdom 's destruction , and was most probably the " En " recorded in the other texts , including the ones from Nabada .
At its height , Nagar encompassed most of the southwestern half of the Khabur Basin , and was a diplomatic and political equal of the Eblaite and Mariote states . The kingdom included many subordinate cities such as Hazna , and most importantly Nabada , which was a city @-@ state annexed by Nagar , and served as a provincial capital . Nagar was involved in the wide diplomatic network of Ebla , and the relations between the two kingdoms involved both confrontations and alliances . A text from Ebla mention a victory of Ebla 's king ( perhaps Irkab @-@ Damu ) over Nagar . However , a few years later , a treaty was concluded , and the relations progressed toward a dynastic marriage between princess Tagrish @-@ Damu of Ebla , and prince Ultum @-@ Huhu , Nagar 's monarch 's son .
Nagar was defeated by Mari in year seven of the Eblaite vizier Ibrium 's term , causing the blockage of trade routes between Ebla and southern Mesopotamia via upper Mesopotamia . Later , Ebla 's king Isar @-@ Damu concluded an alliance with Nagar and Kish against Mari , and the campaign was headed by the Eblaite vizier Ibbi @-@ Sipish , who led the combined armies to victory in a battle near Terqa . Afterwards , the alliance attacked the rebellious Eblaite vassal city of Armi . Ebla was destroyed approximately three years after Terqa 's battle , and soon after , Nagar followed in c . 2300 BC . Large parts of the city were burned , an act attributed either to Mari , or Sargon of Akkad .
= = = Akkadian period = = =
Following its destruction , Nagar was rebuilt by the Akkadian empire , to form a center of the provincial administration . The city included the whole tell and a lower town at the southern edge of the mound . Two public buildings were built during the early Akkadian periods , one complex in area SS , and another in area FS . The building of area FS included its own temple and might have served as a caravanserai , being located near the northern gate of the city . The early Akkadian monarchs were occupied with internal conflicts , and Tell Brak was temporarily abandoned by Akkad at some point preceding the reign of Naram @-@ Sin . The abandonment might be connected with an environmental event , that caused the desertification of the region .
The destruction of Nagar 's kingdom created a power vacuum in the Upper Khabur . The Hurrians , formerly concentrated in Urkesh , took advantage of the situation to control the region as early as Sargon 's latter years . Tell Brak was known as " Nawar " for the Hurrians , and kings of Urkesh took the title " King of Urkesh and Nawar " , first attested in the seal of Urkesh 's king Atal @-@ Shen .
The use of the title continued during the reigns of Atal @-@ Shen 's successors , Tupkish and Tish @-@ Atal , who ruled only in Urkesh . The Akkadians under Naram @-@ Sin incorporated Nagar firmly into their empire . The most important Akkadian building in the city is called the " Palace of Naram @-@ Sin " , which had parts of it built over the original Eye Temple . Despite its name , the palace is closer to a fortress , as it was more of a fortified depot for the storage of collected tribute rather than a residential seat . The palace was burned during Naram @-@ Sin 's reign , perhaps by a Lullubi attack , and the city was burned toward the end of the Akkadian period c . 2193 BC , probably by the Gutians .
= = = Post @-@ Akkadian kingdom = = =
The Akkadian period was followed by period N , during which Nagar was the center of an independent Hurrian dynasty , evidenced by the discovery of a seal , recording the name of king Talpus @-@ Atili of Nagar , who ruled during or slightly after the reign of Naram @-@ Sin 's son Shar @-@ Kali @-@ Sharri . The view that Tell Brak came under the control of Ur III is refused , and evidence exists for a Hurrian rebuilding of Naram @-@ Sin 's palace , erroneously attributed by Max Mallowan to Ur @-@ Nammu of Ur . Period N saw a reduction in the city 's size , with public buildings being abandoned , and the lower town evacuated . Few short lived houses were built in area CH during period N , and although greatly reduced in size , archaeology provided evidence for continued occupation in the city , instead of abandonment .
= = = Foreign rule and later periods = = =
During period P , Nagar was densely populated in the northern ridge of the tell . The city came under the rule of Mari , and was the site of a decisive victory won by Yahdun @-@ Lim of Mari over Shamshi @-@ Adad I of Assyria . Nagar lost its importance and came under the rule of Kahat in the 18th century BC . The name " Nagar " ceased occurring following the Old Babylonian period , however , the city continued to exist as Nawar , under the control of Mitanni .
During period Q , Tell Brak was an important trade city in the Mitanni state . A two story palace was built c . 1500 BC in the northern section of the tell , in addition to an associated one roomed temple . However , the rest of the tell was not occupied , and a lower town extended to the north but is now all but destroyed through modern agriculture . Two Mitannian legal documents , bearing the names of kings Artashumara and Tushratta , were recovered from the city , which was destroyed between c.1300 and 1275 BC , in two waves , first at the hands of the Assyrian king Adad @-@ Nirari I , then by his successor Shalmaneser I.
Little evidence of an occupation on the tell exists following the destruction of the Mitannian city , however , a series of small villages existed in the lower town during the Assyrian periods . The remains of a Hellenistic settlement were discovered on a nearby satellite tell , to the northwestern edge of the main tell . However , excavations recovered no ceramics of the Parthian @-@ Roman or Byzantine @-@ Sasanian periods , although sherds dating to those periods are noted . In the middle of the first millennium AD , a fortified building was erected in the northeastern lower town . The building was dated by Antoine Poidebard to the Justinian era ( sixth century AD ) , on the basis of its architecture . The last occupation period of the site was during the early Abbasid Caliphate 's period , when a canal was built to provide the town with water from the nearby Jaghjagh River .
= = Society = =
= = = People and language = = =
The Halafians were the indigenous people of Neolithic northern Syria , who later adopted the southern Ubaidian culture . Contact with the Mesopotamian south increased during the early and middle Northern Uruk period , and southern people moved to Tell Brak in the late Uruk period , forming a colony , which produced a mixed society . The Urukean colony was abandoned by the colonist toward the end of the fourth millennium BC , leaving the indigenous Tell Brak a much contracted city . The pre @-@ Akkadian kingdom 's population was Semitic , and spoke its own East Semitic dialect of the Eblaite language used in Ebla and Mari . The Nagarite dialect is closer to the dialect of Mari rather than that of Ebla .
No Hurrian names are recorded in the pre @-@ Akkadian period , although the name of prince Ultum @-@ Huhu is difficult to understand as Semitic . During the Akkadian period , both Semitic and Hurrian names were recorded , as the Hurrians appears to have taken advantage of the power vacuum caused by the destruction of the pre @-@ Akkadian kingdom , in order to migrate and expand in the region . The post @-@ Akkadian period Tell Brak had a strong Hurrian element , and Hurrian named rulers , although the region was also inhabited by Amorite tribes . A number of the Amorite Banu @-@ Yamina tribes settled the surroundings of Tell Brak during the reign of Zimri @-@ Lim of Mari , and each group used its own language ( Hurrian and Amorite languages ) . Tell Brak was a center of the Hurrian @-@ Mitannian empire , which had Hurrian as its official language . However , Akkadian was the region 's international language , evidenced by the post @-@ Akkadian and Mitannian eras tablets , discovered at Tell Brak and written in Akkadian .
= = = Religion = = =
The findings in the Eye Temple indicate that Tell Brak is among the earliest sites of organized religion in northern Mesopotamia . It is unknown to which deity the Eye Temple was dedicated , and the " Eyes " figurines appears to be votive offerings to that unknown deity . Michel Meslin hypothesized that the temple was the center of the Sumerian Innana or the Semitic Ishtar , and that the " Eyes " figurines were a representation of an all @-@ seeing female deity .
During the pre @-@ Akkadain kingdom 's era , Hazna , an old cultic center of northern Syria , served as a pilgrimage center for Nagar . The Eye Temple remained in use , but as a small shrine , while the goddess Belet @-@ Nagar became the kingdom 's paramount deity . The temple of Belet @-@ Nagar is not identified but probably lies beneath the Mitannian palace . The Eblaite deity Kura was also venerated in Nagar , and the monarchs are attested visiting the temple of the Semitic deity Dagon in Tuttul . During the Akkadian period , the temple in area FS was dedicated to the Sumerian god Shakkan , the patron of animals and countrysides . Tell Brak was an important religious Hurrian center , and the temple of Belet @-@ Nagar retained its cultic importance in the entire region until the early second millennium BC .
= = = Culture = = =
Northern Mesopotamia evolved independently from the south during the Late Chalcolithic / early and middle Northern Uruk ( 4000 @-@ 3500 BC ) . This period was characterized by a strong emphasis on holy sites , among which , the Eye Temple was the most important in Tell Brak . The building containing " Eyes " idols in area TW was wood paneled , whose main room had been lined with wooden panels . The building also contained the earliest known semi columned facade , which is a character that will be associated with temples in later periods .
By late Northern Uruk and especially after 3200 BC , northern Mesopotamia came under the full cultural dominance of the southern Uruk culture , which affected Tell Brak 's architecture and administration . The southern influence is most obvious in the level named the " Latest Jemdet Nasr " of the Eye Temple , which had southern elements such as cone mosaics . The Uruk presence was peaceful as it is first noted in the context of feasting ; commercial deals during that period were traditionally ratified through feasting . The excavations in area TW revealed feasting to be an important local habit , as two cooking facilities , large amounts of grains , skeletons of animals , a domed backing oven and barbequing fire pets were discovered . Among the late Uruk materials found at Tell Brak , is a standard text for educated scribes ( the " Standard Professions " text ) , part of the standardized education taught in the 3rd millennium BC over a wide area of Syria and Mesopotamia .
The pre @-@ Akkadian kingdom was famed for its acrobats , who were in demand in Ebla and trained local Eblaite entertainers . The kingdom also had its own local glyptic style called the " Brak Style " , which was distinct from the southern sealing variants , employing soft circled shapes and sharpened edges . The Akkadian administration had little effect on the local administrative traditions and sealing style , and Akkadian seals existed side by side with the local variant . The Hurrians employed the Akkadian style in their seals , and Elamite seals were discovered , indicating an interaction with the western Iranian Plateau . Tell Brak provided great knowledge on the culture of Mitanni , which produced glass using sophisticated techniques , that resulted in different varieties of multicolored and decorated shapes . Samples of the elaborate Nuzi ware were discovered , in addition to seals that combine distinctive Mitannian elements with the international motifs of that period .
= = = = Wagons = = = =
Seals from Tell Brak and Nabada dated to the pre @-@ Akkadian kingdom , revealed the use of four @-@ wheeled wagons and war carriages . Excavation in area FS recovered clay models of equids and wagons dated to the Akkadian and post @-@ Akkadian periods . The models provides information about the types of wagons used during that period ( 2350 @-@ 2000 BC ) , and they include four wheeled vehicles and two types of two wheeled vehicles ; the first is a cart with fixed seats and the second is a cart where the driver stands above the axle . The chariots were introduced during the Mitanni era , and none of the pre @-@ Mitanni carriages can be considered chariots , as they are mistakenly described in some sources .
= = Government = =
The first city had the characteristics of large urban centers , such as monumental buildings , and seems to have been ruled by a kinship based assembly , headed by elders . The pre @-@ Akkadian kingdom was decentralized , and the provincial center of Nabada was ruled by a council of elders , next to the king 's representative . The Nagarite monarchs had to tour their kingdom regularly in order to assert their political control . During the early Akkadian period , Nagar was administrated by local officials . However , central control was tightened and the number of Akkadian officials increased , following the supposed environmental event that preceded the construction of Naram @-@ Sin 's palace . The post @-@ Akkadian Nagar was a city @-@ state kingdom , that gradually lost its political importance during the early second millennium BC , as no evidence for a king dating to that period exists .
= = = Rulers of Tell Brak = = =
= = Economy = =
Throughout its history , Tell Brak was an important trade center ; it was an enterpot of obsidian trade during the Chalcolithic , as it was situated on the river crossing between Anatolia , the Levant and southern Mesopotamia . The countryside was occupied by smaller towns , villages and hamlets , but the city 's surroundings were empty within three kilometers . This was probably due to the intensive cultivation in the immediate hinterland , in order to sustain the population . The city manufactured different objects , including chalices made of obsidian and white marble , faience , flint tools and shell inlays . However , evidence exists for a slight shift in production of goods toward manufacturing objects desired in the south , following the establishment of the Uruk colony .
Trade was also an important economic activity for the pre @-@ Akkadian kingdom of Nagar , which had Ebla and Kish as major partners . The kingdom produced glass , wool , and was famous for breeding and trading in the Kunga , a hybrid of a donkey and a female onager . Tell Brak remained an important commercial center during the Akkadian period , and was one of Mitanni 's main trade cities . Many objects were manufactured in Mitannian Tell Brak , including furniture made of ivory , wood and bronze , in addition to glass . The city provided evidence for the international commercial contacts of Mitanni , including Egyptian , Hittite and Mycenaean objects , some of which were produced in the region to satisfy the local taste .
= = = Equids = = =
The Kungas of pre @-@ Akkadian Nagar were used for drawing the carriages of kings before the domestication of the horse , and a royal procession included up to fifty animals . The kungas of Nagar were in great demand in the Eblaite empire ; they cost two kilos of silver , fifty times the price of a donkey , and were imported regularly by the monarchs of Ebla to be used as transport animals and gifts for allied cities . The horse was known in the region during the third millennium BC , but was not used as a draught animal before c . 18th century BC .
= = Site = =
= = = Excavations = = =
Tell Brak was excavated by the British archaeologist Sir Max Mallowan , husband of Agatha Christie , in 1937 and 1938 . The Eye Temple was the first building unearthed and some artifacts from that initial excavation are now preserved in the British Museum 's collection , including the famous Tell Brak Head .
A team from the Institute of Archaeology of the University of London , led by David and Joan Oates , worked in the tell for 14 seasons between 1976 and 1993 . After 1993 , excavations were conducted by a number of filed directors under the general guidance of David ( until 2004 ) and Joan Oates . Those directors included Roger Matthews ( between 1994 @-@ 1996 ) , for the McDonald Institute for Archaeological Research of the University of Cambridge ; Geoff Emberling ( between 1998 @-@ 2002 ) and Helen McDonald ( between 2000 @-@ 2004 ) , for the British Institute for the Study of Iraq and the Metropolitan Museum of Art . In 2006 , Augusta McMahon became field director , also sponsored by the British Institute for the Study of Iraq . A regional archaeological field survey in a 20 km ( 12 mi ) radius around Brak was supervised by Henry T. Wright ( between 2002 – 2005 ) . Many of the finds from the excavations at Tell Brak are on display in the Deir ez @-@ Zor Museum . The most recent excavations took place in the spring of 2011 , but archaeological work is currently suspended due to the ongoing Syrian Civil War .
= = = Syrian Civil War = = =
According to the Syrian authorities , the camp of archaeologists was looted , along with the tools and ceramics kept in it . The site changed hands between the different combatants , mainly the Kurdish People 's Protection Units and the Islamic State of Iraq and the Levant . In early 2015 , Tell Brak was taken by the Kurdish forces after light fighting with the Islamic State .
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= Dodo Marmarosa =
Michael " Dodo " Marmarosa ( December 12 , 1925 – September 17 , 2002 ) was an American jazz pianist , composer , and arranger .
Originating in Pittsburgh , Pennsylvania , Marmarosa became a professional musician in his mid @-@ teens , and toured with several major big bands , including those led by Tommy Dorsey , Gene Krupa , and Artie Shaw into the mid @-@ 1940s . He moved to Los Angeles in 1945 , where he became increasingly interested and involved in the emerging bebop scene . During his time on the West Coast , he recorded in small groups with leading bebop and swing musicians , including Howard McGhee , Charlie Parker , and Lester Young , as well as leading his own bands .
Marmarosa returned to Pittsburgh due to health reasons in 1948 . He began performing much less frequently , and had a presence only locally for around a decade . Friends and fellow musicians had commented from an early stage that Marmarosa was an unusual character . His mental stability was probably affected by being beaten into a coma when in his teens , by a short @-@ lived marriage followed by permanent separation from his children , and by a traumatic period in the army . He made comeback recordings in the early 1960s , but soon retreated to Pittsburgh , where he played occasionally into the early 1970s . From then until his death three decades later , he lived with family and in veterans ' hospitals .
= = Early life = =
Marmarosa was born in Pittsburgh , Pennsylvania on December 12 , 1925 . He had " Italian working @-@ class parents " – Joseph and Carmella . He was the middle of three children , between sisters Audrey and Doris , and grew up in the East Liberty neighborhood of Pittsburgh . Marmarosa attended Peabody High School . He received the uncomplimentary nickname " Dodo " as a child because of his large head , short body , and bird @-@ like nose .
Although he had stated an interest in playing the trumpet , Marmarosa 's parents persuaded him to take up the piano , which he began at the age of 9 . He received classical music lessons , but was influenced by the jazz playing of Art Tatum , Teddy Wilson , and others after fellow pianist Erroll Garner , four years Marmarosa 's elder , introduced him to their music . Marmarosa practiced a lot , until his left and right hands were equally strong .
= = Later life and career = =
= = = 1941 – 50 = = =
Marmarosa began his professional career around 1941 , joining the Johnny " Scat " Davis orchestra at the age of 15 or 16 . He was first mentioned in the national jazz press the following year , appearing in Down Beat magazine for his playing at a jam session . After touring , the Davis orchestra disbanded , so Marmarosa and others then joined Gene Krupa around the end of 1942 . After one 1943 Krupa performance in Philadelphia , Marmarosa was beaten into a coma by sailors who accused him of draft dodging . According to clarinetist Buddy DeFranco , who was also attacked by the men , " Dodo was always a little off but he seemed different after that beating . The head injury didn 't affect his playing , but I think it created psychological problems for him . "
After Krupa 's orchestra broke up in the middle of 1943 , Marmarosa played in Ted Fio Rito 's band for at least a month that summer . He then moved to Charlie Barnet 's big band , where he stayed from October 1943 to March 1944 . Marmarosa 's recording debut was with Barnet in 1943 ; they recorded " The Moose " , a track described by Gunther Schuller as " a veritable masterpiece " on which the 17 @-@ year @-@ old pianist played an original blend of nascent bebop and Count Basie @-@ style minimalism . Marmarosa recorded some trio tracks with Krupa and DeFranco in 1944 . From April to October of that year he was with Tommy Dorsey , including for the orchestra 's appearance in the MGM film Thrill of a Romance . A Dorsey biographer indicated that the pianist was dismissed because the bandleader did not care for the modernistic facets of his playing . Marmarosa soon joined clarinetist Artie Shaw , with whom he stayed until November 1945 , as part of a big band and Shaw 's small band , the Gramercy Five .
From the early 1940s Marmarosa had searched for and experimented with advanced progressive forms of jazz , and had become increasingly attracted to bebop after meeting and jamming with the leaders of that new movement , Dizzy Gillespie and Charlie Parker . In 1945 Marmarosa moved to Los Angeles . He was pianist in March of the following year for Parker 's first recordings for Dial Records . Two of the tracks recorded , " Ornithology " and " Yardbird Suite " , have been included in the Grammy Hall of Fame .
Marmarosa recorded extensively as a sideman in the period 1945 – 47 , in both bebop and swing contexts . Leaders of these sessions included Wardell Gray , Lionel Hampton , Mel Tormé , Willie Smith , Lester Young , and , with Marmarosa as house pianist for Atomic Records , Slim Gaillard and Barney Kessel . With a few exceptions , however , Marmarosa only rarely played in public with the leaders whose studio recordings he appeared on during his time on the West Coast . Between the frequent recording sessions , he played " in big bands ( especially Boyd Raeburn and Tommy Pederson ) , at jazz concerts , as a soloist in nightclubs [ ... ] or jamming after hours . " Raeburn 's orchestra was a progressive group that used " modern arrangements seeking to bridge the gap between bop and advanced European music " .
Marmarosa made his first recordings as leader in 1946 , with trio tracks that included Ray Brown on bass and Jackie Mills on drums , and in a quartet with saxophonist Lucky Thompson added . He also recorded his only vocal track , " I 've Got News for You " , in the same year . In 1947 Marmarosa led a trio session for Dial with Harry Babasin on cello and Jackie Mills on drums ; these were the first pizzicato jazz cello recordings . In the same year , he featured in some of Gene Norman 's Just Jazz concerts , and was given Esquire magazine 's New Star ( piano ) award .
According to Mills , his housemate in 1946 – 47 , " Dodo was the most dedicated of players . He practiced an incredible amount of hours , often all day long . He wouldn 't stop to eat . He would eat at the piano with one hand and keep playing with the other . He had no other interests that I was aware of . He could play forever . " At this time , Marmarosa did not drink or take hard drugs , but his behavior was often eccentric . Mills reported that " Dodo was just a big kid [ ... ] He never really grew up because he never allowed anything but the piano to be important to him . The piano was his life . He heard things in his head that he wasn 't able to play and it frustrated him . Once , he got mad at the old upright piano we had and chopped it up with an axe . "
In the spring of 1948 Marmarosa returned to Pittsburgh because of illness . He toured again with " Scat " Davis ( April – July 1949 ) and Shaw ( September – November 1949 ) . He left Shaw 's band for the final time during one concert after they had twice played Shaw 's hit , " Frenesí " , Marmarosa had threatened to leave if Shaw called for it again , and the leader had done so after the audience requested a third playing . Shaw reported that Marmarosa " was gentle and fragile , [ ... and ] never learned to deal with the world of a musician . " The pianist returned to Pittsburgh in 1950 , signed " a term contract " with Savoy Records , and recorded four trio sides for them in July , but the quality did not match his earlier playing .
= = = 1951 – 59 = = =
For around a decade , Marmarosa was much less active as a musician . Shaw and DeFranco raised the idea of psychiatric treatment , but the former was rebuffed by Marmarosa himself , and the latter by the pianist 's parents : " They were not reconciled to his needing professional help . They were from the old school , they saw it as a stigma . I got into a big argument about it with his father . He really blew up . "
In 1952 , two years after marrying , Marmarosa moved with his wife and their two daughters to California . The marriage was short lived , and he again returned to his parents ' home in Pittsburgh in the fall of that year . His ex @-@ wife remarried and asked him to allow her to change the children 's names in exchange for not having to pay her any more money ; following the advice of his parents , he signed the documents . A friend of his later stated that never seeing his children again " was the great blight of his life . It tore him apart " . Another friend commented more generally that , " After the marriage broke up , he seemed to lose the spark , the drive he once had " .
A tour of a few months in Charlie Spivak 's band in 1953 preceded Marmarosa being drafted into the army the following year . This exacerbated his problems : several months in a Veteran Administration hospital preceded his discharge , at which point he was in a poor psychological condition . Back in Pittsburgh , where he played locally from March 1956 , Marmarosa continued to be erratic , sometimes disappearing for weeks at a time , and giving his money away : " It was like he was on the road to self @-@ destruction " , commented trumpeter Danny Conn . Amateur recordings from the pianist 's concerts in Pittsburgh in 1958 were released four decades later by Uptown Records .
= = = 1960 – 2002 = = =
Marmarosa departed for California by car in 1960 , but problems with the vehicle halted him in Chicago . Promoter Joe Segal organized an Argo Records session for him there , but Marmarosa departed suddenly and the recording was delayed until the following year . The resultant trio music from two days in May was released as Dodo 's Back ! in 1962 . Leonard Feather described it as " required listening for anyone with a serious interest in the history of modern jazz piano " , but it failed to gain Marmarosa more than a brief resurgence of interest . He made his final studio recordings in 1962 . One album from these , Jug & Dodo , contained trio and quartet tracks , with saxophonist Gene Ammons ; it was released on Prestige Records more than a decade later . The other , in a quartet with trumpeter Bill Hardman , was released in 1988 . Segal commented that Marmarosa " didn 't talk much , was very mild @-@ mannered . He just drank an awful lot , shot and a beer all day long . It would 've put nine out of ten people under the table , but he was still walking around . " The pianist shuttled between Chicago and Pittsburgh for a time , then settled again in the latter .
Marmarosa continued to perform in Pittsburgh , albeit irregularly . Around 1963 , DeFranco dropped by ; he recalled that the pianist " would play brilliantly for half a tune , then just stop and walk away . He didn 't even know who I was " . Marmarosa 's last performance in public has been dated variously as occurring in 1968 or the early @-@ to @-@ mid 1970s . Diabetes contributed to his permanent retirement . " Even the resurgence of interest in bebop in the 1970s and 80s did not bring him back to national attention " , reported The New York Times .
For the rest of his life , Marmarosa alternated between living with his sister Doris ' family and in a veterans ' hospital , both in the Pittsburgh area . Some of his friends blamed Marmarosa 's family for keeping him in their home because of shame about his mental problems , and suggested that the family blamed musicians and music for his instability . Marmarosa himself did not explain his withdrawal from performing . Irritated by telephone calls from a fan seeking an interview in 1992 , Marmarosa passed on the news that he had died ; this led to premature obituaries being published in two British newspapers . He sometimes played piano in the family 's basement or for other residents at the hospital . His mother died in 1995 , after his father . Marmarosa died of a heart attack on September 17 , 2002 , in a veterans ' hospital in Pittsburgh . He was survived by his two sisters .
= = Playing style and influence = =
Pianist Dick Katz wrote that , " In the opinion of many , Dodo Marmarosa was the most gifted of all the pianists who figured in the bebop saga . Blessed with a beautiful legato touch and a fluid technique , he developed an original style , which [ ... ] blended perfectly with the bop idiom , as well as with earlier styles . He combined advanced chordal and scalar elements with graceful rhythmic phrasing . "
In some of his 1944 playing , Marmarosa was progressively bebop @-@ directed , employing melodies derived from the harmony and varying the rhythmic positioning of accents ; soon after , he added more space to his playing , using shorter sequences of notes than typical in bebop . Jazz critic Marc Myers , in comparing Marmarosa with other pianists of the early bebop period , observed that he was less aggressive than Bud Powell , and more expressive and complex than Al Haig , and that he " had a punctuating , full @-@ keyboard approach , developing ideas in the middle and widening out to express them . "
Critic and musician Brian Priestley wrote that " What was so distinctive about Dodo 's work was partly his harmonic sense and knowledge of the additional notes [ ... in bebop . ] Many pianists were trying to find ways to voice these satisfactorily in full chording , but none did so as pleasingly or as fluently as Marmarosa . Partly it was also the way he alternated between employing his hands together and in opposition to each other , and allied to this was his unusual time feeling . "
By the time of his 1960s recordings , Marmarosa had a more relaxed playing style . Biographers commented that " his even , classically derived articulation had given way to a more rhythmically pronounced , jazz @-@ oriented playing , and , above all , his musical personality seemed still more determined and coherent . "
Pianist Cecil Taylor commented in 1961 that " The first modern pianist who made any impression on me was Dodo Marmarosa , with Charlie Barnet . " Marmarosa also encouraged DeFranco to take up bebop .
= = Discography = =
Compilations of previously released material , and recordings from or for radio broadcasts , are not listed .
= = = Albums as leader / co @-@ leader = = =
= = = Albums as sideman = = =
= = = Singles as leader / co @-@ leader = = =
= = = Singles as sideman = = =
Tracks recorded but not released as singles are not listed .
Main sources :
= = Filmography = =
Thrill of a Romance ( made 1944 ; released 1945 )
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= Earl Cain =
Earl Cain ( Japanese : 伯爵カインシリーズ , Hepburn : Hakushaku Kain Shirīzu ) , also known as Count Cain , is a gothic shōjo manga series written and illustrated by Kaori Yuki . Earl Cain consists of five parts or " Series " : Forgotten Juliet ( 忘れられたジュリエット , Wasurerareta Jurietto ) , The Sound of a Boy Hatching ( 少年の孵化する音 , Shōnen no Fukasuru Oto ) , Kafka ( カフカ , Kafuka ) , The Seal of the Red Ram ( 赤い羊の刻印 , Akai Hitsuji no Kokuin ) , and the sequel series Godchild ( ゴッド チャイルド , Goddo Chairudo ) .
Appearing as serials in the Japanese manga magazine Hana to Yume , the chapters of Forgotten Juliet , The Sound of a Boy Hatching , Kafka , and The Seal of the Red Ram ran from 1991 to 1994 , and the Godchild chapters appeared between the May 2001 issue and the October 2003 issue . Together , the series spans 13 tankōbon volumes , with five for Forgotten Juliet , The Sound of a Boy Hatching , Kafka , and The Seal of the Red Ram and eight for Godchild . Two drama CDs based on the series were also released . Set in 19th @-@ century England , the series focuses on a young earl named Cain Hargreaves who solves murders while encountering his father 's secret organization , Delilah , that experiments with reviving the dead .
Earl Cain is licensed for English @-@ language release in North America by Viz Media , which published Forgotten Juliet , The Sound of a Boy Hatching , Kafka , and The Seal of the Red Ram as The Cain Saga . The first volume of The Cain Saga was published in October 2006 ; the final volume was published in June 2007 . Godchild was released simultaneously , as well as being serialized in Viz 's manga anthology Shojo Beat from July 2005 to June 2006 .
The setting of the manga was inspired by " the darker , grislier side " of the Victorian upper class and her admiration of films set in the Victorian time period . For Godchild , she traveled to London to do historical research and visited seven historical sites there . In the series , she refers to the Bible as well as real @-@ life literary works , films and people . Reviewers have found a range of themes in the series . Critical reaction to The Cain Saga was mixed : some felt that the mysteries were well @-@ done with detailed art , while others found the art crude and the short stories confusing and predictable . Reviewers praised Godchild as an overdone , entertaining series with detailed and distinct art .
= = Plot = =
= = = Characters = = =
Set during the late Victorian era in London , the series focuses on its eponymous protagonist Cain C. Hargreaves ( カイン ・ C ・ ハーグリーヴス , Kain Shĩ Hāgurīvuzu ) the seventeen @-@ year @-@ old son of Alexis Hargreaves and Alexis 's elder sister , Augusta . Abused physically and emotionally by his father for her subsequent insanity , Cain poisoned him , after a dying Augusta warned him to escape . Before Alexis plunged into the sea , he cursed his son to have a miserable life and die alone . Cain inherited his father 's title of earl as a result of his presumed death . Accompanying him is his twenty @-@ eight @-@ year @-@ old butler Riffael " Riff " Raffit ( リフェール ・ ラフィット , Rifēru Rafitto ) , a former medical student with whom he shares a close bond . Cain 's uncle and legal guardian Neil Hargreaves ( ニール ・ ハーグリーヴス , Nīru Hāgurīvuzu ) tends to become upset with his behavior and course of action . Often annoyed by Cain 's relationships with women , Cain 's ten @-@ year @-@ old half sister , the outgoing and strongwilled Mary Weather Hargreaves ( マリーウェザー ･ ハーグリーヴス , Marīwezā Hāgurīvuzu ) also lives with them . Previously , she lived on the streets as a fortuneteller , after her mother died to protect her . One of Cain 's friends , Oscar Gabriel , becomes her self @-@ proclaimed fiancé to win back his father 's attention . As the series progresses , he risks his life to protect her , and she realizes that he genuinely cares for her .
Alexis Hargreaves ( アレクシス ・ ハーグリーヴス , Arekushisu Hāgurīvuzu ) and his secret organization , Delilah , serve as the antagonists of the series . Delilah conducts experiments to revive the dead , creating " deadly dolls " or resurrected corpses surviving on the fresh blood and organs of others . The deadly dolls each possess a supernatural ability , such as seeing the future . Among the deadly dolls is the spider @-@ controlling Mikaila ( ミケイラ ) , who is a doll of Suzette ( シュゼット , Shuzetto ) , Augusta 's daughter and Cain 's childhood love . Cain 's half brother and Alexis 's illegitimate son , Jizabel Disraeli ( ジザベル ・ ディズレーリ , Jizaberu Dizurēri ) works as a doctor for the organization , conducting experiments on humans . Although Alexis physically abused and emotionally traumatized him as well , he refuses to escape from him , and simultaneously despises and envies the bond between Cain and Riff as he believes unconditional love does not exist . His thirty @-@ five @-@ year @-@ old assistant Cassian ( カシアン , Kashian ) , whose body stopped growing due to a rare strain of dwarfism and who was subsequently sold to a circus as a child by his parents , shows concern for Jizabel and his involvement with Alexis and Delilah .
= = = Story = = =
Having vowed to end Delilah 's experiments with the dead , Cain solves murders while periodically running into Jizabel and other members of Delilah . After encountering Mikaila , who professes her one @-@ sided love for him and wants to become Suzette , he becomes obsessed with destroying the organization and learns that it is secretly building a memorial temple . Meanwhile , despite Jizabel 's efforts to delay Riff 's second , hidden , and cruel personality from awakening , the hypnosis suppressing it breaks . Riff later declares to Cain that he secretly works for Delilah : the loyal , kind @-@ hearted Riff Cain had known is an alternative personality used to deceive others . Alexis had intended for Cain to develop a close bond with Riff , only to break it , to remind Cain that he is unloved . After Riff 's departure , Cain resolves to confront Alexis and promises Mary that they will have a tea party after the conflict with Delilah ends . Led by Cassian , whose brain has been transplanted into an adult body , he reaches the tower within the temple where Alexis plans to sacrifice the brainwashed people of London to revive Augusta . Within the tower , Riff reveals his intent to overthrow Alexis . Unconcerned , Alexis divulges that Riff is Delilah 's longest surviving doll and will soon die . Riff attacks Cain , but Riff 's other personality resurfaces , causing him to deliberately shoot himself . Riff 's loyal personality triumphs over the cruel one , but he and Cain are separated . Because Riff 's wound cannot heal , Jizabel commits suicide so Riff can use his blood to briefly remain alive and return to Cain . Meanwhile , Cain successfully poisons his father and with his death , the tower begins to crumble . Cain , unable to escape and hurt by the falling debris , reunites briefly with Riff . However , the ceiling collapses and Riff tries to push him away . Cain embraces him , choosing to stay .
After Cain 's disappearance , Mary becomes head of the Hargreaves . Augusta possesses Alexis , and seeks out Mary in the mausoleum Cain had built before leaving to confront Alexis . Augusta reveals that she manipulated Alexis into abusing his sons and trying to resurrect her for her amusement . Before she can kill Mary , Augusta triggers Cain 's trap in the mausoleum and dies . Years later , Mary is married to Oscar and pregnant with their child , although she still waits for his return . Crehador , a medium close to Cain , sets up a tea party for Mary , fulfilling Cain 's promise ; he then reminisces on how he found Cain being held by Riff 's corpse within the ruined tower . The bunkoban @-@ exclusive epilogue expands the ending slightly . It shows an elderly Mary , who lies on her deathbed attended by a woman nearby and hears the laughter of Jizabel 's ghost as he plays with his pet sheep . Sensing a presence nearby , she dies , and taking the form of her ten @-@ year @-@ old self , her soul joins Cain hand @-@ in @-@ hand at a tea party with their friends and loved ones — although they exist as spirits , a boy nearby can hear them .
= = Development = =
Manga artist Kaori Yuki chose the Victorian era as the setting for Earl Cain because she liked films from that time period and was inspired by " the darker , grislier side " of the Victorian upper class . Yuki considered Kafka , a vampire @-@ themed mystery which introduced the secret society led by the protagonist 's father , to be the beginning of the series ' plot . The " pretty risqué theme " of Kafka " embarrassed [ her ] at the time . " After completing the first four parts of Earl Cain , Yuki was uncertain about continuing the series . She wrote her supernatural fantasy manga series Angel Sanctuary ( 1994 – 2000 ) and the chapter " Solomon Grundy 's Sunday " as a " self @-@ introduction " which convinced her to start Godchild . Yuki did historical research for Godchild , traveling to London , England , and visiting seven historical sites : Westminster Abbey , Big Ben , the Tower of London , Windsor Castle , the British Museum , Thames River , and Hyde Park . Because of the gap of several years between the publication of the final The Seal of the Red Ram volume and the first Godchild volume , Yuki included the characters in order of previous appearance with past episodes , and short explanations in the first Godchild volume . Yuki noted that her drawing style differed from her previous series . The darker plot of Godchild worried Yuki , but helped her to decide the series ' ending . Her method of creating suspense in Godchild included adding " lots " of black screentone , " exaggerating " the characters ' expressions , having an elaborate setting , and opening the chapter with an everyday scene to contrast with the " scary scenes " .
Yuki believed that the original story was unclear and added extra pages to clarify the twist ending of the series . Because of her decision , the ending chapter of Godchild was eight pages longer than the usual thirty pages for a manga . Yuki was divided between a happy or tragic ending for Cain , noting how readers of Angel Sanctuary had wanted a happy ending for the protagonists . She felt that the ending of Godchild was ambiguous as to whether Cain survived because there is neither blood nor a fatal wound on him . Yuki chose the final line of Godchild from the rhyme " Simple Simon " , joking in the postscript that at least the series did not conclude with the line " And then there were none " . As of finishing the series , Yuki said that she has no plans for additional chapters or side stories . Despite this , she included a five @-@ page epilogue in the 2010 bunkoban release of the entire series .
= = = Influences and cultural references = = =
Earl Cain contains references to real @-@ life people and literary works . The first Godchild chapter , " Mad Tea Party " , focuses on a mystery with elements from Lewis Carroll 's 1865 novel Alice 's Adventures in Wonderland , a work which Yuki has expressed her fondness for . Yuki 's minor character , Victoria , was inspired by Carroll 's character , the Queen of Hearts . Carroll 's 1876 nonsense poem , The Hunting of the Snark , provided Yuki with the name of Jizabel 's childhood pet , Snark . Additionally , the title of the third part of the series , Kafka , refers to the Austrian writer Franz Kafka , and a translation of the first line of his 1915 novella The Metamorphosis appears in the beginning of the volume . Yuki also based the story of Mikaila on the fairytale " Mermaid Princess " . The chapter " Oedipal Blade " takes its name from the Greek character Oedipus Rex , who unknowingly killed his father and married his mother . Yuki also incorporates tales for children and lullabies into the mysteries of the series ; for example , the chapter " Solomon Grundy 's Sunday " uses the nursery rhyme " Solomon Grundy " , while " The Twisted Fairy Tale " refers to the Brothers Grimm fairytale " The Juniper Tree " . References to the bible also appear in the series . The protagonist shares his name with the murderer Cain , and Augusta is compared to Delilah by her father . Additionally , the series alludes to the story of the Kiss of Judas , in which Judas Iscariot betrays Jesus of Nazareth to Roman soldiers by identifying him through a kiss .
The influence of films is also seen in Earl Cain . As Yuki enjoys the American television series Twin Peaks ( 1990 – 1991 ) , reviewers have noted its influence on Forgotten Juliet , the first part of Earl Cain . Yuki felt that two minor characters that appear in Forgotten Juliet , Maddi and Leland in the chapter " Branded Bibi " , are reminiscent of the series . Yuki also drew inspiration from the film Young Sherlock Holmes ( 1985 ) for " The Boys Who Stopped Time " , and based the appearance of Cain 's aunt on Charlotte from A Room with a View ( 1985 ) . In the chapter " Double " , one of the characters shares his first name with the actor Emilio Estevez , and director Dario Argento served as the model for the antagonist . While there is no model for Cain , British actor Rupert Graves " left a strong impression " on her with his performance in A Room with a View . Additionally , Riff 's name comes from The Rocky Horror Picture Show ( 1975 ) , which Yuki considers a visual influence along with the films Gothic ( 1986 ) , The Legend of Billie Jean ( 1985 ) , Aliens ( 1986 ) , Lost Boys ( 1987 ) , and Torch @-@ song Trilogy ( 1988 ) . Overall as a manga artist , Yuki has been influenced by Western films and MTV , which she watched in her youth .
= = Themes = =
Reviewers have focused on a range of themes in Earl Cain . Noting " themes of incest and suicide " in the first four parts of the series , Thompson states that Godchild 's portrayal of incest adheres to " a more classical tormented sense " which results in " guilt , madness , and the punishment of heaven " for the characters . According to Lori Henderson , reviewer and contributor to School Library Journal 's blog Good Comics for Kids , Yuki frequently uses the " power of love " as a theme in her works ; Godchild focuses on " the darker side of love " and its effects on the characters , although she writes that the manga does explore love as a source of empowerment . Henderson also notes the theme of betrayal present in the sixth volume . Writing for IGN , A.E. Sparrow writes that the " issues of beauty , loneliness , jealousy , and family ties " appear in the first volume of Godchild 's mysteries . A French reviewer for Manga News wrote that the theme of " the soiled childhood " occurs throughout the series , depicted by abused children or children 's items , such as dolls , pudding , and puppets , playing a role in some mysteries ; the children 's items appear either in the background as in " The Little Crooked House " or as a major part of the plot as in " Solomon Grundy 's Sunday " .
= = Media = =
= = = Manga = = =
Written and illustrated by Kaori Yuki , Earl Cain is the collective name for Forgotten Juliet , The Sound of a Boy Hatching , Kafka , The Seal of the Red Ram , and the sequel series Godchild . Appearing as a serial in the Japanese manga magazine Hana to Yume , the chapters of Forgotten Juliet , The Sound of a Boy Hatching , Kafka , and The Seal of the Red Ram ran from 1991 to 1994 , and were published in five tankōbon volumes by Hakusensha from July 17 , 1992 , to October 1994 . Godchild was serialized in the same manga magazine from the May 2001 issue to the October 2003 issue , and was published by Hakusensha in eight volumes from November 19 , 2001 , to January 16 , 2004 . Hakusensha later combined chapters from Forgotten Juliet , The Sound of a Boy Hatching , Kafka , and The Seal of the Red Ram into two volumes and published them from December 20 , 2004 , to January 28 , 2005 . Hakusensha also re @-@ released the series in six bunkoban volumes from July 15 , 2009 , to March 16 , 2010 .
Viz Media licensed Earl Cain for an English @-@ language release in North America . It serialized Godchild in its manga anthology Shojo Beat from the July 2005 issue through the June 2006 issue . It published the series ' first volume on March 7 , 2006 ; the final volume was released on February 5 , 2008 . Viz published Forgotten Juliet , The Sound of a Boy Hatching , Kafka , and The Seal of the Red Ram as The Cain Saga and released the first volume during the Godchild release , on October 3 , 2006 ; the final volume was released on June 5 , 2007 . Earl Cain is also licensed for regional language releases in Germany and Sweden by Carlsen Comics , in Italy by Planet Manga , in Taiwan by Tong Li Publishing , in Spain by Glénat , and in France by Editions Tonkam . Godchild ran in multiple manga anthologies : the French Magnolia , the German Daisuki , and the Swedish Shojo Stars .
= = = Drama CDs = = =
On April 21 , 1999 , Geneon Entertainment released a drama CD titled Hakushaku Kain Shiriizu : Kafuka ( 伯爵カインシリーズ ~ カフカ ) . With music by Tomohiko Kira , it featured Hideo Ishikawa as Cain , Koyasu Takehito as Riff , Kawada Taeko as Mary Weather , Miki Shinichiro as Dr. Allen , and Jūrōta Kosugi as Alexis . The same company released a second drama CD , HCD Hakushaku Kain Shiriizu : Kirikizamareta Taberareta Miss Pudding no higeki ( HCD伯爵カインシリーズ ｢ 切り刻まれ食べられたミス · プディングの悲劇 ) , on November 17 , 1999 . The drama CD featured Hideo Ishikawa , Kyoko Hikami , Takehito Koyasu , from Kafuka and included Taeko Kawada and Junko Asami .
= = Reception = =
The Cain Saga received mixed reviews from critics . Manga Sanctuary awarded the French edition of the first volume five stars , describing it as " excellent . " IGN 's A. E. Sparrow described it as " a wonderful introduction to shojo manga for the uninitiated " and felt that both The Cain Saga and its sequel Godchild could " appeal to a very broad audience . " The Book Report 's Courtney Kraft praised the " fine attention to detail and aesthetics " of the art and liked the concept of murder mysteries based on children 's rhymes and stories , commenting that Yuki " masters the art of creating a mystery . "
Conversely , Mania Entertainment 's Danielle Van Gorder considered the art " still much less refined than her later work in Angel Sanctuary , " and commented on the amount of tragedy in the series . Manga News rated the first volume 15 out of 20 , commenting that the male characters looked similar and had similar facial expressions in contrast to the more recognizable female ones . In Manga : The Complete Guide , Jason Thompson rated the series two and a half stars out of four , stating : " In its best moments , The Cain Saga captures the genuine ghoulishness of the Victorian era , or at least of its stereotypes . " The Cain Saga was also criticized for scenes with " poorly organized " artwork , one @-@ dimensional characters , predictable mysteries , and confusing plot , caused by the back @-@ story and characters .
Conversely , the sequel , Godchild , received positive reviews . When the first chapter premiered in Shojo Beat , critics commented on the potiental and art of the series , but found the chapter " listless " and confusing . Reviews of the bound volumes were positive . Writing for The Book Report , Robin Brenner described the mysteries as " unsettling , splatter @-@ filled , and deliciously in line with the melodramatic , horrific traditions of Edgar Allan Poe and Mary Shelley . " Leroy Douresseaux of Coolstreak Cartoons wrote : " By turns bizarre and unsettling , Godchild is actually quite engaging , but can be difficult to follow for those who didn 't come in at the beginning " . Writing for Sequential Tart , Sheena McNeil described Godchild as " a masterpiece in every sense of the word . " In reviews of subsequent volumes , she lowered her score , and praised Yuki 's characterization , mysteries , and artwork ; she concluded : " Godchild is a fantastic and different story that can 't be denied . "
Critics praised the art of the series as detailed and distinct , with several noting the difference in the illustrations of The Cain Saga and Godchild . B. D. Gest 's M. Natali wrote that " one senses immediately how the art of Kaori Yuki has evolved and improved since [ The Cain Saga ] " . About.com 's Deb Aoki placed the series on her recommended reading list of horror manga , commenting on the " ravishing " artwork and " lush gothic details . " While describing the series as " the manga equivalent of Twizzlers " and the premise as " ahistoric and just plain silly , " Katherine Dacey of Popculture Shock added , " Kaori Yuki 's distinctive artwork and macabre sensibility make this overripe setup entertaining , even if the occasionally slangy dialogue and CSI @-@ style forensics seem implausible in a Victorian London setting . "
According to Publishers Weekly , Yuki 's art consists of " startlingly odd angles and abrupt jumps from closeups to distant shots " with which she establishes " a giddy mood " that enables the readers to be sympathetic to the events . Although Yuki 's character designs stuck to " certain shōjo conventions " , they were seen as detailed and " perfect " for the mood of Godchild . Reviewers enjoyed the conclusion to the series , although one wanted a clearer fate for Cain and another commented on the " rushed " ending scenes . Godchild was also criticized for the characters ' cruelty , Jizabel 's disturbing back @-@ story , and limited appeal of the series ' universe .
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= Cogan House Covered Bridge =
The Cogan House Covered Bridge is a Burr arch truss covered bridge over Larrys Creek in Cogan House Township , Lycoming County , in the U.S. state of Pennsylvania . It was built in 1877 and is 94 feet 2 inches ( 28 @.@ 7 m ) long . The bridge was placed on the National Register of Historic Places in 1980 , and had a major restoration in 1998 . The Cogan House bridge is named for the township and village of Cogan House , and is also known by at least four other names : Buckhorn , Larrys Creek , Day 's , and Plankenhorn .
The Cogan House Covered Bridge was constructed by a millwright who assembled the timber framework in a field next to the sawmill , before it was reassembled at the bridge site . It was the only bridge on Larrys Creek that survived the flood of June 1889 , and one of only a handful that were left intact in the county . Although the bridge used to carry a steady flow of tannery and sawmill traffic , the clearcutting of the surrounding forests meant the end of those industries by the early 20th century .
Since then much of the surrounding area has reverted to second growth forest , and the one @-@ lane bridge is now on a dead end road in a remote valley with little traffic . It is the oldest and longest of the three covered bridges remaining in the county . Despite the 1998 restoration and other repairs , as of 2009 the bridge structure 's sufficiency rating on the National Bridge Inventory was 17 @.@ 2 percent and its condition was deemed " basically intolerable requiring high priority of corrective action " .
= = Names = =
The covered bridge is 1 @.@ 4 miles ( 2 @.@ 3 km ) south of Pennsylvania Route 184 on Campbell Road ( Township Road 784 ) , 0 @.@ 1 miles ( 0 @.@ 2 km ) past the intersection with Covered Bridge Road . Its official name on the National Register of Historic Places ( NRHP ) is " Cogan House Covered Bridge " . It is the only covered bridge ever built in Cogan House Township and the name comes from the township , as well as the village of Cogan House , which is northeast of the bridge . Cogan House Township and the village are named for David Cogan , who settled on Larrys Creek in 1825 . Cogan was one of the few settlers in the area for many years and grew tired of living nearly alone in the wilderness . In 1842 he abandoned his homestead , as did a neighbor named Carter . Their houses were used by hunters and travelers and the name Cogan 's House was given to the area . Cogan House Township was formed from parts of Jackson and Mifflin Townships on December 6 , 1843 .
Since the bridge 's 1998 restoration , the Lycoming County Commissioners have officially called it the " Buckhorn Covered Bridge " . The name comes from the bridge 's location at the base of Buckhorn Mountain , and from the road to the former village of Buckhorn , which crossed the creek on it . This is the name used on the official plaque erected by the commissioners to mark its restoration and placement on the NRHP , despite the different name used on the Register itself . The commissioners chose " Buckhorn Covered Bridge " based on one of the names used in Benjamin and June Evans ' 1993 book Pennsylvania 's Covered Bridges : A Complete Guide . Historically , the commissioners used " Cogan House Covered Bridge " as the official name .
Historian Milton W. Landis uses " Larrys Creek Covered Bridge " since it crosses Larrys Creek , and notes this was the name used by other local historians . Larrys Creek is named for Larry Burt , who was the first settler at the mouth of the creek when the surveyors came through in 1769 . Landis acknowledges the " Cogan House " name , and says the bridge has also been known by the names of " several tenants who lived in the little farm adjacent " to it .
While Landis does not give these different names , two other names for the bridge are known and may come from some of these tenants . The first of these is " Day 's Bridge " and it is clear that this is another name for the Cogan House Covered Bridge . The second of these , " Plankenhorn Bridge " , is a name in a list of existing and vanished covered bridges in Lycoming County . Although the association of this name with the Cogan House Covered Bridge is not made explicitly , it is described as still standing on Larrys Creek and being north of a bridge in Mifflin Township . This is the only known covered bridge that meets those criteria .
= = History = =
= = = Background = = =
The first covered bridge in the United States was built over the Schuylkill River in Philadelphia , Pennsylvania in 1800 . Some of the first Burr arch truss covered bridges were also built in the state . Pennsylvania is estimated to have once had at least 1 @,@ 500 covered bridges , and is believed to have had the most in the country between 1830 and 1875 . In 2001 Pennsylvania had more surviving historic covered bridges than any other state , with 221 remaining in 40 of the commonwealth 's 67 counties .
Covered bridges were a transition between stone and cast @-@ iron and steel bridges . In 19th @-@ century Pennsylvania , lumber was an abundant resource for bridge construction , but did not last long when exposed to weather and the elements . The roof and enclosed sides of covered bridges protected the structural elements , allowing some of these bridges to survive well over a century . A Burr arch truss consists of a load @-@ bearing arch sandwiching multiple King posts , resulting in a bridge which is both stronger and more rigid than one built using either element alone .
In 1850 a plank road was built in Lycoming County , from the mouth of Larrys Creek to the borough of Salladasburg , Pennsylvania . It was later extended north along the Second Fork of Larrys Creek as far as the unincorporated villages of Brookside and White Pine in Cogan House Township , and eventually went as far as the large tannery in the village of English Center in Pine Township on Little Pine Creek . Another branch of the plank road followed Larrys Creek itself north from Salladasburg . While its exact length is unknown , Landis reports it may have reached nearly to the site of the covered bridge .
Before there was a bridge , there was a ford at the site where the bridge was later built . Wagons of finished leather and raw hides came from and went to the English Center tannery via White Pine , seeking to avoid traffic on the plank road along the Second Fork . Other traffic went to and from a large sawmill at White Pine and other mills to the west and north . Traffic from the north crossed Larrys Creek , and continued either east over Buckhorn Mountain to the Williamsport and Elmira Railroad at the village of Cogan Station on Lycoming Creek , or south down the road along Larrys Creek . This road led to a tannery on Larrys Creek about 1 mile ( 1 @.@ 6 km ) south of the ford , and to the plank road along the main branch of the creek . The plank road was a toll road and connected with another railroad , the West Branch Division of the Pennsylvania Canal , and the West Branch Susquehanna River at the creek 's mouth .
Because the ford was often impassable in winter or bad weather , or during high water , a petition from the citizens of Cogan House Township for a bridge to be built was filed in September 1876 . They asked the county to build the bridge as it was beyond the resources of the township to do so . The petition was read on September 30 , 1876 , and three viewers were appointed on November 3 to examine the site and report back . The viewers reported back in favor of building the bridge on November 25 . On January 23 , 1877 , the county grand jury approved the report and the construction of the bridge .
= = = Construction and description = = =
Landis is not certain if the bridge was built in 1877 or 1878 , but every other source that mentions the date agrees it was 1877 . Valentine ( " Tine " ) Meyers ( or Meyer ) , a millwright and resident of the hamlet of Quiggleville in Lycoming Township , built the bridge . The timbers for the bridge were cut at an " up and down " , steam powered sawmill owned by Robert Wood , a short distance north of the bridge site . The head sawyer at the mill was John Mecum . The wood used was pine , cut in nearby forests and hauled in ox carts to the mill . The largest timbers used in the bridge are up to 16 feet ( 4 @.@ 9 m ) long .
Meyers is not believed to have had much experience building bridges and set about construction in a unique manner . The timber framework was first assembled in a field next to the sawmill , with each new piece bolted into place after being cut . If a piece did not fit , more careful measurements were made and a new piece was cut and tested . The outlines of the sections for curved beams for the Burr arch were first marked with chalk on the wood , then the saw crew lifted and guided it by hand against the sawblade to cut the curve . After the framework was completed in the field , it was taken apart , loaded onto the same ox carts used to bring the logs to the mill , and taken to the bridge site . There the framework was reassembled on the bridge abutments . Bolts were used to hold all of the large pieces together , while cross @-@ pieces and small braces were nailed in place .
The Cogan House Covered Bridge was added to the NRHP in 1980 and was listed on the 2009 National Bridge Inventory ( NBI ) . According to the NBI , the covered bridge is 94 feet 2 inches ( 28 @.@ 7 m ) long , with a roadway 14 feet 5 inches ( 4 @.@ 4 m ) wide , and a maximum load of 7 @.@ 2 short tons ( 6 @.@ 5 t ) . According to the NRHP , the bridge 's " road surface width " is 19 feet 7 inches ( 6 @.@ 0 m ) , the load is 4 @.@ 0 short tons ( 3 @.@ 6 t ) , and the clearance height is 10 feet 6 inches ( 3 @.@ 2 m ) . The width is only sufficient for a single lane of traffic . As of 2011 , the clearance height posted on the bridge itself has been reduced to 8 feet 6 inches ( 2 @.@ 6 m ) , and the posted maximum load has been reduced to 3 @.@ 0 short tons ( 2 @.@ 7 t ) . According to Landis , the top of the Burr arch is nearly 11 feet ( 3 @.@ 4 m ) above the floor of the bridge .
The covered bridge rests on the original stone abutments , which have since been reinforced with concrete made of cement . The bridge deck is made of crosswise planking , overlaid with runners in the western half and lengthwise planking in the eastern half . The upper part of the portals and the clapboard siding is made of pine boards , and stops 3 feet ( 0 @.@ 9 m ) below the roof line . Although the bridge was painted red as part of its 1998 restoration , in 1964 it was described as unpainted , and it does not seem to have been painted in 1980 , as the NRHP nomination form describes how " its rough horizontal siding ... help [ s ] this small bridge blend into the surrounding forest " . The roof was originally covered with wooden shingles . The bridge does not have parapets and has " no steel reinforcements " .
= = = Use and restoration = = =
The Cogan House Covered Bridge was the only one on Larrys Creek to survive a major flood on June 1 , 1889 , which washed out most other bridges throughout Lycoming County . A large fallen maple tree formed a dam across Larrys Creek , just upstream of the bridge ; this dam blocked debris and diverted the brunt of the floodwaters . The same flood destroyed the Larrys Creek plank road and the canal at the creek 's mouth . The same storm system also caused the Johnstown Flood , which killed over 2 @,@ 200 people .
After the flood the plank road was only reconstructed as far north as Salladasburg , so for a time all the traffic from the English Center tannery went over the bridge on the way to the railroad at Cogan Station . However , the virgin timber which supplied the local tanneries and sawmills was all clear @-@ cut within several years of the flood . Without timber , the industries that used the roads leading to the bridge closed and the local villages declined , or , in the case of Buckhorn , disappeared .
By 1900 , there were four remaining covered bridges on Larrys Creek : going upstream they were at the hamlet of Larryville in Piatt Township , at or near Mud Run in Mifflin Township , in Salladasburg , and in Cogan House Township . As of 2011 , the Cogan House Covered Bridge is the oldest and longest of three 19th @-@ century covered bridges remaining in Lycoming County ( the others are the Buttonwood Covered Bridge in Jackson Township over Blockhouse Creek , and the Lairdsville Covered Bridge in Moreland Township over Little Muncy Creek ) .
The bridge had " needed repairs " made in 1964 , and the original stone abutments were reinforced with concrete prior to 1966 . It was added to the NRHP on July 24 , 1980 in a Multiple Property Submission of seven Covered Bridges of Bradford , Sullivan and Lycoming Counties , and was " painted and creosoted " in 1981 . The 1980 NRHP form and Zacher 's 1994 book both list the bridge 's condition as good . The Lycoming County Commissioners had the bridge " rehabilitated " in 1998 , at a cost of $ 105 @,@ 493 . The general contractor for the restoration was Lycoming Supply Inc . , which replaced some structural beams with treated southern pine and the " Dutch lap " or clapboard siding with white pine . The purlins and rafters were reconstructed using treated yellow pine , and support a new roof of cedar shake shingles . The deck and floor of the bridge were solid and required few repairs . The bridge was painted red , and a stone pillar was built with plaques marking the restoration and the bridge 's inclusion on the NRHP .
Because the bridge is listed on the NRHP , the Pennsylvania Historical and Museum Commission had to approve the renovation . Pennsylvania Department of Transportation ( PennDOT ) and Federal Highway Administration ( FHWA ) funds helped pay for the work done . The dedication ceremony was held on October 30 , 1998 , with Lycoming County Commissioner Russell Reitz and PennDOT Director of Municipal Services Thomas Lyons cutting a plank on wooden sawhorses with an old crosscut saw as the ribbon cutting ceremony . The other county commissioners and the local state representative and state senator were also present and spoke , as did a representative of the " Theodore Burr Covered Bridge Society of Pennsylvania " .
In August 2000 an inspection revealed that one of the timber arches of the Cogan House Covered Bridge was damaged by a vehicle which was over the weight limit crossing the bridge . A propane delivery truck making a delivery to the private hunting cabin served by the bridge is thought to have caused the damage . Lycoming Supply Inc. won the bid to do the repair work in December , at a cost of $ 6 @,@ 300 . Before the repair the bridge remained open and was safe to use . The Evans ' 2001 book describes the condition of the bridge as excellent .
Despite the restoration and repairs , the 2009 FHWA National Bridge Inventory found the sufficiency rating of the bridge structure to be 17 @.@ 2 percent . The inventory found the condition of the bridge deck and the substructure was satisfactory , while the superstructure was poor . It further found that the bridge 's foundations were " determined to be stable for assessed or calculated scour conditions " , however the railings " do not meet currently acceptable standards " . Its overall condition was deemed " basically intolerable requiring high priority of corrective action " ; the 2006 NBI estimated the cost to improve the bridge at $ 143 @,@ 000 .
The bridge is still used , although the public dirt road to it ends in a cul de sac on the east side . A gated private road continues to the private hunting camp and provides access to Pennsylvania State Game Lands No. 114 . The bridge has a posted speed limit of 10 miles per hour ( 16 km / h ) and its average daily traffic was ten vehicles in 2009 . Pennsylvania 's Covered Bridges : A Complete Guide notes that despite being " located in a rather remote area , it is worth the trip to see this beautifully restored historic treasure . "
= = Bridge data = =
The following table is a comparison of published measurements of length , width and load recorded in five different sources using different methods , as well as the name or names cited . The NBI measures bridge length between the " backwalls of abutments " or pavement grooves and the roadway width as " the most restrictive minimum distance between curbs or rails " . The NRHP form was prepared by the Pennsylvania Historical and Museum Commission ( PHMC ) , which surveyed county engineers , historical and covered bridge societies , and others for all the covered bridges in the commonwealth . The Evans visited every covered bridge in Pennsylvania in 2001 and measured each bridge 's length ( portal to portal ) and width ( at the portal ) for their book . The data in Zacher 's book was based on a 1991 survey of all covered bridges in Pennsylvania by the PHMC and the Pennsylvania Department of Transportation , aided by local government and private agencies . The article uses primarily the NBI and NRHP data , as they are national programs .
= = Note = =
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= Mycena maculata =
Mycena maculata , commonly known as the reddish @-@ spotted Mycena , is a species of fungus in the Mycenaceae family . The fruit bodies , or mushrooms , have conic to bell @-@ shaped to convex caps that are initially dark brown but fade to brownish @-@ gray when young , reaching diameters of up to 4 cm ( 1 @.@ 6 in ) . They are typically wrinkled or somewhat grooved , and have reddish @-@ brown spots in age , or after being cut or bruised . The whitish to pale gray gills also become spotted reddish @-@ brown as they mature . The stem , up to 8 cm ( 3 @.@ 1 in ) long and covered with whitish hairs at its base , can also develop reddish stains . The mycelium of M. maculata has bioluminescent properties . The saprobic fungus is found in Europe and North America , where it grows in groups or clusters on the rotting wood of both hardwoods and conifers . The edibility of the fungus is unknown . Although the species is known for , and named after its propensity to stain reddish , occasionally these stains do not appear , making it virtually indistinguishable from M. galericulata .
= = Taxonomy and naming = =
The species was first described scientifically by the German mycologist Petter Karsten in 1890 . The name Mycena maculata was also used by the Australian mycologist John Burton Cleland in 1934 , but that usage was considered illegitimate , and the species he described has since been renamed to Mycena austromaculata by Cheryl Grgurinovic and Tom May in 1997 .
The specific epithet maculata is derived from the Latin word " spotted " . The mushroom is commonly known as the " reddish @-@ spotted Mycena " .
= = Description = =
The cap of M. maculata varies in shape from broadly conic to convex initially , soon expanding to bell @-@ shaped or broadly convex at maturity ; when expanded the cap diameter is typically between 2 and 4 cm ( 0 @.@ 8 and 1 @.@ 6 in ) . It usually has a distinct umbo , which can be abruptly convex in some individuals and very broad and low in others . The cap margin closely approaches the stem when young , but often flares or curves upward with age . The cap surface is smooth , slimy to the touch , often opaque when young but becomes partially translucent so that the outlines of the gills underneath the cap may be seen nearly to the center , before fading . It is often somewhat wrinkled or has the radial gill grooves deepening with age . It is initially dirty blackish @-@ brown or nearly black , becoming paler dirty brown to brownish @-@ gray with age , and usually with reddish @-@ brown spots . The flesh is somewhat thick under the umbo , but becomes abruptly thinner over the area of the margin ( about 0 @.@ 15 mm ) . It is cartilaginous and firm , dark or pale watery gray , changing slowly to dirty reddish @-@ brown when cut or bruised . It has no distinguishable odor , and a taste ranging from mild to slightly farinaceous ( like flour ) .
The gills are bluntly adnate , later becoming toothed and somewhat sinuate . The gills are narrow , becoming moderately broad ( 4 – 5 mm ) , whitish to pale gray in color , soon staining with reddish spots . Sometimes the gills separate slightly from the cap , but remain attached to each other to form a collar . The gill spacing is close to subdistant , with about 17 – 24 gills reaching the stem ; there are additionally about three tiers of lamellulae ( short gills that do not extend fully from the cap margin to the stem ) . The stem is usually 4 – 8 cm ( 1 @.@ 6 – 3 @.@ 1 in ) long and 2 – 5 mm ( 0 @.@ 1 – 0 @.@ 2 in ) thick , occasionally much longer , often with a long pseudorhiza ( a cordlike structure resembling a plant root ) 1 – 5 cm ( 0 @.@ 4 – 2 @.@ 0 in ) that can root into the substrate . The stem is densely covered with sharp , stiff white hairs on the lower portion , and smooth above . It is sometimes twisted , nearly equal in width throughout , hollow , and cartilaginous . The top portion of the stem is pallid , while the remainder is the same color or paler than the cap . The stem base becomes stained reddish @-@ brown to purplish , or the entire lower portion turns a dirty wine red . The edibility of the mushroom is unknown .
= = = Microscopic characteristics = = =
The spores are ellipsoid , amyloid ( meaning they turn bluish @-@ black to black when stained with Melzer 's reagent ) , and measure 7 – 9 by 4 – 5 μm . The basidia ( spore @-@ bearing cells in the hymenium ) are 30 – 35 by 7 – 8 μm , and four @-@ spored . The cheilocystidia ( cystidia on the gill edge ) are embedded in the hymenium and inconspicuous , measuring 20 – 28 by 6 – 12 μm . They are irregular in form ; some have short rodlike projections on the upper part , others have irregular branched finger @-@ like protuberances , while others have wavy walls and an elongated contorted apex . There are no pleurocystidia ( cystidia on the gill face ) in Mycena maculata . The gill tissue is hyaline or very faintly vinaceous @-@ brown when stained in iodine . The cap tissue has a thin pellicle , and the region directly under it is made of hyphae with only slightly enlarged cells , while the remainder is filamentous , and stains yellowish to slightly vinaceous @-@ brown in iodine . The mycelium of M. maculata is bioluminescent ; this property has not been reported for the fruit bodies .
= = = Similar species = = =
In the absence of the characteristic reddish staining ( particularly in young specimens ) , M. maculata is indistinguishable in the field from M. galericulata , which also tends to grow in groups or tufts on wood . Microscopically , the latter species has larger spores , ranging from 8 – 12 by 5 @.@ 5 – 9 μm . Another Mycena that stains reddish is M. inclinata ; it can be distinguished by its slightly larger spores , typically 7 – 9 by 5 – 6 @.@ 5 μm , and the white flecks that develop on the lower part of the stem . It is common in eastern North America , and prefers to grows on decaying hardwood . M. haematopus also grows in clusters on wood , but can be differentiated by its scalloped cap margin , a stem which bleeds a reddish juice when cut or broken , and a preference for growing on hardwoods . M. purpureofusca has a purplish cap , gills with purple edges , and usually grows on pine cones . M. atrochalybaea , a species known from Italy and Switzerland , has more gills that reach the stem ( usually between 30 and 40 ) , smooth hyphae in the cortical layer of the stem , and smooth , uninflated cystidia .
= = Distribution and habitat = =
The fruit bodies of M. maculata grow in groups to clumps on the wood and debris of both coniferous and deciduous trees . The fungus is found in North America and Europe ( Germany and Norway ) . The North American distribution ranges north from Quebec , Canada , south to Mexico . Mycena specialist Alexander H. Smith , in his 1947 monograph on the genus , called it " the most abundant Mycena on conifer wood in the Pacific Northwest . " It has also been recorded as a new species in Turkey ( Kahramanmaraş district ) in 2006 .
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= Solomon , King of Hungary =
Solomon , also Salomon ( Hungarian : Salamon ; 1053 – 1087 ) was King of Hungary from 1063 . Being the elder son of Andrew I , he was crowned king in his father 's lifetime in 1057 or 1058 . However , he was forced to flee from Hungary after his uncle , Béla I , dethroned Andrew in 1060 . Assisted by German troops , Solomon returned and was again crowned king in 1063 . On this occasion he married Judith , sister of Henry IV , Holy Roman Emperor . In the following year he reached an agreement with his cousins , the three sons of Béla I. Géza , Ladislaus and Lampert acknowledged Solomon 's rule , but in exchange received one @-@ third of the kingdom as a separate duchy .
In the following years , Solomon and his cousins jointly fought against the Czechs , the Cumans and other enemies of the kingdom . Their relationship deteriorated in the early 1070s and Géza rebelled against him . Solomon could only maintain his rule in a small zone along the western frontiers of Hungary after his defeat in the Battle of Mogyoród on 14 March 1074 . He officially abdicated in 1081 , but was arrested for conspiring against Géza 's brother and successor , Ladislaus .
Solomon was set free during the canonization process of the first king of Hungary , Stephen I , in 1083 . In an attempt to regain his crown , Solomon allied with the Pechenegs , but King Ladislaus defeated their invading troops . According to a nearly contemporaneous source , Solomon died on a plundering raid in the Byzantine Empire . Later legends say that he survived and died as a saintly hermit in Pula ( Croatia ) .
= = Early life = =
Solomon was a son of King Andrew I of Hungary and his wife , Anastasia of Kiev . His parents were married in about 1038 . He was born in 1053 as his parents ' second child and eldest son .
His father had him crowned king in 1057 or 1058 . Solomon 's coronation was a fundamental condition of his engagement to Judith , a sister of Henry IV , King of Germany . Their engagement put an end to the more than ten @-@ year @-@ long period of armed conflicts between Hungary and the Holy Roman Empire . However , Solomon 's coronation provoked his uncle , Béla , who had until that time held a strong claim to succeed his brother Andrew according to the traditional principle of seniority . Béla had , since around 1048 , administered the so @-@ called ducatus or duchy , which encompassed one @-@ third of the kingdom .
According to the The Hungarian Illuminated Chronicle , a 14th @-@ century chronicle :
Because carnal love and ties of blood are wont to prove a hindrance to truthfulness , in King Andreas love for his son overcame justice , so that he broke the treaty of his promise , which in kings should not be ; in the twelfth year of his reign , when he was worn out with age , he caused his son Salomon , who was still a child of five years , to be anointed and crowned king over all Hungary . He pretended that he did this to prevent injury to his kingdom , for the Emperor would not have given his daughter to his son Salomon unless he had crowned him . When therefore they sang at Salomon 's coronation : " Be lord over thy brethren , " and it was told to Duke Bela by an interpreter that the infant Salomon had been made king over him , he was greatly angered .
According to the Illuminated Chronicle , in order to secure Solomon 's succession , his father arranged a meeting with Duke Béla at the royal manor in Tiszavárkony . The king proposed that his brother choose between a crown and a sword ( which were the symbols of royal and ducal power , respectively ) , but had previously commanded his men to murder the duke if Béla picked the crown .
The duke , whom a courtier had informed of the king 's plan , chose the crown , then left Hungary after the meeting . He sought the assistance of Duke Boleslaus the Bold of Poland and returned with Polish reinforcements . Béla emerged the victor in the ensuing civil war , during which Solomon 's father was mortally injured in a battle . Solomon and his mother fled to the Holy Roman Empire and settled in Melk in Austria .
Béla was crowned king on 6 December 1060 , but the young German king 's advisors , who were staunch supporters of Solomon ( the fiancé of their monarch 's sister ) , refused to conclude a peace treaty with him . In the summer of 1063 , the assembly of the German princes decided to invade Hungary in order to restore Solomon . Solomon 's uncle died in an accident on 11 September , before the imperial army arrived . His three sons — Géza , Ladislaus and Lampert — left for Poland .
= = Reign = =
Accompanied back to Hungary by German troops , Solomon entered Székesfehérvár without resistance . He was ceremoniously " crowned king with the consent and acclamation of all Hungary " in September 1063 , according to the Illuminated Chronicle . The same source adds that the German monarch " seated " Solomon " upon his father 's throne " , but did not require him to take an oath of fealty . Solomon 's marriage with Henry IV 's sister , Judith — who was six years older than her future husband — also took place on this occasion . Judith , along with her mother @-@ in @-@ law Anastasia , became one of her young husband 's principal advisors .
Solomon 's three cousins - Géza and his brothers - returned after the German troops had been withdrawn from Hungary . They arrived with Polish reinforcements and Solomon sought refuge in the fortress of Moson at the western border of his kingdom . The Hungarian prelates began to mediate between them in order to avoid a new civil war .
Solomon and his cousins eventually reached an agreement , which was signed in Győr on 20 January 1064 . Géza and his brothers acknowledged Solomon as lawful king , and Solomon granted them their father 's one @-@ time ducatus . In token of their reconciliation , Duke Géza put a crown on Solomon 's head in the cathedral of Pécs on Easter Sunday . Their relationship remained tense ; when the cathedral burned down during the following night , they initially accused each other of arson . The episode is described in the Hungarian Illuminated Chronicle as follows :
[ Sudden ] flames seized that church and the palaces and all nearby buildings , and they collapsed in one devastating conflagration . Everyone was gripped with fear at the shock of the roaring flames and the terrible shattering of the bells as they fell from the towers ; and none knew where to turn . The King and the Duke were in an amazed stupor ; terrified by the suspicion of foul work , each went his separate way . In the morning they were apprised through faithful messengers that in truth there had not been on either side any evil intention of treachery , but that the fire had been happening of chance . The King and the Duke came together again in the goodness of peace .
The king and his cousins closely cooperated in the period between 1064 and 1071 . Both Solomon and Géza were , in 1065 or 1066 , present at the consecration of the Benedictine Zselicszentjakab Abbey , established by Palatine Otto of the Győr clan , a partisan of the king . They invaded Bohemia together after the Czechs had plundered the region of Trencsén ( present @-@ day Trenčín , Slovakia ) in 1067 . During the following year , nomadic tribes broke into Transylvania and plundered the regions , but Solomon and his cousins routed them at Kerlés ( present @-@ day Chiraleş , Romania ) . The identification of the marauders is uncertain : the Annales Posonienses and Simon of Kéza write of Pechenegs , the 14th @-@ century Hungarian chronicles refer to Cumans , and a Russian chronicle mentions the Cumans and the Vlachs .
Pecheneg troops pillaged Syrmia ( now in Serbia ) in 1071 . As the king and the duke suspected that the soldiers of the Byzantine garrison at Belgrade incited the marauders against Hungary , they decided to attack the fortress . The Hungarian army crossed the river Sava , although the Byzantines " blew sulphurous fires by means of machines " against their boats . The Hungarians took Belgrade after a siege of three months . However , the Byzantine commander , Niketas , surrendered the fortress to Duke Géza instead of the king ; he knew that Solomon " was a hard man and that in all things he listened to the vile counsels of Count Vid , who was detestable in the eyes both of God and men " , according to the Illuminated Chronicle .
Division of the war @-@ booty caused a new conflict between Solomon and his cousin , because the king granted only a quarter of the booty to the duke , who claimed its third part . Thereafter the duke negotiated with the Byzantine Emperor 's envoys and set all the Byzantine captives free without the king 's consent . The conflict was further sharpened by Count Vid ; the Illuminated Chronicle narrates how the count incited the young monarch against his cousins by saying that as " two sharp swords cannot be kept in the same scabbard " , so the king and the duke " cannot reign together in the same kingdom " .
The Byzantines reoccupied Belgrade in the next year . Solomon decided to invade the Byzantine Empire and ordered his cousins to accompany him . Only Géza joined the king ; his brother , Ladislaus , remained with half of their troops in the Nyírség . Solomon and Géza marched along the valley of the river Great Morava as far as Niš . Here the locals made them " rich gifts of gold and silver and precious cloaks " and Solomon seized the arm of Saint Procopius of Scythopolis . He donated the relic to the Orthodox monastery of Syrmium ( present @-@ day Sremska Mitrovica , Serbia ) .
After their return from the campaign , both Solomon and Géza began to make preparations for their inevitable conflict and were seeking assistance from abroad . They concluded a truce , which was to last " from the feast of St Martin until the feast of St George " , from 11 November 1073 until 24 April 1074 . However , Solomon chose to attack his cousin as soon as the German troops sent by his brother @-@ in @-@ law arrived in Hungary . The royal army crossed the river Tisza and routed the troops of Géza , who had been abandoned by many of his nobles before the battle , at Kemej on 26 February 1074 .
A strong army soon arrived in Hungary , headed by Géza 's brother @-@ in @-@ law , Duke Otto I of Olomouc . In the decisive battle , which was fought at Mogyoród on 14 March 1074 , Solomon was defeated and forced to flee from the battlefield .
= = Abdication = =
After the battle of Mogyoród , Duke Géza 's soldiers pursued Solomon and his men " from dawn to dusk " , but they managed to take refugee in Moson , where his mother and wife had been staying . According to the Illuminated Chronicle , the queen mother blamed her son for the defeat , which filled Solomon with so much anger that he wanted to " strike his mother in the face " . His wife held him back by catching his hand .
Thereafter , Solomon preserved only Moson and the nearby Pressburg ( Bratislava , Slovakia ) . Other parts of the kingdom accepted the rule of Géza , who had been proclaimed king after his victory .
Solomon sent his envoys to Henry IV and promised " six of the strongest fortified cities in Hungary " if his brother @-@ in @-@ law would help him to depose Géza . He was even ready to accept the German monarch 's suzerainty .
Henry IV invaded Hungary in August . He marched as far as Vác , but soon withdrew from Hungary without defeating Géza . Nevertheless , the German invasion strengthened Solomon 's rule in the region of his two fortresses , where he continued to exercise all royal prerogatives , including coinage . His mother and wife left him and followed Henry IV to Germany . According to Berthold of Reichenau 's Chronicle :
That summer [ Henry IV ] undertook an expedition into Hungary to help King Salomon , who also because of his insolent and shameful crimes had been deposed from his office by his father 's brother ( sic ) and the other magnates of the kingdom , for whose counsels he cared little . [ Henry IV ] , however , was able to achieve nothing of what he wished there , namely to restore Salomon . Finally , bringing back his sister , Queen Judith , the wife of Salomon , he returned home to Worms
Solomon attempted to convince Pope Gregory VII to support him against Géza . However , the pope condemned him for having accepted his kingdom " as a fief from the king of the Germans " and claimed suzerainty over Hungary . Thereafter it was Henry IV 's support which enabled Solomon to resist Géza 's all attempts at taking Moson and Pressburg . The German monarch even sent one of his main opponents , Bishop Burchard II of Halberstadt into exile to Solomon in June 1076 . Solomon 's wife , Queen Judith , who was about to return to her husband , undertook to take the imprisoned bishop to Hungary , but the prelate managed to escape .
Géza decided to start new negotiations with Solomon . However , he died on 25 April 1077 and his partisans proclaimed his brother , Ladislaus , king . The new king occupied Moson in 1079 , thus Solomon could preserve only Pressburg . In 1080 or 1081 , the two cousins concluded a treaty , according to which Solomon acknowledged Ladislaus as king in exchange for " revenues sufficient to bear the expenses of a king " .
= = Later life = =
Solomon did not give up his ambitions even after his abdication . He was arrested for plotting against his cousin , then held in captivity in Visegrád . He was released " on the occasion of the canonization of King St. Stephen and the blessed Emeric the confessor " around 17 August 1083 . According to Hartvik 's Legend of King Saint Stephen , King Ladislaus ordered Solomon 's release , because nobody could open the grave of the saintly king until Solomon was held in captivity .
Having been liberated , Solomon first visited his wife in Regensburg , " although she was not grateful for this " , according to the nearly contemporaneous Bernold of St Blasien . From Germany , Solomon fled to the " Cumans " — in fact Pechenegs , according to the historians Gyula Kristó and Pál Engel — who were dwelling in the regions east of the Carpathian Mountains and north of the Lower Danube . Solomon promised one of their chiefs , Kutesk , that " he would give him the right of possession over the province of Transylvania and would take his daughter as wife " if Kutesk and his people would help him to regain his throne . They invaded the regions along the Upper Tisza " with a great multitude " of the " Cumans " , but King Ladislaus routed and forced them to withdraw from Hungary .
At the head of " a large contingent of Dacians " ( Hungarians ) , Solomon joined a huge army of Cumans and Pechenegs who invaded the Byzantine Empire in 1087 . The Byzantines routed the invaders in the mountains of Bulgaria . Solomon seems to have died fighting in the battlefield , because Bernold of St. Blasien narrates that he " died courageously after an incredible slaughter of the enemy after he bravely undertook an enterprise against the King of the Greeks " in 1087 .
Reports of later sources prove that Solomon became the subject of popular legends . For instance , the Illuminated Chronicle writes that Solomon " repented of his sins , so far as human understanding may reach " after the battle , and passed the last years of his life " in pilgrimage and prayer , in fastings and watchings , in labour and contrition " . According to these sources , Solomon died in Pula on the Istrian Peninsula where he was venerated as a saint . However , he was never officially canonized . His alleged tombstone is now in a local museum . Simon of Kéza wrote in his Gesta Hunnorum et Hungarorum :
[ Solomon ] was now completely at a loss , and after returning to his queen at Admont he spent a few days with her before returning to Székesfehérvár in monk 's habit . There , the story goes , his brother ( sic ) Ladislas was distributing alms to the poor with his own hands on the porch of the church of the Blessed Virgin , and Solomon was among the recipients . When Ladislas looked closely he realised who it was . After the distribution was over Ladislas made careful inquiries . He intended Solomon no harm , but Solomon assumed he did , and quit Székesfehérvár , making for the Adriatic . There he passed the rest of his days in complete poverty in a city named Pula ; he died in destitution and was buried there , never having returned to his wife .
= = Family = =
Solomon 's wife , Judith , who was born in 1048 , was the third daughter of Henry III , Holy Roman Emperor and his second wife , Agnes de Poitou . Their wedding took place in Székesfehérvár in June 1063 . The marriage remained childless . They first separated from each other around 1075 . According to Bernold of St Blasien , neither Solomon nor his wife had " kept the marriage contract : on the contrary , they had not been afraid , in opposition to the apostle , to defraud each other . " Having been informed on Solomon 's death , Judith married Duke Władysław I Herman of Poland in 1088 . In contrast with all contemporaneous sources , the late 13th @-@ century Simon of Kéza writes that Judith " spurned all suitors " after her husband 's death , although " many princes in Germany sought her hand " .
The following family tree presents Solomon 's ancestors and some of his relatives who are mentioned in the article .
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= Diorama ( Silverchair album ) =
Diorama is the fourth studio album by Australian alternative rock band by Silverchair . Released on 31 March 2002 by Atlantic / Eleven . It won the 2002 ARIA Music Award for Best Rock Album . The album was co @-@ produced by Daniel Johns and David Bottrill . While Bottrill had worked on albums for a variety of other bands , Diorama marked the first production credit for lead singer Johns .
Johns wrote most of the album at the piano instead of his usual guitar , while the band took a 12 @-@ month break following their previous studio album , Neon Ballroom . Silverchair worked with composer Van Dyke Parks on Diorama ; the album contains numerous orchestral arrangements and power ballads , a change from the post @-@ grunge music typical of their earlier work , but consistent with the band 's previous orchestrations on Neon Ballroom . The album 's title refers to " a world within a world " . Five singles were released : " The Greatest View " , " Without You " , " Luv Your Life " , " Across the Night " and " After All These Years " . All except " After All These Years " , a promotional single , appeared on the Australian singles chart .
Diorama was successful in the charts but was not as well received by critics as the band 's earlier albums . It reached number one on the Australian Recording Industry Association ( ARIA ) Albums Chart and received a rating of 71 ( out of 100 ) on review aggregator Metacritic . It was certified triple @-@ platinum by ARIA , selling in excess of 210 @,@ 000 copies , and won five ARIA Awards in 2002 . Diorama was nominated for Highest Selling Album in 2003 , and three songs from the album were nominated for awards over the two years .
= = Recording and production = =
On Diorama , Silverchair worked with a new producer , David Bottrill , who replaced Nick Launay . Though Launay had produced the band 's three previous albums , lead singer Daniel Johns decided that he needed someone " who understood where he wanted to go " . Johns believed Diorama would be " the kind of record that people were either going to be into or were really going to hate " , and needed a producer who would understand the band 's new direction . He interviewed several candidates , eventually choosing Bottrill and taking the role of co @-@ producer himself .
Johns initially recorded eight songs , only to delete the files thinking they were too similar to tracks on the previous album , Neon Ballroom . Leaving the security and darkness of his earlier work , he restarted from scratch to create something more uplifting . Diorama represented a radical change in Silverchair 's musical structure ; the heavy grunge influence on their prior work was replaced by string and horn ensembles and highly complex song structures . Johns felt more comfortable in making this radical change rather than a minor one , finding it helped him to regain his passion for music , which had diminished during the grunge days . Johns wrote much of the album at a baby grand piano ; he had previously taught himself the instrument and composed songs on it for the first time with Diorama . This change in songwriting technique had a significant effect on the sound of the album ; Johns commented on the difference in how his vocals resonated with piano as compared to guitar . He worked with others in developing the album ; Van Dyke Parks ( Beach Boys , U2 ) collaborated on orchestral arrangements , and the pair spent much of their recording time attempting to describe the music in metaphorical terms , with Johns describing Parks ' orchestral swells as " tidal waves " and violins as " a flock of birds " . The pair described the collaborative experience as " mind @-@ blowing " . A DVD entitled Across The Night : The Creation Of Diorama was released in 2002 , featuring interviews with Johns and Parks .
Several songs on Diorama were inspired by Johns ' then @-@ girlfriend Natalie Imbruglia , but he cautioned against possible misinterpretations of the songs , stating " Everyone will think that any lyric that 's about someone in a positive light will be about her " and noting that there were other people he cared for about whom he wrote the songs . Johns denied rumours that he had written songs intending Imbruglia to sing them .
Silverchair intended to tour supporting Diorama following its release , but plans were postponed when Johns developed reactive arthritis ; causing his joints to swell and making guitar playing and singing too painful . After performing " The Greatest View " at the 2002 ARIA Awards , Johns said that he wanted " to perform [ Diorama 's ] 11 songs at least once in front of an audience " before laying the album to rest . He travelled to California to receive treatments for his arthritis , including daily physiotherapy .
= = Album and single releases = =
Following a 31 March 2002 release on record label Eleven , Diorama reached number one on the ARIA Albums Chart on 14 April , making it Silverchair 's fourth chart @-@ topping album . It went on to be certified triple @-@ platinum by ARIA , indicating sales in excess of 210 @,@ 000 copies . The album peaked at number seven in New Zealand , thirteen in Austria , forty in Switzerland , and 116 in France . Diorama reached number ninety @-@ one on the U.S. Billboard 200 .
The first single , " The Greatest View " , was released in advance of the album on 28 January 2002 . It reached number three in Australia , where it was also certified gold , and number four in New Zealand and Canada . It charted at number thirty @-@ six on Billboard 's Hot Modern Rock Tracks in 2007 when re @-@ released alongside the band 's next album , Young Modern . Johns wrote " The Greatest View " as a response to the media " always watching [ him ] in different way " . It was not intended to be aggressive , rather a straightforward commentary on the media frenzy that had surrounded the band for many years .
On 13 May 2002 , " Without You " was released as the second single . It peaked at number eight in Australia , but dropped to number twenty @-@ nine the following week , only spending five weeks on the chart . The song was first announced by Silverchair bass guitarist Chris Joannou in November 1999 , when he told fans the band had " a very small cache of recorded material stored away " , including " Without You " . " Without You " was followed by " Luv Your Life " , which peaked at number twenty in Australia after its 20 September release . The inspiration for the song came to Johns during a therapy session , based on the idea that " there were people in the world who needed treatment but couldn 't afford therapy . " Johns composed most of the song 's lyrics while listening to a therapist . In a performance at London 's Shepherds Bush Empire , Johns jokingly said " Luv Your Life " was dedicated " to all my ladies " .
" After All These Years " , a promotional single , followed " Luv Your Life " , but failed to reach the charts . The final single " Across the Night " was released on 11 March 2003 . The song , which Johns wrote over nine hours on a sleepless night , peaked at number twenty @-@ four on its three weeks on the Australian chart . The arrangement by Parks features twin keyboards and a string ensemble . The band 's much @-@ delayed tour in support of Diorama took its name from " Across the Night " .
= = = The Diorama Box = = =
On 1 December 2002 , a limited @-@ edition CD box set was released as The Diorama Box , consisting of the first three singles from the album as well as an exclusive single , " After All These Years " .
= = Response = =
Diorama received a score of 71 out of 100 on review aggregator Metacritic , based on nine reviews . Australian radio station Triple J listeners voted the album number one on their Top 10 Albums of 2002 , while Triple J staff Rosie Beaton and Gaby Brown placed it third and fifth respectively .
Music magazine Rolling Stone gave Diorama four and a half stars in Australia and three out of five stars in the US . Reviewer Mark Kemp praised Silverchair 's development , saying that the band had developed a strong , independent musical ability , in contrast to their heavily influenced debut album , Frogstomp . Kemp spoke highly of the " heavy orchestration , unpredictable melodic shifts and a whimsical pop sensibility " , also noting Parks ' arrangements gave the music " more breadth and depth " . He argued that the album 's strength was a product of Johns ' confidence , resulting in high quality on " World Upon Your Shoulders " , " Tuna in the Brine " , and " After All These Years " . However , " Without You " saw Silverchair slip into " old habits " , according to Kemp , and contained an " MTV @-@ approved hook " .
Bradley Torreano , of review website Allmusic , gave Diorama four stars , labeling it an AMG Album Pick . He began by noting that Silverchair 's improvement from the Frogstomp era was impressive , and that Diorama saw the band " finally growing into their own skin . " Bottrill 's production was praised , and the result likened to Big Country and U2 , while Johns showcased " his rich voice and shockingly catchy tunes with a gusto missing from their earlier albums " . Torreano 's criticism was reserved for two songs on the album ; he described the apparent Goo @-@ Goo Dolls influences on " Without You " as " an unwelcome twist " , and felt that on " One Way Mule " , the band reverted " back to their grunge sound " .
James Jam , of music magazine NME , was critical of Diorama , calling it " over @-@ produced Aussie rock " . Jam compared Silverchair to Bryan Adams in their attempt to " venture boldly into exciting new musical landscapes " . " Tuna in the Brine " was " grossly pretentious and overblown " , while he saw the album as a whole as inoffensive , especially in comparison to the band 's past post @-@ grunge . According to Jam , the band were not trying to make a mature musical statement with the album , but rather to " impress their parents " .
Nikki Tranter of pop @-@ music website PopMatters called the album mature , praising everything from the cover art to the " finely crafted pop melodies " . Tranter praised Diorama for standing out in the " very similar " Australian music scene . The majority of songs on the album were rated highly ; she thought " The Greatest View " was a stand @-@ out with " orchestral twangs " , and " After All These Years " had " sweeping horns , introspective lyrics and soft , haunting vocals " .
Rob O 'Connor of Yahoo ! ' s music website gave Diorama a positive review , agreeing that the band had matured greatly since their early high school releases . The pop songs on the album , " Luv Your Life " and " Too Much Of Not Enough " , were said to " glide " , and O 'Connor praised Johns for " whisper [ ing ] his lyrics with grace and subtlety " where in the past he would " shout in angst " , drawing comparisons to Elliott Smith . His main critique of the album was that it still contained some " obligatory ' grunge ' efforts " ; he felt eliminating those would allow the band to reach its full potential .
= = Commercial performance = =
Diorama charted highest in Australia ; spending 50 weeks on the ARIA Albums Chart including a week at number one . This popularity was not matched in other countries ; it spent 10 weeks or less on all other charts , though reaching number seven in New Zealand .
= = Track listing = =
All songs written and composed by Daniel Johns .
= = Personnel = =
Daniel Johns – vocals , guitars , piano , harpsichord , orchestral arrangements ( tracks 2 , 4 , 10 , 11 )
Ben Gillies – drums , percussion
Chris Joannou – bass
Additional personnel
David Bottrill – production
Van Dyke Parks – orchestral arrangements ( tracks 1 , 6 , 8 )
Larry Muhoberac – orchestral arrangements ( tracks 2 , 4 , 10 )
Rob Woolf – hammond organ ( tracks 3 , 10 )
Michele Rose – pedal steel ( track 7 )
Paul Mac – piano ( tracks 1 , 4 , 6 , 7 , 8 , 10 )
Jim Moginie – keyboards ( tracks 2 , 5 ) , piano ( track 5 )
= = Charts = =
= = Certifications = =
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= Ethical Oil : The Case for Canada 's Oil Sands =
Ethical Oil : The Case for Canada 's Oil Sands is a book written by Canadian lawyer , talk @-@ show host and lobbyist Ezra Levant , which makes a case for exploiting the Athabasca oil sands and its sister projects in Alberta . Published in 2010 by McClelland & Stewart in Toronto , Canada , the book became a non @-@ fiction best seller and won the National Business Book Award for 2011 .
In the 261 page book , Ezra Levant makes the case that in terms of four criteria ( the environment , conflict , economic and social justice and freedom from oppression ) the Canadian petroleum industry is " heads above other crude producers like Saudi Arabia , Libya , Nigeria and Venezuela " . Highlighting perceived hypocrisy from Western progressive and environmental movements , the author confronts what he sees as unfair and excessive criticism of oil sands , stating that the " oil sands are not perfect , and criticizing them is fair game . But why has criticism of the oil sands been so disproportionately loud compared to criticism of other , larger , more disturbing sources of oil ? " .
Ethical Oil : The Case for Canada 's Oil Sands has popularized the concept of " ethical oil " as a neologism , giving ammunition to the Conservative government of Stephen Harper and providing the inspiration behind Alykhan Velshi 's " EthicalOil " campaign in the United States and Canada .
= = Background = =
Oil sands in Alberta have a proven reserve of 170 billion barrels ( 2 @.@ 7 × 1010 m3 ) , the second largest proven reserves of crude oil in the world . They have become the largest source of oil imported into the United States . With significant economic development and investment into the oil sands , the industry has been enjoying strong support by both the province 's government and the federal government . However , the industry has also been subject to criticism due to the environmental impacts of bitumen exploitation . While the industry has attempted to resolve these issues by developing new techniques , such as in situ extraction , environmental organizations , such as Greenpeace , have launched campaigns to delegitimize the resource , based on its greenhouse gas emission records .
Canada 's primary export market , the United States , has been ambivalent to the environmental questions surrounding the exploitation of the oil sands , with Republicans being generally more supportive of the resource , while president Barack Obama , a Democrat , said that " there are some environmental questions about how destructive they are " .
In an attempt to refocus the debate , Ezra Levant , a conservative political activist , former publisher of the Western Standard and the host of The Source on Sun News Network , examines the ethical aspects of importing oil from countries where political oppression and human rights violations are prevalent , and argues that oil sands production from Canada should be considered the only true ethical alternative to OPEC oil exports . His inspiration for the concept of ' ethical oil ' came from the neologism ' conflict diamond ' , and its antonym ' conflict @-@ free diamond ' . Levant decided to write the book to change some minds , after realizing at the 2009 Ottawa International Writers Festival in Ottawa that he was the " token Alberta whipping boy " during a panel on the oil sands , and ineffective at convincing the audience of the merits of the oil sands . Ezra Levant stated that he wrote the book from a liberal point of view , in order to appeal to those who reject the traditional conservative point of view .
= = Content = =
The book is divided into 12 chapters , with a prologue , an epilogue , acknowledgments and sources . Chapters deal with various topics , including an overview of the biggest oil producing countries , an account of the controversy over Talisman Energy 's involvement in Sudan , a critical analysis of some ethical funds , a case about inconsistencies in Greenpeace activism , a rebuke of the cancer controversy in Fort Chipewyan , the implication of Middle @-@ Eastern regimes in the anti @-@ Oil sands movement , and a critical analysis of the green jobs arguments .
A recurring theme throughout Ethical Oil : The Case for Canada 's Oil Sands is the perceived hypocrisy of Western environmental movements . In a chapter entitled " Greenpeace 's Best Fundraiser Ever " , Levant notes the disparities between the harsh criticism of the Canadian energy industry coming from Greenpeace Canada to the seemingly absent criticism of Chinese industrial activity ( such as nuclear power ) from Greenpeace China , arguing that it is much easier to criticize free and liberal democracies than to criticize controlling regimes , but also raising the question of funding , noting that China , the most populated country on Earth , is a very attractive fundraising market for Greenpeace ( which Levant describes as a ' multinational corporation ' ) .
= = Reviews = =
Andrew Brannan reviewed the book in the The Objective Standard , and noted that it provides a " barrage of evidence in moral defense of the oil sands producers " , while Peter Foster , a Financial Post columnist , suggested that Levant " not only exposes the lies and hypocrisy of the media @-@ coddled opponents of the vast resource , but raises the uncomfortable question of what alternatives to the oilsands these moralists prefer " . On the other hand , David Suzuki , dismissing Levant as an " apologist " , argued that " the logic is faulty . Just because a country or society is considered ' ethical ' does not mean everything it produces or exports is ethical " . In the Winnipeg Free Press , John Collins , a retired union negotiator , criticized some of Levant 's sources , noting the presence of the Canadian Association of Petroleum Producers in the footnotes , while Patrick Brethour , an editor for The Globe and Mail writing in the Literary Review of Canada , contends that the title of Levant ’ s book " is a considerable misstatement " and that Levant " fails to make the case for ethical oil " .
= = Reactions = =
= = = Support = = =
Ezra Levant 's work gave ammunition to the Conservative government , which adopted the neologism in a similar rhetoric . Stephen Harper , Prime Minister of Canada from 2006 until 2015 , was quoted as saying that it is " critical to develop that resource in a way that ’ s responsible and environmental and the reality for the United States , which is the biggest consumer of our petroleum products , is that Canada is a very ethical society and a safe source for the United States in comparison to other sources of energy . " Danielle Smith , leader of Alberta 's Wildrose Alliance , echoed Levant 's arguments during a speech at the Fort McMurray Chamber of Commerce .
In 2011 , Alykhan Velshi , a former staffer for Minister of Immigration Jason Kenney left government service and founded a website to promote the ideas put forward by Ezra Levant in his book . He subsequently returned as the Director of Planning for the Prime Minister ’ s Office later in 2011 . The website , EthicalOil.org launched a campaign to compare Canada 's ' Ethical Oil ' against OPEC 's ' Conflict Oil ' and features controversial advertisements comparing conditions for women , gays and other minorities in OPEC countries to those in Canada . EthicalOil.org has staged counter @-@ protests in response to opposition to the Keystone XL pipeline project . Velshi left Ethical Oil in the fall of 2011 , and was replaced by law student and former junior Conservative staffer Kathryn Marshall .
= = = Criticism = = =
Among critics of the ' Ethical Oil ' point of view is Andrew Nikiforuk , author of Tar Sands : Dirty Oil and the Future of a Continent ( Greystone Books , 2008 , ISBN 1 @-@ 55365 @-@ 407 @-@ 2 ) , who referred to Levant 's reasoning as " a classic Republican ruse " , and dismissed Minister of the Environment Peter Kent 's argument as an " infomercial on bitumen " . In The Guardian , Leo Hickman points out that China is a major investor in the Canadian oil sands , and asks " Shouldn 't this now mean that Canada 's tar sands are labelled as ' Conflict Oil ' , too ? " Another opponent , Megan Leslie , the environment critic for the Official Opposition 's New Democratic Party , said the debate surrounding the ethics of Canadian oil sands " misses the point " and maintained that " Canada should be working to move beyond fossil fuels toward renewable sources of energy " .
CBC 's The Current held a debate on the merits of the ethical oil argument in Dec 2011 . Nobel laureate and chair of the Nobel Women 's Initiative Jody Williams , argued that the ethical oil position was disingenuous and suspect of commercial interests rather than genuine concern for women ’ s rights . She argued that the oil industry with no history of advocating the case of women ’ s rights , is ill placed to begin the discussion . Ethical Oil spokesperson Kathryn Marshall responded that the ethical nature of oil production needs to be discussed , and she expected human rights activists to be more inclined to promote dialogue . Dr. Andrew Crane a business ethics professor at York University agreed the ethical argument for oil production should be discussed , but also added the narrow focus of the books argument was prioritising human rights over other ethical evaluating factors . Dr. Crane further stated that Canada was not taking a leadership position by trying to improve ethical extraction practices overseas and not just in Canada . He argued a primary ethical indicator is leadership , and companies operating in Canada , and Canadian companies operating abroad were not being held accountable within the ethical oil argument for their overseas practices . Kathryn Marshall responded the focus should be on the pushing these " unethical " countries for regulatory action , rather than the pushing the companies to improve in the absence of a regulatory impetus .
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= PlayStation 4 =
The PlayStation 4 ( abbreviated as PS4 ) is a home video game console developed by Sony Interactive Entertainment , formerly Sony Computer Entertainment . Announced as the successor to the PlayStation 3 during a press conference on February 20 , 2013 , it was launched on November 15 , 2013 in North America , and November 29 , 2013 in Europe , South America and Australia , and February 22 , 2014 in Japan . It competes with Nintendo 's Wii U and Microsoft 's Xbox One , as part of the eighth generation of video game consoles .
Moving away from the more complex Cell microarchitecture of its predecessor , the console features an AMD Accelerated Processing Unit ( APU ) built upon the x86 @-@ 64 architecture , which has a theoretical peak performance of 1 @.@ 84 teraflops ; AMD stated that it was the " most powerful " APU they had developed to date . The PlayStation 4 places an increased emphasis on social interaction and integration with other devices and services , including the ability to play games off @-@ console on PlayStation Vita and supported Sony Xperia mobile devices ( " Remote Play " ) , the ability to stream gameplay online , or to friends with them controlling gameplay remotely ( " Share Play " ) . The console 's controller was also redesigned and improved over the PlayStation 3 , with improved buttons and analog sticks , and an integrated touchpad among other changes .
Reception to the PlayStation 4 prior to its launch was positive , with critics praising Sony for acknowledging its consumers ' needs , embrace of independent game development , and for not imposing the same digital rights management schemes that Microsoft had previously announced for Xbox One prior to its release . Critics and third @-@ party studios also praised the capabilities of the PlayStation 4 in comparison to its competitors ; developers described the performance difference between the console and Xbox One as being " significant " and " obvious " . Heightened demand for the PS4 helped Sony top global console sales . As of May 22 , 2016 , more than 40 million consoles have been sold worldwide .
= = History = =
According to lead architect Mark Cerny , development of Sony 's fourth video game console began as early as 2008 . Less than two years earlier , the PlayStation 3 had launched after months of delays due to issues with production . The delay placed Sony almost a year behind Microsoft 's Xbox 360 , which was already approaching unit sales of 10 million by the time the PS3 launched . PlayStation Europe CEO Jim Ryan said Sony wanted to avoid repeating the same mistake with PS3 's successor .
In designing the system , Sony worked with software developer Bungie , who offered their input on the controller and how to make it better for shooting games . In 2012 , Sony began shipping development kits to game developers , consisting of a modified PC running the AMD Accelerated Processing Unit chipset . These development kits were known as " Orbis " .
In early 2013 , Sony announced that an event known as PlayStation Meeting 2013 would be held in New York City , U.S. , on February 20 , 2013 , to cover the " future of PlayStation " . Sony officially announced the PlayStation 4 at the event . They revealed details about the console 's hardware and discussed some of the new features it will introduce . Sony also showed off real @-@ time footage of games in development , as well as some technical demonstrations . The design of the console was unveiled in June 2013 at the Electronic Entertainment Expo , and the initial recommended retail prices of $ 399 ( NA ) , € 399 ( Europe ) , and £ 349 ( UK ) given .
The company revealed release dates for North America , Central America , South America , Europe and Australia , as well as final pieces of information , at a Gamescom press event in Cologne , Germany , on August 20 , 2013 . The console was released on November 15 , 2013 in the United States and Canada , followed by further releases on November 29 , 2013 . By the end of 2013 , the PS4 was launched in more European , Asian and South American countries The PS4 released in Japan at ¥ 39 @,@ 980 on February 22 , 2014 .
Sony finalized a deal with the Chinese government in May 2014 to sell its products in mainland China , and the PS4 will be the first product to be released . Kazuo Hirai , chief executive officer of Sony , said in May : " The Chinese market , just given the size of it , is obviously potentially a very large market for video game products ... I think that we will be able to replicate the kind of success we have had with PS4 in other parts of the world in China . "
In September 2015 , Sony reduced the price of the PS4 in Japan to ¥ 34 @,@ 980 , with similar price drops in other Southeast Asian markets . The first official sub £ 300 PS4 bundle was the £ 299 @.@ 99 ' Uncharted Nathan Drake Collection 500GB ' , released in the UK on October 9 , 2015 ; a 1TB £ 329 @.@ 99 version was offered at the same time . On October 9 , 2015 , the first official price cut of the PS4 in North America was announced : a reduction of $ 50 to $ 349 @.@ 99 ( US ) and by $ 20 to $ 429 @.@ 99 ( Canada ) . An official price cut in Europe followed in late October 2015 , reduced to € 349 @.@ 99 / £ 299 @.@ 99 .
On June 10 , 2016 , Sony confirmed that a hardware revision of PlayStation 4 , rumored to be codenamed " Neo " , was under development . The new revision is a higher @-@ end model that is meant to support gameplay in 4K . The new model will be sold alongside the existing model , and all existing software will be compatible between the two models . Layden stated that they have no plans to " bifurcate the market " , only that gamers playing on the Neo will " have the same experience , but one will be delivered at a higher resolution , with an enhanced graphical experience , but everything else is going to be exactly as you ’ d expect " .
= = Hardware = =
The technology in the PlayStation 4 is similar to the hardware found in modern personal computers . This familiarity is designed to make it easier and less expensive for game studios to develop games for the PS4 .
= = = Technical specifications = = =
The PlayStation 4 uses an Accelerated Processing Unit ( APU ) developed by AMD in cooperation with Sony . It combines a central processing unit ( CPU ) and graphics processing unit ( GPU ) , as well as other components such as a memory controller and video decoder . The CPU consists of two quad @-@ core Jaguar modules totaling 8 x86 @-@ 64 cores . The GPU consists of 18 compute units to produce a theoretical peak performance of 1 @.@ 84 TFLOPS . The system 's GDDR5 memory is capable of running at a maximum clock frequency of 2 @.@ 75 GHz ( 5500 MT / s ) and has a maximum memory bandwidth of 176 GB / s . The console contains 8 GB of GDDR5 memory , 16 times the amount of RAM found in the PS3 and is expected to give the console considerable longevity . It also includes secondary custom chips that handle tasks associated with downloading , uploading , and social gameplay . These tasks can be handled seamlessly in the background during gameplay or while the system is in sleep mode . The console also contains an audio module , which can support in @-@ game chat as well as " a very large number " of audio streams for use in @-@ game .
Its read @-@ only optical drive is capable of reading Blu @-@ ray Discs at speeds of up to three times that of its predecessor . The console features a hardware on @-@ the @-@ fly decompression module boosting optical disc reading speed and buffer unread data when a game is not actively accessing the optical drive . Although the console supports photos and videos at 4K resolution , the system is not expected to render games at 4K . The console includes a 500 gigabyte hard drive for additional storage , which can be upgraded by the user .
The PlayStation 4 features Wi @-@ Fi and Ethernet connectivity , Bluetooth , and two USB 3 @.@ 0 ports . An auxiliary port is also included for connection to the PlayStation Camera , a motion detection digital camera device first introduced on the PS3 . A mono headset , which can be plugged into the DualShock 4 , is bundled with the system . Audio / video output options include HDMI TV and optical S / PDIF audio . The console does not have an analog audio / video output .
The PS4 features a " Rest mode " feature . This places the console in a low @-@ power state , while allowing users to immediately resume their game or app once the console is awoken . The console also is able to download content such as game and OS updates while it is in this state .
= = = Controllers = = =
The DualShock 4 is the PlayStation 4 's primary controller . Similar to the DualShock 3 , it connects to the console via Bluetooth , but the DualShock 3 , however , is not compatible with the PS4 . The DualShock 4 is equipped with several new features , including a touchpad on the front . The controller supports motion detection via a gyroscope and an accelerometer , plus improved vibration , as well as being the first PlayStation DualShock controller to feature official support for the Windows operating system . It is powered by a non @-@ removable rechargeable battery .
The controller features several output connectors . A stereo headphone jack supports the connection of regular earphones or a headset to allow a user to speak and hear audio simultaneously . A micro @-@ USB and extension port , as well as a mono speaker are also included . The controller can be charged three ways : via micro @-@ USB , a dedicated charging station , or the console , even while powered off .
DualShock 4 features the following buttons : PS button , SHARE button , OPTIONS button , directional buttons , action buttons ( triangle , circle , cross , square ) , shoulder buttons ( R1 / L1 ) , triggers ( R2 / L2 ) , analog stick click buttons ( L3 / R3 ) and a touchpad click button . These mark several changes from the DualShock 3 and other previous PlayStation controllers . The START and SELECT buttons were merged into the OPTIONS button . The SHARE button allows players to upload videos from their gameplay experiences , as well as stream to streaming services . The joysticks and triggers have been redesigned based on developer input , as they feature a concave surface and an etched backing to enhance grip .
The DualShock 4 is the first to feature a unique " light bar " that can display variant colors , based on the existing technology used in PlayStation Move . The colors help identify players and alert them with critical messages such as low health in @-@ game , while also interacting with the PlayStation Camera to perceived movement and depth by using the controller 's light bar as a positional LED .
Existing PlayStation Move controllers are supported on the PS4 .
= = = Camera = = =
The PlayStation Camera is an optional motion sensing accessory for the PlayStation 4 , similar to Kinect on Xbox . It includes two 1280 × 800 pixel lenses operating with an aperture of f / 2 @.@ 0 , with 30 cm focusing distance , and an 85 ° field of view . The dual camera setup allows for different modes of operation , depending on the initiated and running application . The two cameras can be used together for depth @-@ sensing of its surrounding objects in its field of vision . Alternatively , one of the cameras can be used for generating the video image , with the other used for motion tracking .
PlayStation Camera also features a four @-@ channel microphone array , which helps reduce unwanted background noise and can be used for voice commands . With the PlayStation Camera connected , different users can automatically log @-@ on to the system via face detection .
= = = PlayStation VR = = =
In March 2014 , Sony unveiled " Playstation VR " , a virtual reality device for the PlayStation 4 featuring a head @-@ mounted OLED display with 1080p resolution and a 100 @-@ degree field of view . The device is scheduled to be released on October 13 , 2016 with a retail price of $ 399 @.@ 99 for the headset , or $ 549 @.@ 99 for the headset , camera , two move controllers and free game . The headset is tracked with 9 positional LEDs on its surface , guided by the PlayStation Camera primarily . A variety of games are soon to be set for the PlayStation VR exclusively . PSVR is one of the major virtual reality headsets to target consumers , as well as the Oculus Rift and HTC Vive , as well as the cheapest alternative .
= = Software and services = =
= = = PlayStation 4 system software = = =
The PlayStation 4 's operating system is called " Orbis OS " , based upon a customized FreeBSD 9 @.@ 0 .
The console does not require an Internet connection to function , although more functionality is available when connected to the internet . The PS4 is the first to include a WebKit @-@ based web browser , which is a departure from its predecessor , which uses the NetFront browser ; it is based on the same modern WebKit core as Google Chrome and Apple Safari , giving it a high compatibility in HTML5 compliance testing and helps it stand out from all the consoles .
The PlayStation 4 introduces a new customizable menu interface titled the " PlayStation Dynamic Menu " , featuring a variety of color schemes . The interface displays the player 's identity , recent activity , notifications , and other details in addition to unlocked trophies . It allows multiple user accounts , all with their own passcodes . Each player account has the option to share their real name with friends , or use a nickname in other situations when anonymity is important . Facebook profiles can be connected to PlayStation Network accounts , making it easier to recognize friends . The default home screen features real time content from friends . The " What 's New " activity feed includes shared media , recently played games , and other notifications . Services from third @-@ party vendors , such as Netflix and Amazon Video , can be accessible within the interface . Multitasking is an option during gameplay , such as opening a web browser or managing party chat and switching rapidly between applications , by double @-@ tapping the " PS " button .
The PlayStation camera or a microphone enables the users to control the system through voice input . The PS4 comes with a microphone which plugs into the controller . Players can command the interface to start a game , take screenshots , and save videos . Saying " PlayStation " initiates voice control , and " All Commands " displays a list of possible commands .
= = = Multimedia features = = =
The PlayStation 4 system software supports Blu @-@ ray disc playback , including 3D functionality , and DVD playback . Playing a CD is now no longer supported , but music and video files can be streamed from DLNA media servers and USB drives using the Media Player app .
= = = PlayStation Network = = =
The PlayStation 4 allows users to access a variety of free and premium PlayStation Network ( PSN ) services , including the PlayStation Store , PlayStation Plus subscription service , PlayStation Music powered by Spotify , and the PlayStation Video subscription service , which allows owners to rent or buy TV shows and films à la carte . A United States @-@ only cloud @-@ based television programming service known as PlayStation Vue began beta testing in late November 2014 . Sony intends to expand and evolve the services it offers over the console 's lifespan . Unlike PS3 , a PlayStation Plus membership is required to access multiplayer in most games ; this requirement does not apply to free @-@ to @-@ play or subscription @-@ based titles .
= = = Second screen and remote play = = =
Smartphones and tablets can interact with the PlayStation 4 as second screen devices , and can also wake the console from sleep mode . A Sony Xperia smartphone , tablet or the PlayStation Vita can be used for streaming gameplay from the console to handheld , allowing supported games to be played remotely from around a household or away from home . Sony has ambitions to make all PS4 games playable on PlayStation Vita . Developers can add Vita @-@ specific controls for use via Remote Play .
This feature was later expanded to enable PS4 Remote Play functionality on Microsoft Windows PCs and on Apple OS X Macs . The update , scheduled for April 6 , will allow Remote Play functionality on computers running Windows 8 @.@ 1 , Windows 10 , OS X Yosemite , and OS X El Capitan . Remote Play will support resolution options of 360p , 540p , and 720p , frame rate options of 30 FPS and 60 FPS , and that one DualShock 4 controller can be connected via the computer 's USB port .
The PlayStation App allows iOS and Android mobile devices to interact with the PlayStation 4 from their device . The user can use this application to purchase PS4 titles from the console and have them remotely downloaded , watch live streams of other gamers , and / or view in @-@ game maps while playing games .
= = Social features = =
Sony is focused on " social " aspects as a major feature of the console . Although the PS4 has improved social functionality , the features are optional and can be disabled .
= = = Community creation = = =
Users have the option to create or join community groups based upon personal interest . Communities include a discussion board , accomplishments and game clips shared by other members , plus the ability to join group chat and launch cooperative games . Sony stated that " communities are a good way to socialize with like @-@ minded players " , particularly when " you want to tackle a big multiplayer raid , but don 't have enough friends available " .
= = = Media sharing = = =
The DualShock 4 controller includes a " SHARE " button , allowing the player to cycle through the last 15 minutes of gameplay to select a screenshot or video clip appropriate for sharing . Media is uploaded seamlessly from the console to other PSN users or social networking sites such as Dailymotion , Facebook , Twitter and YouTube , or else users can copy media to a USB flash drive and upload to a social network or website of their preference .
= = = Live broadcasting = = =
Gamers can either watch live game @-@ play footage of titles which their friends are playing through the PS4 interface with cross @-@ game camera and microphone input , spectate silently , or broadcast live video of their own game @-@ play via public services Twitch , Ustream , Niconico , or YouTube Gaming , allowing for friends and members of the public to view and comment upon them from other web browsers and devices . If a user is not broadcasting footage of their play session , a friend can send them a " Request to Watch " notification .
= = = Share Play = = =
The Share Play feature allows for users to invite an online friend to join their play session via streaming , even if they do not own a copy of the game . Users can pass control of the game entirely to the remote user , or partake in cooperative multiplayer as if they were physically present . Mark Cerny says that remote assistance is particularly useful when confronted by a potentially game defeating obstacle . " You can even see that your friend is in trouble and reach out through the network to take over the controller and assist them through some difficult portion of the game " , he said . Share Play requires a PlayStation Plus subscription and can only be used for one hour at a time .
= = Games = =
PlayStation 4 games are distributed at retail on Blu @-@ ray Disc , and digitally as downloads through the PlayStation Store . Games are not region @-@ locked , so titles purchased in one region can be played on consoles in all regions , and players can sign @-@ on to any PS4 console to access their entire digital game library . All PlayStation 4 games must be installed to the console 's storage : users can begin to play portions of a game ( such as opening levels ) once the installation or download reaches a specific point , while the remainder of the game is downloaded or installed in the background . Updates to games and system software are also downloaded in the background and while in standby . PS4 users will , in the future , be able to browse titles and stream games via Gaikai to demo them almost instantaneously . Sony says they are committed to releasing an ever @-@ increasing number of free @-@ to @-@ play games , including PlanetSide 2 and War Thunder . Sony also took steps to make it easier for independent game developers to release titles for the PS4 by giving them the option to self @-@ publish their own games rather than rely upon others to distribute their titles .
= = = Backward compatibility = = =
PlayStation 4 is not compatible with PlayStation 3 games directly . Selected PS3 games are available for streaming via PlayStation Now . On December 5 , 2015 , Sony first released emulated versions of selected PlayStation 2 games as digital purchases , upscaled to high definition and with support for PS4 social features . PlayStation 4 is , otherwise , not compatible with PS2 games .
= = = PlayStation Now = = =
In December 2013 , Andrew House indicated that Sony was planning to launch a cloud gaming service for the PS4 in North America within the third quarter of 2014 , with a European launch to follow in 2015 .
At Consumer Electronics Show on January 7 , 2014 , Sony unveiled PlayStation Now , a digital distributions service which will initially allow users to access PlayStation 3 games on the PS4 via a cloud @-@ based streaming system , purchasing games individually or via a subscription , as a solution of no backwards compatibility on the hardware of the console . The United States Open Beta went live on July 31 , 2014 . The official United States release of the service was on January 13 , 2015 . PlayStation Now is in closed beta in the United Kingdom .
= = Release = =
= = = Critical reception = = =
= = = = Pre @-@ release = = = =
Pre @-@ release reception to the console from developers and journalists was positive . Mark Rein of Epic Games praised the " enhanced " architecture of Sony 's system , describing it as " a phenomenal piece of hardware " . John Carmack , programmer and co @-@ founder of id Software , also commended the design by saying " Sony made wise engineering choices " , while Randy Pitchford of Gearbox Software expressed satisfaction with the amount of high @-@ speed memory in the console . Eurogamer also called the graphics technology in the PS4 " impressive " and an improvement from the difficulties developers experienced on the PlayStation 3 .
Numerous industry professionals have acknowledged the PlayStation 4 's performance advantage over the Xbox One . Speaking to Edge magazine , multiple game developers have described the difference as " significant " and " obvious " . ExtremeTech says the PS4 's graphics processing unit offers a " serious advantage " over the competition , but due to the nature of cross @-@ platform development , titles that share the same assets will appear " very similar " . In other scenarios , designers may tap some of PS4 's additional power in a straightforward manner , to boost frame rate or output at a higher resolution , whereas games from Sony 's own first @-@ party studios that take full advantage of the hardware " will probably look significantly better than anything on the Xbox One . "
In response to concerns surrounding the possibility of DRM measures to hinder the resale of used games ( and in particular , the initial DRM policies of Xbox One , which did contain such restrictions ) , Jack Tretton explicitly stated during Sony 's E3 press conference that there would be " no restrictions " on the resale and trading of PS4 games on physical media , while software product development head Scott Rohde specified that Sony was planning to disallow online passes as well , going on to say that the policies were designed to be " consumer @-@ friendly , extremely retailer @-@ friendly , and extremely publisher @-@ friendly . " After Sony 's E3 2013 press conference , IGN responded positively to Sony 's attitude towards indie developers and trading games , stating they thought " most gamers would agree " that " if you care about games like [ Sony ] do , you 'll buy a PlayStation 4 . " PlayStation 4 's removable and upgradable hard drive also drew praise from IGN , with Scott Lowe commenting that the decision gave the console " another advantage " over the Xbox One , of which the hard drive cannot be accessed .
GameSpot called the PlayStation 4 " the gamer 's choice for next @-@ generation " , citing its price , lack of restrictive digital rights management , and most importantly , Sony 's efforts to " acknowledge its consumers " and " respect its audience " as major factors .
= = = = Post @-@ release = = = =
The PlayStation 4 has been acclaimed by critics . Scott Lowe of IGN gave it an 8 @.@ 2 rating out of 10 praising the console 's DualShock 4 design and social integration features . He criticized the console 's lack of software features and for underutilizing the DualShock 4 's touch pad . The Gadget Show gave a similar review complimenting the DualShock 4 's new triggers and control sticks , in addition to the new Remote Play feature , yet criticized the system 's lack of media support at launch . IGN compared the Xbox One and the PlayStation 4 over various categories , allowing their readers to vote for their preferred system . The PS4 won every category offered , and IGN awarded the PS4 with their People 's Choice Award .
Shortly following the launch , it became apparent that some games released on multiple platforms were available in higher resolutions on the PS4 as opposed to other video game consoles . Kirk Hamilton of Kotaku reported on the differences in early games such as Call of Duty : Ghosts and Assassin 's Creed IV : Black Flag which ran in 720p and 900p , respectively , on the Xbox One yet ran at 1080p on the PS4 .
= = = Sales = = =
Demand for PlayStation 4 was strong . In August 2013 , Sony announced the placement of over a million preorders for the console , while on the North American launch date alone , one million PlayStation 4 consoles were sold . In the UK , the PlayStation 4 became the best @-@ selling console at launch , with the sale of 250 @,@ 000 consoles within a 48 @-@ hour period and 530 @,@ 000 in the first five weeks .
On January 7 , 2014 , Andrew House announced in his Consumer Electronics Show ( CES ) keynote speech that 4 @.@ 2 million PS4 units had been sold @-@ through by the end of 2013 , with more than 9 @.@ 7 million software units sold . On February 18 , 2014 , Sony announced that , as of February 8 , it had sold over 5 @.@ 3 million console units following the release of the PS4 onto the North American and Western European markets . Within the first two days of release in Japan during the weekend of February 22 , 2014 , 322 @,@ 083 consoles were sold . PS4 software unit sales surpassed 20 @.@ 5 million on April 13 , 2014 . During Japan 's 2013 fiscal year , heightened demand for the PS4 helped Sony top global console sales , beating Nintendo for the first time in eight years .
According to data released by Nielsen in August 2014 , nine months after the PS4 was released , thirty @-@ one percent of its sales were to existing Wii and Xbox 360 owners , none of whom had by then owned a PS3 . At Gamescom 2014 , it was announced that 10 million PS4 units had been sold @-@ through to consumers worldwide , and on November 13 , it was announced that the PlayStation 4 was the top @-@ selling console in the U.S. for the tenth consecutive month .
In its first sales announcement of 2015 , Sony confirmed on January 4 that it had sold @-@ through 18 @.@ 5 million PlayStation 4 units . Sony updated the sell @-@ through figures for the system throughout 2015 : over 20 million consoles as of March 3 , 2015 , over 30 million as of November 22 , 2015 , and over 35 million by the end of 2015 . As of May 22 , 2016 , total worldwide sales reached 40 million .
The PlayStation 4 holds a market share of at least 70 % within all European countries , as of June 2015 .
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= Elizabeth Cady Stanton =
Elizabeth Cady Stanton ( November 12 , 1815 – October 26 , 1902 ) was an American suffragist , social activist , abolitionist , and leading figure of the early women 's rights movement . Her Declaration of Sentiments , presented at the Seneca Falls Convention held in 1848 in Seneca Falls , New York , is often credited with initiating the first organized women 's rights and women 's suffrage movements in the United States . Stanton was president of the National Woman Suffrage Association from 1892 until 1900 .
Before Stanton narrowed her political focus almost exclusively to women 's rights , she was an active abolitionist with her husband Henry Brewster Stanton ( co @-@ founder of the Republican Party ) and cousin Gerrit Smith . Unlike many of those involved in the women 's rights movement , Stanton addressed various issues pertaining to women beyond voting rights . Her concerns included women 's parental and custody rights , property rights , employment and income rights , divorce , the economic health of the family , and birth control . She was also an outspoken supporter of the 19th @-@ century temperance movement .
After the American Civil War , Stanton 's commitment to female suffrage caused a schism in the women 's rights movement when she , together with Susan B. Anthony , declined to support passage of the Fourteenth and Fifteenth Amendments to the United States Constitution . She opposed giving added legal protection and voting rights to African American men while women , black and white , were denied those same rights . Her position on this issue , together with her thoughts on organized Christianity and women 's issues beyond voting rights , led to the formation of two separate women 's rights organizations that were finally rejoined , with Stanton as president of the joint organization , approximately twenty years after her break from the original women 's suffrage movement . Stanton died in 1902 having authored both The Woman 's Bible and her autobiography Eighty Years and More , along with many articles and pamphlets concerning female suffrage and women 's rights .
= = Childhood and family background = =
Elizabeth Cady Stanton , the eighth of 11 children , was born in Johnstown , New York , to Daniel Cady and Margaret Livingston Cady . Five of her siblings died in early childhood or infancy . A sixth sibling , her elder brother Eleazar , died at age 20 just prior to his graduation from Union College in Schenectady , New York . Only Elizabeth Cady and four sisters lived well into adulthood and old age . Later in life , Elizabeth named her two daughters after two of her sisters , Margaret and Harriot .
Daniel Cady , Stanton 's father , was a prominent Federalist attorney who served one term in the United States Congress ( 1814 – 1817 ) and later became both a circuit court judge and , in 1847 , a New York Supreme Court justice . Judge Cady introduced his daughter to the law and , together with her brother @-@ in @-@ law , Edward Bayard , planted the early seeds that grew into her legal and social activism . Even as a young girl , she enjoyed perusing her father 's law library and debating legal issues with his law clerks . It was this early exposure to law that , in part , caused Stanton to realize how disproportionately the law favored men over women , particularly over married women . Her realization that married women had virtually no property , income , employment , or even custody rights over their own children , helped set her course toward changing these inequities .
Stanton 's mother , Margaret Livingston Cady , a descendant of early Dutch settlers , was the daughter of Colonel James Livingston , an officer in the Continental Army during the American Revolution . Having fought at Saratoga and Quebec , Livingston assisted in the capture of Major John Andre at West Point , New York where Andre and Benedict Arnold , who escaped aboard the HMS Vulture , were planning to turn West Point over to the English . Margaret Cady , an unusually tall woman for her time , had a commanding presence , and Stanton routinely described her mother as " queenly . " While Stanton 's daughter , Harriot Stanton Blatch , remembers her grandmother as being fun , affectionate , and lively , Stanton herself did not apparently share such memories . Emotionally devastated by the loss of so many children , Margaret Cady fell into a depression , which kept her from being fully involved in the lives of her surviving children and left a maternal void in Stanton 's childhood .
With Stanton 's mother depressed , and since Stanton 's father contended with the loss of several children , including his eldest son Eleazar , by immersing himself in his work , many of the child rearing responsibilities fell to Stanton 's elder sister , Tryphena , eleven years her senior , and Tryphena 's husband , Edward Bayard . Bayard , a Union College classmate of Eleazar Cady 's and son of James A. Bayard , Sr. , a U.S. Senator from Wilmington , Delaware was , at the time of his engagement and marriage to Tryphena , an apprentice in Daniel Cady 's law office . He was instrumental in nurturing Stanton 's growing understanding of the explicit and implicit gender hierarchies within the legal system .
Slavery did not end in New York State until July 4 , 1827 , and , like many men of his day , Stanton 's father was a slaveowner . Peter Teabout , a slave in the Cady household who was later freed in Johnstown , took care of Stanton and her sister Margaret . While she makes no mention of Teabout 's position as a slave in her family 's household , he is remembered with particular fondness by Stanton in her memoir , Eighty Years & More . Among other things , she reminisces about the pleasure she took in attending the Episcopal church with Teabout , where she and her sisters enjoyed sitting with him in the back of the church rather than alone in front with the white families of the congregation . It seems it was , however , not immediately the fact that her family owned at least one slave , but her exposure to the abolition movement as a young woman visiting her cousin , Gerrit Smith , in Peterboro , New York , that led to her staunch abolitionist sentiments .
= = Education and intellectual development = =
Unlike many women of her era , Stanton was formally educated . She attended Johnstown Academy , where she studied Latin , Greek , mathematics , religion , science , French , and writing until the age of 16 . At the Academy , she enjoyed being in co @-@ educational classes where she could compete intellectually and academically with boys her age and older . She won several academic awards and honors , including the award for Greek language .
In her memoir , Stanton credits the Cadys ' neighbor , Rev. Simon Hosack , with strongly encouraging her intellectual development and academic abilities at a time when she felt these were undervalued by her father . Writing of her brother Eleazar 's death in 1826 , Stanton remembers trying to comfort her father , saying that she would try to be all her brother had been . At the time , her father 's response devastated Stanton : " Oh , my daughter , I wish you were a boy ! " Understanding from this that her father valued boys above girls , Stanton tearfully took her disappointment to Hosack , whose firm belief in her abilities counteracted her father 's perceived disparagement . Hosack went on to teach Stanton Greek , encouraged her to read widely , and ultimately bequeathed to her his own Greek lexicon along with other books . His confirmation of her intellectual abilities strengthened Stanton 's confidence and self @-@ esteem .
Upon graduation from Johnstown Academy , Stanton received one of her first tastes of sexual discrimination . Stanton watched with dismay as the young men graduating with her , many of whom she had surpassed academically , went on to Union College , as her older brother , Eleazar , had done previously . In 1830 , with Union College taking only men , Stanton enrolled in the Troy Female Seminary in Troy , New York , which was founded and run by Emma Willard . ( In 1895 , the school was renamed the Emma Willard School in honor of its founder , and Stanton , spurred by her respect for Willard and despite her growing infirmities , was a keynote speaker at this event . )
Early during her student days in Troy , Stanton remembers being strongly influenced by Charles Grandison Finney , an evangelical preacher and central figure in the revivalist movement . His influence , combined with the Calvinistic Presbyterianism of her childhood , caused her great unease . After hearing Finney speak , Stanton became terrified at the possibility of her own damnation : " Fear of judgment seized my soul . Visions of the lost haunted my dreams . Mental anguish prostrated my health . Dethronement of my reason was apprehended by my friends . " Stanton credits her father and brother @-@ in @-@ law , Edward Bayard , with convincing her to ignore Finney 's warnings . She further credits their taking her on a rejuvenating trip to Niagara Falls with restoring her reason and sense of balance . She never returned to organized Christianity and , after this experience , always maintained that logic and a humane sense of ethics were the best guides to both thought and behavior .
= = Marriage and family = =
As a young woman , Elizabeth Cady met Henry Brewster Stanton through her early involvement in the temperance and the abolition movements . Henry Stanton was an acquaintance of Elizabeth Cady 's cousin , Gerrit Smith , an abolitionist and member of the " Secret Six " that supported John Brown 's raid at Harpers Ferry , West Virginia . Stanton was a journalist , an antislavery orator , and , after his marriage to Elizabeth Cady , an attorney . Despite Daniel Cady 's reservations , the couple was married in 1840 , with Elizabeth Cady requesting of the minister that the phrase " promise to obey " be removed from the wedding vows . She later wrote , " I obstinately refused to obey one with whom I supposed I was entering into an equal relation . " The couple had six children between 1842 and 1856 . Their seventh and last child , Robert , was an unplanned baby born in 1859 when Elizabeth Cady Stanton was forty @-@ four .
Soon after returning to the United States from their European honeymoon , the Stantons moved into the Cady household in Johnstown . Henry Stanton studied law under his father @-@ in @-@ law until 1843 , when the Stantons moved to ( Chelsea ) Boston , Massachusetts , where Henry joined a law firm . While living in Boston , Elizabeth thoroughly enjoyed the social , political , and intellectual stimulation that came with a constant round of abolitionist gatherings and meetings . Here , she enjoyed the company of and was influenced by such people as Frederick Douglass , William Lloyd Garrison , Louisa May Alcott , and Ralph Waldo Emerson , among others . Throughout her marriage and eventual widowhood , Stanton took her husband 's surname as part of her own , signing herself Elizabeth Cady Stanton or E. Cady Stanton , but she refused to be addressed as Mrs. Henry B. Stanton . Asserting that women were individual persons , she stated that , " the custom of calling women Mrs. John This and Mrs. Tom That and colored men Sambo and Zip Coon , is founded on the principle that white men are lords of all . "
The Stanton marriage was not entirely without tension and disagreement . Henry Stanton , like Daniel Cady , disagreed with the notion of female suffrage . Because of employment , travel , and financial considerations , husband and wife lived more often apart than together . Friends of the couple found them very similar in temperament and ambition , but quite dissimilar in their views on certain issues including women 's rights . In 1842 , abolitionist reformer Sarah Grimke counseled Elizabeth in a letter : " Henry greatly needs a humble , holy companion and thou needest the same . " However , both Stantons considered their marriage an overall success , and the marriage lasted for 47 years , ending with Henry Stanton 's death in 1887 .
In 1847 , concerned about the effect of New England winters on Henry Stanton 's fragile health , the Stantons moved from Boston to Seneca Falls , New York , situated at the northern end of Cayuga Lake , one of the Finger Lakes found in upstate New York . Their house , purchased for them by Daniel Cady , was located some distance from town . The couple 's last four children — two sons and two daughters — were born there , with Stanton asserting that her children were conceived under a program she called " voluntary motherhood . " In an era when it was commonly held that a wife must submit to her husband 's sexual demands , Stanton firmly believed that women should have command over their sexual relationships and childbearing . As a mother who advocated homeopathy , freedom of expression , lots of outdoor activity , and a solid , highly academic education for all of her children , Stanton nurtured a breadth of interests , activities , and learning in both her sons and daughters . She was remembered by her daughter Margaret as being " cheerful , sunny and indulgent " .
Although she enjoyed motherhood and assumed primary responsibility for rearing the children , Stanton found herself unsatisfied and even depressed by the lack of intellectual companionship and stimulation in Seneca Falls . As an antidote to the boredom and loneliness , Stanton became increasingly involved in the community and , by 1848 , had established ties to similarly minded women in the area . By this time , she was firmly committed to the nascent women 's rights movement and was ready to engage in organized activism .
= = Early activism in the women 's rights movement = =
Prior to living in Seneca Falls , Stanton had become an admirer and friend of Lucretia Mott , the Quaker minister , feminist , and abolitionist whom she had met at the World Anti @-@ Slavery Convention in London , England in the spring of 1840 while on her honeymoon . The two women became allies when the male delegates attending the convention voted that women should be denied participation in the proceedings , even if they , like Mott , had been nominated to serve as official delegates of their respective abolitionist societies . After considerable debate , the women were required to sit in a roped @-@ off section hidden from the view of the men in attendance . They were soon joined by the prominent abolitionist , William Lloyd Garrison , who arrived after the vote had been taken and , in protest of the outcome , refused his seat , electing instead to sit with the women .
Mott 's example and the decision to prohibit women from participating in the convention strengthened Stanton 's commitment to women 's rights . By 1848 , her early life experiences , together with the experience in London and her initially debilitating experience as a housewife in Seneca Falls , galvanized Stanton . She later wrote :
" The general discontent I felt with woman 's portion as wife , housekeeper , physician , and spiritual guide , the chaotic conditions into which everything fell without her constant supervision , and the wearied , anxious look of the majority of women , impressed me with a strong feeling that some active measures should be taken to remedy the wrongs of society in general , and of women in particular . My experience at the World Anti @-@ slavery Convention , all I had read of the legal status of women , and the oppression I saw everywhere , together swept across my soul , intensified now by many personal experiences . It seemed as if all the elements had conspired to impel me to some onward step . I could not see what to do or where to begin — my only thought was a public meeting for protest and discussion . "
In 1848 , acting on these feelings and perceptions , Stanton joined Mott , Mott 's sister Martha Coffin Wright , and a handful of other women in Seneca Falls . Together they organized the Seneca Falls Convention held in Seneca Falls on July 19 and 20 . Over 300 people attended . Stanton drafted a Declaration of Sentiments , which she read at the convention . Modeled on the United States Declaration of Independence , Stanton 's declaration proclaimed that men and women are created equal . She proposed , among other things , a then @-@ controversial resolution demanding voting rights for women . The final resolutions , including female suffrage , were passed , in no small measure , because of the support of Frederick Douglass , who attended and informally spoke at the convention .
Soon after the convention , Stanton was invited to speak at a second women 's rights convention in Rochester , New York , solidifying her role as an activist and reformer . Paulina Kellogg Wright Davis invited her to speak at the first National Women 's Rights Convention in 1850 , but because of pregnancy , Stanton chose instead to lend her name to the list of sponsors and send a speech to be read in her stead . In 1851 , Stanton was introduced to Susan B. Anthony on a street in Seneca Falls by Amelia Bloomer , a feminist and mutual acquaintance who had not signed the Declaration of Sentiments and subsequent resolutions despite her attendance at the Seneca Falls convention .
Although best known for their joint work on behalf of women 's suffrage , Stanton and Anthony first joined the temperance movement . Together , they were instrumental in founding the short @-@ lived Woman 's State Temperance Society ( 1852 – 1853 ) . During her presidency of the organization , Stanton scandalized many supporters by suggesting that drunkenness be made sufficient cause for divorce . But the relationship between the women 's suffrage movement and the temperance movement was hardly accidental . The two movements had common interests , with women 's suffrage filling the role of cause and prohibition becoming the effect . Later , in state after state , once women gained the right to vote , they could press for various political measures to reduce drunkenness , perceived to be largely a problem involving the male sex . Thus the two movement became frequently allied .
Stanton and Anthony 's focus , however , soon shifted to female suffrage and women 's rights , activities which inexorably brought them into acquaintance with Alice Cary and Phoebe Cary ; for a short time Phoebe Cary served as editor of Anthony 's newspaper , Revolution .
Single and having no children , Anthony had the time and energy to do the speaking and traveling that Stanton was unable to do . Their skills complemented each other ; Stanton , the better orator and writer , scripted many of Anthony 's speeches , while Anthony was the movement 's organizer and tactician . Stanton once wrote to Anthony , " No power in heaven , hell or earth can separate us , for our hearts are eternally wedded together . " Likewise , when writing a tribute that appeared in The New York Times when Stanton died , Anthony described Stanton as having " forged the thunderbolts " that she ( Anthony ) " fired . " Unlike Anthony 's relatively narrow focus on suffrage , Stanton wanted to push for a broader platform of women 's rights in general . While their opposing viewpoints led to some discussion and conflict , no disagreement threatened their friendship or working relationship ; the two women remained close friends and colleagues until Stanton 's death some 50 years after their initial meeting . While always recognized as movement leaders whose support was sought , Stanton and Anthony 's voices were soon joined by others who began assuming leadership positions within the movement . These women included , among others , Matilda Joslyn Gage .
= = Stanton 's Speech Regarding the Destructive Male = =
In 1868 at the Women 's Suffrage Convention in Washington , D.C. Elizabeth Cady Stanton , at age 52 , gave a powerful speech which begins as such : " I urge a sixteenth amendment , because ' manhood suffrage , ' or a man 's government , is civil , religious , and social disorganization . The male element is a destructive force , stern , selfish , aggrandizing , loving war , violence , conquest , acquisition , breeding in the material and moral world alike discord , disorder , disease , and death . See what a record of blood and cruelty the pages of history reveal ! Through what slavery , slaughter , and sacrifice , through what inquisitions and imprisonments , pains and persecutions , black codes and gloomy creeds , the soul of humanity has struggled for the centuries , while mercy has veiled her face and all hearts have been dead alike to love and hope ! "
The speech ends as such " With violence and disturbance in the natural world , we see a constant effort to maintain an equilibrium of forces . Nature , like a loving mother , is ever trying to keep land and sea , mountain and valley , each in its place , to hush the angry winds and waves , balance the extremes of heat and cold , of rain and drought , that peace , harmony , and beauty may reign supreme . There is a striking analogy between matter and mind , and the present disorganization of society warns us that in the dethronement of woman we have let loose the elements of violence and ruin that she only has the power to curb . If the civilization of the age calls for an extension of the suffrage , surely a government of the most virtuous educated men and women would better represent the whole and protect the interests of all than could the representation of either sex alone . "
= = Ideological divergence with abolitionists and the women 's rights movement = =
After the American Civil War , both Stanton and Anthony broke with their abolitionist backgrounds and lobbied strongly against ratification of the Fourteenth and Fifteenth Amendments to the United States Constitution , which granted African American men the right to vote . Believing that African American men , by virtue of the Thirteenth Amendment , already had the legal protections , except for suffrage , offered to white male citizens and that so largely expanding the male franchise in the country would only increase the number of voters prepared to deny women the right to vote , both Stanton and Anthony were angry that the abolitionists , their former partners in working for both African American and women 's rights , refused to demand that the language of the amendments be changed to include women .
Eventually , Stanton 's oppositional rhetoric took on racial overtones . Arguing on behalf of female suffrage , Stanton posited that women voters of " wealth , education , and refinement " were needed to offset the effect of former slaves and immigrants whose " pauperism , ignorance , and degradation " might negatively affect the American political system . She declared it to be " a serious question whether we had better stand aside and see ' Sambo ' walk into the kingdom [ of civil rights ] first . " Some scholars have argued that Stanton 's emphasis on property ownership and education , opposition to black male suffrage , and desire to hold out for universal suffrage fragmented the civil rights movement by pitting African @-@ American men against women and , together with Stanton 's emphasis on " educated suffrage , " in part established a basis for the literacy requirements that followed in the wake of the passage of the Fifteenth Amendment .
Stanton 's position caused a significant rift between herself and many civil rights leaders , particularly Frederick Douglass , who believed that white women , already empowered by their connection to fathers , husbands , and brothers , at least vicariously had the vote . According to Douglass , their treatment as slaves entitled the now liberated African American men , who lacked women 's indirect empowerment , to voting rights before women were granted the franchise . African American women , he believed , would have the same degree of empowerment as white women once African American men had the vote ; hence , general female suffrage was , according to Douglass , of less concern than black male suffrage .
Disagreeing with Douglass , and despite the racist language she sometimes resorted to , Stanton firmly believed in a universal franchise that empowered blacks and whites , men and women . Speaking on behalf of black women , she stated that not allowing them to vote condemned African American freedwomen " to a triple bondage that man never knows , " that of slavery , gender , and race . She was joined in this belief by Anthony , Olympia Brown , and most especially Frances Gage , who was the first suffragist to champion voting rights for freedwomen .
Thaddeus Stevens , a Republican congressman from Pennsylvania and ardent abolitionist , agreed that voting rights should be universal . In 1866 , Stanton , Anthony , and several other suffragists drafted a universal suffrage petition demanding that the right to vote be given without consideration of sex or race . The petition was introduced in the United States Congress by Stevens . Despite these efforts , the Fourteenth Amendment was passed , without adjustment , in 1868 .
By the time the Fifteenth Amendment was making its way through Congress , Stanton 's position had led to a major schism in the women 's rights movement itself . Many leaders in the women 's rights movement , including Lucy Stone , Elizabeth Blackwell , and Julia Ward Howe , strongly argued against Stanton 's " all or nothing " position . By 1869 , disagreement over ratification of the Fifteenth Amendment had given birth to two separate women 's suffrage organizations . The National Woman Suffrage Association ( NWSA ) was founded in May , 1869 by Anthony and Stanton , who served as its president for 21 years . The NWSA opposed passage of the Fifteenth Amendment without changes to include female suffrage and , under Stanton 's influence in particular , championed a number of women 's issues that were deemed too radical by more conservative members of the suffrage movement . The better @-@ funded , larger , and more representative woman suffragist vehicle , the American Woman Suffrage Association ( AWSA ) , founded the following November and led by Stone , Blackwell , and Howe , supported the Fifteenth Amendment as written . Following passage of that Amendment the AWSA preferred to focus only on female suffrage rather than advocate for the broader women 's rights espoused by Stanton : gender @-@ neutral divorce laws , a woman 's right to refuse her husband sexually , increased economic opportunities for women , and the right of women to serve on juries .
Believing that men should not be given the right to vote without women also being granted the franchise , Sojourner Truth , a former slave and feminist , affiliated herself with Stanton and Anthony 's organization . Stanton , Anthony , and Truth were joined by Matilda Joslyn Gage , who later worked on The Woman 's Bible with Stanton . Despite Stanton 's position and the efforts of her and others to expand the Fifteenth Amendment to include voting rights for all women , this amendment also passed , as it was originally written , in 1870 .
In her later years , Stanton became interested in efforts to create cooperative communities and work places . She was also attracted to various forms of political radicalism , applauding the Populist movement and identifying herself with socialism , especially Fabian socialism .
= = Later years = =
In the decade following ratification of the Fifteenth Amendment , both Stanton and Anthony increasingly took the position , first advocated by Victoria Woodhull , that the Fourteenth and Fifteenth Amendments actually did give women the right to vote . They argued that the Fourteenth Amendment , which defined citizens as " all persons born or naturalized in the United States and subject to the jurisdiction thereof , " included women and that the Fifteenth Amendment provided all citizens with the right to vote . Using this logic , they asserted that women now had the constitutional right to vote and that it was simply a matter of claiming that right . This constitution @-@ based argument , which came to be called " the new departure " in women 's rights circles because of its divergence from earlier attempts to change voting laws on a state @-@ by @-@ state basis , led to first Anthony ( in 1872 ) , and later Stanton ( in 1880 ) , going to the polls and demanding to vote . Despite this , and similar attempts made by hundreds of other women , it would be nearly 50 years before women obtained the right to vote throughout the United States .
During this time , Stanton maintained a broad focus on women 's rights in general rather than narrowing her focus only to female suffrage in particular . After passage of the Fifteenth Amendment in 1870 and its support by the Equal Rights Association and prominent suffragists such as Stone , Blackwell , and Howe , the gap between Elizabeth Cady Stanton and other leaders of the women 's movement widened as Stanton took issue with the fundamental religious leanings of several movement leaders . Unlike many of her colleagues , Stanton believed organized Christianity relegated women to an unacceptable position in society . She explored this view in the 1890s in The Woman 's Bible , which elucidated a feminist understanding of biblical scripture and sought to correct the fundamental sexism Stanton believed was inherent to organized Christianity . Likewise , Stanton supported divorce rights , employment rights , and property rights for women , issues in which the American Women 's Suffrage Association ( AWSA ) preferred not to become involved .
Her more radical positions included acceptance of interracial marriage . Despite her opposition to giving African American men the right to vote without enfranchising all women and the derogatory language she had resorted to in expressing this opposition , Stanton had no objection to interracial marriage and wrote a congratulatory letter to Frederick Douglass upon his marriage to Helen Pitts , a white woman , in 1884 . Anthony , fearing public condemnation of the National Woman Suffrage Association ( NWSA ) and wanting to keep the demand for female suffrage foremost , pleaded with Stanton not to make her letter to Douglass or support for his marriage publicly known .
Stanton went on to write some of the most influential books , documents , and speeches of the women 's rights movement . Starting in 1876 , Stanton , Anthony , and Gage collaborated to write the first volume of History of Woman Suffrage , a seminal , six @-@ volume work containing the full history , documents , and letters of the woman 's suffrage movement . The first two volumes were published in 1881 and the third in 1886 ; the work was eventually completed in 1922 by Ida Harper . Stanton 's other major writings included the two @-@ part The Woman 's Bible , published in 1895 and 1898 ; Eighty Years & More : Reminiscences 1815 – 1897 , her autobiography , published in 1898 ; and The Solitude of Self , or " Self @-@ Sovereignty , " which she first delivered as a speech at the 1892 convention of the National American Woman 's Suffrage Association in Washington , D.C.
In 1868 Stanton , together with Susan B. Anthony and Parker Pillsbury , a leading male feminist of his day , began publishing a weekly periodical , Revolution , with editorials by Stanton that focused on a wide array of women 's issues . In a view different from many modern feminists , Stanton , who supported birth control and likely used it herself , believed that both the killing of infants and abortion could be considered infanticide , a position she discussed in Revolution . At this time , Stanton also joined the New York Lyceum Bureau , embarking on a 12 @-@ year career on the Lyceum Circuit . Traveling and lecturing for eight months every year provided her both with the funds to put her two youngest sons through college and , given her popularity as a lecturer , with a way to spread her ideas among the general population , gain broad public recognition , and further establish her reputation as a preeminent leader in the women 's rights movement . Among her most popular speeches were " Our Girls " , " Our Boys " , " Co @-@ education " , " Marriage and Divorce " , " Prison Life " , and " The Bible and Woman 's Rights " . Her lecture travels so occupied her that Stanton , although president , presided at only four of 15 conventions of the National Woman 's Suffrage Association during this period .
In addition to her writing and speaking , Stanton was also instrumental in promoting women 's suffrage in various states , particularly New York , Missouri , Kansas , where it was included on the ballot in 1867 , and Michigan , where it was put to a vote in 1874 . She made an unsuccessful bid for a U.S. Congressional seat from New York in 1866 , and she was the primary force behind the passage of the Woman 's Property Bill that was eventually passed by the New York State Legislature . She worked toward female suffrage in Wyoming , Utah , and California , and in 1878 , she convinced California Senator Aaron A. Sargent to introduce a female suffrage amendment using wording similar to that of the Fifteenth Amendment passed some eight years previously .
Stanton was also active internationally , spending a great deal of time in Europe , where her daughter and fellow feminist Harriot Stanton Blatch lived . In 1888 , she helped prepare for the founding of the International Council of Women . In 1890 , Stanton opposed the merger of the National Woman 's Suffrage Association with the more conservative and religiously based American Woman Suffrage Association . Over her objections , the organizations merged , creating the National American Woman Suffrage Association ( NAWSA ) . Despite her opposition to the merger , Stanton became its first president , largely because of Susan B. Anthony 's intervention . In good measure because of The Woman 's Bible and her position on issues such as divorce she was , however , never popular among the more religiously conservative members of the " National American " .
On January 18 , 1892 , approximately ten years before she died , Stanton joined Anthony , Stone , and Isabella Beecher Hooker to address the issue of suffrage before the United States House Committee on the Judiciary . After nearly five decades of fighting for female suffrage and women 's rights , it was Elizabeth Cady Stanton 's final appearance before members of the United States Congress . Using the text of what became The Solitude of Self , she spoke of the central value of the individual , noting that value was not based on gender . As with the Declaration of Sentiments she had penned some 45 years earlier , Stanton 's statement expressed not only the need for women 's voting rights in particular , but the need for a revamped understanding of women 's position in society and even of women in general :
" The isolation of every human soul and the necessity of self @-@ dependence must give each individual the right to choose his own surroundings . The strongest reason for giving woman all the opportunities for higher education , for the full development of her faculties , her forces of mind and body ; for giving her the most enlarged freedom of thought and action ; a complete emancipation from all forms of bondage , of custom , dependence , superstition ; from all the crippling influences of fear — is the solitude and personal responsibility of her own individual life . The strongest reason why we ask for woman a voice in the government under which she lives ; in the religion she is asked to believe ; equality in social life , where she is the chief factor ; a place in the trades and professions , where she may earn her bread , is because of her birthright to self @-@ sovereignty ; because , as an individual , she must rely on herself [ ... ] . "
Lucy Stone was so impressed with the brilliance of Stanton 's speech that she published The Solitude of Self in its entirety in the Woman 's Journal , leaving out her own speech to the committee .
Stanton strongly supported the Spanish – American War in 1898 , writing : " Though I hate war per se , I am glad that it has come in this instance . I would like to see Spain ... swept from the face of the earth . "
= = Death , burial , and remembrance = =
Stanton died of heart failure at her home in New York City on October 26 , 1902 , 18 years before women were granted the right to vote in the United States . Survived by six of her seven children and by seven grandchildren , she was interred in Woodlawn Cemetery in The Bronx , New York City , the grave upon which there is a monument for her and her husband . Although Elizabeth Cady Stanton had been unable to attend a formal college or university , her daughters did . Margaret Livingston Stanton Lawrence attended Vassar College ( 1876 ) and Columbia University ( 1891 ) , and Harriot Stanton Blatch received both her undergraduate and graduate degrees from Vassar College in 1878 and 1891 respectively .
After Stanton 's death , her unorthodox ideas about religion and emphasis on female employment and other women 's issues led many suffragists to focus on Anthony , rather than Stanton , as the founder of the women 's suffrage movement . Stanton 's controversial publishing of The Woman 's Bible in 1895 had alienated more religiously traditional suffragists , and had cemented Anthony 's place as the more readily recognized leader of the female suffrage movement . Anthony continued to work with NAWSA and became more familiar to many of the younger members of the movement . By 1923 , in celebrating the 75th anniversary of the Seneca Falls Convention , only Harriot Stanton Blatch paid tribute to the role her mother had played in instigating the women 's rights movement . Even as late as 1977 , Anthony received the most attention as the founder of the movement , while Stanton was not mentioned .
Over time , however , Stanton received more attention . Stanton was commemorated along with Lucretia Mott and Susan B. Anthony in a sculpture by Adelaide Johnson at the United States Capitol , unveiled in 1921 . Originally kept on display in the crypt of the US Capitol , the sculpture was moved to its current location and more prominently displayed in the rotunda in 1997 . The Elizabeth Cady Stanton House in Seneca Falls was declared a National Historic Landmark in 1965 . Her house in Tenafly , New Jersey , was declared a landmark in 1975 . Years later , 37 Park Row , the site of the original office of Stanton and Anthony 's newspaper , The Revolution , was included in the map of Manhattan historical sites related or dedicated to important women created by the Office of the Manhattan Borough President in March , 2008 . She is commemorated , together with Amelia Bloomer , Sojourner Truth , and Harriet Ross Tubman , in the calendar of saints of the Episcopal Church on July 20 . In 1999 , interest in Stanton was popularly rekindled when Ken Burns and others produced the documentary Not for Ourselves Alone : The Story of Elizabeth Cady Stanton & Susan B. Anthony . Once again , attention was drawn to her central , founding role in shaping not only the woman 's suffrage movement , but a broad women 's rights movement in the United States that included women 's suffrage , women 's legal reform , and women 's roles in society as a whole .
= = Ten Dollar Bill = =
On April 20 , 2016 Treasury Secretary Jacob Lew announced that several denominations of United States currency would be redesigned prior to 2020 , the 100th anniversary of the 19th Amendment . The newly designed $ 10 bill will include images which will pay homage to the women 's suffrage movement and feature the images of Cady Stanton , Sojourner Truth , Susan B. Anthony , Lucretia Mott , and Alice Paul .
= = Writings = =
Elizabeth Cady Stanton 's writing as author or co @-@ author :
= = = Books = = =
History of Woman Suffrage ; Volumes 1 – 3 ( written with Susan B. Anthony and Matilda Joslyn Gage ; vol 4 – 6 completed by other authors , including Anthony , Gage , and Ida Harper ) ( 1881 – 1922 )
Solitude of Self ( originally delivered as a speech in 1892 ; later published in a hard bound edition by Paris Press )
The Woman 's Bible ( 1895 , 1898 )
Eighty Years & More : Reminiscences 1815 – 1897 ( 1898 )
= = = Selected periodicals and journals = = =
Revolution ( Stanton , co @-@ editor ) ( 1868 – 1870 )
Lily ( published by Amelia Bloomer ; Stanton as contributor )
Una ( published by Paulina Wright Davis ; Stanton as contributor )
New York Tribune ( published by Horace Greeley ; Stanton as contributor )
= = = Selected papers , essays , and speeches = = =
Declaration of Sentiments And Resolutions ( 1848 )
A Petition for Universal Suffrage ( 1866 )
Self @-@ government the Best Means of Self @-@ development ( 1884 )
Solitude of Self ( 1892 )
The Degradation of Disenfranchisement ( 1892 )
Lyceum speeches : " Our Girls , " " Our Boys , " " Co @-@ education , " " Marriage and Divorce , " " Prison Life , " and " The Bible and Woman 's Rights , " " Temperence and Women 's Rights " and many others
Stanton 's papers are archived at Rutgers University : The Elizabeth Cady Stanton and Susan B. Anthony Papers Project , Rutgers University ( See particularly entries for Ann D. Gordon , Editor , in the bibliography below . )
= = = Collected works of Stanton = = =
Open Collections Program : Elizabeth Cady Stanton publications from Harvard University
Elizabeth Cady Stanton : A Register of Her Papers from the Library of Congress
The Elizabeth Cady Stanton and Susan B. Anthony Papers Project from Rutgers University
Carrie Chapman Catt Collection at the Library of Congress has volumes from the library of Elizabeth Cady Stanton .
Works by Elizabeth Cady Stanton at Project Gutenberg
Works by or about Elizabeth Cady Stanton at Internet Archive
Works by Elizabeth Cady Stanton at LibriVox ( public domain audiobooks )
= = = Individual writings by Stanton = = =
Declaration of Rights with list of signatories from the Women 's Rights National Historical Park
Eighty Years and More from the University of Pennsylvania digital library
The Slave 's Appeal from the Antislavery Literature Project
The Woman 's Bible by Elizabeth Cady Stanton at Project Gutenberg from Project Gutenberg
Our Girls from the National Endowment for the Humanities Voices of Democracy Project .
= = = Other online sources = = =
" Elizabeth Cady Stanton " . Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy .
Elizabeth Cady Stanton House from the United States National Park Service
Stanton 's Family Memorabilia from Women 's eNews
Women 's Rights National Historical Park from the National Park Service
Manhattan Women 's Historical Sites from the Office of the Manhattan Borough President ( Borough of Manhattan , New York City )
" Writings of Elizabeth Cady Stanton " from C @-@ SPAN 's American Writers : A Journey Through History
Elizabeth Cady Stanton at Find a Grave
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= The National Conference Center =
The National Conference Center ( NCC ) is a corporate training facility in Leesburg , Virginia . It hosts over 14 @,@ 000 individuals per month and comprises 265 @,@ 000 square feet ( 24 @,@ 600 m2 ) of meeting space , one of the largest in the region . The center contains 250 conference rooms , an athletic facility , and 917 guest rooms .
The building was built in 1974 as the Xerox Conference Center at a cost of $ 55 million . It was designed to assist in copier and technology training for company employees . It was designed by Vincent G. Kling & Partners , and is currently managed by NCC EE , LLC . In 1994 Xerox permitted outside organizations to use the grounds . The center was sold to Oxford Capital Partners in 2000 . Two years later , the Center completed a $ 29 million renovation , in order to ameliorate its training operations . The current design implements " living learning modules " , a series of color @-@ coded buildings ; underground tunnels ; a ballroom ; and walking trails .
= = History = =
The Center was built by Xerox in 1974 under the name of Xerox International Center for Training and Management Development . It was later changed to Xerox Document University when an additional building was added to train employees in copier technology and equipment . In 1994 Xerox opened the facilities to other corporations , and sold it to Oxford Capital Partners in 2000 as part of an exit from the hospitality industry . In part this exit was due to a continuous under @-@ capacity in event bookings , despite such events as the National Veterans Golden Age Games being hosted at the site . From its opening in 1974 until May 2014 , it was run by ARAMARK Harrison Lodging , a management services company.In May 2014 , NCC EE , LLC became the new management services group .
= = Renovation = =
Following a $ 29 million renovation , it was reopened in 2002 to service a wide range of corporate training needs . The Center is composed of several buildings which are color @-@ coded ( blue , purple , red , orange , and yellow ) into " living @-@ learning modules " . A network of underground tunnels connect the main buildings and attached West Belmont Ballroom , constructed in 2007 .
= = Facilities = =
The Center was originally situated on 2 @,@ 265 acres ( 9 @.@ 17 km2 ) of land in Leesburg , Virginia . Through subsequent sales and subdivisions , the current complex sits on 66 @.@ 8 acres ( 0 @.@ 270 km2 ) of the original land . Among its 265 @,@ 000 square feet ( 24 @,@ 600 m2 ) of meeting space are the 16 @,@ 500 square feet ( 1 @,@ 530 m2 ) ballroom , an 5 @,@ 000 square feet ( 460 m2 ) athletic facility and 250 conference rooms . The remainder of the nearly 1 @,@ 200 @,@ 000 square feet ( 110 @,@ 000 m2 ) of the facility include 917 guest rooms ( up from 863 rooms in the original facility ) and common areas . These facilities were converted from Xerox 's dormitory style accommodations , which included shared bathrooms . The Center retained the confusing navigational layout of the Xerox era , which was allegedly intended to encourage team building among participants . The distinctive brutalist architecture was also retained , despite extensive renovations .
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= George Pickett =
George Edward Pickett ( January 16 , 1825 – July 30 , 1875 ) was a career United States Army officer who became a major general in the Confederate States Army during the American Civil War . He is best remembered for his participation in the futile and bloody Confederate offensive on the third day of the Battle of Gettysburg that bears his name , Pickett 's Charge .
Pickett graduated last out of 59 cadets in the West Point Class of 1846 . He served as a second lieutenant in the United States Army during the Mexican @-@ American War , and is noted for his service in the Battle of Chapultepec in September 1847 . After this , he served in the Washington Territory , and eventually reached the rank of captain . Pickett participated in the Pig War of 1859 . Near the beginning of the American Civil War , he enlisted in the Confederate Army , and he attained the rank of brigadier general in January 1862 . He commanded a brigade that saw heavy action during the Peninsula Campaign of 1862 . Pickett was wounded at the Battle of Gaines 's Mill on June 27 .
He did not return to command until September , following the Battle of Antietam , when he was given command of a division in the Right Wing of the Army of Northern Virginia , commanded by Major General James Longstreet , which became the I Corps that December . His division was lightly engaged at the Battle of Fredericksburg , and , along with most of Longstreet 's Corps , missed the Battle of Chancellorsville while participating in the Suffolk Campaign in 1863 . During the Gettysburg Campaign , his division was , much to Pickett 's frustration , the last to arrive on the field . However , it was one of three divisions under the command of General Longstreet to participate in a disastrous assault on Union positions on July 3 , the final day of the battle . The attack has been given the name " Pickett 's Charge " . In February 1864 , Pickett commanded the Confederate forces at the Battle of New Bern , and ordered the execution of 22 Confederate deserters found to be fighting amongst the U.S. troops . On April 1 , 1865 , he was defeated while in overall command of Confederate troops at the Battle of Five Forks .
Following the war , Pickett feared prosecution for his execution of deserters and temporarily fled to Canada . He returned to Virginia in 1866 , where he died at age 50 in 1875 . Legend says that after the war he remained bitter and dwelt extensively upon the loss of his men at Gettysburg .
= = Early life = =
George Edward Pickett was born in his grandfather 's shop in Richmond , Virginia on January 16 , 1825 . He was the first of the eight children of Robert and Mary Pickett , a prominent family of Old Virginia of English origins , and one of the " first families " of Virginia . He was the cousin of future Confederate general Henry Heth . He went to Springfield , Illinois , to study law , but at the age of 17 he was appointed to the United States Military Academy . Legend has it that Pickett 's West Point appointment was secured for him by Abraham Lincoln , but this is largely believed to be a story circulated by his widow following his death . Lincoln , as an Illinois state legislator , could not nominate candidates , although he did give the young man advice after he was accepted . Pickett was actually appointed by Illinois Congressman John T. Stuart , a friend of Pickett 's uncle and a law partner of Lincoln .
Pickett was popular as a cadet at West Point . He was mischievous and a player of pranks , " ... a man of ability , but belonging to a cadet set that appeared to have no ambition for class standing and wanted to do only enough study to secure their graduation . " At a time when often a third of the class left before graduation , Pickett persisted , working off his demerits and doing enough in his studies to graduate , ranking last out of the 59 surviving students in the Class of 1846 . It is a position held with some backhanded distinction , referred to today as the " goat " , both for its stubbornness and tenacity . Pickett 's cousin Henry Heth graduated last in the Class of 1847 .
= = United States Army Career = =
Pickett was commissioned a brevet second lieutenant in the U.S. 8th Infantry Regiment . He soon gained national recognition in the Mexican – American War when he carried the American colors over the parapet during the Battle of Chapultepec in September 1847 . Wounded at the base of the wall , Pickett 's friend and colleague Lieutenant James Longstreet handed him the colors . Pickett carried the flag over the wall and fought his way to the roof of the palace , unfurling it over the fortress and announcing its surrender . He received a brevet promotion to captain following this action .
In 1849 , while serving on the Texas frontier after the war , he was promoted to first lieutenant and then to captain in the 9th U.S. Infantry in 1855 . In 1853 , Pickett challenged a fellow junior officer , future Union general Winfield Scott Hancock , to a duel ; ( they had met only briefly when Hancock was passing through Texas ) . Hancock declined the duel , a response not unlikely as dueling had fallen out of favor at the time .
In January 1851 , Pickett married Sally Harrison Minge , the daughter of Dr. John Minge of Virginia , the great @-@ great @-@ grandniece of President William Henry Harrison , and the great @-@ great @-@ granddaughter of Benjamin Harrison , a signer of the United States Declaration of Independence . Sally died during childbirth that November , at Fort Gates , Texas .
Pickett next served in the Washington Territory . In 1856 he commanded the construction of Fort Bellingham on Bellingham Bay , in what is today the city of Bellingham , Washington . He also built a frame home that year which still stands ; Pickett House is the oldest house in Bellingham and the oldest house on its original foundation in the Pacific Northwest . While posted to Fort Bellingham , Pickett married a Native American woman of the Haida tribe , Morning Mist , who gave birth to a son , James Tilton Pickett ( 1857 – 1889 ) ; Morning Mist died a few months later . " Jimmy " Pickett made a name for himself as a newspaper artist , before dying of tuberculosis at the age of 32 near Portland , Oregon .
In 1859 Pickett was dispatched in command of Company D , 9th U.S. Infantry , to garrison San Juan Island in response to discord that had arisen there between American farmers and the Hudson 's Bay Company . The confrontation was instigated when American farmer Lyman Cutler shot and killed a pig that had repeatedly broken into his garden . The pig belonged to the Hudson 's Bay Company , and though Cutler was prepared to pay a fair price for the pig , the Company was not satisfied , insisting he be brought before the British magistrate , thus initiating the territorial dispute that came to be known as the Pig War . In response to the U.S. forces , the British sent a force of three warships and 1000 men . The British commander demanded that Pickett and his men leave . Pickett declined , and the British officer returned to his frigate , threatening to land his own men . Pickett with his 68 men appeared to be fully prepared to oppose a British landing , ordering them into a line of battle near the beach . " Don 't be afraid of their big guns , " he told his men , " We 'll make a Bunker Hill of it . " Pickett 's presence and determination prevented the landing , the British being under orders to avoid armed conflict with United States forces , if possible . After initial tensions passed the crisis was averted , both sides being unwilling to go to war over a pig . President James Buchanan dispatched Brevet Lieutenant General Winfield Scott to negotiate a settlement between the parties .
= = Civil War = =
= = = Early assignments = = =
On April 19 , after the firing on Battle of Fort Sumter and President Lincoln 's call for 75 @,@ 000 volunteers to suppress the rebellion , Virginia joined four more Southern states in seceding from the Union . Native son Pickett journeyed from Oregon to serve his state . Arriving after the First Battle of Bull Run , he resigned his commission in the U.S. Army on June 25 , 1861 ; he had been holding a commission as a major in the Confederate States Army Artillery since March 16 . Within a month he was appointed colonel in command of the Rappahannock Line of the Department of Fredericksburg , under the command of Major General Theophilus H. Holmes . Holmes 's influence obtained a commission for Pickett as a brigadier general , dated January 14 , 1862 .
Pickett made a colorful general . He rode a sleek black charger named " Old Black , " and wore a small blue kepi @-@ style cap , with buffed gloves over the sleeves of an immaculately tailored uniform that had a double row of gold buttons on the coat , and shiny gold spurs on his highly polished boots . He held an elegant riding crop whether mounted or walking . His moustache drooped gracefully beyond the corners of his mouth and then turned upward at the ends . His hair was the talk of the Army : " long ringlets flowed loosely over his shoulders , trimmed and highly perfumed , his beard likewise was curling and giving up the scent of Araby . "
Pickett 's first combat command was during the Peninsula Campaign , leading a brigade that was nicknamed the Gamecocks ( the brigade would eventually be led by Richard B. Garnett in Pickett 's Charge ) . Pickett led his brigade ably in the battles of Williamsburg and Seven Pines , earning commendations from his superiors . At Gaines 's Mill he was shot off his horse while leading his brigade in its first assault . Pickett continued to move forward with his men for a while , leading his horse on foot . A second assault by Pickett 's brigade , led by Colonel Eppa Hunton , along with the brigade led by Cadmus Wilcox , broke the Union line . Pickett feared that he had taken a mortal blow to his shoulder , but the wound was initially assessed by others as minor . The shoulder wound turned out to be severe enough that , while not fatal , Pickett was out of action for the next three months , and his arm would remain stiff for at least a year .
When Pickett returned to the Army in September 1862 , following the Battle of Antietam , he was given command of a two @-@ brigade division in the corps commanded by his old colleague from Mexico , Major General Longstreet . Pickett was promoted to major general on October 10 . Shortly afterwards it was upgraded to five brigades , commanded by Generals Garnett , James Kemper , Lewis Armistead , Montgomery Dent Corse and Micah Jenkins . The division was only lightly engaged at the Battle of Fredericksburg in December . His division would not see serious combat until the Gettysburg Campaign the following summer . Longstreet and two of his divisions @-@ those commanded by Pickett and John Bell Hood @-@ were detached from Lee 's main army in April while participating in the Suffolk Campaign . They thus missed the Battle of Chancellorsville . The Suffolk Campaign was minor and inconclusive , while the Battle of Chancellorsville was an enormous Confederate victory .
Before the Gettysburg Campaign , Pickett fell in love with a Virginia teenager , LaSalle " Sallie " Corbell ( 1843 – 1931 ) , commuting back and forth from his duties in Suffolk to be with her . Although Sallie would later insist that she met him in 1852 ( at age 9 ) , she did not marry the 38 @-@ year @-@ old widower until November 13 , 1863 . The couple had two children , George Edward Pickett , Jr . ( born July 17 , 1864 ) and David Corbell Pickett ( born 1865 or 1866 ) . David died in late 1873 or January 1874 of measles .
= = = Gettysburg and Pickett 's Charge = = =
Pickett 's division arrived at the Battle of Gettysburg on the evening of the second day , July 2 , 1863 . It was reduced to 3 brigades present , Corse 's still being detached in Virginia and Jenkins ' transferred . It had been delayed by the assignment of guarding the Confederate lines of communication through Chambersburg , Pennsylvania . After two days of heavy fighting , General Robert E. Lee 's Army of Northern Virginia , which had initially driven the Union Army of the Potomac to the high ground south of Gettysburg , had been unable to dislodge the Union soldiers from their position . Lee 's plan for July 3 called for a massive assault on the center of the Union lines on Cemetery Ridge , calculating that Meade had concentrated his forces to protect his flanks while leaving his center weak . Lee directed General Longstreet to assemble a force of three divisions for the attack — two divisions from the corps of Lieutenant General A.P. Hill , under the temporary command of J. Johnston Pettigrew and Major General Isaac R. Trimble , which had both seen action on July 1 , and Pickett 's fresh division from Longstreet 's own corps . The center was occupied by the Union II Corps , commanded by Major General Winfield S. Hancock . Longstreet was technically in command , not Pickett . Nevertheless , the attack became known as " Pickett 's Charge " . In addition , much of the mythology of the Charge arose from newspaper reports . As Pickett was the only major general from Virginia to participate in the charge , the Virginia newspapers both played up their native son 's role and made the assault a more " glamorous " event .
Following a two @-@ hour artillery barrage meant to soften up the Union defenses , the three divisions stepped off across open fields almost a mile from Cemetery Ridge . Pickett inspired his men by shouting , " Up , Men , and to your posts ! Don 't forget today that you are from Old Virginia . " Pickett 's division , with the brigades of Brigadier Generals Armistead , Garnett , and Kemper , was on the right flank of the assault . It received punishing artillery fire , and then volleys of massed musket fire as it approached its objective . Armistead 's brigade made the farthest progress through the Union lines . Armistead was mortally wounded , falling near " The Angle " , at what is now termed the " High Water Mark of the Confederacy " . Neither of the other two divisions made comparable progress across the fields ; Armistead 's success was not reinforced , and his men were quickly killed or captured .
Pickett 's Charge was a bloodbath . While the Union suffered 1 @,@ 500 casualties , the Confederates had over 6 @,@ 000 . Over 50 % of the men sent across the fields were killed or wounded . Pickett 's division alone , out of about 5 @,@ 500 men , lost 224 killed , 1 @,@ 140 wounded , and 1 @,@ 499 missing / captured . Pickett 's three brigade commanders and all thirteen of his regimental commanders were casualties . Kemper was wounded , Garnett killed , and Armistead mortally wounded . Trimble and Pettigrew were the most senior casualties of the entire Confederate assault , the former losing a leg and the latter wounded in the hand and later mortally wounded during the retreat to Virginia . Pickett has received some historical criticism for establishing his final position well to the rear of his troops , most likely at the Codori farm on the Emmitsburg Road . Thomas R. Friend , who served Pickett as a courier , defended Pickett by writing that he " went as far as any Major General , Commanding a division , ought to have gone , and farther . "
As soldiers straggled back to the Confederate lines along Seminary Ridge , Lee feared a Union counteroffensive and tried to rally his center , telling returning soldiers that the failure was " all my fault . " Pickett was inconsolable . When Lee told Pickett to rally his division for the defense , Pickett allegedly replied , " General Lee , I have no division . " Pickett 's official report for the battle has never been found . It is rumored that Lee rejected it for its bitter negativity and demanded that it be rewritten , and an updated version was never filed .
= = = North Carolina = = =
After the Battle of Gettysburg , Pickett commanded the Department of Southern Virginia and North Carolina . In February , Pickett was ordered to capture New Bern , North Carolina from Federal forces . The subsequent Battle of New Bern resulted in a Confederate defeat . Following the battle , Pickett ordered the execution of 22 Confederate deserters who were found to have joined the United States Army .
= = = Overland Campaign and Siege of Petersburg = = =
Pickett then served as a division commander in the Defenses of Richmond . After P.G.T. Beauregard bottled up Benjamin Butler in the Bermuda Hundred Campaign , Pickett 's division was detached in support of Robert E. Lee 's operation in the Overland Campaign , just before the Battle of Cold Harbor , in which Pickett 's division occupied the center of the defensive line , a place in which the main Union attack did not occur . His division participated in the Siege of Petersburg .
= = = Battle of Five Forks = = =
General Pickett had received orders from Robert E. Lee to , with the Cavalry divisions of Major Generals William Henry Fitzhugh Lee and Thomas L. Rosser , hold the vital railroad crossing at Five Forks at all costs . On April 1 , at the Battle of Five Forks , their troops were attacked by a combined force under Major General Philip Henry Sheridan , which consisted of the V Corps of the Army of the Potomac , commanded by Major General Gouverneur K. Warren , and the Cavalry Corps of the Army , commanded by Brigadier General Wesley Merritt . Pickett , W.H.L. Lee , and Rosser were located behind the lines of their troops at the time of the attack , enjoying a shad bake while failing to inform their subordinate officers of their location . Meanwhile , Warren 's troops overwhelmed their left flank , and the Cavalry troops pinned the Confederates down elsewhere . By the time the Confederate commanders realized the catastrophe , it was too late to prevent the defeat . The result of the battle helped lead to the eventual capture of Richmond and the surrender of Lee 's army .
= = = Relief controversy = = =
A controversy existed over whether or not Pickett was relieved of his command in the final days of the war . After the war , Lee 's Chief of Staff , Lieutenant Colonel Walter H. Taylor , wrote that following the Battle of Sayler 's Creek on April 6 , 1865 , he had issued orders for Lee relieving Major Generals Richard H. Anderson and Bushrod R. Johnson , whose forces had been lost in the battle and who thereby no longer had troops under their command . In fact , Anderson had returned to his home in South Carolina following the battle . In addition , Taylor recollected that he had issued an order relieving Pickett as well . Pickett 's division was still intact , though reduced in number to about the size of a brigade . No copies of these orders exist . Douglas Southall Freeman , a biographer of Lee , supported this assertion , writing in 1935 that at the same time Lee relieved Anderson of command , he took the same action regarding Pickett and Bushrod Johnson , but the order regarding Pickett apparently never reached him . As late as April 11 he signed himself , " Maj. Genl . Commdg . "
In contradiction to this assertion , in his 1870 book Pickett 's Men Walter Harrison reprinted an order from Lieutenant Colonel Taylor to Pickett dated April 10 , 1865 , in which Taylor addressed Pickett as " Maj Gen G E Picket [ sic ] , General Commanding " The order was a request for an account of the movements and actions of Pickett 's Division from the time of the Battle of Five Forks on April 1 to the surrender at Appomattox on April 9 . In the report Pickett submitted he said :
The second day after the battle referred to ( Five Forks ) not being able to find General Anderson 's headquarters , I reported to Lieut . Gen. Longstreet , and continued to receive orders from him until the army was paroled and disbursed . "
Pickett 's official report to Taylor was signed " G.E. Pickett , Major @-@ Gen. , Commd 'g . " This is April 11 report mentioned by Freeman above . Thus in Pickett 's official report to Taylor he speaks of commanding his men and interacting with his superior officer right up until the surrender at Appomattox . Taylor attempted to explain the apparent contradiction by telling Fitzhugh Lee that he addressed his request in the manner he did because Pickett was not dismissed from the Army , and for the period in question Pickett was initially in command . This explanation , however , leaves unanswered the question of how Taylor expected Pickett to answer for the period of time Pickett purportedly was not in command . The explanation does not explain Pickett 's report which covered the entire period , nor the fact that Pickett signed the report as the acting commander , nor did it explain Longstreet 's interactions with Pickett over this period of time . Furthermore , there is no record of Taylor requesting reports from any other officers dismissed from the service on the movements of their former troops , nor of his referring to such officers in a manner which would connote active command .
The medical officer of Pickett 's division , Dr. M. G. Elzey , was with Pickett at the time of these events . Years later when an elderly Colonel John Mosby raised this issue in 1911 , Elzey wrote a letter to the Richmond Times @-@ Dispatch in answer to Mosby :
I was General Pickett 's personal medical advisor , and continued to be such until the time of his death . We rode together a greater part of the way during the retreat of our army from Petersburg to Appomattox . We escaped together from the battlefield at Sailor 's Creek and were constantly together until we reached Appomattox . I repeat it , therefore , with all confidence , that I am a competent witness to the fact that he was never under arrest , but remained in command of his Division until the last scene at Appomattox .
M. G. Elzey
In Longstreet 's final report , he makes no mention of any other officer being in charge of the unit . In point of fact his final report makes no mention of Pickett or his division . Pickett commanded the men remaining in his division and reported to Longstreet . These men surrendered with Pickett at Appomattox . Regarding Pickett and his division , no source can be produced which asserts anything otherwise .
= = = Appomattox = = =
On April 9 Pickett commanded his remaining troops in the Battle of Appomattox Courthouse , forming up in the final battle line of the Army of Northern Virginia . He surrendered with Lee 's army and was paroled at Appomattox Court House on April 9 , 1865 .
A legend told by Pickett 's widow stated that when the Union Army marched into Richmond , she received a surprise visitor . He acted graciously and inquired whether he had found the Pickett house . Abraham Lincoln himself had come to determine the fate of an old acquaintance before the wars , and Sallie , astonished , admitted she was his wife and held out her infant for the president to cradle . Lincoln historian Gerald J. Prokopowicz has called this story a " fantasy " .
= = Postbellum life = =
Fearing prosecution for his execution of 22 deserters following the Battle of New Bern , which was then under investigation , Pickett fled with his wife and son to Canada . He remained out of the country for a year until hearing that , at the recommendation of Ulysses S. Grant , the investigation had ended . Pickett returned to the United States with his family in 1866 to work as an insurance agent and farmer in Norfolk , Virginia .
On June 23 , 1874 House Resolution 3086 , an " act to remove the political disabilities of George E. Pickett of Virginia " , was passed by the U.S. Congress . Pickett was granted a full pardon , about a year before his death .
Pickett lamented his men , lost in great number at Gettysburg . Late in his life , Colonel John Singleton Mosby , who had served under General J.E.B. Stuart , was present when Lee and Pickett met briefly after the war . He claimed their interaction was cold and reserved . Others present at the meeting refuted this , stating Lee only acted in his usual reserved and gentlemanly fashion . Pickett , Mosby said , complained bitterly after this meeting , saying to Mosby : " That man destroyed my division . " Mosby allegedly replied " Yes , but he made you immortal . " Most historians find the encounter as Mosby interpreted it unlikely . Asked by reporters why Pickett 's Charge failed , Pickett frequently replied : " I 've always thought the Yankees had something to do with it . "
George E. Pickett died in Norfolk , Virginia , on July 30 , 1875 . The cause of death was a liver abscess , although whether it was amoebic or bacterial is not clear . He was initially interred in Cedar Grove Cemetery in Norfolk . His remains were disinterred on October 23 and he was buried in Hollywood Cemetery in Richmond , Virginia on October 24 , 1875 . More than 40 @,@ 000 people lined the funeral route while another 5 @,@ 000 marched in the funeral procession . A memorial to Pickett was erected over his grave site and dedicated on October 5 , 1888 . The memorial was not , however , placed directly above Pickett 's burial site , and the exact location of his remains is not clear .
LaSalle Corbell Pickett died on March 22 , 1931 , having outlived her husband by more than 55 years . Initially , Hollywood Cemetery declined to allow her to be buried next to her husband . Pickett 's grandson , Lieutenant George E. Pickett III , threatened to have his grandfather disinterred and moved to Arlington National Cemetery where both grandparents could be buried side @-@ by @-@ side . Hollywood Cemetery quickly agreed to permit LaSalle 's interment at Hollywood , but this did not immediately occur for reasons which are not clear , and LaSalle was cremated and buried at Abbey Mausoleum in Arlington County , Virginia . Originally a mausoleum for the wealthy , it went bankrupt in 1968 . The structure fell into disrepair , and it was vandalized many times and several graves desecrated . In early 1998 , the Military Order of the Stars and Bars and United Daughters of the Confederacy worked together to pay for LaSalle 's disinterment and reburial in front of the George E. Pickett Memorial in Hollywood Cemetery . LaSalle Pickett was buried on Saturday , March 21 , 1998 . She was the first woman interred in the Confederate military burial section .
= = Legacy = =
Decades after Pickett 's death , his widow LaSalle ( also known as " Sallie " and " Mother " ) became a well @-@ known writer and speaker on " her Soldier , " eventually leading to the creation of an idealized Pickett who was the perfect Southern gentleman and soldier . Much controversy attends LaSalle Pickett 's lionizing of her husband . LaSalle was the author of Pickett and His Men , a history of her husband 's military campaigns , which was published in 1899 . She published two other books in her deceased husband 's name , The Heart of a Soldier , As Revealed in the Intimate Letters of Gen 'l George E. Pickett ( published in 1913 ) and Soldier of the South : General Pickett 's War Letters to His Wife ( 1928 ) . These two writings have been described as " unreliable works that were fictionalized by Pickett 's wife . " As a result , General Pickett has become a figure partially obscured by " Lost Cause " mythology . Pickett today is widely perceived as being a tragic hero of sorts — a flamboyant officer who wanted to lead his troops into a glorious battle , but always missed the opportunity until the disastrous charge at Gettysburg .
Historian John C. Waugh wrote of Pickett , " An excellent brigade commander , he never proved he could handle a division . " He quotes George B. McClellan , the Union general , as saying : " Perhaps there is no doubt that he was the best infantry soldier developed on either side during the Civil War . "
Pickett 's grave is marked by a memorial in Hollywood Cemetery , which was placed there in 1888 . A monument to Pickett also stands in the American Camp on San Juan Island , Washington , erected by the Washington University Historical Society on October 21 , 1904 .
Fort Pickett in Blackstone , Virginia , is named in his honor . It was completed in 1942 and served as an active U.S. Army training facility in World War II and is currently occupied by the Virginia National Guard .
= = In popular media = =
Actor Stephen Lang portrayed George Pickett in the 1993 film Gettysburg . Billy Campbell portrayed Pickett in the 2003 prequel Gods and Generals .
Pickett also appeared in two episodes of the 1985 mini @-@ series North and South , depicting his cadet years at West Point , at which time he was a friend of George Hazard and Orry Main , the two main fictional characters of the series .
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= Bob Lemon =
Robert Granville " Bob " Lemon ( September 22 , 1920 – January 11 , 2000 ) was an American right @-@ handed pitcher and manager in Major League Baseball ( MLB ) . Lemon was elected to the National Baseball Hall of Fame as a player in 1976 .
Lemon was raised in California where he played high school baseball and was the state player of the year in 1938 . At the age of 17 , Lemon began his professional baseball career in the Cleveland Indians organization , with whom he played for his entire professional career . Lemon was called up to Cleveland 's major league team as a utility player in 1941 . He then joined the United States Navy during World War II and returned to the Indians in 1946 . That season was the first Lemon would play at the pitcher position .
The Indians played in the 1948 World Series and were helped by Lemon 's two pitching wins as they won the club 's first championship since 1920 . In the early 1950s , Cleveland had a starting pitching rotation which included Lemon , Bob Feller , Mike Garcia and Early Wynn . During the 1954 season , Lemon had a career @-@ best 23 – 7 win – loss record and the Indians set a 154 @-@ game season AL @-@ record win mark when they won 111 games before they won the American League ( AL ) pennant . He was an All @-@ Star for seven consecutive seasons and recorded seven seasons of 20 or more pitching wins in a nine @-@ year period from 1948 – 1956 .
Lemon was a manager with the Kansas City Royals , Chicago White Sox and New York Yankees . He was named Manager of the Year with the White Sox and Yankees . In 1978 , he was fired as manager of the White Sox . He was named Yankees manager one month later and he led the team to a 1978 World Series title . Lemon became the first AL manager to win a World Series after assuming the managerial role in the middle of a season .
= = Early life = =
Bob Lemon was born in San Bernardino , California . Lemon 's father , Earl Lemon , ran an ice business and later moved the family to Long Beach , California . There , Lemon attended Wilson Classical High School and played shortstop on the school 's baseball team . He was recognized as the state baseball player of the year by the California Interscholastic Federation ( CIF ) Southern Section in 1938 .
Later that same year , at the age of 17 , Lemon began his professional baseball career in the farm system of the Cleveland Indians as a member of the Oswego Netherlands of the Canadian – American League and later that year , the Middle Atlantic League 's Springfield Indians . In 75 games with the Netherlands he recorded a .312 batting average . The following season he played 80 games with Springfield , and hit .293 , and then joined the New Orleans Pelicans of the Southern Association , where Lemon hit .309 . He spent the next two seasons at the Class A level with the Eastern League 's Wilkes @-@ Barre Barons as he hit .255 in 1940 and .301 in 1941 . In his final stint in the minors , Lemon hit .268 with 21 home runs for the 1942 Baltimore Orioles of the International League .
= = Major League career = =
= = = Making it as a utility player = = =
Lemon 's major league debut came as a third baseman as a late season call @-@ up on September 9 , 1941 . He appeared in five games and collected one hit in five plate appearances . He was joined by catcher and fellow rookie Jim Hegan . He repeated the same number of games in the 1942 season and failed to record a hit . Lemon served in the United States Navy during World War II and missed the next three seasons . Before leaving for tour duty in 1943 , Lemon married Jane McGee .
Lemon was the Indians ' center fielder for Opening Day in 1946 . On April 30 , Indians pitcher Bob Feller no @-@ hit the New York Yankees ; Feller later wrote that Lemon 's " daring catch " and " throwing to and doubling a man off second base " were key in " saving my " no @-@ hitter . By season 's end , however , Lemon had entered more games as a pitcher than a utility player . Before that season , Lemon had only pitched one inning while with Oswego and another while with Wilkes @-@ Barre . Birdie Tebbetts of the Detroit Tigers and Johnny Pesky of the Boston Red Sox had played against Lemon in Navy baseball games , and they spoke to Indians player @-@ manager Lou Boudreau about switching Lemon from the outfield to the pitching mound .
Boudreau discussed the potential move to pitcher with Yankees catcher Bill Dickey , who had also played in the Navy with Lemon . " I knew Lemon had a strong arm , and once I realized he was not going to hit with consistency as an outfielder , I thought it would be worthwhile to look at him as a pitcher " , Boudreau later wrote . Lemon resisted the idea at first , but he agreed to the change after he learned that his salary could be higher as a pitcher . Lemon credited Indians coach Bill McKechnie with helping him to adjust to his new position . Indians pitching coach Mel Harder taught Lemon how to throw a slider , a key pitch in his repertoire . That same year , Indians owner Bill Veeck said that Lemon " some day will become the best pitcher in the American League . " Lemon finished the 1946 season with a losing record ( 4 – 5 ) , the only one he would have until 1957 , and a career @-@ low 2 @.@ 49 ERA . He followed up his inaugural season as a pitcher with an 11 – 5 record . He appeared in 19 games before August , largely as a relief pitcher , but he made his first start in July against the Boston Red Sox . During the last two months of the season , Lemon went 9 – 3 and pitched six complete games , including two 11 @-@ inning outings .
= = = Full @-@ time pitcher to World Series champion = = =
Before the 1948 season started , team president Bill Veeck doubled Lemon 's contract amount . It would be Lemon 's first full season as a pitcher . Lemon was the Indians ' number @-@ two pitcher in the starting rotation , behind Bob Feller . On June 30 , 1948 , Lemon pitched a no @-@ hitter against the Detroit Tigers in a 2 – 0 win , earning his 11th win and fifth shutout of the season . He became the ninth Indians pitcher to record a no @-@ hitter and ended the season with an AL @-@ best 20 complete games . His ten shutouts on the season were the most in the majors . Lemon would go on to win the 1948 AL Pitcher of the Year Award . With three games remaining in the regular season , 20 @-@ game winner Lemon started the first game of their final series against Detroit . Lemon allowed three runs on seven hits and the Indians lost the game . Cleveland lost two games of the three @-@ game series , forcing a one @-@ game playoff with the Boston Red Sox . Speculation built up around which Indians pitcher Boudreau would send to the mound against the Red Sox on October 4 ; the choices were largely narrowed down to Lemon and Satchel Paige . Lemon was listed as Cleveland 's " probable pitcher " by United Press International in morning newspapers the day of the game , even though he would be working on two days of rest . Instead , Boudreau went with Gene Bearden , who would be pitching on one day of rest , and the choice was solidified when veteran second baseman Joe Gordon spoke up in support of Boudreau at a team meeting . The Indians won the game at Fenway Park by a score of 8 – 3 and prepared to face the Boston Braves in the World Series .
Boudreau started Feller in game one , which Cleveland lost . Lemon was the starter in the second game . Lemon faced Warren Spahn , and Cleveland won 4 – 1 . Lemon was named the starter for game six in Boston with the Indians leading the series 3 – 2 . He allowed three earned runs on eight hits and Cleveland had the lead when Lemon was replaced by Bearden . The Braves scored two runs in the bottom of the eighth inning but the Indians won the game , 4 – 3 , to clinch the franchise 's first World Series title since 1920 . Lemon was the only pitcher from either club to win two games in the Series . He finished the Series with a 1 @.@ 65 ERA .
Lemon 's hitting skills began to get attention as well . By August 1949 , Lemon was batting .295 with 11 extra @-@ base hits and six home runs , prompting Yankees manager Casey Stengel to comment , " Well , I see where the Indians have nine hitters in the lineup instead of eight . " Columnist Milton Richman wrote , " Lemon 's fine work at the plate has also conspired to tire him more . When the Indians get behind and Lemon is pitching , he rarely is yanked for a pinch hitter in the early innings . It 's a tough price he 's paying for batting fame . " In 1950 , Lemon led the major leagues in pitching wins ( 23 ) for the first time and he would win his second AL Pitcher of the Year Award . He pitched a six @-@ hit complete game over the Detroit Tigers in his last start of the season on September 29 . When Lemon signed a new contract before the 1951 season , the Indians made him the highest paid pitcher in baseball . At the beginning of the 1951 season , columnist Oscar Fraley pointed out that Lemon was one of only 12 active pitchers who had earned a winning record in four consecutive seasons . He finished the season with a 3 @.@ 52 ERA , lower than the 1950 season mark of 3 @.@ 84 when he led the majors with 23 wins , and a 17 – 14 record . The loss total was the most in the AL . He did not record his first shutout of the season until well into August , when he earned a three @-@ hit win over the Chicago White Sox . Upon completion of the 1952 season , Lemon recorded the second @-@ lowest ERA of his career , 2 @.@ 50 , and went 22 – 11 . His 28 complete games were a career @-@ high and led the AL . He joined teammates Early Wynn ( 23 ) and Mike Garcia ( 22 ) as part of a Cleveland starting rotation which featured three 20 @-@ game winners .
On Opening Day of the 1953 season , Lemon pitched a one @-@ hitter against the Chicago White Sox and earned a win . He finished the season with a 21 – 15 record , 3 @.@ 36 ERA and led the AL in innings pitched for the fourth and final time of his career .
= = = Second World Series appearance = = =
In 1954 he was 23 – 7 and won his third AL Pitcher of the Year Award as Cleveland won the pennant . The Indians set an AL record with 111 wins . ( The record stood until major league seasons were lengthened to 162 games , and it has been surpassed twice since then . ) Lemon was named Cleveland 's starter for game one of the 1954 World Series . After nine innings , the Indians and Giants were tied 2 – 2 . Lemon stayed in the game to pitch the tenth and final inning , but he surrendered a three @-@ run home run to pinch hitter Dusty Rhodes and the Indians lost , 5 – 2 . Indians manager Al López went with Lemon again in the fourth game after only two days rest . " He hasn 't worked that close together all year because we had a good bunch of other pitchers , but a year ago , he and Wynn and Garcia pitched every third day for practically a month . Bob will be all right " , Lopez said . Lemon and the Indians lost the game , 7 – 4 , as the Giants swept the Series four games to none . In his two appearances , he went 0 – 2 with a 6 @.@ 75 ERA , allowed eight walks and recorded 11 strikeouts .
Lemon began the 1955 season with a 5 – 0 record in April , but he was the only Cleveland starting pitcher with a winning record that month . His 18 wins tied for the most in the AL that year . He recorded five complete games through May 30 but none after that date . Indians general manager Hank Greenberg got Lemon to agree to his first reduction in contract salary since joining the organization . Lemon earned his 200th career win against the Baltimore Orioles on September 11 , 1956 , and he also hit a home run that day . He finished the season with a 20 – 14 record , the last of his seven career 20 @-@ win seasons , and led the AL in complete games ( 21 ) . On August 13 , 1957 , it was announced that Lemon would not finish the season due to continued irritation to his elbow after bone chips were found earlier in the season . Lemon ended the season with a record of 6 – 11 , his first losing record since 1946 .
In 1958 , Lemon was the oldest Indian on the roster at age 37 . Lemon pitched 3 @.@ 1 innings over the span of two games before he was put on the Indians ' disabled list and sent to the Triple @-@ A San Diego Padres . There he continued physical conditioning and mentored the pitching staff of the Indians ' top farm club . He appeared in 12 games with the Padres , going 2 – 5 , with a 4 @.@ 34 ERA , 22 walks , and 19 strikeouts . He returned to pitch for the Indians on May 25 in a relief role , but he appeared in only nine games that season . He earned just one decision that year , a loss , which brought his career pitching record to 207 – 128 . The club put him on waivers in July .
= = = Retirement = = =
At 38 , Lemon went to Tucson in 1959 to attend Indians ' spring training camp . He told manager Joe Gordon that he was willing to become a relief pitcher , but he retired as a player on March 5 , stating , " I just couldn 't keep up with the young fellows anymore . " He accepted a scouting role with the Indians .
Lemon retired in 1958 with 207 wins , all but ten of them occurring in a ten @-@ year span . He recorded 274 hits in 1 @,@ 1883 at @-@ bats ( .232 ) , and his 37 career home runs are second on the all @-@ time career list for pitchers ( behind Wes Ferrell 's 38 ) . In 1951 , Ted Williams had written of Lemon : " I have to rate Lemon as one of the very best pitchers I ever faced . His ball was always moving , hard , sinking , fast @-@ breaking . You could never really uhmmmph with Lemon " . The Indians organization retired Lemon 's jersey number , 21 , in 1998 , making him the sixth Indian to receive the honor .
On January 22 , 1976 , Lemon was elected to the National Baseball Hall of Fame by the Baseball Writers ' Association of America on the twelfth ballot on which he appeared . He received 75 percent of the vote . On August 8 , one day before his induction ceremony , Lemon said , " It 's a great thrill . My mother is 83 but she is making the trip from California . She says she can die happy now that I 've been elected to the Hall of Fame . " Lemon 's dominant slider has been cited as a key reason for his election to the Hall of Fame .
= = Post @-@ playing career = =
= = = Coaching = = =
In 1959 , Lemon became a scout for Cleveland . The next season he became a coach with the Indians . In 1961 , he joined the Philadelphia Phillies coaching staff . The California Angels hired him as their pitching coach for 1967 – 1968 . In 1976 , Lemon served as pitching coach for the AL champion New York Yankees . The Yankees were owned by Cleveland @-@ area native George Steinbrenner and they had been the chief antagonists of the Cleveland Indians during Lemon 's pitching years . In recognition of his election to the Hall of Fame , Lemon was named honorary captain of the AL team for the All @-@ Star Game .
= = = Managing = = =
Lemon 's first managerial role came with the Triple @-@ A Hawaii Islanders of the PCL . His next appointment was in the same league with the Seattle Angels , where he managed from 1965 – 1966 and won the 1966 championship . He was named the PCL 's Manager of the Year by The Sporting News for the 1966 season . He returned to the PCL as the manager for the Vancouver Mounties for one season in 1969 . Lemon said he used Indians manager Al López as a model for his managing style :
" Lopez always handled his players like I 'd want to be handled . He treated men like men . He made them feel relaxed . That 's the only way to play this game ... by being relaxed . You can 't be worried about the manager getting on you . All the time I was at Cleveland , I saw Lopez get mad only twice . He never showed anybody up . I don 't do it either . "
= = = = Kansas City Royals = = = =
Lemon became pitching coach of the Royals for the 1970 season , and got his first major league managing position when the Kansas City fired manager Charlie Metro on June 7 , 1970 . By August , Lemon received a one @-@ year contract extension with the club :
" I know many major league owners are against hiring a former pitcher as manager and I 've always wondered why . Pitching is 75 per cent of the game . If it 's so important , why not have a former pitcher as manager ? He can always have someone else run the other 25 per cent of the club . "
In 1971 , Lemon guided the Royals to their first winning season since the franchise began as an expansion team in 1969 . Lemon finished second in the Associated Press AL Manager of the Year voting . Before the 1972 season , Lemon talked about the team 's chances , saying " Five clubs could win it , including ourselves . " However , the Royals finished 76 – 78 in Lemon 's last year with the club . Royals owner Ewing Kauffman fired Lemon as manager and stated that he wanted a younger person to fill the position and " did not want to lose Jack McKeon " , who was named as Lemon 's replacement . Royals outfielder Lou Piniella was one of several players who disagreed with Kauffman 's decision , saying , " ... Lemon deserved to manage the club next year . "
His third and final stint in the PCL was with the Sacramento Solons in 1974 . His last minor league managerial position came the following season with the International League 's Richmond Braves .
= = = = Chicago White Sox = = = =
Bill Veeck hired Lemon to succeed Paul Richards as the Chicago White Sox manager on November 16 , 1976 . Lemon took over a Chicago team that finished in last place in the AL West in 1976 . " Bob is the type of manager we need at this stage of the game " , Veeck said . During spring training of 1977 , Lemon said , " I think we 'll surprise a few people . " White Sox shortstop Alan Bannister quickly noticed a difference . Comparing Richards to Lemon , Bannister said , " He 'd post the lineups 10 minutes before the game , and only then we 'd find out who was playing and where . Lemon 's made it a serious operation . " As late as August 14 , the White Sox were in first place in the AL West . The White Sox finished with a 90 – 72 record , a 26 @-@ game improvement . The team finished third in AL West and Lemon won his second Manager of the Year Award . " The fans got behind us after about three weeks . They had a lot to do with our success " , Lemon said after being winning the award .
Lemon was fired the following season on June 30 , 1978 , by Veeck after Chicago posted a 34 – 40 record in the first half of the 1978 season . He was replaced by former Indians ' teammate Larry Doby . " This change is not meant as any commentary on Lemon 's ability but rather was the result of unusual circumstances which seemed to make a change necessary " , said Veeck .
= = = = New York Yankees = = = =
Yankees manager Billy Martin resigned on July 24 , 1978 , and team president Al Rosen called Lemon to offer him the vacant position . He was announced as the new manager the next day . At their 1978 Old Timers Day five days after the Martin – Lemon changeover , the Yankees divulged that Lemon would be moved in 1980 to general manager , and they said that Martin would then return as field manager . The announcement was made by public @-@ address announcer Bob Sheppard after the Old Timers had been announced and it was accompanied by Martin 's dramatic entrance from the Yankee dugout . Martin received a long standing ovation from fans . Lemon responded to his new job — and to the newspaper strike that helped calm down the atmosphere in the Yankees clubhouse — by guiding the Yankees to the 1978 pennant . The Yankees , who trailed the Red Sox by 14 games at one point in July , pulled even with the Red Sox by defeating them in a four @-@ game September series known as the " Boston Massacre . " The Yankees pulled ahead by three and a half games , but the Red Sox rallied to tie the Yanks by the final day of the season . A one @-@ game playoff would determine the AL Eastern Division winner .
Ron Guidry was named the Yankees ' starting pitcher for the October 2 playoff game at Fenway Park . Guidry was able to pitch " because of Lemon 's good planning . " The Yankees defeated Boston for the division title in the tie @-@ breaker game , punctuated both by a dramatic three @-@ run home run by Bucky Dent in the seventh inning , and an eighth @-@ inning homer by Reggie Jackson that proved the game 's winning run . Lemon became the third manager in MLB history to replace another mid @-@ season and win the pennant . Lemon 's Yankees then beat the Royals in the ALCS and defeated the Los Angeles Dodgers to win the World Series title . With the Series win , Lemon became the first AL manager and third MLB manager to take over a team mid @-@ season and win a World Series . Before the World Series , one columnist wrote , " ... many observers feel that Lemon 's low @-@ keyed approach with the Yankees ' temperamental millionaires as compared to the combativeness of Martin served to mold a spirit of togetherness among the Yankees that did not even exist last year when they won it all . " Lemon and his handling of the season was described in The New York Times as " an island of calm in a stormy summer . " Changes Lemon made during the season included returning Thurman Munson to the team 's every day catcher ( he had been playing in the outfield ) , putting Jackson in the clean @-@ up spot in the batting order and becoming the regular right fielder , and pitching Ed Figueroa every fourth day ( instead of fifth ) . In October , Lemon was named the Associated Press ' AL Manager of the Year , the second time he received such an award .
Lemon 's 26 @-@ year @-@ old son , Jerry , was killed in an automobile accident in the fall of 1978 , 10 days after Lemon won the World Series . The following season with the Yankees at 34 – 31 , Lemon was fired in June by Steinbrenner and replaced by Martin , but he remained with the organization as he had a contract through the 1982 season . Speaking of Martin , Lemon said , " He 's a very likeable guy , a free spirit . Where maybe I keep things inside , he lets them come out . There 's nothing wrong with that . " The Yankees finished in fourth place in the AL East ( 89 – 71 ) . Lemon worked as a scout for the Yankees and received " several offers " from other teams to serve as manager . One offer came in 1979 from the Indians , but Lemon refused it as well as the others .
= = = = Second stint with Yankees = = = =
Steinbrenner named Lemon the team 's field manager a second time on September 6 , 1981 , the sixth Yankees ' manager change since 1978 . Lemon moved on to the post @-@ season and dispatched the Milwaukee Brewers and the Billy Martin @-@ led Oakland Athletics , and won the first two games of the 1981 World Series against the Dodgers , only to lose four straight and the Series . Lemon survived just a few weeks into the 1982 season ( the Yankees were 6 – 8 ) before Steinbrenner dismissed him one last time , despite a promise for Steinbrenner he would manage the season " no matter what . " Of the agreement between Lemon and Steinbrenner , Steinbrenner said , " Lem and I talked . He said it was O.K. He said he didn 't take it as a promise anyway . " Gene Michael succeeded Lemon as manager . He had managed just over one full season of games ( 172 ) for the Yankees , winning 99 games for a .576 winning percentage .
= = = = Managerial record = = = =
= = Highlights and awards = =
7 × All @-@ Star ( 1948 , 1949 , 1950 , 1951 , 1952 , 1953 , 1954 )
7 × 20 @-@ plus wins in a season ( 1948 – 1950 , 1952 – 1954 , 1956 )
5 × AL leader in complete games ( 1948 , 1950 , 1952 , 1954 , 1956 )
Led MLB in shutouts ( 10 , 1948 )
5 × led MLB or AL in putouts ( 1948 – 1949 , 1952 – 1954 )
6 × led MLB or AL in assists ( 1948 – 1949 , 1951 – 1953 , 1956 )
3 × finished fifth in MVP voting ( 1948 , 1950 , 1954 )
World Series Champion , player ( 1948 )
Led AL in strikeouts ( 170 , 1950 )
3x AL Pitcher of the Year Award ( 1948 , 1950 , 1954 )
2 × MLB leader in wins ( 1950 , 1954 )
Major league record for pitcher 15 double plays in one season ( 1953 )
Led AL in wins ( 1955 )
World Series Champion , manager ( 1978 )
# 21 number retired by Cleveland Indians
= = Death = =
Lemon suffered a stroke in his later years . Lemon died in 2000 in Long Beach , California , where he had been a permanent resident since his career as a player . Former teammate Bob Feller said , " Bob had a good curve , a good slider , and a vicious sinker pitch . He wasn 't overly fast , but he always stayed ahead of the hitters and he didn 't walk many batters , which is the key to success in the majors . "
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= Nathaniel G. S. Hart =
Nathaniel Gray Smith Hart ( c . 1784 – January 23 , 1813 ) , often Nathaniel G. S. Hart , was a Lexington , Kentucky lawyer and businessman , who served with the state 's volunteer militia during the War of 1812 . As Captain of the Lexington Light Infantry from Kentucky , Hart and many of his men were killed in the River Raisin Massacre of January 23 , 1813 , after being taken prisoner the day before following the Battle of Frenchtown in Michigan Territory .
Hart was especially well @-@ connected politically and socially . In addition to reading law with Henry Clay , Hart 's wife Anna and Clay 's wife Lucretia were sisters . Hart 's wife Anna Edward Gist was the stepdaughter of Charles Scott , Governor of Kentucky and through her Hart was also a brother @-@ in @-@ law to James Brown , a future Ambassador to France and to James Pindell - a member of the Society of Cincinnati . Many other members of Hart 's Kentucky militia unit and its associated troops also came from the elite of Lexington and of the state . The men 's deaths in the two Battles of Frenchtown , but especially in the subsequent Massacre captured state and national attention . The phrase " Remember the Raisin ! " became an American call to arms for the duration of the War .
= = Personal life = =
Nathaniel Hart was one of seven children , the second son of Colonel Thomas Hart , a veteran of the Revolutionary War , and his wife Susanna ( Gray ) Hart .
Originally from North Carolina , the family had moved to Hagerstown , Maryland , where Nathaniel was born . In 1794 they settled in Lexington , Kentucky as part of the postwar migration west . His father was a highly successful businessman , achieving wealth . Hart 's four sisters married men who achieved some renown : Ann married the future US Senator James Brown ( who subsequently served as Minister to France ) ; Eliza married the surgeon Dr. Richard Pindell ( a member of the Society of the Cincinnati ) ; Susanna married the lawyer Samuel Price , and Lucretia married Henry Clay , future US Senator and Secretary of State .
Hart attended Princeton College , where his classmates included William Elliott from western Ontario . Elliott 's father was a Loyalist who had resettled in Canada after the Revolutionary War . The two young men were close enough that Elliot stayed with Hart 's parents for a time to recover from a serious illness .
After Hart 's return to Lexington , he read law under Henry Clay , passed the bar , and set up a law practice in the city . Like his father , he became a successful businessman , a ropewalk ( hemp rope factory ) in the city being among his ventures . Hemp was a commodity crop of central Kentucky . In April 1809 , Hart married Anna Edward Gist , the stepdaughter of General Charles Scott , governor of Kentucky , and daughter of Judith Cary Gist Scott and her late husband General Nathaniel Gist . Hart and Anna had two sons , Thomas Hart Jr. and Henry Clay Hart . On January 7 , 1812 , Hart duelled with Samuel E. Watson at a location on the Indiana side of the Ohio River , near where Silver Creek emptied into the river . This was the site where Henry Clay had duelled with fellow state legislator Humphrey Marshall in 1809 .
= = Military service and death = =
At the start of the War of 1812 , Hart was commissioned as Captain of the Lexington Light Infantry Company ( aka " The Silk Stocking Boys " ) a volunteer unit of the Fayette County , Kentucky militia . He later served as either a Deputy Inspector or as Inspector General of William Henry Harrison 's Army of the Northwest . Hart 's command was attached to the Fifth Regiment of the Kentucky Volunteer Militia and left for the Northwest in August 1812 , where it became part of Army of the Northwest under General James Winchester . In January 1813 , a detachment was sent to the defense of Frenchtown , Michigan Territory as part of an effort to retake Detroit from the British . Frenchtown residents had sent word to the Americans asking for relief from an occupying force of the British and their Native American allies .
During the First Battle of Frenchtown on January 18 , 1813 , the American forces under Lt. Colonel William Lewis were successful in forcing the retreat of the small British force stationed there . The British commander of the Fort Malden garrison in Amherstburg , Colonel Henry Procter , made plans to take back Frenchtown and he ordered troops to the area .
On the morning of January 22 , 1813 , Procter 's forces , including hundreds of Native American warriors , attacked the American troops and overwhelmed the right flank of regulars under Winchester , forcing him and much of the general staff to surrender . The Kentucky militia under the command of Major George Madison on the left flank fought on and thought the flag of truce presented by the enemy was a British flag of surrender . During this second Battle of Frenchtown , 397 Americans were killed . Hart was wounded and was among the 547 survivors who surrendered to Procter upon orders of Winchester . Not many more than 30 Kentucky troops escaped death or capture .
William Elliott , Hart 's former Princeton classmate who had become a Captain in the British Army , promised the wounded man safe passage to Fort Malden , but did not carry out his pledge . Elliot borrowed a horse , bridle and saddle from Major Benjamin Franklin Graves , an American officer , promising to send help to the American wounded , but none arrived . Acting American captain William Caldwell wrote the next month that he heard Elliott tell General Winchester and Major Madison that " the Indians were very excellent surgeons ( and ought to kill all the officers and men ) . " In one official letter , the eye @-@ witness says that Elliott 's broken promise included an offer to take Hart in Elliott 's " own sleigh to Malden that evening " and that Hart could stay at Elliott 's home for his recovery .
Unable to march with the able @-@ bodied prisoners who were being directed to Fort Malden , Hart paid a friendly Indian to take him to the fort . Along the way they encountered other Native Americans , who shot and scalped Hart . Hart and an estimated 30 – 100 unarmed prisoners were killed by Native Americans on January 23 , the day after the battle , in what became known as the River Raisin Massacre .
The high fatalities of the Americans in the Battle of Frenchtown and the subsequent Massacre of prisoners became fuel for pro @-@ war political factions known as War Hawks , and for anti @-@ British sentiment of the era . The phrase " Remember the Raisin ! " entered the lexicon of the day as a flashpoint for popular sentiment , becoming a battle cry for American troops , especially the ones on the western frontier . The fact that many of the murdered men were well @-@ known and well @-@ connected members of Kentucky 's elite increased the public outcry . Among the dead was Colonel John Allen , Henry Clay 's law @-@ partner and co @-@ counsel in Aaron Burr 's conspiracy trial at Frankfort . Hart 's death is remembered in modern times as " The Murder of Captain Hart . " Major Benjamin Franklin Graves of Lexington was another officer apparently killed while a prisoner of the Potawatomi , who were overseeing him and others marching to Detroit . Many American prisoners disappeared or were killed while being force @-@ marched back to British @-@ held territory .
= = Aftermath of Hart 's death and memorials = =
Owing to their high casualties and status as prisoners , surviving Americans were not able to properly bury their fallen comrades . The remains of the American dead at this site were not interred until months later . In 1818 , the remains were transferred from Monroe , Michigan to Detroit . Isaac Baker , an American ensign who survived the Massacre and served as an official US Agent for the prisoners , stated in a report to General Winchester that :
The dead of our army are still denied the rites of sepulture . ... I was told the hogs were eating them . A gentleman told me he had seen them running about with skulls , arms , legs and other parts of the human system in their mouths . The French people on the Raisin buried Captains Hart , Woolfolk , and some others , but it was more than their lives were worth to have been caught paying this last customed tribute to mortality . "
In 1834 , the box containing the commingled American remains ( including tomahawked skulls ) , were moved from their former Detroit resting @-@ place and re @-@ interred in Detroit 's City Cemetery . These remains are asserted to have received final burial in the State Cemetery of Frankfort , Kentucky . As late as 1849 , a mass grave from the battle was excavated during road construction in Monroe , which developed in the area of the battlefield . Some writers state that those skeletons , along with the City Cemetery remains , were returned to Kentucky for final and proper burial that year . A 2004 archeological investigation at the State Monument found no evidence of remains from men of the River Raisin events .
Matthew Harris Jouett , a man who painted noted portraits of Thomas Jefferson , George Rogers Clark and Lafayette , was one of the Kentucky volunteers and among the survivors of the River Raisin Massacre . The company payroll of $ 6000 disappeared during the slaughter . Jouett restored the missing funds to the militia , based on his earnings as a painter . He also painted portraits of his fellow soldiers from memory , including Hart and Colonel Allen .
= = Legacy and honors = =
In 1819 , the state of Kentucky named its 61st county as Hart County in Nathaniel Hart 's honor .
Hart was listed among officers on the Kentucky War Memorial in Frankfort Cemetery in the capital of Frankfort .
In 1904 residents of Monroe , Michigan , which includes much of the area of the battlefield , erected a monument to the Kentuckians who died defending their settlement during the various River Raisin engagements . Some unidentified victims were buried here .
In 2009 , the River Raisin National Battlefield Park was established , the only such park to commemorate the War of 1812 , and one of four battlefield parks in the nation . It had earlier been recognized as a state historic site and was previously listed on the National Register of Historic Places .
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= Lady & Peebles =
" Lady & Peebles " is the nineteenth episode of the fourth season of the American animated television series Adventure Time . The episode was written and storyboarded by Cole Sanchez and Rebecca Sugar , from a story by Patrick McHale , Kent Osborne , and Pendleton Ward . It originally aired on Cartoon Network on August 20 , 2012 . The episode guest stars George Takei as Ricardio .
The series follows the adventures of Finn ( voiced by Jeremy Shada ) , a human boy , and his best friend and adoptive brother Jake ( voiced by John DiMaggio ) , a dog with magical powers to change shape and grow and shrink at will . In this episode , Princess Bubblegum ( voiced by Hynden Walch ) and Lady Rainicorn ( voiced by Niki Yang ) go searching for Finn and Jake , who have been missing for three weeks after fighting with the Ice King ( voiced by Tom Kenny ) . It is revealed that Ricardio , the Ice King 's living heart , has trapped them and wishes to marry Bubblegum . Bubblegum eventually defeats Ricardio in hand @-@ to @-@ hand combat , and saves the day .
" Lady & Peebles " featured the return of Takei , who had previously voiced Ricardio in the first season episode , " Ricardio the Heart Guy " . Several video games inspired elements of the episode , including The Legend of Zelda : Majora 's Mask , Eternal Darkness : Sanity 's Requiem and Amnesia : The Dark Descent . " Lady & Peebles " was watched by 2 @.@ 754 million people and received largely positive critical attention , with Oliver Sava of The A.V. Club praising Takei 's voice acting , and Richard Whittaker of The Austin Chronicle applauding the female @-@ centric nature of the episode . The episode was later nominated for an Annie Award .
= = Plot = =
Princess Bubblegum and Lady Rainicorn investigate a mysterious black ice cave , fearing that Finn and Jake may have been captured by the Ice King on a routine expedition . Once inside the cave , Lady and Bubblegum enter into a biologically @-@ engineered dungeon and are attacked by mysterious hand @-@ like creatures that attempt to grab them . Lady manages to phase through a wall , and the two hear the Ice King 's voice coming from a ventilation shaft . Inside the shaft , the two are attacked by a giant tongue before they enter into a room covered with eyes . As Bubblegum and Lady approach the room 's exit , the eyes activate and shoot laser at the duo , incapacitating Lady .
Bubblegum plods on in the dark , carrying an unconscious Lady around her shoulders . Suddenly , she stumbles upon the disemboweled body of the oblivious Ice King . From the dark , Ricardio , the living heart of the Ice King , introduces himself , tossing an unconscious Finn and Jake into the light . Ricardio reveals that he built himself both a body as well as the dungeon complex in an attempt to impress Bubblegum . He reveals that he wishes to marry her ; Bubblegum agrees to marry Ricardio if he can beat her in hand @-@ to @-@ hand combat . After a short fight , Bubblegum disarms Ricardio and forces him to flee , wounded , into the darkness . Later , at the Candy Kingdom , Finn , Jake , the Ice King , and Lady recover , and Lady reveals to Jake that she is pregnant .
= = Production = =
" Ricardio the Heart Guy " was storyboarded by Rebecca Sugar and Cole Sanchez , from a story by Patrick McHale , Kent Osborne , and Pendleton Ward . It was directed by Larry Leichliter . Sugar , the eventual creator of the Cartoon Network series Steven Universe , began working on said program 's pilot episode while she was storyboarding this episode .
The episode features the recurring villain Ricardio , played by George Takei , a character that Tom Kenny later called " the valentine from Hell " . Takei later previously played the role in the season one episode " Ricardio the Heart Guy " . Sugar felt that Bubblegum , in the episode , was the victim of sexual harassment by Ricardio , and that the only way for her to solve the problem was for her to turn the situation around and somehow over come Ricardio . In the episode , this was metaphorically depicted by having Bubblegum best him in combat . Sugar reveled in the fact that she got to draw Bubblegum ripping off Ricardio 's leg and beating him with ; she noted that she had been wanting to featuring such a scene in her art since she was in high school . The climactic scene with Ricardio was also supposed to have featured more body imagery . Ricardio was originally slated to have been seated on a giant hand @-@ throne , and the hole in the Ice King 's chest was to have been more graphic .
The episode reveals that Lady Rainicorn is pregnant with Jake 's children . This plot point would later be brought to the forefront in the fifth season episode " Jake the Dad " . In the first draft of the ending , Lady Rainicorn was supposed to break up with Jake because he was causing her to be too stressed . However , the crew decided this was a bad idea , and it was changed to Rainicorn telling Jake that she is pregnant . It was originally planned for the pregnancy reveal to be in Korean , but the crew felt that the meaning of the ending would be lost on most of the audience .
Several video games inspired elements of the episode . Ricardio 's bioengineered body was based on the finale incarnation of Majora , a character from the eponymous 2000 video game The Legend of Zelda : Majora 's Mask . The general look of Ricardio 's dungeon was inspired by the 2002 video games Eternal Darkness : Sanity 's Requiem and the 2010 game Amnesia : The Dark Descent . Robert Ryan Cory , a character designer most known for his work on the Nickelodeon series SpongeBob SquarePants , storyboarded the panels featuring Princess Bubblegum stomping on Ricardio and grinding her foot into his face . Because he drew the panels , lead character designer Andy Ristaino also allowed Cory to finalize the character designs for the scene . He later posted them on his official Flickr account .
= = Reception = =
" Lady & Peebles " first aired on Cartoon Network on August 8 , 2012 . The episode was viewed by 2 @.@ 754 million viewers and scored a 0 @.@ 5 Nielsen rating in the 18- to 49 @-@ year @-@ old demographic . Nielsen ratings are audience measurement systems that determine the audience size and composition of television programming in the United States , which means that the episode was seen by 0 @.@ 5 percent of all households aged 18 to 49 years old were watching television at the time of the episode 's airing . The episode first saw physical release as part of the 2013 Fionna and Cake DVD , which included 16 episodes from the series ' first three seasons .
Critical reception to the episode was largely positive . Sava awarded the episode a " B + " , and wrote that Ricardio is " always welcome on this series , largely due to Takei ’ s delightful voice work . " Furthermore , he praised the way that Takei delivered his lines , noting that " there ’ s a theatrical smarminess to his vocals that is a stark contrast to the Ice King ’ s nasality " , and that " Takei always sounds like he ’ s having a great time reading the ridiculous lines that are written for him . " Sava also wrote positively of Bubblegum 's character , noting that she " dominates this episode " and that the " episode reveals a side of her that we rarely see , and hopefully we ’ ll get more of badass PB in the future . "
Richard Whittaker of The Austin Chronicle noted that the episode is " Princess Bubblegum @-@ centric " and , along with the third season episode " Fionna and Cake " , gives the female fans of the show their own Finn and Jake moments . The Entertainment Examiner named the episode as one of the " memorable " episodes that appeared on the 2013 DVD release Fionna and Cake . The episode was nominated for an Annie Award for " Storyboarding in an Animated Television / Broadcast Production " at the 40th Annie Awards , although the episode did not win .
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= Boys and Girls ( The Office ) =
" Boys and Girls " is the fifteenth episode of the second season of the American comedy television series The Office , and the show 's twenty @-@ first episode overall . It was written by B. J. Novak and directed by Dennie Gordon and first aired on February 2 , 2006 on NBC . The episode guest stars Melora Hardin as Jan Levinson , Craig Robinson as Daryl Philbin , and Patrice O 'Neal as Lonny .
The series depicts the everyday lives of office employees in the Scranton , Pennsylvania branch of the fictional Dunder Mifflin Paper Company . In this episode , Michael Scott ( Steve Carell ) becomes frustrated when he is not allowed to listen in on a " women in the workplace " seminar that Jan is conducting , so he conducts his own " men in the workplace " seminar in the warehouse , where talk of a warehouse union emerges . Meanwhile , Pam Beesly ( Jenna Fischer ) considers graphic design .
The genesis for the episode came from an idea cast members Angela Kinsey and Fischer had while spending time together on the set of the series . During the filming , Carell and the warehouse men were filmed on one set and Fischer and the office women filmed on another . The episode was viewed by 5 @.@ 42 million viewers , which was the lowest number since the first season finale " Hot Girl " . " Boys and Girls " received largely positive reviews from critics .
= = Plot = =
Jan Levinson ( Melora Hardin ) leads the female Dunder Mifflin employees in a " women in the workplace " seminar . Miffed at being excluded , Michael Scott ( Steve Carell ) conducts a competing men in the workplace seminar in the warehouse . Roy approaches Jim under the belief that Jim used to like Pam . Darryl Philbin ( Craig Robinson ) and his equally irritated crew are forced to participate in Michael 's shenanigans , which culminates in Michael trying to drive a forklift , and knocking down several shelves .
Michael 's recklessness makes a complete mess of the warehouse while jeopardizing the employees ' safety . Michael 's plans to hold his own seminar backfire when the warehouse workers ' gripe session leads to them deciding to form a union . Jan intimidates them into reconsidering , citing a liquidation of the branch if it were to unionize .
Jan urges Pam to take a corporate training program in graphic design in New York when Pam reveals that she wants to be a graphic designer , but Roy squashes the idea . Jim rebukes Pam for listening to Roy when he is clearly wrong and acting selfish , which creates tension between them . Pam then tells the camera she is happy with her life now , and that they don 't even make her dream house in Scranton . She then breaks down and cries in front of the camera . As the day comes to a close , Michael leaves the warehouse in complete disarray .
= = Production = =
" Boys and Girls " was directed by Dennie Gordon ; it was written by B.J. Novak , who plays Ryan Howard on the show . The genesis for the episode came from cast members Angela Kinsey and Jenna Fischer . The two originally formulated an idea while spending time together on the set of The Office : " What if Jan came into the office and did a ' Women in the Workplace ' seminar , and Michael got all jealous ? " They presented their idea to executive producer Greg Daniels , who liked the idea . Daniels subsequently assigned the idea to Novak , who crafted the final episode . Pam 's monologue on reading about a girl who lived in a house with a terrace was based on a real book from the Choose Your Own Adventure series , although not specifically identified as such in the episode read by Jenna Fischer when she was a child . When the show 's cast and crew appeared at the Paley Center , Fischer related that Novak asked her if she had any personal stories that could relate to what Pam was feeling at the time the episode was being written . She then came up with the storybook idea , which was immediately written and filmed for the episode .
Fischer later called the episode " both the most masculine and most feminine episode of The Office yet " . This is largely because , during the filming , the different sections were shot separately : Carell and the warehouse filmed on one set and Fischer and the office women filmed on another . The women of The Office later said that " it was great " to spend time with themselves . Fischer later claimed that the woman spent a large part of the filming time talking and " behav [ ing ] like seventh @-@ graders . "
The Season Two DVD contains a number of deleted scenes from this episode . Notable cut scenes include Michael asking Pam and Jim for help choosing a ringtone , Roy and Dwight talking about guns , Dwight shooting his spud gun , and Dwight agrees that " there 's no place like home . "
= = Cultural references = =
Michael compares modern working women to Ally McBeal , the titular lead of the American legal comedy @-@ drama television series of the same name . Dwight compares venturing into the warehouse to the television series Lost , specifically when the characters in Lost meet the mysterious " Others " . When Michael is setting with his shirt unbuttoned , one of the warehouse workers calls him " Hasselhoff " , a reference to actor David Hasselhoff . Kelly baits Jan by feigning ignorance about the various Baseball metaphors for sex . The blow @-@ up doll with Michael 's face on it is a reference to the earlier second season episode " Sexual Harassment " .
= = Reception = =
" Boys and Girls " originally aired on NBC in the United States on February 2 , 2006 . The installment was viewed by 5 @.@ 42 million viewers . The episode was , at the time , the lowest rated entry in the series after the first season finale " Hot Girl " . It was eventually beaten by eighth season episode " Jury Duty " , which was viewed by 5 @.@ 31 million viewers .
" Boys and Girls received largely positive reviews from television critics . Michael Sciannamea of AOLTV called it " another brilliant episode " , noting that Carell was " at his obnoxious and comedic best " . He also complimented the maturation of Jim and Pam 's relationship , writing that it " seems like it 's coming to a cliffhanger in the next few weeks . " M. Giant of Television Without Pity gave the episode a positive review and awarded it an " A – " . Brendan Babish of DVD Verdict awarded the episode a " B " and called it " a solid but uneventful " outing for the show .
Elements of " Boys and Girls " have been analyzed in a legal context . Jan 's threat to have the warehouse closed if the employees unionize is unlawful under the National Labor Relations Act . American Rights at Work analyzed the episode and noted that " the show served up the hard truth about how far employers will go to stop their employees from forming a union . "
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= Amanda Seyfried =
Amanda Michelle Seyfried ( / ˈsaɪfrɛd / SY @-@ fred ; born December 3 , 1985 ) is an American actress , model , and singer . She began her career as a model when she was 11 , then her acting career at 15 began an acting career with recurring parts on the soap operas As the World Turns and All My Children .
In 2004 , Seyfried made her film debut in the teen comedy Mean Girls . Her subsequent supporting roles were in independent films , such as the drama Nine Lives ( 2005 ) and the crime drama Alpha Dog ( 2006 ) , she also had a recurring role in the UPN drama show Veronica Mars ( 2004 – 06 ) . Between 2006 and 2011 , she starred on the HBO drama series Big Love and appeared in the 2008 musical feature film Mamma Mia ! .
Her other appearances include leading roles in the black comedy horror film Jennifer 's Body ( 2009 ) , as a call girl in the erotic thriller Chloe ( 2009 ) , the romantic drama @-@ war film Dear John ( 2010 ) , and the romantic drama Letters to Juliet ( 2010 ) . She also stars in the dark fantasy historical romance Red Riding Hood ( 2011 ) , the dystopian sci @-@ fi thriller In Time ( 2011 ) , the thriller Gone ( 2012 ) , the musical drama film Les Misérables ( 2012 ) , the biographical drama Lovelace ( 2013 ) , and in the comedies A Million Ways to Die in the West ( 2014 ) and Ted 2 ( 2015 ) .
= = Early life = =
Seyfried was born in Allentown , Pennsylvania , on December 3 , 1985 . Her mother , Ann ( née Sander ) , is an occupational therapist , and her father , Jack Seyfried , is a pharmacist . She is of mostly German descent , with smaller amounts of English , Scots @-@ Irish , and Welsh ancestry . Seyfried graduated in 2003 from Allentown 's William Allen High School . She has an older sister , Jennifer Seyfried , a musician in the Philadelphia organ @-@ driven rock band Love City .
= = Career = =
= = = Early work ( 1996 – 2006 ) = = =
During Seyfried 's time modeling , she appeared in print ads for clothing companies including Limited Too with Leighton Meester , and was featured on three covers of the Sweet Valley High novel series . She stopped modeling when she was seventeen , and worked as a waitress in a retirement community . Seyfried took voice lessons , studied opera , and trained with a Broadway coach while still a teen . She began acting as an extra in the daytime drama television series Guiding Light . From 2000 to 2001 , she portrayed the recurring character Lucy Montgomery on the CBS soap opera As the World Turns . She played Joni Stafford on the ABC soap All My Children from 2002 to 2003 .
In 2003 , Seyfried auditioned to play the role of Regina George in Mean Girls ; the role eventually went to Rachel McAdams . While she was initially considered to play the lead role of Cady Heron , played by Lindsay Lohan , the producers of the film decided that Seyfried should play Karen Smith , Regina 's dim @-@ witted " Plastic " friend and sidekick . The film was a box @-@ office success , earning over US $ 129 million in its theatrical run . Seyfried 's performance in the film earned her , along with Lohan , Lacey Chabert , and McAdams , an MTV Movie Award in the category of " Best On @-@ Screen Team . " Seyfried auditioned to play the title character on UPN 's television series Veronica Mars . The role eventually went to Kristen Bell , and Seyfried portrayed Veronica 's murdered best friend , Lilly Kane . Her character was only shown in flashbacks . The show 's creator , Rob Thomas , felt that Seyfried 's portrayal as Lilly Kane was so outstanding that he used her more times in the show than he initially planned in the first season . Seyfried appeared in 10 episodes from 2004 to 2005 .
In 2005 , Seyfried played the lead character , Samantha , a role written by director Rodrigo García specifically for her , in one of the nine parts of the film Nine Lives , composed of nine short films with different themes and an ensemble cast . For her performance , Seyfried , along with the film 's other female leads , won an award from the Locarno International Film Festival , for Best Actress . The same year she played supporting character , Mouse , in the independent film American Gun . In 2006 , Seyfried appeared in five episodes of Wildfire as Rebecca and had a lead role as Chrissy in the short film Gypsies , Tramps & Thieves , by writer @-@ director Andrea Janakas . Seyfried also contributed a minor role as Julie Beckley in Alpha Dog . From 2004 to 2006 Seyfried made multiple guest appearances on television series , including House , M.D. , Justice , Law & Order : Special Victims Unit , American Dad ! , and CSI : Crime Scene Investigation .
= = = Breakthrough ( 2006 – 11 ) = = =
Seyfried 's profile gained prominence due to her role in the highly acclaimed HBO drama television series Big Love . The series centers on a fictional fundamentalist Mormon family , in which Seyfried plays Sarah Henrickson , Bill and Barb 's first daughter , who struggles with her family 's polygamous faith . Big Love premiered in the United States on March 12 , 2006 . In December 2009 , HBO confirmed that Seyfried would return for the show 's fourth season , but that it would be her last , as Seyfried wished to concentrate on her film career and upcoming projects .
Following Big Love Seyfried had a supporting role , as Zoe , in the 2008 horror drama film Solstice , and she co @-@ starred alongside Meryl Streep in Mamma Mia ! , a romantic comedy film adaptation of the 1999 musical of the same name . Mamma Mia ! was Seyfried 's first leading role . The film was the fifth highest grossing film of 2008 , and as of January 2013 is the 73rd highest grossing film of all time . Her musical performance in Mamma Mia ! was released on the film 's soundtrack , for which she recorded five songs . As part of promotion for both the film and its soundtrack , Seyfried recorded a music video of the song , entitled " Gimme ! Gimme ! Gimme ! ( A Man After Midnight ) " .
In March 2008 Seyfried was cast in the comedy horror film Jennifer 's Body . In the film Seyfried was cast as Anita " Needy " Lesnicki , the title character 's best friend . She also appeared in Panic ! At The Disco 's music video for , " new perspective , " a song from the movie . The film , which premiered at the 2009 Toronto International Film Festival and was released to theaters on September 18 , 2009 , received mixed reviews from critics . The same year she was cast in the comedy @-@ drama independent film Boogie Woogie . She played Paige Oppenheimer , one of the lead roles in the ensemble movie . The movie was originally shown on June 26 , 2009 , at Edinburgh International Film Festival , and was officially shown in US theaters April 25 , 2010 . On February 22 , 2009 , Seyfried presented an award and performed at the 2009 Annual 81st Academy Awards ceremony . In early March 2009 director Zack Snyder had tapped Seyfried to portray the lead role , Baby Doll , in Sucker Punch , but Seyfried had to drop out of the film due to scheduling conflicts with Big Love .
Seyfried starred alongside Channing Tatum in Dear John , the film adaptation of the novel of the same name , that was written by Nicholas Sparks . The film was released on February 5 , 2010 , and received generally negative reviews . Seyfried wrote and recorded " Little House " , a song on one of the official soundtracks of Dear John . Despite the reviews , Dear John became the first film to break up Avatar 's box office reign at number one at the United States box office and grossed US $ 80 million in the US theatrically and US $ 115 million worldwide .
Seyfried appeared as the title character in the erotic thriller Chloe , theatrically released by Sony Pictures Classics on March 26 , 2010 . Chloe originally premiered at the Toronto Film Festival in September 2009 . In the film , Seyfried 's character is an escort / prostitute who is hired to test a husband , because his wife feels that she cannot trust his fidelity . Chloe enjoyed commercial success and became director Atom Egoyan 's biggest moneymaker ever . Seyfried 's performance in the film also received favorable reviews from critics ; it also helped her to gain more industry acclaim and receive more opportunities to play more interesting roles .
Later in 2010 , Seyfried starred in the romantic @-@ comedy film Letters to Juliet , based on the book by Lise and Ceil Friedman , which was released to mixed reviews and was a box office success , generated US $ 80 million worldwide . She was named , and received an award as , the " Showest Breakthrough Female Star of The Year " . She also won the " Scared @-@ As @-@ S * * T " category for her performance in Jennifer 's Body and was nominated for Best Female Performance for her movie Dear John , at the 2010 MTV Movie Awards . Also in 2010 , she was included in Forbes 's " The 17 Stars To Watch " list , and received three nominations in the Teen Choice Awards , including for Choice Movie Actress Drama and Choice Movie Chemistry with her co @-@ star Channing Tatum for their film Dear John . Seyfried was also nominated for Choice Movie Actress Romantic Comedy for Letters to Juliet .
In late January 2009 , she became attached to appear in Myriad Pictures ' adaptation of Oscar Wilde 's comedy A Woman of No Importance . The film was set to be released in 2011 . In 2010 , however , reports indicated that the film might not be produced due to lack of financing . In 2009 , she was scheduled to appear in the movie Albert Nobbs , she ultimately dropped out due to scheduling conflicts and was replaced by Mia Wasikowska . Seyfried played the starring role of Valerie in Catherine Hardwicke 's Red Riding Hood ; it was released on March 11 , 2011 , to mostly negative reviews , but earned US $ 90 million worldwide on a US $ 42 million budget . She also played the lead role of Sylvia Weis in Andrew Niccol 's In Time , released in October 2011 to mixed reviews but grossed more than US $ 172 million worldwide . Also in 2011 , Seyfried became a spokesperson and model for Cle de Peau Beaute , a Japanese line of beauty products .
= = = 2012 – present = = =
Seyfried starred in the thriller Gone , released in early 2012 . Later that year , She played Cosette in the film adaptation of the musical Les Misérables . The film , and her performance , received acclaim from critics , and was nominated for an Academy Award for Best Picture and earned a total of US $ 440 million worldwide .
In 2013 , Seyfried appeared in the comedy The Big Wedding , had a voice role in the successful animated movie Epic and played Linda Lovelace in the biopic Lovelace . Her performance in the latter film earned Seyfried critical acclaim from film critics . She appeared in the 2013 drama The End of Love . She was also signed to play the role of Ann Burden in the dramatization of the Robert O 'Brien post @-@ apocalyptic novel Z for Zachariah , but was replaced by Margot Robbie . In 2013 , she began modeling for Givenchy .
In 2015 , she starred in the comedy Ted 2 , alongside Mark Wahlberg and Seth MacFarlane , and played Peter Pan 's mother in the film Pan .
= = Personal life = =
Seyfried has stated that she suffers from anxiety and panic attacks . She also suffers from stage fright and avoided performing in theater productions until April 2015 , when she starred in an Off @-@ Broadway production of The Way We Get By at Second Stage Theater .
Seyfried has a taxidermy collection that includes a baby horse , a fox , an owl , a moose , a goat , a hybrid taxidermy deer and butterflies . Conan O 'Brien gave her a taxidermy raccoon attached to a jet pack as a gift for her collection during an appearance on Conan .
Seyfried dated Mamma Mia ! co @-@ star Dominic Cooper from 2008 to 2010 , and actor Justin Long from 2013 to 2015 .
= = Accolades = =
Seyfried has received numerous accolades from People magazine , which ranked her no . 1 in a 2011 article featuring " 25 Beauties ( and Hotties ) at 25 " ; she was also included in the magazine 's annual beauty list in 2009 and 2010 . Additionally , she appeared in the " Beautiful at Every Age " article in 2012 . Seyfried was featured in Vanity Fair 's " Bright Young Hollywood " article in 2008 , and appeared on the magazine 's cover with several other actresses in 2010 .
= = Filmography = =
= = = Film = = =
= = = Television = = =
= = Discography = =
= = Awards and nominations = =
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= 1954 Guatemalan coup d 'état =
The 1954 Guatemalan coup d 'état was a covert operation carried out by the United States Central Intelligence Agency ( CIA ) that deposed the democratically elected Guatemalan President Jacobo Árbenz and ended the Guatemalan Revolution . Code @-@ named Operation PBSUCCESS , it installed the military dictatorship of Carlos Castillo Armas , the first in a series of U.S.-backed dictators who ruled Guatemala .
A popular revolution against the U.S.-backed dictator Jorge Ubico in 1944 had led to Guatemala 's first democratic election and the beginning of the Guatemalan Revolution . The elections were won by Juan José Arévalo who wanted to turn Guatemala into a liberal capitalist society . He implemented social reforms which included a minimum wage law , increased educational funding and near @-@ universal suffrage . Arévalo 's defense minister Jacobo Árbenz was elected President in 1950 , and continued the social reform policies , as well as instituting land reform , which sought to grant land to peasants who had been victims of debt slavery prior to Arévalo . Despite their moderate policies , the Guatemalan Revolution was widely disliked by the United States government , which was predisposed by the Cold War to see it as communist , and the United Fruit Company ( UFC ) , whose hugely profitable business had been affected by the end to brutal labor practices . The attitude of the U.S. government was also influenced by a propaganda campaign carried out by the UFC .
U.S. President Harry Truman authorized Operation PBFORTUNE to topple Árbenz in 1952 , with the support of Nicaraguan dictator Anastasio Somoza García , but the operation was aborted when too many details became public . Dwight D. Eisenhower was elected U.S. President in 1952 , promising to take a harder line against communism ; the close links that his staff members John Foster Dulles and Allen Dulles had to the UFC also predisposed him to act against Árbenz . Subsequently declassified CIA documents stressed the importance of physically eliminating " Communists and collaborators " perceived as loyal to Árbenz . Eisenhower authorized the CIA to carry out Operation PBSUCCESS in August 1953 . The CIA armed , funded , and trained a force of 480 men led by Carlos Castillo Armas . The force invaded Guatemala on 18 June 1954 , backed by a heavy campaign of psychological warfare , including bombings of Guatemala City and an anti @-@ Árbenz radio station claiming to be genuine news . The invasion force fared poorly militarily , but the psychological warfare and the possibility of a U.S. invasion intimidated the Guatemalan army , which refused to fight . Árbenz resigned on 27 June , and following negotiations in San Salvador , Carlos Castillo Armas became President on 7 July 1954 .
The coup was widely criticized internationally , and created lasting anti @-@ U.S. sentiment in Latin America . Castillo Armas quickly took dictatorial powers , banning all political parties , torturing and imprisoning political opponents , and reversing the social reforms of the Guatemalan Revolution . A series of U.S.-backed authoritarian governments ruled Guatemala until 1996 . The repression sparked off the Guatemalan Civil War between the government and leftist guerrillas , during which the military committed massive human rights violations against the civilian population , including a genocidal campaign against the Maya peoples . The coup has been described as the definitive deathblow to democracy in Guatemala .
= = Historical background = =
= = = Monroe Doctrine = = =
The Monroe Doctrine was a philosophy of foreign policy articulated by U.S. President James Monroe in 1823 . It warned the European powers not to indulge in further colonization in Latin America . The stated aim of the doctrine was to maintain order and stability , and to make certain that access to resources and markets was not limited . Historian Mark Gilderhus states that the doctrine also contained racially condescending language , which likened Latin American countries to fighting children .
The U.S. did not initially have the power to enforce the Monroe Doctrine . Over the course of the 19th century many European powers withdrew from Latin America , and the U.S. expanded its sphere of influence . In 1895 , Grover Cleveland laid out a more militant version of the doctrine , stating that the U.S. was " practically sovereign " on the continent . Following the Spanish – American War in 1898 , this aggressive interpretation was used to create a U.S. economic empire across the Caribbean , such as with the 1903 treaty with Cuba that was heavily tilted in the U.S. ' favor . U.S. President Theodore Roosevelt believed that the U.S. should be the main beneficiary of production in Central America . The U.S. enforced this hegemony with armed interventions in Nicaragua ( 1912 – 33 ) , and Haiti ( 1915 – 34 ) . The U.S. did not need to use its military might in Guatemala , where a series of dictators were willing to accommodate U.S. economic interests in return for U.S. support . From 1890 to 1920 , economic control of Guatemalan resources and economy shifted away from Britain and Germany to the United States , which became the dominant Guatemalan trade partner . The Monroe Doctrine continued to be applied to the country , and was used to justify the coup in 1954 .
= = = Authoritarian governments = = =
The surge in global coffee demand in the late 19th century led to the Guatemalan government making numerous concessions to plantation owners , such as by passing legislation that dispossessed the communal landholdings of the indigenous population and allowed coffee growers to purchase it . Manuel Estrada Cabrera , president of Guatemala from 1898 to 1920 , was one of several rulers who made huge concessions to foreign companies , including the United States @-@ based United Fruit Company ( UFC ) , which purchased large areas of land at favorable prices . U.S. historian William Blum describes UFC 's role in Guatemala as a " state within a state " : the company had a monopoly over the highly lucrative banana trade , and due to its close relationships with the Guatemalan dictators , also controlled the docks , the railroad , and the communications in the country . The U.S. government was also closely involved with the Guatemalan state , frequently dictating financial policies , and ensuring that U.S. companies were granted several exclusive rights . When Cabrera was overthrown in 1920 , the U.S. sent an armed force to make certain that the new president remained friendly to the United States .
Fearing a popular revolt following the unrest created by the Great Depression of 1929 , wealthy Guatemalan landowners lent their support to Jorge Ubico , who had become known for his efficiency and ruthlessness as a provincial governor . Ubico won an uncontested election in 1931 , with the United States also lending him heavy political support . Ubico 's regime quickly became one of the most repressive in the region . He abolished debt peonage , replacing it with a vagrancy law , which stipulated that all landless men of working age needed to perform a minimum of 100 days of forced labor annually . He authorized landowners to take any actions against their workers , including executions . Ubico was a big admirer of European fascists like Benito Mussolini and Adolf Hitler , but was driven to ally with the United States for geopolitical reasons . Following the American lead he declared war against Germany and Japan in 1941 , and arrested all people of German descent in the country . He continued to make massive concessions to the United Fruit Company , such as giving it 200 @,@ 000 hectares ( 490 @,@ 000 acres ) of public land , and exempting it from all taxes .
Ubico amassed a large personal wealth , claiming an annual salary equivalent to 215 @,@ 000 U.S. dollars . He was strongly anti – communist , reacting to several peasant rebellions with incarcerations and massacres . He held the indigenous Maya people in high contempt , likening them to donkeys . Ubico continued to receive support from the U.S. right through his period in power .
= = = Guatemalan Revolution and Presidency of Arévalo = = =
The repressive policies of the Ubico government resulted in a popular uprising led by university students and middle @-@ class citizens in 1944 . Ubico fled , handing over power to a three @-@ person junta led by Federico Ponce Vaides . The junta continued Ubico 's policies until it was toppled by the October Revolution . The movement had the aim of transforming Guatemala into a liberal capitalist society . The largely free election that followed installed a philosophically conservative university professor , Juan José Arévalo , as the President of Guatemala . Arévalo 's administration drafted a more liberal labor code , built health centers , and increased funding to education . It stopped short of drastically changing labor relations in the countryside . Arévalo enacted a minimum wage , and created state @-@ run farms to employ landless laborers . He also cracked down on the communist party , and in 1945 criminalized all unions in workplaces with less than 500 workers . By 1947 , the remaining unions had grown strong enough to pressure him into drafting a new labor code , which made workplace discrimination illegal and created health and safety standards , but Arévalo nonetheless refused to advocate land @-@ reform of any kind . Despite Arévalo 's anti @-@ communism , the United States was suspicious of him , and worried that he was under Soviet influence . Another cause for U.S. worry was Arévalo 's support of the Caribbean Legion , a group of progressive exiles , and revolutionaries who aimed to overthrow U.S. backed dictatorships across Central America , whose members included Fidel Castro .
The government also faced opposition from within the country . Although popular among Guatemalan nationalists , Arévalo was disliked by the Catholic church and the military , and faced at least 25 unsuccessful coup attempts during his presidency . A notable example was a coup attempt in 1949 led by Francisco Arana , one of the military leaders of the October 1944 coup . The attempt was foiled in an armed shootout between Arana 's supporters and a force led by Jacobo Árbenz , another leader of the 1944 coup , and had served as defense minister to Arévalo . Arana was among those killed , but details of the coup were never made public . Arévalo was prevented from contesting the 1950 elections by the constitution . The largely free elections were won by the popular . Árbenz promised to continue and expand the reforms begun under Arévalo . Despite having personal ties to some members of the communist Guatemalan Party of Labour which was legalized during his government , Árbenz did not try to turn Guatemala into a communist country , instead choosing a moderate capitalist approach . The communist movement did grow stronger during his presidency , partly due to Arévalo releasing its imprisoned leaders , and also through the strength of its teachers ' union .
= = = Presidency of Árbenz and land reform = = =
Under Árbenz , Guatemala constructed an Atlantic port and a highway to compete with United Fruit 's holdings , and built a hydro @-@ electric plant to offer cheaper energy than the US @-@ controlled electricity monopoly . Arbenz 's strategy was to limit the power of foreign companies through direct competition rather than through nationalization , except when it was impossible because a quantity was fixed , like land .
The biggest component of Árbenz ' policy was his agrarian reform bill . Árbenz drafted the bill himself , while also seeking advice from numerous economists from across Latin America . A strong influence on Árbenz ' policy was José Manuel Fortuny , a well @-@ known Guatemalan communist , who was one of his main advisers during his government . The focus of the program was on transferring uncultivated land from large landowners to their poverty stricken laborers , who would then be able to begin a viable farm of their own . Árbenz was also motivated to pass the bill because he needed to generate capital for his public infrastructure projects within the country . At the behest of the United States , the World Bank had refused to grant Guatemala a loan in 1951 , which made the shortage of capital more acute .
The official title of the agrarian reform bill was Decree 900 . It expropriated all uncultivated land from landholdings that were larger than 673 acres ( 272 ha ) . If the estates were between 672 acres ( 272 ha ) and 224 acres ( 91 ha ) in size , uncultivated land was expropriated only if less than two @-@ thirds of it was in use . The owners were compensated with government bonds , the value of which was equal to that of the land expropriated . The value of the land itself was the value that the owners had declared in their tax returns in 1952 . Of the nearly 350 @,@ 000 private land @-@ holdings , only 1710 were affected by expropriation . The law itself was cast in a moderate capitalist framework ; it was implemented with great speed , which resulted in occasional arbitrary land seizures . There was also some violence , directed at land @-@ owners , as well as at peasants that had minor landholdings .
By June 1954 , 1 @.@ 4 million acres of land had been expropriated and distributed . Approximately 500 @,@ 000 individuals , or one @-@ sixth of the population , had received land by this point . The decree also included provision of financial credit to the people who received the land . The National Agrarian Bank ( Banco Nacional Agrario , or BNA ) was created on 7 July 1953 . The BNA developed a reputation for being a highly efficient government bureaucracy . The loans had a high repayment rate ; of the 3 @,@ 371 @,@ 185 U.S. dollars paid out between March and November 1953 , 3 @,@ 049 @,@ 092 dollars had been repaid by June 1954 . The law also nationalized roads that passed through redistributed land , which greatly improved the connectivity of rural communities .
Contrary to the predictions made by detractors of the government , the law resulted in a slight increase in Guatemalan agricultural productivity , and to an increase in cultivated area . Purchases of farm machinery also increased . Overall , the law resulted in a significant improvement in living standards for many thousands of peasant families , the majority of whom were indigenous people . Historian Piero Gleijeses stated that the injustices corrected by the law were far greater than the injustice of the relatively few arbitrary land seizures . Historian Greg Grandin stated that the law was flawed in many respects ; among other things , it was too cautious and deferential to the planters , and it created communal divisions among peasants . Nonetheless , it represented a fundamental power shift in favor of those that had been marginalized before then .
= = Role of the United Fruit Company = =
= = = History = = =
The United Fruit Company ( UFC ) had been formed in 1899 by the merger of two large American corporations . The new corporation held large tracts of land across Central America , and also controlled the railroads in the region , which it used to support its business of exporting bananas . By 1900 it had become the largest exporter of bananas in the world . By 1930 it had an operating capital of 215 million U.S. dollars , and had been the largest landowner and employer in Guatemala for several years . Under the dictatorships of Manuel Estrada Cabrera and Jorge Ubico , the company had been granted a large number of economic and legal concessions in Guatemala that allowed it to massively expand its business . These concessions frequently came at the cost of tax revenue for the Guatemalan government . The company supported Jorge Ubico in the leadership struggle that occurred from 1930 to 1932 , and upon assuming power , Ubico expressed willingness to create a new contract with it . This new contract was immensely favorable to the company . It included a 99 @-@ year lease to massive tracts of land , exemptions from virtually all taxes , and a guarantee that no other company would receive any competing contract . Under Ubico , the company paid virtually no taxes , which greatly hindered the Guatemalan government 's ability to deal with the Great Depression of 1929 – 32 . Ubico requested the UFC to cap the salary of its workers at only 50 cents a day , so that workers in other companies would be less able to demand higher wages . The company also virtually owned Puerto Barrios , Guatemala 's only port to the Atlantic Ocean , allowing the company to make profits from the flow of goods through the port . By 1950 , the company 's annual profits were 65 million U.S. dollars , twice as large as the revenue of the government of Guatemala .
= = = Effects of the October revolution = = =
Due to its long association with Ubico 's government , the United Fruit Company ( UFC ) was seen as an impediment to progress by Guatemalan revolutionaries after 1944 . This image was worsened by the company 's discriminatory policies towards its colored workers . Thanks to its position as the country 's largest landowner and employer , the reforms of Arévalo 's government affected the UFC more than other companies . Among other things , the labor code passed by the government allowed its workers to strike when their demands for higher wages and job security were not met . The company saw itself as being specifically targeted by the reforms , and refused to negotiate with the numerous sets of strikers , despite frequently being in violation of the new laws . The company 's labor troubles were compounded in 1952 when Jacobo Árbenz passed Decree 900 , the agrarian reform law . Of the 550 @,@ 000 acres ( 220 @,@ 000 ha ) that the company owned , 15 % were being cultivated ; the rest of the land , which was idle , came under the scope of the agrarian reform law .
= = = Lobbying the United States = = =
The United Fruit Company responded with intensive lobbying of members of the United States government , leading many U.S. congressmen and senators to criticize the Guatemalan government for not protecting the interests of the company . The Guatemalan government responded by saying that the company was the main obstacle to progress in the country . American historians observed that " To the Guatemalans it appeared that their country was being mercilessly exploited by foreign interests which took huge profits without making any contributions to the nation 's welfare . " In 1953 , 200 @,@ 000 acres ( 81 @,@ 000 ha ) of uncultivated land was expropriated by the government , which offered the company compensation at the rate of 2 @.@ 99 U.S. dollars to the acre ( 7 @.@ 39 U.S. dollars per hectare ) , twice what the company had paid when it bought the property . More expropriation occurred soon after , bringing the total to over 400 @,@ 000 acres ( 160 @,@ 000 ha ) ; the government offered compensation to the company at the rate at which the UFC had valued its own property for tax purposes . This resulted in further lobbying in Washington , particularly through Secretary of State John Foster Dulles , who had close ties to the company . The company began a public relations campaign to discredit the Guatemalan government ; it hired public relations expert Edward Bernays , who ran a concerted campaign of misinformation to portray the company as the victim of the Guatemalan government for several years . The company stepped up its efforts after Dwight Eisenhower had been elected in 1952 . These included commissioning a research study on Guatemala from a firm known to be hawkish , which produced a 235 @-@ page report that was highly critical of the Guatemalan government . Historians have stated that the report was full of " exaggerations , scurrilous descriptions and bizarre historical theories . " The report nonetheless had a significant impact on the members of Congress that it was sent to . Overall , the company spent over a half @-@ million U.S. dollars to influence both lawmakers and members of the public in the U.S. that the Guatemalan government needed to be overthrown .
= = Operation PBFORTUNE = =
The U.S. government had become more hostile to the new Guatemalan government over the years of Arévalo 's presidency . This was due partly to the intensification of the cold war , as well as a reduction in the massive concessions that the United Fruit Company had enjoyed under Ubico . In addition , the company carried out an intensive lobbying campaign within the U.S. to discredit the Guatemalan government . The worries of the U.S. increased after the election of Jacobo Árbenz in 1951 and his enactment of Decree 900 , the agrarian reform law , in 1952 . The new law benefited approximately half a million people ; several hundred thousand acres of uncultivated land belonging to the United Fruit Company were expropriated . The compensation it was granted was based on the valuation the company had used for its tax payments . Since this was a major undervaluation , the company was unhappy with its compensation , and intensified its lobbying against the Guatemalan government in Washington .
In April 1952 Anastasio Somoza García , the U.S.-backed dictator of Nicaragua , made his first state visit to the U.S. Somoza made several public speeches praising the United States , and was awarded a medal by New York City . During a meeting with Truman and his senior staff , Somoza said that if the U.S. gave him the arms , he would " clean up Guatemala . " The proposal did not receive much immediate support , but Truman instructed the CIA to follow up on it . The CIA contacted Carlos Castillo Armas , the Guatemalan army officer who had been exiled from the country in 1949 following a failed coup attempt against the president . In the belief that Armas would lead a coup with or without CIA assistance , the CIA created a plan to supply him with weapons and 225 @,@ 000 U.S. dollars .
The coup was planned in detail over the next few weeks by the CIA , the United Fruit Company , and Somoza . The CIA contacted Marcos Pérez Jiménez and Rafael Trujillo the U.S.-supported right @-@ wing dictators of Venezuela and the Dominican Republic , respectively . The two dictators were supportive of the plan , and agreed to contribute some funding . Although PBFORTUNE was officially approved on September 9 , 1952 , various planning steps had been taken earlier in the year . In January 1952 , officers in the CIA 's Directorate of Plans compiled a list of " top flight Communists whom the new government would desire to eliminate immediately in the event of a successful anti @-@ Communist coup . " The CIA plan called for the assassination of over 58 Guatemalans , as well as the arrest of many others .
The CIA put the plan into motion in late 1952 . A freighter that had been borrowed from the United Fruit Company was specially refitted and loaded with weapons in New Orleans under the guise of agricultural machinery , and set sail for Nicaragua . The State Department became aware that many details of the plan had already become public knowledge , thanks to Somoza discussing it openly with his government officials . This came to the attention of Dean Acheson , the secretary of state , who called off the plot . The freighter was redirected to Panama , where the arms were unloaded . The CIA continued to support Castillo Armas ; it granted him a retainer of 3000 U.S. dollars a month , and gave him the resources to maintain his rebel force .
= = Operation PBSUCCESS = =
= = = Genesis = = =
In addition to the lobbying of the United Fruit Company , several other factors also led the United States to launch the coup that toppled Árbenz in 1954 . The U.S. government had also grown more suspicious of the Guatemalan Revolution as the Cold War developed and the Guatemalan government clashed with U.S. corporations on an increasing number of issues . The Cold War predisposed the Truman administration to see the Guatemalan government as communist . Arévalo 's support for the Caribbean Legion also worried the Truman administration , which saw it as a vehicle for communism , rather than as the anti @-@ dictatorial force it was conceived as . Until the end of its term , the Truman administration relied on purely diplomatic and economic means to try and reduce the communist influence . The United States had refused to sell arms to the Guatemalan government after 1944 ; in 1951 it began to block weapons purchases by Guatemala from other countries . The enactment of the agrarian reform law in 1952 provoked Truman to authorize Operation PBFORTUNE . Although this was quickly aborted , tension between the U.S. and Guatemala continued to rise , especially with the legalization of the communist Guatemalan Party of Labour and its inclusion in the government coalition for the elections of January 1953 . Articles published in the U.S. press often reflected this predisposition to see communist influence ; for example , a New York Times article about the visit to Guatemala by Chilean poet Pablo Neruda highlighted Neruda 's communist beliefs while neglecting to mention his reputation as the greatest living poet from Latin America .
In November 1952 , Dwight Eisenhower was elected president of the U.S. Eisenhower 's campaign had included a pledge for a more active anti @-@ communist policy , promising to rollback , rather than contain , communism . The campaign had been influenced by the rise of McCarthyism in the U.S. government , and so Eisenhower was more willing to use the CIA to remove governments the U.S. disliked . Several figures in his administration , including Secretary of State John Foster Dulles and his brother and CIA director Allen Dulles had close ties to the United Fruit Company . The Dulles brothers had worked for the law firm of Sullivan & Cromwell , and in that capacity had arranged several deals for the UFC . Undersecretary of state Bedell Smith later became a director of the UFC , while the wife of the UFC public relations director was Eisenhower 's personal assistant . These personal connections meant that the Eisenhower administration tended to conflate the interests of the UFC with U.S. national security interests , and made it more willing to overthrow the Guatemalan government . The successful CIA operation to overthrow the democratically @-@ elected Prime Minister of Iran also strengthened Eisenhower 's belief in using the CIA to effect political change .
= = = Planning = = =
The CIA operation to overthrow Jacobo Árbenz , code @-@ named Operation PBSUCCESS , was authorized by Eisenhower in August 1953 . The operation was granted a budget of 2 @.@ 7 million U.S. dollars for " psychological warfare and political action . " The total budget has been estimated at between 5 and 7 million dollars , and the planning employed over 100 CIA agents . In addition , the operation recruited scores of individuals from among Guatemalan exiles and the populations of the surrounding countries . The operational headquarters for the Operation was in the town of Opa @-@ locka , Florida . The plans included drawing up lists of people within Árbenz ' government to be assassinated if the coup were to be carried out . Manuals of assassination techniques were compiled , and lists were also made of people whom the junta would dispose of . The U.S. State department created a team of diplomats who would support PBSUCCESS . The leader of this team was John Peurifoy , who took over as the U.S. ambassador in Guatemala in October 1953 , an appointment which signaled the solidifying U.S. plot . Another member the team was William D. Pawley , a wealthy American businessman and diplomat , with extensive knowledge of the aviation industry . Peurifoy was a militant anti @-@ communist , and had proven to be willing to work with the CIA during his previous posting in Greece . Under his tenure diplomatic relations with Guatemala soured further , with the exception of relations between the U.S. government and the Guatemalan military . In a report to Dulles , Peurifoy stated that he was " definitely convinced that if [ Árbenz ] is not a communist , then he will certainly do until one comes along . " Within the CIA , the person heading the operation was CIA deputy director Frank Wisner , who had worked in the U.S. intelligence service since World War II . The field commander was U.S. army Colonel Albert Haney , who was then chief of the CIA station in South Korea . Haney reported directly to Wisner , thereby separating Operation PBSUCCESS from the CIA 's Latin American division , a decision which created some tension within the agency .
The CIA operation was complicated by the launch of a premature coup on 29 March 1953 , when a futile raid against the Army garrison at Salamá , in the central Guatemalan department of Baja Verapaz . The rebellion was swiftly crushed , and a number of participants arrested . This incident resulted in a number of CIA agents and allies being imprisoned , weakening the coup effort . Thus the CIA came to rely more heavily on the Guatemalan exile @-@ groups and their anti @-@ democratic allies in Guatemala . The CIA considered several candidates to lead the coup . Miguel Ydígoras Fuentes , the conservative candidate who had lost the 1950 election to Árbenz , held favor with the Guatemalan opposition but was rejected for his role in the Ubico regime , as well as his European visage , which was unlikely to appeal to the majority mixed @-@ race mestizo population . Another popular candidate was the coffee planter Juan Córdova Cerna , who had briefly served in Arévalo 's cabinet before becoming the legal adviser to the UFC . The death of his son in an anti @-@ government uprising in 1950 turned him against the government , and he had planned the small unsuccessful coup in Salamá in 1953 before fleeing to join Castillo Armas in exile . Although his status as a civilian gave him an advantage over Castillo Armas , he was diagnosed with throat cancer in 1954 , taking him out of the reckoning . This led to the selection of Carlos Castillo Armas , the lieutenant of Francisco Javier Arana and had been exiled following the failed coup in 1949 . Armas had been on the CIA payroll since the aborted Operation PBFORTUNE in 1951 .
Castillo Armas was given enough money to recruit a small force of approximately 150 mercenaries from among Guatemalan exiles and the populations of nearby countries . This band was called the " Army of Liberation . " The CIA established training camps in Nicaragua and Honduras , and supplied them with weapons as well as several bombers . Prior to the invasion of Guatemala the U.S. signed military agreements with both those countries , allowing it to move heavier arms freely . These preparations were only superficially covert : the CIA intended Árbenz to find out about them , as a part of its plan to convince the Guatemalan people that the overthrow of Árbenz was a fait accompli . Additionally , the CIA made covert contact with a number of church leaders throughout the Guatemalan countryside , and persuaded them to incorporate anti @-@ government messages into their sermons .
= = = Caracas conference and U.S. propaganda = = =
While the preparations for Operation PBSUCCESS were being carried out , the U.S. government began a series of public statements denouncing the Guatemalan government , and alleging that it had been infiltrated by communists . The U.S. State department also asked the Organization of American States to modify the agenda of the Tenth Inter @-@ American Conference , which was scheduled to be held in Caracas in March 1954 , requesting the addition of an item entitled " Intervention of International Communism in the American Republics , " which was widely seen as a move targeting Guatemala . In January 1954 , the Guatemalan government published documents leaked to it by a member of Castillo Armas ' team who had turned against him . A spate of arrests followed of allies of Castillo Armas within Guatemala , and the government issued statements implicating a " Government of the North " in a plot to overthrow Árbenz . The U.S. government denied the allegations , and the U.S. media uniformly took the side of the government ; even publications which had until then provided relatively balanced coverage of Guatemala , such as the Christian Science Monitor , suggested that Árbenz had succumbed to communist propaganda . Several congressmen in the U.S. also stated that the allegations from the Guatemalan government proved that it had become communist . At the conference in Caracas , the various Latin American governments sought economic aid from the U.S. , while seeking to maintain the principle of non @-@ intervention by the U.S. government in their internal affairs . The aim of the U.S. government was to pass a resolution condemning the supposed spread of communism in the Western Hemisphere . The Guatemalan foreign minister Guillermo Toriello argued strongly against the resolution , stating that it represented the " internationalization of McCarthyism . Despite support among the delegates for Toriello 's views , the resolution passed with only Guatemala voting against , because of the votes of dictatorships dependent on the U.S. and the threat of economic pressure applied by Dulles . Although support among the delegates for Dulles ' strident anti @-@ communism was less strong than Dulles and Eisenhower had hoped for , the conference represented a success for the U.S. , because it had been able to make concrete Latin American views on communism .
The U.S. had stopped selling arms to Guatemala in 1951 while signing bilateral defense agreements and increasing arms shipments to Honduras and Nicaragua , and promising the Guatemalan military that they too could obtain arms if Árbenz were deposed . In 1953 , the State Department aggravated the American arms embargo by thwarting Árbenz Government arms purchases from Canada , Germany , and Rhodesia . By 1954 Árbenz had become desperate for weapons , and decided to acquire them secretly from Czechoslovakia , which would have been the first time that a Soviet bloc country shipped weapons to the Americas , an action seen as establishing a communist beachhead in the Americas . The weapons were delivered to Guatemala at the Atlantic Ocean port of Puerto Barrios , by the Swedish freight ship MS Alfhem , which sailed from the port of Szczecin in the People 's Republic of Poland . The U.S. tried and failed to intercept the shipment despite imposing a naval quarantine on Guatemala , which violated international law at the time . In the words of the New York Times , the weapons were " worthless military junk " . The shipment of these weapons was portrayed by the CIA as Soviet interference in the United States ' backyard , and acted as the final spur for the CIA to launch its coup .
U.S. rhetoric abroad also had an effect on the Guatemalan military . The military had always been anti @-@ communist , and John Peurifoy had been applying a lot of pressure to high @-@ ranking officers since his arrival in Guatemala in October 1953 . Árbenz had intended the shipment of weapons from the Alfhem to be used to bolster peasant militia , in the event of army disloyalty , but the U.S. informed the Guatemalan army chiefs of the shipment , forcing Árbenz to hand them over to the military , and deepening the rift between him and the chiefs of his army .
= = = Castillo Armas ' invasion = = =
Castillo Armas ' force of 480 men had been split into four teams , ranging in size from 198 to 60 . On 15 June 1954 these four forces left their bases in Honduras and El Salvador , and assembled in various towns just outside the Guatemalan border . The largest force was supposed to attack the Atlantic harbor town of Puerto Barrios , while the others attacked the smaller towns of Esquipulas , Jutiapa , and Zacapa , the Guatemalan army 's largest frontier post . The invasion plan quickly faced difficulties ; the 60 @-@ man force was intercepted and jailed by Salvadoran policeman before it got to the border . At 8 : 20 am on 18 June 1954 , Castillo Armas led his invading troops over the border . Ten trained saboteurs preceded the invasion , with the aim of blowing up railways and cutting telegraph lines . At about the same time , Castillo Armas ' planes flew over a pro @-@ government rally in the capital . Castillo Armas ' demanded Árbenz ' immediate surrender . The invasion provoked a brief panic in the capital , which quickly decreased as the rebels failed to make any striking moves . Bogged down by supplies and a lack of transportation , Castillo Armas ' forces took several days to reach their targets , although their planes blew up a bridge on 19 June .
When the rebels did reach their targets , they met with further setbacks . The force of 122 men targeting Zacapa were intercepted and decisively beaten by a small garrison of 30 Guatemalan soldiers , with only 30 rebels escaping death or capture . The force that attacked Puerto Barrios was dispatched by policemen and armed dockworkers , with many of the rebels fleeing back to Honduras . In an effort to regain momentum , the rebel planes tried air attacks on the capital . These attacks caused little material damage , but they had a significant psychological impact , leading many citizens to believe that the invasion force was more powerful than it actuality was . The rebel bombers needed to fly out of the Nicaraguan capital of Managua ; as a result , they had a limited payload . A large number of them substituted dynamite or Molotov cocktails for bombs , in an effort to create loud bangs with a lower payload . The planes targeted ammunition depots , parade grounds , and other visible targets . Early in the morning of 27 June 1954 , a CIA Lockheed P @-@ 38M Lightning attacked Puerto San José and dropped napalm bombs on the British cargo ship , SS Springfjord , on charter to the U.S. company W.R. Grace and Company Line , which was being loaded with Guatemalan cotton and coffee . This incident cost the CIA one million U.S. dollars in compensation . On 22 June , another rebel plane bombed the Honduran town of San Pedro de Copán ; Dulles claimed the attack had been by the Guatemalan air force , thus avoiding diplomatic consequences . The handful of bombers that the rebel forces had begun with were shot down by the Guatemalan army within a few days , causing Castillo Armas to demand more from the CIA . Eisenhower quickly agreed to provide these additional planes , bolstering the rebel force . William Pawley had a crucial role to play in the delivery of these aircraft .
= = = Psychological warfare = = =
Castillo Armas ' army of 480 men was not large enough to defeat the Guatemalan military , even with U.S. supplied planes . Therefore , the plans for Operation PBSUCCESS called for a campaign of psychological warfare , which would present Castillo Armas ' victory as a fait accompli to the Guatemalan people , and would force Árbenz to resign . The U.S. propaganda campaign had begun well before the invasion , with the USIA writing hundreds of articles on Guatemala based on CIA reports , and distributing tens of thousands of leaflets throughout Latin America . The CIA persuaded the governments that were friendly to it to screen video footage of Guatemala that supported the U.S. version of events .
The success of the Alfhem in evading the U.S. effort to stop it led to the U.S. escalating its intimidation of Guatemala through the use of its navy . On 24 May , the U.S. launched Operation HARDROCK BAKER , a naval blockade of Guatemala . Ships and submarines patrolled the Guatemalan coasts , and all approaching ships were stopped and searched . This included ships from Britain and France , which was a violation of international law at the time . Britain and France did not protest very strongly , in the hope that the U.S. would not interfere with their efforts to subdue rebellious colonies in the Middle East . The intimidation was not solely naval ; on 26 May one of Castillo Armas planes flew over the capital , dropping leaflets that exhorted people to struggle against communism and support Castillo Armas .
The most wide @-@ reaching psychological weapon was the radio station known as the " Voice of Liberation . " This station began broadcasting on 1 May 1954 , carrying anti @-@ communist messages , telling its listeners to resist the Árbenz government and support the liberating forces of Castillo Armas . The station claimed to be broadcasting from deep within the jungles of the Guatemalan hinterland , a message which many listeners chose to believe . In actuality , the broadcasts were concocted in Miami by Guatemalan exiles , flown to Central America , and broadcast through a mobile transmitter . The station made an initial broadcast that was repeated four times , after which it took to transmitting two @-@ hour bulletins twice a day . The transmissions were initially only heard intermittently in Guatemala City ; a week later , the CIA significantly increased their transmitting power , allowing clear reception in the Guatemalan capital . The radio broadcasts have been given a lot of credit by historians for the success of the coup , due to the unrest they created through the country . They were unexpectedly assisted by the outage of the government @-@ run radio station , which stopped transmitting for three weeks while a new antenna was being fitted . These transmissions continued throughout the conflict , broadcasting news of rebel troops converging on the capital , and contributing to massive demoralization among both the army and the civilian population .
= = = Guatemalan response = = =
The Árbenz Government originally meant to repel the invasion by arming the military @-@ age populace , the workers ' militia , and the Guatemalan Army . Resistance from the armed forces , as well as public knowledge of the secret arms purchase , compelled the President to supply arms only to the Army . From the beginning of the invasion Árbenz was confident that Castillo Armas could be defeated militarily , and expressed this confidence in public . He was worried that a defeat for Castillo Armas would provoke a U.S. invasion . This also contributed to his decision not to arm civilians initially ; lacking a military reason to do so , this could have cost him the support of the army . Carlos Enrique Díaz , the chief of the Guatemalan armed forces , also told Árbenz that arming the civilians would be unpopular within the army , and that " the army [ would ] do its duty . "
Árbenz instead told Díaz to select officers to lead a counter @-@ attack . Díaz chose a corps of officers who were all known to be men of personal integrity , and who were loyal to Árbenz . On the night of 19 June , most of the Guatemalan troops in the capital region left for Zacapa , joined by smaller detachments from other garrisons . Árbenz stated that " the invasion was a farce . " He worried that if it was defeated on the Honduran border , Honduras would use it as an excuse to declare war on Guatemala , which would lead to a U.S. invasion . Due to the rumours spread by the Voice of Liberation , peasants throughout the countryside were worried that a fifth column attack was imminent , and so large numbers went to the government and asked for weapons to defend their country . They were repeatedly told that the army was " successfully defending our country . " Nonetheless , peasant volunteers assisted the government war effort , manning roadblocks and donating supplies to the army . Weapons shipments dropped by rebel planes were intercepted and turned over to the government .
The Árbenz government also pursued diplomatic means to try and end the invasion . It sought support from El Salvador and Mexico ; Mexico declined to get involved , and the Salvadoran government merely reported the Guatemalan effort to John Peurifoy . Árbenz ' largest diplomatic initiative was in taking the issue to the United Nations Security Council . On 18 June the Guatemalan foreign minister petitioned the Council to " take measures necessary ... to put a stop to the aggression , " which he said Nicaragua and Honduras were responsible for , along with " certain foreign monopolies which have been affected by the progressive policy of my government . " The security council looked at Guatemala 's complaint at an emergency session on 20 June . The debate was lengthy and heated , with Nicaragua and Honduras denying any wrongdoing , and the U.S. stating that Eisenhower 's role as a general in World War II demonstrated that he was against imperialism . The Soviet Union was the only country to support Guatemala . When the U.S. and its allies proposed referring the matter to the Organization of American States , the USSR vetoed the proposal . Guatemala continued to press for a Security Council investigation , a proposal that received the support of Britain and France . On 24 June the U.S. vetoed the proposal , exercising its veto against its allies for the first time in United Nations history . The U.S. accompanied this with threats to the foreign offices of both countries that the U.S. would stop supporting their other initiatives . United Nations Secretary General Dag Hammarskjöld called the U.S. position " the most serious blow so far aimed at the [ United Nations ] . " A fact @-@ finding mission was set up by the Inter @-@ American Peace Committee ; the United States used its influence to delay the entry of the committee until the coup was complete and the military dictatorship installed .
= = = Árbenz ' resignation = = =
Árbenz was initially confident that his army would quickly dispatch the rebel force . The victory of a small garrison of 30 soldiers over the 180 strong rebel force outside Zacapa strengthened his belief . By 21 June , Guatemalan soldiers had gathered at Zacapa under the command of Colonel Víctor M. León , who was believed to be loyal to Árbenz . León reported to Árbenz that the counter @-@ attack would be delayed due to logistical reasons , but stated that this was not reason to worry , and that Castillo Armas would be defeated very soon . Other members of the government were not so certain . Army Chief of Staff Parinello inspected the troops at Zacapa on 23 June , and returned to the capital believing that the army would not fight . Afraid of a U.S. intervention in Castillo Armas ' favor , he did not tell Árbenz of his suspicions . The leaders of the communist party also began to have their suspicions . Alvarado Monzón , the acting secretary general of the PGT , sent a member of the central committee to Zacapa to investigate . He returned on 25 June , reporting that the army was highly demoralized , and would not fight . Monzón reported this to Árbenz , who quickly sent another investigator . He , too , returned the same report ; additionally , he brought a message back to Árbenz from the officers at Zacapa , asking Árbenz to resign . The officers believed that given U.S. support for the rebels , defeat was inevitable , and Árbenz was to blame for it . He stated that if Árbenz did not resign , the army was likely to strike a deal with Castillo Armas , and march on the capital with him .
During this period , Castillo Armas had begun to intensify his aerial attacks , with the extra planes that Eisenhower had approved . They had limited material success ; many of their bombs were surplus material from World War II , and failed to explode . Nonetheless , they had a significant psychological impact . On 25 June , the same day that he received the army 's ultimatum , Árbenz learned that Castillo Armas had scored what later proved to be his only military victory , defeating the Guatemalan garrison at Chiquimula . Historian Piero Gleijeses has stated that if it were not for U.S. support for the rebellion , the officer corps of the Guatemalan army would have remained loyal to Árbenz because , although they were not uniformly his supporters , they were more wary of Castillo Armas , and also had strong nationalist views . As it was , they believed that the U.S. would intervene militarily , leading to a battle they could not win .
On the night of 25 June , Árbenz called a meeting of the senior leaders of the government , the political parties , and the labor unions . Colonel Díaz was also present . The President told them that the army at Zacapa had abandoned the government , and that the civilian population needed to be armed in order to defend the country . Díaz raised no objections , and the unions pledged several thousand troops between them . When the troops were mustered the next day , only a few hundred showed up . The civilian population of the capital had fought alongside the Guatemalan Revolution twice before ; during the popular uprising of 1944 , and again during the attempted coup of 1949 . On both those occasions some of the army had fought alongside the citizenry ; intimidated by the United States , the army refused to fight on this occasion , and the union members were reluctant to fight both the invasion and their own military . Seeing this , Díaz reneged on his support of the president , and began plotting to overthrow Árbenz with the assistance of other senior army officers . They informed Peurifoy of this plan , asking him to stop the hostilities in return for Árbenz ' resignation . Peurifoy promised to arrange a truce , and the plotters went to Árbenz and informed him of their decision . Árbenz , utterly exhausted and seeking to preserve at least a measure of the democratic reforms that he had brought , agreed without demur . After informing his cabinet of his decision , he left the presidential palace at 8 pm on 27 June 1954 , having taped a resignation speech that was broadcast an hour later . In it , he stated that he was resigning in order to eliminate the " pretext for the invasion , " and that he wished to preserve the gains of the October Revolution . He walked to the nearby Mexican Embassy , seeking political asylum . Two months later he was granted safe conduct out of the country , and flew to exile in Mexico .
= = = Military governments = = =
Immediately after the President announced his resignation , Díaz announced on the radio that he was taking over the presidency , and that the army would continue to fight against the invasion of Castillo Armas . Two days later Peurifoy told Díaz that he had to resign because , in the words of the CIA officer who spoke to Díaz , he was " not convenient for American foreign policy . " Peurifoy castigated Díaz for allowing Árbenz to criticize the United States in his resignation speech ; meanwhile , a U.S.-trained pilot dropped a bomb on the army 's main powder magazine , in order to intimidate the colonel . Díaz initially attempted to placate Peurifoy by forming a three @-@ person junta , which he led ; Peurifoy continued to insist that Díaz resign , and he was overthrown by a rapid bloodless coup led by Elfego Hernán Monzón Aguirre , a more pliable army colonel . Díaz later stated that Peurifoy had presented him with a list of names , and demanded that all of them be shot by the next day , because they were communists ; Díaz had refused , turning Peurifoy further against him . On 17 June , the army leaders at Zacapa had begun to negotiate with Castillo Armas . They signed a pact , known as the Pacto de Las Tunas , three days later , which placed the army at Zacapa under Castillo Armas , in return for a general amnesty . The army returned to its barracks a few days later , " despondent , with a terrible sense of defeat . "
Although Monzón was staunchly anti @-@ communist and repeatedly spoke of his loyalty to the U.S. , he was unwilling to hand over power to Castillo Armas . The fall of Díaz had led Peurifoy to believe that the CIA should make way and let the U.S. State Department play the lead role in negotiating with the new government of Guatemala . The State Department asked Óscar Osorio , the dictator of El Salvador , to invite all players to talk in San Salvador . Osorio agreed , and Monzón and Castillo Armas arrived in the Salvadoran capital on 30 June . Peurifoy initially remained in Guatemala City , to avoid the appearance of a heavy U.S. role ; he was forced to travel to San Salvador when the negotiations came close to breaking down on the first day . In the words of Dulles , Peurifoy 's role was to " crack some heads together . " Neither Monzón nor Castillo Armas could have remained in power without U.S. support , and thus Peurifoy was able to force an agreement , which was announced at 4 : 45 am on 2 July . Under the agreement , Castillo Armas and his subordinate Major Enrique Trinidad Oliva joined the three person junta headed by Monzón , with Monzón remaining president . On 7 July Colonels Dubois and Cruz Salazar , Monzón 's supporters on the junta , resigned , according to the secret agreement they had made without Monzón 's knowledge . Outnumbered , Monzón also resigned , allowing Castillo Armas to be unanimously elected president of the junta . The two colonels were paid 100 @,@ 000 U.S. dollars apiece for their cooperation . The U.S. promptly recognized the new government on 13 July . Elections were held in early October , from which all political parties were barred from participating . Castillo Armas was the only candidate ; he won the election with 99 % of the vote , completing his transition into power .
= = = Reactions = = =
The Guatemalan coup d 'état was reviled internationally , with the French and British press , Le Monde and The Times , attacking the United States ' coup as a " modern form of economic colonialism " . In Latin America , public and official opinions expressed much political criticism of the U.S. , and Guatemala became symbolic to many of armed resistance to the perceived U.S. hegemony over Latin America . British Prime Minister Clement Attlee called it " a plain act of aggression . " The Secretary General of the United Nations , Dag Hammarskjöld ( 1953 – 61 ) , said that the paramilitary invasion with which the U.S. deposed the elected government of Guatemala was a geopolitical action that violated the human rights stipulations of the UN Charter . Even the usually pro – U.S. newspapers of West Germany condemned the Guatemalan coup d 'état . Kate Doyle , the Director of the Mexico Project of the National Security Archives , said that the 1954 Guatemalan coup d 'état was the definitive deathblow to democracy in the Republic of Guatemala . The coup had broad support among politicians in the United States . Historian Piero Gleijeses writes that the foreign policy of both major U.S. political parties had consisted of an intransigent assertion of U.S. hegemony over Central America , making it predisposed to seeing a communist threat where none existed . Thus Eisenhower 's continuation of the Monroe Doctrine had continued bipartisan support . The coup met with strong negative reactions in Latin America ; a wave of anti @-@ United States protests followed the overthrow of Árbenz . These sentiments persisted for several decades afterwards ; historians have pointed to the coup as a reason for the hostile reception given to U.S. Vice President Richard Nixon when he visited Latin America four years later . A State Department study found that negative public reactions to the coup had occurred in eleven Latin American countries , including a few that were otherwise pro @-@ American .
= = Operation PBHISTORY = =
Operation PBHISTORY was an effort by the CIA to analyze documents from the Árbenz government to justify the 1954 coup after the fact . Due to the quick overthrow of the Árbenz government , the CIA believed that the government would not have been able to destroy any incriminating documents , and that these could be analyzed to demonstrate Árbenz ' supposed ties to the Soviet Union . The CIA also believed that it could better understand the workings of Latin American communist parties , on which subject the CIA had very little real information . A final motivation was that international responses to the coup had been very negative , even among allies of the U.S. , and the CIA wished to counteract the anti @-@ U.S. sentiment . The operation began on 4 July 1954 with the arrival of four CIA agents in Guatemala City , led by a specialist in the structure of communist parties . Targets included Árbenz ' personal belongings , police documents , and the headquarters of the Guatemalan Party of Labour . Although the initial search failed to find any links to the Soviet Union , the CIA decided to extend the operation , and on 4 August a much larger team was deployed , with members from many government departments , including the state department and the U.S. information agency . The task force was given the cover name " Social Research Group . " In order to avoid confrontation with Guatemalan nationalists , the CIA opted to leave the documents in Guatemalan possession , instead funding the creation of a Guatemalan intelligence agency that would try to dismantle the communist organizations . The Comite ' de Defensa Nacional Contra el Comunismo ( National Committee for Defense against Communism ) was created on 20 July , and granted a great deal of power over military and police functions . The personnel of the new agency were also put to work analyzing the same documents .
The document processing phase of the operation was terminated on 28 September 1954 , having examined 500 @,@ 000 documents . There was tension between the different U.S. government agencies about using the information ; the CIA wished to use it to subvert communists , whereas USIA wished to use it for propaganda . The CIA 's leadership of the operation allowed it to retain control over any documents deemed necessary for clandestine operations . A consequence of PBHISTORY was the opening of a CIA file on Ernesto Che Guevara . In the subsequent decade , the documents gathered were used by the authors of several books , most frequently with covert CIA assistance , which described the Guatemalan Revolution and the 1954 coup in terms favorable to the CIA . Despite the efforts of the CIA , both international and academic reaction to U.S. policy remained highly negative . Even books partially funded by the CIA were somewhat critical of the role played by the CIA . PBHISTORY failed in its chief objective ; finding convincing evidence that Guatemalan communists had been instruments of the Soviet Union , and found scant evidence of any connection to Moscow whatsoever . The Soviet description of the coup , that the U.S.A. had crushed a democratic revolution to protect the United Fruit Company 's control over the Guatemalan economy , became much more widely accepted .
= = Aftermath = =
= = = Political legacy = = =
The 1954 coup had a large political fallout both inside and outside Guatemala . The relatively easy overthrow of Árbenz , coming soon after the similar overthrow of the democratically elected Iranian Prime Minister in 1953 , made the CIA overconfident in its abilities , which led to the Bay of Pigs disaster in 1961 . Among the civilians living in Guatemala City during the coup was a twenty @-@ five @-@ year @-@ old Ernesto Che Guevara . After a couple of abortive attempts to fight on the side of the government , Guevara took shelter at the embassy of Argentina , before eventually being granted safe passage to Mexico , where he would join the Cuban Revolution . His experience of the Guatemalan coup was a large factor in convincing him " of the necessity for armed struggle ... against imperialism " , and would inform his successful military strategy during the Cuban Revolution . Árbenz ' experience during the Guatemalan coup also helped Fidel Castro 's Cuban regime in thwarting the CIA invasion . Throughout the years of the Guatemalan Revolution , both United States policy makers and the U.S. media had tended to believe the theory of a communist threat . When Árbenz had announced evidence of U.S. complicity in the Salama incident , it had been dismissed , and virtually the entire U.S. press portrayed Castillo Armas invasion as a dramatic victory against communism . The press in Latin America were less restrained in their criticism of the U.S. , and the coup resulted in lasting anti @-@ United States sentiment in the region .
Within Guatemala , Castillo Armas worried that he lacked popular support , and thus tried to eliminate all opposition . He promptly arrested several thousand opposition leaders , branding them communists , repealed the constitution of 1945 , and granted himself virtually unbridled power . Concentration camps were built to hold the prisoners when the jails overflowed . Acting on the advice of Dulles , Castillo Armas also detained a number of citizens trying to flee the country . He also created a National Committee of Defense Against Communism , with sweeping powers of arrest , detention , and deportation . Over the next few years , the committee investigated nearly 70 @,@ 000 people . Many were imprisoned , executed , or " disappeared " , frequently without trial . He outlawed all political parties , labor unions , and peasant organizations . Castillo Armas ' dependence on the officer corps and the merceneries who had put him in power led to widespread corruption , and the Eisenhower administration was soon subsidizing the Guatemalan government with many millions of U.S. dollars . Castillo Armas also reversed the agrarian reforms of Árbenz , leading the U.S. embassy to comment that it was a " long step backwards " from the previous policy . The United Fruit Company also did not profit from the coup ; despite regaining most of its privileges , its profits continued to decline , and it was eventually merged with another company to save itself from bankruptcy . Despite the influence which some of the local Catholic Church leaders had in the coup , anti @-@ Catholic restrictions which had been enforced under previous governments in Guatemala would resume by the 1960s , as many anti @-@ communist governments felt the Church had too much sympathy towards socialist parties .
= = = Civil War in Guatemala = = =
The rolling @-@ back of the progressive policies of the civilian governments resulted in a series of leftist insurgencies in the countryside , beginning in 1960 . This triggered the thirty @-@ six @-@ year Guatemalan Civil War , between the U.S.-backed military government of Guatemala and the leftist insurgencies , which frequently had a large degree of popular support . The largest of these movements was led by the Guerrilla Army of the Poor , which at its largest point had 270 @,@ 000 members . The civil war ran from 1960 to 1996 . By the end of it 200 @,@ 000 civilians were dead . During the civil war , atrocities against civilians were committed by both sides ; 93 % of these violations were committed by the United States @-@ backed military , which included a genocidal scorched @-@ earth campaign against the indigenous Maya population in the 1980s . The violence was particularly brutal during the presidencies of Ríos Montt and Lucas García . Numerous other human rights violations were committed , including massacres of civilian populations , rape , aerial bombardment , and forced disappearances , leading Gleijeses to write that Guatemala was " ruled by a culture of fear , " and that it held the " macabre record for human rights violations in Latin America . " These violations were partially the result of a particularly brutal counter @-@ insurgency strategy adopted by the government . The civil war came to an end in 1996 , with a peace accord between the guerrillas and the government of Guatemala , which included an amnesty for all the fighters , both among the military and the guerrillas .
= = = Apologies = = =
In March 1999 , US President Bill Clinton apologized to the Guatemalan government for the atrocities committed by the US @-@ backed dictatorships .
In October 2011 , the government of Guatemala formally apologized to Juan Jacobo Árbenz , the son of the deposed President , Jacobo Árbenz . At the same time , the textbooks used in the public school system were revised to portray Árbenz in a positive light , depicting him as a Guatemalan patriot . A highway was also renamed in his honor . The Árbenz family continue to request an apology from the government of the United States for having overthrown the government of Guatemala in 1954 .
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= William the Carpenter =
William the Carpenter ( fl . 1087 – 1102 ) , viscount of Melun , was a French nobleman who participated in the Reconquista in Spain and on the First Crusade . He was notorious for defecting from the army both in Spain and on the crusade , but he was also known for his strength in battle , whence he earned his nickname " the Carpenter . " He returned to the Holy Land after the crusade , and nothing further is known of his life or death .
= = Life = =
= = = Succession = = =
His specific origins are unclear ; according to the seventeenth @-@ century genealogist Père Anselme , he was the son of Ursio I , viscount of Melun , a town about 50 kilometres outside Paris in the Brie region of the French Vexin , which was later known as the Île @-@ de @-@ France . Anselme believed William succeeded his father in 1084 , and was later succeeded by his own son , Ursio II . However , in the nineteenth century , Adolphe Duchalais showed that Anselme misread the charters he was using ; all that is known for certain is that Ursio was viscount in 1085 and William was viscount in 1094 . There is no definite record of an Ursio II , and after William there is no viscount known until Adam , who married the daughter of the previous , unnamed viscount in 1138 . William was presumably related to Ursio but his specific relationship to him and the other viscounts is unknown .
According to twelfth @-@ century chronicler Robert the Monk , William was " of royal stock " and was related to Hugh I , Count of Vermandois and Hugh 's brother King Philip I of France .
= = = Military exploits = = =
According to twelfth @-@ century monk Guibert of Nogent , William was " powerful in words , but less so in action ... a man who set out to do things too great for him . " William was a member of the French contingent which marched into Spain in 1087 to assist Alfonso VI of Castile with the siege of Tudela against the Almoravids . He may have been one of the leaders , along with Eudes I , Duke of Burgundy , who was the nephew of Alfonso 's wife Constance . The French army never made it to Tudela and withdrew with little success . Guibert says that William " retreated like a wretch , leaving countless men stranded by his flight . " William 's actions in Spain may have been the inspiration for the character of Ganelon in the Chanson de Roland , which was possibly written in the early twelfth @-@ century , based on similar events that had occurred during the reign of Charlemagne centuries earlier .
In France , Guibert says he engaged in petty warfare against other nobles and " criminal looting " of the countryside , in contravention of the Peace and Truce of God . In 1096 he joined the First Crusade , and " took from his poor neighbors the little that they had to provide himself shamefully with provisions for the journey . " He participated in the attacks on Jews at Mainz , led by Emich of Flonheim . Emich 's army later battled against the Hungarians , during which William " beheaded the chief of the Hungarian army , who was a member of the [ King Coloman 's ] counsel , a distinguished man with dazzling snow @-@ white hair . " After the dispersal of Emich 's army following this battle , William and the other French leaders joined the army of his relative Hugh of Vermandois . Hugh 's army marched south into Italy , and at Bari , Hugh sent William across the sea to Dyrrhachium as an ambassador to the Byzantine governor of the city . William then travelled to Constantinople with Hugh , and he was among the men who came to meet Godfrey of Bouillon when Godfrey arrived at the city later in the year .
No further mention of William is made until the Siege of Antioch in 1098 . The crusaders had successfully taken the city , but were then besieged themselves by a large Muslim army led by Kerbogha of Mosul . The crusaders suffered from lack of supplies , and there were many desertions ; William fled Antioch in January 1098 , along with the French monk Peter the Hermit , who had led his own army to Constantinople before the main crusaders arrived there . William was probably a member of Bohemond of Taranto 's army at this point , because Bohemond sent his nephew Tancred to find them , and they were brought back to Bohemond 's camp . Robert the Monk assumes that William fled because " he had never before experienced such suffering from hunger . " William " spent the whole of the night ... in Bohemond 's tent , lying on the ground like a piece of rubbish . " Bohemond rebuked him as a " wretched disgrace to the whole Frankish army " , and mentioned his desertion of the French army in Spain in 1087 . The other leaders asked Bohemond to spare him and William suffered no further punishment . However , William was so ashamed that he deserted the army again .
Albert of Aachen says William 's second desertion occurred in June 1098 , along with William of Grand @-@ Mesnil , a relative of Bohemond . On the road away from Antioch , they joined Stephen of Blois , another leader of the crusade who had also fled the siege . They travelled back towards Constantinople , but on the way met Emperor Alexius I Comnenus , who was advancing to Antioch with a relief army . They convinced him of the futility of the crusader siege and the emperor turned back to Constantinople .
William apparently returned to the Holy Land in the Crusade of 1101 . The First Crusade had successfully conquered Jerusalem , and those who had returned home before completing the journey were often shamed into going on crusade a second time ; some of them , like Stephen of Blois , were killed on their second journey . William , however , survived to participate in the politics of the newfound Kingdom of Jerusalem ; he was among the men who petitioned King Baldwin I to restore Daimbert of Pisa as Latin Patriarch of Jerusalem . He was also present at Baldwin I 's siege of Ascalon in 1102 . William may have settled in the north , in the crusader Principality of Antioch as a vassal of Bohemond , because he appears as a witness in a charter from Antioch in 1101 .
= = Nickname = =
William 's actions at the Siege of Antioch are known from the Gesta Francorum , an anonymous chronicle written by an Italo @-@ Norman eyewitness . The Gesta was very popular in Europe after the crusade , but was considered crudely written by more refined readers . It was later rewritten and expanded by more educated writers , including the French monks Robert and Guibert , both of whom were eager to add information about French crusaders like William . According to Robert , William " acquired the name of ' Carpenter ' because nobody wanted to take him on in battle — -there was no breastplate , helmet or shield which could withstand the shattering impact of his lance or sword . " Guibert says that he " was called the Carpenter , not because he was a craftsman in wood , but because he prevailed in battle like a carpenter , by cutting men down " , and has Bohemond ask : " what kind of Carpenter did we have , who , like a construction @-@ worker with a pick @-@ axe , hacked away , with lances and swords , at the backs of the Gentiles ? " Christopher Tyerman interprets this as William 's " skills as a battlefield butcher " . Edward Gibbon , apparently misunderstanding Guibert , thought the nickname came " from the weighty strokes of his axe " .
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= I 'll Make a Man Out of You =
" I 'll Make a Man out of You " is a song written by composer Matthew Wilder and lyricist David Zippel for Walt Disney Pictures ' 36th animated feature film Mulan ( 1998 ) . Appearing on the film 's soundtrack Mulan : An Original Walt Disney Records Soundtrack , " I 'll Make a Man Out of You " is performed by American singer Donny Osmond as the singing voice of Captain Li Shang in lieu of American actor BD Wong , who provides the character 's speaking voice . The song also features appearances by Lea Salonga as Mulan , Eddie Murphy as Mushu , and Harvey Fierstein , Jerry Tondo and Wilder himself as Yao , Chien @-@ Po and Ling , respectively .
" I 'll Make a Man Out of You " was written to replace the song " We 'll Make a Man of You " after the film 's original songwriter Stephen Schwartz departed from the project in favor of working on DreamWorks ' The Prince of Egypt ( 1998 ) . Prior to Mulan , Osmond had auditioned for the role of Hercules in Disney 's Hercules ( 1997 ) , a role for which he was ultimately turned down by the directors because they felt that he sounded too old . Disney eventually cast Osmond as the singing voice of Shang because his singing voice is similar to Wong 's speaking voice . An up @-@ tempo military @-@ style song , " I 'll Make a Man Out of You " is performed by Shang during a rigorous training montage in which his young , inexperienced soldiers attempt to justify their worth . The song 's title is considered ironic because Mulan , who relies on intelligence , ultimately proves more competent than her male comrades .
" I 'll Make a Man Out of You " has received mostly positive reviews from film and music critics , some of whom dubbed it the film 's best song , while praising Osmond 's performance . Critics have also drawn comparisons between the song and Disney 's Hercules , while likening Mulan 's role and transformation to actress Demi Moore 's performance as Lieutenant Jordan O 'Neil in the film G. I. Jane ( 1997 ) . The song has since appeared on several " best of " Disney songs lists , including those of Total Film and the New York Post . Discussed by film critics , film historians , academic journalists and feminists , the song has gone on to be recorded and covered in several different languages — namely Mandarin , Cantonese and Spanish — by entertainers Jackie Chan and Cristian Castro , respectively .
= = Background = =
" I 'll Make a Man Out of You " was written by composer Matthew Wilder and lyricist David Zippel , who were hired to write the songs for Mulan because , according to co @-@ director Tony Bancroft , " Disney was trying to find different songwriters that ... would give kind of different sound to each of the songs . " While Zippel , a Broadway lyricist , was recruited because the directors were impressed by the songwriter 's work on Disney 's Hercules ( 1997 ) , at the time Wilder , a pop singer and record producer , was best known for his hit single " Break My Stride " . Bancroft believes that , although the songwriters " had two different sensibilities ... I think the [ y ] blend worked well together , especially on [ ' I 'll Make a Man Out of You ' ] " .
Originally , songwriter Stephen Schwartz , who had just recently worked as a lyricist opposite composer Alan Menken on Disney 's Pocahontas ( 1995 ) and The Hunchback of Notre Dame ( 1996 ) , was slated to write the lyrics for Mulan , but he was replaced by Zippel " at the last moment . " Schwartz had written a song called " We 'll Make a Man of You " for " when Mulan is trying to learn to be a soldier " . The song was eventually replaced by Wilder and Zippel 's " I 'll Make a Man Out of You " when Schwartz was forced to resign from Mulan by Disney executives Peter Schneider and Michael Eisner because the songwriter had also agreed to write the songs for rival film studio DreamWorks ' animated feature film The Prince of Egypt ( 1998 ) . According to The Musical Theater of Stephen Schwartz : From Godspell to Wicked and Beyond , Schwartz believed that he would have been able to work on both films simultaneously , but ultimately chose The Prince of Egypt instead because he felt pressured by Disney .
Before Mulan , American singer Donny Osmond had auditioned for the lead role of Hercules in Hercules , a role for which he was ultimately not cast because the directors felt that is voice sounded " too old " and " too deep " for the character . Osmond later revealed in an interview with People that he was so embarrassed by his Hercules audition that he had nearly considered ending his singing career prematurely . A few months later , Disney contacted Osmond with interest in casting him as the singing voice of Shang after comparing his audition tapes to BD Wong and determining that both actors have " very similar voices . " In one scene , Osmond 's character , Shang , is hit in the stomach while singing " I 'll Make a Man Out of You " . In order to sound as realistic as possible , Osmond punched himself in the stomach several times while recording the song .
= = Context and use in Mulan = =
" I 'll Make a Man Out of You " is performed by Captain Li Shang during Mulan 's training montage , which has also been identified as the film 's " boot camp sequence . " The scene explores Shang 's attempt to train his newly recruited squadron of incompetent soldiers in the hopes of ultimately transforming into a skilled army . Occupying a significant portion of the film 's plot , Shang promises to turn his team of " rag @-@ tag recruits " into men . The musical number is used to " compress dramatic time or narrate " in a more compelling way than had solely dialogue been used . The scene begins with Shang shooting an arrow into the top of a tall pole and challenging all of his soldiers to retrieve it , each of whom fail until Mulan eventually succeeds . According to the book Into the Closet : Cross @-@ Dressing and the Gendered Body in Children 's Literature and Film by Victoria Flanagan , Mulan is successful in retrieving the arrow because she uses " an ingenuity that is based upon her ability to incorporate aspects of femininity into her masculine performance . " By the end of the scene , all of the soldiers have improved dramatically and the results of their practice and training are finally revealed . In what Joshua and Judges author Athalya Brenner called " a humorous reversal toward the end of the movie , " Mulan and her male comrades disguise themselves as concubines in order to infiltrate the palace and rescue the emperor while " I 'll Make a Man Out of You " reprises in the background .
Critics have observed ways in which the scene explores Mulan 's growth and transformation as the character evolves from a clumsy , inexperienced recruit into one of the army 's most skilled soldiers , in spite of her gender . According to the book Literacy , Play and Globalization : Converging Imaginaries in Children 's Critical and Cultural Performances , the montage depicts Mulan 's gender as " an obstacle to overcome . " Author Phyllis Frus wrote in her book Beyond Adaptation : Essays on Radical Transformations of Original Works , " The need for inexperienced young men to go through a rigorous training results in a sequence common to many films , " and that the scene " show 's the challenges Ping / Mulan faces due to her " inexperience . As observed by Juanita Kwok in the book Film Asia : New Perspectives on Film for English , the irony of the scene lies within the fact that " Mulan proves herself more competent than any of the men . " The author also observed that the scene 's first refrain accompanies shots of Shang , while its second " coincides with Mulan climbing to the top of the pole . " Additionally , while the earlier , all @-@ female musical number " Honor to Us All " " functions as an account of the constructedness of female gender , " " I 'll Make a Man Out of You " " juxtaposes and makes explicit the contention that gender is a cultural product , " according to Johnson Cheu , author of Diversity in Disney Films : Critical Essays on Race , Ethnicity , Gender , Sexuality and Disability . The Representation of Gender in Walt Disney 's " Mulan " believes that the song emphasizes desirable masculine traits , namely " discipline ... tranquility , celerity , strength and fearlessness , " while Shang , according to Putting the Grail Back into Girl Power : How a Girl Saved Camelot , and why it Matters , " views [ femininity ] as comparable to weakness . " In her article Disney 's " Mulan " — the " True " Deconstructed Heroine ? , Lisa Brocklebank argued the song explores themes such as othering , ostracism and abjection .
Critics have drawn similarities between the " I 'll Make a Man Out of You " sequence and Hercules ' training montage in Disney 's Hercules ( 1997 ) , as well as actress Demi Moore 's role as Lieutenant Jordan O 'Neil in the film G. I. Jane ( 1997 ) . In the book Ways of Being Male : Representing Masculinities in Children 's Literature , author John Stephens wrote that although both Mulan and Hercules depict " the active male body as spectacle , " Mulan 's is less " straight @-@ forward " due to the character 's gender . Michael Dequina of The Movie Report observed that " Mulan 's transformation is highly reminiscent of Demi Moore 's in last year 's Disney drama G.I. Jane , but Mulan oneups that film 's hour @-@ long toughening process by efficiently covering the same ground during a single , rousing musical number . "
= = Music and lyrics = =
Written in common time at a tempo of 110 beats per minute and starting out in the key of G major , " I 'll Make a Man Out of You " has been identified as a " heroic power ballad " and anthem that features an upbeat , " thumping " rhythm . The Disney Song Encyclopedia described the song as a " rhythmic military song . " Beginning with " a military @-@ style drum " introduction , " I 'll Make a Man Out of You " , which is immediately preceded by the emotional ballad " Reflection " on the film 's soundtrack album , " breaks up the slower pace of the songs , " according to Filmtracks.com. Similar to the song " A Girl Worth Fighting For " , the " ironically titled " " I 'll Make a Man Out of You " " play [ s ] off Mulan 's secret " because Shang is unaware that she is actually a girl , as observed by Jeffrey Gantz of The Phoenix . Johnson Cheu , author of Diversity in Disney Films : Critical Essays on Race , Ethnicity , Gender , Sexuality and Disability , received the song as a counterpart to the all @-@ female musical number " Honor to Us All " . Going into the last verse , the song 's key shifts up to A ♭ major and later towards the end , " the backing track falls into silence and [ Osmond 's ] vocals come to the fore . " Osmond 's vocal range spans one octave , from D3 to F4 . Beginning with two verses , followed by a bridge , a refrain , a final verse and repeated choruses , the song is a total of three minutes and twenty @-@ one seconds in length .
Entertainment Weekly identified the number as the film 's " rambunctious peak . " According to Victoria Flanagan , author of Into the Closet : Gender and Cross @-@ dressing in Children 's Fiction : Cross @-@ Dressing and the Gendered Body in Children 's Literature and Film , " I 'll Make a Man Out of You " is " a playful parody of conventional masculinity . " The lyric " I 'll make a man out of you " is constantly repeated and reinforced by Shang . According to author John Stephens of Ways of Being Male : Representing Masculinities in Children 's Literature , the song 's lyrics " initially define masculinity in opposition to femininity , " with its first verse beginning , " Let 's get down to business / To defeat the Huns / Did they send me daughters / When I asked for sons ? " Its chorus reads , " You must be swift as the coursing river / With all the force of the great typhoon / With all the strength of a raging fire / Mysterious as the dark side of the moon " which , according to Ways of Being Male : Representing Masculinities in Children 's Literature , " essentializes masculinity by asserting that it embodies the speed , strength and power of the natural world , and yet contains this within an aura of tranquility and mystery . " According to Beyond Adaptation : Essays on Radical Transformations of Original Works , these lyrics " add a hint of darkness as they celebrate male prowess " by suggesting that one who has " acquired fiery strength " is also " untamed as the moon 's dark side . " The song has been noted by the New York Post for its " slew of one @-@ liners from supporting characters . " According to The Phoenix , Osmond performs the song 's lyrics with " grit . " Meanwhile , the singer is backed up by a macho @-@ sounding choir repeatedly chanting " Be a man ! "
= = Reception = =
= = = Critical response = = =
" I 'll Make a Man Out of You " has been met with mostly positive reviews from both film and music critics . Irving Tan of Sputnikmusic wrote , " there hasn 't been a single chorus in all of post @-@ Mulan pop music that has managed to rival the roaring power in the refrain . " Scott Chitwood of ComingSoon.net reviewed " I 'll Make a Man Out of You " as " a stirring , testosterone filled piece , " describing the scene as " amusing . " Owen Gleiberman of Entertainment Weekly wrote that the song " has a comparable infectious punch , " concluding , " it 's the only song in the movie that escapes Disneyfied blandness . " Jeff Vice of the Deseret News observed that Wong and Osmond 's " voices sound eerily similar . " Tom Henry of The Blade enjoyed Osmond 's delivery , describing the singer 's performance as " solid . " Lloyd Paseman of The Register @-@ Guard called " I 'll Make a Man Out of You " a favorite of his . While exploring " The History of Movie Training Montages " , Chris Giblin of Men 's Fitness opined , " Mulan served as proof that the fitness montage can work amazingly well in movies for kids . " Giblin continued , " it has the best lyrics of any serious fitness / sports montage song . Overall , a very strong montage . " Disney.com itself cites " I 'll Make a Man Out of You " as a " song that was so epic , so legendary , that it requires an out loud sing along anytime we hear it . "
Despite dubbing the film 's songs its " weak link , " TV Guide wrote that the musical numbers are " crafted with a knowing , almost camp wink that 's totally in keeping with the subtext of the film , " concluding that " I 'll Make a Man Out of You " sounds like " a Village People original . " Writing for The Seattle Times , Moira Macdonald criticized Wilder and Zippel 's songs as " forgettable , " calling " I 'll Make a Man Out of You " " annoying . " The Phoenix 's Jeffrey Gantz wrote that although " Donny Osmond shows some grit , but he 's still the voice of the Whitebread West . " Amazon.ca 's Jason Verlinde commented , " Unfortunately , the voice of Donny Osmond , relegated to anthems such as ' I 'll Make a Man Out of You ' doesn 't really enhance the story line " .
= = = Accolades and recognition = = =
Total Film ranked " I 'll Make a Man Out of You " twenty @-@ ninth on its list of the " 30 Best Disney Songs " . Similarly , M ranked the song twentieth on its list of the " Top 20 Disney Songs of All Time " . Author Stephanie Osmanski cited " Did they send me daughters when I asked for sons ? " as her favourite lyric . Gregory E. Miller of the New York Post cited I 'll Make a Man Out of You " as one of " The best ( and the most underrated ) Disney songs , " writing , " Captain Shang ’ s battle @-@ preparation anthem is the movie ’ s most quotable , with a memorable chorus and a slew of one @-@ liners from supporting characters . " PopSugar ranked the song the nineteenth " Catchiest Disney Song " . On Empire 's list of the twenty " Most Awesome Training Montages In Cinema History " , " I 'll Make a Man Out of You " was ranked 14th . The author identified it as " a solid training montage in which Mulan and her friends go from hapless duffers to fearless warriors in just over two minutes . " Similarly , Men 's Fitness also ranked " I 'll Make a Man Out of You " among the greatest training montages in film history . Stephen Fiorentine of Sneaker Report wrote that " Training montages aren ’ t limited to just live @-@ action movies . With movies like Mulan and Hercules , Disney mastered the art of the montage in their animated films . "
= = Covers and parodies = =
When Mulan was released in China , Hong Kong actor Jackie Chan was hired to dub the voice of Shang and record " I 'll Make a Man Out of You " in Mandarin and Cantonese . The special edition DVD release of Mulan features a music video of Chan performing the song . The video also depicts Chan performing martial arts @-@ inspired choreography . Positively received , Scott Chitwood of ComingSoon.net called Chan 's rendition " a fun addition for Chan fans , " while Nancy Churnin of The Dallas Morning News wrote that he performed the song " very ably . " Mexican singer Cristian Castro , who voiced Shang in the film 's Latin American release , recorded " I 'll Make a Man Out of You " in Spanish , entitled " Hombres de Acción serán hoy " .
In October 2014 , a parody of " I 'll Make a Man Out of You " was uploaded to YouTube entitled " I 'll Make a ' Mon Out of You " . A mashup of Mulan and the popular Pokémon franchise , the video features Digimon Gatomon attempting to masquerade as Pokémon Meowth in lieu of Mulan , while Ash occupies the role of Shang as his trainer , according to Smosh .
= = Credits and personnel = =
Credits adapted from the website Discogs .
Donny Osmond – lead vocals
Lea Salonga , Eddie Murphy , Harvey Fierstein , Jerry Tondo and Matthew Wilder – additional vocals
Matthew Wilder – songwriting and producing
David Zippel – songwriting
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= Tropical Storm Katrina ( 1999 ) =
Tropical Storm Katrina was a short @-@ lived , weak tropical cyclone that produced minor damage across areas previously devastated by Hurricane Mitch in 1998 . Forming out of a broad area of low pressure in the southwestern Caribbean Sea on October 28 , 1999 , the disorganized tropical storm made landfall near Puerto Cabezas , Nicaragua with winds of 40 mph ( 65 km / h ) on October 30 before weakening to a tropical depression . The remnants of the storm persisted until November 1 , at which time it was absorbed by a cold front on the northern end of the Yucatán Peninsula .
Throughout Central America , Katrina produced heavy rains , estimated up to 15 in ( 380 mm ) in mountainous areas , triggering mudslides and flash flooding . Unlike Mitch , little damage resulted from Katrina and no fatalities were reported . Due to the lack of damage caused by the storm , the name was not retired and was re @-@ used during 2005 at which time it was retired due to catastrophic damage in the United States .
= = Meteorological history = =
Tropical Storm Katrina originated out of the remnants of a cold front tracking southward through the Caribbean Sea on October 22 . By October 26 , a broad area of low pressure , associated with disorganized shower and thunderstorm activity , developed over the southwestern Caribbean Sea . The following day , a surface low pressure became apparent after the system showed signs of rotation near the northern Panama coastline . On October 28 , a hurricane hunter flight into the circulation revealed a well @-@ defined low pressure system and resulting in the system being declared Tropical Depression Fifteen while situated roughly 175 mi ( 280 km ) east of Bluefields , Nicaragua . The center of the newly classified depression was situated on the western edge of deep convection . The depression tracked slowly towards the northeast in response to the mid @-@ level flow it was embedded within .
By the morning of October 29 , a tropical wave , tracking towards the west , began to interact with the depression and leading to forecasters discussing a possible merger of the two systems . An upper @-@ level anticyclone over the eastern Caribbean produced significant wind shear over the depression , preventing the center from moving under the deep convection . However , a large convective banding feature developed to the north of the system . Several hours later , hurricane hunters flew through the storm and recorded surface winds of 40 mph ( 65 km / h ) and a barometric pressure of 999 mbar ( hPa ; 29 @.@ 5 inHg ) , leading to the upgrade of the depression to a tropical storm . At this time , the storm received the name Katrina and peaked in intensity . By 0000 UTC on October 30 , the center of Katrina made landfall near Puerto Cabezas , Nicaragua at peak intensity . Within three hours , the storm weakened to a depression due to interaction with the mountains of Nicaragua and convection was limited to a small area on the western side of the center of circulation .
Katrina continued to track over Central America for most of October 30 and began to accelerate . Roughly 24 hours after landfall , the depression moved back over water , in the Gulf of Honduras ; however , by this time , there was no convection remaining around the system . The acceleration of the storm was due to a regeneration of the low @-@ level circulation northward . Due to unfavorable conditions , the weakened system failed to regenerate convection before moving back over land near the northern Belize @-@ Mexico border . Around this time , forecasters reported that the depression would re @-@ intensify once in the Gulf of Mexico before transitioning into an extratropical cyclone . Although situated over land , the depression began to regenerate convection , leading to increased rainfall over the Yucatan Peninsula . By the evening of November 1 , the depression weakened again and moved into the Gulf of Mexico ; however , unlike previous forecasts , the circulation was absorbed by a cold front hours later .
= = Preparations and Impact = =
Despite being a very weak storm , forecasters were wary about Katrina , as Central America was devastated by Hurricane Mitch exactly one year earlier . There was considerable fear of additional flash flooding and mudslides across the mountainous region . Immediately after being declared a tropical depression , a tropical storm warning was issued for Nicaragua , and it was extended to the San Andrés islands of Colombia shortly afterward . Officials in Honduras evacuated 71 families from the district of Colón and another 17 families from other at @-@ risk areas . Along the coastline of Honduras , a red alert was declared as torrential rains were anticipated to produce deadly mudslides in areas still recovering from Mitch nearly one year ago .
Overall , damage was minimal as a result of Katrina . Only a few small mudslides were reported , along with some minor flooding , as the storm tracked across Central America . It was estimated that between 10 and 15 inches ( 250 to 375 mm ) of rain fell across parts of the region as a result of Katrina , with one report of 3 @.@ 58 inches ( 91 mm ) in six hours from the island of San Andrés east of Nicaragua . Roughly 1 @,@ 200 people were evacuated to emergency shelters in Honduras due to flooding . At least five bridges sustained damage and the cities of Tocoa and Trujillo were isolated as the Aguán and Siline rivers overflowed their banks . The water pipes recently constructed after being destroyed by Hurricane Mitch , worth HNL 170 @,@ 000 ( US $ 9 @,@ 000 ) were once again destroyed by Katrina . The most severely affected area in Honduras was the Valle del Aguán .
Between October 30 and November 1 , the remnants of Katrina produced widespread moderate rainfall across the Yucatan Peninsula , peaking at 6 @.@ 32 in ( 161 mm ) in Cunduacán . Moisture from the remnants of the storm enhanced rainfall across southern Florida in association with the cold front that absorbed the system . Already saturated by previous rains , the National Weather Service issued flood watches for the region as torrential rains were expected to fall in relation to the system .
Following the storm , the United Nations deployed field assessment teams to survey the damage caused by Katrina . The International Organization for Migration helped relocate affected families and construct at least 300 new residences for victims of Katrina and Hurricane Mitch the year prior . The Pan American Health Organization also deployed assessment teams to survey the area for the possibility of post @-@ storm diseases . Due to the lack of any significant damage , the name Katrina was not retired and was re @-@ used in the 2005 season ; however , due to the catastrophic damage caused by the storm , it was retired in 2006 and was replaced with the name Katia .
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= The Glenlivet distillery =
The Glenlivet distillery is a distillery near Ballindalloch in Moray , Scotland that produces single malt Scotch whisky . It is the oldest legal distillery in the parish of Glenlivet , and the production place of the Scottish whisky of the same name . It is described in packaging and advertising as " The single malt that started it all " . It was founded in 1824 and has operated almost continuously since . The distillery remained open throughout the Great Depression and its only closure came during World War II . The Glenlivet distillery has grown in the post @-@ war period to become one of the biggest single malt distilleries in order to keep up with global demand ; The Glenlivet brand is the biggest selling single malt whisky in the United States and the second biggest selling single malt brand globally .
Today , the distillery is owned by the French alcoholic beverages company Pernod Ricard and they oversee the distillery 's production of 5 @,@ 900 @,@ 000 proof litres per annum . The majority of this – enough for 6 million bottles – is sold as The Glenlivet single malt , with the remainder being used in Pernod Ricard 's blended whisky brands .
= = Production = =
The distillery draws water from Josie 's Well and other springs a short distance from the distillery . The malt comes from Crisp Maltings , Portgordon . Glenlivet 's stills are lantern shaped with long , narrow necks , all of which helps to produce a light tasting spirit .
The distillery has 4 wash stills each with a capacity of 15 @,@ 000 litres and 4 spirit stills with a capacity of 10 @,@ 000 litres .
Spirit from the distillery is then matured in oak casks formerly used to mature bourbon , as is normal throughout the industry , with some products being finished in casks previously used to store sherry and port .
Glenlivet is categorised as a Speyside distillery . The Glenlivet range consists of 12 Years , 15 Years , 16 Years Nàdurra , 18 Years , 21 years , and 25 years , with a number of limited edition whiskies such as the Cellar Collection . Glenlivet also produces a range for the travel retail and duty @-@ free shop markets , which differs slightly from the normal range .
The main product range from the distillery is The Glenlivet range of single malt scotch whisky , but whisky from the distillery is also used in the production of Pernod Ricard 's other brands , including Chivas Regal and Royal Salute whisky brands .
Bottling of The Glenlivet took place at a Chivas Brothers bottling plant at Newbridge just outside Edinburgh , but that plant was sold at the end of 2009 with bottling to be transferred to other Chivas Brothers plants .
In 2008 , The Glenlivet announced expansion plans for the distillery to keep up with increased demand . This includes the installation of a new mash tun , new stills and new wash backs .
= = History = =
Illicit distilleries were commonplace throughout the Speyside area from medieval times but were largely made redundant with the passing of the Excise Act in 1823 . It was under this legislation that legal distilleries could be formed , subject to holding a license . Alexander Gordon , 4th Duke of Gordon , was allegedly instrumental in the passing of this legislation . Although there is no historical record of his involvement in the issue , his tenant , George Smith , who was operating an illicit distillery at the time , became the first person in Glenlivet to apply for and receive a license to legally produce spirit . This would prove to be an unpopular decision ; every other distiller was operating illegally at the time and hoping the new Excise Act would be repealed , something which would not happen if some distillers accepted the new law . Threats were made against George Smith , so George Gordon provided Smith with two pistols to be used to ensure both his own safety and that of the distillery . In 1824 , The Glenlivet distillery was established at Upper Drumin by George and his youngest son John Gordon Smith .
George Smith established a second distillery during 1849 , named the Cairngorm @-@ Delnabo Distillery but by 1855 or 1856 , both distilleries were running at full capacity , and were unable to meet rising demand . The operation of two separate sites was also proving difficult and expensive , so plans were formed around the same time to build a new , larger distillery further down the hill at Minmore . Construction of this new distillery was underway when the old Upper Drumin distillery was destroyed by fire during 1858 . Construction of the new Minmore distillery was sped up and salvageable equipment from the Upper Drumin distillery was transferred to the new Mimmore distillery . The Delnabo distillery was closed at the same time and the best parts of the equipment were also transferred to the Minmore plant . Production commenced at the new plant during 1859 and it was around the same time the legal entity of George & J.G. Smith , Ltd. was formed .
George Smith died in 1871 and his son John Gordon Smith inherited the distillery . The quality of the product from their distillery had resulted in the other distilleries in the area renaming their products to " Glenlivet " and by the time of George 's death , several distillers were doing so . J.G. Smith decided to take legal action and tried to claim ownership on The Glenlivet name , this legal action was only partially successful - the verdict forced other distillers in the area to stop calling their whisky Glenlivet and gave J.G. Smith and the blender Andrew Usher sole permission to use the brand , but permitted other distilleries to hyphenate their distillery name with the " Glenlivet " name , which resulted in new distillery names such as The Glen Moray @-@ Glenlivet Distillery , a distillery which is situated nearby .
The distillery remained open throughout the Great Depression , an event which affected many other distilleries ; it wasn 't until the Second World War that the distillery was mothballed for the first time , by Government decree . In the aftermath of World War Two , Britain was heavily indebted and needed to export large quantities of goods to earn foreign revenue ( mainly United States dollars ) . Distilling was an ideal industry with whisky much in demand overseas . Distilling restrictions were rapidly lifted and output from the distillery was at pre @-@ war levels by 1947 , despite ongoing barley , fuel , and manpower limitations . Bread rationing was retained until 1948 in order to ensure supplies of grain for the distilleries .
Glenlivet Distillery ( George & J.G. Smith , Ltd . ) merged with the Glen Grant Distillery ( J. & J. Grant Glen Grant , Ltd . ) in 1953 to form The Glenlivet and Glen Grant Distillers , Ltd .. The company would go on to merge with Hill Thomson & Co . , Ltd. and Longmorn @-@ Glenlivet Distilleries , Ltd. in 1970 before changing their name to Glenlivet Distillers Ltd in 1972 . The company was then purchased by Canadian drinks and media company Seagram in 1977 . Seagram 's alcohol production interests were acquired by Pernod Ricard and Diageo during 2000 , with ownership of Glenlivet Distillers passing to Pernod Ricard . Glen Grant Distillery was sold to Campari Group in 2005 .
The Glenlivet is the best selling malt whisky in the United States , and the fourth best selling in the UK with a 7 % market share . The Glenlivet is the world 's second best selling single malt whisky , and current global sales total 6 million bottles per annum .
= = Extension = =
A new extension with an additional mashtun , eight washbacks and 6 stills was opened by the Prince of Wales on 5 June 2010 . The capacity of the distillery has been increased by 75 %
= = Products = =
Core Range
The Glenlivet 12 Year Old
The Glenlivet 15 Year Old French Oak Reserve
The Glenlivet Nàdurra 16 Year Old
The Glenlivet 18 Year Old
The Glenlivet Archive 21 Year Old
The Glenlivet XXV 25 Year Old
Limited Releases - Cellar Collection
The Glenlivet Cellar Collection 1972 Cask Strength
The Glenlivet Cellar Collection 1959 Cask Strength
The Glenlivet Cellar Collection 1964 Cask Strength
The Glenlivet Cellar Collection 1967
The Glenlivet Cellar Collection French Oak Finish 1983
The Glenlivet Cellar Collection American Oak Finish 30 Year Old
Travel Retail
These bottlings are only available through the travel retail market , such as airports and ferries .
The Glenlivet 12 Year Old First Fill
The Glenlivet 15 Year Old
Other products
Glenlivet 70yo 1940 / 2010 ( 45 @.@ 9 % , Gordon & MacPhail , Generations , sherry butt , C # 339 , 100 Bts . )
Glenlivet Alpha
= = Awards and reviews = =
Glenlivet 's offerings have frequently been reviewed at spirit ratings competitions , generally garnering relatively high praise . The Glenlivet 18yr is perhaps the most highly decorated of the offerings , winning five double golds from the San Francisco World Spirits Competition between 2005 and 2012 and yielding only slightly less impressive scores from the Beverage Testing Institute and Wine Enthusiast . The 18yr Nadurra earned a double gold medal at the 2010 San Francisco World Spirits Competition and a score of 94 ( out of 100 ) in the same year from the Beverage Testing Institute . Other notable results include :
The Glenlivet 12yr Single Malt : Four silver medals and a gold between 2005 and 2010 at the San Francisco World Spirits Competition .
The Glenlivet 15yr French Oak Reserve Single Malt : gold medal at the 2009 San Francisco World Spirits Competition .
The Glenlivet 16yr Nàdurra Single Malt : silver medal at the 2009 San Francisco World Spirits Competition .
The Glenlivet 21yr Single Malt : two double golds , one gold , and one silver medal from the San Francisco World Spirits Competition between 2007 and 2010 and scores of 94 and 93 from the Beverage Testing Institute between 2009 and 2010 .
The Glenlivet XXV ( 25yr ) Single Malt : silver medal at the 2009 San Francisco World Spirits Competition and a score of 95 from the Beverage Testing Institute in 2010 .
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= Jesus College Boat Club ( Oxford ) =
Jesus College Boat Club ( commonly abbreviated to JCBC ) is a rowing club for members of Jesus College , Oxford , one of the constituent colleges of the University of Oxford . The club was formed in 1835 , but rowing at the college predates the club 's foundation : a boat from the college was involved in the earliest recorded races between college crews at Oxford in 1815 , when it competed against Brasenose College . In the early years of rowing at Oxford , Jesus was one of the few colleges that participated in races . Neither the men 's nor the women 's 1st VIIIs have earned the title of " Head of the River " , which is gained by winning Eights Week — the main inter @-@ college rowing competition at Oxford .
A number of college members have rowed for the university against Cambridge University in the Boat Race and the Women 's Boat Race . Barney Williams , a Canadian rower who studied at the college , won a silver medal in rowing at the 2004 Summer Olympics , and participated in the Boat Race in 2005 and 2006 . Other students who rowed while at the college have achieved success in other fields , including John Sankey , who became Lord Chancellor , Alwyn Williams , who became Bishop of Durham , and Maurice Jones , who became Principal of St David 's College , Lampeter . Another college rower , James Page , was appointed Secretary of the Amateur Rowing Association and coached both the Oxford and Cambridge University boat clubs .
The college boathouse , which is shared with the boat club of Keble College , is in Christ Church Meadow , on the Isis ( as the River Thames is called in Oxford ) . It dates from 1964 and replaced a moored barge used by spectators and crew @-@ members . The last college barge had been purchased from one of the Livery Companies of the City of London in 1911 . It is now a floating restaurant further down the Thames at Richmond , and for some years was painted in the college colours of green and white .
= = History = =
The early records of the club have been lost , but there are references to a Jesus College boat in material that survives from the early 19th century . There are references to " pleasure boating " at Oxford in letters and poems written in the late 18th century , but races between crews from different colleges did not start until the early 19th century . Rowing in eights ( boats with eight oarsmen , each pulling one oar , and steered by a coxswain ) began at Eton , where there is a record of the school owning three eights by 1811 , and then progressed to Oxford . The first record of an inter @-@ college race , between eights from Jesus College and Brasenose College , dates from 1815 . These may have been the only two colleges who had boats racing at that time , and the Brasenose boat was usually victorious . There were few rowers , and races between fours ( boats with four oarsmen and a coxswain ) tended to attract more interest than races between eights . Students would row to the inn at Sandford @-@ on @-@ Thames , a few miles south of Oxford , and race each other on the way back . The races would start at Iffley Lock and finish at King 's Barge , off Christ Church Meadow . Flags hoisted on the barge would indicate the finishing order of the crews . Crews would set off one behind the other , the trailing boat ( s ) trying to catch , or " bump " , the boat ahead . The bumped boat and the bumping boat would then drop out and the bumping boat would start the next day 's race ahead of the bumped boat . The aim was to become the lead boat , known as Head of the River . For identification , crews wore college colours and emblazoned the rudder of the boat with the college coat of arms . Crews from Jesus College painted leeks ( an emblem of Wales ) on their oars for further distinction . In early races , some rowers wore high hats while others , including the Jesus crews , wore Tam o 'shanters in college colours ( green with a white band for Jesus ) ; crews from Jesus College wore these until at least 1847 .
In 1822 , crews from Jesus and Brasenose raced each other to become Head of the River . One Brasenose rower apparently " caught a crab " , slowing the boat . The Brasenose boat was bumped by the Jesus boat , but rowed on regardless and claimed that it was still Head of the River . Jesus and Brasenose men competed over which college 's flag should be hoisted to denote the winning boat . One of the Brasenose crew ended the dispute by saying " Quot homines tot sententiae , different men have different opinions , some like leeks and some like onions " , referring to the emblem on the Jesus oars , and it was agreed to row the race again . The Brasenose crew won the rematch . The incident has been said to be shown in an 1822 picture , the earliest depiction of an eights race at Oxford , painted by I. T. Serres ( Marine Painter to George IV ) . However , the print was published on 1 March 1822 and it would have taken several months to prepare and engrave . It also shows a summer scene . Both of these points suggest that the print depicts either an imaginary scene or an unrecorded event from 1821 .
Races gradually became more formalised , and regulations were introduced prohibiting colleges from using professional rowers or members of other colleges . A race for the colleges ' second boats ( Torpids ) was introduced in 1826 , and eventually boats with less than eight oars were excluded from the races . During the late 1820s and early 1830s , Jesus did not take part in races , but the college was mentioned as having a second boat by 1836 . The formal foundation of the club dates from 1835 , and official records of inter @-@ college races begin in 1837 . The Jesus College 1st VIII started the competition that year in second position , behind the Christ Church 1st VIII , but after being bumped on successive nights by Exeter , Balliol and Queen 's colleges , Jesus took no further part in that year 's competition . In 1838 , the Jesus College boat rowed in last place on one evening , but did not participate in the races again until 1844 . The club 's fortunes varied in the years thereafter . In 1859 , the eight achieved an unusual " overbump " ( catching the crew that had started three places ahead of them , after the boat immediately ahead of it had bumped the boat it was chasing ) and so went up three positions in one race . However , the college boat did not compete in 1860 and it finished in last place in 1864 . From 1864 onwards , said Ernest Hardy ( in his 1899 history of the college ) , " the boating record of the College has not been good " – the college did not take part in the races in many years , and it seldom improved its position by more than one or two places when it did participate . The college resumed regular participation in the races in 1882 ; although it was in last place in 1889 , the college improved its position , and went up by nine places between 1894 and 1896 . Hardy also commented that the 1896 Jesus College boat had a reputation of being one of the faster boats in the university . The crew entered for the Ladies ' Challenge Plate at the Henley Regatta , but lost to Eton , the eventual winners .
By 1930 , the college 1st VIII had reached its highest position on the river for thirty years . In 1947 , the college chaplain Leslie Cross presented a new set of oars to the club . He retired that year , and the college magazine , noting that Cross had been a particularly generous supporter of the club , stated that the oars had already been used to good purpose . The 1st VIII progressed further in the 1950s , making five bumps in 1951 and four in 1952 to reach the first division , with a high point of seventh in 1957 . It later returned to the second division , before re @-@ entering the first division in 1970 . Its highest position in recent years was seventh in the first division in 2000 ; it has been back in the second division since 2004 , and finished eighth in the second division in 2011 .
Women were first admitted to Jesus College in 1974 ; the college was one of the first five men 's colleges to do so . The women 's 1st VIII was Head of the River in Torpids between 1980 and 1983 . In 1993 , the women 's 1st VIII won their " blades " in the first divisions of both Torpids and Eights Week , an achievement that led to the crew being described in the Jesus College Record as vying " not just for the College team of the decade , but perhaps for the team of the last three decades " , in any sport . The same crew also won the Novices ' Trophy at the Wallingford Regatta in the same year . The women 's 1st VIII has not maintained its position since then . After some years in the third division , it ended the 2011 Eights Week in twelfth place in the second division , winning blades in the process .
= = Club structure and finance = =
All members of the college who have coxed or rowed in a JCBC boat are Ordinary Members of the Boat Club , a status that they retain until one month after leaving the college . The club is run by a committee , consisting of a President , the Men 's and Women 's Captains of Boats , Men 's and Women 's Vice @-@ Captains of Boats , Captain of Coxes , Treasurer , Secretary , Boathouse Safety Officer , Kit Officer , and two Social Secretaries . Members of the committee hold office for one year , starting on Sunday of the sixth week of Trinity Term – the day after the last day of Eights Week . The Senior Member of the club is Peter Mirfield , a Fellow and Tutor in Law at the college .
The college uses a proportion of student fees to fund social and sporting activity . The allocation for sport , including rowing , is overseen by the Committee of Amalgamated Clubs , which has representatives from the Junior and Middle Common Rooms ( for undergraduates and postgraduates ) as well as from the college 's sport clubs .
Old Members of the college who rowed when they were students can join the Cadwallader Club . The club , which was revitalised in 1974 and organises an annual dinner for members , also receives contributions for the Cadwallader Trust ; this has been a registered charity since December 1982 and supports rowing at the college both with capital expenditure and training costs . In the year ending 5 April 2008 , the trust 's expenditure was £ 19 @,@ 001 . Members of the Cadwallader Club have helped to provide new boats and blades for the men 's and the women 's 1st VIIIs , and on the Saturday of Eights Week 2008 , the trust presented the boat club with a new coxed four , named Cadwallader . Cadwallader Club members are also non @-@ voting members of the boat club .
= = Rowers = =
D. W. Griffith , the stroke of the Jesus College boat , was present at the inaugural meeting of the Oxford University Boat Club on 23 April 1839 . However , Jesus College oarsmen played an infrequent part in university rowing in the 19th century . No Jesus College student served on the OUBC committee between 1839 and 1899 , the last year for which Sherwood gives records . Two students from the college ( W. S. Thompson and E. W. Davies ( cox ) ) were part of the losing Oxford crew in the second Oxford – Cambridge boat race in 1836 . Between 1858 and 1899 , seven others trialled , unsuccessfully , for places in the Oxford University crew . Since then , college representation in the Boat Race has been more frequent : M. L. Thomas and D. R. Glynne Jones ( 1952 ) and M.L. Thomas ( President , 1953 ) ; Boris Mavra ( 1992 , 1993 and 1995 ) ; the Canadian 2004 Olympic rowing silver medallist Barney Williams ( 2005 and 2006 ) ; and Brodie Buckland ( 2007 ) . Justin Hutchinson rowed for Oxford 's reserve crew , known as Isis , in the 2002 and 2003 Boat Races , as did Tim Farquharson , an undergraduate studying Engineering Science , in 2009 . Various women have won their " Blue " for competing in the Women 's Boat Race against Cambridge : Anna Bean and Ann Bevitt ( 1989 ) ; Louise Sanford ( 1997 ) ; and Claire Weaver ( 1998 ) .
Some prominent individuals rowed while they were students at the college . The historian Albert Pollard was Captain of Boats in 1890 , having rowed in the boat that was last on the river in 1889 . Alwyn Williams ( later Bishop of Durham ) , who was a student from 1906 to 1911 , was captain of the Boat Club , as was James Page ( " Freddie " ) , who went on to become secretary of the Amateur Rowing Association from 1952 to 1972 and a rowing coach for both Oxford and Cambridge Boat Clubs . Maurice Jones ( later Principal of St David 's College , Lampeter ) was a cox , as were Gordon Roe ( later Bishop of Huntingdon ) and the chemist Frank Greenaway . John Sankey ( later Lord Chancellor ) rowed in a Torpid boat that went down four places , whilst the boat in which the baritone David Ffrangcon Davies rowed went up five places in Torpids and four in Eights Week . Angus Buchanan , who won the Victoria Cross in 1916 during the First World War , rowed in a college four in 1919 , despite having been blinded in 1917 . Anton Muttukumaru ( later Commander of the Ceylon Army ) rowed at bow in a college four .
= = College barges = =
Colleges began to keep barges moored on the side of the river on Christ Church Meadow from 1839 ; these would be used for crews to change , for spectators to watch the races and for social functions . Jesus shared a barge with New , St John 's and Pembroke after 1857 . In 1911 , Jesus purchased their own barge from Salters , at a cost of £ 940.14s.8d ( approximately £ 86 @,@ 300 as of 2016 ) . It had previously been owned by one of the Livery Companies of the City of London and had been used in the days when the Lord Mayor 's Show took place on the River Thames in London rather than through the streets . After sinking in 1955 , it was salvaged and restored . In 1964 , the college replaced the barge with a boathouse , which is shared with the boat club of Keble College ) . The barge was moved to Maidenhead where it was later restored . It returned to Oxford in 1987 , but was badly damaged by fire in January 1988 . After further restoration , it was moved to Richmond @-@ upon @-@ Thames , where it is moored alongside Richmond Bridge and used as a restaurant . The barge was decorated for some years in the college colours of green and white , with a Welsh red dragon on the prow ; by 2009 , however , it had been repainted with blue instead of green .
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= Stark Raving Dad =
" Stark Raving Dad " is the first episode of the third season of American animated television series The Simpsons . It first aired on the Fox network in the United States on September 19 , 1991 . In the episode , main character Homer Simpson is mistaken for a " free @-@ thinking anarchist " and sent to a mental institution , where he shares a room with a large white man named Leon Kompowsky who pretends to be American pop star Michael Jackson . Meanwhile , because he normally forgets her birthday , Bart promises his sister Lisa that he will get her the best present ever .
Al Jean and Mike Reiss wrote the episode while Rich Moore served as director . Michael Jackson guest @-@ starred in the episode as the speaking voice of Leon Kompowsky . For contractual reasons , he was credited as John Jay Smith in the closing credits , and his role in the episode was not officially confirmed until later . Jackson was a fan of the show and called creator Matt Groening one night offering to do a guest spot . Jackson pitched several story ideas for the episode and wrote the song " Happy Birthday Lisa " that is featured in the plot . He also stipulated that he would provide Kompowsky 's speaking voice , but his singing voice would be performed by a sound @-@ alike ( Kipp Lennon ) because he wanted to play a joke on his brothers . The episode contains references to many aspects of Jackson 's career , with Kompowsky singing portions of the songs " Billie Jean " and " Ben " .
" Stark Raving Dad " received generally positive reviews from critics , particularly for the writing and Jackson 's performance . A sequel to the episode was later written , in which Kompowsky was to be voiced by Prince rather than Jackson , but it was never produced . During the January 30 , 1992 , rerun of the episode , a short alternate opening aired before the credits ; the opening was in response to a speech made by President George Bush three days earlier , in which he said Americans needed to be " a lot more like the Waltons and a lot less like the Simpsons " .
= = Plot = =
Lisa wakes up Bart to remind him that her birthday is nearing , and that he forgets it every year . Bart promises to get her a present this year . Meanwhile , Homer discovers that all of his white shirts have turned pink because Bart put his red hat in with the laundry . Homer has no choice but to wear a pink shirt to work and as a result , his co @-@ workers poke fun at him . Mr. Burns suspects him of being a " free @-@ thinking anarchist " . Homer is sent home with a 20 @-@ question psychiatric quiz that he has to fill in so that Dr. Marvin Monroe can assess his sanity . Homer is too lazy to finish the quiz on his own and lets Bart fill it in . When Dr. Monroe sees the results , he determines that Homer is insane . Homer is sent to a mental institution , and is put in a cell with a large white man who seems to believe he is Michael Jackson ( referred to as " the big white guy who thinks he 's the little black guy " ) , and who introduces himself as such . Apparently , somehow never having heard of Michael Jackson , Homer believes him and quickly befriends him .
Marge , upon hearing what has happened , comes to the institution and is able to convince Homer 's doctors that he is not insane . Homer bids farewell to Michael , who reveals that he is only in the mental institution voluntarily . Homer decides to let him stay in the family home . He calls and tells Bart that he is bringing Michael to stay for a few days . Against Homer and Michael 's wishes , Bart tells his friend Milhouse and soon all of Springfield turns up outside of the Simpson family 's home to see Michael . The level of excitement is deflated when Homer introduces Michael and they realize he is an impostor . The townspeople become angry at Bart and leave . At the same time , Lisa comes out of the house and is upset with Bart because he has yet again failed to acknowledge her birthday , because of his excitement over Michael Jackson 's arrival .
After overhearing Lisa write in a letter that she is disowning Bart as a brother , the faux Michael convinces Bart to let him help . Together they write and perform a song for Lisa 's birthday called " Happy Birthday Lisa " . Lisa is thrilled and hugs her brother , saying that he has given her the best present ever . Afterwards , Michael reveals that his real name is Leon Kompowsky , a bricklayer from Paterson , New Jersey . He explains that he had been very angry for most of his life , but found some peace in talking in Jackson 's voice because it made everyone around him happy . Leon bids farewell to the Simpsons and walks off down the road , singing Lisa 's birthday song to himself in his normal voice .
= = Production = =
" Stark Raving Dad " was written specifically for Michael Jackson , a fan of the show , who had called Groening one night and offered to do a guest spot . The offer was accepted and a script was written by Al Jean and Mike Reiss , based on an idea pitched by James L. Brooks . Creator Matt Groening and co @-@ executive producer Sam Simon also contributed significantly to the writing of the episode . In an early version of the script , Homer decided to take his alcoholic friend Barney Gumble in for rehab , but while there Homer began acting crazily so the doctors assumed he was the one to be committed . It was later changed to Homer being hospitalized for wearing a pink shirt , an idea pitched by Brooks . Michael Jackson pitched several story ideas for the episode , such as Bart telling everyone in town that Michael Jackson was coming to his house . He also requested that there be a scene in which he and Bart wrote a song together and asked that a joke about Prince be changed to one about Elvis Presley .
According to Jean , Jackson would not commit to the episode until after a read @-@ through of the script was done . The read was held at Jackson 's manager Sandy Gallin 's house , and Dan Castellaneta ( who provides the voice for Homer ) was 30 minutes late . Jean recalls that " no one said a word , we just sat there waiting " . Following the read , Jackson stipulated his conditions : he would record his speaking parts but not receive credit , and his singing voice would be performed by a sound @-@ alike . Leon Kompowsky 's singing parts were performed by Kipp Lennon , because Jackson wanted to play a joke on his brothers and fool them into thinking the impersonator was him . Lennon recorded his lines at the same time as Jackson , who found the impersonations humorous . Jackson showed up for the recording session alone and did not use the special trailer that was set up for him . According to Jean , Jackson did record versions of the singing parts , and while there have been rumors that those parts were the ones used in the final episode , The Simpsons music editor Chris Ledesma has stated the Lennon versions were used . Kompowsky 's normal speaking voice , which is heard at the end of the episode , was recorded by cast member Hank Azaria . The episode originally was supposed to end with Kompowsky singing a portion of " Man in the Mirror " in his Michael Jackson voice as he walked down the road , but it was changed to him singing the beginning of " Happy Birthday Lisa " .
" Stark Raving Dad " was the final episode in the season two production run , but aired as the premiere of season three , over a year after it was completed . Michael Jackson was credited with pseudonym John Jay Smith in the closing credits . At the time , the producers of the show were legally prevented from confirming that Jackson guest starred , although many media sources assumed it was really him . Similarly , in season two , actor Dustin Hoffman had guest starred in the episode " Lisa 's Substitute " under the name " Sam Etic " . After " Stark Raving Dad " , the producers decided that if a celebrity wished to guest star on the show , they had to be willing to be credited under their real name .
Jackson was a fan of Bart , and in addition to doing a guest spot on the show , he wanted to give Bart a number one single . He therefore co @-@ wrote the song " Do the Bartman " , which was released as a single around the same time that the episode was produced . Jackson could not take credit for his work on the song due to contractual reasons . Jackson also wrote the song " Happy Birthday Lisa " , which was later included in the album Songs in the Key of Springfield . A version of the song was reportedly scheduled to be included on a bonus disk in the October 2001 special edition of Jackson 's 1991 album Dangerous . However , the bonus disk was eventually dropped from the release . Jackson died on June 25 , 2009 , and the Fox network re @-@ aired the episode on July 5 as a tribute to him . The producers had intended to air the episode on June 28 , 2009 , three days after Jackson 's death , but could not resolve issues with syndication rights in time . The music video for " Do the Bartman " was aired on that date instead . The producers screened the episode first , and the only change made , which was unrelated to Jackson , was the blurring of a phone number .
This was the first episode to broadcast in Dolby Surround .
= = = Alternate opening = = =
The January 30 , 1992 rerun of the episode featured a brief alternate opening , which was written in response to a comment made by the President of the United States , George Bush , three days earlier . The show had previously had a " feud " with the President 's wife Barbara Bush when , in the October 1 , 1990 edition of People , she called The Simpsons " the dumbest thing [ she ] had ever seen " . The writers decided to respond by privately sending a polite letter to Bush in which they posed as Marge Simpson . Bush immediately sent a reply in which she apologized . Later , on January 27 , 1992 , George Bush made a speech during his re @-@ election campaign which included the statement " we are going to keep on trying to strengthen the American family , to make American families a lot more like the Waltons and a lot less like the Simpsons . "
The writers decided that they wanted to respond quickly like Barbara Bush had to them . However , each episode of The Simpsons takes more than six months to produce , so it is difficult for the show to comment on current events . The writers therefore decided to add a brief response to the next broadcast of The Simpsons , which was a rerun of " Stark Raving Dad " on January 30 . Nancy Cartwright , the voice of Bart , was quickly called in so she could record a line .
The broadcast included a new tongue @-@ in @-@ cheek opening . The scene begins in the Simpsons ' living room where the family is watching Bush 's speech . When Bush says " to make American families a lot more like the Waltons and a lot less like the Simpsons " , Bart replies , " Hey , we 're just like the Waltons . We 're praying for an end to the Depression , too . " The opening is featured on the season four DVD boxset .
= = Unproduced sequel = =
A year after the episode aired , the writers decided to make a sequel where Leon Kompowsky returns , this time acting like the musician Prince . The script was written by freelance writers and polished by Conan O 'Brien . According to Reiss , the plot of the episode saw Kompowsky / Prince manage to get everyone in the town to " loosen up , become more flamboyant and become more sexually open " .
The script was sent to Prince who agreed to voice the character and sent back a page of notes about what he would be wearing in various scenes . The writers were confused when the notes did not correspond to the script and they discovered that Prince was referring to a script that had been written by someone else . Prince disliked the Simpsons writers ' script and demanded the other one be made into an episode , but the writers refused . The episode eventually fell through and never made it past written form . It became one of the few completed scripts never to be produced .
= = Cultural references = =
Like all episodes of The Simpsons , " Stark Raving Dad " features a variety of references to popular culture . As Bart fills out the 20 @-@ question psychiatry quiz , Homer watches America 's Funniest Home Videos where the three nominated clips are all violent . Many of the scenes in the mental institution are references to the film One Flew Over the Cuckoo 's Nest . Several of the characters at the institution are based on those in the film , such as Chief . Floyd from the film Rain Man also appears at the mental home . When Marge calls the institution , a muzak version of " Crazy " , sung by Patsy Cline , can be heard over the phone . In the shot of the crowd that awaits Michael Jackson 's arrival outside of the Simpson family 's home , a man is holding a " John 3 : 16 " sign in reference to Rollen Stewart , who was famous for holding a similar sign at sporting events .
Many aspects of Jackson 's career are referenced in the episode . Kompowsky mentions several things which made Jackson famous , including Motown 25 : Yesterday , Today , Forever , " Beat It " , and " Thriller " . He also sings portions of the songs " Billie Jean " and " Ben " and performs the moonwalk . When Homer starts mumbling in his sleep , Kompowsky tells his stuffed animal : " Bubbles , it 's going to be a long night . " Bubbles is the name of Jackson 's chimpanzee . Kompowsky also says he was upset when " his " 1979 album Off the Wall only received one Grammy Award nomination ; the writers had read that the real Jackson was genuinely upset .
= = Reception = =
In its original airing on the Fox network , " Stark Raving Dad " acquired a 13 @.@ 9 Nielsen rating and 23 percent share of the audience . It was viewed in approximately 12 @.@ 8 million homes , finishing the week ranked 33rd . The episode finished second in its time slot behind the season premiere of The Cosby Show , which ranked eighth for the week with a 19 @.@ 7 rating and 31 percent share . The Simpsons was the second highest rated show on Fox the week it aired , behind Married ... with Children .
The episode has been generally well received , being praised by many critics for its writing . In a 2009 review for Slate , Josh Levin wrote that " The greatness of ' Stark Raving Dad ' has a lot more to do with The Simpsons ' writing staff than with Jackson 's voice @-@ over talents . The show 's scripters came up with a plot device far more ingenious than simply dropping the singer into Springfield . " Monica Collins of the Boston Herald also enjoyed the episode . On the day it first aired , she wrote that " This episode is vintage Simpsons , crammed with divinely vulgar visual oddities . And Michael Jackson , of course , is just so weird anyway that he fits right in . " Mark Lorando of The Times @-@ Picayune commented that " throwaway lines on The Simpsons are funnier than the big punchlines on most so @-@ called comedy series ; [ this episode ] has layers of humor , satirical touches that enrich the story lines , " singling out jokes like the America 's Funniest Home Video parody . " The laughs are literally non @-@ stop , and Jackson 's unmistakable vocal presence [ ... ] adds a thousand watts of star power . " In 2011 , Television Blend 's Eric Eisenberg named " Stark Raving Dad " the best episode of the entire series . He praised it for being heartful and stated that what " prevents the episode from seeming artificial or manipulative is that the writing in the episode earns the earnest moments " , and further elaborates that while " strong emotions might be the hallmark of ' Stark Raving Dad , ' it would be a sincere mistake to ignore how funny it is . " He concluded that the episode " is perfectly constructed , is filled with both deep belly laughs and tears , and is simply the greatest episode of The Simpsons "
In a DVD audio commentary , writer Mike Reiss said he felt that Michael Jackson is " not a terrific actor [ ... ] but he did fine . He was really nice , he was a great sport . " In 2006 , Jackson was named the fifth @-@ best Simpsons guest star by IGN . Tom Ganjamie of Best Week Ever called Jackson 's guest appearance the " cleverest [ ... ] ever on The Simpsons " . Writing for IGN , Robert Canning said in a 2009 review that " Stark Raving Dad " is a " solid , funny and touching episode " and described Jackson 's performance as " heartfelt yet self @-@ parodying " . In a 2011 article , Andrew Martin of Prefix Mag named Michael Jackson his second favorite musical guest on The Simpsons out of a list of ten .
In 2003 , DVD Movie Guide 's Colin Jacobson commented that the episode was a good start to season three , but it " gets sappy on more than a few occasions , and it lacks the acerbic bite of the series ' best shows . Nonetheless , it tosses out some good laughs , and the guest appearance by Jackson — under a pseudonym — works well ; Michael shows an ability to mock himself that still surprises me . " In a 2004 review for Digitally Obsessed , Nate Meyers wrote that " there are many funny gags in this episode , especially in the first act when Homer gets a tour of the [ mental ] hospital . Some clever references are made to One Flew Over the Cuckoo 's Nest , but the second half of the episode is not especially funny . The jokes seem forced and there is too much of an effort to sentimentalize the relationship between Bart and Lisa , causing the show to lose its narrative drive . " In 2007 , Ben Rayner of the Toronto Star listed " Stark Raving Dad " as one of the three worst episodes of The Simpsons .
In a 2009 article for TV Squad , Mike Moody said the episode 's " sweetest moment " is at the end when Kompowsky and Bart perform the birthday song for Lisa . Likewise , writer Al Jean listed that scene as one of his five favorite moments from The Simpsons in 2003 . The reaction to the song " Happy Birthday Lisa " was mixed . Ben Rayner called it a " crap tune " , and Chris Selley of Maclean 's magazine wrote that " Stark Raving Dad " is " an unbearably sappy episode , and that birthday song for Lisa is just ... bad . " Dave Walker of The Times @-@ Picayune , however , listed the episode as one of Jackson 's " many memorable TV moments " and called the song " unforgettable " .
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= Pancreatic cancer =
Pancreatic cancer arises when cells in the pancreas , a glandular organ behind the stomach , begin to multiply out of control and form a mass . These cancerous cells have the ability to invade other parts of the body . There are a number of types of pancreatic cancer . The most common , pancreatic adenocarcinoma , accounts for about 85 % of cases , and the term " pancreatic cancer " is sometimes used to refer only to that type . These adenocarcinomas start within the part of the pancreas which makes digestive enzymes . Several other types of cancer , which collectively represent the majority of the non @-@ adenocarcinomas , can also arise from these cells . 1 @-@ 2 % of cases of pancreatic cancer are neuroendocrine tumors , which arise from the hormone @-@ producing cells of the pancreas . These are generally less aggressive than pancreatic adenocarcinoma .
Signs and symptoms of the most common form of pancreatic cancer may include yellow skin , abdominal or back pain , unexplained weight loss , light @-@ colored stools , dark urine and loss of appetite . There are usually no symptoms in the disease 's early stages , and symptoms that are specific enough to suggest pancreatic cancer typically do not develop until the disease has reached an advanced stage . By the time of diagnosis , pancreatic cancer has often spread to other parts of the body .
Pancreatic cancer rarely occurs before the age of 40 , and more than half of cases of pancreatic adenocarcinoma occur in those over 70 . Risk factors for pancreatic cancer include tobacco smoking , obesity , diabetes , and certain rare genetic conditions . About 25 % of cases are linked to smoking , and 5 – 10 % are linked to inherited genes . Pancreatic cancer is usually diagnosed by a combination of medical imaging techniques such as ultrasound or computed tomography , blood tests , and examination of tissue samples ( biopsy ) . The disease is divided into stages , from early ( stage I ) to late ( stage IV ) . Screening the general population has not been found to be effective .
The risk of developing pancreatic cancer is lower among non @-@ smokers , and people who maintain a healthy weight and limit their consumption of red or processed meat . A smoker 's chance of developing the disease decreases if they stop smoking , and almost returns to that of the rest of the population after 20 years . Pancreatic cancer can be treated with surgery , radiotherapy , chemotherapy , palliative care , or a combination of these . Treatment options are partly based on the cancer stage . Surgery is the only treatment that can cure pancreatic adenocarcinoma , and may also be done to improve quality of life without the potential for cure . Pain management and medications to improve digestion are sometimes needed . Early palliative care is recommended even for those receiving treatment that aims for a cure .
In 2012 , pancreatic cancers of all types were the seventh most common cause of cancer deaths , resulting in 330 @,@ 000 deaths globally . Pancreatic cancer is the fifth most common cause of death from cancer in the United Kingdom , and the fourth most common in the United States . The disease occurs most often in the developed world , where about 70 % of the new cases in 2012 originated . Pancreatic adenocarcinoma typically has a very poor prognosis : after diagnosis , 25 % of people survive one year and 5 % live for five years . For cancers diagnosed early , the five @-@ year survival rate rises to about 20 % . Neuroendocrine cancers have better outcomes ; at five years from diagnosis , 65 % of those diagnosed are living , though survival varies considerably depending on the type of tumor .
= = Types = =
The many types of pancreatic cancer can be divided into two general groups . The vast majority of cases ( about 99 % ) occur in the part of the pancreas which produces digestive enzymes , known as the exocrine component . There are several sub @-@ types of exocrine pancreatic cancers , but their diagnosis and treatment have much in common . The small minority of cancers that arise in the hormone @-@ producing ( endocrine ) tissue of the pancreas have different clinical characteristics . Both groups occur mainly ( but not exclusively ) in people over 40 , and are slightly more common in men , but some rare sub @-@ types mainly occur in women or children .
= = = Exocrine cancers = = =
The exocrine group is dominated by pancreatic adenocarcinoma ( variations of this name may add " invasive " and " ductal " ) , which is by far the most common type , representing about 85 % of all pancreatic cancers . Nearly all these start in the ducts of the pancreas , and pancreatic ductal adenocarcinoma is often abbreviated as PDAC . This is despite the fact that the tissue from which it arises – the pancreatic ductal epithelium – represents less than 10 % of the pancreas by cell volume . This cancer originates in the ducts that carry secretions ( such as enzymes and bicarbonate ) away from the pancreas . About 60 – 70 % of adenocarcinomas occur in the ' head ' of the pancreas .
The next most common type , acinar cell carcinoma of the pancreas , arises in the clusters of cells that produce these enzymes , and represents 5 % of exocrine pancreas cancers . Like the ' functioning ' endocrine cancers described below , acinar cell carcinomas may cause over @-@ production of certain molecules , in this case digestive enzymes , which may cause symptoms such as skin rashes and joint pain .
Cystadenocarcinomas account for 1 % of pancreatic cancers , and they have a better prognosis than the other exocrine types .
Pancreatoblastoma is a rare form , mostly occurring in childhood , and with a relatively good prognosis . Other exocrine cancers include adenosquamous carcinomas , signet ring cell carcinomas , hepatoid carcinomas , colloid carcinomas , undifferentiated carcinomas , and undifferentiated carcinomas with osteoclast @-@ like giant cells . Solid pseudopapillary tumor is a rare low @-@ grade neoplasm that mainly affects younger women , and generally has a very good prognosis .
Pancreatic mucinous cystic neoplasms are a broad group of pancreas tumors that have varying malignant potential . They are being detected at a greatly increased rate as CT scans become more powerful and common , and discussion continues as how best to assess and treat them , given that many are benign .
= = = Neuroendocrine = = =
The small minority of tumors that arise elsewhere in the pancreas are mainly pancreatic neuroendocrine tumors ( PanNETs ) . Neuroendocrine tumors ( NETs ) are a diverse group of benign or malignant tumors that arise from the body 's neuroendocrine cells , which are responsible for integrating the nervous and endocrine systems . NETs can start in most organs of the body , including the pancreas , where the various malignant types are all considered to be rare . PanNETs are grouped into ' functioning ' and ' non @-@ functioning ' types , depending on the degree to which they produce hormones . The functioning types secrete hormones such as insulin , gastrin , and glucagon into the bloodstream , often in large quantities , giving rise to serious symptoms such as low blood sugar , but also favoring relatively early detection . The most common functioning PanNETs are insulinomas and gastrinomas , named after the hormones they secrete . The non @-@ functioning types do not secrete hormones in a sufficient quantity to give rise to overt clinical symptoms . For this reason , non @-@ functioning PanNETs are often diagnosed only after the cancer has spread to other parts of the body .
As with other neuroendocrine tumors , the history of the terminology and classification of PanNETs is complex . PanNETs are sometimes called " islet cell cancers " , even though it is now known that they do not actually arise from islet cells as previously thought .
= = Signs and symptoms = =
Since pancreatic cancer usually does not cause recognizable symptoms in its early stages , the disease is typically not diagnosed until it has spread beyond the pancreas itself . This is one of the main reasons for the generally poor survival rates . Exceptions to this are the functioning PanNETs , where over @-@ production of various active hormones can give rise to symptoms ( which depend on the type of hormone ) .
Bearing in mind that the disease is rarely diagnosed before the age of 40 , common symptoms of pancreatic adenocarcinoma occurring before diagnosis include :
Pain in the upper abdomen or back , often spreading from around the stomach to the back . The location of the pain can indicate the part of the pancreas where a tumor is located . The pain may be worse at night and may increase over time to become severe and unremitting . It may be slightly relieved by bending forward . In the UK , about half of new cases of pancreatic cancer are diagnosed following a visit to a hospital emergency department for pain or jaundice . In up to two @-@ thirds of people abdominal pain is the main symptom , for 46 % of the total accompanied by jaundice , with 13 % having jaundice without pain .
Jaundice , a yellow tint to the whites of the eyes or skin , with or without pain , and possibly in combination with darkened urine . This results when a cancer in the head of the pancreas obstructs the common bile duct as it runs through the pancreas .
Unexplained weight loss , either from loss of appetite , or loss of exocrine function resulting in poor digestion .
The tumor may compress neighboring organs , disrupting digestive processes and making it difficult for the stomach to empty , which may cause nausea and a feeling of fullness . The undigested fat leads to foul @-@ smelling , fatty feces that are difficult to flush away . Constipation is common .
At least 50 % of people with pancreatic adenocarcinoma have diabetes at the time of diagnosis . While long @-@ standing diabetes is a known risk factor for pancreatic cancer ( see Risk factors ) , the cancer can itself cause diabetes , in which case recent onset of diabetes could be considered an early sign of the disease . People over 50 who develop diabetes have eight times the usual risk of developing pancreatic adenocarcinoma within three years , after which the relative risk declines .
= = = Other findings = = =
Trousseau 's syndrome , in which blood clots form spontaneously in the portal blood vessels , the deep veins of the extremities , or the superficial veins anywhere on the body , may be associated with pancreatic cancer , and is found in about 10 % of cases .
Clinical depression has been reported in association with pancreatic cancer in some 10 – 20 % of cases , and can be a hindrance to optimal management . The depression sometimes appears before the diagnosis of cancer , suggesting that it may be brought on by the biology of the disease .
Other common manifestations of the disease include : weakness and tiring easily ; dry mouth ; sleep problems ; and a palpable abdominal mass . "
= = = Symptoms of spread ( metastasis ) = = =
The spread of pancreatic cancer to other organs ( metastasis ) may also cause symptoms . Typically , pancreatic adenocarcinoma first spreads to nearby lymph nodes , and later to the liver or to the peritoneal cavity , large intestine or lungs . It is uncommon for it to spread to the bones or brain .
Cancers in the pancreas may also be secondary cancers that have spread from other parts of the body . This is uncommon , found in only about 2 % of cases of pancreatic cancer . Kidney cancer is by far the most common cancer to spread to the pancreas , followed by colorectal cancer , and then cancers of the skin , breast , and lung . Surgery may be performed on the pancreas in such cases , whether in hope of a cure or to alleviate symptoms .
= = Risk factors = =
Risk factors for pancreatic adenocarcinoma include :
Age , gender , and ethnicity ; the risk of developing pancreatic cancer increases with age . Most cases occur after age 65 , while cases before age 40 are uncommon . The disease is slightly more common in men than women , and in the United States is over 1 @.@ 5 times more common in African Americans , though incidence in Africa is low .
Cigarette smoking is the best @-@ established avoidable risk factor for pancreatic cancer , approximately doubling risk among long @-@ term smokers , the risk increasing with the number of cigarettes smoked and the years of smoking . The risk declines slowly after smoking cessation , taking some 20 years to return to almost that of non @-@ smokers .
Obesity ; a BMI greater than 35 increases relative risk by about half .
Family history ; 5 – 10 % of pancreatic cancer cases have an inherited component , where people have a family history of pancreatic cancer . The risk escalates greatly if more than one first @-@ degree relative had the disease , and more modestly if they developed it before the age of 50 . Most of the genes involved have not been identified . Hereditary pancreatitis gives a greatly increased lifetime risk of pancreatic cancer of 30 – 40 % to the age of 70 . Screening for early pancreatic cancer may be offered to individuals with hereditary pancreatitis on a research basis . Some people may choose to have their pancreas surgically removed to prevent cancer developing in the future .
Pancreatic cancer has been associated with the following other rare hereditary syndromes : Peutz – Jeghers syndrome due to mutations in the STK11 tumor suppressor gene ( very rare , but a very strong risk factor ) ; dysplastic nevus syndrome ( or familial atypical multiple mole and melanoma syndrome , FAMMM @-@ PC ) due to mutations in the CDKN2A tumor suppressor gene ; autosomal recessive ataxia @-@ telangiectasia and autosomal dominantly inherited mutations in the BRCA2 gene and PALB2 gene ; hereditary non @-@ polyposis colon cancer ( Lynch syndrome ) ; and familial adenomatous polyposis . PanNETs have been associated with multiple endocrine neoplasia type 1 ( MEN1 ) and von Hippel Lindau syndromes .
Chronic pancreatitis appears to almost triple risk , and as with diabetes , new @-@ onset pancreatitis may be a symptom of a tumor . The risk of pancreatic cancer in individuals with familial pancreatitis is particularly high .
Diabetes mellitus is a risk factor for pancreatic cancer and ( as noted in the Signs and symptoms section ) new @-@ onset diabetes may also be an early sign of the disease . People who have been diagnosed with Type 2 diabetes for longer than ten years may have a 50 % increased risk , as compared with non @-@ diabetics .
Specific types of food ( as distinct from obesity ) have not been clearly shown to increase the risk of pancreatic cancer . Dietary factors for which there is some evidence of slightly increased risk include processed meat , red meat , and meat cooked at very high temperatures ( e.g. by frying , broiling or barbecuing ) .
= = = Alcohol = = =
Drinking alcohol excessively is a major cause of chronic pancreatitis , which in turn predisposes to pancreatic cancer . However , considerable research has failed to firmly establish alcohol consumption as a direct risk factor for pancreatic cancer . Overall , the association is consistently weak and the majority of studies have found no association , with smoking a strong confounding factor . The evidence is stronger for a link with heavy drinking , of at least six drinks per day .
= = Diagnosis = =
The symptoms of pancreatic adenocarcinoma do not usually appear in the disease 's early stages , and are individually not distinctive to the disease . The symptoms at diagnosis vary according to the location of the cancer in the pancreas , which anatomists divide ( from left to right on most diagrams ) into the thick head , the neck , and the tapering body , ending in the tail .
Regardless of a tumour 's location , the most common symptom is unexplained weight loss , which may be considerable . A large minority ( between 35 % and 47 % ) of people diagnosed with the disease will have had nausea , vomiting or a feeling of weakness . Tumors in the head of the pancreas typically also cause jaundice , pain , loss of appetite , dark urine , and light @-@ colored stools . Tumors in the body and tail typically also cause pain .
People sometimes have recent onset of atypical type 2 diabetes that is difficult to control , a history of recent but unexplained blood vessel inflammation caused by blood clots ( thrombophlebitis ) known as Trousseau sign , or a previous attack of pancreatitis . A doctor may suspect pancreatic cancer when the onset of diabetes in someone over 50 years old is accompanied by typical symptoms such as unexplained weight loss , persistent abdominal or back pain , indigestion , vomiting , or fatty feces . Jaundice accompanied by a painlessly swollen gallbladder ( known as Courvoisier 's sign ) may also raise suspicion , and can help differentiate pancreatic cancer from gallstones .
Medical imaging techniques , such as computed tomography ( CT scan ) and endoscopic ultrasound ( EUS ) are used both to confirm the diagnosis and to help decide whether the tumor can be surgically removed ( its " resectability " ) . Magnetic resonance imaging and positron emission tomography may also be used , and magnetic resonance cholangiopancreatography may be useful in some cases . Abdominal ultrasound is less sensitive and will miss small tumors , but can identify cancers that have spread to the liver and build @-@ up of fluid in the peritoneal cavity ( ascites ) . It may be used for a quick and cheap first examination before other techniques .
A biopsy by fine needle aspiration , often guided by endoscopic ultrasound , may be used where there is uncertainty over the diagnosis , but a histologic diagnosis is not usually required for removal of the tumor by surgery to go ahead .
Liver function tests can show a combination of results indicative of bile duct obstruction ( raised conjugated bilirubin , γ @-@ glutamyl transpeptidase and alkaline phosphatase levels ) . CA19 @-@ 9 ( carbohydrate antigen 19 @.@ 9 ) is a tumor marker that is frequently elevated in pancreatic cancer . However , it lacks sensitivity and specificity , not least because 5 % of people lack the Lewis ( a ) antigen and cannot produce CA19 @-@ 9 . It has a sensitivity of 80 % and specificity of 73 % in detecting pancreatic adenocarcinoma , and is used for following known cases rather than diagnosis .
The most common form of pancreatic cancer ( adenocarcinoma ) is typically characterized by moderately to poorly differentiated glandular structures on microscopic examination . There is typically considerable desmoplasia or formation of a dense fibrous stroma or structural tissue consisting of a range of cell types ( including myofibroblasts , macrophages , lymphocytes and mast cells ) and deposited material ( such as type I collagen and hyaluronic acid ) . This creates a tumor microenvironment that is short of blood vessels ( hypovascular ) and so of oxygen ( tumor hypoxia ) . It is thought that this prevents many chemotherapy drugs from reaching the tumor , as one factor making the cancer especially hard to treat .
= = Staging = =
= = = Exocrine cancers = = =
Pancreatic cancer is usually staged following a CT scan . The most widely used cancer staging system for pancreatic cancer is the one formulated by the American Joint Committee on Cancer ( AJCC ) together with the Union for International Cancer Control ( UICC ) . The AJCC @-@ UICC staging system designates four main overall stages , ranging from early to advanced disease , based on TNM classification of Tumor size , spread to lymph Nodes , and Metastasis .
To help decide treatment , the tumors are also divided into three broader categories based on whether surgical removal seems possible : in this way , tumors are judged to be " resectable " , " borderline resectable " , or " unresectable " . When the disease is still in an early stage ( AJCC @-@ UICC stages I and II ) , without spread to large blood vessels or distant organs such as the liver or lungs , surgical resection of the tumor can normally be performed , if the patient is willing to undergo this major operation and is thought to be sufficiently fit . The AJCC @-@ UICC staging system allows distinction between stage III tumors that are judged to be " borderline resectable " ( where surgery is technically feasible because the celiac axis and superior mesenteric artery are still free ) and those that are " unresectable " ( due to more locally advanced disease ) ; in terms of the more detailed TNM classification , these two groups correspond to T3 and T4 respectively .
Pancreatic cancer staging ( TNM classification )
Locally advanced adenocarcinomas have spread into neighboring organs , which may be any of the following ( in roughly decreasing order of frequency ) : the duodenum , stomach , transverse colon , spleen , adrenal gland , or kidney . Very often they also spread to the important blood or lymphatic vessels and nerves that run close to the pancreas , making surgery far more difficult . Typical sites for metastatic spread ( stage IV disease ) are the liver , peritoneal cavity and lungs , all of which occur in 50 % or more of fully advanced cases .
= = = PanNETs = = =
The 2010 WHO classification of tumors of the digestive system grades all the pancreatic neuroendocrine tumors ( PanNETs ) into three categories , based on their degree of cellular differentiation ( from " NET G1 " through to the poorly differentiated " NET G3 " ) . The U.S. National Comprehensive Cancer Network recommends use of the same AJCC @-@ UICC staging system as pancreatic adenocarcinoma . Using this scheme , the stage @-@ by @-@ stage outcomes for PanNETs are dissimilar to those of the exocrine cancers . A different TNM system for PanNETs has been proposed by the European Neuroendocrine Tumor Society .
= = Precursors = =
= = = Exocrine cancers = = =
These cancers are thought to arise from several types of precancerous lesions within the pancreas . But these lesions do not always progress to cancer , and the increased numbers detected as a by @-@ product of the increasing use of CT scans for other reasons are not all treated . Apart from pancreatic serous cystadenomas ( SCNs ) , which are almost always benign , three types of precancerous lesion are recognized .
The first is pancreatic intraepithelial neoplasia . These are microscopic abnormalities in the pancreas , which are often found in autopsies of people with no diagnosed cancer . These may progress from low to high grade and then to a tumor . More than 90 % of cases at all grades carry a faulty KRAS gene , while in grades 2 and 3 damage to three further genes – CDKN2A ( p16 ) , p53 and SMAD4 – are increasingly often found .
Secondly , intraductal papillary mucinous neoplasms ( IPMNs ) are macroscopic lesions , which occur in about 2 % of all adults , rising to about 10 % by age 70 , and have about a 25 % risk of developing into invasive cancer . They also very often have KRAS gene mutations , in about 40 – 65 % of cases , and in the GNAS Gs alpha subunit and RNF43 , affecting the Wnt signaling pathway . Even if removed surgically , there remains a considerably increased risk of pancreatic cancer developing subsequently .
The last type , pancreatic mucinous cystic neoplasms ( MCNs ) mainly occur in women , and may remain benign or progress to cancer . If they become large , cause symptoms , or have suspicious features , they can usually be successfully removed by surgery .
The genetic events found in ductal adenocarcinoma have been well characterized , and complete exome sequencing has been done for the common types of tumor . Four genes have each been found to be mutated in the majority of adenocarcinomas : KRAS ( in 95 % of cases ) , CDKN2A ( also in 95 % ) , TP53 ( 75 % ) , and SMAD4 ( 55 % ) . The last of these are especially associated with a poor prognosis . SWI / SNF mutations / deletions occur in about 10 – 15 % of the adenocarcinomas . The genetic alterations in several other types of pancreatic cancer and precancerous lesions have also been researched .
= = = PanNETs = = =
The genes often found mutated in PanNETs are different from those in pancreatic adenocarcinoma . For example , KRAS mutation is normally absent . Instead , hereditary MEN1 gene mutations give rise to MEN1 syndrome , in which primary tumors occur in two or more endocrine glands . About 40 – 70 % of people born with a MEN1 mutation eventually develop a PanNet . Other genes that are frequently mutated include DAXX , mTOR and ATRX .
= = Prevention and screening = =
Apart from not smoking , the American Cancer Society recommends keeping a healthy weight , and increasing consumption of fruits , vegetables , and whole grains , while decreasing consumption of red and processed meat , although there is no consistent evidence this will prevent or reduce pancreatic cancer specifically . A 2014 review of research concluded that there was evidence that consumption of citrus fruits and curcumin reduced risk of pancreatic cancer , while there was possibly a beneficial effect from whole grains , folate , selenium , and non @-@ fried fish .
In the general population , screening of large groups is not currently considered effective , although newer techniques , and the screening of tightly targeted groups , are being evaluated . Nevertheless , regular screening with endoscopic ultrasound and MRI / CT imaging is recommended for those at high risk from inherited genetics .
= = Management = =
= = = Exocrine cancer = = =
A key assessment that is made after diagnosis is whether surgical removal of the tumor is possible ( see Staging ) , as this is the only cure for this cancer . Whether or not surgical resection can be offered depends on how much the cancer has spread . The exact location of the tumor is also a significant factor , and CT can show how it relates to the major blood vessels passing close to the pancreas . The general health of the person must also be assessed , though age in itself is not an obstacle to surgery .
Chemotherapy and , to a lesser extent , radiotherapy are likely to be offered to most people , whether or not surgery is possible . Specialists advise that the management of pancreatic cancer should be in the hands of a multidisciplinary team including specialists in several aspects of oncology , and is therefore best conducted in larger centers .
= = = = Surgery = = = =
Surgery with the intention of a cure is only possible in around one @-@ fifth ( 20 % ) of new cases . Although CT scans help , in practice it can be difficult to determine whether the tumor can be fully removed ( its " resectability " ) , and it may only become apparent during surgery that it is not possible to successfully remove the tumor without damaging other vital tissues . Whether or not surgical resection can be offered depends on various factors , including the precise extent of local anatomical adjacency to , or involvement of , the venous or arterial blood vessels , as well as surgical expertise and a careful consideration of projected post @-@ operative recovery . The age of the person is not in itself a reason not to operate , but their general performance status needs to be adequate for a major operation .
One particular feature that is evaluated is the encouraging presence , or discouraging absence , of a clear layer or plane of fat creating a barrier between the tumor and the vessels . Traditionally , an assessment is made of the tumor 's proximity to major venous or arterial vessels , in terms of " abutment " ( defined as the tumor touching no more than half a blood vessel 's circumference without any fat to separate it ) , " encasement " ( when the tumor encloses most of the vessel 's circumference ) , or full vessel involvement . A resection that includes encased sections of blood vessels may be possible in some cases , particularly if preliminary neoadjuvant therapy is feasible , using chemotherapy and / or radiotherapy .
Even when the operation appears to have been successful , cancerous cells are often found around the edges ( " margins " ) of the removed tissue , when a pathologist examines them microscopically ( this will always be done ) , indicating the cancer has not been entirely removed . Furthermore , cancer stem cells are usually not evident microscopically , and if they are present they may continue to develop and spread . An exploratory laparoscopy ( a small , camera @-@ guided surgical procedure ) may therefore be performed to gain a clearer idea of the outcome of a full operation .
For cancers involving the head of the pancreas , the Whipple procedure is the most commonly attempted curative surgical treatment . This is a major operation which involves removing the pancreatic head and the curve of the duodenum together ( " pancreato @-@ duodenectomy " ) , making a bypass for food from the stomach to the jejunum ( " gastro @-@ jejunostomy " ) and attaching a loop of jejunum to the cystic duct to drain bile ( " cholecysto @-@ jejunostomy " ) . It can be performed only if the person is likely to survive major surgery and if the cancer is localized without invading local structures or metastasizing . It can therefore be performed only in a minority of cases . Cancers of the tail of the pancreas can be resected using a procedure known as a distal pancreatectomy , which often also entails removal of the spleen . Nowadays , this can often be done using minimally invasive surgery .
Although curative surgery no longer entails the very high death rates that occurred until the 1980s , a high proportion of people ( about 30 – 45 % ) still have to be treated for post @-@ operative sickness that is not caused by the cancer itself . The most common complication of surgery is difficulty in emptying the stomach . Certain more limited surgical procedures may also be used to ease symptoms ( see Palliative care ) . For instance , if the cancer is invading or compressing the duodenum or colon . In such cases , bypass surgery might overcome the obstruction and improve quality of life but is not intended as a cure .
= = = = Chemotherapy = = = =
After surgery , adjuvant chemotherapy with gemcitabine or 5 @-@ FU can be offered if the person is sufficiently fit , after a recovery period of one to two months . In people not suitable for curative surgery , chemotherapy may be used to extend life or improve its quality . Before surgery , neoadjuvant chemotherapy or chemoradiotherapy may be used in cases that are considered to be " borderline resectable " ( see Staging ) in order to reduce the cancer to a level where surgery could be beneficial . In other cases neoadjuvant therapy remains controversial , because it delays surgery .
Gemcitabine was approved by the United States Food and Drug Administration ( FDA ) in 1997 , after a clinical trial reported improvements in quality of life and a 5 @-@ week improvement in median survival duration in people with advanced pancreatic cancer . This was the first chemotherapy drug approved by the FDA primarily for a nonsurvival clinical trial endpoint . Chemotherapy using gemcitabine alone was the standard for about a decade , as a number of trials testing it in combination with other drugs failed to demonstrate significantly better outcomes . However , the combination of gemcitabine with erlotinib was found to increase survival modestly , and erlotinib was licensed by the FDA for use in pancreatic cancer in 2005 .
The FOLFIRINOX chemotherapy regimen using four drugs was found more effective than gemcitabine , but with substantial side effects , and is thus only suitable for people with good performance status . This is also true of protein @-@ bound paclitaxel ( nab @-@ paclitaxel ) , which was licensed by the FDA in 2013 for use with gemcitabine in pancreas cancer . By the end of 2013 , both FOLFIRINOX and nab @-@ paclitaxel with gemcitabine were regarded as good choices for those able to tolerate the side @-@ effects , and gemcitabine remained an effective option for those who were not . A head @-@ to @-@ head trial between the two new options is awaited , and trials investigating other variations continue . However , the changes of the last few years have only increased survival times by a few months . Clinical trials are often conducted for novel adjuvant therapies .
= = = = Radiotherapy = = = =
The role of radiotherapy as an auxiliary ( adjuvant ) treatment after potentially curative surgery has been controversial since the 1980s . The European Society for Medical Oncology recommends that adjuvant radiotherapy should only be used for people enrolled in clinical trials . However , there is a continuing tendency for clinicians in the US to be more ready to use adjuvant radiotherapy than those in Europe . Many clinical trials have tested a variety of treatment combinations since the 1980s , but have failed to settle the matter conclusively .
Radiotherapy may form part of treatment to attempt to shrink a tumor to a resectable state , but its use on unresectable tumors remains controversial as there are conflicting results from clinical trials . The preliminary results of one trial , presented in 2013 , " markedly reduced enthusiasm " for its use on locally advanced tumors .
= = = PanNETs = = =
Treatment of PanNETs , including the less common malignant types , may include a number of approaches . Some small tumors of less than 1 cm. that are identified incidentally , for example on a CT scan performed for other purposes , may be followed by watchful waiting . This depends on the assessed risk of surgery which is influenced by the site of the tumor and the presence of other medical problems . Tumors within the pancreas only ( localized tumors ) , or with limited metastases , for example to the liver , may be removed by surgery . The type of surgery depends on the tumor location , and the degree of spread to lymph nodes .
For localized tumors , the surgical procedure may be much less extensive than the types of surgery used to treat pancreatic adenocarcinoma described above , but otherwise surgical procedures are similar to those for exocrine tumors . The range of possible outcomes varies greatly ; some types have a very high survival rate after surgery while others have a poor outlook . As all this group are rare , guidelines emphasize that treatment should be undertaken in a specialized center . Use of liver transplantation may be considered in certain cases of liver metastasis .
For functioning tumors , the somatostatin analog class of medications , such as octreotide , can reduce the excessive production of hormones . Lanreotide can slow tumor growth . If the tumor is not amenable to surgical removal and is causing symptoms , targeted therapy with everolimus or sunitinib can reduce symptoms and slow progression of the disease . Standard cytotoxic chemotherapy is generally not very effective for PanNETs , but may be used when other drug treatments fail to prevent the disease from progressing , or in poorly differentiated PanNET cancers .
Radiation therapy is occasionally used if there is pain due to anatomic extension , such as metastasis to bone . Some PanNETs absorb specific peptides or hormones , and these PanNETs may respond to nuclear medicine therapy with radiolabeled peptides or hormones such as iobenguane ( iodine @-@ 131 @-@ MIBG ) . Radiofrequency ablation ( RFA ) , cryoablation , and hepatic artery embolization may also be used .
= = = Palliative care = = =
Palliative care is medical care which focuses on treatment of symptoms from serious illness , such as cancer , and improving quality of life . Because pancreatic adenocarcinoma is usually diagnosed after it has progressed to an advanced stage , palliative care as a treatment of symptoms is often the only treatment possible .
Palliative care focuses not on treating the underlying cancer , but on treating symptoms such as pain or nausea , and can assist in decision @-@ making , including when or if hospice care will be beneficial . Pain can be managed with medications such as opioids or through procedural intervention , by a nerve block on the celiac plexus ( CPB ) . This alters or , depending on the technique used , destroys the nerves that transmit pain from the abdomen . CPB is a safe and effective way to reduce the pain , which generally reduces the need to use opioid painkillers , which have significant negative side effects .
Other symptoms or complications that can be treated with palliative surgery are obstruction by the tumor of the intestines or bile ducts . For the latter , which occurs in well over half of cases , a small metal tube called a stent may be inserted by endoscope to keep the ducts draining . Palliative care can also help treat depression that often comes with diagnosis of pancreatic cancer .
Both surgery and advanced inoperable tumors often lead to digestive system disorders from a lack of the exocrine products of the pancreas ( exocrine insufficiency ) . These can be treated by taking pancreatin which contains manufactured pancreatic enzymes , and is best taken with food . Difficulty in emptying the stomach ( delayed gastric emptying ) is common and can be a serious problem , involving hospitalization . Treatment may involve a variety of approaches , including draining the stomach by nasogastric aspiration and drugs called proton @-@ pump inhibitors or H2 antagonists , which both reduce production of gastric acid .
= = Outcomes = =
Pancreatic adenocarcinoma and the other less common exocrine cancers have a very poor prognosis , as they are normally diagnosed at a late stage when the cancer is already locally advanced or has spread to other parts of the body . Outcomes are much better for PanNETs : many are benign and completely without clinical symptoms , and even those cases not treatable with surgery have an average five @-@ year survival rate of 16 % , although the outlook varies considerably according to the type .
For locally advanced and metastatic pancreatic adenocarcinoma , which together represent over 80 % of cases , numerous recent trials comparing chemotherapy regimes have shown increased survival times , but not to more than one year . Overall five @-@ year survival for pancreatic cancer in the US has improved from 2 % in cases diagnosed in 1975 – 77 , and 4 % in 1987 – 89 diagnoses , to 6 % in 2003 – 09 . In the less than 20 % of cases of pancreatic adenocarcinoma with a diagnosis of a localized and small cancerous growth ( less than 2 cm in Stage T1 ) , about 20 % of Americans survive to five years .
= = Distribution = =
As of 2012 , pancreatic cancer resulted in 330 @,@ 000 deaths globally , up from 310 @,@ 000 in 2010 and 200 @,@ 000 in 1990 . In 2014 , an estimated 46 @,@ 000 people in the US are expected to be diagnosed with pancreatic cancer and 40 @,@ 000 to die of it . Although it accounts for only 2 @.@ 5 % of new cases , pancreatic cancer is responsible for 6 % of cancer deaths each year . It is the seventh highest cause of death from cancer worldwide .
Globally pancreatic cancer is the 11th most common cancer in women and the 12th most common in men . The majority of recorded cases occur in developed countries . People from the United States have an average lifetime risk of about 1 in 67 ( or 1 @.@ 5 % ) of developing the disease , slightly higher than the figure for the UK . The disease is more common in men than women , though the difference in rates has narrowed over recent decades , probably reflecting earlier increases in female smoking . In the United States the risk for African Americans is over 50 % greater than for whites , but the rates in Africa and East Asia are much lower than those in North America or Europe . The United States , Central and eastern Europe , and Argentina and Uruguay all have high rates .
Pancreatic cancer is the 10th most common cancer in the UK ( around 8 @,@ 800 people were diagnosed with the disease in 2011 ) , and it is the 5th most common cause of cancer death ( around 8 @,@ 700 people died in 2012 ) .
= = = PanNETs = = =
The annual incidence of clinically recognized PanNETs is low ( about 5 per one million person @-@ years ) and is dominated by the non @-@ functioning types . Somewhere between 45 % and 90 % of PanNETs are thought to be of the non @-@ functioning types . Studies of autopsies have uncovered small PanNETs rather frequently , suggesting that the prevalence of tumors that remain inert and asymptomatic may be relatively high . Overall PanNETs are thought to account for about 1 to 2 % of all pancreatic tumors . The definition and classification of PanNETs has changed over time , affecting what is known about their epidemiology and clinical relevance .
= = History = =
The earliest recognition of pancreatic cancer has been attributed to the 18th @-@ century Italian scientist Giovanni Battista Morgagni , the historical father of modern @-@ day anatomic pathology , who claimed to have traced several cases of cancer in the pancreas . Many 18th and 19th @-@ century physicians were skeptical about the existence of the disease , given the similar appearance of pancreatitis . Some case reports were published in the 1820s and 1830s , and a genuine histopathologic diagnosis was eventually recorded by the American clinician Jacob Mendes Da Costa , who also doubted the reliability of Morgagni 's interpretations . By the start of the 20th century , cancer of the head of the pancreas had become a well @-@ established diagnosis .
Regarding the recognition of PanNETs , the possibility of cancer of the islet cells was initially suggested in 1888 . The first case of hyperinsulinism due to a tumor of this type was reported in 1927 . Recognition of a non @-@ insulin @-@ secreting type of PanNET is generally ascribed to the American surgeons , R. M. Zollinger and E. H. Ellison , who gave their names to Zollinger – Ellison syndrome , after postulating the existence of a gastrin @-@ secreting pancreatic tumor in a report of two cases of unusually severe peptic ulcers published in 1955 . In 2010 , the WHO recommended that PanNETs be referred to as " neuroendocrine " rather than " endocrine " tumors .
The first reported partial pancreaticoduodenectomy was performed by the Italian surgeon Alessandro Codivilla in 1898 , but the patient only survived 18 days before succumbing to complications . Early operations were compromised partly because of mistaken beliefs that people would die if their duodenum were removed , and also , at first , if the flow of pancreatic juices stopped . Later it was thought , also mistakenly , that the pancreatic duct could simply be tied up without serious adverse effects ; in fact it will very often leak later on . In 1907 – 08 , after some more unsuccessful operations by other surgeons , experimental procedures were tried on corpses by French surgeons .
In 1912 the German surgeon Walther Kausch was the first to remove large parts of the duodenum and pancreas together ( en bloc ) . This was in Breslau , now Wrocław in Poland . In 1918 it was demonstrated in operations on dogs that total removal of the duodenum is compatible with life , but this was not reported in human surgery until 1935 , when the American surgeon Allen Oldfather Whipple published the results of a series of three operations at Columbia Presbyterian Hospital in New York . Only one of the patients had the duodenum totally removed , but he survived for two years before dying of metastasis to the liver . The first operation was unplanned , as cancer was only discovered in the operating theatre . Whipple 's success showed the way for the future , but the operation remained a difficult and dangerous one until recent decades . He published several refinements to his procedure , including the first total removal of the duodenum in 1940 , but he only performed a total of 37 operations .
The discovery in the late 1930s that vitamin K prevented bleeding with jaundice , and the development of blood transfusion as an everyday process , both improved post @-@ operative survival , but about 25 % of people never left hospital alive as late as the 1970s . In the 1970s a group of American surgeons wrote urging that the procedure was too dangerous and should be abandoned . Since then outcomes in larger centers have improved considerably , and mortality from the operation is often less than 4 % . In 2006 a report was published of a series of 1 @,@ 000 consecutive pancreaticoduodenectomies performed by a single surgeon from Johns Hopkins Hospital between 1969 and 2003 . The rate of these operations had increased steadily over this period , with only three of them before 1980 , and the median operating time reduced from 8 @.@ 8 hours in the 1970s to 5 @.@ 5 hours in the 2000s , and mortality within 30 days or in hospital was only 1 % . Another series of 2 @,@ 050 operations at the Massachusetts General Hospital between 1941 and 2011 showed a similar picture of improvement .
Small precancerous neoplasms for many pancreatic cancers are being detected at greatly increased rates by modern medical imaging . One type , the intraductal papillary mucinous neoplasm ( IPMN ) was first described by Japanese researchers in 1982 . It was noted in 2010 that : " For the next decade , little attention was paid to this report ; however , over the subsequent 15 years , there has been a virtual explosion in the recognition of this tumor . "
= = Research directions = =
Worldwide efforts on many levels are underway to understand pancreatic cancer , but progress has been slow , particularly into understanding the disease 's causes . There are several fundamental unanswered questions . The nature of the changes that lead to the disease are being intensely investigated , such as the roles played by genes such as KRAS and p53 . A key question is the timing of events as the disease develops and progresses – particularly the role of diabetes , and how and when the disease spreads .
Research on early detection is ongoing . For instance , the European Registry of Hereditary Pancreatitis and Familial Pancreatic Cancer ( EUROPAC ) trial is aiming to determine whether regular screening is appropriate for people with a family history of the disease , or who have hereditary pancreatitis . The knowledge that new onset of diabetes can be an early sign of the disease could facilitate timely diagnosis and prevention if a workable screening strategy can be developed .
Another area of interest is in assessing whether keyhole surgery ( laparoscopy ) would be better than Whipple 's procedure in treating the disease surgically , particularly in terms of recovery time . Irreversible electroporation is a relatively novel ablation technique that has shown promise in downstaging and prolonging survival in persons with locally advanced disease . It is especially suitable for treatment of tumors that are in proximity to peri @-@ pancreatic vessels without risk of vascular trauma . The limited success of outcomes after surgery has led to a number of trials that were running in 2014 to test outcomes using chemotherapy or radiochemotherapy before surgery . This had previously not been found to be helpful , but is being trialed again , using drug combinations which have emerged from the many trials of post @-@ operative therapies , such as FOLFIRINOX .
Efforts are underway to develop new drugs . Some of these involve targeted therapies against the cancer cells ' molecular mechanisms . Others aim to target the highly resistant cancer stem cells . Still others aim to affect the non @-@ neoplastic stroma and microenvironment of the tumor , which is known to influence cell proliferation and metastasis . A further approach involves the use of immunotherapy , such as oncolytic viruses .
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= Eddie Hill =
Eddie Hill ( born March 6 , 1936 ) is a retired American drag racer who won numerous drag racing championships on land and water . Hill had the first run in the four second range ( 4 @.@ 990 seconds ) , which earned him the nickname " Four Father of Drag Racing . " His other nicknames include " The Thrill " , " Holeshot Hill " , and " Fast Eddie " . In 1960 , he set the NHRA record for the largest improvement in the elapsed time ( e.t. ) when he drove the quarter mile in 8 @.@ 84 seconds to break the previous 9 @.@ 40 @-@ second record .
Hill raced at open competitions and Top Fuel events from 1955 until he retired in 1966 . After opening a motorcycle shop , he returned several years later to race motorcycles . He started racing drag boats after attending a drag boat event in 1974 and he won championships in all of the major boat drag racing sanctioning bodies . Hill set the lowest wet elapsed time ( e.t. ) record with a 5 @.@ 16 @-@ second run , which was lower than the land drag racing record of 5 @.@ 39 seconds . He quit water drag racing after he suffered broken bones at a crash in Arizona and returned to land drag racing in 1985 . Initially underfunded and unsuccessful , Hill set the all @-@ time speed record at a National Hot Rod Association ( NHRA ) event in 1987 , becoming the first person to hold both the land and water speed records simultaneously . In 1993 , Hill became the NHRA 's oldest Top Fuel champion . When Hill retired in 1999 , he had won 12 national season point championships on land or water , and had won more than 100 trophies in motorcycles and 86 drag events between his land and water careers .
= = Racing career = =
In 1947 , 11 @-@ year @-@ old Hill won the Tri @-@ State Motor Scooter Flat Track championship in Shreveport , Louisiana . After graduating from Longview High School , he graduated from college in 1957 with an industrial technology degree from Texas A & M University .
= = = Land drag racing = = =
Hill 's entered his first drag race at the Flying Fish Lodge in Karnack , Texas in 1955 . Hill drove his home @-@ built hot rod to the track and won the event . The hot rod had a Model T frame and an Oldsmobile V8 engine . In 1958 , he built his second dragster using parts that his employer allowed him to scavenge while working as a sales engineer at a foundry in Wichita Falls , Texas . He used the dragster to set the Texas state low elapsed time ( e.t. ) that year with a 9 @.@ 93 @-@ second pass . The following year , Hill won the state championship with a 9 @.@ 25 @-@ second pass at 161 miles per hour ( 259 kilometers per hour ) . Hill won his first national event in 1959 in a Hot Gas race at an American Hot Rod Association ( AHRA ) national championship event in Great Bend , Kansas . Hill earned $ 500 for an appearance at Inyokern , California to race Jack Chrisman and his Sidewinder dragster . One of his four passes in the 1960 event set the B / Gas dragster record at 163 @.@ 04 mph ( 262 @.@ 39 km / h ) , so Hill quit his job to become a full @-@ time drag racer . Later that season he set the a new A / Gas low e.t. at 8 @.@ 84 seconds and set the speed record in the class at 161 @.@ 29 mph ( 259 @.@ 57 km / h ) .
Hill spent four months designing and seven months building another home @-@ built dragster called the Double Dragon . The machine had two engines , with each engine having its own ring gear and pinion , clutch , and driveshaft . He used four rear racing slick tires in open competitions for faster passes , and two rear slicks in match competitions to produce smokier passes . The machine ripped up the starting line at the 1961 NHRA Nationals at Indianapolis . In 1962 , Hill ran 202 @.@ 70 mph ( 326 @.@ 21 km / h ) two years after Chris Karamesines had the first 200 mph ( 320 km / h ) pass and two years before Don Garlits had the first official 200 mph ( 320 km / h ) rpass . A speed or e.t. record is first certified official after it is backed up by a different pass within one percent . Hill built his first Top Fuel dragster in 1963 using a Pontiac engine . He had nearly completed a jet @-@ engine powered ultralight dragster in 1963 when the NHRA outlawed all aircraft engines . He built two more Top Fuel Hemi @-@ powered dragsters before he had an engine fire at Green Valley Race City in 1966 . " It was one of those fireballs that you couldn 't see through , " Hill said . " I locked up the brakes , and it felt like I needed to turn the wheel to the left , but for some reason , I didn 't . I had to do something that was counterintuitive , and it spooked me . " Hill had managed to steer straight down a course that was lined with trees . Hill had been using the Double Dragon to win matches , which were used to finance his Top Fuel dragster . The Double Dragon had been destroyed in a wreck two months before this fire . The fire tapped his finances and his resolve to drag race .
= = = Motorcycle racing = = =
He stopped racing and opened a motorcycle dealership in Wichita Falls in 1966 . The dealership is still open ( as of 2008 ) , and it is now the oldest Honda and Kawasaki dealership in Texas . He soon wanted to race again , so he built his own motorcycle and began racing as a 30 @-@ year @-@ old . He raced in numerous types of motorcycle racing : cross country , drag racing , hare scramble , motocross , road racing , and short track . When Hill participated in a Daytona race in 1971 , he had an opening lap at 151 mph ( 243 km / h ) , which was faster than factory rider Gary Nixon . Hill continued to race motorcycles and in 1972 and won the Texas state road racing championship . Hill won over 100 trophies in his motorcycle career .
= = = Boat drag racing = = =
Hill attended his first boat drag racing event in 1974 at Austin , Texas . He thought the drivers were " crazy " after he saw a driver being thrown from his boat during a crash . Less than a month later , Hill had stopped motorcycle racing to drag race boats , despite not being able to swim . " Once I hit the water with the boat , I never went back to motorcycles , " Hill recalled . " The power , speed , and acceleration were all things that I had missed since I quit drag racing . " He began racing in a non @-@ blown hydroplane , winning in his first event . In his third race he set the class top speed . In 1975 , he set the Southern Drag Boat Association ( SDBA ) speed record at 137 @.@ 46 mph ( 221 @.@ 22 km / h ) . In 1976 , he switched to nitromethane fuel and set the SDBA record with a 171 @.@ 81 mph ( 276 @.@ 50 km / h ) run . He was the SDBA top pointgetter and won the National Drag Boat Association ( NDBA ) World Fuel & Gas championship . He repeated as champion in both series in 1977 , setting the NDBA record with a 170 @.@ 45 mph ( 274 @.@ 31 km / h ) run .
Hill raced an all white blown @-@ fuel hydroplane from 1978 to 1984 . He won 55 of 103 races during that time . Hill captured four American Drag Boat Association ( ADBA ) championships and was the SDBA top points earner in five consecutive years . In 1982 , his Top Fuel hydroplane went 229 @.@ 00 mph ( 368 @.@ 54 km / h ) at an NDBA event to set the world 's record for a quarter mile water drag at Chowchilla , California . It was recorded in the Guinness Book of World Records , and it was not broken for 10 years . Hill also set speed records that year in the SDBA ( 220 @.@ 76 mph ) , ADBA ( 215 @.@ 82 mph ) , and International Hot Boat Association ( IHBA ) ( 212 @.@ 78 mph ) . He became the only racer to hold records in all four associations simultaneously . He won the NDBA Nationals four times including three straight from 1982 until 1984 . In 1983 and 1984 , Hill won the World Series of Drag Boat Racing championship . The series features two races in each of the four major drag boat racing sanctioning bodies . He won 17 races between 1983 and 1984 , and made 29 of 34 final rounds . Before he quit boat drag racing , he had an elapsed time of 5 @.@ 16 seconds in the wet quarter mile at Firebird Lake in Chandler , Arizona . The e.t. was quicker than Gary Beck 's 5 @.@ 39 @-@ second NHRA Top Fuel dragster record , the first time that the water record was lower than the land record . Hill quit boat racing in October 1984 after a crash at 217 miles per hour . " It was a perfect run , " Hill recalled . " I started to settle the boat back into the water , and then it took off . " His Texas A & M ring was torn off his hand ; he suffered seven broken bones , a concussion , & eye injuries . He spent five days in the hospital and was not fully recovered for a year .
= = = Return to drag racing = = =
Hill decided to come back into drag racing for 1985 . He purchased Dan Pastorini 's Top Fuel car and salvaged the drag boat engine from the bottom of the lake . He joined one of the most underfunded and least competitive Top Fuel teams . Hill would have quit early in the 1986 season had he not gotten some tuning advice from a competitor that helped make his car more competitive . Fifteen races after returning , he finally got out of the first round at the 1986 Mile High Nationals . Hill made it to the final round of competition , losing to Larry Minor when he lost reverse after his burnout . At the 1987 Chief Auto Parts Nationals , where he was runner @-@ up , Hill set an NHRA record of 285 @.@ 98 mph ( 460 @.@ 24 km / h ) In doing so , he became the first person to hold both the land and water quarter mile drag racing speed records simultaneously .
Hill won the first of his thirteen NHRA national events when he beat Joe Amato in final of the 1988 Mac Tools Gatornationals . Amato and Hill met in four final rounds that season , with Hill winning three . On April 9 , 1988 , he set the first four second elapsed time ( 4 @.@ 990 seconds ) at the International Hot Rod Association ( IHRA ) Texas Nationals . Hill made the run on only seven cylinders ; the post @-@ run computer readout showed his # 7 cylinder failed at launch . Six months later , Hill recorded a 4 @.@ 936 @-@ second e.t. at the NHRA SuperNationals at Houston on October 9 , 1988 . Hill set the record as the oldest Top Fuel champion when he won the season championship as a 57 @-@ year @-@ old . It was his twelfth championship . Hill won a record @-@ tying six of seven national events and 15 events overall . Hill finished in the Top 10 in Top Fuel points for all but one of the years between 1987 and 1995 . Between 1994 and 1999 , Hill won his final two events in seven finals . When Hill won the 1996 Mile High Nationals , he set the record for the oldest Top Fuel event winner at age 60 . He retired in 1999 .
= = " Eddie Hill Rule " = =
Hill was qualifying for a 1997 event at Sonoma when his car suffered severe vibration as he crossed the finish line . The car went out of control and was completely destroyed . Hill had two broken toes and a shoulder contusion , which were not serious injuries . The run had been fast enough to make Hill the fastest qualifier , and Hill wanted to race his backup car in the first round on the day after the accident . The NHRA had a rule that the car used for qualifying had to be used in the event , so the sanctioning body did not allow him to compete . The rule was changed after the event to allow racers to race on race day even if they do not use the same car .
= = Innovations = =
In 1960 , he became the first driver to heat his rear tires with a burnout and he was the first driver to use smaller front tires on a dragster in 1958 . Hill introduced the aerodynamic front wing to dragsters and charcoal masks for driver safety .
= = Personal life = =
Hill is married to Ercie Hill . They met at a boat drag racing event and were married on Valentine 's Day in 1984 . She had several roles during his career , including team co @-@ owner , starting line navigator , record taker , pit crew member , business manager , marketing , and public relations . She has written about drag racing in National Dragster , AutoWeek , and Christian Motorsports magazines . Eddie has a daughter named Sabrina and a son named Dustin .
= = Awards = =
NHRA ranked him 14th on their Top 50 drivers in 2001 . He was inducted in the NHRA Drag Racing Hall of Fame in 1978 , and the Texas Motor Sports Hall of Fame in 2007 . In 2000 , he was inducted in Don Garlits ' International Drag Racing Hall of Fame . Hill was inducted into the Motorsports Hall of Fame of America in 2002 . After he was notified of his nomination , he said
" It 's so much more satisfying to get this award now than posthumously . This way I 'll be able to enjoy it . Honestly , it was a sobering moment when they called and told me I was being inducted along with some of the people I admired most growing up . It gives you reason to pause for a moment and reflect that maybe some good was accomplished along the way . "
In 1988 , Hill was selected by Car Craft magazine , Hot Rod Magazine , and the International Hot Rod Association as the Person of the Year . Car Craft magazine 's readers voted him the Top Fuel Driver of the Year after he won the 1993 championship .
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= Taylor Swift ( album ) =
Taylor Swift is the debut studio album by American singer @-@ songwriter Taylor Swift , released on October 24 , 2006 , by Big Machine Records . Swift was 16 years old at the time of the album 's release and wrote its songs during her freshman year of high school . Swift has writing credits on all of the album 's songs , including those co @-@ written with Liz Rose . Swift experimented with several producers , ultimately choosing Nathan Chapman , who had produced her demo album . Musically , the album is country music styled , and lyrically it speaks of romantic relationships , a couple of which Swift wrote from observing relationships before being in one . Lyrics also touch on Swift 's personal struggles in high school .
Five singles were released from the album , all of which have been certified platinum by the RIAA . " Tim McGraw " was released as the lead single and reached the top ten on Billboard 's Hot Country Songs . " Teardrops on My Guitar " was released as the second single and was the album 's best @-@ charting song on the Billboard Hot 100 . " Our Song " was released as the third single from the album and was Swift 's first number one on Billboard 's Hot Country Songs chart . It made her the youngest person to single @-@ handedly write and perform a number one song on the Hot Country Songs chart . " Picture to Burn " and " Should 've Said No " were released as the fourth single and fifth singles from the album , respectively , and both were successful on the country charts in the United States . Swift promoted the album by performing on tour as the opening act for artists such as Rascal Flatts , George Strait , Brad Paisley , and Tim McGraw and Faith Hill .
Taylor Swift was received positively by contemporary critics , who praised Swift 's talent at such a young age . The album enjoyed commercial success and launched Swift 's career in country music . In the United States , it topped the Top Country Albums Chart for 24 non @-@ consecutive weeks , and was certified five times platinum by the Recording Industry Association of America ( RIAA ) for sales of over 5 million copies . Taylor Swift has logged 275 weeks on the Billboard Top 200 chart as of early 2013 , making it one of the 12 longest @-@ running albums in the chart 's 57 @-@ year history . The album was also successful outside of Swift 's native country , notably , Canada , Australia , and the United Kingdom . The album has sold over six million copies worldwide as of January 2015 .
= = Background = =
Taylor Swift is from Reading , Pennsylvania and developed an early interest in country music and songwriting . When she was eleven , she and her family made their first visit to Nashville , Tennessee in pursuit of a record deal , though nothing came out of it . Swift was judged and neglected by record labels for being too young . In regards to the labels which rejected her , she said ,
" I can understand . They were afraid to put out a 13 @-@ year @-@ old . They were afraid to put out a 14 @-@ year @-@ old . Then they were afraid to put out a 15 @-@ year @-@ old . Then they were nervous about putting out a 16 @-@ year @-@ old . And I 'm sure if I hadn 't signed with Scott Borchetta [ head of Big Machine Records ] , everybody would be afraid to put out a 17 @-@ year @-@ old . "
= = Development and music = =
Swift wrote " Tim McGraw " during her freshman year , knowing that she and her senior boyfriend , Brandon Borello , would break up at the end of the year when he left for college . Rose said Swift showed up at her after school job writing songs for Sony / ATV " with the idea and the melody . She knew exactly what she wanted . " The nostalgic song describes a summer romance and Swift 's hope that when Borello " think [ s ] Tim McGraw " he would " think [ her ] favorite song " – McGraw 's " Can 't Tell Me Nothin " – and remember her . Conversely , " Picture to Burn " describes a girl furious after a break @-@ up . Swift says that while the song is about " just being mad " and is " completely , brutally honest " ; she gave it a comedic edge . While at work after school , Swift " found [ her ] self just sitting there with [ her ] guitar going , ' I hate his stupid truck that he doesn 't let me drive . He 's such a redneck ! Oh my God ! ' , " a line which developed into the song 's chorus . The up @-@ tempo song is heavy with banjos and drums , while the chorus is marked by distorted guitars and big vocals .
The singer penned the autobiographical song " The Outside " as an outlet at age twelve , the year she began writing her own songs . Like many of the other songs she wrote early on , the song describes the unhappiness and loneliness Swift felt when her love of country music alienated her from her peers . Swift wrote " Tied Together with a Smile " the day she learned one of her best friends was bulimic , a fact which shocked her . She recalled , " How can somebody that seems so strong have such a horrible , horrible weakness ? Something that is killing her . " The lyrics to " Tied Together with a Smile " describe a beautiful girl trying to hide her inner turbulence and mourn that " You 're tied together with a smile / But you 're coming undone " . Swift commented , " I always thought that one of the biggest overlooked problems American girls face is insecurity . " She wrote " Should 've Said No " according to " something really , really dramatic and crazy happening to [ her ] and [ her ] needing to address it in the form of music " . The song was a last minute addition to Taylor Swift : Swift had written it two days before mastering was scheduled and booklets were about to be printed ; she then called her producer and completed the song overnight .
" Mary 's Song ( Oh My My My ) " was actually inspired by her next @-@ door neighbors ' long lasting marriage , being the opposite of what tabloids fixate on . Swift wrote " Our Song " for her freshman year of high school talent show with no intentions of including it on the album . She claimed she " just knew there was something about it " and chose to include it on Taylor Swift . " I wrote it about this guy I was dating , and how we didn 't have a song . So I went ahead and wrote us one . " The song is a narrative and describes a young couple who use the events in their lives in place of a regular song . The banjo @-@ riddled song is placed at the end of the album due to its closing lyrics , a request to " play it again " . " Invisible " is ballad describing loneliness and heartache of going unnoticed . Sean Dooley of About.com writes , the " piano @-@ driven song [ ... ] perfectly captures the awkward teenage angst we all endure — or have endured — at one time or another . "
= = Recording = =
While recording her demo album , Swift worked with demo producer Nathan Chapman , whom she met in a little shed behind a publishing company she was at . Swift said , " I 'd always go in there and play him some new songs , and the next week he would have this awesome track , on which he played every instrument , and it sounded like a record . We did this for a period of a year to two years before I got my record deal . "
To record Taylor Swift , she had to choose which album producer she would work with : " Then , all of a sudden , it was , ' OK , we 're going to use this producer ' or ' We 're going to use that producer . ' " After experimenting with different producers , originating from Nashville , Swift chose Chapman because of the unique sound he put into songs . Big Machine Records was skeptical about hiring Chapman because he had never done a studio album prior to Taylor Swift , only demos . Swift described the songs he produced as " the right chemistry hit [ ting ] " and therefore , Big Machine Records accepted Chapman producing some of the album 's songs . In the end , Chapman produced all but one of the tracks on Taylor Swift . Recording was executed during a four @-@ month period before 2006 was over .
= = Packaging and release = =
Taylor Swift was released on October 24 , 2006 with eleven tracks . Swift was highly involved in the album packaging , designing doodle graphics herself . She also personally capitalized specific letters in the lyrics from each song to spell out hidden messages , a feat she would also execute for her succeeding albums . On November 6 , 2007 , the album was re @-@ released under the title Taylor Swift Deluxe Edition for a limited time . The deluxe edition contained three new songs : " I 'm Only Me When I 'm with You " , " Invisible " and " A Perfectly Good Heart " , the radio edits for " Picture to Burn " , " Teardrops on My Guitar " , and " Our Song " , and Swift 's first phone conversation with Tim McGraw . The re @-@ release also bared a bonus DVD with all of Swift 's music videos at the time ( " Tim McGraw " , " Teardrops on My Guitar " , and " Our Song " ) , behind @-@ the @-@ scenes footage of " Teardrops on My Guitar " and " Our Song " music videos , and a performance of " Picture to Burn " , among other material . The American retail company Target released an exclusive version of Taylor Swift Deluxe Edition , with performances of Swift during McGraw and Hill 's Soul2Soul II Tour . A third and final re @-@ release appeared on March 18 , 2008 with the three new songs from the Taylor Swift Deluxe Edition and a pop version of " Teardrops on My Guitar " . A karaoke version of Taylor Swift was released on January 27 , 2009 , containing the first fourteen tracks from the album on both CD + G and DVD .
= = Critical reception = =
Taylor Swift received positive reviews from contemporary critics . Jeff Tamarkin of AllMusic described Swift as " a fresh , still girlish voice , full of hope and naïveté , but it 's also a confident and mature one " . He said her " talent to be reckoned " was portrayed through the songs " Tim McGraw " , " The Outside " , and " Mary 's Song ( Oh My My My ) " . Tamarkin criticized producer Nathan Chapman for applying " a gloss that not all [ songs ] really require and in some cases would do better to shed " . Rick Bell of Country Standard Time gave a positive review , saying that Swift had " smart songwriting " and that " her deeply personal , self @-@ penned songs , particularly ' The Outside ' and ' Our Song ' " were " stirring . " He compared her sound to Cyndi Thomson and Hilary Duff . Chris Neal of Country Weekly said that Swift " demonstrat [ es ] an honesty , intelligence and idealism with which listeners of any age will be able to connect " and added that " the more thoughtful material suggests a talent poised to last well past high school . " Ken Rosenbaum of The Toledo Blade wrote Swift " deftly handles lyrics and subjects in that shadowy area between teenager and womanhood . "
= = Commercial performance = =
On the week ending November 11 , 2006 , Taylor Swift debuted at number nineteen on the Billboard 200 due to sales of 40 @,@ 000 copies . It reached its highest sales week on the week ending January 5 , 2008 with 187 @,@ 000 copies sold . After sixty @-@ three weeks on the Billboard 200 , on the week ending January 19 , 2008 , the album reached its charting peak at number five due to sales of 47 @,@ 000 copies . Taylor Swift marked the longest stay on the Billboard 200 by any album released in the decade . So far the album has stayed on the chart for 277 weeks . The album topped Billboard 's Top Country Albums Chart for twenty @-@ four non @-@ consecutive weeks . On the week ending August 2 , 2008 , Swift 's EP Beautiful Eyes replaced Taylor Swift as the chart 's number one album . With Taylor Swift charting at number two , Swift became the first artist to hold the first two positions on Top Country Albums since LeAnn Rimes charted in 1997 with Blue ( 1996 ) and Unchained Melody : The Early Years ( 1997 ) . On February 17 , 2014 , the album was certified five times platinum by the Recording Industry Association of America for the shipment and sales of 5 @,@ 000 @,@ 000 copies . As of December 2015 , the album has sold 5 @.@ 56 million copies in the United States .
Like their last album , this one also features CDVU + that includes more than 30 pages of bonus features with an exclusive video performance , 60 printable photos , complete album lyrics , downloadable graphics , and hidden links . In addition , the packaging of the album is made from 100 % recycled materials .
After six years of its release , Taylor Swift made debuted at number thirty @-@ eight on the New Zealand Albums Chart . Taylor Swift peaked at number fourteen on the Canadian Albums Chart and at number @-@ one on the Canadian Country Albums Chart . Taylor Swift was certified platinum by the Canadian Recording Industry Association ( CRIA ) for the shipment of 80 @,@ 000 copies . In Australia , Taylor Swift peaked at number thirty @-@ three on the main chart and at number three on the country @-@ genre chart . On the week ending September 5 , 2009 , it entered the UK Albums Chart at number 88 ; the following week , it reached its peak at number 81 . The album has been certified Gold by the British Phonographic Industry ( BPI ) for sales of more than 100 @,@ 000 copies .
= = Singles = =
" Tim McGraw " was released as the lead single from Taylor Swift on June 19 , 2006 . The song was critically appreciated for Swift 's delivery . " Tim McGraw " enjoyed commercial success , peaking at number forty on the Billboard Hot 100 and at number six on Billboard 's Hot Country Songs ; it was certified platinum by the Recording Industry Association of America ( RIAA ) for the shipment of 2 @,@ 000 @,@ 000 copies .
" Teardrops on My Guitar " was released as the second single from Taylor Swift . " Teardrops on My Guitar " received critical success for its memorable chorus and crossover potential , as well as commercial success by becoming the best @-@ charting single from Taylor Swift on the Billboard Hot 100 , peaking at number thirteen . It became Swift 's first pop crossover hit , peaking at number eleven on the now @-@ canceled Pop 100 chart . The song was certified double platinum by the RIAA for the shipment of 3 @,@ 000 @,@ 000 copies . " Teardrops on My Guitar " peaked at number forty @-@ five in Canada and at number fifty @-@ one in the United Kingdom .
" Our Song " was released as the third single from the album . The song was critically favored , being described as " gem " . " Our Song " peaked at number sixteen on the Billboard Hot 100 and was certified quadraple platinum by the RIAA ; it also became Swift 's first @-@ number one on Hot Country Songs . The song peaked at number thirty on the Canadian Hot 100 , becoming the best @-@ charting single from Taylor Swift in Canada .
" Picture to Burn " was released as the fourth single from Taylor Swift . " Picture to Burn " was appreciated by contemporary critics for lyrics reflecting feminism . It became a fourth consecutive top ten single for Swift on the United States ' chart Hot Country Songs and was certified double platinum by the RIAA .
" Should 've Said No " was released as the fifth and final single from the album . In the United States , " Should 've Said No " became Swift 's second number @-@ one on Hot Country Songs and was certified double platinum by the RIAA . The song made its highest international peak in the New Zealand Singles Chart , at number eighteen .
= = Promotion = =
Swift 's first broadcast performance of " Tim McGraw " was on October 24 , 2006 on Good Morning America . Other songs from Taylor Swift have been performed on television programs , award shows , and festivals such as The Megan Mullally Show , the New Faces Show , America 's Got Talent , TRL , the 2008 CMT Music Awards , and the Academy of Country Music . Swift spent much of 2006 promoting " Tim McGraw " and Taylor Swift in a radio tour . In regards to the extensive radio tour , Swift commented , " Radio tours for most artists last six weeks . Mine lasted six months . That 's because I wanted it to . I wanted to meet every single one of the people that was helping me out . "
Swift also promoted the album by performing as an opening act for several country artists ' concert tours . She opened for Rascal Flatts on several dates , from October 19 to November 3 , 2006 , included on the Me and My Gang Tour ( 2006 – 07 ) , performing a total of five songs from the album . She also served as opening act on twenty dates for George Strait 's 2007 United States tour , and selected dates for Brad Paisley 's Bonfires & Amplifiers Tour ( 2007 – 08 ) ; Swift served as an opening act during all 2007 legs of the tour . During mid @-@ 2007 , Swift engaged as the opening act on several dates for Tim McGraw 's and Faith Hill 's joint tour , Soul2Soul II Tour ( 2006 – 07 ) . Swift again opened for Flatts for their Still Feels Good Tour in 2008 . In addition , Swift performed six songs from Taylor Swift on her first headlining tour , the Fearless Tour ( 2009 – 10 ) .
= = Track listing = =
Notes
" I 'd Lie " was available as an exclusive download for copies of the album purchased at Best Buy during the first week of release .
Initial pressings of the deluxe edition replaced the original versions of " Teardrops on My Guitar " and " Our Song " with their respective radio single versions . Later deluxe pressings also replaced " Picture to Burn " with its country radio edit and scrapped the bonus DVD and Swift 's phone call with McGraw and replaced them with the pop version of " Teardrops on My Guitar " .
= = Personnel = =
As listed in liner notes .
= = Charts = =
= = = Chart precession and succession = = =
= = Certifications = =
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= Rock Me ( One Direction song ) =
" Rock Me " is a song by English @-@ Irish boy band One Direction from their second studio album , Take Me Home ( 2012 ) . It was written by Peter Svensson , Sam Hollander , Lukasz Gottwald , Henry Walter , Breanna Smith , and Allan Grigg , with production handled by Dr. Luke , Circut and Kool Kojak . Created in one day , Grigg carried out the mid @-@ tempo beat , Hollander conceptualised the title and the pop rock melody " just came " . Its clapping riff has been noted as similar to that of the Queen 1977 single " We Will Rock You " .
The song garnered mostly positive reviews from music critics , who centred on production quality and its rock elements . Upon the release of Take Me Home , " Rock Me " debuted at number one on the US Bubbling Under Hot 100 Singles chart due to strong digital download sales , and ultimately peaked at number 98 on the US Billboard Hot 100 .
= = Background and conception = =
" Rock Me " came together in a single @-@ day collaboration between guitarist Peter Svensson of the Swedish band the Cardigans , Sam Hollander , and Allan ' Kool Kojak ' Grigg for One Direction 's second studio album , Take Me Home , which was released in November 2012 . First , Grigg carried out its mid @-@ tempo beat . " If you can slow a song down to mid @-@ tempo , the girls are just gonna lose their minds , " Grigg told Time magazine in 2012 . Svensson reflected that Hollander " had an idea for a title that 's like ' rock me ' instead of ‘ rock you , ’ and the melody just came . " Co @-@ producers Lukasz ' Dr. Luke ' Gottwald and Henry ' Circut ' Walter ended up with writing credits on the finished recording too — " standard operating practice , now that the sound of a song has as much to do with its identity as its lyrics or melody , " according to Time magazine correspondent Douglas Wolk .
= = Composition and lyrical interpretation = =
" Rock Me " is a mid @-@ tempo pop rock song . Chris Payne of Billboard noted that the song deviates from One Direction 's signature bubblegum pop sound , a notion shared by Al Fox for BBC Music , who dubbed it " vaguely rockier " . The song 's clapping riff are similar to those of the Queen 1977 single " We Will Rock You " . According to the digital sheet music published at Musicnotes.com by Sony / ATV Music Publishing , One Direction 's vocal range in the song span from the note of F3 to C5 . Instrumentation includes guitar strings , piano lines and vocals . Written in the key of Ab major , the beat is set in common time and moves at a moderate 84 beats per minute .
It also incorporates a Queen @-@ referencing chorus : " I want you to rock me , yeah , I want you to hit the pedal , heavy metal , show me you care . " The track 's lyricism regards a nostalgic message about a former significant other and a blatant double entendre for sexual intercourse . In the regard to its double entendre , Grigg noted , " but at the same time , there 's a vulnerability in it that 's , like , so sweet for girls . It 's a little self @-@ deprecating . There 's not a lot of overt machismo in the song " . " I approached it like high school , " said Hollander : " On the first record , they were freshmen , innocent and wide @-@ eyed . Now it 's sophomore year , there are parties and driver ’ s licenses , and the world is theirs for the taking . That 's what I wanted to capture " .
= = Critical reception = =
The song garnered mostly positive reviews from critics , who centred on production quality and its rock elements . The New Zealand Herald writer Lydia Jenkin deemed " Rock Me " one of " the most banal songs ever written " , but noted that the group " know what teenage girls want to hear . " Idolator critic Sam Lansky praised the track as " irresistible " and commended its sonic palette as " explosively punchy " . Writing for HitFix , Melinda Newman favoured its " nearly hypnotic anthemic " beat , and noted that " Rock Me " seems perfectly tailored to become a live staple . Ben Rayner of the Toronto Star thought the song 's Queen @-@ references are " clever " , assessing : " to show that One Direction ’ s puppeteers aren 't totally operating on autopilot . " Robert Copsey from Digital Spy opined that the song 's " simple @-@ yet @-@ genius catchiness " is its strongest attribute . Billboard reviewer Chris Payne applauded its rock elements , regarding it as " welcome " deviation from Take Me Home 's predominant bubblegum pop sound . In contrast to the positive reception , Alexis Petridis , writing for The Guardian , criticised the song as " excruciating " , describing its lyricism as tedious and uninspiring .
= = Chart performance = =
In the week of 18 November 2012 , " Rock Me " debuted at number one on the US Bubbling Under Hot 100 Singles chart due to strong digital download sales . As a result of an " end @-@ of @-@ year download rush " in the week ending 30 December 2012 , the track entered the US Billboard Hot 100 at number 98 , marking its peak position .
= = Certifications = =
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= John Lerew =
John Margrave Lerew , DFC ( 20 August 1912 – 24 February 1996 ) was an officer and pilot in the Royal Australian Air Force ( RAAF ) during World War II , and later a senior manager in the International Civil Aviation Organization ( ICAO ) . As commander of No. 24 Squadron , based in New Britain , he became famous in the annals of Air Force history for his irreverent response to orders by headquarters in Australia during the Battle of Rabaul in January 1942 . After his squadron was directed to assist in repelling the invading Japanese fleet with its one serviceable bomber , and to keep its damaged airfield open , Lerew signalled headquarters with the ancient Latin phrase supposedly used by gladiators honouring their Emperor : " Morituri vos salutamus " ( " We who are about to die salute you " ) . He also defied an order to abandon his staff , and organised their escape from Rabaul .
In February 1942 , Lerew led a low @-@ level bombing raid on enemy shipping in New Guinea that set two vessels on fire . He was shot down but managed to evade capture , and returned to safety nine days after being reported missing . Awarded the Distinguished Flying Cross , he subsequently commanded the RAAF 's first flying safety directorate . After leaving the Air Force in 1946 as a group captain , Lerew took up a position with the newly formed ICAO in Canada . He was responsible for several of its administrative and technical reforms , and rose to Chief of Flight Branch in 1969 . Retiring from ICAO in 1972 , he travelled extensively before settling in Vancouver , where he died in 1996 at the age of eighty @-@ three .
= = Early life = =
Born in Hamilton , Victoria , Lerew was the son of William Margrave Lerew , a chemist and veterinary surgeon who had emigrated from England with his two brothers . The family was of French Huguenot extraction , the original name being Le Roux . John Lerew was educated at Scotch College , Melbourne , where he was a member of the cadets . He studied part @-@ time for a bachelor 's degree in civil engineering at the University of Melbourne , concurrently serving approximately two years in the militia with various units including the 39th Battalion , 3rd Division Artillery Survey Unit , and Melbourne University Regiment . He also developed a love of fast cars , joining a racing team and placing third in the 1930 Australian Grand Prix .
On 19 November 1932 , Lerew enlisted as an air cadet in the RAAF active reserve , known as the Citizen Air Force ( CAF ) . He had marched into Victoria Barracks on a whim and asked to see the person in charge of Air Force recruiting . He was shown to the office of Squadron Leader Raymond Brownell , also a former Scotch College boy , who admitted him . Lerew undertook flying instruction on the 1933 ' B ' course conducted by No. 1 Squadron at RAAF Station Laverton , and was commissioned a pilot officer on 1 April . He transferred from the CAF to the Permanent Air Force on 20 May 1935 , following graduation from university , and was promoted flying officer on 1 July . Posted to No. 1 Aircraft Depot , he was raised to probationary flight lieutenant in 1936 . The rank became substantive the following year , when he was appointed Staff Officer Directorate of Works and Buildings at RAAF Headquarters , Melbourne , responsible for selection and improvement of airfield sites .
= = World War II = =
Lerwe was still based in Melbourne when World War II broke out in September 1939 . He was promoted squadron leader in June 1940 , and the same month took charge of No. 1 Aircraft Park in Geelong . One of his initial tasks was to test fly the first Fairey Battle single @-@ engined light bomber assembled in Australia . He was posted to No. 2 Aircraft Depot at RAAF Station Richmond , New South Wales , in September 1940 , and shortly afterwards undertook a survey of the Solomon Islands and the island of New Britain , including its capital Rabaul . Lerew was given command of No. 24 Squadron in May 1941 , and raised to temporary wing commander in October .
No. 24 Squadron 's complement in November 1941 consisted of one Fairey Battle , three De Havilland Moth Minor biplane trainers , five Lockheed Hudson twin @-@ engined light bombers , and eleven CAC Wirraway monoplane trainers . The two @-@ seat Wirraways were expected to be employed in operations as fighters , but were suitable for such a role " only in the minds of the Air Board " , in the words of RAAF historian Alan Stephens . On 1 December , RAAF Headquarters in Melbourne put Lerew 's squadron on notice for deployment to Rabaul as an advance garrison in the defence of northern Australia .
= = = Preparations at Rabaul = = =
No. 24 Squadron 's Hudsons began moving to Vunakanau airfield , Rabaul , from RAAF Station Townsville in far @-@ north Queensland on 5 December 1941 . By the middle of the month they had been joined by the unit 's Wirraways . Vunakanau afforded little shelter for staff or aircraft , and Japanese reconnaissance planes were already active in the vicinity , suggesting an attack was imminent . No. 24 Squadron began carrying out reconnaissance missions with its Hudsons , and on one occasion attempted to bomb an enemy ship without success . RAAF Headquarters threatened to relieve Lerew for his apparent lack of results and delays in communications , and demanded to know his excuses . Possessed of what the official history of the RAAF in World War II described as an " impish irreverence " , Lerew listed among his reasons " disappointment in the lack of assistance rendered by the Almighty " . He later reported that he was being caused " more worry " by his own headquarters in " the south than from the enemy situated in the north " .
No. 24 Squadron 's strength at the beginning of 1942 was four Hudsons , six Wirraways , and 130 staff . On New Year 's Day , Lerew led the Hudsons on a raid against Kapingamarangi Island , igniting a fuel dump that was still burning when the squadron returned to follow up the attack two days later . During 4 – 7 January , Vunakanau airfield suffered four raids by unescorted Japanese bombers , destroying all but one of the Hudsons . Although the Wirraways were scrambled to intercept attackers on several occasions , their rate of climb was so poor that only once did one of them manage to engage an enemy seaplane , without result ; this action , on 6 January , was the first air @-@ to @-@ air combat between RAAF and Japanese forces . At this point , Lerew signalled headquarters for six " modern fighters " with which to defend his airfield ; none were forthcoming .
Squadron Leader Arch Tindal , Northern Area Command Armaments Officer , added his weight to Lerew 's pleas for modern aircraft . Tindal had arrived to inspect No. 24 Squadron in the middle of an enemy attack on 3 January , and immediately leapt into the nearest Wirraway to attempt an interception . He later submitted a report to headquarters at Townsville , echoing Lerew 's concerns regarding the Wirraway 's capabilities and warning that " Rabaul is now wide open to bombing attack " . Despite this , morale remained high in the unit ; Lerew remarked on the devil @-@ may @-@ care attitude of his personnel , who frequently waited until the last moment to take cover during air raids . On 17 January , Lerew was able to gain sufficient height in his Wirraway to confront a Japanese seaplane in a head @-@ on attack , but his .303 machine @-@ gun ammunition was not sufficient to bring it down . In 1956 , while at a conference in Tokyo , he coincidentally met the Japanese plane 's pilot , who informed him that his lone assault had damaged an engine and killed two crewmen , adding that Lerew was " the bravest enemy I ever faced " .
= = = Invasion of Rabaul = = =
On 20 January , a force of over 100 Japanese aircraft , comprising bombers , dive bombers and fighter escort , converged on Rabaul . It was led by Commander Mitsuo Fuchida , who had controlled the attack on Pearl Harbor on 7 December 1941 . Two patrolling Wirraways of No. 24 Squadron attacked the first wave of Japanese raiders . Lerew 's six remaining Wirraways then scrambled , one crashing on take @-@ off . Of the seven that were airborne , three were shot down into the sea by Mitsubishi Zero fighters , two others crash landed with severe damage , one escaped with minor damage , and one remained unscathed . The ten @-@ minute action killed six RAAF aircrew and wounded five . An Australian soldier on the ground later recalled , " We sat at our guns , shocked by the massacre we had just observed " . The Japanese fighters compounded the humiliation by executing aerobatics over the bombed airfield . Lerew signalled headquarters , " Two Wirraways useless defence . Will you now please send some fighters ? " , receiving the reply , " Regret inability to supply fighters . If we had them you would get them . " The next day he was ordered to attack the approaching Japanese fleet with " all available aircraft " . As his two serviceable Wirraways had no bomb racks , this left only the one remaining Hudson with which to execute the order ; it duly took off to search for the enemy ships but was unable to locate them by nightfall , and returned to base .
It was following a further directive from headquarters on 21 January 1942 to keep his airfield " open " , that Lerew , after discussion with his intelligence staff , sent the signal that made him famous : " Morituri vos salutamus " . The message flummoxed headquarters , until an officer familiar with Latin decoded it as the legendary phrase used by ancient gladiators to honour their Emperor : " We who are about to die salute you ! " Lerew also chose to ignore two other orders received from headquarters , firstly to turn his remaining ground staff and aircrew into infantrymen to assist with the army 's defence and secondly to leave Rabaul in his remaining Hudson to take command of a new squadron in Port Moresby , New Guinea . To the first order he replied that trained RAAF crews would be more valuable in future actions than in a last @-@ ditch effort to repel the invader at Rabaul ; to the second he simply turned a " blind eye " , refusing to escape alone in the only aircraft left that could evacuate his personnel . On 22 January , he sent off ninety @-@ six staff in the Hudson and in flying boats called in from Port Moresby . Others escaped overland or in boats ; Lerew 's careful planning helped ensure that only three of his men were captured by the Japanese .
= = = Later war service = = =
Following the evacuation of Rabaul , Lerew took command of a composite squadron in Port Moresby which later became No. 32 ( General Reconnaissance ) Squadron . On 11 February 1942 , he led a flight of three Hudsons in a raid on Gasmata harbour , making what the official history of the RAAF in World War II described as " the first mast @-@ height attack on enemy shipping in the New Guinea campaign " . Having set two ships on fire , the Hudsons were attacked by enemy fighters and two were shot down , including Lerew 's . With his aircraft in flames , he ordered his crew to bail out of the rear hatch while he parachuted from the front window . Lerew landed in the jungle and narrowly avoided capture before making his way to a Coastwatcher post and returning to Port Moresby in a schooner , nine days after having been posted missing ; his crew members had died . On 7 April , Lerew was awarded the Distinguished Flying Cross for " outstanding courage , determination , skill and tenacity in the course of bombing raids on enemy positions in New Britain " . The success of the Gasmata operation prompted the Chief of the Air Staff to commend Lerew 's squadron for the " effort required by both crews and ground personnel owing to our small numbers and general condition " .
Returning to Australia , Lerew held various base commands including RAAF Station Townsville , RAAF Station Nowra in New South Wales , and Batchelor Airfield near Darwin , Northern Territory . He led No. 7 Squadron , operating Bristol Beauforts out of first Nowra and then Townsville , from August to December 1942 . He then returned to RAAF Station Laverton to take charge of No. 1 Aircraft Depot ( No. 1 AD ) . Lerew 's biographer , Lex McAulay , speculated of this quick succession of postings across the country : " ... it is easy to assume that this Wing Commander whose critical reports were seen by the War Cabinet , and who had twice escaped the enemy at close quarters , was not to be allowed personal contact with the media of the day until his experiences were no longer topical and were overtaken by more recent momentous events " . Though degree @-@ qualified in civil engineering , Lerew believed he was underused in the technical environment of No. 1 AD , and sought another overseas posting . Nevertheless , his tenure at Laverton helped prepare him for his later flying safety work . In September 1943 , he investigated the crash of a Vultee Vengeance flown by an experienced aviator , and found that when rolling the aircraft to the right it was possible for the pilot 's movements to release his safety harness , making it impossible for him to remain in his seat and control the aircraft . Lerew designed and developed a clip to prevent a recurrence of this mishap , which was later adopted worldwide for all such harnesses .
Lerew was posted to RAAF Overseas Headquarters , London , in December 1943 . He travelled via the United States , meeting film stars Bing Crosby , Bob Hope , and Dorothy Lamour on the set of Road to Utopia at Los Angeles in February 1944 . In London , he undertook study of RAF and USAAF methods of operations , as well as diplomatic duties . Of the invasion of France on 6 June 1944 , he wrote : " There has been no rejoicing . A hushed quietness has descended over London and all of England . Most people have relatives in it , and there is only one wish : that is , that it will end quickly . It is depressing to be playing no part in it . " Later in the year , Lerew was invested with his Distinguished Flying Cross by King George VI at Buckingham Palace . He returned to Australia in early 1945 , and married Laurie Steele , the Australian @-@ born widow of a Royal Air Force night @-@ fighter pilot , having met her when he was stationed in England . The couple had two daughters , but eventually divorced . In March , Lerew took part in the investigation into the crash of a Hudson carrying Major General George Vasey ; he determined that the pilot 's lack of experience in instrument flying had been a factor , and recommended further such training for RAAF flight crew . Promoted group captain , he formed the Directorate of Flying Safety in June 1945 and served as its inaugural Director . Believing that the promotion of flying safety in the RAAF cut across both administrative and operational spheres , and aware of the notorious feud between the service 's two senior officers , Air Vice Marshals George Jones and Bill Bostock , Lerew had proposed that the new directorate be placed squarely under the auspices of Jones as Chief of the Air Staff , with authority to demand free access to information from all other directorates .
= = Post @-@ war career and later life = =
Dubious about the prospects for advancement in the post @-@ war military , Lerew applied for a role in the recently established Provisional International Civil Aviation Organisation ( PICAO ) in March 1946 , while still Director of Flying Safety in the RAAF . He had just been appointed Air Officer Commanding North @-@ Western Area in Darwin on 7 October 1946 when PICAO offered him the position of Technical Officer , which he accepted . He left the RAAF on 8 November 1946 , emigrating to Montreal , Canada , to take up his new employment with PICAO , which became ICAO in 1947 . Appointed Chief of Aerodromes , Air Routes and Ground Aids Section in January 1951 , he conducted assessments of airfields throughout the world , and led the team that recommended Hellinikon be developed as Athens ' international airport . Lerew received credit for several of ICAO 's accomplishments over the next decade , including various administrative reforms within the organisation and finalising a standard runway approach lighting system in 1953 following five years of disagreement among members . A colleague remembered him as having " that very fortunate duality of personality , being serious , efficient and knowledgeable in his official capacity , with an equally inherent twin ability to really liven things up off @-@ duty " .
In Mexico on 20 August 1966 , Lerew married Josephine Henriette Oude Reimerink , a Dutch national he had met three years earlier . He was promoted ICAO 's Chief of Flight Branch in April 1969 , in which capacity he served until retiring from the organisation in 1972 . In retirement , Lerew and his wife restored houses and travelled extensively . Their expeditions resulted in two narrow escapes , in December 1974 when they tired of the oppressively humid weather in Darwin and left just before Cyclone Tracy struck on Christmas Day , and in February 1976 when they decided to camp well away from Lake Atitlan , Guatemala , which was devastated soon after by an earthquake that left over 22 @,@ 000 people dead . The couple eventually settled in Vancouver , where John Lerew died of cancer on 24 February 1996 , aged eighty @-@ three . He was survived by Josephine and the children of his first marriage .
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= Allied naval bombardments of Japan during World War II =
During the last weeks of World War II , warships of the United States Navy , the British Royal Navy , and the Royal New Zealand Navy bombarded industrial and military facilities in Japan . Most of these bombardments involved battleships and caused heavy damage to several of the factories targeted , as well as nearby civilian areas . A major goal of the attacks was to provoke the Japanese military into committing some of its reserve force of aircraft into battle . However , the Japanese did not attempt to attack the Allied bombardment forces , and none of the involved warships suffered any damage .
The major bombardments began on 14 and 15 July 1945 , when US Navy warships attacked the cities of Kamaishi and Muroran . The next attack was made by a joint American and British force against the city of Hitachi during the night of 17 / 18 July . Groups of cruisers and destroyers subsequently shelled the Nojima Saki and Shionomisaki areas on 18 July and the night of 24 / 25 July , respectively . On 29 July , American and British warships attacked Hamamatsu , and on the night of 30 / 31 several American destroyers shelled Shimizu . The final bombardment took place on 9 August , when Kamaishi was attacked again by American , British and New Zealand warships . Two US Navy submarines conducted small @-@ scale attacks during June and July 1945 ; one of the submarines also landed a small raiding party .
The Allied naval bombardments disrupted industrial production in the cities targeted , and convinced many Japanese civilians that the war was lost . As many as 1 @,@ 739 Japanese were killed in the attacks , and up to 1 @,@ 497 were wounded . The only Allied casualties were 32 prisoners of war , who were killed in the bombardments of Kamaishi .
= = Background = =
By mid @-@ 1945 , cities and industrial facilities in the Japanese home islands were under sustained attack from United States Army Air Forces ( USAAF ) B @-@ 29 Superfortress heavy bombers based in the Mariana Islands . Attacks by Allied submarines and surface ships had also cut most of the country 's trade routes , and US Navy aircraft carrier task groups had raided locations in the home islands on several occasions . Shortages of fuel had confined most of the Imperial Japanese Navy 's surviving ships to port and forced them and the Imperial Japanese Army Air Service to hold its air units in reserve against the Allied invasion that was expected to be launched late in the year . Prior to the war , the Japanese military had assessed that coastal artillery was no longer suited to the country 's circumstances . As a result , only a few strategic ports were protected by artillery capable of engaging enemy warships , and most of these guns were of relatively small calibers .
During the Pacific War , the US Navy 's fast battleships had mainly been used to escort the groups of aircraft carriers that formed the United States Pacific Fleet 's main striking force . They had also occasionally bombarded Japanese positions near the shore , and had fought some actions with Japanese warships .
Allied naval commanders decided to use battleships to conduct a series of attacks against Japanese coastal cities in mid @-@ 1945 . It was hoped that the Japanese military would respond to these bombardments by attacking the Allied forces with the aircraft that were being held in reserve to respond to the planned invasion of Japan , thereby exposing these aircraft to destruction by Allied fighter aircraft . However , the Japanese Imperial General Headquarters had anticipated that the Allies would conduct bombardments and other operations with this goal , and decided to not attack naval forces operating off Japan . Instead , the aircraft would remain in reserve until Allied landing operations in the home islands began .
= = Bombardments = =
= = = First attack on Kamaishi = = =
On 1 July 1945 , the United States Third Fleet sortied from Leyte Gulf in the Philippines under the command of Admiral William Halsey to attack the Japanese home islands . Halsey 's plans included the use of battleships and cruisers to bombard military facilities and factories . To prepare for these attacks , US Navy submarines sailed into Japan 's inshore waters to search for naval mines . USAAF B @-@ 29 Superfortress and B @-@ 24 Liberator aircraft also conducted photo reconnaissance flights over much of Japan in search of airfields and facilities which could be attacked by the Third Fleet .
The Third Fleet 's main component , Task Force 38 ( TF 38 ) , began striking targets in Japan on 10 July under the command of Vice Admiral John S. McCain . On this day , aircraft flying from the Task Force 's aircraft carriers attacked facilities around Tokyo . Task Force 38 sailed north , and on 14 July began raids on Hokkaido and northern Honshu . These areas were outside the range of the B @-@ 29 Superfortress bombers , and had at that point not been attacked in the war . The American aircraft met little opposition , and sank 11 warships and 20 merchant ships . A further eight warships and 21 merchant ships were damaged , and the carrier aviators claimed to have destroyed 25 Japanese aircraft .
The first Allied bombardment of a Japanese coastal town was conducted on 14 July in conjunction with the air attacks on Hokkaido and northern Honshu . A bombardment group commanded by Rear Admiral John F. Shafroth designated Task Unit 34 @.@ 8 @.@ 1 ( TU 34 @.@ 8 @.@ 1 ) was detached from TF 38 to attack the iron works at Kamaishi in northern Honshu . At the time the city had a population of 40 @,@ 000 and the iron works was among the largest in Japan . However , due to shortages of coking coal and other raw materials , the iron works was running at less than half its capacity . TU 34 @.@ 8 @.@ 1 comprised the battleships USS South Dakota , Indiana and Massachusetts as well as the heavy cruisers USS Quincy and Chicago and nine destroyers . Allied prisoners of war had been assigned to work at the Nippon Steel Company , and were housed in two camps in Kamaishi .
The bombardment group opened fire on the ironworks at 12 : 10 p.m. from a range of 29 @,@ 000 yd ( 27 @,@ 000 m ) . The ships then moved closer to the city , but did not cross the 100 @-@ fathom line as no minesweepers were available to clear the area of mines . The bombardment lasted for over two hours , during which time the force made six passes across the mouth of Kamaishi 's harbor and fired 802 16 @-@ inch ( 410 mm ) shells , 728 8 @-@ inch ( 200 mm ) shells and 825 5 @-@ inch ( 130 mm ) shells . While most of the shells landed within the grounds of the ironworks , the concussion from their explosions caused kitchen fires to break out across Kamaishi . The resulting smoke prevented US Navy aircraft from being able to support or spot for the warships , which continued to fire accurately on predetermined targets . No Japanese aircraft or coastal guns responded to this bombardment . Allied aircraft photographed the ironworks following the attack , but photo interpreters underestimated the extent to which they had been damaged . This was one of the first times that photographic intelligence had been used to determine the extent of damage from a naval bombardment , and the interpreters placed too much weight on the fact that none of the ironworks ' buildings had been destroyed . The Allies learned after the war that the ironworks had been extensively damaged and forced to cease production for a period . This resulted in a loss of the equivalent of four weeks of pig iron production and two @-@ and @-@ a @-@ half months of coke production . Five Allied prisoners of war were killed by the bombardment .
= = = Muroran = = =
On the night of 14 / 15 July , another bombardment unit — TU 34 @.@ 8 @.@ 2 — was detached from TF 38 to attack the town of Muroran on the south @-@ east coast of Hokkaido . TU 34 @.@ 8 @.@ 2 was commanded by Rear Admiral Oscar C. Badger and comprised the battleships Iowa , Missouri and Wisconsin , the light cruisers Atlanta and Dayton , and eight destroyers . Admiral Halsey accompanied this force on board Missouri . The targets of this attack were the Japan Steel Company 's facilities and the Wanishi Iron Works . Also that night , a force of four cruisers and six destroyers cruised along the east coast of Honshu seeking to attack Japanese shipping but did not locate any targets .
TU 34 @.@ 8 @.@ 2 's bombardment began at dawn on 15 July . The three battleships fired 860 16 @-@ inch ( 410 mm ) shells at the city from a range of 28 @,@ 000 – 32 @,@ 000 yd ( 26 @,@ 000 – 29 @,@ 000 m ) . Aerial observation and spotting of damage was made difficult by hazy conditions , and only 170 shells landed within the grounds of the two plants . Nevertheless , considerable damage was inflicted on the industrial facilities , resulting in the loss of two @-@ and @-@ a @-@ half months of coke production and slightly less pig iron production . Damage to buildings across the city was also extensive . As with the bombardment of Kamaishi , photo interpreters underestimated the scale of the damage . TU 34 @.@ 8 @.@ 2 was highly vulnerable to air attack throughout the more @-@ than @-@ six @-@ hour period in which it was visible from the shore of Hokkaido , and Halsey later wrote that these were the longest hours of his life . The failure of the Japanese to attack his ships convinced Halsey that they were preserving aircraft for use against the Allied invasion force . On 15 July , aircraft flying from TF 38 's aircraft carriers struck again at Hokkaido and northern Honshu , devastating the fleet of ships that carried coal between the two islands .
= = = Hitachi = = =
The attacks on Hokkaido and northern Honshu ended on 15 July , and TF 38 sailed away from the Japanese coast to refuel and rendezvous with the main body of the British Pacific Fleet , which was designated Task Force 37 ( TF 37 ) . On the morning of 17 July , the British and American carriers attacked targets to the north of Tokyo . Later that day , TU 34 @.@ 8 @.@ 2 detached from the carrier force to bombard targets around the city of Hitachi , which is located about 80 mi ( 130 km ) northeast of Tokyo . This force was commanded by Rear Admiral Badger and comprised the battleships Iowa , Missouri , Wisconsin , North Carolina , Alabama , and HMS King George V , light cruisers Atlanta and Dayton , and eight American and two British destroyers . King George V and her two escorts sailed astern of the American force , and operated independently . Halsey again accompanied this force on board Missouri .
The bombardment of the Hitachi area took place on the night of 17 / 18 July . Rain and fog made locating the targets difficult and prevented spotting aircraft from flying , but several carrier aircraft flew protective patrols over the bombardment force . The Allied warships opened fire at 11 : 10 p.m. , and aimed at their targets using radar and LORAN . The attackers targeted nine industrial facilities , and King George V was assigned similar targets to those engaged by the American battleships . By the time the bombardment ceased at about 1 : 10 a.m. , the American battleships had fired 1 @,@ 238 16 @-@ inch ( 410 mm ) shells , and the British battleship 267 14 @-@ inch ( 360 mm ) shells . The two light cruisers also fired 292 6 @-@ inch ( 150 mm ) shells at radar and electronics installations south of Hitachi . All firing was conducted at a range of 23 @,@ 000 – 35 @,@ 000 yd ( 21 @,@ 000 – 32 @,@ 000 m ) from the targets .
The attack on Hitachi had mixed results . Only three of the bombardment 's nine targets were hit , and the overall damage to the city 's industrial area was assessed as " slight " . However , the attack inflicted considerable damage on the city 's urban area and essential services . This damage was greatly increased by a B @-@ 29 raid on Hitachi on the night of 18 / 19 July that destroyed or damaged 79 percent of the city 's urban area . The official history of the US Navy in World War II states that " individual Japanese " considered the naval bombardment to have been more terrifying than the air attack .
= = = Nojima Saki and Shionomisaki = = =
On 18 July , TFs 37 and 38 conducted further air strikes in the Tokyo area , with the American force 's main effort being an attempt to sink the Japanese battleship Nagato at Yokosuka Naval Base . That night , Cruiser Division 17 ( CruDiv 17 ) , which comprised the light cruisers USS Astoria , Pasadena , Springfield and Wilkes @-@ Barre and six destroyers under the command of Rear Admiral J. Cary Jones , fired 240 6 @-@ inch ( 150 mm ) shells at a radar station on Cape Nojima over a five @-@ minute period but did not score any hits .
After completing its strikes on the Tokyo region , the Allied fleet conducted an at @-@ sea replenishment from 21 to 23 July before attacking Kure and the Inland Sea from the 24th to the 28th of the month . On the night of 24 / 25 July , CruDiv 17 patrolled the Kii Channel and bombarded the naval seaplane base at Kushimoto , a landing field near Cape Shionomisaki , and a radio station . This attack lasted for only four minutes and caused little damage .
= = = Hamamatsu = = =
On 29 July , a group of warships was detached from the main body of the Allied fleet to bombard the city of Hamamatsu , which lies on the south coast of Honshu between Nagoya and Tokyo . This force comprised the same ships which had attacked Kamaishi on 14 July with the addition of King George V and the destroyers HMS Ulysses , Undine and Urania ; the four British ships were designated Task Unit 37 @.@ 1 @.@ 2 ( TU 37 @.@ 1 @.@ 2 ) . The city had previously suffered extensive damage from air attacks .
The British and American ships engaged their targets independently . King George V opened fire at the Japan Musical Instrument Company 's Plant No. 2 ( which was being used to manufacture aircraft propellers ) at 11 : 19 p.m. from a range of 20 @,@ 075 yd ( 18 @,@ 357 m ) . The battleship fired 265 14 @-@ inch ( 360 mm ) rounds at the plant in 27 minutes and was able to make use of artillery spotting aircraft , with visibility being good . Even so , little damage was inflicted on the facility . Massachusetts fired at Plant No. 1 but scored only a small number of hits . Despite the limited physical damage , the shelling caused increased labor absenteeism and disruption to vital services that caused the factory to cease production . The American ships also shelled the Imperial Government Railway locomotive works and three other industrial facilities .
Of these targets , the locomotive works ceased operations for about three months due to damage , but two of the other facilities had almost ceased production before the attack and the third was not damaged . Two bridges on the important Tōkaidō Main Line were fired upon but not hit , though damage to rail infrastructure in Hamamatsu closed the line for 66 hours . During the bombardment Undine twice opened fire on small groups of ships that were probably fishing boats . No Japanese aircraft or shore batteries responded to the Allied attack . The bombardment of Hamamatsu was the last time a British battleship fired its guns in anger .
= = = Shimizu = = =
The next bombardment of Japan took place on the night of 30 / 31 July . On that night Destroyer Squadron 25 ( DesRon 25 ) , which was commanded by Captain J.W. Ludewig aboard USS John Rodgers , searched the Suruga Gulf for Japanese shipping to attack . No ships were located , and in the early hours of 31 July the squadron sailed deep into the gulf and fired 1 @,@ 100 rounds of 5 @-@ inch ( 130 mm ) shells during seven minutes at a railway yard and aluminum plant in the town of Shimizu . While the aluminum plant was hit , this was of little importance as it had almost ceased production due to a shortage of raw materials . No damage was caused to the rail yard .
= = = Second attack on Kamaishi = = =
During the last days of July and into early August , the Allied fleet sailed away from the Japanese coast to avoid a typhoon and allow the ships to replenish their stocks of fuel and ammunition . The fleet then sailed north and , on both 9 and 10 August , the carrier aircraft attacked a large concentration of Japanese aircraft on airfields in northern Honshu . The carrier pilots claimed the destruction of 720 Japanese aircraft in this operation .
As part of these operations off northern Japan , Kamaishi was bombarded again on 9 August in the mistaken belief that the iron works had not been badly damaged . TU 34 @.@ 8 @.@ 1 conducted this attack , and comprised the ships that had bombarded the city in July with the addition of the heavy cruisers USS Boston and Saint Paul , British light cruiser HMS Newfoundland , Royal New Zealand Navy light cruiser HMNZS Gambia and destroyers HMS Terpsichore , Termagant and Tenacious . King George V did not participate in this action as mechanical problems affecting two of her propeller shafts meant that she was unable to sail at the speed specified for the bombardment force .
The Allied ships opened fire on the iron works and docks in Kamaishi at 12 : 54 p.m. The bombardment was conducted from an average range of 14 @,@ 000 yd ( 13 @,@ 000 m ) and lasted for almost two hours . During this time , the ships made four passes across Kamaishi harbor and fired 803 16 @-@ inch ( 410 mm ) shells , 1 @,@ 383 8 @-@ inch ( 200 mm ) shells and 733 6 @-@ inch ( 150 mm ) shells . Gambia fired the final shots of the attack . During the bombardment , several Japanese aircraft approached the Allied ships and two were shot down by Allied naval fighters . This bombardment caused more damage than the attack conducted in July , and large quantities of pig iron were destroyed . The sounds of this bombardment were broadcast live on radio in the United States via a radio relay on board Iowa . One of the prisoner of war camps in Kamaishi was destroyed by the Allied attack , resulting in the deaths of 27 Allied prisoners .
A further bombardment by King George V , three light cruisers and escorting destroyers was planned to be conducted against an unspecified Japanese target on 13 August . This attack was cancelled due both to the battleship 's mechanical problems and the atomic bombings of Hiroshima and Nagasaki . The Allied fleet did not conduct any other bombardments as Japan surrendered on 15 August .
= = = Submarine attacks = = =
Two US Navy submarines attacked locations in the Japanese home islands during June and July 1945 . On 20 June USS Barb arrived off Japan 's northern islands under the command of Commander Gene Fluckey . For this patrol the submarine had been fitted with an experimental 5 @-@ inch ( 130 mm ) rocket launcher intended for shore bombardments . Shortly after midnight on 22 June the submarine fired 12 rockets at the town of Shari in north @-@ east Hokkaido . Barb then proceeded north , and on 2 July bombarded the town of Kaiyo in south @-@ east Sakhalin with its deck gun . This attack destroyed three sampans docked in the town , damaged a seal rookery and caused several fires to break out . The next day the submarine fired more rockets at the town of Shisuka . A party of eight men from Barb was landed on the east coast of Sakhalin on 23 July and planted demolition charges on a railroad track . Shortly after the men began rowing back to the submarine the charges were triggered by a passing train ; 150 people , including civilians , were killed . On 24 July , Barb fired 32 rockets at the town of Shiritori and 12 rockets at Kashiho . As the submarine returned to base it shelled the towns of Chiri on 25 July and Shibertoro the next day .
The other submarine bombardment took place during the morning of 24 June , when USS Trutta fired some shells at the island of Hirado Shima in the Tsushima Strait between Japan and Korea . This attack sought to convince the Japanese that a force of American submarines that had been operating in the Sea of Japan would attempt to depart via the Tsushima Strait , instead of their actual route far to the north through the La Pérouse Strait between Honshu and Sakhalin .
= = Results = =
Although the naval bombardments did not result in the reaction the Allies were hoping for from the Japanese military , they disrupted the country 's steel industry . While several of the factories attacked were operating at reduced capacity , the important Kamaishi and Wanishi Iron Works suffered heavy damage when they were bombarded in July and August . During both these attacks , the Allied gunnery was accurate and focused on the factories ' coke batteries , which were critical to continued production . Post @-@ war assessments found that the damage caused to industrial buildings by even 16 @-@ inch ( 410 mm ) naval shells was less than that which could be inflicted by the 2 @,@ 000 lb ( 910 kg ) and 1 @,@ 000 lb ( 450 kg ) general @-@ purpose bombs that were used by Allied naval aircraft . While this supported a view put forward by Vice Admiral McCain that the aircraft assigned to protect the bombardment forces could have caused more damage than the ships themselves , the post @-@ war United States Strategic Bombing Survey judged that the naval bombardments were justified as there had been little risk to the ships involved .
The bombardments also affected Japanese morale . Japanese civilians who experienced both air and naval bombardment found the naval attacks to be more terrifying due to their unpredictability and longer duration . Several of the industrial facilities that suffered little damage in bombardments incurred a significant loss in production due to absenteeism and reduced productivity . This was not the case for all facilities that were attacked though , and the morale among workers in two of the bombarded factories was reported to have increased . The appearance of Allied warships just off the coast also convinced many Japanese that the war had been lost . However , such attitudes did not contribute to bringing the war to an end as the views of civilians had little influence on the Japanese Government 's decision to surrender .
In 1949 , the Japanese Economic Stabilization Agency calculated that the Allied naval bombardments and other forms of attack other than bombing had caused 3 @,@ 282 casualties , representing 0 @.@ 5 percent of all casualties inflicted by the Allies in the Japanese home islands . The casualties attributed to naval bombardments and other causes included 1 @,@ 739 fatalities , 46 persons who were still classified as missing and 1 @,@ 497 people who were wounded .
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= Donegal fiddle tradition =
The Donegal fiddle tradition is the way of playing the fiddle that is traditional in County Donegal , Ireland . It is one of the distinct fiddle traditions within Irish traditional music .
The distinctness of the Donegal tradition developed due to the close relations between Donegal and Scotland , and the Donegal repertoire and style has influences from Scottish fiddle music . For example , in addition to the standard tune types such as Jigs and Reels , the Donegal tradition also has Highlands ( influenced by the Scottish Strathspey ) . The distinctiveness of the Donegal tradition led to some conflict between Donegal players and representatives of the mainstream tradition when Irish traditional music was organised in the 1960s .
The tradition has several distinguishing traits compared to other fiddle traditions such as the Sliabh Luachra style of southern ireland , most of which involves styles of bowing and the ornamentation of the music , and rhythm . Due to the frequency of double stops and the strong bowing it is often compared to the Cape Breton tradition . Another characteristic of the style is the rapid pace at which it tends to proceed . Modern players , such as the fiddle group Altan , continue to be popular due to a variety of reasons .
Among the most famous Donegal style players are John Doherty from the early twentieth century and James Byrne , Paddy Glackin , Tommy Peoples and Mairéad Ní Mhaonaigh in recent decades .
= = History = =
The fiddle has ancient roots in Ireland , the first report of bowed instruments similar to the violin being in the Book of Leinster ( ca . 1160 ) . The modern violin was ubiquitous in Ireland by the early 1700s . However the first mention of the fiddle being in use in Donegal is from the blind harper Arthur O 'Neill who in his 1760 memoirs described a wedding in Ardara as having " plenty of pipers and fiddlers " . Donegal fiddlers participated in the development of the Irish music tradition in the 18th century during which jigs and slipjigs and later reels and hornpipes became the dominant musical forms . However , Donegal musicians , many of them being fishermen , also frequently travelled to Scotland , where they acquired tune types from the Scottish repertoire such as the Strathspey which was integrated into the Donegal tradition as " Highland " tunes . The Donegal tradition derives much of its unique character from the synthesis of Irish and Scottish stylistic features and repertoires . Aoidh notes however that while different types of art music were commonly played among the upper classes of Scottish society in the 18th century , the Donegal tradition drew exclusively from the popular types of Scottish music . Like some Scottish fiddlers ( who , like Donegal fiddlers , tend to use a short bow and play in a straight @-@ ahead fashion ) , some Donegal fiddlers worked at imitating the sound of the bagpipes . Workers from Donegal would bring their music to Scotland and also bring back Scottish tunes with them such music of J. Scott Skinner and Mackenzie Murdoch . Lilting , unaccompanied singing of wordless tunes , was also an important part of the Donegal musical tradition often performed by women in social settings . Describing the musical life of Arranmore Island in the late 19th century singer Róise Rua Nic Gríanna describes the most popular dances : " The Sets , the Lancers , the Maggie Pickie [ i.e. , Maggie Pickins ] the Donkey , the Mazurka and the Barn dances " . Among the travelling fiddlers of the late 19th century players such as John Mhosaí McGinley , Anthony Hilferty , the McConnells and the Dohertys are best known . As skill levels increased through apprenticeships several fiddle masters appeared such as the Cassidy 's , Connie Haughey , Jimmy Lyons and Miock McShane of Teelin and Francie Dearg and Mickey Bán Byrne of Kilcar . These virtuosos played unaccompanied listening pieces in addition to the more common dance music .
The influences between Scotland and Donegal went both ways and were furthered by a wave of immigration from Donegal to Scotland in the 19th century ( the regions share common names of dances ) , as can be heard in the volume of strathspeys , schottisches , marches , and Donegal 's own strong piping tradition , has influenced and been influenced by music , and by the sounds , ornaments , and repertoire of the Píob Mhór , the traditional bagpipes of Ireland and Scotland . There are other differences between the Donegal style and the rest of Ireland . Instruments such as the tin whistle , flute , concertina and accordion were very rare in Donegal until modern times . Traditionally the píob mór and the fiddle were the only instruments used and the use of pipe or fiddle music was common in old wedding customs . Migrant workers carried their music to Scotland and also brought back a number of tunes of Scottish origin . The Donegal fiddlers may well have been the route by which Scottish tunes such as Lucy Campbell , Tarbolton Lodge ( Tarbolton ) and The Flagon ( The Flogging Reel ) , that entered the Irish repertoire . These players prided themselves on their technical abilities , which included playing in higher positions ( fairly uncommon among traditional Irish fiddlers ) , and sought out material which would demonstrate their skills .
As Irish music was consolidated and organised under the Comhaltas Ceoltóirí Éireann movement in the 1960s , both strengthened the interest in traditional music but sometimes conflicted with the Donegal tradition and its social conventions . The rigidly organised sessions of the Comhaltas reflected the traditions of Southern Ireland and Donegal fiddlers like John Doherty considered the National repertoire with its strong focus on reels to be less diverse than that of Donegal with its varied rhythms . Other old fiddlers dislike the ways comhaltas sessions were organised with a committee player , often not himself a musician , in charge . Sometimes Comhaltas representatives would even disparage the Donegal tradition , with its Scottish flavour , as being un @-@ Irish , and prohibit them from playing local tunes with Scottish genealogies such as the " Highlands " at Comhaltas sessions . This sometimes cause antagonism between Donegal players and the main organisation of Traditinoal music in ireland .
Outside of the Comhaltas movement however , Donegal fiddling stood strong with Paddy Glackin of Ceoltorí Laighean and the Bothy Band and later Tommy Peoples also with the Bothy Band and Mairead Ni Mhaonaigh with Altan , who all drew attention and prestige to the Donegal tradition within folk music circles throughout Ireland .
= = Description of style = =
The Donegal style of fiddling is a label often applied to music from this area , though one also might plausibly identify several different , but related , styles within the county . To the extent to which there is one common style in the county , it is characterised by a rapid pace ; a tendency to be more un @-@ swung in the playing of the fast dance tune types ( reel and jigs ) ; short ( non @-@ slurred ) , aggressive bowing , sparse ornamentation , the use of bowed triplets more often than trills as ornaments , the use of double stops and droning ; and the occurrence of " playing the octave " , with one player playing the melody and the other playing the melody an octave lower . None of these characteristics are universal , and there is some disagreement as to the extent to which there is a common style at all . In general , however , the style is rather aggressive .
Another feature of Donegal fiddling that makes it distinctive among Irish musical traditions is the variety of rare tune types that are played . Highlands , a type of tune in 4 / 4 time with some similarities to Scottish strathspeys , which are also played in Donegal , are one of the most commonly played types of tune in the county . Other tune types common solely in the county include barndances , also called " Germans , " and mazurkas .
= = Fiddlers of the Donegal tradition = =
= = = Historical = = =
There are a number of different strands to the history of fiddle playing in County Donegal . Perhaps the best @-@ known and , in the last half of the twentieth century , the most influential has been that of the Doherty family . Hugh Doherty is the first known musician of this family . Born in 1790 , he headed an unbroken tradition of fiddlers and pipers in the Doherty family until the death , in 1980 , of perhaps the best @-@ known Donegal fiddler , John Doherty . John , a travelling tinsmith , was known for his extremely precise and fast finger- and bow @-@ work and vast repertoire , and is considered to be one of the greatest Irish fiddlers ever recorded . John 's older brother , Mickey , was also recorded and , though Mickey was another of the great Irish fiddlers , his reputation has been overshadowed by John 's .
There is no single Donegal style but several distinctive styles . These styles traditionally come from the geographical isolated regions of Donegal including Inishowen , eastern Donegal , The Rosses and Gweedore , Croaghs , Teelin , Kilcar , Glencolmcille , Ballyshannon and Bundoran . Even with improved communications and transport , these regions still have recognisably different ways of fiddle playing . Notable deceased players of the older Donegal styles include Neillidh ( " Neilly " ) Boyle , Francie Byrne , Con Cassidy , Frank Cassidy , James Byrne ( 1946 – 2008 ) , and P.V. O 'Donnell ( 2011 ) . Currently living Donegal fiddlers , include , Vincent Campbell , John Gallagher , Paddy Glackin , Danny O 'Donnell , and Tommy Peoples .
= = = Modern = = =
Fiddle playing continues to be popular in Donegal . The three fiddlers of the Donegal " supergroup " Altan , Mairéad Ní Mhaonaigh , Paul O 'Shaughnessy , and Ciarán Tourish , are generally admired within Donegal . An example of another fiddler @-@ player from Donegal is Liz Doherty .
The fiddle , and traditional music in general , remained popular in Donegal not only because of the international coverage of certain artists but because of local pride in the music . Traditional music Seisiúns are still common place both in pubs and in houses . The Donegal fiddle music has been influenced by recorded music , but this is claimed to have had a positive impact on the tradition . Modern Donegal fiddle music is often played in concerts and recorded on albums .
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= 1903 Tour de France =
The 1903 Tour de France was the first cycling race set up and sponsored by the newspaper L 'Auto , ancestor of the current daily , L 'Équipe . It ran from 1 to 19 July in six stages over 2 @,@ 428 km ( 1 @,@ 509 mi ) , and was won by Maurice Garin .
The race was invented to boost the circulation of L 'Auto , after its circulation started to plummet from competition with the long @-@ standing Le Vélo . Originally scheduled to start in June , the race was postponed one month , and the prize money was increased , after a disappointing level of applications from competitors . The 1903 Tour de France was the first stage road race , and compared to modern Grand Tours , it had relatively few stages , but each was much longer than those raced today . The cyclists did not have to compete in all six stages , although this was necessary to qualify for the general classification .
The pre @-@ race favourite , Maurice Garin , won the first stage , and retained the lead throughout . He also won the last two stages , and had a margin of almost three hours over the next cyclist . The circulation of L 'Auto increased more than sixfold during and after the race , so the race was considered successful enough to be rerun in 1904 , by which time Le Vélo had been forced out of business .
= = Origin = =
After the Dreyfus affair separated advertisers from the newspaper Le Vélo , a new newspaper L 'Auto @-@ Vélo was founded in 1900 , with former cyclist Henri Desgrange as editor . After being forced to change the name of the newspaper to L 'Auto in 1903 , Desgrange needed something to keep the cycling fans ; with circulation at 20 @,@ 000 , he could not afford to lose them .
When Desgrange and young employee Géo Lefèvre were returning from the Marseille – Paris cycling race , Lefèvre suggested holding a race around France , similar to the popular six @-@ day races on the track . Desgrange proposed the idea to the financial controller Victor Goddet , who gave his approval , and on 19 January 1903 , the Tour de France was announced in L 'Auto .
It was to have been a five @-@ week race , from 1 June to 5 July , with an entry fee of 20 francs . These conditions attracted very few cyclists : one week before the race was due to start , only 15 competitors had signed up . Desgrange then rescheduled the race from 1 to 19 July , increased the total prize money to 20 @,@ 000 francs , reduced the entry fee to 10 francs and guaranteed at least five francs a day to the first 50 cyclists in the classification . After that , 79 cyclists signed up for the race , of whom 60 actually started the race .
Géo Lefévre became the director , judge and time @-@ keeper ; Henri Desgrange was the directeur @-@ général , although he did not follow the race .
= = Rules and course = =
The 1903 Tour de France was run in six stages . Compared to modern stage races , the stages were extraordinarily long , with an average distance of over 400 km ( 250 mi ) , compared to the 171 km ( 106 mi ) average stage length in the 2004 Tour de France ; cyclists had one to three rest days between each stage , and the route was largely flat , with only one stage featuring a significant mountain . The cyclists were not grouped in teams but raced as individuals , and paid a fee of ten francs ( € 87 @.@ 50 at 2003 prices ) to compete in the race for general classification , or five francs to enter a single stage . Because the stages were so long , all but the first started before dawn : the last stage started at 21 : 00 the night before .
The first Tour de France crossed no mountain passes , but several lesser cols . The first was the col des Echarmeaux ( 712 m ( 2 @,@ 336 ft ) ) , on the opening stage from Paris to Lyon , on what is now the old road from Autun to Lyon . The stage from Lyon to Marseille included the col de la République ( 1 @,@ 161 m ( 3 @,@ 809 ft ) ) , also known as the col du Grand Bois , at the edge of St @-@ Etienne .
In 1903 , it was normal for a professional cyclist to hire pacers , who would lead them during the race . Desgrange forbade this : it was originally intended that in the final , longest , stage pacers would be allowed , but this was rescinded after the fifth stage .
To ensure that the cyclists rode the entire route , stewards were stationed at various points around the course . The yellow jersey for the leader in the general classification had not yet been introduced , but the leader was identified by a green armband .
The fastest eight cyclists on each stage received a prize between 50 francs and 1 @,@ 500 francs , varying per stage . The fourteen best cyclists in the general classification received a prize from 3 @,@ 000 francs for the winner to 25 francs for fourteenth place . The remaining seven cyclists to finish in the general classification each received 95 francs , 5 francs for each of the 19 days that the race took , provided that they had not won more than 200 francs in prize money and did not have an average speed below 20 km / h ( 12 mph ) on any stage .
= = Participants = =
In contrast to modern stage races , a cyclist who gave up during a stage was allowed to start again the next stage , although he would no longer be in contention for the general classification . Thus Hippolyte Aucouturier , who gave up during the first stage , was able to return , and won the second and third stages . Charles Laeser , winner of the fourth stage , had not completed the third stage .
Sixty cyclists , all professionals or semi @-@ professionals , started the race , of whom 49 were French , 4 Belgian , 4 Swiss , 2 German , and one Italian ; 21 of them were sponsored by bicycle manufacturers , while 39 entered without commercial support . 24 other cyclists took advantage of the opportunity to enter specific stages : one rode in both the second and fourth stages , and additionally three cyclists took part in the second stage , one in the third stage , fifteen in the fourth stage only , and a further four only competed in the fifth stage .
= = Race details = =
The pre @-@ race favourites for the victory were Maurice Garin and Hippolyte Aucouturier . Garin dominated the race from the start by winning the first stage , a 471 km ( 293 mi ) parcours from Paris to Lyon . The stage started at 15 : 16 , and the cyclists initially rode with a speed of 35 km / h . The first cyclists abandoned after around 50 km ( 31 mi ) . At 23 : 00 , Garin and Emile Pagie , leading the race , reached the control point in Nevers . Garin expected at that point that they would finish at 8 : 00 the next morning . During the night , Garin 's main rival , Aucouturier , had stomach cramps , and was unable to finish the stage . Also during that first stage , the first breach of the rules occurred : Jean Fischer had used a car as pacer , which was illegal . Pagie fell down , but got up again ; he and Garin kept leading the race during the night . Around 9 : 00 in the morning , both reached Lyon . Garin got away from Pagie , and finished one minute ahead .
Although Aucouturier had abandoned in the first stage , and so was not eligible for the general classification , he could still start the rest of the stages . In the second stage , Aucouturier was able to win the sprint . In the third stage , the cyclists who were competing for the general classification started one hour earlier than the other cyclists , including Aucouturier . At the end of that stage , a group of four cyclists had broken away , and Eugène Brange won the sprint . Aucouturier finished 27 minutes later , but this meant that he had run the course 33 minutes faster , so he was declared the winner of the stage . Garin retained the lead , helped by a crash of second @-@ placed Pagie in the second stage , which eliminated him from the race . In the fourth stage , Aucouturier had a clear lead and seemed set to win a third successive stage , but was caught using the slipstream of a car , and was removed from the race . Swiss Charles Laeser ( who had abandoned in the 3rd stage ) took the victory , becoming the first non @-@ French winner . As in the third stage , the cyclists departed in two groups , and Laeser was in the second group because he was no longer contending for the general classification . Laeser finished more than 50 minutes after a group of six cyclists , but he had travelled the distance 4 minutes faster than them , so he was declared the winner .
At that point , Garin was leading , with Émile Georget almost two hours behind . In the fifth stage , Georget had two flat tires , and fell asleep when he stopped at the side of the road to rest ; he failed to finish . Thus Garin extended his lead by winning this stage , carrying nearly three hours ' advantage into the final day 's racing . Garin had requested other cyclists in the leading group to let him win the stage , but Fernand Augereau refused to do this . Garin then had Lucien Pothier throw down his bicycle in front of Augereau , who fell , and Garin then bent Augereau 's rear wheel . Augereau quickly obtained a spare bike and continued to the finish , however Garin easily won the sprint . Augereau still received a prize of 100 francs from Velo @-@ Sport Nantes for the fastest final kilometer of the stage in the Nantes velodrome . The last stage was the longest , at 471 km ( 293 mi ) , and ran from Nantes to the small town of Ville @-@ d 'Avray , which lies between Versailles and Paris , instead of at the Parc des Princes velodrome . This was because of a bylaw forbidding road races to end on cycling tracks ( a bylaw subsequently repealed in light of the race 's success ) . Garin took his third stage win , and sealed overall victory by 2 hours 59 minutes 31 seconds : this remains the greatest margin of victory in the Tour de France . After celebrating with champagne , the riders cycled to Parc des Princes , where they made several laps of honour before an adoring crowd , to the sound of a bugle .
= = Results = =
= = = Stage results = = =
In 1903 , there was no distinction in the rules between plain stages and mountain stages ; the icons shown here indicate whether the stage included mountains .
= = = General classification = = =
There were 21 cyclists who had completed all six stages . For these cyclists , the times taken for each stage were added up for the general classification . The cyclist with the least accumulated time was the winner . The cyclists officially were not grouped in teams ; some cyclists had the same sponsor , even though they were not allowed to work together .
= = Aftermath = =
The circulation of L 'Auto increased significantly due to this event ; a special edition of 130 @,@ 000 copies was made after the race was over , and normal circulation increased from 25 @,@ 000 to 65 @,@ 000 . The big success made sure that the Tour de France was scheduled again for 1904 . The cyclists had also become national heroes . Maurice Garin returned for the 1904 Tour de France but his title defence failed when he was disqualified . With the prize money that he won in 1903 , which totalled 6 @,@ 075 francs , ( approximately US $ 40 @,@ 000 and GBP £ 23 @,@ 000 in 2006 values ) Garin later bought a gas station , where he worked for the rest of his life .
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= Switzerland =
Switzerland ( / ˈswɪtsərlənd / ) , officially the Swiss Confederation ( Latin : Confoederatio Helvetica , hence its abbreviation CH ) , is a federal republic in Europe . While still named the " Swiss Confederation " for historical reasons , modern Switzerland is a federal directorial republic consisting of 26 cantons , with Bern as the seat of the federal authorities , called ' " federal city " ( German : Bundesstadt , French : Ville féderale , Italian : Capitale federale ) . The country is situated in Western and Central Europe , and is bordered by Italy to the south , France to the west , Germany to the north , and Austria and Liechtenstein to the east . Switzerland is a landlocked country geographically divided between the Alps , the Swiss Plateau and the Jura , spanning an area of 41 @,@ 285 km2 ( 15 @,@ 940 sq mi ) . While the Alps occupy the greater part of the territory , the Swiss population of approximately eight million people is concentrated mostly on the plateau , where the largest cities are to be found : among them are the two global and economic centers Zürich and Geneva .
The establishment of the Swiss Confederation is traditionally dated to 1 August 1291 , which is celebrated annually as the Swiss National Day . The country has a long history of armed neutrality — it has not been in a state of war internationally since 1815 — and did not join the United Nations until 2002 . Nevertheless , it pursues an active foreign policy and is frequently involved in peace @-@ building processes around the world . In addition to being the birthplace of the Red Cross , Switzerland is home to numerous international organizations , including the second largest UN office . On the European level , it is a founding member of the European Free Trade Association , but notably it is not part of the European Union , nor the European Economic Area . However , the country does participate in the Schengen Area and the EU 's single market through a number of bilateral treaties .
Spanning the intersection of Germanic and Romance Europe , Switzerland comprises four main linguistic and cultural regions : German , French , Italian and Romansh . Although the majority of the population are German speaking , Swiss national identity is rooted in a common historical background , shared values such as federalism and direct democracy , and Alpine symbolism . Due to its linguistic diversity , Switzerland is known by a variety of native names : Schweiz [ ˈʃvaɪts ] ( German ) ; Suisse [ sɥis ( ə ) ] ( French ) ; Svizzera [ ˈzvittsera ] ( Italian ) ; and Svizra [ ˈʒviːtsrɐ ] or [ ˈʒviːtsʁːɐ ] ( Romansh ) .
Switzerland is one of the most developed countries in the world , with the highest nominal wealth per adult and the eighth @-@ highest per capita gross domestic product according to the IMF . Switzerland ranks at or near the top globally in several metrics of national performance , including government transparency , civil liberties , quality of life , economic competitiveness , and human development . Zürich and Geneva have each been ranked among the top cities in the world in terms of quality of life , with the former ranked second globally , according to Mercer .
= = Etymology = =
The English name Switzerland is a compound containing Switzer , an obsolete term for the Swiss , which was in use during the 16th to 19th centuries . The English adjective Swiss is a loan from French Suisse , also in use since the 16th century . The name Switzer is from the Alemannic Schwiizer , in origin an inhabitant of Schwyz and its associated territory , one of the Waldstätten cantons which formed the nucleus of the Old Swiss Confederacy . The name originates as an exonym , applied pars pro toto to the troops of the Confederacy . The Swiss began to adopt the name for themselves after the Swabian War of 1499 , used alongside the term for " Confederates " , Eidgenossen ( literally : comrades by oath ) , used since the 14th century .
The toponym Schwyz itself was first attested in 972 , as Old High German Suittes , ultimately perhaps related to suedan " to burn " , referring to the area of forest that was burned and cleared to build . The name was extended to the area dominated by the canton , and after the Swabian War of 1499 gradually came to be used for the entire Confederation . The Swiss German name of the country , Schwiiz , is homophonous to that of the canton and the settlement , but distinguished by the use of the definite article ( d 'Schwiiz for the Confederation , but simply Schwyz for the canton and the town ) .
The Latin name Confoederatio Helvetica was neologized and introduced gradually after the formation of the federal state in 1848 , harking back to the Napoleonic Helvetic Republic , appearing on coins from 1879 , inscribed on the Federal Palace in 1902 and after 1948 used in the official seal . ( The ISO banking code , " CHF " for the Swiss franc , is taken from the state 's Latin name ) . Helvetica is derived from the Helvetii , a Gaulish tribe living on the Swiss plateau before the Roman era .
Helvetia appears as a national personification of the Swiss confederacy in the 17th century with a 1672 play by Johann Caspar Weissenbach .
= = History = =
Switzerland has existed as a state in its present form since the adoption of the Swiss Federal Constitution in 1848 . The precursors of Switzerland established a protective alliance at the end of the 13th century ( 1291 ) , forming a loose confederation of states which persisted for centuries .
= = = Early history = = =
The oldest traces of hominid existence in Switzerland date back about 150 @,@ 000 years . The oldest known farming settlements in Switzerland , which were found at Gächlingen , have been dated to around 5300 BC .
The earliest known cultural tribes of the area were members of the Hallstatt and La Tène cultures , named after the archaeological site of La Tène on the north side of Lake Neuchâtel . La Tène culture developed and flourished during the late Iron Age from around 450 BC , possibly under some influence from the Greek and Etruscan civilisations . One of the most important tribal groups in the Swiss region was the Helvetii . Steadily harassed by the Germans , in 58 BC the Helvetii decided to abandon the Swiss plateau and migrate to western Gallia , but Julius Caesar 's armies pursued and defeated them at the Battle of Bibracte , in today 's eastern France , forcing the tribe to move back to its original homeland . In 15 BC , Tiberius , who was destined to be the second Roman emperor and his brother , Drusus , conquered the Alps , integrating them into the Roman Empire . The area occupied by the Helvetii — the namesakes of the later Confoederatio Helvetica — first became part of Rome 's Gallia Belgica province and then of its Germania Superior province , while the eastern portion of modern Switzerland was integrated into the Roman province of Raetia . Sometime around the start of the Common Era , the Romans maintained a large legionary camp called Vindonissa , now a ruin at the confluence of the Aare and Reuss rivers , near the town of Windisch , an outskirt of Brugg .
The first and second century AD were an age of prosperity for the population living on the Swiss plateau . Several towns , like Aventicum , Iulia Equestris and Augusta Raurica , reached a remarkable size , while hundreds of agricultural estates ( Villae rusticae ) were founded in the countryside .
In about 260 AD , the fall of the Agri Decumates territory north of the Rhine transformed today 's Switzerland into a frontier land of the Empire . Repeated raids by the Alamanni tribes provoked the ruin of the Roman towns and economy , forcing the population to find shelter near Roman fortresses , like the Castrum Rauracense near Augusta Raurica . The Empire built another line of defense at the north border ( the so @-@ called Donau @-@ Iller @-@ Rhine @-@ Limes ) , but at the end of the fourth century the increased Germanic pressure forced the Romans to abandon the linear defence concept , and the Swiss plateau was finally open to the settlement of German tribes .
In the Early Middle Ages , from the end of the 4th century , the western extent of modern @-@ day Switzerland was part of the territory of the Kings of the Burgundians . The Alemanni settled the Swiss plateau in the 5th century and the valleys of the Alps in the 8th century , forming Alemannia . Modern @-@ day Switzerland was therefore then divided between the kingdoms of Alemannia and Burgundy . The entire region became part of the expanding Frankish Empire in the 6th century , following Clovis I 's victory over the Alemanni at Tolbiac in 504 AD , and later Frankish domination of the Burgundians .
Throughout the rest of the 6th , 7th and 8th centuries the Swiss regions continued under Frankish hegemony ( Merovingian and Carolingian dynasties ) . But after its extension under Charlemagne , the Frankish empire was divided by the Treaty of Verdun in 843 . The territories of present @-@ day Switzerland became divided into Middle Francia and East Francia until they were reunified under the Holy Roman Empire around 1000 AD .
By 1200 , the Swiss plateau comprised the dominions of the houses of Savoy , Zähringer , Habsburg , and Kyburg . Some regions ( Uri , Schwyz , Unterwalden , later known as Waldstätten ) were accorded the Imperial immediacy to grant the empire direct control over the mountain passes . With the extinction of its male line in 1263 the Kyburg dynasty fell in AD 1264 ; then the Habsburgs under King Rudolph I ( Holy Roman Emperor in 1273 ) laid claim to the Kyburg lands and annexed them extending their territory to the eastern Swiss plateau .
= = = Old Swiss Confederacy = = =
The Old Swiss Confederacy was an alliance among the valley communities of the central Alps . The Confederacy facilitated management of common interests and ensured peace on the important mountain trade routes . The Federal Charter of 1291 agreed between the rural communes of Uri , Schwyz , and Unterwalden is considered the confederacy 's founding document , even though similar alliances are likely to have existed decades earlier .
By 1353 , the three original cantons had joined with the cantons of Glarus and Zug and the Lucerne , Zürich and Bern city states to form the " Old Confederacy " of eight states that existed until the end of the 15th century . The expansion led to increased power and wealth for the confederation . By 1460 , the confederates controlled most of the territory south and west of the Rhine to the Alps and the Jura mountains , particularly after victories against the Habsburgs ( Battle of Sempach , Battle of Näfels ) , over Charles the Bold of Burgundy during the 1470s , and the success of the Swiss mercenaries . The Swiss victory in the Swabian War against the Swabian League of Emperor Maximilian I in 1499 amounted to de facto independence within the Holy Roman Empire .
The Old Swiss Confederacy had acquired a reputation of invincibility during these earlier wars , but expansion of the confederation suffered a setback in 1515 with the Swiss defeat in the Battle of Marignano . This ended the so @-@ called " heroic " epoch of Swiss history . The success of Zwingli 's Reformation in some cantons led to inter @-@ cantonal religious conflicts in 1529 and 1531 ( Wars of Kappel ) . It was not until more than one hundred years after these internal wars that , in 1648 , under the Peace of Westphalia , European countries recognized Switzerland 's independence from the Holy Roman Empire and its neutrality .
During the Early Modern period of Swiss history , the growing authoritarianism of the patriciate families combined with a financial crisis in the wake of the Thirty Years ' War led to the Swiss peasant war of 1653 . In the background to this struggle , the conflict between Catholic and Protestant cantons persisted , erupting in further violence at the First War of Villmergen , in 1656 , and the Toggenburg War ( or Second War of Villmergen ) , in 1712 .
= = = Napoleonic era = = =
In 1798 , the revolutionary French government conquered Switzerland and imposed a new unified constitution . This centralised the government of the country , effectively abolishing the cantons : moreover , Mülhausen joined France and Valtellina valley , the Cisalpine Republic , separating from Switzerland . The new regime , known as the Helvetic Republic , was highly unpopular . It had been imposed by a foreign invading army and destroyed centuries of tradition , making Switzerland nothing more than a French satellite state . The fierce French suppression of the Nidwalden Revolt in September 1798 was an example of the oppressive presence of the French Army and the local population 's resistance to the occupation .
When war broke out between France and its rivals , Russian and Austrian forces invaded Switzerland . The Swiss refused to fight alongside the French in the name of the Helvetic Republic . In 1803 Napoleon organised a meeting of the leading Swiss politicians from both sides in Paris . The result was the Act of Mediation which largely restored Swiss autonomy and introduced a Confederation of 19 cantons . Henceforth , much of Swiss politics would concern balancing the cantons ' tradition of self @-@ rule with the need for a central government .
In 1815 the Congress of Vienna fully re @-@ established Swiss independence and the European powers agreed to permanently recognise Swiss neutrality . Swiss troops still served foreign governments until 1860 when they fought in the Siege of Gaeta . The treaty also allowed Switzerland to increase its territory , with the admission of the cantons of Valais , Neuchâtel and Geneva . Switzerland 's borders have not changed since , except for some minor adjustments .
= = = Federal state = = =
The restoration of power to the patriciate was only temporary . After a period of unrest with repeated violent clashes such as the Züriputsch of 1839 , civil war ( the Sonderbundskrieg ) broke out in 1847 when some Catholic cantons tried to set up a separate alliance ( the Sonderbund ) . The war lasted for less than a month , causing fewer than 100 casualties , most of which were through friendly fire . Yet however minor the Sonderbundskrieg appears compared with other European riots and wars in the 19th century , it nevertheless had a major impact on both the psychology and the society of the Swiss and of Switzerland .
The war convinced most Swiss of the need for unity and strength towards its European neighbours . Swiss people from all strata of society , whether Catholic or Protestant , from the liberal or conservative current , realised that the cantons would profit more if their economic and religious interests were merged .
Thus , while the rest of Europe saw revolutionary uprisings , the Swiss drew up a constitution which provided for a federal layout , much of it inspired by the American example . This constitution provided for a central authority while leaving the cantons the right to self @-@ government on local issues . Giving credit to those who favoured the power of the cantons ( the Sonderbund Kantone ) , the national assembly was divided between an upper house ( the Council of States , two representatives per canton ) and a lower house ( the National Council , with representatives elected from across the country ) . Referenda were made mandatory for any amendment of this constitution .
A system of single weights and measures was introduced and in 1850 the Swiss franc became the Swiss single currency . Article 11 of the constitution forbade sending troops to serve abroad , though the Swiss were still obliged to serve Francis II of the Two Sicilies with Swiss Guards present at the Siege of Gaeta in 1860 , marking the end of foreign service .
An important clause of the constitution was that it could be re @-@ written completely if this was deemed necessary , thus enabling it to evolve as a whole rather than being modified one amendment at a time .
This need soon proved itself when the rise in population and the Industrial Revolution that followed led to calls to modify the constitution accordingly . An early draft was rejected by the population in 1872 but modifications led to its acceptance in 1874 . It introduced the facultative referendum for laws at the federal level . It also established federal responsibility for defense , trade , and legal matters .
In 1891 , the constitution was revised with unusually strong elements of direct democracy , which remain unique even today .
= = = Modern history = = =
Switzerland was not invaded during either of the world wars . During World War I , Switzerland was home to Vladimir Illych Ulyanov ( Vladimir Lenin ) and he remained there until 1917 . Swiss neutrality was seriously questioned by the Grimm – Hoffmann Affair in 1917 , but it was short @-@ lived . In 1920 , Switzerland joined the League of Nations , which was based in Geneva , on condition that it was exempt from any military requirements .
During World War II , detailed invasion plans were drawn up by the Germans , but Switzerland was never attacked . Switzerland was able to remain independent through a combination of military deterrence , concessions to Germany , and good fortune as larger events during the war delayed an invasion . Under General Henri Guisan central command , a general mobilisation of the armed forces was ordered . The Swiss military strategy was changed from one of static defence at the borders to protect the economic heartland , to one of organised long @-@ term attrition and withdrawal to strong , well @-@ stockpiled positions high in the Alps known as the Reduit . Switzerland was an important base for espionage by both sides in the conflict and often mediated communications between the Axis and Allied powers .
Switzerland 's trade was blockaded by both the Allies and by the Axis . Economic cooperation and extension of credit to the Third Reich varied according to the perceived likelihood of invasion and the availability of other trading partners . Concessions reached a peak after a crucial rail link through Vichy France was severed in 1942 , leaving Switzerland completely surrounded by the Axis . Over the course of the war , Switzerland interned over 300 @,@ 000 refugees and the International Red Cross , based in Geneva , played an important part during the conflict . Strict immigration and asylum policies as well as the financial relationships with Nazi Germany raised controversy , but not until the end of the 20th century .
During the war , the Swiss Air Force engaged aircraft of both sides , shooting down 11 intruding Luftwaffe planes in May and June 1940 , then forcing down other intruders after a change of policy following threats from Germany . Over 100 Allied bombers and their crews were interned during the war . During 1944 – 45 , Allied bombers mistakenly bombed a few places in Switzerland , among which were the cities of Schaffhausen , Basel and Zürich .
After the war , the Swiss government exported credits through the charitable fund known as the Schweizerspende and also donated to the Marshall Plan to help Europe 's recovery , efforts that ultimately benefited the Swiss economy .
During the Cold War , Swiss authorities considered the construction of a Swiss nuclear bomb . Leading nuclear physicists at the Federal Institute of Technology Zürich such as Paul Scherrer made this a realistic possibility . However , financial problems with the defense budget prevented the substantial funds from being allocated , and the Nuclear Non @-@ Proliferation Treaty of 1968 was seen as a valid alternative . All remaining plans for building nuclear weapons were dropped by 1988 .
Switzerland was the last Western republic to grant women the right to vote . Some Swiss cantons approved this in 1959 , while at the federal level it was achieved in 1971 and , after resistance , in the last canton Appenzell Innerrhoden ( one of only two remaining Landsgemeinde ) in 1990 . After obtaining suffrage at the federal level , women quickly rose in political significance , with the first woman on the seven member Federal Council executive being Elisabeth Kopp , who served from 1984 – 1989 , and the first female president being Ruth Dreifuss in 1999 .
Switzerland joined the Council of Europe in 1963 . In 1979 areas from the canton of Bern attained independence from the Bernese , forming the new canton of Jura . On 18 April 1999 the Swiss population and the cantons voted in favour of a completely revised federal constitution .
In 2002 Switzerland became a full member of the United Nations , leaving the Vatican City as the last widely recognised state without full UN membership . Switzerland is a founding member of the EFTA , but is not a member of the European Economic Area . An application for membership in the European Union was sent in May 1992 , but not advanced since the EEA was rejected in December 1992 when Switzerland was the only country to launch a referendum on the EEA . There have since been several referenda on the EU issue ; due to a mixed reaction from the population the membership application has been frozen . Nonetheless , Swiss law is gradually being adjusted to conform with that of the EU , and the government has signed a number of bilateral agreements with the European Union . Switzerland , together with Liechtenstein , has been completely surrounded by the EU since Austria 's entry in 1995 . On 5 June 2005 , Swiss voters agreed by a 55 % majority to join the Schengen treaty , a result that was regarded by EU commentators as a sign of support by Switzerland , a country that is traditionally perceived as independent and reluctant to enter supranational bodies .
= = Geography = =
Extending across the north and south side of the Alps in west @-@ central Europe , Switzerland encompasses a great diversity of landscapes and climates on a limited area of 41 @,@ 285 square kilometres ( 15 @,@ 940 sq mi ) . The population is about 8 million , resulting in an average population density of around 195 people per square kilometre ( 500 / sq mi ) . The more mountainous southern half of the country is far more sparsely populated than the northern half . In the largest Canton of Graubünden , lying entirely in the Alps , population density falls to 27 / km ² ( 70 / sq mi ) .
Switzerland lies between latitudes 45 ° and 48 ° N , and longitudes 5 ° and 11 ° E. It contains three basic topographical areas : the Swiss Alps to the south , the Swiss Plateau or Central Plateau , and the Jura mountains on the west . The Alps are a high mountain range running across the central @-@ south of the country , comprising about 60 % of the country 's total area . The majority of the Swiss population live in the Swiss Plateau . Among the high valleys of the Swiss Alps many glaciers are found , totalling an area of 1 @,@ 063 square kilometres ( 410 sq mi ) . From these originate the headwaters of several major rivers , such as the Rhine , Inn , Ticino and Rhône , which flow in the four cardinal directions into the whole of Europe . The hydrographic network includes several of the largest bodies of freshwater in Central and Western Europe , among which are included Lake Geneva ( also called le Lac Léman in French ) , Lake Constance ( known as Bodensee in German ) and Lake Maggiore . Switzerland has more than 1500 lakes , and contains 6 % of Europe 's stock of fresh water . Lakes and glaciers cover about 6 % of the national territory . The largest lake is Lake Geneva , in western Switzerland shared with France . The Rhône is both the main source and outflow of Lake Geneva . Lake Constance is the second largest Swiss lake and , like the Lake Geneva , an intermediate step by the Rhine at the border to Austria and Germany . While the Rhône flows into the Mediterranean Sea at the French Camargue region and the Rhine flows into the North Sea at Rotterdam in the Netherlands , about 1000 km apart , both springs are only about 22 km apart from each other in the Swiss Alps .
48 of Switzerland 's mountains are 4 @,@ 000 metres ( 13 @,@ 000 ft ) above sea in altitude or higher . At 4 @,@ 634 m ( 15 @,@ 203 ft ) , Monte Rosa is the highest , although the Matterhorn ( 4 @,@ 478 m or 14 @,@ 692 ft ) is often regarded as the most famous . Both are located within the Pennine Alps in the canton of Valais , on the border with Italy . The section of the Bernese Alps above the deep glacial Lauterbrunnen valley , containing 72 waterfalls , is well known for the Jungfrau ( 4 @,@ 158 m or 13 @,@ 642 ft ) Eiger and Mönch , and the many picturesque valleys in the region . In the southeast the long Engadin Valley , encompassing the St. Moritz area in canton of Graubünden , is also well known ; the highest peak in the neighbouring Bernina Alps is Piz Bernina ( 4 @,@ 049 m or 13 @,@ 284 ft ) .
The more populous northern part of the country , comprising about 30 % of the country 's total area , is called the Swiss Plateau . It has greater open and hilly landscapes , partly forested , partly open pastures , usually with grazing herds , or vegetables and fruit fields , but it is still hilly . There are large lakes found here and the biggest Swiss cities are in this area of the country .
= = = Climate = = =
The Swiss climate is generally temperate , but can vary greatly between the localities , from glacial conditions on the mountaintops to the often pleasant near Mediterranean climate at Switzerland 's southern tip . There are some valley areas in the southern part of Switzerland where some cold @-@ hardy palm trees are found . Summers tend to be warm and humid at times with periodic rainfall so they are ideal for pastures and grazing . The less humid winters in the mountains may see long intervals of stable conditions for weeks , while the lower lands tend to suffer from inversion , during these periods , thus seeing no sun for weeks .
A weather phenomenon known as the föhn ( with an identical effect to the chinook wind ) can occur at all times of the year and is characterised by an unexpectedly warm wind , bringing air of very low relative humidity to the north of the Alps during rainfall periods on the southern face of the Alps . This works both ways across the alps but is more efficient if blowing from the south due to the steeper step for oncoming wind from the south . Valleys running south to north trigger the best effect . The driest conditions persist in all inner alpine valleys that receive less rain because arriving clouds lose a lot of their content while crossing the mountains before reaching these areas . Large alpine areas such as Graubünden remain drier than pre @-@ alpine areas and as in the main valley of the Valais wine grapes are grown there .
The wettest conditions persist in the high Alps and in the Ticino canton which has much sun yet heavy bursts of rain from time to time . Precipitation tends to be spread moderately throughout the year with a peak in summer . Autumn is the driest season , winter receives less precipitation than summer , yet the weather patterns in Switzerland are not in a stable climate system and can be variable from year to year with no strict and predictable periods .
= = = Environment = = =
Switzerland 's ecosystems can be particularly fragile , because the many delicate valleys separated by high mountains often form unique ecologies . The mountainous regions themselves are also vulnerable , with a rich range of plants not found at other altitudes , and experience some pressure from visitors and grazing . The climatic , geological and topographical conditions of the alpine region make for a very fragile ecosystem that is particularly sensitive to climate change . Nevertheless , according to the 2014 Environmental Performance Index , Switzerland ranks first among 132 nations in safeguarding the environment , due to its high scores on environmental public health , its heavy reliance on renewable sources of energy ( hydropower and geothermal energy ) , and its control of greenhouse gas emissions .
= = Politics = =
The Federal Constitution adopted in 1848 is the legal foundation of the modern federal state . It is among the oldest constitutions in the world . A new Constitution was adopted in 1999 , but did not introduce notable changes to the federal structure . It outlines basic and political rights of individuals and citizen participation in public affairs , divides the powers between the Confederation and the cantons and defines federal jurisdiction and authority . There are three main governing bodies on the federal level : the bicameral parliament ( legislative ) , the Federal Council ( executive ) and the Federal Court ( judicial ) .
The Swiss Parliament consists of two houses : the Council of States which has 46 representatives ( two from each canton and one from each half @-@ canton ) who are elected under a system determined by each canton , and the National Council , which consists of 200 members who are elected under a system of proportional representation , depending on the population of each canton . Members of both houses serve for 4 years . When both houses are in joint session , they are known collectively as the Federal Assembly . Through referendums , citizens may challenge any law passed by parliament and through initiatives , introduce amendments to the federal constitution , thus making Switzerland a direct democracy .
The Federal Council constitutes the federal government , directs the federal administration and serves as collective Head of State . It is a collegial body of seven members , elected for a four @-@ year mandate by the Federal Assembly which also exercises oversight over the Council . The President of the Confederation is elected by the Assembly from among the seven members , traditionally in rotation and for a one @-@ year term ; the President chairs the government and assumes representative functions . However , the president is a primus inter pares with no additional powers , and remains the head of a department within the administration .
The Swiss government has been a coalition of the four major political parties since 1959 , each party having a number of seats that roughly reflects its share of electorate and representation in the federal parliament . The classic distribution of 2 CVP / PDC , 2 SPS / PSS , 2 FDP / PRD and 1 SVP / UDC as it stood from 1959 to 2003 was known as the " magic formula " . Following the 2015 Federal Council elections , the seven seats in the Federal Council were distributed as follows :
1 seat for the Christian Democratic People 's Party ( CVP / PDC ) ,
2 seats for the Free Democratic Party ( FDP / PRD ) ,
2 seats for the Social Democratic Party ( SPS / PSS ) ,
2 seats for the Swiss People 's Party ( SVP / UDC ) .
The function of the Federal Supreme Court is to hear appeals against rulings of cantonal or federal courts . The judges are elected by the Federal Assembly for six @-@ year terms .
= = = Direct democracy = = =
Direct democracy and federalism are hallmarks of the Swiss political system . Swiss citizens are subject to three legal jurisdictions : the municipality , canton and federal levels . The 1848 / 1999 federal constitution defines a system of direct democracy ( sometimes called half @-@ direct or representative direct democracy because it is aided by the more commonplace institutions of a representative democracy ) . The instruments of this system at the federal level , known as popular rights ( German : Volksrechte , French : droits populaires , Italian : Diritti popolari ) , include the right to submit a federal initiative and a referendum , both of which may overturn parliamentary decisions .
By calling a federal referendum , a group of citizens may challenge a law passed by parliament , if they gather 50 @,@ 000 signatures against the law within 100 days . If so , a national vote is scheduled where voters decide by a simple majority whether to accept or reject the law . Any 8 cantons together can also call a constitutional referendum on a federal law .
Similarly , the federal constitutional initiative allows citizens to put a constitutional amendment to a national vote , if 100 @,@ 000 voters sign the proposed amendment within 18 months . The Federal Council and the Federal Assembly can supplement the proposed amendment with a counter @-@ proposal , and then voters must indicate a preference on the ballot in case both proposals are accepted . Constitutional amendments , whether introduced by initiative or in parliament , must be accepted by a double majority of the national popular vote and the cantonal popular votes .
= = = Administrative divisions = = =
The Swiss Confederation consists of 20 cantons and 6 half cantons :
* These cantons are known as half @-@ cantons and are thus represented by only one councillor ( instead of two ) in the Council of States .
The cantons have a permanent constitutional status and , in comparison with the situation in other countries , a high degree of independence . Under the Federal Constitution , all 26 cantons are equal in status . Each canton has its own constitution , and its own parliament , government and courts . However , there are considerable differences between the individual cantons , most particularly in terms of population and geographical area . Their populations vary between 15 @,@ 000 ( Appenzell Innerrhoden ) and 1 @,@ 253 @,@ 500 ( Zürich ) , and their area between 37 km2 ( 14 sq mi ) ( Basel @-@ Stadt ) and 7 @,@ 105 km2 ( 2 @,@ 743 sq mi ) ( Graubünden ) . The Cantons comprise a total of 2 @,@ 485 municipalities . Within Switzerland there are two enclaves : Büsingen belongs to Germany , Campione d 'Italia belongs to Italy .
= = = Foreign relations and international institutions = = =
Traditionally , Switzerland avoids alliances that might entail military , political , or direct economic action and has been neutral since the end of its expansion in 1515 . Its policy of neutrality was internationally recognised at the Congress of Vienna in 1815 . Only in 2002 did Switzerland become a full member of the United Nations and it was the first state to join it by referendum . Switzerland maintains diplomatic relations with almost all countries and historically has served as an intermediary between other states . Switzerland is not a member of the European Union ; the Swiss people have consistently rejected membership since the early 1990s . However , Switzerland does participate in the Schengen Area .
A large number of international institutions have their seats in Switzerland , in part because of its policy of neutrality . Geneva is the birthplace of the Red Cross and Red Crescent Movement and the Geneva Conventions and , since 2006 , hosts the United Nations Human Rights Council . Even though Switzerland is one of the most recent countries to have joined the United Nations , the Palace of Nations in Geneva is the second biggest centre for the United Nations after New York , and Switzerland was a founding member and home to the League of Nations .
Apart from the United Nations headquarters , the Swiss Confederation is host to many UN agencies , like the World Health Organization ( WHO ) , the International Labour Organization ( ILO ) , the International Telecommunication Union ( ITU ) , the United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees ( UNHCR ) and about 200 other international organisations , including the World Trade Organization and the World Intellectual Property Organization . The annual meetings of the World Economic Forum in Davos bring together top international business and political leaders from Switzerland and foreign countries to discuss important issues facing the world , including health and the environment . Additionally the headquarters of the Bank for International Settlements ( BIS ) are located in Basel since 1930 .
Furthermore , many sport federations and organisations are located throughout the country , such as the International Basketball Federation in Geneva , the Union of European Football Associations ( UEFA ) in Nyon , the International Federation of Association Football ( FIFA ) and the International Ice Hockey Federation both in Zürich , the International Cycling Union in Aigle , and the International Olympic Committee in Lausanne .
= = = Military = = =
The Swiss Armed Forces , including the Land Forces and the Air Force , are composed mostly of conscripts , male citizens aged from 20 to 34 ( in special cases up to 50 ) years . Being a landlocked country , Switzerland has no navy ; however , on lakes bordering neighbouring countries , armed military patrol boats are used . Swiss citizens are prohibited from serving in foreign armies , except for the Swiss Guards of the Vatican , or if they are dual citizens of a foreign country and reside there .
The structure of the Swiss militia system stipulates that the soldiers keep their Army issued equipment , including all personal weapons , at home . Some organizations and political parties find this practice controversial but mainstream Swiss opinion is in favour of the system . Compulsory military service concerns all male Swiss citizens ; women can serve voluntarily . Men usually receive military conscription orders for training at the age of 18 . About two thirds of the young Swiss are found suited for service ; for those found unsuited , various forms of alternative service exist . Annually , approximately 20 @,@ 000 persons are trained in recruit centres for a duration from 18 to 21 weeks . The reform " Army XXI " was adopted by popular vote in 2003 , it replaced the previous model " Army 95 " , reducing the effectives from 400 @,@ 000 to about 200 @,@ 000 . Of those , 120 @,@ 000 are active in periodic Army training and 80 @,@ 000 are non @-@ training reserves .
Overall , three general mobilisations have been declared to ensure the integrity and neutrality of Switzerland . The first one was held on the occasion of the Franco @-@ Prussian War of 1870 – 71 . The second was in response to the outbreak of the First World War in August 1914 . The third mobilisation of the army took place in September 1939 in response to the German attack on Poland ; Henri Guisan was elected as the General @-@ in @-@ Chief .
Because of its neutrality policy , the Swiss army does not currently take part in armed conflicts in other countries , but is part of some peacekeeping missions around the world . Since 2000 the armed force department has also maintained the Onyx intelligence gathering system to monitor satellite communications .
Following the end of the Cold War there have been a number of attempts to curb military activity or even abolish the armed forces altogether . A notable referendum on the subject , launched by an anti @-@ militarist group , was held on 26 November 1989 . It was defeated with about two thirds of the voters against the proposal . A similar referendum , called for before , but held shortly after the 11 September attacks in the US , was defeated by over 78 % of voters .
Gun politics in Switzerland are unique in Europe in that a relatively high percentage ( 29 % ) of citizens are legally armed . The large majority of firearms kept at home are militia @-@ issued weapons , but ammunition is not issued .
= = Economy and labour law = =
Switzerland has a stable , prosperous and high @-@ tech economy and enjoys great wealth , being ranked as the wealthiest country in the world per capita in multiple rankings . In 2011 it was ranked as the wealthiest country in the world in per capita terms ( with " wealth " being defined to include both financial and non @-@ financial assets ) , while the 2013 Credit Suisse Global Wealth Report showed that Switzerland was the country with the highest average wealth per adult in 2013 . It has the world 's nineteenth largest economy by nominal GDP and the thirty @-@ sixth largest by purchasing power parity . It is the twentieth largest exporter , despite its small size . Switzerland has the highest European rating in the Index of Economic Freedom 2010 , while also providing large coverage through public services . The nominal per capita GDP is higher than those of the larger Western and Central European economies and Japan . If adjusted for purchasing power parity , Switzerland ranks 8th in the world in terms of GDP per capita , according to the World Bank and IMF ( ranked 15th according to the CIA Worldfactbook ) .
The World Economic Forum 's Global Competitiveness Report currently ranks Switzerland 's economy as the most competitive in the world , while ranked by the European Union as Europe 's most innovative country . For much of the 20th century , Switzerland was the wealthiest country in Europe by a considerable margin ( by GDP – per capita ) . In 2007 the gross median household income in Switzerland was an estimated 137 @,@ 094 USD at Purchasing power parity while the median income was 95 @,@ 824 USD . Switzerland also has one of the world 's largest account balances as a percentage of GDP .
Switzerland is home to several large multinational corporations . The largest Swiss companies by revenue are Glencore , Gunvor , Nestlé , Novartis , Hoffmann @-@ La Roche , ABB , Mercuria Energy Group and Adecco . Also , notable are UBS AG , Zurich Financial Services , Credit Suisse , Barry Callebaut , Swiss Re , Tetra Pak , The Swatch Group and Swiss International Air Lines . Switzerland is ranked as having one of the most powerful economies in the world .
Switzerland 's most important economic sector is manufacturing . Manufacturing consists largely of the production of specialist chemicals , health and pharmaceutical goods , scientific and precision measuring instruments and musical instruments . The largest exported goods are chemicals ( 34 % of exported goods ) , machines / electronics ( 20 @.@ 9 % ) , and precision instruments / watches ( 16 @.@ 9 % ) . Exported services amount to a third of exports . The service sector – especially banking and insurance , tourism , and international organisations – is another important industry for Switzerland .
Around 3 @.@ 8 million people work in Switzerland ; about 25 % of employees belonged to a trade union in 2004 . Switzerland has a more flexible job market than neighbouring countries and the unemployment rate is very low . The unemployment rate increased from a low of 1 @.@ 7 % in June 2000 to a peak of 4 @.@ 4 % in December 2009 . The unemployment rate is 3 @.@ 2 % in 2014 . Population growth from net immigration is quite high , at 0 @.@ 52 % of population in 2004 . The foreign citizen population was 21 @.@ 8 % in 2004 , about the same as in Australia . GDP per hour worked is the world 's 16th highest , at 49 @.@ 46 international dollars in 2012 .
Switzerland has an overwhelmingly private sector economy and low tax rates by Western World standards ; overall taxation is one of the smallest of developed countries . Switzerland is a relatively easy place to do business , currently ranking 20th of 189 countries in the Ease of Doing Business Index . The slow growth Switzerland experienced in the 1990s and the early 2000s has brought greater support for economic reforms and harmonization with the European Union . According to Credit Suisse , only about 37 % of residents own their own homes , one of the lowest rates of home ownership in Europe . Housing and food price levels were 171 % and 145 % of the EU @-@ 25 index in 2007 , compared to 113 % and 104 % in Germany .
The Swiss Federal budget had a size of 62 @.@ 8 billion Swiss francs in 2010 , which is an equivalent 11 @.@ 35 % of the country 's GDP in that year ; however , the regional ( canton ) budgets and the budgets of the municipalities are not counted as part of the federal budget and the total rate of government spending is closer to 33 @.@ 8 % of GDP . The main sources of income for the federal government are the value @-@ added tax ( 33 % ) and the direct federal tax ( 29 % ) and the main expenditure is located in the areas of social welfare and finance & tax . The expenditures of the Swiss Confederation have been growing from 7 % of GDP in 1960 to 9 @.@ 7 % in 1990 and to 10 @.@ 7 % in 2010 . While the sectors social welfare and finance & tax have been growing from 35 % in 1990 to 48 @.@ 2 % in 2010 , a significant reduction of expenditures has been occurring in the sectors of agriculture and national defense ; from 26 @.@ 5 % in to 12 @.@ 4 % ( estimation for the year 2015 ) .
Agricultural protectionism — a rare exception to Switzerland 's free trade policies — has contributed to high food prices . Product market liberalisation is lagging behind many EU countries according to the OECD . Nevertheless , domestic purchasing power is one of the best in the world . Apart from agriculture , economic and trade barriers between the European Union and Switzerland are minimal and Switzerland has free trade agreements worldwide . Switzerland is a member of the European Free Trade Association ( EFTA ) .
= = = Education and science = = =
Education in Switzerland is very diverse because the constitution of Switzerland delegates the authority for the school system to the cantons . There are both public and private schools , including many private international schools . The minimum age for primary school is about six years in all cantons , but most cantons provide a free " children 's school " starting at four or five years old . Primary school continues until grade four , five or six , depending on the school . Traditionally , the first foreign language in school was always one of the other national languages , although recently ( 2000 ) English was introduced first in a few cantons .
At the end of primary school ( or at the beginning of secondary school ) , pupils are separated according to their capacities in several ( often three ) sections . The fastest learners are taught advanced classes to be prepared for further studies and the matura , while students who assimilate a little more slowly receive an education more adapted to their needs .
There are 12 universities in Switzerland , ten of which are maintained at cantonal level and usually offer a range of non @-@ technical subjects . The first university in Switzerland was founded in 1460 in Basel ( with a faculty of medicine ) and has a tradition of chemical and medical research in Switzerland . The largest university in Switzerland is the University of Zurich with nearly 25 @,@ 000 students.The Swiss Federal Institute of Technology Zurich ( ETHZ ) and the University of Zurich are listed 20th and 54th respectively , on the 2015 Academic Ranking of World Universities . In addition , ETHZ " consistently ranks the top university in continental Europe " and University of Zurich ( UZH ) is ranked among the world ’ s top universities .
The two institutes sponsored by the federal government are the Swiss Federal Institute of Technology Zurich ( ETHZ ) in Zürich , founded 1855 and the EPFL in Lausanne , founded 1969 as such , which was formerly an institute associated with the University of Lausanne .
In addition , there are various Universities of Applied Sciences . In business and management studies , the University of St. Gallen , ( HSG ) is ranked 329th in the world according to QS World University Rankings and the International Institute for Management Development ( IMD ) , was ranked first in open programs worldwide by the Financial Times . Switzerland has the second highest rate ( almost 18 % in 2003 ) of foreign students in tertiary education , after Australia ( slightly over 18 % ) .
As might befit a country that plays home to innumerable international organizations , the Graduate Institute of International and Development Studies , located in Geneva , is not only continental Europe 's oldest graduate school of international and development studies , but also widely believed to be one of its most prestigious .
Many Nobel Prize laureates have been Swiss scientists . They include the world @-@ famous physicist Albert Einstein in the field of physics , who developed his Special relativity while working in Bern . More recently Vladimir Prelog , Heinrich Rohrer , Richard Ernst , Edmond Fischer , Rolf Zinkernagel and Kurt Wüthrich received Nobel Prizes in the sciences . In total , 113 Nobel Prize winners in all fields stand in relation to Switzerland and the Nobel Peace Prize has been awarded nine times to organisations residing in Switzerland .
Geneva and the nearby French department of Ain co @-@ host the world 's largest laboratory , CERN , dedicated to particle physics research . Another important research center is the Paul Scherrer Institute . Notable inventions include lysergic acid diethylamide ( LSD ) , the scanning tunneling microscope ( Nobel prize ) and Velcro . Some technologies enabled the exploration of new worlds such as the pressurized balloon of Auguste Piccard and the Bathyscaphe which permitted Jacques Piccard to reach the deepest point of the world 's oceans .
Switzerland Space Agency , the Swiss Space Office , has been involved in various space technologies and programs . In addition it was one of the 10 founders of the European Space Agency in 1975 and is the seventh largest contributor to the ESA budget . In the private sector , several companies are implicated in the space industry such as Oerlikon Space or Maxon Motors who provide spacecraft structures .
= = = Switzerland and the European Union = = =
Switzerland voted against membership in the European Economic Area in a referendum in December 1992 and has since maintained and developed its relationships with the European Union ( EU ) and European countries through bilateral agreements . In March 2001 , the Swiss people refused in a popular vote to start accession negotiations with the EU . In recent years , the Swiss have brought their economic practices largely into conformity with those of the EU in many ways , in an effort to enhance their international competitiveness . The economy grew at 3 % in 2010 , 1 @.@ 9 % in 2011 , and 1 % in 2012 . Full EU membership is a long @-@ term objective of some in the Swiss government , but there is considerable popular sentiment against this supported by the conservative SVP party . The western French @-@ speaking areas and the urban regions of the rest of the country tend to be more pro @-@ EU , however with far from any significant share of the population .
The government has established an Integration Office under the Department of Foreign Affairs and the Department of Economic Affairs . To minimise the negative consequences of Switzerland 's isolation from the rest of Europe , Bern and Brussels signed seven bilateral agreements to further liberalise trade ties . These agreements were signed in 1999 and took effect in 2001 . This first series of bilateral agreements included the free movement of persons . A second series covering nine areas was signed in 2004 and has since been ratified , which includes the Schengen Treaty and the Dublin Convention besides others . They continue to discuss further areas for cooperation .
In 2006 , Switzerland approved 1 billion francs of supportive investment in the poorer Southern and Central European countries in support of cooperation and positive ties to the EU as a whole . A further referendum will be needed to approve 300 million francs to support Romania and Bulgaria and their recent admission . The Swiss have also been under EU and sometimes international pressure to reduce banking secrecy and to raise tax rates to parity with the EU . Preparatory discussions are being opened in four new areas : opening up the electricity market , participation in the European GNSS project Galileo , cooperating with the European centre for disease prevention and recognising certificates of origin for food products .
On 27 November 2008 , the interior and justice ministers of European Union in Brussels announced Switzerland 's accession to the Schengen passport @-@ free zone from 12 December 2008 . The land border checkpoints will remain in place only for goods movements , but should not run controls on people , though people entering the country had their passports checked until 29 March 2009 if they originated from a Schengen nation .
On 9 February 2014 , Swiss voters narrowly approved by 50 @.@ 3 % a ballot initiative launched by the national conservative Swiss People 's Party ( SVP / UDC ) to restrict immigration , and thus reintroducing a quota system on the influx of foreigners . This initiative was mostly backed by rural ( 57 @.@ 6 % approvals ) , suburban ( 51 @.@ 2 % approvals ) , and isolated cities ( 51 @.@ 3 % approvals ) of Switzerland as well as by a strong majority ( 69 @.@ 2 % approval ) in the canton of Ticino , while metropolitan centres ( 58 @.@ 5 % rejection ) and the French @-@ speaking part ( 58 @.@ 5 % rejection ) of Switzerland rather rejected it . Some news commentators claim that this proposal de facto contradicts the bilateral agreements on the free movement of persons from these respective countries .
= = = Energy , infrastructure and environment = = =
Electricity generated in Switzerland is 56 % from hydroelectricity and 39 % from nuclear power , resulting in a nearly CO2 @-@ free electricity @-@ generating network . On 18 May 2003 , two anti @-@ nuclear initiatives were turned down : Moratorium Plus , aimed at forbidding the building of new nuclear power plants ( 41 @.@ 6 % supported and 58 @.@ 4 % opposed ) , and Electricity Without Nuclear ( 33 @.@ 7 % supported and 66 @.@ 3 % opposed ) .
The former ten @-@ year moratorium on the construction of new nuclear power plants was the result of a citizens ' initiative voted on in 1990 which had passed with 54 @.@ 5 % Yes vs. 45 @.@ 5 % No votes . Plans for a new nuclear plant in the Canton of Bern have been put on hold after the accident at the Fukushima Daiichi power plant in 2011 . The Swiss Federal Office of Energy ( SFOE ) is the office responsible for all questions relating to energy supply and energy use within the Federal Department of Environment , Transport , Energy and Communications ( DETEC ) . The agency is supporting the 2000 @-@ watt society initiative to cut the nation 's energy use by more than half by the year 2050 .
On 25 May 2011 the Swiss government announced that it plans to end its use of nuclear energy in the next 2 or 3 decades . " The government has voted for a phaseout because we want to ensure a secure and autonomous supply of energy " , Energy Minister Doris Leuthard said that day at a press conference in Bern . " Fukushima showed that the risk of nuclear power is too high , which in turn has also increased the costs of this energy form . " The first reactor would reportedly be taken offline in 2019 and the last one in 2034 . Parliament will discuss the plan in June 2011 , and there could be a referendum as well .
The most dense rail network in Europe of 5 @,@ 063 km ( 3 @,@ 146 mi ) carries over 350 million passengers annually . In 2007 , each Swiss citizen travelled on average 2 @,@ 258 km ( 1 @,@ 403 mi ) by rail , which makes them the keenest rail users . The network is administered mainly by the Federal Railways , except in Graubünden , where the 366 km ( 227 mi ) narrow gauge railway is operated by the Rhaetian Railways and includes some World Heritage lines . The building of new railway base tunnels through the Alps is under way to reduce the time of travel between north and south through the AlpTransit project .
Swiss private @-@ public managed road network is funded by road tolls and vehicle taxes . The Swiss autobahn / autoroute system requires the purchase of a vignette ( toll sticker ) — which costs 40 Swiss francs — for one calendar year in order to use its roadways , for both passenger cars and trucks . The Swiss autobahn / autoroute network has a total length of 1 @,@ 638 km ( 1 @,@ 018 mi ) ( as of 2000 ) and has , by an area of 41 @,@ 290 km2 ( 15 @,@ 940 sq mi ) , also one of the highest motorway densities in the world . Zürich Airport is Switzerland 's largest international flight gateway , which handled 22 @.@ 8 million passengers in 2012 . The other international airports are Geneva Airport ( 13 @.@ 9 million passengers in 2012 ) , EuroAirport Basel @-@ Mulhouse @-@ Freiburg which is located in France , Bern Airport , Lugano Airport , St. Gallen @-@ Altenrhein Airport and Sion Airport . Swiss International Air Lines is the flag carrier of Switzerland . Its main hub is Zürich .
Switzerland has one of the best environmental records among nations in the developed world ; it was one of the countries to sign the Kyoto Protocol in 1998 and ratified it in 2003 . With Mexico and the Republic of Korea it forms the Environmental Integrity Group ( EIG ) . The country is heavily active in recycling and anti @-@ littering regulations and is one of the top recyclers in the world , with 66 % to 96 % of recyclable materials being recycled , depending on the area of the country . The 2014 Global Green Economy Index ranked Switzerland among the top 10 green economies in the world .
In many places in Switzerland , household rubbish disposal is charged for . Rubbish ( except dangerous items , batteries etc . ) is only collected if it is in bags which either have a payment sticker attached , or in official bags with the surcharge paid at the time of purchase . This gives a financial incentive to recycle as much as possible , since recycling is free . Illegal disposal of garbage is not tolerated but usually the enforcement of such laws is limited to violations that involve the unlawful disposal of larger volumes at traffic intersections and public areas . Fines for not paying the disposal fee range from CHF 200 – 500 .
Switzerland also has internationally the most efficient system to recycle old newspapers and cardboard materials . Publicly organised collection by volunteers and economical railway transport logistics started as early as 1865 under the leadership of the notable industrialist Hans Caspar Escher ( Escher Wyss AG ) when the first modern Swiss paper manufacturing plant was built in Biberist .
= = Demographics = =
In 2012 , Switzerland 's population slightly exceeded eight million . In common with other developed countries , the Swiss population increased rapidly during the industrial era , quadrupling between 1800 and 1990 . Growth has since stabilized , and like most of Europe , Switzerland faces an aging population , albeit with consistent annual growth projected into 2035 , due mostly to immigration and a fertility rate close to replacement level .
As of 2012 , resident foreigners made up 23 @.@ 3 % of the population , one of the largest proportions in the developed world . Most of these ( 64 % ) were from European Union or EFTA countries . Italians were the largest single group of foreigners , with 15 @.@ 6 % of total foreign population , followed closely by Germans ( 15 @.@ 2 % ) , immigrants from Portugal ( 12 @.@ 7 % ) , France ( 5 @.@ 6 % ) , Serbia ( 5 @.@ 3 % ) , Turkey ( 3 @.@ 8 % ) , Spain ( 3 @.@ 7 % ) , and Austria ( 2 % ) . Immigrants from Sri Lanka , most of them former Tamil refugees , were the largest group among people of Asian origin ( 6 @.@ 3 % ) .
Additionally , the figures from 2012 show that 34 @.@ 7 % of the permanent resident population aged 15 or over in Switzerland ( around 2 @.@ 33 million ) , had an immigrant background . A third of this population ( 853 @,@ 000 ) held Swiss citizenship . Four fifths of persons with an immigration background were themselves immigrants ( first generation foreigners and native @-@ born and naturalised Swiss citizens ) , whereas one fifth were born in Switzerland ( second generation foreigners and native @-@ born and naturalised Swiss citizens ) .
In the 2000s , domestic and international institutions expressed concern about what was perceived as an increase in xenophobia , particularly in some political campaigns . In reply to one critical report , the Federal Council noted that " racism unfortunately is present in Switzerland " , but stated that the high proportion of foreign citizens in the country , as well as the generally unproblematic integration of foreigners " , underlined Switzerland 's openness .
= = = Languages = = =
Switzerland has four official languages : principally German ( spoken by 63 @.@ 5 % of the population in 2013 ) ; French ( 22 @.@ 5 % ) in the west ; and Italian ( 8 @.@ 1 % ) in the south . The fourth official language , Romansh ( 0 @.@ 5 % ) , is a Romance language spoken locally in the southeastern trilingual canton of Graubünden , and is designated by Article 4 of the Federal Constitution as a national language along with German , French , and Italian , and in Article 70 as an official language if the authorities communicate with persons who speak Romansh . However , federal laws and other official acts do not need to be decreed in Romansh .
In 2013 , the languages most spoken at home among permanent residents aged 15 and older were Swiss German ( 60 @.@ 1 % ) , French ( 23 @.@ 4 % ) , Standard German ( 10 @.@ 1 % ) , and Italian ( 8 @.@ 4 % ) . More than two @-@ fifths ( 42 @.@ 6 % ) of the permanent resident population indicated speaking more than one language regularly . Other languages spoken at home included English ( 4 @.@ 6 % ) , Portuguese ( 3 @.@ 5 % ) , Albanian ( 2 @.@ 6 % ) , Serbian and Croatian ( 2 @.@ 5 % ) , Spanish ( 2 @.@ 2 % ) , and Turkish ( 1 @.@ 3 % ) .
The federal government is obliged to communicate in the official languages , and in the federal parliament simultaneous translation is provided from and into German , French and Italian .
Aside from the official forms of their respective languages , the four linguistic regions of Switzerland also have their local dialectal forms . The role played by dialects in each linguistic region varies dramatically : in the German @-@ speaking regions , Swiss German dialects have become ever more prevalent since the second half of the 20th century , especially in the media , such as radio and television , and are used as an everyday language , while the Swiss variety of Standard German is almost always used instead of dialect for written communication ( c.f. diglossic usage of a language ) . Conversely , in the French @-@ speaking regions the local dialects have almost disappeared ( only 6 @.@ 3 % of the population of Valais , 3 @.@ 9 % of Fribourg , and 3 @.@ 1 % of Jura still spoke dialects at the end of the 20th century ) , while in the Italian @-@ speaking regions dialects are mostly limited to family settings and casual conversation .
The principal official languages ( German , French , and Italian ) have terms , not used outside of Switzerland , known as Helvetisms . German Helvetisms are , roughly speaking , a large group of words typical of Swiss Standard German , which do not appear either in Standard German , nor in other German dialects . These include terms from Switzerland 's surrounding language cultures ( German Billette from French ) , from similar term in another language ( Italian azione used not only as act but also as discount from German Aktion ) . The French spoken in Switzerland has similar terms , which are equally known as Helvetisms . The most frequent characteristics of Helvetisms are in vocabulary , phrases , and pronunciation , but certain Helvetisms denote themselves as special in syntax and orthography likewise . Duden , one of the prescriptive sources for Standard German , is aware of about 3000 Helvetisms . Current French dictionaries , such as the Petit Larousse , include several hundred Helvetisms .
Learning one of the other national languages at school is compulsory for all Swiss pupils , so many Swiss are supposed to be at least bilingual , especially those belonging to linguistic minority groups .
= = = Health = = =
Swiss citizens are universally required to buy health insurance from private insurance companies , which in turn are required to accept every applicant . While the cost of the system is among the highest it compares well with other European countries in terms of health outcomes ; patients who are citizens have been reported as being , in general , highly satisfied with it . In 2012 , life expectancy at birth was 80 @.@ 4 years for men and 84 @.@ 7 years for women — the highest in the world . However , spending on health is particularly high at 11 @.@ 4 % of GDP ( 2010 ) , on par with Germany and France ( 11 @.@ 6 % ) and other European countries , and notably less than spending in the USA ( 17 @.@ 6 % ) . From 1990 , a steady increase can be observed , reflecting the high costs of the services provided . With an ageing population and new healthcare technologies , health spending will likely continue to rise .
= = = Urbanization = = =
Between two thirds and three quarters of the population live in urban areas . Switzerland has gone from a largely rural country to an urban one in just 70 years . Since 1935 urban development has claimed as much of the Swiss landscape as it did during the previous 2 @,@ 000 years . This urban sprawl does not only affect the plateau but also the Jura and the Alpine foothills and there are growing concerns about land use . However , from the beginning of the 21st century , the population growth in urban areas is higher than in the countryside .
Switzerland has a dense network of cities , where large , medium and small cities are complementary . The plateau is very densely populated with about 450 people per km2 and the landscape continually shows signs of human presence . The weight of the largest metropolitan areas , which are Zürich , Geneva – Lausanne , Basel and Bern tend to increase . In international comparison the importance of these urban areas is stronger than their number of inhabitants suggests . In addition the two main centers of Zürich and Geneva are recognized for their particularly great quality of life .
= = = Religion = = =
Switzerland has no official state religion , though most of the cantons ( except Geneva and Neuchâtel ) recognize official churches , which are either the Catholic Church or the ( Protestant ) Swiss Reformed Church . These churches , and in some cantons also the Old Catholic Church and Jewish congregations , are financed by official taxation of adherents .
Christianity is the predominant religion of Switzerland ( about 71 % of resident population and 75 % of Swiss citizens ) , divided between the Catholic Church ( 38 @.@ 21 % of the population ) , the Swiss Reformed Church ( 26 @.@ 93 % ) , further Protestant churches ( 2 @.@ 89 % ) and other Christian denominations ( 2 @.@ 79 % ) . There has been a recent rise in Evangelicalism . Immigration has established Islam ( 4 @.@ 95 % ) and Eastern Orthodoxy ( around 2 % ) as sizeable minority religions . According to a 2015 poll by Gallup International , 12 % of Swiss people self @-@ identified as " convinced atheists . "
As of the 2000 census other Christian minority communities included Neo @-@ Pietism ( 0 @.@ 44 % ) , Pentecostalism ( 0 @.@ 28 % , mostly incorporated in the Schweizer Pfingstmission ) , Methodism ( 0 @.@ 13 % ) , the New Apostolic Church ( 0 @.@ 45 % ) , Jehovah 's Witnesses ( 0 @.@ 28 % ) , other Protestant denominations ( 0 @.@ 20 % ) , the Old Catholic Church ( 0 @.@ 18 % ) , other Christian denominations ( 0 @.@ 20 % ) . Non @-@ Christian religions are Hinduism ( 0 @.@ 38 % ) , Buddhism ( 0 @.@ 29 % ) , Judaism ( 0 @.@ 25 % ) and others ( 0 @.@ 11 % ) ; 4 @.@ 3 % did not make a statement . 21 @.@ 4 % in 2012 declared themselves as unchurched i.e. not affiliated with any church or other religious body ( Agnostic , Atheist , or just not related to any official religion ) .
The country was historically about evenly balanced between Catholic and Protestant , with a complex patchwork of majorities over most of the country . Geneva converted to Protestantism in 1536 , just before John Calvin arrived there . One canton , Appenzell , was officially divided into Catholic and Protestant sections in 1597 . The larger cities and their cantons ( Bern , Geneva , Lausanne , Zürich and Basel ) used to be predominantly Protestant . Central Switzerland , the Valais , the Ticino , Appenzell Innerrhodes , the Jura , and Fribourg are traditionally Catholic . The Swiss Constitution of 1848 , under the recent impression of the clashes of Catholic vs. Protestant cantons that culminated in the Sonderbundskrieg , consciously defines a consociational state , allowing the peaceful co @-@ existence of Catholics and Protestants . A 1980 initiative calling for the complete separation of church and state was rejected by 78 @.@ 9 % of the voters . Some traditionally Protestant cantons and cities nowadays have a slight Catholic majority , not because they were growing in members , quite the contrary , but only because since about 1970 a steadily growing minority became not affiliated with any church or other religious body ( 21 @.@ 4 % in Switzerland , 2012 ) especially in traditionally Protestant regions , such as Basel @-@ City ( 42 % ) , canton of Neuchâtel ( 38 % ) , canton of Geneva ( 35 % ) , canton of Vaud ( 26 % ) , or Zürich city ( city : > 25 % ; canton : 23 % ) .
= = Culture = =
Three of Europe 's major languages are official in Switzerland . Swiss culture is characterised by diversity , which is reflected in a wide range of traditional customs . A region may be in some ways strongly culturally connected to the neighbouring country that shares its language , the country itself being rooted in western European culture . The linguistically isolated Romansh culture in Graubünden in eastern Switzerland constitutes an exception , it survives only in the upper valleys of the Rhine and the Inn and strives to maintain its rare linguistic tradition .
Switzerland is home to many notable contributors to literature , art , architecture , music and sciences . In addition the country attracted a number of creative persons during time of unrest or war in Europe . Some 1000 museums are distributed through the country ; the number has more than tripled since 1950 . Among the most important cultural performances held annually are the Paléo Festival , Lucerne Festival , the Montreux Jazz Festival , the Locarno International Film Festival and the Art Basel .
Alpine symbolism has played an essential role in shaping the history of the country and the Swiss national identity . Nowadays some concentrated mountain areas have a strong highly energetic ski resort culture in winter , and a hiking ( ger : das Wandern ) or Mountain biking culture in summer . Other areas throughout the year have a recreational culture that caters to tourism , yet the quieter seasons are spring and autumn when there are fewer visitors . A traditional farmer and herder culture also predominates in many areas and small farms are omnipresent outside the cities . Folk art is kept alive in organisations all over the country . In Switzerland it is mostly expressed in music , dance , poetry , wood carving and embroidery . The alphorn , a trumpet @-@ like musical instrument made of wood , has become alongside yodeling and the accordion an epitome of traditional Swiss music .
= = = Literature = = =
As the Confederation , from its foundation in 1291 , was almost exclusively composed of German @-@ speaking regions , the earliest forms of literature are in German . In the 18th century , French became the fashionable language in Bern and elsewhere , while the influence of the French @-@ speaking allies and subject lands was more marked than before .
Among the classics of Swiss German literature are Jeremias Gotthelf ( 1797 – 1854 ) and Gottfried Keller ( 1819 – 1890 ) . The undisputed giants of 20th century Swiss literature are Max Frisch ( 1911 – 91 ) and Friedrich Dürrenmatt ( 1921 – 90 ) , whose repertoire includes Die Physiker ( The Physicists ) and Das Versprechen ( The Pledge ) , released in 2001 as a Hollywood film .
Prominent French @-@ speaking writers were Jean @-@ Jacques Rousseau ( 1712 – 1778 ) and Germaine de Staël ( 1766 – 1817 ) . More recent authors include Charles Ferdinand Ramuz ( 1878 – 1947 ) , whose novels describe the lives of peasants and mountain dwellers , set in a harsh environment and Blaise Cendrars ( born Frédéric Sauser , 1887 – 1961 ) . Also Italian and Romansh @-@ speaking authors contributed but in more modest way given their small number .
Probably the most famous Swiss literary creation , Heidi , the story of an orphan girl who lives with her grandfather in the Alps , is one of the most popular children 's books ever and has come to be a symbol of Switzerland . Her creator , Johanna Spyri ( 1827 – 1901 ) , wrote a number of other books on similar themes .
= = = Media = = =
The freedom of the press and the right to free expression is guaranteed in the federal constitution of Switzerland . The Swiss News Agency ( SNA ) broadcasts information around @-@ the @-@ clock in three of the four national languages — on politics , economics , society and culture . The SNA supplies almost all Swiss media and a couple dozen foreign media services with its news .
Switzerland has historically boasted the greatest number of newspaper titles published in proportion to its population and size . The most influential newspapers are the German @-@ language Tages @-@ Anzeiger and Neue Zürcher Zeitung NZZ , and the French @-@ language Le Temps , but almost every city has at least one local newspaper . The cultural diversity accounts for a large number of newspapers .
The government exerts greater control over broadcast media than print media , especially due to finance and licensing . The Swiss Broadcasting Corporation , whose name was recently changed to SRG SSR , is charged with the production and broadcast of radio and television programs . SRG SSR studios are distributed throughout the various language regions . Radio content is produced in six central and four regional studios while the television programs are produced in Geneva , Zürich and Lugano . An extensive cable network also allows most Swiss to access the programs from neighboring countries .
= = = Sports = = =
Skiing , snowboarding and mountaineering are among the most popular sports in Switzerland , the nature of the country being particularly suited for such activities . Winter sports are practiced by the natives and tourists since the second half of the 19th century with the invention of bobsleigh in St. Moritz . The first world ski championships were held in Mürren ( 1931 ) and St. Moritz ( 1934 ) . The latter town hosted the second Winter Olympic Games in 1928 and the fifth edition in 1948 . Among the most successful skiers and world champions are Pirmin Zurbriggen and Didier Cuche .
Most prominently watched sport events in Switzerland are football , ice hockey , Alpin skiing , " Schwingen " , and tennis .
The headquarters of the international football 's and ice hockey 's governing bodies , the International Federation of Association Football ( FIFA ) and International Ice Hockey Federation ( IIHF ) , are located in Zürich . Actually many other headquarters of international sports federatios are to be found in Switzerland . For example , the International Olympic Committee ( IOC ) , IOC 's Olympic Museum and the Court of Arbitration for Sport ( CAS ) are located in Lausanne .
Switzerland hosted the 1954 FIFA World Cup , and was the joint host , with Austria , of the Euro 2008 tournament . The Swiss Super League is the nation 's professional football club league . Europe 's highest football pitch , at 2 @,@ 000 metres ( 6 @,@ 600 ft ) above sea level , is located in Switzerland and is named the Ottmar Hitzfeld Stadium .
Many Swiss also follow ice hockey and support one of the 12 clubs in the League A , which is the most attended league in Europe . In 2009 , Switzerland hosted the IIHF World Championship for the 10th time . It also became World Vice @-@ Champion in 2013 . The numerous lakes make Switzerland an attractive place for sailing . The largest , Lake Geneva , is the home of the sailing team Alinghi which was the first European team to win the America 's Cup in 2003 and which successfully defended the title in 2007 . Tennis has become an increasingly popular sport , and Swiss players such as Martina Hingis , Roger Federer , and most recently , Stanislas Wawrinka have won multiple Grand Slams . Swiss professional wrestler Claudio Castagnoli is currently signed with WWE , and is a former United States champion .
Motorsport racecourses and events were banned in Switzerland following the 1955 Le Mans disaster with exception to events such as Hillclimbing . During this period , the country still produced successful racing drivers such as Clay Regazzoni , Sébastien Buemi , Jo Siffert , Dominique Aegerter , successful World Touring Car Championship driver Alain Menu , 2014 24 Hours of Le Mans winner Marcel Fässler and 2015 24 Hours Nürburgring winner Nico Müller . Switzerland also won the A1GP World Cup of Motorsport in 2007 – 08 with driver Neel Jani . Swiss motorcycle racer Thomas Lüthi won the 2005 MotoGP World Championship in the 125cc category . In June 2007 the Swiss National Council , one house of the Federal Assembly of Switzerland , voted to overturn the ban , however the other house , the Swiss Council of States rejected the change and the ban remains in place .
Traditional sports include Swiss wrestling or " Schwingen " . It is an old tradition from the rural central cantons and considered the national sport by some . Hornussen is another indigenous Swiss sport , which is like a cross between baseball and golf . Steinstossen is the Swiss variant of stone put , a competition in throwing a heavy stone . Practiced only among the alpine population since prehistoric times , it is recorded to have taken place in Basel in the 13th century . It is also central to the Unspunnenfest , first held in 1805 , with its symbol the 83 @.@ 5 kg stone named Unspunnenstein .
= = = Cuisine = = =
The cuisine of Switzerland is multifaceted . While some dishes such as fondue , raclette or rösti are omnipresent through the country , each region developed its own gastronomy according to the differences of climate and languages . Traditional Swiss cuisine uses ingredients similar to those in other European countries , as well as unique dairy products and cheeses such as Gruyère or Emmental , produced in the valleys of Gruyères and Emmental . The number of fine @-@ dining establishments is high , particularly in western Switzerland .
Chocolate has been made in Switzerland since the 18th century but it gained its reputation at the end of the 19th century with the invention of modern techniques such as conching and tempering which enabled its production on a high quality level . Also a breakthrough was the invention of solid milk chocolate in 1875 by Daniel Peter . The Swiss are the world 's largest consumers of chocolate .
Due to the popularization of processed foods at the end of the 19th century , Swiss health food pioneer Maximilian Bircher @-@ Benner created the first nutrition @-@ based therapy in form of the well @-@ known rolled oats cereal dish , called Birchermüesli .
The most popular alcoholic drink in Switzerland is wine . Switzerland is notable for the variety of grapes grown because of the large variations in terroirs , with their specific mixes of soil , air , altitude and light . Swiss wine is produced mainly in Valais , Vaud ( Lavaux ) , Geneva and Ticino , with a small majority of white wines . Vineyards have been cultivated in Switzerland since the Roman era , even though certain traces can be found of a more ancient origin . The most widespread varieties are the Chasselas ( called Fendant in Valais ) and Pinot noir . The Merlot is the main variety produced in Ticino .
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= North Shore Towers =
The North Shore Towers and Country Club is a three @-@ building residential cooperative located in the Floral Park neighborhood in the New York City borough of Queens , near the city 's border with Nassau County . The complex is located next to the Long Island Jewish Medical Center .
The three constituent residential buildings — Amherst , Beaumont , and Coleridge Towers — which sit on a 110 @-@ acre ( 45 ha ) property , are some of the tallest structures in Queens with 34 floors each . The towers are constructed on the highest point of land in Queens , a hill located 258 feet ( 79 m ) above sea level . This hill is part of the terminal moraine of the last glacial period . The North Shore Towers complex contains 1 @,@ 844 apartments ranging from studios to three @-@ bedroom apartments .
The North Shore Towers complex has an 18 @-@ hole golf course and its own power plant that produces electricity independent of local power companies . The community also has an indoor shopping concourse that connects the three residential buildings with 22 retail units , as well as fitness centers that include five swimming pools and five tennis courts . The North Shore Towers is the only gated residential community in New York with its own United States Postal Service zip code , 11005 .
= = History = =
The neighborhood where the North Shore Towers were built was a rural , unnamed section of Flushing , part of a 20 @,@ 000 @-@ acre ( 8 @,@ 100 ha ) land grant to Massachusetts settlers . In 1923 , the Glen Oaks Golf Club was built , created on 167 acres ( 68 ha ) purchased from William K. Vanderbilt II 's country estate . By 1971 , the golf course was replaced by the North Shore Towers . The North Shore Towers were constructed in Glen Oaks because of Queens 's lax zoning rules , which are less restrictive than those in Nassau and Suffolk Counties in Long Island . Some Glen Oaks residents , mostly single @-@ home dwellers , protested the construction of the North Shore Towers because they were afraid it would dominate the horizon . However , it was a highly anticipated " big Queens project " for most New Yorkers .
The North Shore Towers were originally built as rentals , but in 1985 a filing with the New York State Attorney General 's office sought to convert the complex into cooperative apartments . At the time , this was touted as the most expensive conversion in New York City ’ s history . In 1987 , all but 150 units of the North Shore Towers complex were successfully converted to a co @-@ op under a noneviction plan .
The buildings are considered fireproof by the New York City Fire Department because partitions between individual units are designed to stop the spread of flames , also known as compartmentalization . This is evidenced by a 2004 fire caused by a cigarette , where no one was seriously injured because the fire was self @-@ contained .
In 2000 , a North Shore Towers resident noticed a zip code error when making an online purchase . After further investigation in 2001 , it was determined that the North Shore Towers was one of four zip codes that were mistakenly charged a Nassau County sales tax of 8 @.@ 5 % instead of the New York City sales tax of 8 @.@ 25 % because the zip codes cross the city line . Residents argued that New York City should receive their tax dollars and not Nassau County . This error was corrected by late 2001 .
= = = Energy independence = = =
The North Shore Towers complex has a self @-@ generating power plant that produces electricity independent of local power companies , which as of December 31 , 1996 had a 8 @.@ 9 megawatt capacity . This was noted during the New York City Blackout of 1977 when the entire city was without power but lights were still visible in the North Shore Towers . During the Northeast Blackout of 2003 , the North Shore Towers continued to produce electricity unaffected . This resulted in extensive media coverage on the co @-@ op 's self @-@ sufficiency with regard to energy . After seeing this news coverage of North Shore Towers ' ability to produce power during the blackout , city tax collectors sent energy tax bills to North Shore Towers and the Penn South co @-@ op in Chelsea , Manhattan . The tax bills were for $ 1 million each , representing unpaid fuel taxes going back 20 years . This was extremely controversial because both co @-@ ops produce their own power . Mayor Michael Bloomberg , Councilman David Weprin ( D @-@ Queens ) , then Councilwoman Christine Quinn ( D @-@ Manhattan ) , and other city officials worked towards settling the tax bills and removing future energy taxes for the co @-@ ops . Then Council Speaker Gifford Miller ( D @-@ Manhattan ) commented that such co @-@ ops " should be rewarded , not punished for providing their own energy . "
= = Description = =
= = = Amenities = = =
As a gated community and private country club , the North Shore Towers offers a variety of amenities for residents and guests . The on @-@ premises security is always present at the front gate guard booth and in the dispatch office . There are also security patrols 24 @-@ hours a day . The on @-@ site management company is Charles H. Greenthal Management Corp. , which also manages upscale residential buildings in Manhattan . Superintendents , maintenance staff , doormen , and concierge are staffed in each building 24 / 7 . The North Shore Towers has been described as " where the city meets the suburbs " , given its location at the eastern edge of Queens and its suburban feel . As of February 2011 , the average unit in the Towers sells for $ 381 @,@ 099 .
The North Shore Towers Country Club offers several areas dedicated to recreational sport , including an 18 @-@ hole , par 70 private golf course , 5 tennis courts , basketball court , shuffleboard court , ping pong tables , billiards room , card rooms , and a clubhouse . The health club includes 5 indoor and outdoor pools , a 20 @-@ person jacuzzi , fully equipped gym with personal trainers , aerobics classes , saunas , steam rooms , lockers , and showers .
The three buildings that compose the North Shore Towers are connected by an indoor , underground arcade with 9 residential units and 7 staff residential rooms . This 27 @,@ 831 @-@ square @-@ foot ( 2 @,@ 585 @.@ 6 m2 ) mall includes a 460 @-@ seat movie theater , restaurant , bank branch , supermarket , dry cleaner , laundromat , fruit and flower shop , pharmacy , boutique , spa , beauty salon , golf pro shop , convention center with catering hall , videographer , library , art gallery , public lounge rooms , courtyard garden with snack bar , children ’ s playground , dentist , and notary . North Shore Towers has three in @-@ house television channels and two monthly newspapers , the independently published Tower Times , and the North Shore Towers Courier . Complementary flu shots are given to residents each fall . Leisure and hobbies at the North Shore Towers also include " day and evening trips , cultural events , book clubs , walking clubs , photography clubs , gardening clubs , concerts , guest speaking events , and holiday dinner dances " , according to The New York Times . Many of the clubs are developed not by the board on the North Shore Towers , but by the residents themselves .
There is above ground parking and three levels of underground parking available , able to accommodate 2 @,@ 363 cars in a subterranean garage and 126 more spots above ground . A car wash , detail , and repair service is available to residents in the underground parking lot . The concierge service offers courtesy bus rides to local shopping destinations . Express buses to Manhattan leave regularly from the front of each of the three buildings .
= = = Board of Directors = = =
The North Shore Towers Board of Directors consists of nine directors , each elected for 2 @-@ year terms . Each of the three buildings at North Shore Towers has its own on @-@ site election district . Voting for both United States government elections and in @-@ house board elections are done on the premises . North Shore Towers regularly contracts an outside election company for such occasions . The North Shore Towers has an annual budget of $ 43 million . Their General Manager is Glen Kotowski and their Controller is Robert Serikstad , CPA . Those looking to live at the North Shore must be interviewed by the co @-@ op 's Board of Directors through a serious screening process .
= = = Notable visitors = = =
The North Shore Towers Political Action Committee frequently organizes events to show support for lawmakers and to raise awareness on a number of important issues . Politicians running for office often visit the North Shore Towers during their campaigns in an attempt to win the Jewish vote . Politicians who have campaigned and spoke at the North Shore Towers include U.S. Congressman Gary Ackerman , U.S. Senator Joe Lieberman , New York City Mayor Rudy Giuliani , U.S. Senator Hillary Clinton , New York City Mayor Michael Bloomberg , U.S. Senator Chuck Schumer , U.S. Congressman Anthony Weiner , State Comptroller Thomas DiNapoli , State Senator Frank Padavan , State Assemblywoman Ann @-@ Margaret Carrozza , New York City Councilman Mark Weprin , Speaker of the City Council Christine Quinn , New York City Comptroller William Thompson , New York City Finance Chairman Councilman David Weprin , New York City Commissioner of Finance Martha Stark , New York City Police Commissioner Raymond Kelly , and Nassau County Executive Thomas Suozzi .
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= Gene Derricotte =
Eugene " Gene " Derricotte ( born June 14 , 1926 ) is a former American football player who played with the University of Michigan Wolverines from 1944 to 1948 . He was one of the University 's first African American athletes in the era when NCAA Division I college football was beginning to integrate . Derricotte established school records that still stand as a punt returner for the Michigan Wolverines football team . He also established several short @-@ lived school interceptions records . Derricotte also served as a Tuskegee Airman and later had a successful career in dentistry while continuing to serve in the military .
= = Early years and college = =
Derricotte was born in Fostoria , Ohio on June 14 , 1926 , and he grew up in Defiance , Ohio , where his father Clarence Cobb Derricotte ran a shoe repair business . In addition to Eugene , Bessie M. Anderson and Clarence Derricotte had two other sons , Bruce ( b . June 22 , 1928 ) and Raymond . Gene married Jeanne E. Hagans and had a son Robert . Years later , Gene Derricotte would tell a reporter friend of his that he always wondered about his ancestry . He knew his name was French , but he was not able to find out much more about his roots . One thing he must have known was that despite living under segregation , other members of the Derricotte family had distinguished themselves as educated professionals . A black newspaper , the Philadelphia Tribune , did a tribute to the family in November 1944 , mentioning that Eugene 's father was a veteran of World War I where he fought in France before returning to Defiance to open his business , marry and raise a family . Eugene had an uncle ( J. Flipper Derricotte ) who was an attorney in Washington DC , and an aunt Juliette who had been a dean at Fisk College in Nashville TN before dying tragically after an automobile accident , when the nearby white hospital refused to admit her . ( Jason , 1944 )
While Eugene ( or Gene , as he was often called ) would become known for his athletic ability , he was also an excellent student , graduating from Defiance High School as the class valedictorian . ( Jason , 1944 ) Because he was a star athlete , he was awarded a scholarship to attend the University of Michigan . He enrolled in 1944 , majoring in chemistry . While there , he became the first African @-@ American to play in the offensive backfield for the Michigan Wolverines football program . Derricotte was an immediate contributor as the team 's leading ground gainer in 1944 . Press reports in 1944 typically referred to his race , identifying him as " freshman negro halfback , " the " Negro speedster , " the " speedy negro freshman , " or the " lithe Negro star . "
In December 1944 , Derricotte was drafted into the United States Army . He was initially assigned as an artillery cannoneer with the 16th Separate Training Battalion in Fort Bragg , North Carolina . He later transferred to the Tuskegee Airmen pilot training program in Tuskegee , Alabama . Derricotte graduated from the program in May 1946 . With the war over , he was discharged , and he returned to the University of Michigan to continue his education .
When he returned from the war in 1946 and resumed his education , he continued to excel in academics as well as sports . He maintained a " B " average and majored in pharmacy . In football , he shared the starting duties at the left halfback position with Bob Chappuis , who went on to All @-@ Big Ten Conference honors in 1946 . After starting nine games at left halfback for Fritz Crisler in 1944 , Derricotte started five games to Chappuis ' four in 1946 . In the first game of the 1946 season , Derricotte threw a touchdown pass to Paul White and was described as the " sparkplug of the Michigan running game . " Derricotte broke his nose in a scrimmage after the first game and saw limited playing time , which gave Chappuis an opportunity to shine .
Derricotte , who wore # 41 while a Michigan Wolverine , had an unusual college football career because he began by starting many games , but gradually became more of a return specialist . In 1946 , Derricotte also set the school 's single @-@ season interceptions record . By 1947 , Chappuis had become an All @-@ American halfback and Derricotte 's only start was one game at quarterback . In 1947 , Derricotte averaged 24 @.@ 8 yards on punt returns , which still stands as a Michigan school record ( min 1 @.@ 2 returns / game ) . In fact , Derricotte still ranks fifth in NCAA Division I @-@ A history in average yards per punt return . Oddly , the NCAA recognizes that he had 347 return yards on 14 returns that season ( 24 @.@ 8 ) . The University of Michigan claims he had 396 punt return yards that season ( which would be 24 @.@ 8 with 16 returns ) , but did not average at least 12 @.@ 3 with a minimum of 15 returns to rank in the top ten in school history . The Big Ten record book claims he did not have at least a 17 @.@ 4 return average with a minimum of 10 returns to place in the top ten in conference history . The 396 was a Michigan record from 1947 until 1990 when Tripp Welborne totaled 455 in 1990 . In 1948 , he again only had one start , but this time back at halfback under new coach , Bennie Oosterbaan . Both the 1947 Michigan Wolverines football team , Fritz Crisler 's last team , and the 1948 Michigan Wolverines football team were undefeated and finished the season ranked number 1 in the Associated Press polls . The 1947 team referred to as " Michigan 's Mad Magicians " is considered to be the greatest University of Michigan football team of all time .
During his Michigan career , Derricotte returned four punts for touchdowns , which set a school record that has since been tied ( but not exceeded ) by Steve Breaston and Derrick Alexander . He also returned three punts for touchdowns in one season , which was a Big Ten Conference record for more than 50 years until Ted Ginn , Jr. returned four punts for touchdowns in 2004 . The record had been tied by both Ira Matthews of the Wisconsin Badgers ( 1976 ) and Tim Dwight of the Iowa Hawkeyes ( 1997 ) .
In the Associated Press poll at the end of the 1947 season , the Notre Dame Fighting Irish were ranked ahead of the University of Michigan , though both teams were undefeated . Some noted that every Southern AP voter had voted for Notre Dame , which had yet to integrate , whereas three of Michigan 's star players ( Derricotte , Bob Mann and Len Ford ) were African @-@ American . The Southern schools refused even to schedule games against schools that played African @-@ American players .
Michigan beat USC , 49 – 0 , in the 1948 Rose Bowl game . Derricotte scored a touchdown on a 45 @-@ yard reception from Henry Fonde in the game . Derricotte also completed a ten @-@ yard pass during the game .
Over the course of his Michigan career , he set the career interceptions record . Neither Derricotte 's career nor single @-@ season interceptions records lasted very long . The career interception record lasted one season and the single @-@ season record lasted three . He was also involved in only the third time Michigan had two 100 @-@ yard rushers in the same game .
= = Professional career = =
Derricotte was selected in the first round of the All @-@ America Football Conference draft in 1949 by the undefeated league defending champion , Cleveland Browns . Unfortunately , he was injured during training camp with the Browns at the end of July 1949 while standing along the sidelines playing catch with a teammate . Coach Paul Brown said Derricotte had a chronic knee injury that only rest could cure . Accordingly , Brown placed Derricotte on waivers , but said hoped he could return for another tryout in 1950 .
Derricotte was inducted into the University of Michigan Athletic Hall of Honor in 1987 . Derricotte also had a successful career in dentistry . In 1950 , Derricotte earned a degree in pharmacy , and in 1958 , he earned a further degree in dentistry . After receiving the second degree , Derricotte returned to the military , serving in Vietnam , as well as South Dakota , Massachusetts , Texas , Hawaii , Virginia , Illinois and at the United States Air Force Academy before his retirement in 1985 . Derricotte then relocated to San Antonio , Texas , where he started another career at the University of Texas Health Science Center . He married , and he and his wife Jeanne had a son , Rob . The family continued to reside in the San Antonio area . Derricotte retired from dentistry in 2000 .
In March 2007 , he was one of six surviving Tuskegee Airmen honored at a ceremony held in Washington , D.C. , where they were awarded the Congressional Gold Medal in recognition of their service to the United States . They were also honored at another ceremony in mid @-@ June 2007 at Randolph Air Force Base in Universal City , Texas , near San Antonio .
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= William S. Hamilton =
William Stephen Hamilton ( August 4 , 1797 – October 9 , 1850 ) , a son of Alexander Hamilton and Elizabeth Schuyler Hamilton , was a politician and miner who lived much of his life in the U.S. state of Illinois and territorial Wisconsin . Hamilton was born in New York , where he attended the United States Military Academy before he resigned and moved to Illinois in 1817 . In Illinois he lived in Springfield and Peoria and eventually migrated to the lead @-@ mining region of southern Wisconsin and established Hamilton 's Diggings at present @-@ day Wiota . Hamilton served in various political offices and as a commander in two Midwest Indian Wars . In 1849 he moved to California on the heels of the California Gold Rush . He died in Sacramento , most likely of cholera , in October 1850 .
= = Early life = =
William Stephen Hamilton was born August 4 , 1797 in New York , third @-@ youngest child and second @-@ youngest son of Alexander Hamilton . William was a month shy of his seventh birthday in 1804 when his father was infamously killed in a duel with Vice President Aaron Burr . In 1814 he was admitted to the United States Military Academy , from which he had resigned by 1817 . Following his resignation from West Point , Hamilton migrated to Sangamon County , Illinois . He lived in Springfield and Peoria , Illinois until 1827 when he moved to the lead mining region around the Fever River .
= = Political and militia service = =
Hamilton first held elected office in 1824 as a member of the Illinois House of Representatives from Sangamon County in 1824 . While working in the legislature Hamilton sponsored a bill that imposed a statewide tax intended to fund road repair and maintenance . The tax was proportional to property value , to be paid in labor or money , and replaced an older system which required every able @-@ bodied man to work on the roads five days per year . The bill passed , and the new law was met with much opposition ; it was repealed by the next legislature in 1826 – 27 . Hamilton served as aide de camp to Governor Edward Coles , and while living in Illinois , first in Springfield and later in Peoria , Hamilton worked for the General Land Office as Deputy Surveyor of Public Lands . In that position he surveyed Springfield 's township . He was also an incorporator of the original Illinois and Michigan Canal Company , along with Coles and other prominent Illinoisans .
In late 1827 Hamilton served during the Winnebago War in the volunteer Illinois Militia as a captain . Hamilton commanded a company raised in Galena , Illinois known as the Galena Mounted Volunteers . Hamilton 's company was under the command of Henry Dodge and was mustered into service on August 26 , 1827 and released on September 10 , 1827 . Hamilton moved to Wisconsin and established Hamilton 's Diggings in 1827 .
During the April – August 1832 Black Hawk War , between white settlers in the lead mining regions and Sauk Chief Black Hawk 's British Band , Hamilton again served in the volunteer militia . Accounts of the war indicated that Hamilton was often in charge of the militia 's indigenous allies . At the war 's onset it was known that many of the Sioux and Menominee were eager to join the conflict against the Sauk . Hamilton was sent to the Michigan Territory , north of Prairie du Chien , to recruit the assistance of indigenous allies . The result was successful and several parties of U.S. aligned Native Americans joined the war .
In June , Hamilton 's return to Fort Hamilton with a large group of militia @-@ aligned Native Americans coincided with the arrival of one of the survivors of the June 14 Spafford Farm massacre . The survivor , Francis Spencer , arrived at the fort around the same time as Hamilton did - accompanied by U.S. aligned Menominee . Afraid that the fort , like his party at the farm , had also been attacked , Spencer retreated back into the woods . He avoided the fort for between six and nine days , when hunger finally drove him into the open and he realized his mistake . On June 16 , about an hour after the fight at Horseshoe Bend , Hamilton arrived on the battlefield with U.S. aligned Menominee , Sioux and Ho @-@ Chunk warriors . According to Dodge , the warriors were given some of the scalps his men had taken , with which they were " delighted " . Dodge also reported that the allied warriors then proceeded onto the battlefield and mutilated the corpses of the fallen Kickapoo .
In 1842 and 1843 Hamilton served as an elected member of the Wisconsin Territorial Assembly . Hamilton lost an 1843 election for the national @-@ level office of Wisconsin Territory delegate to the United States Congress , and in 1848 he lost an election for delegate to the Wisconsin Constitutional Convention . Though well known as a smelter and miner in the lead region of southern Wisconsin and northern Illinois , Hamilton was unable to achieve the political fame he desired .
= = Mining career = =
When Hamilton moved from Illinois to Wisconsin in the late 1820s he established a lead ore mine that became known as Hamilton 's Diggings ; he later renamed the settlement Wiota . During the 1832 Black Hawk War a fort was erected at Hamilton 's Diggings , it was known as Fort Hamilton . Two contemporary descriptions of Hamilton 's Diggings provide a glimpse into the mining life of Hamilton and the others settled at present @-@ day Wiota . An 1831 account from Juliette Kinzie noted the unkempt conditions as " shabby " and " unpromising " . Kinzie also decried the foul language from the miners , whom she called the " roughest @-@ looking set of men I ever beheld . " The other description of early Wiota was provided by Theodore Rodolf in 1834 . Rodolf , a one @-@ time political opponent of Hamilton , contrasted the settlement 's apparently rough exterior with small , finer details , such as the presence of a quarto edition of Voltaire 's works , printed in Paris .
Hamilton never married and presented a rough , garish appearance . His mother , Elizabeth Schuyler ( daughter of General Philip Schuyler ) visited Hamilton at Hamilton 's Diggings during the winter of 1837 – 38 . During the same period , Hamilton briefly owned the Mineral Point Miners ' Free Press ; he sold it to a group from Galena and the paper became known as the Galena Democrat .
When gold was discovered in California , in 1848 , gold fever spread into the Midwest lead @-@ mining region . Hamilton set out for California , arriving in 1849 , with high hopes , and new equipment . His life in the west would prove to be a disappointment and he later regretted moving there . Hamilton told a friend in California that he would " rather have been hung in the ' Lead Mines ' than to have lived in this miserable hole ( California ) . "
= = Death = =
Before his death Hamilton fell ill for two weeks . He suffered multiple symptoms , including dysentery , and , according to his doctor , died from " malarial fever resulting in spinal exhaustion terminating in paralysis superinduced by great bodily and mental strain . " William S. Hamilton died in Sacramento , California on October 9 , 1850 at age 53 . He was interred in the Sacramento Historic City Cemetery . The section of the cemetery where he is buried was named Hamilton Square in his honor . Hamilton had been in California about one year when he died from what he called " mountain fever " , most likely cholera during an 1850 epidemic .
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= Maximum Homerdrive =
" Maximum Homerdrive " is the seventeenth episode of The Simpsons ' tenth season . It first aired on the Fox network in the United States on March 28 , 1999 . In the episode , Homer challenges trucker Red Barclay to a meat eating contest , which Barclay is the long @-@ standing champion of . Barclay wins , but quickly dies of " beef poisoning " , making it the first time Barclay will miss a shipment . Feeling bad for him , Homer takes on the duty of transporting Barclay 's cargo to Atlanta , with his son Bart by his side .
" Maximum Homerdrive " was written by John Swartzwelder and directed by Swinton O. Scott III . Although the episode 's first draft was written by Swartzwelder , the writing staff was split into two groups in order to focus on both the A @-@ story and the B @-@ story . The episode features references to comedian Tony Randall , model Bettie Page , and science fiction film 2001 : A Space Odyssey , among other things .
In its original broadcast , " Maximum Homerdrive " received a 7 @.@ 8 Nielsen rating among adults between ages 18 and 49 , the highest such rating for the series since " Wild Barts Can 't Be Broken " . Variety credited the boost in ratings to the premiere of Futurama , which aired after " Maximum Homerdrive " . Following the tenth season 's home video release , the episode received mixed reviews from critics .
= = Plot = =
Lisa announces that she is going to protest a new steakhouse which allows its customers to kill their own steak , which is called " The Slaughterhouse " ( it is also decorated with hanging steer carcasses and a fountain of blood , and everything on the menu is meat - even the menu itself ) . Homer hears the name of the steakhouse and is astonished that nobody told him about what he thinks is an amazing place , and takes the rest of his family to eat there , where he enters a challenge with a friendly truck driver named Red Barclay . The challenge Homer and Red enter revolves around who will finish off a " Sir Loins @-@ A @-@ Lot " first , a 16 lb ( 256 ounce or 7 @.@ 26 kg ) steak that only two people in the history of The Slaughter House have finished ( Red being one and Tony Randall being the other ) . The gargantuan steak is more than a match for Homer , as for once in his life he is unable to finish his food and breaks down crying . Red does , but dies seconds later of what Dr. Hibbert called " beef poisoning " . This shocks the diners , before he reassures them that it was " probably from some other steakhouse " ( Coincidently informing the Simpsons beforehand that he owns a fair percentage of the steakhouse ) . Homer then decides to finish Red 's last delivery and brings Bart along with him , leaving the rest of the family behind .
Lamenting that Homer and Bart always get to go on exciting adventures , Marge says " Maybe it 's time we took a walk on the wild side . " However , she , Lisa , and Maggie end up going to a doorbell store to buy a doorbell that they install themselves , which plays The Carpenters ' song " ( They Long to Be ) Close to You " . Lisa wants to press the doorbell , but Marge insists that they should let visitors do the ringing first . Unfortunately , they barely get any visitors and they never get to ring for various reasons ( Milhouse is trying to sell birdseeds , but is attacked by birds , some Jehovah 's Witnesses were about to ring the doorbell when they reconsider their careers ) . Marge desperately tries to order garlic bread from Luigi 's to get someone to ring the doorbell , but unfortunately the delivery man , who is Wiseguy , prefers to knock on the door and leaves when he hears that Marge is not interested in the garlic bread . Finally , Lisa gets fed up and rings the doorbell herself . However , the new doorbell starts to malfunction , playing the song over and over without stopping .
Meanwhile , Homer goes to get some pills that will keep him awake overnight . He takes an entire bottle of pep pills , followed by a bottle of sleeping pills to balance it out . In the truck , he alternates between being hyper to being drowsy until he finally falls asleep at the wheel , almost heading off a cliff . The next morning , he awakes to discover a secret : the truck drove by itself with its Navitron Autodrive system . He talks it over with other drivers , who inform him that he should not mention anything about the truck driving by itself . The truck 's Autodrive system also helps keep itself safe . To demonstrate the system , Homer and Bart sit on the hood . A passing bus notices this , and Homer outright tells them about the autodrive system and its nature as a secret scam . Another truck driver notices this and informs the other truckers about the situation .
Back in Springfield , Marge tries to cut the wires to the doorbell , but discovers that Homer has stolen her tools , so she decides to just pull the wires out , but makes it worse by making the doorbell to speed up and amplify itself , disturbing the whole neighborhood .
Homer and Bart are enjoying themselves until an angry mob of truckers get in a showdown with Homer , and he survives without the help of the Autodrive system , which had ejected itself from the truck by managing to get the truck to jump over the others . The truckers briefly consider giving up scamming before deciding just to bootleg Beanie Babies . Homer and Bart finish the shipment of Artichokes and migrant workers by taking it to Atlanta , but they still need transport home . The Lord provides one , as a freight train full of napalm headed back to Springfield needs a driver ( as the original driver had quit because he didn 't want to deliver a train full of napalm to Springfield ) .
Back at the Simpson house , the doorbell 's tune grows so annoying that an angry crowd has gathered . Chief Wiggum is about to shoot it until the doorbell store 's mascot , Señor Ding Dong , uses his whip to silence the noise from the doorbell . Everyone in Springfield is thankful for him , and Señor Ding @-@ Dong attempts to make a dramatic exit , but his Chevrolet van is malfunctioning and he is instead forced to ask for jumper cables .
= = Production = =
" Maximum Homerdrive " , originally called " Homer the Trucker " , was written by staff writer John Swartzwelder and directed by Simpsons director Swinton O. Scott III . It originally aired on the Fox network in the United States on March 28 , 1999 . The meat @-@ eating contest seen in the beginning of the episode was conceived by Simpsons writer Donick Cary during a story pitch @-@ out , according to writer and executive producer Matt Selman . When rewriting the episode , the writing staff was divided into two groups , so that one group wrote the A @-@ story , while the other wrote the B @-@ story . After the second act , the writers were " stuck " , as executive producer and former showrunner Mike Scully recalled in the DVD commentary for the episode . Eventually , staff writer and co @-@ executive producer George Meyer pitched the idea that the truckers would have " a secret device , that actually did all the driving for them " , called the Navitron Autodrive System .
In the season 10 deleted scenes where Homer turns on the radio listening to a song about a trucker who crashed his truck out on I @-@ 95 , and one more where some of the truckers try to flatten Homer 's truck . In order to animate Barclay 's truck in " Maximum Homerdrive " , Scott bought a model truck , which he also based the design of Barclay 's truck on . According to storyboard consultant Mike B. Anderson , the trucks in the episode were very difficult to animate , as the Simpsons animators were still working with traditional cel animation at the time and did not have access to computer tools . In a scene in The Slaughterhouse , an employee is shown killing a number of cows with a captive bolt pistol , however the death of the cows are not shown . Originally , the writers wanted to show the cows being killed , however when Scott saw the scene in the storyboards , the Simpsons staff instead decided to make the deaths " indirect " . During the meat eating contest , Homer becomes exhausted and sees two wine glass holding cows , who appear as " wavy " figures . In order to achieve the " wavy " effect , the Simpsons animators put a ripple glass on the cels and moved it around while shooting the scene . After the contest , Barclay dies of " beef poisoning " . The Fox censors were uneasy with including any mention of " beef poisoning " in the episode , as talk show host Oprah Winfrey had recently been sued by " some Texas ranchers " for defaming the beef industry . In a scene in the episode , Homer buys a jar of " Stimu @-@ Crank " pills in order to stay alert while driving during the night . He swallows all the pills at once , to the clerk 's dismay . Homer replies , " No problem , I 'll balance it out with a bottle of sleeping pills " , and proceeds to swallow an entire jar 's worth of sleeping pills . According to Scully , the censors had " a lot of trouble " with the scene , but it was included anyhow .
When Homer turns on the truck radio , the song " Wannabe " by the Spice Girls can be heard . Originally , a " trucker song " about " a horrible wreck out on old 95 " would be heard . The song was a reference to the " Wreck of the Old 97 " , a famous locomotive that crashed in 1903 and inspired the country ballad of the same name . It was sung by main cast member Dan Castellaneta , included mentions of " scraping blood and guts off the road " and was eventually dropped because it was considered too gruesome by the staff . The song was later included as a deleted scene on The Simpsons - The Complete Tenth Season DVD box set . While eating dinner at Joe 's Diner , " 12 Bar Blues " by NRBQ ( a band that Mike Scully was fond of ) can be heard playing from a jukebox . According to producer Ian Maxtone @-@ Graham , the doorbell tune in the episode " has a history with The Simpsons " , as it is also Homer and Marge 's wedding song . " Maximum Homerdrive " features the first appearance of Señor Ding @-@ Dong , who is a recurring character in the series . He is portrayed by Castellaneta , the voice behind many characters . Red Barclay , the trucker who dies of " beef poisoning " in The Slaughterhouse , was portrayed by regular cast member Hank Azaria , who voices many characters in the series . Barclay 's voice is slightly based on that of American actor Gary Busey . The two Jehovah 's witnesses were portrayed by Pamela Hayden and Karl Wiedergott .
= = Themes and cultural references = =
In Voyages of Discovery : A Manly Adventure in the Lands Down Under , a book about adventuring and masculinity , Ken Ewell described " Maximum Homerdrive " as a " fine example " of " the poor man 's lack of travel acumen " . He wrote " Homer 's usual ineptitude at first spells disaster for the duo , at least until they find out about the truck 's auto @-@ drive system . And though he promises to keep the device a secret , Homer can 't keep his mouth shut , and so shamefully exposes to the world his un @-@ manful behavior concerning the mates . So given that Homer once again learns absolutely nothing from his traveling experience , he can only take to heart the thoughts of the British writer Stephen Fry . ' At my age travel broadens the behind . ' "
The decal on Homer 's truck reads " Rex Rascal " , a reference to American animator Tex Avery . In the steak restaurant , a photo of actor and comedian Tony Randall can be seen next to Barclay 's photo . Homer 's postcard , which reads " Wish you were her " , shows a picture of American model Bettie Page . In the scene where Homer drives Barclay 's truck into the convoy , Navitron Autodrive System says " I 'm afraid I can 't let you do this , Red . The risk is unacceptable . " The line , as well as the Navitron Autodrive System 's , is a reference to HAL 9000 , the antagonist in the 1968 science fiction film 2001 : A Space Odyssey . The episode also references media mogul Ted Turner , with a sign that reads " Atlanta : the home of Ted Turner 's mood swings " . The title of the episode references the infamous 1986 Stephen King movie Maximum Overdrive , which was one of Simpsons cast member Yeardley Smith 's first credited screen roles .
= = Release and reception = =
In its original American broadcast on March 28 , 1999 , " Maximum Homerdrive " received a 9 @.@ 4 rating / 15 percent share , according to Nielsen Media Research , meaning it was seen by 9 @.@ 4 percent of the population and 15 percent of the people watching television at the time of its broadcast . Among adults between ages 18 and 49 , the episode received a 7 @.@ 8 rating / 20 percent share , the strongest rating The Simpsons had in the demographic since " Wild Barts Can 't Be Broken " , which aired on January 17 the same year . Tom Bierbaum of Variety credited the boost in ratings to the premiere of Futurama , which aired after " Maximum Homerdrive " , writing that " Sunday 's Futurama preview energized Fox 's entire lineup " that night . On August 7 , 2007 , " Maximum Homerdrive " was released as part of The Simpsons - The Complete Tenth Season DVD box set . Matt Groening , Mike Scully , George Meyer , Ian Maxtone @-@ Graham , Ron Hauge , Matt Selman , Swinton O. Scott III and Mike B. Anderson participated in the DVD 's audio commentary of the episode .
Following its home video release , " Maximum Homerdrive " received mixed reviews from critics . James Plath of DVD Town described it as " funny , " and Brian Tallerico of UGO Networks considered it to be one of the season 's best episodes , describing it as having " some awesome road comedy . " Warren Martyn and Adrian Wood of I Can 't Believe It 's a Bigger and Better Updated Unofficial Simpsons Guide gave the episode a positive review as well , writing " The life of the trucker , as made popular in C. W. McCall 's 1976 hit single " Convoy " , is brought to life here in all its glory . For once , Homer is in the right and you cannot help but cheer as the truckers spectacularly fail to stop him getting to Atlanta . " They concluded by writing " A nice , bonding story for Homer and Bart which is diametrically opposed to the one featuring Marge and Lisa . " On the other hand , giving the episode a more mixed review , Colin Jacobson of DVD Movie Guide wrote " If nothing else , ' Homerdrive ' takes unanticipated paths . The eating contest leads to a long truck drives leads to that ' shocking secret ' . All of this means the show manages to become pretty unpredictable . " However , he maintained that the episode is only " sporadically " funny , and that it " doesn ’ t ever excel in that department – at least not in terms of the trucker story . " He enjoyed the episode 's B @-@ story more , because of its " absurdity " , however he criticized the inclusion of Gil in the episode , calling the character " increasingly overused " . Jake McNeill of Digital Entertainment News gave the episode a mixed review as well , writing that it " may have been a fairly decent episode but for the fact that something similar was done ( and done better ) on King of the Hill . "
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= Clinton Engineer Works =
The Clinton Engineer Works ( CEW ) was the name of the Manhattan Project 's production installation during World War II that produced the enriched uranium used in the bombing of Hiroshima in August 1945 , as well as the first examples of reactor produced plutonium . It consisted of production facilities arranged at three major sites , various utilities including a power plant , and the town of Oak Ridge . It was in the eastern part of the state of Tennessee , about 18 miles ( 29 km ) west of Knoxville , and was named after the town of Clinton , Tennessee , eight miles ( 13 km ) to the north . The production facilities were mainly in Roane County although the northern part of the site was in Anderson County . The Manhattan District Engineer , Kenneth Nichols , moved the Manhattan District headquarters from Manhattan to Oak Ridge in August 1943 .
Construction workers were housed in a community known as Happy Valley . Built by the Army in 1943 , this temporary community housed 15 @,@ 000 people . The township of Oak Ridge was established to house the production staff . The operating force peaked at 50 @,@ 000 workers just after the end of the war . The construction labor force peaked at 75 @,@ 000 and the combined employment peak was 80 @,@ 000 . The town was developed by the federal government as a segregated community ; black residents lived only in an area known as Gamble Valley , in government @-@ built " hutments " ( one @-@ room shacks ) on the south side of what is now Tuskegee Drive .
= = Site selection = =
In 1942 , the Manhattan Project was attempting to construct the first atomic bombs . This would require production facilities , and by June 1942 the project had reached the stage where their construction could be contemplated . On 25 June 1942 , the Office of Scientific Research and Development ( OSRD ) S @-@ 1 Executive Committee deliberated on where they should be located . Brigadier General Wilhelm D. Styer recommended that the different manufacturing facilities be built at the same site in order to simplify security and construction . Such a site would require a substantial tract of land to accommodate both the facilities and housing for the thousands of workers . The plutonium processing plant needed to be two to four miles ( 3 @.@ 2 to 6 @.@ 4 km ) from the site boundary and any other installation in case radioactive fission products escaped . While security and safety concerns suggested a remote site , it still needed to be near sources of labor , and accessible by road and rail transportation . A mild climate that allowed construction to proceed throughout the year was desirable . Terrain separated by ridges would reduce the impact of accidental explosions , but they could not be so steep as to complicate construction . The substratum needed to be firm enough to provide good foundations , but not so rocky that it would hinder excavation work . It was estimated that the proposed plants would need access to 150 @,@ 000 KW of electricity and 370 @,@ 000 US gallons ( 1 @,@ 400 @,@ 000 l ; 310 @,@ 000 imp gal ) of water per minute . A War Department policy held that as a rule munitions facilities should not be located west of the Sierra or Cascade Ranges , east of the Appalachian Mountains , or within 200 miles ( 320 km ) of the Canadian or Mexican borders .
Several sites were considered in the Tennessee Valley , two in the Chicago area , one near the Shasta Dam in California , and some in Washington , where the Hanford site was eventually established . An OSRD team had selected the Knoxville , Tennessee , area in April 1942 , and in May Arthur Compton , the director of the Metallurgical Laboratory had met with Gordon R. Clapp , the General Manager of the Tennessee Valley Authority ( TVA ) . The Chief Engineer of the Manhattan District ( MED ) , Colonel James C. Marshall , asked Colonel Leslie R. Groves , Jr. to undertake a study within the Army 's Office of the Chief of Engineers . After receiving assurances that the TVA could supply the required quantity of electric power if given priority for procuring some needed equipment , Groves also concluded that the Knoxville area was suitable . The only voice of dissent at the 25 June meeting was Ernest O. Lawrence , who wanted the electromagnetic separation plant located much nearer to his Radiation Laboratory in California . The Shasta Dam area remained under consideration for the electromagnetic plant until September , by which time Lawrence had dropped his objection .
On 1 July , Marshall and his deputy , Lieutenant Colonel Kenneth Nichols , surveyed sites in the Knoxville area with representatives of the TVA and Stone & Webster , the designated construction contractor . No perfectly suitable site was found , and Marshall even ordered another survey of the Spokane , Washington , area . At the time , the proposed nuclear reactor , gas centrifuge and gaseous diffusion technologies were still in the research stage , and the design of the plant was a long way off . The schedules , which called for construction work on the nuclear reactor to commence by 1 October 1942 , the electromagnetic plant by 1 November , the centrifugal plant by 1 January 1943 and the gaseous diffusion plant by 1 March 1943 , were quite unrealistic . While work could not commence on the plants , a start could be made on the housing and administrative buildings . Stone & Webster therefore drew up a detailed report on the most promising site , about 12 miles ( 19 km ) west of Knoxville . Stephane Groueff later wrote that :
This portion of the quiet rural area was called Black Oak Ridge and was the northernmost of five principal oak- and pine @-@ covered ridges around the meandering Clinch River . It was a verdant , beautiful countryside with rolling hills covered with dogwood and full of partridge and deer . To the east were the Great Smoky Mountains , to the west the peaks of the Cumberland Mountains .
The site was located in Roane County and Anderson County , and lay roughly halfway between the two county seats of Kingston and Clinton . Its greatest drawback was that a major road , Tennessee State Route 61 , ran through it . Stone & Webster considered the possibility of re @-@ routing the road . The Ohio River Division ( ORD ) of the Corps of Engineers estimated that it would cost $ 4 @.@ 25 million to purchase the entire 83 @,@ 000 @-@ acre ( 34 @,@ 000 ha ) site .
Groves became the director of the Manhattan Project on 23 September , with the rank of brigadier general . That afternoon , he took a train to Knoxville , where he met with Marshall . After touring the site , Groves concluded that the site " was an even better choice than I had anticipated . " He called Colonel John J. O 'Brien of the Corps of Engineers ' Real Estate Branch , and told him to proceed with acquiring the land . The site was initially known as the Kingston Demolition Range . It officially became the Clinton Engineer Works ( CEW ) in January 1943 . It was given the codename of Site X. After the township was established in mid @-@ 1943 , the name Oak Ridge was chosen from employee suggestions . It met with the Manhattan District 's approval because " its rural connotation held outside curiosity to a minimum . " Oak Ridge then became the site 's postal address , but the site itself was not officially renamed Oak Ridge until 1947 .
= = Land acquisition = =
Although War Department policy maintained that land should be acquired by direct purchase , as time was short , it was decided to proceed immediately with condemnation . This allowed access to the site for construction crews , provided faster compensation to the owners , and expedited the handling of property with defective titles . On 28 September 1942 , the ORD Real Estate Branch opened a project office in Harriman with a staff of 54 surveyors , appraisers , lawyers and office workers . The ORD Real Estate Branch was quite busy at this time , as it was also acquiring land for the Dale Hollow Reservoir , so some staff were borrowed from the Federal Land Bank and the TVA . The next day , Under Secretary of War Robert P. Patterson authorized the acquisition of 56 @,@ 000 acres ( 23 @,@ 000 ha ) at an estimated cost of $ 3 @.@ 5 million . At the request of the ORD Real Estate Branch attorneys , the District Court for the Eastern District of Tennessee issued an order of possession on 6 October , effective the next day . Recognizing the hardship that it would cause to the landowners , it restricted immediate exclusive possession to properties " essential to full and complete development of the project " .
Over 1 @,@ 000 families lived on the site on farms or in the hamlets of Elza , Robertsville , and Scarboro . The first that most heard about the acquisition was when a representative from the ORD showed up to inform them that their land was being acquired . Some returned home from work one day to find an eviction notice nailed to their door or to a tree in the yard . Most were given six weeks to leave , but some were given just two . The government took possession of 13 tracts for immediate construction work on 20 November 1942 . By May 1943 , 742 declarations had been filed covering 53 @,@ 334 acres ( 21 @,@ 584 ha ) . Most residents were told to prepare to leave between 1 December 1942 and 15 January 1943 . In cases where this would cause undue hardship , the MED allowed residents to stay beyond this date . For some it was the third time that they had been evicted by the government , having previously been evicted for the Great Smoky Mountains National Park in the 1920s and the TVA 's Norris Dam in the 1930s . Many expected that , like the TVA , the Army would provide assistance to help them relocate ; but unlike the TVA , the Army had no mission to improve the area or the lot of the local people , and no funds for the purpose . Tires were in short supply in wartime America , and moving vehicles were hard to find . Some residents had to leave behind possessions that they were unable to take with them .
A delegation of landowners presented the ORD Real Estate Branch with a petition protesting the acquisition of their property on 23 November 1942 , and that night over 200 landowners held a meeting where they agreed to hire lawyers and appraisers to challenge the Federal government . Local newspapers and politicians were sympathetic to their cause . By the end of May 1943 , agreements were reached covering 416 tracts totaling 21 @,@ 742 acres ( 8 @,@ 799 ha ) , but some landowners rejected the government 's offers . The ORD Real Estate Branch invoked a procedure under Tennessee law that allowed for a jury of five citizens appointed by the Federal District Court to review the compensation offered . They handled five cases in which they proposed higher values than those of the ORD appraisers , but the landowners rejected them as well , so the Army discontinued the use of this method . In response to rising public criticism , O 'Brien commissioned a review by the Department of Agriculture . It found that the appraisals had been fair and just , and that farmers had overestimated the size and productivity of their land .
The landowners turned to their local Congressman , John Jennings , Jr . On 1 February 1943 , Jennings introduced a resolution in the House of Representatives calling for a committee to investigate the values offered to the landowners . He also complained to Patterson about how buildings and facilities were being demolished by the MED . On 9 July 1943 , Andrew J. May , the chairman of the House Committee on Military Affairs , appointed an investigating subcommittee chaired by Clifford Davis , who selected Dewey Short and John Sparkman as its other members . Public hearings were held in Clinton on 11 August 1943 , and in Kingston the following day . The Committee report , presented in December 1943 , made a number of specific recommendations concerning the Corps of Engineers ' land acquisition process , but neither Congress nor the War Department moved to provide any additional compensation for the landowners .
In July 1943 , Groves prepared to issue Public Proclamation No. 2 , declaring the site a military exclusion area . He asked Marshall to present it to the Governor of Tennessee , Prentice Cooper . Marshall , in turn , delegated the task to the area engineer , Major Thomas T. Crenshaw , who sent a junior officer , Captain George B. Leonard . Cooper was unimpressed . He told Leonard that he had not been informed about the purpose of the CEW , and that the Army had kicked the farmers off their land and had not compensated the counties for the roads and bridges , which would now be closed . In his opinion it was " an experiment in socialism " , a New Deal project being undertaken in the name of the war effort . Instead of reading the proclamation , he tore it up and threw it in the waste paper basket . Marshall went to Nashville to apologize to Cooper , who refused to talk to him . Nichols , who succeeded Marshall as chief engineer of the Manhattan District , met Cooper on 31 July 1943 , and offered compensation in the form of Federal financing for road improvements . Cooper accepted an offer from Nichols to visit the CEW , which he did on 3 November 1943 .
Nichols and Cooper came to an agreement about the Solway Bridge . Although it was in Knox County , Anderson County had contributed $ 27 @,@ 000 towards its construction . It was still paying off the bonds , but now the bridge was usable only by CEW workers . Nichols negotiated a deal in which Knox County was paid $ 25 @,@ 000 annually for the bridge , of which $ 6 @,@ 000 was to be used to maintain the access road . Judge Thomas L. Seeber then threatened to close the Edgemoor Bridge unless Anderson County was similarly compensated . An agreement was reached under which Anderson County received $ 10 @,@ 000 for the bridge and $ 200 per month . Knox County did not keep its side of the bargain to maintain the road , which was torn up by heavy traffic and became impassable after torrential rains in 1944 . The Army was forced to spend $ 5 @,@ 000 per month on road works in Knox County .
Additional parcels of land were acquired during 1943 and 1944 for access roads , a railway spur , and for security purposes , bringing the total to about 58 @,@ 900 acres ( 23 @,@ 800 ha ) . The Harriman office closed on 10 June 1944 , but reopened on 1 September 1944 to deal with the additional parcels . The last acquisition was not complete until 1 March 1945 . The final cost of the land acquired was around $ 2 @.@ 6 million , about $ 47 an acre .
= = Facilities = =
= = = X @-@ 10 graphite reactor = = =
On 2 February 1943 , DuPont began construction of the plutonium semiworks , on an isolated 112 @-@ acre ( 0 @.@ 5 km2 ) site in the Bethel Valley about 10 miles ( 16 km ) southwest of Oak Ridge . Intended as a pilot plant for the larger production facilities at the Hanford Site , it included the air @-@ cooled graphite @-@ moderated X @-@ 10 Graphite Reactor . There was also a chemical separation plant , research laboratories , waste storage area , training facility for Hanford staff , and administrative and support facilities that included a laundry , cafeteria , first aid center and fire station . Because of the subsequent decision to construct water @-@ cooled reactors at Hanford , only the chemical separation plant operated as a true pilot . The facility was known as the Clinton Laboratories , and was operated by the University of Chicago as part of the Metallurgical Laboratory project .
The X @-@ 10 Graphite Reactor was the world 's second artificial nuclear reactor after Enrico Fermi 's Chicago Pile @-@ 1 , and was the first reactor designed and built for continuous operation . It consisted of a huge block , 24 feet ( 7 @.@ 3 m ) long on each side , of nuclear graphite cubes , weighing around 1 @,@ 500 short tons ( 1 @,@ 400 t ) , surrounded by seven feet ( 2 @.@ 1 m ) of high @-@ density concrete as a radiation shield . There were 36 horizontal rows of 35 holes . Behind each was a metal channel into which uranium fuel slugs could be inserted . The cooling system was driven by three large electric fans .
Construction work on the reactor had to wait until DuPont had completed the design . Excavation commenced on 27 April 1943 . A large pocket of soft clay was soon discovered , necessitating additional foundations . Further delays occurred due to wartime difficulties in procuring building materials . There was also an acute shortage of common and skilled labor : the contractor had only three @-@ quarters of the required workforce , and less after high turnover and absenteeism , mainly the result of poor accommodations and difficulties in commuting . The township of Oak Ridge was still under construction , and barracks were built to house workers . Special arrangements with individual workers increased their morale and reduced turnover . Finally , there was unusually heavy rainfall , with 9 @.@ 3 inches ( 240 mm ) falling in July 1943 , more than twice the average of 4 @.@ 3 inches ( 110 mm ) .
Some 700 short tons ( 640 t ) of graphite blocks were purchased from National Carbon . The construction crews began stacking it in September 1943 . Cast uranium billets came from Metal Hydrides , Mallinckrodt and other suppliers . These were extruded into cylindrical slugs , and canned by Alcoa , which started production on 14 June 1943 . General Electric and the Metallurgical Laboratory developed a new welding technique . The new equipment was installed in the production line at Alcoa in October 1943 . Supervised by Compton , Martin D. Whitaker and Fermi , the reactor went critical on 4 November 1943 with about 30 short tons ( 27 t ) of uranium . A week later the load was increased to 36 short tons ( 33 t ) , raising its power generation to 500 kW , and by the end of the month the first 500 mg of plutonium was created . Modifications over time raised the power to 4 @,@ 000 kW in July 1944 .
Construction commenced on the pilot separation plant before a chemical process for separating plutonium from uranium had been selected . Not until May 1943 would DuPont managers decide to use the Bismuth @-@ phosphate process . The plant consisted of six cells , separated from each other and the control room by thick concrete walls . The equipment was operated from the control room by remote control . Construction work was completed on 26 November 1943 , but the plant could not operate until the reactor started producing irradiated uranium slugs . The first batch was received on 20 December 1943 , allowing the first plutonium to be produced in early 1944 . By February , the reactor was irradiating a ton of uranium every three days . Over the next five months , the efficiency of the separation process was improved , with the percentage of plutonium recovered increasing from 40 to 90 percent . X @-@ 10 operated as a plutonium production plant until January 1945 , when it was turned over to research activities . By this time , 299 batches of irradiated slugs had been processed .
In September 1942 , Compton asked Whitaker to form a skeleton operating staff for X @-@ 10 . Whitaker became director of the Clinton Laboratories . The first permanent operating staff arrived at X @-@ 10 from the Metallurgical Laboratory in Chicago in April 1944 , by which time DuPont began transferring its technicians to the site . They were augmented by one hundred technicians in uniform from the Army 's Special Engineer Detachment . By March 1944 , there were some 1 @,@ 500 people working at X @-@ 10 .
A radioisotope building , a steam plant , and other structures were added in April 1946 to support the laboratory 's peacetime educational and research missions . All work was completed by December 1946 , adding another $ 1 @,@ 009 @,@ 000 to the cost of construction at X @-@ 10 , and bringing the total cost to $ 13 @,@ 041 @,@ 000 . Operational costs added another $ 22 @,@ 250 @,@ 000 .
= = = Y @-@ 12 electromagnetic separation plant = = =
Electromagnetic isotope separation was developed by Lawrence at the University of California Radiation Laboratory . This method employed devices known as calutrons , a hybrid of the standard laboratory mass spectrometer and cyclotron . The name was derived from the words " California " , " university " and " cyclotron " . In the electromagnetic separation process , a magnetic field deflected charged uranium particles according to mass . The process was neither scientifically elegant nor industrially efficient . Compared with a gaseous diffusion plant or a nuclear reactor , an electromagnetic separation plant would consume more scarce materials , require more manpower to operate , and cost more to build . Nonetheless , the process was approved because it was based on proven technology and therefore represented less risk . Moreover , it could be built in stages , and rapidly reach industrial capacity .
Responsibility for the design and construction of the electromagnetic separation plant , which came to be called Y @-@ 12 , was assigned to Stone & Webster by the S @-@ 1 Committee in June 1942 . The design called for five first @-@ stage processing units , known as Alpha racetracks , and two units for final processing , known as Beta racetracks . In September 1943 Groves authorized construction of four more racetracks , known as Alpha II . Construction began in February 1943 .
When the plant was started up for testing on schedule in November , the 14 @-@ ton vacuum tanks crept out of alignment because of the power of the magnets and had to be fastened more securely . A more serious problem arose when the magnetic coils started shorting out . In December Groves ordered a magnet broken open , and handfuls of rust were found inside . Groves then ordered the racetracks to be torn down and the magnets sent back to the factory to be cleaned . A pickling plant was established on @-@ site to clean the pipes and fittings . The second Alpha I was not operational until the end of January 1944 , the first Beta and first and third Alpha I 's came online in March , and the fourth Alpha I became operational in April . The four Alpha II racetracks were completed between July and October 1944 .
Tennessee Eastman was hired to manage Y @-@ 12 on the usual cost plus fixed fee basis , with a fee of $ 22 @,@ 500 per month plus $ 7 @,@ 500 per racetrack for the first seven racetracks and $ 4 @,@ 000 per additional racetrack . The calutrons were initially operated by scientists from Berkeley to remove bugs and achieve a reasonable operating rate . They were then turned over to trained Tennessee Eastman operators who had only a high school education . Nichols compared unit production data , and pointed out to Lawrence that the young " hillbilly " girl operators were outperforming his PhDs . They agreed to a production race and Lawrence lost , a morale boost for the Tennessee Eastman workers and supervisors . The girls were " trained like soldiers not to reason why " , while " the scientists could not refrain from time @-@ consuming investigation of the cause of even minor fluctuations of the dials . "
Y @-@ 12 initially enriched the uranium @-@ 235 content to between 13 and 15 percent , and shipped the first few hundred grams of this to the Manhattan Project 's weapons design laboratory , the Los Alamos Laboratory , in March 1944 . Only 1 part in 5 @,@ 825 of the uranium feed emerged as final product . Much of the rest was splattered over equipment in the process . Strenuous recovery efforts helped raise production to 10 percent of the uranium @-@ 235 feed by January 1945 . In February the Alpha racetracks began receiving slightly enriched ( 1 @.@ 4 percent ) feed from the new S @-@ 50 thermal diffusion plant . The next month it received enhanced ( 5 percent ) feed from the K @-@ 25 gaseous diffusion plant . By August K @-@ 25 was producing uranium sufficiently enriched to feed directly into the Beta tracks .
The Alpha tracks began to suspend operations on 4 September 1945 , and ceased operation completely on 22 September . The last two Beta tracks went into full operation in November and December 1945 , processing feed from K @-@ 25 and the new K @-@ 27 . By May 1946 , studies suggested that the gaseous plants could fully enrich the uranium by themselves without accidentally creating a critical mass . After a trial showed this was the case , Groves ordered all but one Beta track at Y @-@ 12 shut down in December 1946 . Y @-@ 12 remained in use for nuclear weapons processing and materials storage . A production facility for the hydrogen bomb used in Operation Castle in 1954 was hastily installed in 1952 .
= = = K @-@ 25 gaseous diffusion plant = = =
The most promising but also the most challenging method of isotope separation was gaseous diffusion . Graham 's law states that the rate of effusion of a gas is inversely proportional to the square root of its molecular mass , so in a box containing a semi @-@ permeable membrane and a mixture of two gases , the lighter molecules will pass out of the container more rapidly than the heavier molecules . The gas leaving the container is somewhat enriched in the lighter molecules , while the residual gas is somewhat depleted . The idea was that such boxes could be formed into a cascade of pumps and membranes , with each successive stage containing a slightly more enriched mixture . Research into the process was carried out at Columbia University by a group that included Harold Urey , Karl P. Cohen and John R. Dunning .
In November 1942 the Military Policy Committee approved the construction of a 600 @-@ stage gaseous diffusion plant . On 14 December , M. W. Kellogg accepted an offer to construct the plant , which was codenamed K @-@ 25 . A cost plus fixed fee contract was negotiated , eventually totaling $ 2 @.@ 5 million . A separate corporate entity called Kellex was created for the project , headed by Percival C. Keith , one of Kellogg 's vice presidents . The process faced formidable technical difficulties . The highly corrosive gas uranium hexafluoride had to be used , as no substitute could be found , and the motors and pumps would have to be vacuum tight and enclosed in inert gas . The biggest problem was the design of the barrier , which would have to be strong , porous and resistant to corrosion by uranium hexafluoride . The best choice for this seemed to be nickel . Edward Adler and Edward Norris created a mesh barrier from electroplated nickel . A six @-@ stage pilot plant was built at Columbia to test the process , but the Norris @-@ Adler prototype proved to be too brittle . A rival barrier was developed from powdered nickel by Kellex , the Bell Telephone Laboratories and the Bakelite Corporation . In January 1944 , Groves ordered the Kellex barrier into production .
Kellex 's design for K @-@ 25 called for a four @-@ story U @-@ shaped structure 0 @.@ 5 miles ( 0 @.@ 80 km ) long containing 54 contiguous buildings . These were divided into nine sections . Within these were cells of six stages . The cells could be operated independently , or consecutively within a section . Similarly , the sections could be operated separately or as part of a single cascade . A survey party began construction by marking out the 500 @-@ acre ( 2 @.@ 0 km2 ) site in May 1943 . Work on the main building began in October 1943 , and the six @-@ stage pilot plant was ready for operation on 17 April 1944 . In 1945 Groves canceled the upper stages of the plant , directing Kellex to instead design and build a 540 @-@ stage side feed unit , which became known as K @-@ 27 . Kellex transferred the last unit to the operating contractor , Union Carbide and Carbon , on 11 September 1945 . The total cost , including the K @-@ 27 plant completed after the war , came to $ 480 million .
The production plant commenced operation in February 1945 , and as cascade after cascade came online , the quality of the product increased . By April 1945 , K @-@ 25 had attained a 1 @.@ 1 percent enrichment and the output of the S @-@ 50 thermal diffusion plant began being used as feed . Some product produced the next month reached nearly 7 percent enrichment . In August , the last of the 2 @,@ 892 stages commenced operation . K @-@ 25 and K @-@ 27 achieved their full potential in the early postwar period , when they eclipsed the other production plants and became the prototypes for a new generation of plants . Uranium was enriched by the K @-@ 25 gaseous diffusion process until 1985 ; the plants were then decommissioned and decontaminated . A 235 MW coal @-@ fired power station was included for reliability and to provide variable frequency , although most electric power came from the TVA .
= = = S @-@ 50 liquid thermal diffusion plant = = =
The thermal diffusion process was based on Sydney Chapman and David Enskog 's theory , which explained that when a mixed gas passes through a temperature gradient , the heavier one tends to concentrate at the cold end and the lighter one at the warm end . Since hot gases tend to rise and cool ones tend to fall , this can be used as a means of isotope separation . This process was first demonstrated by H. Clusius and G. Dickel in Germany in 1938 . It was developed by US Navy scientists , but was not one of the enrichment technologies initially selected for use in the Manhattan Project . This was primarily due to doubts about its technical feasibility , but the inter @-@ service rivalry between the Army and Navy also played a part .
The Naval Research Laboratory continued the research under Philip Abelson 's direction , but there was little contact with the Manhattan Project until April 1944 , when Captain William S. Parsons , the naval officer who was in charge of ordnance development at Los Alamos , brought Robert Oppenheimer , the director there , news of encouraging progress in the Navy 's experiments on thermal diffusion . Oppenheimer wrote to Groves suggesting that the output of a thermal diffusion plant could be fed into Y @-@ 12 . Groves set up a committee consisting of Warren K. Lewis , Eger Murphree and Richard Tolman to investigate the idea , and they estimated that a thermal diffusion plant costing $ 3 @.@ 5 million could enrich 110 pounds ( 50 kg ) of uranium per week to nearly 0 @.@ 9 percent uranium @-@ 235 . Groves approved its construction on 24 June 1944 .
Groves contracted with the H. K. Ferguson Company of Cleveland , Ohio , to build the thermal diffusion plant , which was designated S @-@ 50 . Groves ' advisers , Karl Cohen and W. I. Thompson from Standard Oil , estimated that it would take six months to build . Groves gave Ferguson just four . Plans called for the installation of 2 @,@ 142 forty @-@ eight @-@ foot @-@ tall ( 15 m ) diffusion columns arranged in 21 racks . Inside each column were three concentric tubes . Steam , obtained from the nearby K @-@ 25 powerhouse at a pressure of 100 pounds per square inch ( 690 kPa ) and temperature of 545 ° F ( 285 ° C ) , flowed downward through the innermost 1 @.@ 25 @-@ inch ( 32 mm ) nickel pipe , while water at 155 ° F ( 68 ° C ) flowed upward through the outermost iron pipe . Isotope separation occurred in the uranium hexafluoride gas between the nickel and copper pipes .
Work commenced on 9 July 1944 , and S @-@ 50 began partial operation in September . Ferguson operated the plant through a subsidiary known as Fercleve . The plant produced just 10 @.@ 5 pounds ( 4 @.@ 8 kg ) of 0 @.@ 852 percent uranium @-@ 235 in October . Leaks limited production and forced shutdowns over the next few months , but in June 1945 it produced 12 @,@ 730 pounds ( 5 @,@ 770 kg ) . By March 1945 , all 21 production racks were operating . Initially the output of S @-@ 50 was fed into Y @-@ 12 , but starting in March 1945 all three enrichment processes were run in series . S @-@ 50 became the first stage , enriching from 0 @.@ 71 percent to 0 @.@ 89 percent . This material was fed into the gaseous diffusion process in the K @-@ 25 plant , which produced a product enriched to about 23 percent . This was , in turn , fed into Y @-@ 12 .
In early September Nichols appointed a production control committee , headed by Major A. V. ( Pete ) Peterson . Peterson 's staff tried various combinations , using mechanical calculating machines , and decided that the S @-@ 50 production should be fed to K @-@ 25 rather than Y @-@ 12 , which was done in April 1945 . The charts also showed that the proposed top stages for K @-@ 25 should be abandoned , as should Lawrence 's recommendation to add more alpha stages to the Y @-@ 12 plant . Groves accepted their proposal to add more base units to the K @-@ 27 gaseous @-@ diffusion plant and one more beta stage track for Y @-@ 12 . These additions were estimated to cost $ 100 million , with completion in February 1946 . Soon after Japan surrendered in August 1945 , Peterson recommended that S @-@ 50 be shut down . The Manhattan District ordered this on 4 September 1945 . The last uranium hexafluoride was sent to K @-@ 25 , and the plant had ceased operation by 9 September 1945 . S @-@ 50 was completely demolished in 1946 .
= = = Electric power = = =
Despite protests from TVA that it was unnecessary , the Manhattan District built a coal @-@ fired power plant at K @-@ 25 with eight 25 @,@ 000 KW generators . Steam generated from the K @-@ 25 power plant was subsequently used by S @-@ 50 . Additional power lines were laid from the TVA hydroelectric plants at Norris Dam and Watts Bar Dam , and the Clinton Engineer Works was given its own electrical substations at K @-@ 25 and K @-@ 27 . By 1945 , power sources were capable of supplying Oak Ridge with up to 310 @,@ 000 KW , of which 200 @,@ 000 KW was earmarked for Y @-@ 12 , 80 @,@ 000 KW for K @-@ 25 , 23 @,@ 000 KW for the township , 6 @,@ 000 KW for S @-@ 50 and 1 @,@ 000 KW for X @-@ 10 . Peak demand occurred in August 1945 , when all the facilities were running . The peak load was 298 @,@ 800 KW on 1 September 1945 .
= = Township = =
Planning for a " Government village " to house the workers at the Clinton Engineer Works began in June 1942 . Because the site was remote , it was believed more convenient and secure for the workers to live on the site . The gentle slopes of Black Oak Ridge , from which the new town of Oak Ridge got its name , were selected as a suitable location . Brigadier General Lucius D. Clay , the deputy chief of staff of the United States Army Services of Supply , reminded Marshall of a wartime limit of $ 7 @,@ 500 per capita for individual quarters , but Groves , Nichols and Marshall saw no prospect that the kind of workers they needed would be willing to live in substandard accommodations . The first plan , submitted by Stone & Webster on 26 October 1942 , was for a residential community of 13 @,@ 000 people .
As Stone & Webster began work on the production facilities , it became clear that building the township as well would be beyond its capacity . The Army therefore engaged the architectural and engineering firm Skidmore , Owings & Merrill to design and build the township . The John B. Pierce Foundation were brought in as a consultant . In turn , Skidmore , Owings & Merrill brought in numerous subcontractors . This first phase of construction became known as the East Town . It included some 3 @,@ 000 family dwellings , an administrative center , three shopping centers , three grade schools for 500 children each and a high school for 500 , recreation buildings , men 's and women 's dormitories , cafeterias , a medical services building and a 50 @-@ bed hospital . The emphasis was on speed of construction and getting around wartime shortages of materials . Where possible , fiberboard and gypsum board were used instead of wood , and foundations were made from concrete blocks rather than poured concrete . The work was completed in early 1944 .
In addition to the East Town , a self @-@ contained community known as the East Village , with 50 family units , its own church , dormitories and a cafeteria , was built near the Elza gate . This was intended as a segregated community for Black people , but by the time it was completed , it was required by white people . Black people were instead housed in " hutments " ( one @-@ room shacks ) in segregated areas , some in " family hutments " created by joining two regular hutments together .
The Army presence at Oak Ridge increased in August 1943 when Nichols replaced Marshall as head of the Manhattan Engineer District . One of his first tasks was to move the district headquarters to Oak Ridge although the name of the district did not change . In September 1943 the administration of community facilities was outsourced to Turner Construction Company through a subsidiary , the Roane @-@ Anderson Company . The company was paid a fee of $ 25 @,@ 000 per month on a cost @-@ plus contract , about 1 percent of the $ 2 @.@ 8 million monthly cost of running the town facilities . Roane @-@ Anderson did not take over everything at once . A phased takeover started with Laundry No. 1 on 17 October 1943 . Transportation and garbage collection soon followed . It assumed responsibility for water and sewage in November , and electricity in January 1944 . The number of Roane @-@ Anderson workers peaked at around 10 @,@ 500 in February 1945 , including concessionaires and subcontractors . Thereafter , numbers declined to 2 @,@ 905 direct employees and 3 @,@ 663 concessionaires and subcontractors when the Manhattan Project ended on 31 December 1946 .
By mid @-@ 1943 , it had become clear that the initial estimates of the size of the town had been too low , and a second phase of construction was required . Plans now called for a town of 42 @,@ 000 people . Work began in the fall of 1943 , and continued into the late summer of 1944 . Hospitals were expanded , as were the police and fire services , and the telephone system . Only 4 @,@ 793 of a planned total of 6 @,@ 000 family houses were built , mostly on the East Town area and the undeveloped stretch along Tennessee State Route 61 . They were supplemented by 55 new dormitories , 2 @,@ 089 trailers , 391 hutments , a cantonment area of 84 hutments and 42 barracks . Some 2 @,@ 823 of the family units were prefabricated off @-@ site . The high school was expanded to cater for 1 @,@ 000 students . Two additional primary schools were built , and existing ones were expanded so that they could cater for 7 @,@ 000 students .
Although expected to accommodate the needs of the entire workforce , by late 1944 expansion of both the electromagnetic and gaseous diffusion plants led to forecasts of a population of 62 @,@ 000 . This prompted another round of construction that saw an additional 1 @,@ 300 family units and 20 dormitories built . More shopping and recreational facilities were added , the schools were expanded to cater for 9 @,@ 000 students , and a 50 @-@ bed annex was added to the hospital . The number of school children reached 8 @,@ 223 in 1945 . Few issues resonated more with the scientists and highly skilled workers than the quality of the education system . Although school staff were nominally employees of the Anderson County Education Board , the school system was run autonomously , with federal funding under the supervision of administrators appointed by the Army . Teachers enjoyed salaries that were considerably higher than those of Anderson County . The population of Oak Ridge peaked at 75 @,@ 000 in May 1945 , by which time 82 @,@ 000 people were employed at the Clinton Engineer Works , and 10 @,@ 000 by Roane @-@ Anderson .
In addition to the township , there were a number of temporary camps established for construction workers . It was initially intended that the construction workers should live off @-@ site , but the poor condition of the roads and a shortage of accommodations in the area made commuting long and difficult , and in turn made it difficult to find and retain workers . Construction workers therefore came to be housed in large hutment and trailer camps . The largest , the trailer camp at Gamble Valley , had four thousand units . Another , at Happy Valley , held 15 @,@ 000 people . The population of the construction camps declined as the construction effort tapered off , but they continued to be occupied in 1946 .
The main shopping area was Jackson Square , with about 20 shops . The Army attempted to keep prices down by encouraging competition , but this met with limited success due to the captive nature of the population , and the requirements of security , which meant that firms and goods could not freely move in and out . The Army could give prospective concessionaires only vague information about how many people were in or would be in the town , and concessions were only for the duration of the war . Concessions were therefore charged a percentage of their profits in rental rather than a fixed fee . The Army avoided imposing draconian price controls , but limited prices to those of similar goods in Knoxville . By 1945 , community amenities included 6 recreation halls , 36 bowling alleys , 23 tennis courts , 18 ball parks , 12 playgrounds , a swimming pool , a 9 @,@ 400 @-@ volume library , and a newspaper .
= = Personnel = =
From 1 April 1943 , access to the Clinton Engineer Works was strictly controlled , with wire fences , guarded gates , and guards patrolling the perimeter . All employees had to sign a security declaration , the purpose of which was to make them aware of possible penalties under the Espionage Act of 1917 . Noting the distillation facilities and their high energy consumption , " I thought they were making sour mash to drop on the Germans , get them all drunk , " engineer Benjamin Bederson recalled , before realizing the facilities were enriching nuclear isotopes . Mail was censored , and lie detectors were employed in security checks . Everyone was issued with a color @-@ coded badge that restricted where they could go . Despite the security , the Clinton Engineer Works was penetrated by atomic spies George Koval and David Greenglass , who passed secrets to the Soviet Union .
Occupational health and safety presented a challenge , because workers were handling a variety of toxic chemicals , using hazardous liquids and gases under high pressures , and working with high voltages , not to mention the largely unknown dangers presented by radioactivity and handling fissile materials . Accidents represented unacceptable numbers of work days lost , and a vigorous safety program was instituted . Since it did not matter where accidents occurred , this included safety off the job , in homes and in the schools . Safety indoctrination was included in job training , and safety training courses were held . Safety posters , manuals and films were distributed . In December 1945 , the National Safety Council presented the Manhattan Project with the Award of Honor for Distinguished Service to Safety in recognition of its safety record . The Clinton Engineer Works also received an award of merit in the National Traffic Safety Contest . Many workers had to drive long distances over poorly built and inadequately maintained roads . There were 21 deaths from motor vehicles at the Clinton Engineer Works : two in 1943 , nine in 1944 , eight in 1945 and two in 1946 . This represented a better road safety record than other towns of comparable size .
The citizens of Oak Ridge were not allowed to have any form of local government ; but the state of Tennessee , concerned over the potential loss of tax revenue , did not cede sovereignty over the land . The residents of Oak Ridge therefore did not live on a federal reservation , and were entitled to vote in state and county elections . However , notice of the Clinton City elections was withheld by local authorities until a week after the deadline to pay the poll tax . On the day of a 1945 referendum on whether Anderson should remain a dry county , the Edgemoor Bridge was suddenly closed for repairs , and the dry vote carried . A subsequent vote in 1947 reversed this result , with 4 @,@ 653 dry votes compared to 5 @,@ 888 wet ; 5 @,@ 369 of the wet votes came from Oak Ridge .
This was but one point of difference between Oak Ridge residents and the rest of Anderson County . While most Oak Ridge residents had high school diplomas , and many had college degrees , the average education level of adults in Anderson County was only 6 @.@ 8 years . Oak Ridge residents demanded , and Groves insisted on , schools with fine teachers and first @-@ rate facilities . To achieve this , the Manhattan District paid teachers nearly twice as much as Anderson County . The consequent drain of qualified teachers from surrounding areas aroused considerable resentment .
The Manhattan District accepted that wages and salaries had to be high enough to allow contractors to hire and retain good workers . It generally allowed wages and salaries to be paid by contractors as they saw fit , subject to limits imposed by wartime national wage and price controls intended to limit inflation . Salaries above $ 9 @,@ 000 had to be approved by Patterson and Groves .
The War Production Board was asked to keep stores in Oak Ridge well @-@ stocked in order to reduce absenteeism among the workers . When shortages did occur , the relatively well @-@ paid Oak Ridge residents bought up scarce goods in surrounding areas . In both cases , they attracted the ire of their residents . Personnel employed by the Manhattan District were not exempted from being drafted under the Selective Service System . Efforts were made to employ draft @-@ exempt personnel , and deferments were requested only for critical personnel , mainly young scientists and technicians .
= = The war ends = =
On 10 May 1945 , Women 's Army Corps typists at Manhattan District headquarters began preparing press kits on the Manhattan Project for use after an atomic bomb had been dropped . Fourteen press releases were prepared , and thousands of copies made by mimeograph . The final wartime shipment of uranium @-@ 235 left the Clinton Engineer Works on 25 July 1945 . Shipments reached Tinian on C @-@ 54 aircraft on 28 and 29 July . They were incorporated into the Little Boy bomb dropped on Hiroshima on 6 August . The news was greeted with wild celebration in Oak Ridge . Patterson issued a letter to the men and women of the Clinton Engineer Works :
Today the whole world knows the secret which you have helped us keep for many months . I am pleased to be able to add that the warlords of Japan now know its effects better , even than we ourselves . The atomic bomb which you have helped to develop with high devotion to patriotic duty is the most devastating military weapon that any country has ever been able to tum against its enemy . No one of you has worked on the entire project or knows the whole story , Each of you has done his own job and kept his own secret , and so today I speak for a grateful nation when I say congratulations , and thank you all . I hope you will continue to keep the secrets you have kept so well . The need for security and for continued effort is fully as great now as it ever was . We are proud of every one of you .
= = Postwar years = =
By 1945 , Roane @-@ Anderson was divesting itself of many of its tasks . American Industrial Transit took over the transport system , and Southern Bell the telephone system . Tri @-@ State Homes began managing housing . In 1946 , tenants were permitted to paint their houses in different colors from the wartime olive drab . Comprehensive medical insurance , originally instituted for security reasons , was replaced with policies from the Provident Life and Accident Insurance Company . Health care had been provided by the Army . As Army doctors were separated from the service they were replaced with civilian doctors employed by Roane @-@ Anderson . The dental service was transferred to civilians in February 1946 , and private medical practices were permitted at Oak Ridge from 1 March 1946 on .
The hospital remained an Army hospital until 1 March 1949 , when it was transferred to Roanne @-@ Anderson . Monsanto took over the operation of the Clinton Laboratories on 1 July 1945 . Control of the entire site passed to the Atomic Energy Commission on 1 January 1947 . The Clinton Laboratories became the Clinton National Laboratory in late 1947 , and the Oak Ridge National Laboratory in January 1948 . Union Carbide took over its management in December 1947 , bringing all of Oak Ridge 's operations under its control .
While the war was in progress , the Manhattan District resisted allowing labor unions access to its facilities . In 1946 , they were permitted to operate at the Clinton Engineer Works . Elections were held at K @-@ 25 , Y @-@ 12 and X @-@ 10 in August and September 1946 and the United Chemical Workers became their representative . A contract was negotiated with Union Carbide on 10 December . The Atomic Trades and Labor Council became the representative of the Clinton Laboratories , signing a contract with Monsanto on 18 December .
At its peak in May 1945 , 82 @,@ 000 people were employed at the Clinton Engineer Works , and 75 @,@ 000 people lived in the township . By January 1946 , these figures had fallen to 43 @,@ 000 and 48 @,@ 000 respectively . By the time the Manhattan Project concluded at the end of 1946 , the corresponding figures were 34 @,@ 000 and 43 @,@ 000 . The departure of large numbers of construction workers meant that 47 percent of those remaining were family members of workers . Eight dormitories were closed in October 1945 . Most of those who remained in dorms now had their own rooms . The white hutments began to be removed . Trailers were returned to the Federal Public Housing Authority .
The end of the war brought national attention to Oak Ridge , and there was bad publicity about the conditions that the Black residents were living in . Roane @-@ Anderson dusted off plans for a village for them . The new village , called Scarboro , was built where the Gamble Valley Trailer Camp had once stood . Construction commenced in 1948 , and the first residents moved in two years later . It would house the entire Black community of Oak Ridge until the early 1960s .
In 1947 , Oak Ridge was still part of " an island of socialism in the midst of a free enterprise economy . " The AEC pressed forward with plans to withdraw from running the community , but it could never be too fast for some members of Congress . AEC officials patiently explained over and over how Roane @-@ Anderson provided far more than regular municipal services . For the residents , the benefits of a free enterprise economy were slight . They enjoyed low rents and no property taxes , but high standards of services and an excellent school system . Oak Ridge City Historian William J. Wilcox , Jr . , noted that the townspeople " thoroughly enjoyed their much protected existence and the benevolence the Army had provided " . A straw poll of the residents on opening the gates showed them opposed , 10 to 1 .
Nonetheless , on 19 March 1949 the residential and commercial portion of Oak Ridge was ceremoniously opened to public access . Vice President Alben W. Barkley , Governor Gordon Browning , Atomic Energy Commission Chairman David E. Lilienthal , and movie star Marie McDonald were on hand to watch the guards take down the barriers . Access to the nuclear facilities was controlled by three Oak Ridge gatehouses . On 6 June 1951 , the Senate Appropriations Committee called on the Atomic Energy Commission to discontinue " the present undemocratic method " of operating the community , and it initiated steps to coerce Oak Ridge residents to establish democratic institutions and adopt a free enterprise system .
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= Jack Harkness =
Captain Jack Harkness is a fictional character played by John Barrowman in Doctor Who and its spin @-@ off series , Torchwood . The character first appears in the 2005 Doctor Who episode " The Empty Child " and subsequently features in the remaining episodes of the 2005 series as a companion to the series ' protagonist , the Doctor . Subsequent to this , Jack became the central character in the adult @-@ themed Torchwood , which aired from 2006 to 2011 . Barrowman also reprised the role for guest appearances in Doctor Who in its 2007 series and 2008 series , as well as the two part special The End of Time .
In contrast to the Doctor , Jack is more of a conventional action hero , as well as outwardly flirtatious and capable of acts which the Doctor would view as less than noble . In the programme 's narrative , Jack begins as a time traveller and former con man from the 51st century , who comes to travel with the Ninth Doctor ( Christopher Eccleston ) and his companion Rose ( Billie Piper ) . As a consequence of his death and resurrection in the 2005 Doctor Who finale , Jack becomes immortal and is stranded on 19th century Earth . There he becomes a member of Torchwood , a British organization dedicated to combating alien threats . He spends over a century waiting to reunite with the Doctor , over which time he becomes Torchwood 's leader . Eventually , he reunites with the Tenth Doctor ( David Tennant ) for several appearances in Doctor Who . Aspects of the character 's backstory — both prior to meeting the Doctor , and during his many decades living on Earth — are gradually revealed over Torchwood ( and to a lesser extent , Doctor Who ) through the use of flashback scenes and expository dialogue .
Jack is the first openly non @-@ heterosexual character in the history of televised Doctor Who . The popularity of the character amongst multiple audiences directly influenced the development of the spin @-@ off series Torchwood . The character became a figure of the British public consciousness , rapidly gaining fame for portrayer John Barrowman . As an ongoing depiction of bisexuality in mainstream British television , the character became a role model for young gay and bisexual people in the UK . Jack is featured in various Doctor Who and Torchwood books and has action figures created in his likeness .
= = Appearances = =
= = = Television = = =
Jack Harkness first appeared in the 2005 Doctor Who episode " The Empty Child " and its continuation " The Doctor Dances " , when Rose ( Billie Piper ) , a companion of the Ninth Doctor ( Christopher Eccleston ) , meets him during the Blitz . Although posing as an American volunteering in the Royal Air Force , Jack is actually a former " Time Agent " from the 51st century who left the agency after inexplicably losing two years of his memory . Now working as a con man , Jack is responsible for unwittingly releasing a plague in London in 1941 . After the Doctor cures the plague , Jack redeems himself by taking an unexploded bomb into his ship ; the Doctor and Rose rescue him moments before it explodes . He subsequently travels with the Doctor and Rose in the Doctor 's time traveling spacecraft , the TARDIS . During his time with the Doctor , Jack matures into a hero , and in his final 2005 appearance , he sacrifices himself fighting the evil alien Daleks . Rose brings him back to life while suffused with the power of the time vortex , but when the power leaves her she doesn 't remember doing it . She and the Doctor subsequently leave Jack behind on Satellite 5 .
Harkness returned in 2006 as a character of the spin @-@ off series Torchwood , in which he is a member of the Cardiff @-@ based Torchwood Three in combating alien threats and monitoring a spacetime rift which runs through Cardiff . Jack is re @-@ introduced as a changed man , reluctantly immortal , having spent years on Earth waiting to reunite with the Doctor . Jack recruits policewoman Gwen Cooper ( Eve Myles ) to the team of experts after she discovers them ; there are hints of romantic feelings between the two , but Gwen has a boyfriend and Jack enters a sexual relationship with the team 's general factotum Ianto Jones ( Gareth David @-@ Lloyd ) . Despite having worked with him for some time , his present @-@ day colleagues know very little about him ; over the course of the series they discover that he cannot die . Jack was once a prisoner of war , and was an interrogator who used torture . In the Torchwood Series One finale " End of Days " , Jack returns to the TARDIS . This immediately leads into the 2007 Doctor Who episode " Utopia " , where he joins the Tenth Doctor ( David Tennant ) and his companion Martha ( Freema Agyeman ) . Jack explains he returned from Satellite 5 to the present day by traveling to 1869 via vortex manipulator , and lived through the 20th century waiting for the Doctor . By the series finale , having spent a year in an alternate timeline enslaved by the Master ( John Simm ) , Jack opts to return to his team in Cardiff . Before departing , Jack speculates about his immortality and reminisces about his youth on the Boeshane Peninsula , an implicit suggestion that he may one day become the mysterious " Face of Boe " ( a recurring character voiced by Struan Rodger ) .
In Torchwood 's second series ( 2008 ) , Jack returns with a lighter attitude , and finds his team have continued working in his absence . They are also more insistent to learn of his past , especially after meeting his former partner , the unscrupulous Captain John Hart ( James Marsters ) . The episode " Adam " explores Jack 's childhood in the Boeshane Peninsula , revealing through flashback sequences how his father Franklin ( Demetri Goritsas ) died and young Jack ( Jack Montgomery ) lost his younger brother Gray ( Ethan Brooke ) during an alien invasion . Flashbacks in the series ' penultimate episode " Fragments " depict Jack 's capture by Torchwood in the late 19th century . Initially their prisoner , Jack is coerced into becoming a freelance agent for the organization , and eventually becomes leader of Torchwood Three at midnight on 1 January 2000 . The series finale features the return of Captain John and Jack 's brother Gray ( Lachlan Nieboer ) , who , after a lifetime of torture by aliens , want revenge on Jack . While Jack manages to repair his friendship with Captain John to some degree , he is forced to place his brother in cryogenic stasis after Gray kills his teammates Toshiko ( Naoko Mori ) and Owen ( Burn Gorman ) . Jack subsequently appears alongside the casts of Torchwood and The Sarah Jane Adventures in the two @-@ part crossover finale of the 2008 Doctor Who series , " The Stolen Earth " and " Journey 's End " . Jack is summoned along with other former companions of the Doctor to assist him in defeating the mad scientist Davros ( Julian Bleach ) and his creation , the Daleks . Jack parts company from the Doctor once again , having helped save the universe from destruction .
Torchwood 's third series ( 2009 ) is a five @-@ part serial entitled Children of Earth . Aliens known as the 4 @-@ 5 @-@ 6 announce they are coming to Earth . Civil servant John Frobisher ( Peter Capaldi ) orders the destruction of Torchwood to cover a conspiracy ; in 1965 , the British government had authorized Jack to sacrifice twelve children to the 4 @-@ 5 @-@ 6 , which is shown in flashbacks . Jack is blown apart in an explosion , but painfully reconstitutes from an incomplete pile of body parts ; Gwen and Ianto escape and later rescue Jack from a concrete grave . Jack 's daughter Alice ( Lucy Cohu ) and grandson Steven ( Bear McCausland ) are taken into custody by the assassins . The 4 @-@ 5 @-@ 6 demand ten percent of the world 's children . Although he handed over twelve children in 1965 , Jack refuses to give up any this time around . The 4 @-@ 5 @-@ 6 release a fatal virus ; Ianto dies in Jack 's arms . To create the signal that will destroy the 4 @-@ 5 @-@ 6 , Jack sacrifices Steven . Six months later , having lost his lover , his grandson and his daughter , he bids farewell to Gwen and is transported aboard an alien ship to leave Earth for parts unknown . In the closing scenes of 2010 Doctor Who special The End of Time , the critically injured Doctor gives each companion a farewell before his impending regeneration . Finding Jack in an exotic alien bar , he leaves him a note containing the name of Titanic crew member Alonso Frame ( Russell Tovey ) , sitting on Jack 's left side ; the two proceed to flirt .
The fourth series , Miracle Day ( 2011 ) , an American co @-@ production , sees Jack return to Earth to investigate a phenomenon where humans can no longer die ; Jack discovers that he has become mortal . Investigating their connection to the so @-@ called " miracle " , CIA agent Rex Matheson ( Mekhi Phifer ) renditions Jack and Gwen to America , but joins the team along with CIA colleague Esther Drummond ( Alexa Havins ) after conspirators within the CIA betray them . Jack 's investigations into the miracle repeatedly turn up dead @-@ ends , indicating a decades @-@ old conspiracy to manipulate the global economy , as well as political institutions , for unknown purposes . Flashbacks in " Immortal Sins " depict Jack 's relationship with Italian thief Angelo Colasanto ( Daniele Favilli ) in late 1920s New York City , ending in heartbreak after Jack is killed , bled and tortured repeatedly by the local community . In the present day , Angelo 's granddaughter Olivia ( Nana Visitor ) explains that the descendants of three local businessmen who wished to purchase Jack 's powers — " the Three Families " — are responsible for the miracle , using Jack 's blood in conjunction with what they call " the Blessing " . In " The Gathering " , the team ultimately track down the Families and the Blessing , which is revealed to be an antipodal geological formation connected to the Earth 's morphic field running from Shanghai and Buenos Aires ; the team divide , attempting to reach both access points . To end the miracle , in " The Blood Line " , Jack has Gwen kill him so that his mortal blood can reset the human morphic field ; Gwen kills him with a bullet through the chest , while Rex — who transfused himself with Jack 's blood to keep it safe — allows the Blessing to drain him too , in Buenos Aires . Rex survives , and with the morphic field restored , Jack resurrects . At Esther 's funeral however , they discover that Rex has acquired self @-@ healing abilities just like Jack 's .
= = = Literature = = =
Jack features in the BBC Books " New Series Adventures " Doctor Who novels The Deviant Strain , The Stealers of Dreams , and Only Human . These novels take place between episodes of the 2005 series of Doctor Who . In The Stealers of Dreams , Jack refers to the Face of Boe as a famous figure in his home era ; the producers of the series had not conceptualized the possibility of a Jack and Boe connection until mid @-@ way into the production of the 2007 series .
The first wave of BBC Books Torchwood novels , Another Life , Border Princes , and Slow Decay ( published January 2007 ) , are set between episodes of the first series of Torchwood . The novels Trace Memory , The Twilight Streets , and Something in the Water ( published March 2008 ) , are set during the concurrently airing second series of Torchwood . The Twilight Streets suggests Jack was a freelance Torchwood agent in the 1940s , who disagreed with their methods but was persuaded by the love of an ex @-@ boyfriend , Greg . The novel also explained that during the events of the Doctor Who episode " Boom Town " ( which was set in Cardiff ) , Jack placed a lockdown on Torchwood activity so as not to create a paradox involving his past self . Trace Memory similarly depicts Jack as a freelance Torchwood agent , living and working in the late 1960s . Pack Animals , SkyPoint , and Almost Perfect ( October 2008 ) , are made up of more second series adventures , apart from Almost Perfect which is set after Series Two finale " Exit Wounds " . Into the Silence , Bay of the Dead , and The House that Jack Built ( May 2009 ) , similarly are set between the second and third series of the show . The House that Jack Built focuses partly on Jack 's life in 1906 . Risk Assessment , The Undertaker 's Gift , and Consequences ( October 2009 ) , are likewise set between " Exit Wounds " and Children of Earth .
First published in January 2008 , the monthly Torchwood Magazine began occasionally including Torchwood comic strips , in which Jack also appears . One such comic , written in 2009 by John Barrowman and sister Carole E. Barrowman , " Captain Jack and the Selkie " , expands on Captain Jack 's characterisation . Barrowman comments that " We ’ d already agreed to tell a story that showed a side of Jack and a part of his history that hadn ’ t been explored too much in other media . I wanted to give fans something original about Jack . " Torchwood Magazine also ran with the ten @-@ part Rift War ! storyline from April to December 2008 . The first Torchwood comic " Jetsam " was later collected along with Rift War ! in a graphic novel .
The Torchwood Archives , published after the second series in 2008 , is a companion book written by Gary Russell which gives an " insider 's look " into the life of Jack and the Torchwood team . The book collects and re @-@ publishes ancillary material which appeared on the Torchwood website in the first two seasons , and provides new material such as rough dates for things like Jack 's marriage as relayed by the book 's fictional narrator . The book is composed of fictitious archive notes , personnel forms , photographs , newspaper clippings and staff memos , and offers revelations about the character which would later be confirmed by the television series . For example , Archives first mention Jack 's lover Lucia Moretti , who is mentioned in Children of Earth . In a similar vein to The Torchwood Archives but from a real @-@ world perspective , Gary Russell 's The Torchwood Encyclopedia ( 2009 ) expands on " every fact and figure " for Jack and the Torchwood world .
= = = Online media = = =
During the first series of Torchwood , the Torchwood website , located at torchwood.org.uk , recounted some adventures by Captain Jack through an alternate reality game made up of electronic literature in the form of fictional intercepted blogs , newspaper cutouts and confidential letters and IM conversations between members of the Torchwood Three crew . Written by James Goss , the first series ' website sheds some light on Jack 's backstory in the years he worked for Torchwood . For the second series in 2008 , a second interactive Torchwood online game was devised , scripted by series writer Phil Ford , and as with the 2006 website contained some information on Jack 's unseen adventures . The BBC America Torchwood also has a ' Captain 's Blog ' section which relays Jack 's accounts of the events of each episode . The Torchwood Archives by Gary Russell collects much of this online literature for the first two series in hardback form , including the Captain 's Blog section of the BBC America website .
During Series Four of Doctor Who , the BBC 's website also included a section called " Captain Jack 's Monster Files " featuring weekly webcast videos narrated by John Barrowman in character as Captain Jack giving " top secret " facts collected by Torchwood about Doctor Who monsters , such as the Slitheen . A Christmas special 2008 Monster File features Barrowman in new footage as Jack , as does the Cybermen edition added following the airing of " The Next Doctor " on Christmas Day . For Dr Fiona Hobden , the Monster Files ' mock @-@ documentary format give an " additional twist " to the interplay between history and fiction . Because Captain Jack narrates , " the story unfolds in the tradition of contemporary historical documentary , the docudrama " ; in the Monster File for " The Fires of Pompeii " , Harkness ' commentary moves the ' reality ' of the episode away from the explosion of Vesuvius and the human experience , and to the story itself . From Series Five onwards , the Monster Files are instead presented by River Song ( Alex Kingston ) .
Jack also appears in the web @-@ based motion comic series Torchwood : Web of Lies ( 2011 ) , which ties into Miracle Day . The story depicts a series two @-@ set adventure where Jack is kidnapped by unknown assailants and pursued by Gwen . Investigations by a woman named Holly ( voice of Eliza Dushku ) establish that Jack was kidnapped by the Three Families so they could acquire entire vats of his blood , which she destroys .
= = = Audio drama = = =
In addition to the paperback novels , Jack also appears in Torchwood audio books , the first four being Hidden written by Steven Savile and narrated by Naoko Mori , Everyone Says Hello written by Dan Abnett and narrated by Burn Gorman , released February 2008 , In the Shadows by Joseph Lidster and narrated by Eve Myles , released September 2008 , and The Sin Eaters written by Brian Minchin and narrated by Gareth David @-@ Lloyd , released September 2008 . Joseph Lidster also wrote a BBC Radio 4 Torchwood drama , " Lost Souls " which aired in Summer 2008 as an Afternoon Play featuring the voices of John Barrowman , Eve Myles , Gareth David @-@ Lloyd and Freema Agyeman . Set after the events of the 2008 series , Jack and his team make their first international adventure to CERN in Geneva , as part of Radio 4 's special celebration of the Large Hadron Collider being switched on . The special radio episode 's plot focuses on the Large Hadron Collider 's activation and the doomsday scenario some predicted it might incite , as well as the team 's mourning of Toshiko and Owen 's recent deaths . Between 1 and 3 July , Radio 4 aired three further audio dramas in The Afternoon Play slot , bridging the gap between Series 2 and 3 . " Golden Age " introduced Jack 's ex @-@ lover Duchess Eleanor ( Jasmine Hyde ) , the leader of Torchwood India , which Jack closed down in 1924 . " The Dead Line " features another ex @-@ girlfriend of Jack 's , Stella Courtney ( Doña Croll ) .
2011 audio drama series The Lost Files was released to tie in with Miracle Day . " The Devil and Miss Carew " and " Submission " are set in the same period as the previous audio dramas . " House of the Dead " , however , reveals itself in its final act to be set six months after Ianto 's death ; Jack visited the House of the Dead to make contact with Ianto , who is unaware that he is dead . Jack and Ianto say a final goodbye and tell each other they love one another for the first time . Jack attempts to return to the land of the living alongside Ianto , but Ianto stays behind to close the Cardiff spacetime rift forever with Jack 's device .
In 2015 , BBC Worldwide granted Big Finish Productions the licence to produce a series Torchwood audio plays , beginning with The Conspiracy in September 2015 and a series of five more monthly releases from January 2016 . John Barrowman is signed to reprise his role as Jack , who has a central role in The Conspiracy as the leader of the Torchwood team .
= = Characterisation = =
= = = Concept and creation = = =
In naming the character , executive producer and head writer Russell T Davies drew inspiration from the Marvel Comics character Agatha Harkness , a character whose surname Davies had previously used in naming lead characters in Century Falls and The Grand . Davies states that reusing names ( such as Tyler , Smith , Harper , Harkness and Jones ) allows him to get a grip of the character on the blank page . Jack 's original appearances in Doctor Who were conceived with the intention of forming a character arc in which Jack is transformed from a coward to a hero , and John Barrowman consciously minded this in his portrayal of the character . Following on that arc , the character 's debut episode would leave his morality as ambiguous , publicity materials asking , " Is he a force for good or ill ? "
Actor John Barrowman himself was a key factor in the conception of Captain Jack . Barrowman says that at the time of his initial casting , Davies and co @-@ executive producer , Julie Gardner had explained to him that they " basically wrote the character around [ John ] " . Davies had singled out Barrowman for the part . On meeting him , Barrowman tried out the character using his native Scottish accent , his normal American accent , and an English accent ; Davies decided it " made it bigger if it was an American accent " . Barrowman recounts Davies as having been searching for an actor with a " matinée idol quality " , telling him that " the only one in the whole of Britain who could do it was you " . A number of television critics have compared Barrowman 's performances as Captain Jack to those of Hollywood actor Tom Cruise .
The character 's introduction served to posit him as a secondary hero and a rival to the series protagonist , the Doctor , simultaneously paralleling the Doctor 's detached alien nature with Jack 's humanity and " heart " . John Barrowman describes the character in his initial appearance as " an intergalactic conman " and also a " rogue Time Agent " which he defines as " part of a kind of space CIA " and alludes to the moral ambiguity of having " done something in his past " and not knowing " whether it is good or bad because his memory has been erased " . Writer Stephen James Walker notes similarities have been found between Jack and Angel ( David Boreanaz ) , the heroic vampire from America 's Buffy the Vampire Slayer and Angel ; Alan Stanley Blair of SyFy Portal pointed out that " Back alley fights , knowledge of the paranormal and an unwanted task of defending the helpless are only a few of the correlations between the two characters . " Jack has also been compared to the title character of America 's Xena : Warrior Princess , which featured lesbian subtext between Xena ( Lucy Lawless ) and her close friend Gabrielle ( Renee O 'Connor ) . Polina Skibinskaya , writing for AfterElton.com , an American gay men 's website , notes both are " complex characters " haunted by their past misdeeds . Furthermore , like Xena , Jack is " a gay basher ’ s worst nightmare : a queer weapon @-@ wielding , ass @-@ kicking superhero gleefully chewing his way through awesome fight scenes " . One academic article refers to Jack as " an indestructible Captain Scarlet figure " . In a comparative contrast , where the Doctor is a pacifist , Jack is more inclined to see violent means to reach similar ends . The BBC News website refers to Jack 's role within Doctor Who as " [ continuing ] what began with Ian Chesterton and continued later with Harry Sullivan " . Whereas in the classic series the female " companions " were sometimes exploited and sexualised for the entertainment of predominantly male audiences , the producers could reverse this dynamic with Jack , citing an equal need amongst modern audiences to " look at good looking men " . John Barrowman linked the larger number of women watching the show as a key factor in this .
Jack is bisexual , and is the first televised Doctor Who character to be openly anything other than heterosexual . In Jack 's first appearance , the Doctor suggests that Jack 's orientation is more common in the 51st century , when humankind will deal with multiple alien species and becomes more sexually flexible . Within Doctor Who 's narrative , Jack 's sexual orientation is not specifically labelled as that could " make it an issue " . On creating Jack , Davies comments " I thought : ' It 's time you introduce bisexuals properly into mainstream television , ' " with a focus on making Jack fun and swashbuckling as opposed to negative and angsty . Davies also expresses that he didn 't make the character bisexual " from any principle " , but rather because " it would be interesting from a narrative point of view . " The bisexuality @-@ related labels " pansexual " and " omnisexual " are also frequently applied to the character . Writer Steven Moffat suggests that questions of sexual orientation do not even enter into Jack 's mind ; Moffat also comments " It felt right that the James Bond of the future would bed anyone . " Within Torchwood , the character refers to sexual orientation classifications as " quaint " . In an interview with the Chicago Tribune , John Barrowman explained that " [ He ] ’ s bisexual , but in the realm of the show , we call him omnisexual , because on the show , [ the characters ] also have sex with aliens who take human form , and sex with male @-@ male , women @-@ women , all sorts of combinations . " The term is also used once , in @-@ universe , in the novel The House that Jack Built , when Ianto comments to a woman 's remark about Jack , " He prefers the term ' omnisexual ' . "
= = = Costume = = =
While in his first several Doctor Who appearances , Jack did not have a set costume , Torchwood established a continual look for Jack which recalled that of his first Doctor Who appearance . The design has been described as " an iconic piece of sci @-@ fi culture " . A writer for Wired attributes much of Jack 's appeal to the coat : " I think it has lots to do with that coat he always wears . Coats are cool , just like fezzes and bow ties and Stetsons . The only difference is that Captain Jack doesn 't ever tell you his coat is cool . It just is . " In fact , in her essay " Fashioning Masculinity and Desire " , Sarah Gilligan attributes Torchwood 's popularity — as well as that of the character — to the costume . She credits the greatcoat with helping to fashion the character 's masculinity , and argues that Jack 's costume creates its own discourse " through which costume drama and Post Heritage cinema 's escapism flows " .
During Jack 's initial appearances in Doctor Who , Russell T Davies held a " half @-@ hearted " theory that Jack would dress specific to the time period he was in , to contrast the Doctor who dresses the same wherever and whenever he goes . He is introduced wearing a greatcoat in World War II @-@ set episodes , but changes to modern day jeans in contemporary episode " Boom Town " and black leather in futuristic episodes . Davies admits that this was a " bit of a lame idea " and decided that Jack " never looked better than when he was in his World War II outfit " . From the pilot of Torchwood onwards , Harkness once again wears period military clothes from the second World War , including braces and an officer 's wool greatcoat in every appearance . Costume designer Ray Holman commented in a Torchwood Magazine interview that " We always wanted to keep the World War Two hero look for him , so all his outfits have a 1940s flavour . " Because the character was expected to " be running around a lot " , Holman redesigned his RAF Group Captain 's greatcoat from Doctor Who to make it more fluid and less " weighty " . Jack 's other costumes are " loosely wartime based " , such as the trousers are " getting more and more styled to suit his figure " . Holman explains that there are actually five Captain Jack coats used on the show . The " hero version " is used for most scenes , while there is also a wetcoat made with pre @-@ shrunk fabric , running coat which is slightly shorter to prevent heels getting caught , and two " stunt coats " that had been " hero coats " in the first series . " Davies feels the military uniform reinforces the idea that the character " likes his Captain Jack Harkness identity " . Julie Gardner describes the coat as " epic and classic and dramatic " , while director Brian Kelly believes it gives Jack " a sweep and a presence " .
For Miracle Day , Davies commissioned new costume designer Shawna Trpcic ( previously costume designer for Angel , Firefly and Dollhouse ) to create a new greatcoat design . This was partially motivated by Los Angeles ' warmer climate ; shooting in Wales had necessitated Barrowman be fit in much warmer clothing . The new coat is custom made by Italian designers , and is actually cashmere @-@ blend wool where the previous one had been cotton . Trpcic says that she " just wanted to modernise it , give it a more modern fit , but leave the drape and keep it cape @-@ like " . Trpcic felt prepared for the job of redesigning the coat because of her prior work on Firefly , tailoring for Nathan Fillion 's Captain Malcolm Reynolds : " I 'm kind of used to iconic captain 's coats and the importance of staying loyal to what the fans expect and to what we need " . Journalist Maureen Ryan commented that the new coat is " greatly improved " and the redesign " gives the coat the kind of movement and swagger Jack brings with him on every adventure " .
= = = Development = = =
The character is described as both " lethally charming ... good looking and utterly captivating " , as well as " flirtatious , cunning , clever and a bit of an action man " . Within Doctor Who , Jack 's personality is relatively light @-@ hearted , although this changes in Torchwood 's first series , where he becomes a darker character . In Torchwood 's first series , Jack has been shaped by his ongoing search for the Doctor and also by his role as a leader , in which he is predominantly more aloof . In Torchwood , he would occasionally inquire or muse about the afterlife and religion , sympathising with a man 's desire to die . Returning in Doctor Who Series Three , Jack indicates he now maintains a less suicidal outlook than before . In the second series of Torchwood , Jack became a much more light @-@ hearted character once again , after appearances in Doctor Who where he was reunited with the Doctor . In the third series of Torchwood , the audience sees some of Jack 's " darker side " , as well as " the secrets that Jack has , the pressures , drama and the trauma he 's carrying on his shoulders " .
Lynnette Porter comments on Jack 's relation to scholar FitzRoy Somerset , 4th Baron Raglan 's theses on ' the hero ' in fiction . Because Jack is immortal and always comes back from the dead , Porter argues that Jack cannot literally fulfil the " physical death aspect " of Raglan 's criteria for a hero . However , Jack instead has several symbolic deaths . For instance , in the last scene of Children of Earth . Porter observes that camera angles emphasise Jack 's profile as solitary man atop a hill in Cardiff , departing . This scene of " going away for good " against the backdrop of the city he has long protected , hints at the death of the Captain Jack persona ; in Porter 's words , " the immortal captain " dies " at the top of a hill in Wales at the conclusion of the " epic " miniseries " , " epic " traditionally being the genre of heroism . The American political blog Daily Kos states Jack " can certainly be characterised as a Byronic hero , a tragic figure with a streak of melancholy , heroic yet misunderstood , bold yet rash . Most importantly , his sexuality is one single aspect of a much more complex , flawed character . " G. Todd Davis examines the ways in which Jack conforms to the Byronic hero character trope . Physically , he identifies Jack as dark @-@ haired and strikingly handsome , with masculine physique ; he is intelligent and aware of it , to the point of a superiority complex ; he demands unquestioning loyalty , has guilty secrets in his past , and is self @-@ sacrificing . For this , Davis lists Jack alongside Milton 's Satan from Paradise Lost , Shelley 's Prometheus , and also Angel from Buffy , amongst others .
As a show , Torchwood is highly intertextual . The consequence of this is that many sides of Jack are shown across various media . One commentator feels that this emphasises Jack 's pivotal place in the development and change of modern science fiction heroes . The character 's unexpected popularity with a multitude of audiences , would later shape his appearances both as a traditional " action hero " and as a positive role model for younger viewers . Barrowman also remarks that " The beauty of Captain Jack , and one of the reasons why I think , as an actor , I 've landed on my feet , is that he 's popular with one audience in Torchwood and with another in Doctor Who . "
= = = = Moral ambiguity = = = =
In several instances in Torchwood , Jack displays no qualms about killing a person of any species , which within Doctor Who , allows Jack 's character to act in ways the lead character cannot . Barrowman remarks , " He 'll do things the Doctor won 't do ... [ such as ] fight . Jack will kill . And the Doctor , in a way , knows that , so he lets Jack do it . I 'd say Jack 's the companion @-@ hero . " A flashback in the third series of Torchwood shows Captain Jack sacrificing twelve children to aliens in order to save millions of lives . Davies feels that the third series of Torchwood is a " tale of retribution and perhaps redemption " for Captain Jack , who experiences " maximum damage " when his lover Ianto is killed . Davies chose to have Ianto die so that Jack would be damaged enough to sacrifice his grandson in order to destroy the same aliens .
When reuniting with the Doctor in the 2007 series of Doctor Who , he is verbally warned " don 't you dare " when pointing a gun , and scolded when contemplating snapping the Master 's neck . Witnessing the murder of his colleague Owen in Torchwood , Jack shoots his killer in the forehead , killing him in an act of swift revenge . Whilst the Doctor scolds Jack for joining the Torchwood Institute ( an organisation he perceives as xenophobic and aggressive ) , Jack maintains that he reformed the Institute in the Doctor 's image ; Jack himself had initially been critical of the moral failings of a 19th @-@ century Torchwood . Actor Gareth David @-@ Lloyd describes the 19th century Torchwood as " quite ruthless and quite evil " and " on the other side " from Jack and the Doctor . Through Jack , whose perspective is widened by his experiences in other planets and times , the organisation was able to grow less jingoistic . One academic article , which compares Torchwood to the American drama series 24 , opines that Jack 's attitudes make the show 's ethos largely antithetical to that of 24 . Because Jack explores the " complexity of negotiating differing worldviews , cultural values , beliefs , and moral codes " through a framework established by the Doctor , to " value life , support democratic principles and egalitarianism , and protect those who cannot protect themselves " , consequently " The world of Torchwood is depicted , not as the dichotomous " us " ( or United States ) and " other " of Jack Bauer 's 24 , but as the omnipolitical , omnisexual , omnicultural world of Jack Harkness . " Porter finds , however , that like Bauer , Jack saves the world using similarly morally grey means when he tortures Beth the sleeper agent , in " Sleeper " , in order to avert an interplanetary attack .
Although science fiction heroes have , Porter argues , " grown greyer over time " , Jack represents as of Children of Earth a culmination of this trend , resulting in a full " devolution / deconstruction of the traditional hero " . In Children of Earth , Jack has to sacrifice his own grandson to save the world . Barrowman was concerned that the storyline could have made the character unpopular . He believes however that Jack was given the tough decision on how to save humanity ; the actor says " when I read all of the stuff he had to do , I had to look at it from the point of view of ' I 'm Jack Harkness and I 'm right ' . " For Lynnette Porter , Jack 's actions in the serial make him " a benchmark for [ morally ] grey heroes " ; some audiences may even view him , in light of his actions , as " villainous or downright monstrous . " Although Jack ultimately saves the majority of the world 's children and finds a way to foil the monstrous 456 , the situation in which he is placed forces him to make a morally difficult ( and to some viewers , reprehensible ) decision . Such , Porter argues , is the mark of a grey hero . Davies stated in an interview with SFX that he " loved " the uproarious reaction to Jack 's actions , defending the character in saying " He saved every single child in the world ! If you would fail to do that then you ’ re the monster , frankly . It ’ s this extraordinary treatment that only science fiction heroes get . " When Jack is departing Earth , the music playing is titled " Redemption " , signifying that his departure is also perhaps his redeeming act in the serial .
= = = = Face of Boe = = = =
Russell T Davies referred to a scene in " Last of the Time Lords " as promoting a theory that Jack may one day become recurring character " the Face of Boe " ( a large , mysterious disembodied head in a glass case ) as a consequence of his immortality and slow aging . The Face first appeared in 2005 episode " The End of the World " , appearing fully three times and maintaining a presence through to the end of the 2007 series . Barrowman described himself and David Tennant as being " so excited " to the extent where they " jumped up screaming " when they read Jack 's line regarding the Face of Boe , remarking " It was probably the most excitable moment we had during the shooting of that series . " The Face of Boe had originally been a throwaway line in a script for " The End of the World " ; because creating the character seemed expensive , the Face of Boe was nearly discarded and replaced . However , special effects designer Neil Gorton loved the idea and pushed to make sure the character lived . Davies loved Gorton 's design and to his surprise , the character was written into future episodes and became pivotal in the third series . In a spin @-@ off novel , The Stealer of Dreams ( 2005 ) , Captain Jack makes a reference to the Face of Boe as a famous figure . Davies conceived the idea that the two characters might be connected midway through the production of the 2007 series .
Barrowman states that when fans ask him if Jack is really the Face of Boe , he tells them he believes he is and states that he and Davies hold it to be true " in [ their ] little world " ; the link is " unconfirmed " within the text of the show . As to how Jack becomes the Face , Barrowman feels the answer doesn 't matter as it is intentionally mysterious . Barrowman likes the characters being connected because it means in spite of how the Doctor initially treats Jack , " Boe becomes his confidante and the one the Doctor returns to for advice and information " which he feels is a " wonderful twist of events " . However , Davies doesn 't like making whether Jack really is the Face of Boe explicit , stating " the moment it became very true or very false , the joke dies " . He has refused the publication of spin @-@ off novels and comic books that have tried to definitively link the two .
In relationship to Miracle Day , where Jack becomes mortal , critics approached Barrowman and Davies about the implications of such a move for Jack 's potential future as the Face of Boe . Barrowman stated that the open @-@ ended rules of the science fiction genre meant that Jack could still become the Face of Boe even after Miracle Day . By contrast , Davies was keen to emphasise that the possibility of Jack becoming the Face of Boe remained " conjecture " , and that the possibility remained that Jack would not survive Miracle Day , adding " You know how I love killing people off . "
= = = Relationships = = =
= = = = Ianto = = = =
In a Doctor Who Magazine interview , Barrowman described Jack 's love for Ianto as " lustful " , and explained " I don 't think he 'd settle down with Ianto . He might do , but he 'd let Ianto know that he [ Jack ] has to play around on the side " . The Torchwood Series Two premiere sees Jack ask Ianto out on a date , after finding out Gwen is engaged . John Barrowman and Gareth David @-@ Lloyd opined in an interview at Comic @-@ Con to fan questions that Jack 's relationship with Ianto has however brought out Jack 's empathy , and helped to ground him . John Barrowman said in an interview that Ianto " brings out the " human " in [ Jack ] " and " brings out more ... empathy because he ’ s actually fallen for someone and he really cares about somebody ... [ which ] makes him warm to other people ... [ and ] makes him more approachable . " In the same interview , Gareth David @-@ Lloyd said of the relationship and his character that " I think Ianto ’ s always made him care and that is really the heart of the show . " However , Stephen James Walker feels that Jack 's relationship with Ianto is one @-@ sided ; Ianto seems to feel the relationship is " serious and committed " , but while dancing with Gwen in " Something Borrowed " , Walker believes that Jack appears to equate his relationship with Ianto to nothing more than a " recreational activity " , and considers it " obvious Jack only has eyes and thoughts for Gwen " . The novel The House that Jack Built includes a scene where Ianto confides in Gwen that he knows that to Jack he is " just a shag " , though discloses that the relationship means more to him . In the same novel , however , he also refers to himself in front of Jack as his " boyfriend " . When Ianto expounds these same insecurities to Jack in the radio play " The Dead Line " ( just prior to Children of Earth ) , however , Jack insists " You will never be just a blip in time , Ianto Jones . Not to me . "
Just as Jack and Ianto 's relationship is developing , Ianto dies , in Children of Earth ( 2009 ) . While some fans felt " cheated " at not seeing the relationship develop further , Davies explains his intention was to heighten the tragedy by it also being a loss of potential , stating " You grieve over everything they could have been . Everything you hoped for them . " For dramatic purposes within the story , Davies explains that Ianto 's death was necessary so that Jack would be damaged enough to sacrifice his own grandson . Gareth David @-@ Lloyd feels that the lack of resolution for the love story is " part of the tragedy " . Lynnette Porter feels that Ianto 's demise is intended as a watershed moment where Jack loses his effectiveness as a hero . At least for a time , a grieving Jack loses his focus and gives up ; within a few months , Jack flees Earth and his role as the expected hero . Some fans were displeased by Ianto 's death scene and the end of the relationship , and some even accused one the writers of " deliberately egging on the shippers ' " . Subsequent to Ianto 's death , in The End of Time ( 2010 ) , the Doctor sets up Jack with a new romantic interest , Alonso Frame ( Tovey ) . Fans of Ianto , who felt cheated by the character 's death , disliked this development . GayNZ.com compared the situation to Buffy fans ' reaction to Willow 's relationship with Kennedy ( Iyari Limon ) in Buffy 's seventh season , following Tara 's death in the show 's sixth .
Ianto makes a post @-@ death appearance in 2011 audio drama " The House of the Dead " . Encountering Ianto 's spirit at a haunted location in Wales , Jack and Ianto are permitted a final goodbye . Without Ianto in his life , Jack wishes to be swept up into the Cardiff spacetime rift as it closes in an attempt at suicide . Ianto tricks Jack into leaving the House of the Dead , however , despite the possibility of resurrection . As they are forced to part forever by the closing of the rift , the couple declare their love for one another for the first and last time .
= = = = Gwen = = = =
Barrowman states in a behind @-@ the @-@ scenes featurette that Gwen brings a " little bit of soul " back to Jack , following her recruitment . In a 2007 interview , Eve Myles , who plays Gwen , describes the relationship between Jack and Gwen as a " palpable love " and opines that " with Jack and Gwen , it ’ s the real thing and they ’ re going to make you wait for that . " The first two series suggest the possibility of romantic and sexual tension behind Jack and Gwen 's working relationship , with Stephen James Walker drawing on the firing range sequence in series one episode " Ghost Machine " as a key example , as well as the scene where Jack discovers that Gwen has become engaged to Rhys in " Kiss Kiss , Bang Bang " , the series two opener . AfterElton.com 's Locksley Hall conjectures that Jack is attracted to Gwen because of " her warmth , her sense of justice , her very ordinariness and lack of glamour " , whilst Eve Myles explains Gwen 's attraction to Jack by stating : " the most monogamous woman in the world would probably go for him – it 'd be hard not to " . Valerie Estelle Frankel describes Jack as a " compelling trickster " , who acts out Gwen 's private desires with his " outrageous flirting " . She suggests that Jack ( unlike Rhys ) is not mature enough to occupy the role of " steady prince " for Gwen , whilst Barrowman feels that if Jack were to settle down with her , " he 'd have to commit completely " ; this is why he does not act on his feelings , because though Gwen would let him flirt with other people , he could " never afford to do anything more " . Gareth David @-@ Lloyd , who played Ianto , feels that for Jack , " there ’ s two different sorts of love going on there " , and that Jack feels for Gwen and Ianto in different ways , although both have helped him become less emotionally isolated . Lynnette Porter feels that part of the reason Jack leaves Earth at the conclusion of Children of Earth is Gwen 's idealisation of Jack , which is so intense that he cannot stand to look at her in the wake of Ianto 's death . Gwen hopes that she is reason enough for Jack to stay on Earth , but Jack is ready to give up any hero worship because he feels unworthy .
A press release for Torchwood Series Four states that Jack is brought back to Earth because of his " unstated love " for Gwen , who in turn still feels for Jack and misses the exciting life she once led beside him . Whilst Miracle Day lead writer Russell T Davies states in response to a question posed by AfterElton that he " hates " the idea of romantic tension between Gwen and Jack , executive producer Julie Gardner answers by stating " They love each other . Of course they do . " Myles believes that in series four , Gwen and Jack have a " love @-@ hate @-@ love relationship " resembling in different ways a sibling relationship , a marital relationship and also " the strongest friendship " . Episode seven of Miracle Day features a scene where Jack threatens Gwen with violence after she states she would have him killed to save her daughter . Writer Jane Espenson explains that the two characters have different needs and that this means they inevitably " clash like steel blades " . Simon Brew of Den of Geek praises the dynamic between Gwen and Jack in series four , describing them as " a terrific double act " and states that " Torchwood is at , or near , its best when the two of them are working in tandem " .
= = = = Other = = = =
Discussing whether his character could ever find " The One " , John Barrowman asserts that Jack " likes everybody , and his love for each person is different " . Barrowman believes that Jack does harbour romantic feelings toward the Doctor , but " would never take that beyond infatuation " and " would never let the Doctor know " . Barrowman claims that Jack also " fancies " fellow companion Martha Jones , admiring her " tenacity " and willingness to " spat with him " , and describes Jack 's love for Toshiko and Owen as " fatherly " , stating " He was guiding them . That 's why it was so devastating for him to lose them . " The second series of Torchwood also introduced Jack 's ex @-@ lover , Captain John . Head writer Chris Chibnall introduced John to act as a " proper nemesis , somebody to really test [ Jack ] , to push him , and to reveal something about Jack 's character " . In the use of Captain John as a literary foil , Chibnall comments " you see the way Jack could have gone , and probably did , for a little while " which underlines how " Jack , in his experiences with the Doctor and Torchwood , made a very conscious decision to move away from that behaviour . "
In their academic publication , Queer TV , Glyn Davis and Gary Needham discuss Jack 's role within Torchwood as a post @-@ gay , romantic hero . Noting Torchwood 's central gay themes , they comment that " it is through the character of Captain Jack that Torchwood is able to mine its queerness . " Discussing Jack 's brief romance with his namesake , the real Captain Jack ( Matt Rippy ) , academic critics have noted that " The Captain Jacks both share the same name and are quite similar in physical appearance , thus literalising the homo @-@ ness of the situation . Through the time @-@ travel device this points to a narcissistic self @-@ fascination , the old cliché that homosexuality is the love for sameness . " Other relationships which have been described or alluded to ( both in the television series and other media ) include ex @-@ girlfriends Estelle Cole , Duchess Eleanor , Stella Courtney , and Lucia Moretti , ex @-@ boyfriends and Angelo Colasanto , as well as an unnamed ex @-@ wife .
Describing the patterns of his relationships throughout the series , Davis and Needham draw the conclusion that " while Captain Jack desires both men and women , his long @-@ term love affairs and onscreen kisses are mostly with men in the past and present . " Davies himself laments that this one of the pitfalls of writing a bisexual character , commenting " The trap you fall into with bisexual men is only having them sleep with men . " Commenting on the show 's postmodern attitude towards bisexuality , or in what Russell T Davies calls " omnisexuality " , they continue to remark that " His character brushes against definitions of queer sexuality in that he resists any sort of classification based on sexual orientation . " They also comment on the subtexts of particular episodes , such as gay time @-@ travel romance episode " Captain Jack Harkness " , and within that the relevance of time @-@ travelling Jack Harkness to tackle the question of forbidden gay attraction in what is post @-@ Brokeback television . In Understanding TV Texts by Phil Wickham , Wickham opines that Captain Jack explicitly " brings to the fore " with his " brazen bisexuality " , " something we have to come to expect [ from Russell T Davies ] as viewers of his work " . Fans expressed fear that an Americanized fourth series of the show would mean the show would no longer portray Jack 's bisexuality , but Davies assured interviewers that Jack 's interests in both men and women would be honoured .
= = Critical reception and impact = =
Following the character 's initial introduction in the revived series 1 of Doctor Who , the character became incredibly popular with fans , to the extent that Russell T Davies and Julie Gardner created a spin @-@ off series , Torchwood , primarily centred around the character . The Times described the undeniable success of the character as having propelled actor John Barrowman to " National Treasure status " . For his role as Captain Jack , John Barrowman was nominated for Best Actor at the 2007 BAFTA Cymru Awards , and again for Children of Earth at the 2010 TV Choice Awards , against Eleventh Doctor actor Matt Smith . Harkness was also listed number nine in TV Squad 's " Ten Most mysterious characters on television " , behind the Tenth Doctor , who was listed number three . John Barrowman , who is himself gay , has ranked in the Independent on Sunday Pink List , a list of the most influential gay people in Britain , in 2007 , 2008 , and 2009 with the Independent commenting that " Proof of his popularity came with the continued runaway success of his bisexual Captain Jack Harkness on Russell T Davies 's Torchwood " . Part of Jack 's mystique was his sex appeal , swashbuckling heroism and sexual appetite . In anticipation of the character 's return to Doctor Who in series 3 after a successful run in the first series of Torchwood , mainstream media hailed his return .
Captain Jack has gone on to become a recognisable figure in the British public consciousness , and has attracted some parody . These parodies frequently echo criticisms both of the character and of Barrowman 's portrayal . The character of Jack Harkness has been parodied several times on the satirical impressionist television show Dead Ringers . Played by Jon Culshaw , the show pokes fun at his bisexuality and apparent campness , as well his melodramatic personality in Torchwood . In one sketch , he walks bizarrely towards the camera , kissing a policeman as he passes him . In another sketch , he can be seen having a threesome with two Cybermen , a race of cyborgs from Doctor Who . Satirical technology columnist Verity Stob wrote a parody of Torchwood Season One in the style of Dylan Thomas 's radio play Under Milk Wood , called Under Torch Wood . This parody described Captain Jack as " the insomniac bicon ; snug as a hobbit , pretty as a choirboy , immortal as carbon dioxide , wooden as a horse . " Barrowman 's ubiquity , however , has even provoked criticism of the character . Jim Shelley of the Daily Mirror , in his review of Children of Earth , said " Unlike David Tennant 's Doctor , Barrowman 's endless appearances on friendly drivel like Tonight 's the Night , The Kids Are All Right and Any Dream Will Do , is so over @-@ exposed , ' Captain Jack ' is about as intriguing or alien as a Weetabix and twice as irritating . Unlike Tennant , as an actor he is just not good enough . " Television journalist Charlie Brooker , in his Screenwipe review of 2009 criticised Barrowman , with focus on his acting . " Harkness is of course a man of mystery . You can 't tell what he 's thinking just by looking at his face ... no matter how hard Barrowman tries . "
The character 's recognisability extends outside the UK . In a Halloween episode of the 2008 series of American drama Knight Rider , character Billy Morgan ( Paul Campbell ) dresses up as Captain Jack , whom he refers to as " the time @-@ travelling bisexual " . Jack represents a new character archetype , which other writers have begun to draw from . For example , comic book writer Peter David reflects that in writing Marvel Comics character Shatterstar , he " to some degree ... key [ s ] his personality off Captain Jack Harkness " insofar as he is " swashbuckling , enthusiastic and sexually curious about anything with a pulse " . In 2009 , Barrowman 's variety show Tonight 's the Night broadcast a specially written humorous Doctor Who scene scripted by Russell T Davies . In the scene , Barrowman appears initially as Captain Jack confronting an alien on board the TARDIS who claims to be the Doctor . However , David Tennant appears as himself and John Barrowman is revealed as playing Captain Jack in the TARDIS set . Action figures have also been created in the actor 's likeness , which Barrowman says was a " longtime dream " .
In the media , Jack is described as both the " first openly gay companion " and as a " hunky bisexual " . Jack 's notability is largely due to his mainstream representation of a bisexual man in science fiction television , for whom sexual identity is " matter @-@ of @-@ fact " , and not an issue . The ordinariness with which Jack 's orientation is regarded within Doctor Who embodies part of a political statement about changing societal views of homosexuality . The distinct flexibility of Jack 's sexuality contributed directly towards the character 's popularity and public interest . The overtness of Jack 's sexuality broke new grounds , the labels " pansexual " and " omnisexual " being applied to the character on occasion . In " The Parting of the Ways " , Jack kissed both Rose and the Doctor on the lips , the latter being the first same @-@ sex kiss in the history of the program . Despite the boldness of the first lesbian , gay or bisexual character in the series ' run , there has been very little uproar about the character , although there was some controversy at the time of Jack 's introduction . Speculating , Barrowman tries to link Jack 's popularity with this portrayal , noting " I think audiences just get Jack because he 's honest ... to finally see a character who doesn 't care who he flirts with , I think is a bit refreshing . "
The presence of the character in prime time television sparked discussion of the nature of bisexuality in a number of outlets where normally it is dismissed or overlooked . Channel4.com cites Jack as a positive role model for gay and bisexual teenagers , where little had been present for this audience in years gone by and subsequently leading to a greater culture of tolerance . Dr Meg John Barker writes for the Journal of Bisexuality that although " the b word does not actually get used during the show " , Jack is one of the first positive and clearly bisexual characters on British television . She does point out however that Jack retains some elements of bisexual stereotyping , particularly in his " flamboyant " promiscuity . Jack has also been cited in America to contrast the portrayals of non @-@ heterosexual characters in mainstream television in the US and the UK . Gary Scott Thompson , producer of the 2008 revival of Knight Rider , said , " If I could use Jack in Torchwood as a role model — I would absolutely use him as a role model — I love his conflictedness about ... everybody " .
Readers of AfterElton.com voted Jack the tenth best gay or bisexual television character of all time , the poll itself ultimately being won by Brian Kinney , a character from the North American version of Queer as Folk which was developed by Ron Cowen and Daniel Lipman from the British series created by Russell T Davies . The website praised Jack — one of only two bisexual characters on the list of 25 — for being having both " tough " and " tender " sides to his personality , as seen in the Torchwood episode " Captain Jack Harkness " . Amongst science fiction characters , Jack also topped another AfterElton rundown of top characters , beating Hellblazer 's John Constantine for the top spot , commenting upon Jack 's representation of a " ' post @-@ gay ' approach to sexual themes " and awarding him a full 10 / 10 for cultural significance . For the AfterElton 2008 Visibility Awards , Jack won the award for Favourite TV Character . The website commented that " unlike virtually every other TV sci @-@ fi character , lead or supporting , Captain Jack is also openly bisexual . Ironically , this " small " change served to help make the science fiction genre , long the ultimate bastion of straight men , accessible not just to GLBT people , but also straight women , who also enjoy the show ’ s alternate take on sexuality . " The third award won for Torchwood , after Favourite TV Drama and Character , was won by Jack and Ianto for Best Couple , for which the editor commented " Torchwood is revolutionary not just because the producers dare to put openly bisexual ( or in Jack ’ s case " omnisexual " ) characters in the formerly sacrosanct setting of sci @-@ fi ; it ’ s also that it presents these bisexual characters in such an amazingly matter @-@ of @-@ fact way . There ’ s no apologi [ s ] ing , no minimi [ s ] ing , and no morali [ s ] ing — just good , old @-@ fashioned romance and adventure . "
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= Poznań 1956 protests =
The Poznań 1956 protests , also known as the Poznań 1956 uprising or Poznań June ( Polish : Poznański Czerwiec ) , were the first of several massive protests against the government of the People 's Republic of Poland . Demonstrations by workers demanding better conditions began on June 28 , 1956 at Poznań 's Cegielski Factories and were met with violent repression .
A crowd of approximately 100 @,@ 000 gathered in the city center near the local Ministry of Public Security building . About 400 tanks and 10 @,@ 000 soldiers of the People 's Army of Poland and the Internal Security Corps under Polish @-@ Soviet general Stanislav Poplavsky were ordered to suppress the demonstration and during the pacification fired at the protesting civilians .
The death toll was placed between 57 and over a hundred people , including a 13 @-@ year @-@ old boy , Romek Strzałkowski . Hundreds of people sustained injuries . The Poznań protests were an important milestone on the way to the installation of a less Soviet @-@ controlled government in Poland in October .
= = Background = =
After Joseph Stalin 's death , the process of destalinization prompted debates about fundamental issues throughout the entire Eastern Bloc . Nikita Khrushchev 's speech On the Personality Cult and its Consequences had wide implications outside the Soviet Union and in other communist countries . In Poland , in addition to the criticism of the cult of personality , popular topics of debate centered on the right to steer a more independent course of ' local , national socialism ' instead of following the Soviet model down to every little detail ; such views were seen in discussion and critique by many Polish United Workers ' Party members of Stalin 's execution of older Polish communists from Communist Party of Poland during the Great Purge .
Anti @-@ communist resistance in Poland was also bolstered , and a group of opposition leaders and cultural figures founded the Klub Krzywego Koła ( Skewed Wheel Club ) in Warsaw . It promoted discussions about Polish independence , questioned the efficiency of the state controlled economy , and government disdain and even persecution of veterans of the Polish Armed Forces in the West and the Armia Krajowa resistance during World War II . While the intelligentsia expressed their dissatisfaction with discussions and publications ( bibuła ) , workers took to the streets . The living conditions in Poland did not improve , contrary to government propaganda , and workers increasingly found that they had little power compared to bureaucracy of the Party ( nomenklatura ) .
The city of Poznań was one of the largest urban and industrial centers of the People 's Republic of Poland . Tensions were growing there , particularly since autumn of 1955 . Workers in the largest factory in the city , Joseph Stalin 's ( or ' Cegielski 's ) Metal Industries , were complaining about higher taxes for most productive workers ( udarnik ) , which affected several thousands of workers . Local directors were unable to make any significant decisions due to micromanagement by the higher officials ; over several months , petitions , letters and delegations were sent to the Polish Ministry of Machine Industry and Central Committee of Polish United Workers ' Party , to no avail .
Finally , a delegation of about 27 workers was sent to Warsaw around June 23 . On the night of June 26 , the delegation returned to Poznań , confident that some of their demands had been considered in a favourable light . The Minister of Machine Industry met with the workers next morning and withdrew several promises that their delegation was given in Warsaw .
= = Strikes = =
A spontaneous strike started at 6 : 00 am at the multifactory complex of Joseph Stalin 's ( or ' Cegielski 's ) Metal Industries . Around 80 % of its workers , most of whom had lost bonus pay in June as the government suddenly raised the required work quota , took to the streets demanding pay compensation and some freedom concessions , marching towards the city centre . Workers at other plants , institutions and students joined the procession .
Between 9 : 00 am and 11 : 00 am , about 100 @,@ 000 people gathered on the Adam Mickiewicz Square in front of the Imperial Castle in Poznań , surrounded by buildings occupied by the city and Party authorities and police headquarters . The demonstrators demanded lower food prices , wage increases and the revocation of some recent changes in the law that had eroded workers ' conditions . They further requested a visit from Polish Prime Minister Józef Cyrankiewicz , as the local government declared that they had no authority to solve the problems . Some police officers also joined the crowd .
After 10 : 00 am the situation rapidly deteriorated when provocateurs came into action , claiming that members of the negotiating delegation had been arrested . The local units of the regular police ( Milicja Obywatelska ) were unable to contain the crowd and the situation turned into a violent uprising as the crowds stormed the prison at Młyńska Street , where some protesters believed the members of the delegation to have been imprisoned ; hundreds of prisoners were released around 10 : 50 am . At 11 : 30 am , the arms depot at the prison building was seized and the firearms were distributed among the demonstrators .
The crowd ransacked the Communist Party 's local headquarters and then at around 11 : 00 am attacked the office of the Ministry of Public Security on Kochanowskiego Street , but were repulsed when the first shots were fired from its windows into the crowd . From then until 6 : 00 pm , they seized or besieged many government buildings and institutions in and around Poznań , including the district courthouse and the prosecutor 's office , radio jamming station in Dąbrowskiego Street , police stations in Junikowo , Wilda , Swarzędz , Puszczykowo and Mosina . The prison camp in Mrowino and the military school at the Poznań University of Technology were seized and weapons were taken . The police documents at local police station , procurature and court were destroyed .
In the meantime , at about 11 : 00 am , 16 tanks , 2 armored personnel carriers and 30 cars had been sent from the Officer School of Armored and Mechanized Formations , a Poznań garrison , to protect the designated buildings , but no shots were exchanged between them and the insurgents . These soldiers engaged in friendly conversation with the protesters ; some reports state that two tanks were seized and some troops disarmed . Then the Soviet General Konstantin Rokossovsky , the Minister of National Defense , who was then in command of all armed forces in Poland , decided to take personal control , and the situation changed dramatically .
Rokossovsky sent his deputy , the Polish @-@ Soviet general Stanislav Poplavsky and a group of lower Soviet officers , with orders to put down the protest in a manner consistent with Russian standards , intending to end the demonstrations as soon as possible to prevent an occurrence similar to the Uprising of 1953 in East Germany , when a similar protest , not quelled in time , spread to many other regions . The Russian officers arrived at 2 : 00 pm at Ławica Airport and took command . Poplavsky did not bother to use local regulars from Poznań garrisons , instead taking other troops from Silesian Military District and recalling special troops from the Biedrusko military base north of Poznań . The troops were told that the protesters were led and organized by " German provocateurs " who were attempting to darken Poland 's image during the ongoing Poznań International Fair .
Between 4 : 00 pm and 5 : 00 am the following day , the Polish 10th Armored Division , Polish 19th Armored Division , Polish 4th Infantry Division and Polish 5th Infantry Division , totaling about 10 @,@ 300 troops and the Internal Security Corps under the command of Poplavsky entered Poznań . A two @-@ hour long procession of tanks , armored cars , field guns , and lorries full of troops went through the city and surrounded it . At 9 : 00 pm a wave of detentions began . The detainees were taken to Ławica airport , where they were subjected to brutal interrogation ; 746 persons were detained until August 8 . The protests continued until June 30 , when the troops finally pacified the city , after exchanging fire with some violent demonstrators . At 7 : 30 am on June 29 the Prime Minister arrived and infamously declared on the local radio station that " any provocateur or lunatic who raises his hand against the people 's government may be sure that this hand will be chopped off . "
The number of casualties is currently a subject of academic dispute . The historian Łukasz Jastrząb from the Institute of National Remembrance ( IPN ) estimates it to be 57 dead and about 600 wounded ( including eight on the side of the government ) , noting that larger estimates , such as that by another IPN scholar , Stanisław Jankowiak , who places the figure at slightly over 100 , are not fully supported by available data . Estimates of a similar range , such as the " over 70 deaths " , can be found in media reports .
= = Aftermath = =
About 25 people were arrested in the first few days , including 196 workers ; several hundred others were arrested in the following weeks . Stanisław Hejmowski , the lawyer who defended them , was later repressed for his statement that the government 's actions had led to the death of innocent civilians . The government failed in its attempts to coerce the detainees into stating that they were provoked by foreign ( Western ) secret services ; nonetheless this became the official line of the government for years to come .
Soon the ideologues realized that they had lost the support of the Soviet Union , and the regime turned to conciliation by announced wage rises and other reforms . Realizing the need for a change in leadership , the Polish communists chose a new leader , Władysław Gomułka , who was considered a moderate ; this transition is known as Polish October ( or " Gomułka Thaw " ) . In spite of this , the communist authorities censored all information on the Poznań events for a quarter of a century .
Historians were denied source materials for research , and the campaign was effective in eliminating any mention of the events of June 1956 from publicly available sources . Persecution of the most active participants would be carried out for many years . The memory of the events was preserved by the participants and members of opposition . After the Gdańsk Agreement in 1980 , the Independent Self @-@ governing Trade Union " Solidarity " as one of its first actions decided to raise a monument in the memory of the Poznań June 1956 events .
Many historians consider the Poznań 1956 protests to be an important milestone in modern history of Poland , and one of the events that precipitated the fall of communism in Poland . Nonetheless it should be noted that the protests of 1956 were not motivated by anti @-@ communist ideology ; the workers ' demands were mostly of an economic nature , centering around better work conditions rather than any political objectives . The workers sang " The Internationale " and their banners read " We demand bread . " It was the government 's consistent failure to fulfil the first demand which eventually led to the demands for political change , but even during the history of Solidarity few demanded wide political reforms .
= = = Commemoration = = =
On June 21 , 2006 , to commemorate the 50th anniversary of the events , the Polish parliament Sejm declared June 28 to be a national holiday in Poland ; the Day of Remembrance of the Poznań June 1956 .
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= Potential superpowers =
This page is a summary of published academics ' opinions . Please remember that opinions are only allowed in Wikipedia if they are held by writers in reliable sources . While it is possible that an editor is more knowledgeable and correct than any given academic , Wikipedia is not the place for personal opinions .
A potential superpower is a state or a political and economic entity that is speculated to be , or is in the process of becoming , a superpower at some point during the 21st century . Presently , only the United States fulfills the criteria to be considered a superpower .
Predictions about potential superpower have been made in the past , but they have not been perfect . States most commonly mentioned as being potential superpowers , are China , India , the European Union , Russia and Brazil . Collectively , these potential superpowers , as well as the United States , comprise 68 @.@ 0 % of global nominal GDP , 62 @.@ 4 % of global GDP ( PPP ) , more than one third of the total land area and more than 50 % of the world 's population .
= = Past predictions = =
Predictions made in the past have not been perfect . For example , in the 1980s , many political and economic analysts predicted that Japan would eventually accede to superpower status , due to its large population , huge gross domestic product and high economic growth at that time . Though still the world 's tenth @-@ largest population and third @-@ largest economy as of 2016 in terms of nominal GDP , Japan has faced an ongoing period of weak growth since the Lost Decade of the 1990s , and has been suffering from an aging population since the early 2000s , eroding its potential as a superpower .
= = Brazil = =
The Federative Republic of Brazil has seen limited discussion among authorities regarding its potential as a superpower .
= = = Contrary views = = =
Writing for the The Diplomatic Courier , former British Ambassador to Brazil , Peter Collecott , identifies that Brazil 's recognition as a potential superpower largely stems from its own national identity and ambition . Collecott points out that for the past two hundred years Brazil has sought to emerge as a serious global economic and political power , a position " that [ Brazil ] instinctively feels is her due . " However , Collecott also argues that while Brazil has certainly fulfilled some of its aspirations and finally started to gain the international recognition it deserves , it perhaps won 't quite emerge as a superpower ; instead , its current position as an emerging power will allow Brazil to shape the future with more realistic aspirations .
In his 2014 publication , The BRICs Superpower Challenge : Foreign and Security Policy Analysis , professor Kwang Ho Chun carefully assesses the likelihood of the BRICs countries attaining the status of superpowers . Regarding Brazil , Kwang Ho Chun highlights that the country possesses enormous and almost untouched " strategic " natural resources , including valuable minerals , a tenth of the world 's fresh water and the Earth 's largest remaining rainforest . Because of this , Kwang Ho Chun feels it is likely that Brazil could gain a dominant role in international relations , especially when it comes to environmental issues . This soft power influence is further enhanced by Brazil 's policy makers seeking to engage in as many international organizations as possible and forming alliances , most notably on social , diplomatic and economic issues . Despite its economic potential and Brazil 's " self @-@ image as a country with a great destiny , " Kwang Ho Chun believes that the country " falls far short of the levels required for a superpower . " Supporting his belief , he emphasizes Brazil 's apparent lack of " traditional hard power " ( i.e. military power and global security influence ) as a major obstacle . Kwang Ho Chun writes that Brazil has " little incentive to invest in its military " as " the country developed in an environment with hardly any inter @-@ state security threats " , therefore Brazil " may never be in a position to accumulate enough influence on global security matters to meet the criteria of being a superpower . " Instead , Ho Chun feels that Brazil will emerge as a great power with an important position in some spheres of influence but limited in others such as international security .
= = China = =
The People 's Republic of China receives continual coverage in the popular press of its emerging superpower status , and has been identified as a rising or emerging economic growth and military superpower by academics and other experts . In fact , the " rise of China " has been named the top news story of the 21st century by the Global Language Monitor , as measured by number of appearances in the global print and electronic media , on the Internet and blogosphere , and in social media . The term " Second Superpower " has been applied by scholars to the possibility that the People 's Republic of China could emerge with global power and influence on par with the United States . The potential for the two countries to form stronger relations to address global issues is sometimes referred to as the Group of Two .
Barry Buzan asserted in 2004 that " China certainly presents the most promising all @-@ round profile " of a potential superpower . Buzan claimed that " China is currently the most fashionable potential superpower and the one whose degree of alienation from the dominant international society makes it the most obvious political challenger . " However , he noted this challenge is constrained by the major challenges of development and by the fact that its rise could trigger a counter coalition of states in Asia .
Parag Khanna stated in 2008 that by making massive trade and investment deals with Latin America and Africa , China had established its presence as a superpower along with the European Union and the United States . China 's rise is demonstrated by its ballooning share of trade in its gross domestic product . He believed that China 's " consultative style " had allowed it to develop political and economic ties with many countries including those viewed as rogue states by the United States . He stated that the Shanghai Cooperation Organisation founded with Russia and the Central Asian countries may eventually be the " NATO of the East " .
Economist and author of Eclipse : Living in the Shadow of China 's Economic Dominance Arvind Subramanian argued in 2012 that China will direct the world 's financial system by 2020 and that the Chinese renminbi will replace the dollar as the world 's reserve currency in 10 to 15 years . The United States ' soft power will remain longer . He stated that " China was a top dog economically for thousands of years prior to the Ming dynasty . In some ways , the past few hundred years have been an aberration . "
Lawrence Saez at the School of Oriental and African Studies , London , argued in 2011 that the United States will be surpassed by China as military superpower within twenty years . Regarding economic power , the Director of the China Center for Economic Reform at Peking University Yao Yang stated that " Assuming that the Chinese and U.S. economies grow , respectively , by 8 % and 3 % in real terms , that China 's inflation rate is 3 @.@ 6 % and America 's is 2 % ( the averages of the last decade ) , and that the renminbi appreciates against the dollar by 3 % per year ( the average of the last six years ) , China will become the world 's largest economy by 2021 . By that time , both countries ' GDP will be about $ 24 trillion . "
Historian Timothy Garton Ash argued in 2011 , pointing to factors such as the International Monetary Fund predicting that China 's GDP ( purchasing power parity adjusted ) will overtake that of the United States in 2016 , that a power shift to a world with several superpowers was happening " Now " . However , China was still lacking in soft power and power projection abilities and had a low GDP / person . The article also stated that the Pew Research Center in a 2009 survey found that people in 15 out of 22 countries believed that China had or would overtake the US as the world 's leading superpower .
In an interview given in 2011 , Singapore 's first premier , Lee Kuan Yew , stated that while China supplanting the United States is not a foregone conclusion , Chinese leaders are nonetheless serious about displacing the United States as the most powerful country in Asia . " They have transformed a poor society by an economic miracle to become now the second @-@ largest economy in the world . How could they not aspire to be number 1 in Asia , and in time the world ? " The Chinese strategy , Lee maintains , will revolve around their " huge and increasingly highly skilled and educated workers to out @-@ sell and out @-@ build all others . " Nevertheless , relations with the United States , at least in the medium term , will not take a turn for the worse because China will " avoid any action that will sour up relations with the U.S. To challenge a stronger and technologically superior power like the U.S. will abort their ' peaceful rise . ' " Though Lee believes China is genuinely interested in growing within the global framework the United States has created , it is biding its time until it becomes strong enough to successfully redefine the prevailing political and economic order .
Chinese foreign policy adviser Wang Jisi in 2012 stated that many Chinese officials see China as a first @-@ class power which should be treated as such . China is argued to soon become the world 's largest economy and to be making rapid progress in many areas . The United States is seen as a declining superpower as indicated by factors such as poor economic recovery , financial disorder , high deficits gaining close to GDP levels and unemployment , increasing political polarization , and overregulation forcing jobs overseas in China .
= = = Contrary views = = =
Timothy Beardson , founder of Crosby International Holdings , stated in 2013 that he doesn 't see " China becoming a superpower " . He writes that China has basically worked as a manufacturing location for foreign companies , as 83 % of all high @-@ tech products made in China were produced for foreign companies . He added that China has problems regarding wages , an aging and declining population , and gender imbalance ( with China 's 6 : 5 gender ratio , 1 in 6 males will be unable to find a female partner ) , and he suggested that such problems would lead to crime . He also pointed out that China continually polluted its environment during its 30 years of economic growth ( of the 20 most polluted cities in the world , 16 cities are in China ) .
James Fallows writes that too many people in China live without indoor plumbing , and that no mainland Chinese scientist has yet won a Nobel Prize , so it is unlikely able to become an " economic Superpower " .
Geoffrey Murray 's China : The Next Superpower ( 1998 ) argued that while the potential for China is high , this is fairly perceived only by looking at the risks and obstacles China faces in managing its population and resources . The political situation in China may become too fragile to survive into superpower status , according to Susan Shirk in China : Fragile Superpower ( 2008 ) . Other factors that could constrain China 's ability to become a superpower in the future include limited supplies of energy and raw materials , questions over its innovation capability , inequality and corruption , and risks to social stability and the environment .
Minxin Pei argued in 2010 that China is not a superpower and it will not be one anytime soon and argued that China faces daunting political and economic challenges . In 2012 he argued that China , despite using its economic power to influence some nations , has few real friends or allies and is surrounded by potentially hostile nations . This situation could improve if regional territorial disputes were resolved and China participated in an effective regional defense system that would reduce the fears of its neighbors . Alternatively , a democratization of China would dramatically improve foreign relations with many nations .
Amy Chua stated in 2007 that whether a country is attractive to immigrants is an important quality for a superpower . She also wrote that China lacks the pull to bring scientists , thinkers , and innovators from other countries as immigrants . However , she believed that China made up for this with its own diaspora , and said that size and resources for them are unparalleled .
= = European Union = =
The European Union ( EU ) has been called an emerging superpower by academics . Many scholars and academics like T. R. Reid , Andrew Reding , Andrew Moravcsik , Mark Leonard , Jeremy Rifkin , John McCormick , and some politicians like Romano Prodi and Tony Blair , believe that the EU either is , or will become , a superpower in the 21st century .
Mark Leonard cites several factors : the EU 's large population , large economy ( the EU has the largest economy in the world ) , low inflation rates , the unpopularity and perceived failure of US foreign policy in recent years , and certain EU member states ' high quality of life ( especially when measured in terms such as hours worked per week , health care , social services ) .
John McCormick believes that the EU has already achieved superpower status , based on the size and global reach of its economy and on its global political influence . He argues that the nature of power has changed since the Cold War @-@ driven definition of superpower was developed , and that military power is no longer essential to great power ; he argues that control of the means of production is more important than control of the means of destruction , and contrasts the threatening hard power of the United States with the opportunities offered by the soft power wielded by the European Union .
Parag Khanna believes that " Europe is overtaking its rivals to become the world 's most successful empire . " Khanna writes that South America , East Asia , and other regions prefer to emulate " The European Dream " rather than the American variant . This could possibly be seen in the African Union and UNASUR . Notably , the EU as a whole has some of the world 's largest and most influential languages being official within its borders .
Andrew Reding also takes the future EU enlargement into account . An eventual future accession of the rest of Europe , the whole of Russia , and Turkey , would not only boost its economy , but it would also increase the EU 's population to about 800 million , which he considers almost equal to that of India or China . The EU is qualitatively different from India and China since it is enormously more prosperous and technologically advanced . Turkish PM Recep Tayyip Erdoğan said in 2005 : " In 10 or 15 years , the EU will be a place where civilizations meet . It will be a superpower with the inclusion of Turkey . "
Robert J. Guttman wrote in 2001 that the very definition of the term superpower has changed , and in the 21st century it does not only refer to states with military power , but also to groups such as the European Union , with strong market economics , young , highly educated workers savvy in high technology , and a global vision . Friis Arne Petersen , the Danish ambassador to the US , has expressed similar views but has conceded that the EU is a " special kind of superpower " , one that has yet to establish a unified military force that exerts itself even close to the same level as many of its individual members .
Additionally , it is argued by commentators that full political integration is not required for the European Union to wield international influence : that its apparent weaknesses constitute its real strengths ( as of its low @-@ profile diplomacy and the emphasis on the rule of law ) and that the EU represents a new and potentially more successful type of international actor than traditional ones ; however , it is uncertain if the effectiveness of such an influence would be equal to that of a more politically integrated union of states such as the United States .
Barry Buzan notes that the EU 's potential superpower status depends on its " stateness " . It is unclear though how much state @-@ like quality is needed for the EU to be described as a superpower . Buzan states that the EU is unlikely to remain a potential superpower for a long time because although it has material wealth , its " political weakness and its erratic and difficult course of internal political development , particularly as regards a common foreign and defence policy " constrains it from being a superpower .
Alexander Stubb , the Finnish foreign minister , has said that he thinks the EU is both a superpower and not a superpower . While the EU is a superpower in the sense that it is the largest political union , single market and aid donor in the world , it is not a superpower in the defense or foreign policy spheres . Like Barry Buzan , Alexander Stubb thinks that the major factor constraining the EU 's rise to superpower status is its lack of statehood in the international system ; other factors are its lack of internal drive to project power worldwide , and continued preference for the sovereign nation @-@ state among some Europeans . To counterbalance these , he urged the EU leaders to approve and ratify the Lisbon Treaty ( which they did in 2009 ) , create an EU foreign ministry ( EEAS , established in 2010 ) , develop a common EU defense , hold one collective seat at the United Nations Security Council and G8 , and address what he described as the " sour mood " toward the EU prevalent in some European countries today .
= = = Contrary views = = =
Some do not believe that the EU will achieve superpower status . " The EU is not and never will be a superpower , " according to the former UK Secretary of State for Foreign and Commonwealth Affairs David Miliband . Lacking a unified foreign policy and with an inability to project military power worldwide , the EU lacks " the substance of superpowers " , who by definition have " first of all military reach [ and ] possess the capacity to arrive quickly anywhere with troops that can impose their government 's will . " EU parliamentarian Ilka Schroeder argues that the high degree of involvement in conflicts such as the Israeli – Palestinian conflict are used by the EU largely to compensate for European inability to project military power internationally , particularly in contrast to the USA .
The Economist 's Robert Lane Greene notes that the lack of a strong European military only exacerbates the lack of unified EU foreign policy and discounts any EU arguments towards superpower status , noting especially that the EU 's creation of a global response force rivaling the superpower 's ( United States of America ) is " unthinkable . " " The biggest barrier to European superpowerdom is that European elites refuse to bring their postmodern fantasies about the illegitimacy of military ' hard power ' into line with the way the rest of the world interprets reality , " according to Soeren Kern of the Strategic Studies Group .
Britain 's Michael Howard has warned against the " worry " that many Europeans are pushing for greater EU integration to counterbalance the United States , while Europe 's total reliance on soft ( non @-@ military ) power is in part because of its lack of a " shared identity . " While to some the European Union should be a " model power " unafraid of using military force and backing free trade , its military shortcomings argue against superpower status .
American Thinker 's Soeren Kern questions if " Europe really destined to become a global superpower ? " Kern continues that " A growing body of research says no . Indeed , overwhelming evidence supports the view that contemporary Europe is beset by a mix of problems that is so complex , that apart from dramatic changes in public policy , Europe is headed toward certain decline , not ascendancy . "
George Osborne , the British Chancellor of the Exchequer , has also pointed out the economic crisis of the European Union . Osborne said , " The biggest economic risk facing Europe doesn 't come from those who want reform and re @-@ negotiation . It comes from a failure to reform and renegotiate . It is the status quo which condemns the people of Europe to an ongoing economic crisis and continuing decline . " Osborne also said that the EU is facing growing competition with global economic powers like China , India and the US , and the European Union should " reform or decline . "
= = India = =
The Republic of India has seen considerable coverage of its potential of becoming a superpower , both in the media and among academics . In 2006 , Newsweek and the International Herald Tribune joined several academics in discussing India 's potential of becoming a superpower .
Anil Gupta is almost certain that India will become a superpower in the 21st century . As an example , he states that due to India 's functional institutions of democracy and its relatively corruption @-@ free society , it will emerge as a desirable , entrepreneurial and resource and energy @-@ efficient superpower in the near future . He predicts that by 2015 India will overtake China to be the fastest growing economy in the world and emerge as a full @-@ fledged economic superpower by 2025 . In addition to that , he states , India has the potential to serve as a leading example of how to combine rapid economic growth with fairness towards and inclusion of those at the bottom rungs of the ladder and of efficient resource utilization , especially in energy . India became world 's fastest growing economy in 2015 and will continue to do so in 2016 .
Economists and Researchers at Harvard University have projected India ’ s 7 % projected annual growth rate through 2024 would continue to put it ahead of China , making India the fastest growing economy in the world .
Robyn Meredith points out that the average incomes of European and Americans are higher than Chinese and Indians , and hundreds of millions of Chinese as well as Indians live in poverty , she also suggested that economic growth of these nations has been most the important factor in reducing global poverty of the last two decades , as per the World Bank report . Amy Chua adds to this , that India is still faces many problems such as " pervasive rural poverty , entrenched corruption , and high inequality just to name a few " . However , she notes that India has made tremendous strides to fix this , stating that some of India 's achievements , such as working to dismantle the centuries @-@ old caste system and maintaining the world 's largest diverse democracy , are historically unprecedented .
Fareed Zakaria pointing out that India 's young population coupled with the second @-@ largest English @-@ speaking population in the world could give India an advantage over China . He also believes that while other industrial countries will face a youth gap , India will have lots of young people , or in other words , workers , and by 2050 , its per capita income will rise by twenty times its current level . According to Zakaria , another strength that India has is that its democratic government has lasted for 60 years , stating that a democracy can provide for long @-@ term stability , that has given India a name .
Clyde V. Prestowitz Jr . , founder and president of the Economic Strategy Institute and former counselor to the Secretary of Commerce in the Reagan administration , has predicted that " It is going to be India 's century . India is going to be the biggest economy in the world . It is going to be the biggest superpower of the 21st century . "
According to the report named " Indian Century : Defining India 's Place in a Rapidly Changing Global Economy " by IBM Institute for Business Value , India is predicted to be among the world ’ s highest @-@ growth nations over the coming years .
= = = Contrary views = = =
Parag Khanna wrote in 2008 that he believes that India is not , nor will it become a superpower for the foreseeable future , lagging decades behind China in both development and strategic appetite . Instead , he believes India will be a key swing state along with Russia . He says that India is " big but not important " , has a highly successful professional class , while millions of its citizens still live in poverty . He also writes that it matters that China borders a dozen more countries than India and is not hemmed in by a vast ocean and the world 's tallest mountains . However , in a recent article written by Khanna , he says that India , along with China , will grow ever stronger , while other powers , like Europe , muddle along .
Lant Pritchett , reviewing the book In Spite of the Gods : The Strange Rise of Modern India , writes that , while India has had impressive growth and has some world @-@ class institutions , several other indicators are puzzlingly poor . The malnutrition and the coverage of immunization programs are at levels similar or worse than in much sub @-@ Saharan African nations . In the Demographic and Health Surveys , India 's child malnutrition was the worst of the 42 nations with comparable and recent data . Adult literacy is 61 % . In one study , 26 % of teachers were absent from work and 1 / 3 of those showing up did not teach . 40 % of health care workers were absent from work . Caste politics in India remains an important force . Pritchett argues that a very large population , a very long statistical " tail " of high quality students , and some very good higher education institutions gives a misleading impression of Indian education . Indian students placed forty @-@ first and thirty @-@ seventh in a study comparing students in the two Indian states Odisha and Rajasthan to the forty @-@ six nations in the 2003 Trends in International Mathematics and Science Study .
Manjari Chatterjee Miller , assistant professor of international relations at Boston University , argues that India is a " would @-@ be " great power but " resists its own rise " . Three factors contribute to this stagnation , she argues . First , New Delhi 's foreign policy decisions are highly individualistic . " This autonomy , in turn , means that New Delhi does very little collective thinking about its long @-@ term foreign policy goals , since most of the strategic planning that takes place within the government happens on an individual level . " Second , a dearth of think tanks helps insulate Indian foreign policymakers from outside influences . " U.S. foreign policymakers , by contrast , can expect strategic guidance from a broad spectrum of organizations that supplement the long @-@ term planning that happens within the government itself . " Third , many of India 's political elites believe that the country 's inevitable rise is a Western construct that has placed unrealistic expectations on India 's economic growth forecasts and its international commitments . By contrast , Miller notes that Chinese political leaders pay very close attention to the international hype surrounding their country 's growing stature . Miller concludes that " India 's inability to develop top @-@ down , long @-@ term strategies means that it cannot systematically consider the implications of its growing power . So long as this remains the case , the country will not play the role in global affairs that many expect . "
= = Russia = =
The Russian Federation has been suggested as a potential candidate for resuming superpower status in the 21st century . Russia has seen some discussion regarding its potential of re @-@ emerging as a superpower , while others have made the assertion that it is already a superpower . In 2009 , Hugo Chavez , late President of Venezuela whose government was noted to have enjoyed warm relations with the Kremlin , stated that " Russia is a superpower " , citing waning American influence in global affairs , and suggested the ruble be elevated to a global currency . Israeli Prime Minister Benjamin Netanyahu called Russia an important superpower , praising its effectiveness as an ally of Israel and foe of Iran . In his 2005 publication entitled Russia in the 21st Century : The Prodigal Superpower , Steven Rosefielde , a professor of economics at University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill , predicted that Russia would emerge as a superpower before 2010 and augur another arms race . However , Rosefielde noted that such an end would come with tremendous sacrifice to global security and the Russian people 's freedom .
In 2014 , Stephen Kinzer of The Boston Globe compared Russia 's actions with its own neighboring territories , to those of " any other superpower " , taking Ukraine and Crimea as examples . A mixed opinion has been offered by Matthew Fleischer of the Los Angeles Times : he contends that Russia will not become a superpower unless climate change eats away at the permafrost that covers , as of March 2014 , two @-@ thirds of the country 's landmass . The absence of this permafrost would reveal immense stores of oil , natural gas , and precious minerals , as well as potential farmland , which would allow Russia to " become the world 's bread basket — and control the planet 's food supply . "
Russian news agency RIA Novosti called Russia a " superpower " after its actions in Syria , and after the formation of a coalition to fight ISIS in Syria and Iraq , Benny Avni of the New York Post called Russia the " world 's new sole superpower " .
= = = Contrary views = = =
During the annual state of the nation address at the Moscow Kremlin in December 2013 , Russian president Vladimir Putin denied any Russian aspiration to be a superpower . He was quoted saying : " We do not aspire to be called some kind of superpower , understanding that as a claim to world or regional hegemony . We do not infringe on anyone 's interests , we do not force our patronage on anyone , or try to teach anyone how to live . "
Forbes writer Jonathan Adelman has summarized the arguments against Russia 's superpower potential thus : " While Russia may have grabbed the headlines for hosting the forthcoming Olympics and Edward Snowden , it 's no super power . Russia has a trade profile of a Third World country , a GNP the size of Canada , which is less than 15 percent of the United States GDP , no soft power , Silicon Valley , Hollywood , Wall Street or highly rated universities . "
Several analysts commented on the fact that Russia showed signs of an aging and shrinking population . Fred Weir said that this severely constricts and limits Russia 's potential to re @-@ emerge as a central world power . Former political journalist Peter Brown wrote that Russia " would like to reclaim the superpower status it held for nearly 40 years after World War II , " but in the 21st century " may lack the combination of economic and military power " to do so . He said that " Russia won 't be a superpower anytime soon , " citing Russia 's shrinking population , high levels of poverty and poor public health . In 2011 , British historian and professor Niall Ferguson also highlighted the negative effects of Russia 's declining population , and suggested that Russia is on its way to " global irrelevance " . Russia has , however , shown a slight population growth since 2012 , partly due to immigration . The number of Chinese in the Russia 's Far East has been growing . Russia 's demographic problems continued in 2015 .
Nathan Smith of the National Business Review has said that despite Russia having potential , it did not win the new " Cold War " in the 1980s , and other factors such as American influence over Crimea make superpower status inaccurate .
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= End of the Century =
End of the Century is the fifth studio album by the American punk rock band the Ramones , released on February 4 , 1980 , through Sire Records . The album was the band 's first produced by Phil Spector , though he had offered the band his assistance earlier in their career . With Spector fully producing the album , it was the first release that excluded original member Tommy Ramone , who in 1978 left the band but produced their previous album Road to Ruin . Spector used more advanced standards of engineering , such as high @-@ quality overdubbing and echo chambers . These methods caused conflict between the band and Spector , since much of the recording used techniques that opposed those the Ramones had previously used . Spector emphasized the production value as well , working with a budget of around $ 200 @,@ 000 .
The songs on End of the Century were written primarily to expand the band 's fan @-@ base , straying from the band 's original punk genre and steering toward a more pop oriented sound . The lyrics on the album deal with various different things , ranging from drug addictions to the band 's lifestyle while touring . The album also features a cover of The Ronettes ' piece " Baby , I Love You , " as well as successors to previous Ramones songs " Judy Is a Punk " and " Havana Affair . "
It received generally positive reviews from critics , though many reviewers deemed it to be less enjoyable compared to the band 's previous releases . Despite this , the album is the highest charting Ramones album of all time , reaching number 44 on the US Billboard 200 chart , and number 14 on the UK Albums Chart . End of the Century spawned the singles " Baby , I Love You " and " Do You Remember Rock ' n ' Roll Radio ? . "
The album 's title is taken from a couplet repeated in the first track " Do You Remember Rock ' n ' Roll Radio ? " : " It 's the end , the end of the seventies / It 's the end , the end of the century . "
= = Recording and production = =
In February 1977 after attending a Ramones concert in Los Angeles , music producer Phil Spector offered to assist in making Rocket to Russia . The band declined his offer , feeling as though the album would not be the same without Tommy Ramone and Tony Bongiovi producing the album . While the band refused his initial offer , they later asked Spector to help with the album because of their lack of popularity and sales . End of the Century would be the first album released without former drummer and producer Tommy . Spector had become famous through his work with The Ronettes , The Righteous Brothers , Ike and Tina Turner , The Beatles and John Lennon , among others . With these releases , Spector defined what would become known as the " Wall of Sound , " which is dense , layered , and reverberant sound that came across well on AM radio and jukeboxes . These standards are created through instruments performing identical parts in unison , using high @-@ quality overdubbing and echo chambers to aid in the production value . The producer was convinced that the Ramones had talent with lyrics and musical structure , so he intended to promote the band through more advanced methods of sound output .
Recording sessions for the album began on May 1 , 1979 at Gold Star Studios in Hollywood , Los Angeles . Gold Star Studios had become famous through its history with artists like Eddie Cochran and the Beach Boys . At the Ramones ' request , Ed Stasium helped with the album 's engineering . During the studio work , Spector 's recording methods were different from those the Ramones were accustomed to from their four previous studio albums . The band recorded their earlier compositions in the shortest time possible for the lowest feasible budget , with a relatively low production value . With End of the Century , the band experienced Spector 's infamous perfectionism , and a budget of $ 200 @,@ 000 to fully record and produce the album . This is significant because the band 's debut album cost $ 6 @,@ 400 total , and their second album cost $ 10 @,@ 000 . End of the Century is the most expensive album in the Ramones ' career .
= = = Conflict = = =
This alternative method of recording caused conflicts to arise during sessions . Bassist Dee Dee Ramone wrote of Spector 's obsessive recording techniques : " Phil would sit in the control room and would listen through the headphones to Marky hit one note on the drum , hour after hour , after hour , after hour . " During the recording of " Rock ' n ' Roll High School , " Johnny was forced by Spector to repeat his part hundreds of times over the course of several hours . Sire Records owner Seymour Stein relates : " To Johnny , this must have been like the Chinese water torture . "
Early in the sessions , Spector reportedly held the Ramones hostage at gunpoint . According to Dee Dee , when Spector took Joey away for a three @-@ hour private meeting somewhere in his mansion where the album was to be recorded , Dee Dee went looking for them . " The next thing I knew Phil appeared at the top of the staircase , shouting and waving a pistol . "
He leveled his gun at my heart and then motioned for me and the rest of the band to get back in the piano room ... He only holstered his pistol when he felt secure that his bodyguards could take over . Then he sat down at his black concert piano and made us listen to him play and sing " Baby , I Love You " until well after 4 : 30 in the morning .
However , in 2008 drummer Marky Ramone stated that no guns were ever pointed at anybody
" There were no guns pointed at anybody , " he said . " They [ guns ] were there but he had a license to carry . He never held us hostage . We could have left at any time "
Dee Dee claimed to have left the sessions without recording anything . " We had been working for at least fourteen or fifteen hours a day for thirteen days straight and we still hadn 't recorded one note of music , " he wrote in his autobiography . After supposedly hearing that Johnny had returned to New York , Dee Dee wrote that he and drummer Marky Ramone booked a flight and returned home as well . " To this day , I still have no idea how they made the album End of the Century , or who actually played bass on it . " Dee Dee 's account contradicts much of the band 's collective account from the 1982 Trouser Press interview , where the band stated that the only track that Johnny , Dee Dee and Marky did not play on was the cover version of " Baby , I Love You , " as the band , save for Joey , had gone home after cutting basic tracks for the rest of the album .
= = Compositions = =
End of the Century was described by the band as an album written solely to gain popularity , resulting in more of a pop punk sound . Joey failed to contribute to the best of his abilities on the album , and recalled : " I think that some of the worst crap I ever wrote went on the album . That was me at my worst . " Johnny also felt that the album was far from the band 's prime .
" End of the Century was just watered @-@ down Ramones . It 's not real Ramones . ' Baby , I Love You ' — I didn 't play on that at all . What am I gonna do — play along with an orchestra ? There 's no point . End of the Century was trying to get a hit on each song , instead of trying to get a hit on one or two of the songs on the album and trying to make the rest as raunchy as you can . They ain 't gonna play the other ten songs , anyway . "
The album opens with " Do You Remember Rock ' n ' Roll Radio ? , " a throwback to the rock music of the 1950s to late 1960s . The lyrics name several famous musicians of this era , including Jerry Lee Lewis , John Lennon , and T. Rex , and also cite The Ed Sullivan Show . Many instruments that were previously rarely — if ever — used in punk rock were featured in the song 's score , including the saxophone and electric organ . The lyrics , written by Dee Dee , depict his childhood in Germany where he would secretly listen to rock radio stations at night .
Johnny 's part is not heard on the next track , " I 'm Affected , " as reported by Johnny himself . Joey admitted that he did not favor the song , recalling : " I couldn 't believe how awful it sounded . It was horrible . " " Danny Says , " the third track , was a lyrical depiction of what the band constantly went through while touring--soundchecks , autograph sessions , interviews , etc . The title " Danny Says " refers to the band 's tour manager Danny Fields giving the members instructions , schedules , and demands . According to Joey , the ballad was inspired by Lou Reed , who had released the songs " Candy Says " and " Caroline Says . " Joey 's brother Mickey Leigh called the song a " masterpiece " and said it " remains one of the most captivatingly beautiful songs I 've ever heard . "
Dee Dee wrote the next piece , " Chinese Rock , " in 1976 , and Johnny Thunders later revised it . Dee Dee wrote the piece in response to Lou Reed 's " Heroin , " and attempted to concoct better lyrics on the same subject of drug use and heroin addiction . After Johnny vetoed the song , it was recorded by Thunder 's band The Heartbreakers before the Ramones , though the bands use slightly different words . The lyrics deal with the daily life of a heroin addict , and the term " Chinese Rock " is a euphemism for the drug . " The Return of Jackie and Judy " is a continuation to one of the band 's earlier songs , " Judy is a Punk , " which was released on their debut album Ramones . There were numerous studio guests involved in the song 's recording , including Spector 's bodyguard , Dan and David Kessel ( sons of jazz guitarist Barney Kessel ) , and California disc jockey Rodney Bingenheimer .
Side B begins with " Baby , I Love You . " Johnny constantly claims in his book Commando that he hated the song and the band didn 't even play on it , only Joey and some studio musicians . Joey exclaimed that he " hated " the song , despite it obtaining a level of popularity in Europe . The song is a cover version of the original by The Ronettes , and contained a string section arrangement that Leigh deemed " gooey " and that it " sounded right out of Redbone 's ' Come and Get Your Love . ' " He also confessed that the song " almost made [ him ] embarrassed . " " Rock ' n ' Roll High School " originally appeared on the soundtrack to Rock ' n ' Roll High School , a film directed by Allan Arkush . The movie depicts a story line in which the Ramones are obsessed over by female high school student Riff Randell along with other pupils attending the school . The album concludes with " High Risk Insurance , " which is a reaction to politics of that era .
= = Reception = =
= = = Critical = = =
The album received generally positive reviews from critics , yet not as favorable for many of the band 's previous records . Stephen Thomas Erlewine , senior editor for AllMusic , noted that the Ramones desired mainstream success much more and were recording music in such a fashion as to expand their fan @-@ base . Another AllMusic editor , T. Donald Guarisco , noted that the " entire album is pretty controversial in the world of Ramones fandom . " Music critic Robert Christgau called the album " sad , " noting that his favorite songs were " I 'm Affected , " " Baby , I Love You , " and " Danny Says . " He also pointed out that Spector 's production failed to make much of a difference upon the band 's overall sound , saying " his guitar overdubs are worse than his orchestrations , and they 're not uncute . "
Kurt Loder , reviewing the album for Rolling Stone , called it " Phil Spector 's finest and most mature effort in years , " and said that his production created a " rich and vibrant and surging with power " setting . He noted that the Ramones are still " spotlighted , " rather than their producer . Author Richard Williams exclaimed that to " old fans the Ramones ' version of ' Baby , I Love You ' went too far , desecrating the memory of the original despite Joey 's evident devotion to the task of emulating Ronnie 's lead vocal . " Williams also said that " Do You Remember Rock ' n ' Roll Radio " and " Chinese Rock " maintained the principles of the Ramones ' in their earlier days .
= = = Commercial = = =
End of the Century is the Ramones ' highest peaking album on the US Billboard 200 , as well as their most successful on the UK Albums Chart and the Swedish chart Sverigetopplistan . The album became the first — and only — Ramones ' album to chart on Norway 's VG @-@ lista chart and New Zealand 's Recorded Music NZ . It was also the band 's first album to chart on the Netherlands ' MegaCharts , with their 1987 album Halfway to Sanity being their only other release to chart their as well .
Two singles were spawned from End of the Century : " Baby , I Love You " and " Do You Remember Rock ' n ' Roll Radio ? , " released respectively . The first single charted on Belgium 's Ultratop chart as well as the UK . " Do You Remember Rock ' n ' Roll Radio ? " which debuted at 54 on the UK Singles Chart .
= = Charts = =
= = = Weekly = = =
= = = Year @-@ end = = =
= = Track listing = =
All songs written and composed by Ramones , except where indicated .
= = Personnel = =
Ramones
Joey Ramone – lead vocals
Johnny Ramone – guitar
Dee Dee Ramone – bass , backing vocals
Marky Ramone – drums
Additional musicians
Dan Kessel - guitar
David Kessel - guitar
Barry Goldberg - piano , organ
Steve Douglas - saxophone
Jim Keltner - drums
Production
Phil Spector - producer
Ed Stasium - musical director
Larry Levine - engineer
Boris Menart - engineer
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= David Irving =
David John Cawdell Irving ( born 24 March 1938 ) is an English Holocaust denier and author who has written on the military and political history of World War II , with a focus on Nazi Germany . His works include The Destruction of Dresden ( 1963 ) , Hitler 's War ( 1977 ) , Churchill 's War ( 1987 ) , and Goebbels : Mastermind of the Third Reich ( 1996 ) . Though Irving 's revisionist views of World War II were never taken seriously by mainstream historians , he was once recognized for his knowledge of Nazi Germany and his ability to unearth new historical documents . Irving marginalized himself in 1988 when , based on his reading of the pseudoscientific Leuchter report , he began to espouse Holocaust denial .
Irving 's reputation as a historian was discredited when , in the course of an unsuccessful libel case he filed against the American historian Deborah Lipstadt and Penguin Books , he was shown to have deliberately misrepresented historical evidence to promote Holocaust denial . The English court found that Irving was an active Holocaust denier , antisemite , and racist , who " for his own ideological reasons persistently and deliberately misrepresented and manipulated historical evidence " . In addition , the court found that Irving 's books had distorted the history of Adolf Hitler 's role in the Holocaust to depict Hitler in a favourable light .
= = Early life = =
Irving and his twin brother were born in Hutton , near Brentwood , Essex , England . His father , John James Cawdell Irving ( 1898 – 1967 ) , was a career naval officer and commander in the Royal Navy , and his mother , Beryl Irving ( née Newington ) , an illustrator and writer of children 's books . Irving 's twin brother Nicholas Irving has said that " David used to run toward bombed out houses shouting ' Heil Hitler ! ' " , a statement which Irving denies .
During the Second World War , Irving 's father was an officer aboard the light cruiser HMS Edinburgh . On 30 April 1942 , while escorting Convoy QP 11 in the Barents Sea , the ship was badly damaged by the German submarine U @-@ 456 . Two days later she was attacked by surface craft , and now beyond recovery was abandoned and scuttled by a torpedo from HMS Foresight . Irving 's father survived , but severed all links with his wife and their children after the incident .
Irving described his childhood in an interview with the American writer Ron Rosenbaum as : " Unlike the Americans , we English suffered great deprivations ... we went through childhood with no toys . We had no kind of childhood at all . We were living on an island that was crowded with other people 's armies " . According to his twin , Nicholas , Irving has also been a provocateur and prankster since his youth .
Irving went on to claim to Rosenbaum that his negationist views about World War II dated to his childhood , particularly due to his objections to the way Adolf Hitler was portrayed in the British media during the war . Irving asserted that his " sceptical " views about the Third Reich were rooted in his doubts about the cartoonist caricatures of Hitler and the other Nazi leaders published in the British wartime press .
= = Student years = =
After completing A levels at Brentwood School , Irving briefly studied physics at Imperial College London . However , he never graduated , due to financial limitations . While there , he wrote for the Imperial College 's student newspaper , Felix , and in 1959 served as editor of the University of London Carnival Committee 's journal , Carnival Times .
Irving later studied for two years toward a degree in political economy at University College London , However , he again had to drop out due to lack of funds . During this period at university , he participated in a debate on Commonwealth immigration , seconding British Union of Fascists founder Oswald Mosley , and was heckled .
= = = Carnival Times controversy = = =
Irving 's time as editor of the Carnival Times , a student rag mag , became controversial when he added a " secret supplement " to the magazine . This supplement contained an article in which he called Hitler the " greatest unifying force Europe has known since Charlemagne " . Although Irving deflected criticism by characterising the Carnival Times as " satirical " , he also stated that " the formation of a European Union is interpreted as building a group of superior peoples , and the Jews have always viewed with suspicion the emergence of any ' master @-@ race ' ( other than their own , of course ) " . Opponents also viewed a cartoon included in the supplement as racist , and criticised another article in which Irving wrote that the British press was owned by Jews .
Volunteers were later recruited to remove and destroy the supplements before the magazine 's distribution . Irving has said that the criticism is " probably justifiable " and has described his motivation in producing the controversial secret issue of Carnival Times as being to prevent the Carnival from making a profit that would be passed on to a South African group which he considered a " subversive organisation " .
= = The Destruction of Dresden = =
Some time after serving in 1959 as editor of the University of London Carnival Committee 's journal , Irving left for West Germany , where he worked as a steelworker in a Thyssen AG steel works in the Ruhr area , and learned the German language . He then moved to Spain , where he worked as a clerk at an air base . During his time in Spain , Irving married his first wife , a Spanish woman with whom he had five children .
In 1962 , he wrote a series of 37 articles on the Allied bombing campaign , Wie Deutschlands Städte starben ( How Germany 's Cities Died ) , for the German boulevard journal Neue Illustrierte . These were the basis for his first book , The Destruction of Dresden ( 1963 ) , in which he examined the Allied bombing of Dresden in February 1945 . By the 1960s , a debate about the morality of the carpet bombing of German cities and civilian population had already begun , especially in the United Kingdom . There was consequently considerable interest in Irving 's book , which was illustrated with graphic pictures , and it became an international best @-@ seller .
In the first edition , Irving 's estimates for deaths in Dresden were between 100 @,@ 000 and 250 @,@ 000 – notably higher than most previously published figures . These figures became authoritative and widely accepted in many standard reference works . In later editions of the book over the next three decades , he gradually adjusted the figure downwards to 50 @,@ 000 – 100 @,@ 000 . According to the evidence ( as introduced by Richard J. Evans at the 2000 libel trial that Irving brought against Deborah Lipstadt ) , Irving based his estimates of the dead of Dresden on the word of one individual who provided no supporting documentation , used forged documents , and described one witness who was a urologist as Dresden 's Deputy Chief Medical Officer . The doctor has since complained about being misidentified by Irving , and further , was only reporting rumours about the death toll .
Today , casualties at Dresden are estimated as 22 @,@ 700 – 25 @,@ 000 dead .
Irving based his numbers on a falsified document " TB 47 " promulgated by Nazi Propaganda Minister Joseph Goebbels , as well as claims made after the war by a former Dresden Nazi functionary , Hans Voigt , without verifying them against official sources available in Dresden . Irving 's estimates and sources were first disputed by Walter Weidauer , Mayor of Dresden 1946 – 1958 , in his own account of the Dresden bombing . When it was later confirmed that TB 47 was a forgery , Irving published a letter to the editor in The Times on 7 July 1966 retracting his estimates , writing that he had " no interest in promoting or perpetuating false legends " . In 1977 the original version of TB 47 was finally located in Dresden by Götz Bergander .
Despite acknowledging that the copy of " TB 47 " he had used was inaccurate , Irving argued during the late 1980s and 1990s that the death toll at Dresden was very high . In several speeches given during this period he claimed that 100 @,@ 000 or more people had been killed in the bombing of Dresden . In some of the speeches Irving also argued or implied that the raid was comparable to the Nazis ' killing of Jews .
= = = 1963 burglary of Irving 's flat = = =
By November 1963 , Irving was in England when he called the London Metropolitan Police with suspicions he had been the victim of a burglary by three men who had gained access to his Mayfair flat claiming to be General Post Office ( GPO ) engineers . Anti @-@ fascist activist Gerry Gable was subsequently arrested and held at Hornsey police station , where on 14 January 1964 , along with Manny Carpel and another , Gable admitted breaking in with intent to steal private papers . At the trial , counsel for the defence claimed that this was no ordinary crime , telling the court , " they hoped to find material they could take to Special Branch " . The case was reported in the Daily Telegraph , 17 January 1964 and other newspapers .
= = Author = =
After the success of the Dresden book , Irving continued writing , including some works of revisionist history , although his 1964 work The Mare 's Nest – an account of the German V @-@ weapons programme and the Allied intelligence countermeasures against it – was widely praised when published and continues to be well regarded . Michael J. Neufeld of the Smithsonian 's National Air and Space Museum has described The Mare 's Nest as " the most complete account on both Allied and German sides of the V @-@ weapons campaign in the last two years of the war . "
Irving translated the Memoirs of Field Marshal Wilhelm Keitel in 1965 ( edited by Walter Görlitz ) ; and in 1967 published Accident : The Death of General Sikorski . In the latter book , Irving claimed that the plane crash which killed Polish government in exile leader General Władysław Sikorski in 1943 was really an assassination ordered by Winston Churchill , so as to enable Churchill to betray Poland to the Soviet Union . Irving 's book inspired the highly controversial 1967 play Soldiers by his friend , the German playwright Rolf Hochhuth , where Hochhuth depicts Churchill ordering the " assassination " of General Sikorski .
Also in 1967 , Irving published two more works : The Virus House , an account of the German nuclear energy project for which Irving conducted many interviews , and The Destruction of Convoy PQ @-@ 17 , in which he blamed the British escort group commander , Commander Jack Broome for the catastrophic losses of the Convoy PQ @-@ 17 . Amid much publicity , Broome sued Irving for libel in October 1968 , and in February 1970 , after 17 days of deliberation before London 's High Court , Broome won . Irving was forced to pay £ 40 @,@ 000 in damages , and the book was withdrawn from circulation .
After PQ @-@ 17 , Irving largely shifted to writing biographies . In 1968 , he published Breach of Security , an account of German reading of messages to and from the British Embassy in Berlin before 1939 with an introduction by the British historian D.C. Watt . As a result of Irving 's success with Dresden , members of Germany 's extreme right wing assisted him in contacting surviving members of Hitler 's inner circle . In an interview with the American journalist Ron Rosenbaum , Irving claimed to have developed sympathies towards them . Many ageing former mid- and high @-@ ranked Nazis saw a potential friend in Irving and donated diaries and other material . Irving described his historical work to Rosenbaum as an act of " stone @-@ cleaning " of Hitler , in which he cleared off the " slime " that he felt had been unjustly applied to Hitler 's reputation .
In 1969 , during a visit to Germany , Irving met Robert Kempner , one of the American prosecutors at Nuremberg . Irving asked Kempner if the " official record of the Nuremberg Trials was falsified " , and told him that he was planning to go to Washington , D.C. to compare the sound recordings of Luftwaffe Field @-@ Marshal Erhard Milch 's March 1946 evidence with the subsequently published texts to find proof that evidence given at Nuremberg was " tampered with and manipulated " . Upon his return to the United States , Kempner wrote to J. Edgar Hoover , the director of the FBI , that Irving expressed many " anti @-@ American and anti @-@ Jewish statements " .
In 1971 , he translated the memoirs of General Reinhard Gehlen , and in 1973 published The Rise and Fall of the Luftwaffe , a biography of Field Marshal Milch . He spent the remainder of the 1970s working on Hitler 's War and the War Path , his two @-@ part biography of Adolf Hitler ; The Trail of the Fox , a biography of Field Marshal Erwin Rommel ; and a series in the Sunday Express describing the Royal Air Force 's famous Dam Busters raid . In 1975 , in his introduction to Hitler und seine Feldherren , the German edition of Hitler 's War , Irving attacked the diary of Anne Frank as a forgery , claiming falsely that a New York court had ruled that the diary was really the work of an American scriptwriter Meyer Levin " in collaboration with the girl 's father " .
The description of Irving as a historian , rather than a historical author , is controversial , with some publications continuing to refer to him as a " historian " or " disgraced historian " , while others insist he is not a historian , and have adopted alternatives such as " author " or " historic writer " . The military historian John Keegan has praised Irving for his " extraordinary ability to describe and analyse Hitler 's conduct of military operations , which was his main occupation during the Second World War " . Donald Cameron Watt , Emeritus Professor of Modern History at the London School of Economics , wrote that he admires some of Irving 's work as a historian , though he rejects his conclusions about the Holocaust . At the libel proceedings against Irving , Watt declined Irving 's request to testify , appearing only after a subpoena was ordered . He testified that Irving had written a " very , very effective piece of historical scholarship " in the 1960s , which was unrelated to his controversial work ; he also suggested that Irving was " not in the top class " of military historians .
= = Revisionism = =
= = = Hitler 's War = = =
In 1977 Irving published Hitler 's War , the first of his two @-@ part biography of Adolf Hitler . Irving 's intention in Hitler 's War was to clean away the " years of grime and discoloration from the facade of a silent and forbidding monument " to reveal the real Hitler , whose reputation Irving claimed had been slandered by historians . In Hitler 's War , Irving tried to " view the situation as far as possible through Hitler 's eyes , from behind his desk " . He portrayed Hitler as a rational , intelligent politician , whose only goal was to increase Germany 's prosperity and influence on the continent , and who was constantly let down by incompetent and / or treasonous subordinates . Irving 's book faulted the Allied leaders , most notably Winston Churchill , for the eventual escalation of war , and claimed that the German invasion of the Soviet Union in 1941 was a " preventive war " forced on Hitler to avert an alleged impending Soviet attack . He also claimed that Hitler had no knowledge of the Holocaust ; while not denying its occurrence , Irving claimed that Heinrich Himmler and his deputy Reinhard Heydrich were its originators and architects . Irving made much of the lack of any written order from Hitler ordering the Holocaust , and for decades afterward offered to pay £ 1000 to anyone who could find such an order .
Critical reaction to Hitler 's War was generally negative . Reviewers took issue with Irving 's factual claims as well as his conclusions . For example , American historian Charles Sydnor noted numerous errors in Hitler 's War , such as Irving 's unreferenced statement that the Jews who fought in the Warsaw Ghetto Uprising of 1943 were well supplied with weapons from Germany 's allies . Sydnor pointed out that Hitler had received an SS report in November 1942 which contained a mention of 363 @,@ 211 Russian Jews executed by the Einsatzgruppen between August – November 1942 . Sydnor remarked that Irving 's statement that the Einsatzgruppen were in charge in the death camps seems to indicate that he was not familiar with the history of the Holocaust , as the Einsatzgruppen were in fact mobile death squads who had nothing to do with the death camps .
= = = Irving 's work of the late 1970s and early 1980s = = =
Just months after the initial release of Hitler 's War , Irving published The Trail of the Fox , a biography of Field Marshal Erwin Rommel . In it , Irving attacked the members of the 20 July Plot to assassinate Hitler , branding them " traitors " , " cowards " , and " manipulators " , and uncritically presented Hitler and his government 's subsequent revenge against the plotters , of which Rommel was also a victim . In particular , Irving accused Rommel 's friend and Chief of Staff General Hans Speidel of framing Rommel in the attempted coup . The British historian David Pryce @-@ Jones in a book review of The Trail of the Fox in the edition of 12 November 1977 of The New York Times Book Review accused Irving of taking everything Hitler had to say at face value .
In 1978 , Irving released The War Path , the companion volume to Hitler 's War which covered events leading up to the war and which was written from a similar point of view . Again , professional historians such as D.C. Watt noted numerous inaccuracies and misrepresentations . Despite the criticism , the book sold well , as did all of Irving 's books to that date . The financial success of his books enabled Irving to buy a home in the prestigious Mayfair district of London , own a Rolls @-@ Royce car , and to enjoy a very affluent lifestyle . In addition , Irving , despite being married , became increasingly open about his affairs with other women , all of which were detailed in his self @-@ published diary . Irving 's affairs were to cause his first marriage to end in divorce in 1981 . In 1982 , Irving began a relationship with a Danish model , Bente Hogh . Hogh and Irving live together , and are the parents of a daughter born in 1984 .
In the 1980s Irving started researching and writing about topics other than Nazi Germany , but with less success . He began his research on his three @-@ part biography of Winston Churchill . After publication Irving 's work on Churchill received at least one bad review from Professor David Cannadine ( then of the University of London ) :
It has received almost no attention from historians or reviewers ... It is easy to see why . ... full of excesses , inconsistencies and omissions ... seems completely unaware of recent work done on the subject ... It is not merely that the arguments in this book are so perversely tendentious and irresponsibly sensationalist . It is also that it is written in a tone which is at best casually journalistic and at worst quite exceptionally offensive . The text is littered with errors from beginning to end .
In 1981 , he published two books . The first was The War Between the Generals , in which Irving offered an account of the Allied High Command on the Western Front in 1944 – 45 , detailing the heated conflicts Irving alleges occurred between the various generals of the various countries and presenting rumours about their private lives . The second book was Uprising ! , about the 1956 revolt in Hungary , which Irving characterised as " primarily an anti @-@ Jewish uprising " , supposedly because the Communist regime was itself controlled by Jews . Irving 's depiction of Hungary 's Communist regime as a Jewish dictatorship oppressing Gentiles sparked charges of antisemitism . In addition , there were complaints that Irving had grossly exaggerated the number of people of Jewish origin in the Communist regime and had ignored the fact that Hungarian Communists who did have a Jewish background like Mátyás Rákosi and Ernő Gerő had totally repudiated Judaism and sometimes expressed antisemitic attitudes themselves . Critics such as Neal Ascherson and Kai Bird took issue with some of Irving 's language that seemed to evoke antisemitic imagery , such as his remark that Rákosi possessed " the tact of a kosher butcher " .
= = = Hitler Diaries = = =
In 1983 , Stern , a weekly German news magazine , purchased for 9 million marks the Hitler Diaries of 61 volumes and published excerpts from them . Irving played the major role in uncovering the Hitler Diaries as a hoax . In October 1982 Irving purchased , from the same source as Stern 's 1983 purchase , 800 pages of documents relating to Hitler , only to discover that many of the documents were forgeries . Irving was amongst the first to identify the diaries as forgeries , and to draw media attention . He went so far as to crash the press conference held by Hugh Trevor @-@ Roper at the Hamburg offices of Stern magazine on 25 April 1983 to denounce the diaries as a forgery and Trevor @-@ Roper for endorsing the diaries as genuine . Irving 's performance at the Stern press conference where he violently harangued Trevor @-@ Roper until ejected by security led him to be featured prominently on the news ; the next day , Irving appeared on the Today television show as a featured guest . Irving had concluded that the alleged Hitler diaries were a forgery because they had come from the same dealer in Nazi memorabilia from whom Irving had purchased his collection in 1982 . At the press conference in Hamburg , Irving announced , " I know the collection from which these diaries come . It is an old collection , full of forgeries . I have some here " . Irving was proud to have detected and announced the hoax material and of the " trail of chaos " he had created at the Hamburg press conference and the attendant publicity it had brought him , and took pride in his humiliation of Trevor @-@ Roper , whom Irving strongly disliked for his sloppy work ( not detecting the hoax ) and criticism of Irving 's methods and conclusions . Irving also noted internal inconsistencies in the supposed Hitler diaries , such as a diary entry for July 20 , 1944 , which would have been unlikely given that Hitler 's right hand had been badly burned by the bomb planted in his headquarters by Colonel Claus von Stauffenberg earlier that day .
A week later on 2 May , Irving asserted that many of the diary documents appear to be genuine ; at the same press conference , Irving took the opportunity to promote his translation of the memoirs of Hitler 's physician Dr. Theodor Morell . Robert Harris , in his book Selling Hitler , suggested that an additional reason for Irving 's change of mind over the authenticity of the alleged Hitler diaries was that the fake diaries contain no reference to the Holocaust , thereby buttressing Irving 's claim in Hitler 's War that Hitler had no knowledge of it . Subsequently Irving conformed when the diaries were declared as a forgery by consensus . At a press conference held to withdraw his endorsement of the diaries , Irving proudly claimed that he was the first to call them a forgery , to which a reporter replied that he was also the last to call them genuine .
= = = Other books = = =
By the mid @-@ 1980s , Irving had not had a successful book in years , and was behind schedule in writing the first volume of his Churchill series , the research for which had strained his finances . He finished the manuscript in 1985 , but the book was not published until 1987 , when it was released as Churchill 's War , Volume I.
In 1989 , Irving published his biography of Hermann Göring .
= = Holocaust denial = =
= = = Movement towards Holocaust denial = = =
Over the years , Irving 's stance on the Holocaust changed significantly . From 1988 , he started to espouse Holocaust denial openly ; he had previously not denied the Holocaust outright and for this reason , many Holocaust deniers were ambivalent about him . They admired Irving for the pro @-@ Nazi slant in his work and the fact that he possessed a degree of mainstream credibility that they lacked , but were annoyed that he did not openly deny the Holocaust . In 1980 , Lucy Dawidowicz noted that although Hitler 's War was strongly sympathetic to the Third Reich , because Irving argued that Hitler was unaware of the Holocaust as opposed to denying the Holocaust , that his book was not part of the " anti @-@ Semitic canon " . In 1980 , Irving received an invitation to speak at a Holocaust @-@ denial conference , which he refused under the grounds that his appearance there would damage his reputation . In a letter , Irving stated his reasons for his refusal as : " This is pure Realpolitik on my part . I am already dangerously exposed , and I cannot take the chance of being caught in Flak meant for others ! " Though Irving refused at this time to appear at conferences sponsored by the Holocaust @-@ denying Institute for Historical Review ( IHR ) , he did grant the institute the right to distribute his books in the United States . Robert Jan van Pelt suggests that the major reason for Irving wishing to keep his distance from Holocaust deniers in the early 1980s was his desire to found his own political party called Focus .
In a footnote in the first edition of Hitler 's War , Irving writes , " I cannot accept the view … [ that ] there exists no document signed by Hitler , Himmler or Heydrich speaking of the extermination of the Jews " . In 1982 , Irving made an attempt to unify all of the various neo @-@ Nazi groups in Britain into one party called Focus , in which he would play a leading role . Irving described himself as a " moderate fascist " and spoke of plans to become Prime Minister of the United Kingdom . The effort failed due to fiscal problems . Irving told the Oxford Mail of having " links at a low level " with the British National Front . Irving described The Spotlight , the main journal of the Liberty Lobby , as " an excellent fortnightly paper " . At the same time , Irving put a copy of Hitler 's " Prophecy Speech " of 30 January 1939 , promising the " annihilation of the Jewish race in Europe " if " Jewish financiers " started another world war , onto his wall .
Following the failure of Focus , in September 1983 , Irving for the first time attended a conference of the IHR . Van Pelt has argued that , with the failure of Irving 's political career , he felt freer to associate with Holocaust deniers . At the conference , Irving did not deny the Holocaust , but did appear happy to share the stage with Robert Faurisson and Judge Wilhelm Stäglich , and claimed to be impressed with the allegations of Friedrich Berg that mass murder using diesel gas fumes at the Operation Reinhard death camps was impossible . At that conference , Irving repeated his claims that Hitler was ignorant of the Holocaust because he was " so busy being a soldier " . In a speech at that conference , Irving stated : " Isn 't it right for Tel Aviv to claim now that David Irving is talking nonsense and of course Adolf Hitler must have known about what was going in Auschwitz and Treblinka , and then in the same breath to claim that , of course our beloved Mr. Begin didn 't know what was going on in Sabra and Chatilla " . During the same speech , Irving proclaimed Hitler to be the " biggest friend the Jews had in the Third Reich " . In the same speech , Irving stated that he operated in such a way as to bring himself maximum publicity . Irving stated that : " I have at home ... a filing cabinet full of documents which I don 't issue all at once . I keep them : I issue them a bit at a time . When I think my name hasn 't been in the newspapers for several weeks , well , then I ring them up and I phone them and I say : ' What about this one , then ? ' "
A major theme of Irving 's writings since the 1980s was his belief that it had been a great blunder on the part of Britain to declare war on Germany in 1939 , and that ever since then and as a result of that decision , Britain had slipped into an unstoppable decline . Irving also took the view that Hitler often tried to help the Jews of Europe . In a June 1992 interview with the Daily Telegraph , Irving claimed to have heard from Hitler 's naval adjutant that the Führer had told him that he could not marry because Germany was " his bride " . Irving then claimed to have asked the naval adjutant when Hitler made that remark , and upon hearing that the date was 24 March 1938 , Irving stated in response " Herr Admiral , at that moment I was being born " . Irving used this alleged incident to argue that there was some sort of mystical connection between himself and Hitler .
In a 1986 speech in Australia Irving argued that photographs of Holocaust survivors and dead taken in early 1945 by Allied soldiers were proof that the Allies were responsible for the Holocaust , not the Germans . Irving claimed that the Holocaust was not the work of Nazi leaders , but rather of " nameless criminals " , and claimed that " these men [ who killed the Jews ] acted on their own impulse , their own initiative , within the general atmosphere of brutality created by the Second World War , in which of course Allied bombings played a part . " In another 1986 speech , this time in Atlanta , Irving claimed that " historians have a blindness when it comes to the Holocaust because like Tay @-@ Sachs disease it is a Jewish disease which causes blindness " .
By the mid @-@ 1980s , Irving associated himself with the IHR , began giving lectures to groups such as the far @-@ right German Deutsche Volksunion ( DVU ) , and publicly denied that the Nazis systematically exterminated Jews in gas chambers during World War II . Irving was a frequent speaker for the DVU in the 1980s and the early 1990s , but the relationship ended in 1993 apparently because of concerns by the DVU that Irving 's espousal of Holocaust denial might lead to the DVU being banned .
In 1986 , Irving visited Toronto , where he was met at the airport by Holocaust denier Ernst Zündel . According to Zündel , Irving " ... thought I was ' Revisionist @-@ Neo @-@ Nazi @-@ Rambo @-@ Kook ! ' " , and asked Zündel to stay away from him . Zündel and his supporters obliged Irving by staying away from his lecture tour , which consequently attracted little media attention , and was considered by Irving to be a failure . Afterwards , Zündel sent Irving a long letter in which he offered to draw publicity to Irving , and so ensure that his future speaking tours would be a success . As a result , Irving and Zündel became friends , and Irving agreed in late 1987 to testify for Zündel at his second trial for denying the Holocaust . In addition , the publication in 1987 of the book Der europäische Bürgerkrieg 1917 – 1945 by Ernst Nolte , in which Nolte strongly implied that maybe Holocaust deniers were on to something , encouraged Irving to become more open in associating with Zündel .
= = = Zündel trial = = =
In January 1988 , Irving travelled to Toronto , Ontario , to assist Douglas Christie , the defence lawyer for Ernst Zündel at his second trial for denying the Holocaust . Working closely with Robert Faurisson , who was also assisting the defence , Irving contacted Warden Bill Armontrout of the Missouri State Penitentiary who recommended that Irving and Faurisson get into touch with Fred A. Leuchter , a self @-@ described execution expert living in Boston . Irving and Faurission then flew to Boston to meet with Leuchter , who agreed to lend his alleged technical expertise on the behalf of Zündel 's defence . Irving argued that an alleged expert on gassings like Leuchter could prove that the Holocaust was a " myth " . After work on the second Zündel trial , Irving declared that based on his exposure to Zündel 's and Leuchter 's theories that he was now conducting a " one @-@ man intifada " against the idea that there had been a Holocaust . Subsequently , Irving claimed to the American journalist D.D. Guttenplan in a 1999 interview that Zündel had convinced him that the Holocaust had not occurred .
In the 1988 Zündel trial , Irving repeated and defended his claim from Hitler 's War that until October 1943 Hitler knew nothing about the actual implementation of the Final Solution . He also expressed his evolving belief that the Final Solution involved " atrocities " , not systematic murder : " I don 't think there was any overall Reich policy to kill the Jews . If there was , they would have been killed and there would not be now so many millions of survivors . And believe me , I am glad for every survivor that there was . " On 22 – 26 April 1988 , Irving testified for Zündel , endorsing Richard Harwood 's book Did Six Million Really Die ? as " over ninety percent ... factually accurate " .
As to what evidence further led Irving to believe that the Holocaust never occurred , he cited The Leuchter report by Fred A. Leuchter , which claimed there was no evidence for the existence of homicidal gas chambers at the Auschwitz concentration camp . Irving said in a 1999 documentary about Leuchter : " The big point [ of the Leuchter report ] : there is no significant residue of cyanide in the brickwork . That 's what converted me . When I read that in the report in the courtroom in Toronto , I became a hard @-@ core disbeliever " . In addition , Irving was influenced to embrace Holocaust denial by the American historian Arno J. Mayer 's 1988 book Why Did the Heavens Not Darken ? , which did not deny the Holocaust , but claimed that most of those who died at Auschwitz were killed by disease ; Irving saw in Mayer 's book an apparent confirmation of Leuchter 's and Zündel 's theories about no mass murder at Auschwitz .
After the trial , Irving published Leuchter 's report as Auschwitz The End of the Line : The Leuchter Report in the United Kingdom in 1989 and wrote its foreword . Leuchter 's book had been first published in Canada by Zündel 's Samisdat Publishers in 1988 as The Leuchter Report : The End of a Myth : An Engineering Report on the Alleged Execution Gas Chambers at Auschwitz , Birkenau and Majdenek . In his foreword to the British edition of Leuchter 's book , Irving wrote that " Nobody likes to be swindled , still less where considerable sums of money are involved " . The alleged swindle was the reparations money totalling 3 billion DM paid by the Federal Republic of Germany to Israel between 1952 – 1966 for the Holocaust . Irving described the reparations as being " essentially in atonement for the ' gas chambers ' of Auschwitz " , which Irving called a " myth " that would " not die easily " . In his foreword , Irving praised the " scrupulous methods " and " integrity " of Leuchter .
For publishing and writing the foreword to Auschwitz The End of the Line , on 20 June 1989 Irving together with Leuchter was condemned in an Early Day Motion of the House of Commons as " Hitler 's heirs " . The motion went on to describe Irving as a " Nazi propagandist and longtime Hitler apologist " and Auschwitz The End of the Line as a " fascist publication " . In the Motion , the House stated that they were " appalled by [ the Holocaust denial of ] Nazi propagandist and long @-@ time Hitler apologist David Irving " . In response to the House of Commons motion , Irving in a press statement challenged the MPs who voted to condemn him that : " I will enter the ' gas chambers ' of Auschwitz and you and your friends may lob in Zyklon B in accordance with the well known procedures and conditions . I guarantee that you won 't be satisfied with the results ! " .
In a pamphlet Irving published in London on 23 June 1989 Irving made the " epochal announcement " that there was no mass murder in the gas chambers at the Auschwitz death camp . Irving labelled the gas chambers at Auschwitz a " hoax " , and writing in the third person declared that he " has placed himself [ Irving ] at the head of a growing band of historians , worldwide , who are now sceptical of the claim that at Auschwitz and other camps were ' factories of death ' , in which millions of innocent people were systematically gassed to death " . Boasting of his role in criticising the Hitler diaries as a forgery in 1983 , Irving wrote " now he [ Irving ] is saying the same thing about the infamous ' gas chambers ' of Auschwitz , Treblinka and Majdanek . They did not exist – ever – except perhaps as the brainchild of Britain 's brilliant wartime Psychological Warfare Executive " . Finally , Irving claimed " the survivors of Auschwitz are themselves testimony to the absence of an extermination programme " . Echoing the criticism of the House of Commons , on 14 May 1990 a leader in The Times described Irving as a " man for whom Hitler is something of a hero and almost everything of an innocent and for whom Auschwitz is a Jewish deception " .
= = = Holocaust denial lecture circuit = = =
In the early 1990s , Irving was a frequent visitor to Germany , where he spoke at neo @-@ Nazi rallies . The chief themes of Irving 's German speeches were that the Allies and Axis states were equally culpable for war crimes , that the decision of Neville Chamberlain to declare war on Germany in 1939 , and that of Winston Churchill to continue the war in 1940 , had been great mistakes that set Britain on a path of decline , and the Holocaust was just a " propaganda exercise " . In June 1990 , Irving went to the former East German states on a well @-@ publicized tour entitled " An Englishman Fights for the Honour of the Germans , " on which he accused the Allies of having used " forged documents " to " humiliate " the German people . Irving 's self @-@ proclaimed mission was to guide " promising young men " in Germany in the " right direction " ( Irving has often stated his belief that women exist for a " certain task , which is producing us [ men ] " , and should be " subservient to men " ; leading , in Lipstadt 's view , to a lack of interest on Irving 's part in guiding young German women in the " right direction " ) . German nationalists found Irving , as a non @-@ German Holocaust denier , to be particularly credible .
In January 1990 , Irving gave a speech in Moers where he asserted that only 30 @,@ 000 people died at Auschwitz between 1940 – 45 , all of natural causes , which was equal — so he claimed — to the typical death toll from one Bomber Command raid on German cities . Irving claimed that there were no gas chambers at the death camp , stating that the existing remains were " mock @-@ ups built by the Poles " . On 21 April 1990 Irving repeated the same speech in Munich , which led to his conviction for Holocaust denial in Munich on 11 July 1991 . The court fined Irving DM 7 @,@ 000 . Irving appealed the judgement , and received a fine of DM 10 @,@ 000 for repeating the same remarks in the courtroom on 5 May 1992 . During his appeal in 1992 , Irving called upon those present in the Munich courtroom to " fight a battle for the German people and put an end to the blood lie of the Holocaust which has been told against this country for fifty years " . Irving went on to call the Auschwitz death camp a " tourist attraction " whose origins Irving claimed went back to an " ingenious plan " devised by the British Psychological Warfare Executive in 1942 to spread anti @-@ German propaganda that it was the policy of the German state to be " using ' gas chambers ' to kill millions of Jews and other undesirables " . During the same speech , Irving denounced the judge as a " senile , alcoholic cretin " . Following his conviction for Holocaust denial , Irving was banned from visiting Germany .
Expanding upon his thesis in Hitler 's War about the lack of a written Führer order for the Holocaust , Irving argued in the 1990s that the absence of such an order meant that there was no Holocaust . In a speech delivered in Toronto in November 1990 Irving claimed that Holocaust survivors had manufactured memories of their suffering because " there 's money involved and they can get a good compensation cash payment out of it " . In that speech , Irving used the metaphor of a cruise ship named Holocaust , which Irving claimed had " ... luxury wall to wall fitted carpets and a crew of thousands … marine terminals established in now virtually every capital in the world , disguised as Holocaust memorial museums " . Irving went on to assert that the " ship " was due for rough sailing because recently the Soviet government had allowed historians access to " the index cards of all the people who passed through the gates of Auschwitz " , and claimed that this would lead to " a lot of people [ who ] are not claiming to be Auschwitz survivors anymore " ( Irving 's statement about the index cards was incorrect ; what the Soviet government had made available in 1990 were the death books of Auschwitz , recording the weekly death tolls ) . Irving claimed on the basis of what he called the index books that , " Because the experts can look at a tattoo and say ' Oh yes , 181 , 219 that means you entered Auschwitz in March 1943 " and he warned Auschwitz survivors " If you want to go and have a tattoo put on your arm , as a lot of them do , I am afraid to say , and claim subsequently that you were in Auschwitz , you have to make sure a ) that it fits in with the month you said you went to Auschwitz and b ) it is not a number which anyone used before " .
On 17 January 1991 Irving told a reporter from the Jewish Chronicle that " The Jews are very foolish not to abandon the gas chamber theory while they still have time " . Irving went to say that he believed anti @-@ Semitism will increase all over the world because " the Jews have exploited people with the gas chamber legend " and that " In ten years , Israel will cease to exist and the Jews will have to return to Europe " . In his 1991 revised edition of Hitler 's War he had removed all references to death camps and the Holocaust . In a speech given in Hamburg in 1991 , Irving stated that in two years time " this myth of mass murders of Jews in the death factories of Auschwitz , Majdanek and Treblinka ... which in fact never took place " will be disproved ( Auschwitz , Majdanek , and Treblinka were all well known extermination camps ) . Two days later , Irving repeated the same speech in Halle before a group of neo @-@ Nazis , and praised Rudolf Hess as " that great German martyr , Rudolf Hess " . At another 1991 speech , this time in Canada , Irving called the Holocaust a " hoax " , and again predicted that by 1993 the " hoax " would have been " exposed " . In that speech , Irving declared , " Gradually the word is getting around Germany . Two years from now too , the German historians will accept that we are right . They will accept that for fifty years they have believed a lie " . During that speech given in October 1991 , Irving expressed his contempt and hatred for Holocaust survivors by proclaiming that :
Ridicule alone isn 't enough , you 've got to be tasteless about it . You 've got to say things like ' More women died on the back seat of Edward Kennedy 's car at Chappaquiddick than in the gas chambers at Auschwitz . ' Now you think that 's tasteless , what about this ? I 'm forming an association especially dedicated to all these liars , the ones who try and kid people that they were in these concentration camps , it 's called the Auschwitz Survivors , Survivors of the Holocaust and Other Liars , ' ASSHOLs ' . Can 't get more tasteless than that , but you 've got to be tasteless because these people deserve our contempt .
In another 1991 speech , this time in Regina Irving called the Holocaust " a major fraud ... There were no gas chambers . They were fakes and frauds " .
In November 1992 , Irving was to be a featured speaker at a world anti @-@ Zionist congress in Stockholm that was cancelled by the Swedish government . Also scheduled to attend were fellow Holocaust @-@ deniers Robert Faurisson and Fred A. Leuchter , and Louis Farrakhan , together with representatives of the militant Palestinian group Hamas , the Lebanese militant Shiite group Hezbollah , and the right @-@ wing Russian antisemitic group Pamyat . In a 1993 speech , Irving claimed that had been only 100 @,@ 000 Jewish deaths at Auschwitz , " but not from gas chambers . They died from epidemics " . Irving went on to claim that most of the Jewish deaths during World War II had been caused by Allied bombing . Irving claimed that " The concentration camp inmates arrived in Berlin or Leipzig or in Dresden just in time for the RAF bombers to set fire to those cities . Nobody knows how many Jews died in those air raids " . In a 1994 speech , Irving lamented that his predictions of 1991 had failed to occur , and complained of the persistence of belief in the " rotting corpse " of the " profitable legend " of the Holocaust . In another 1994 speech , Irving claimed that there was no German policy of genocide of Jews , and that only 600 @,@ 000 Jews died in concentration camps in World War II , all due to either Allied bombing or disease . At the same time , Irving started to appear more frequently at the annual conferences hosted by the IHR . In a 1995 speech , Irving claimed that the Holocaust was a myth invented by a " world @-@ wide Jewish cabal " to serve their own ends . Irving also spoke on other topics at the IHR gatherings . A frequent theme was the claim that Winston Churchill had advance knowledge of the Japanese plans to attack Pearl Harbor , and refused to warn the Americans to bring the United States into World War II .
At the same time , Irving maintained an ambivalent attitude to Holocaust denial depending on his audience . In a 1993 letter , Irving lashed out against his former friend Zündel , writing that : " In April 1988 I unhesitatingly agreed to aid your defence as a witness in Toronto . I would not make the same mistake again . As a penalty for having defended you then , and for having continued to aid you since , my life has come under a gradually mounting attack : I find myself the worldwide victim of mass demonstrations , violence , vituperation and persecution " ( emphasis in the original ) . Irving went on to claim his life had been wonderful until Zündel had got him involved in the Holocaust denial movement ; van Pelt argues that Irving was just trying to shift responsibility for his actions in his letter . In an interview with Australian radio in July 1995 , Irving claimed that at least four million Jews died in World War II , though he argued that this was due to terrible sanitary conditions inside the concentration camps as opposed to a deliberate policy of genocide in the death camps . Irving 's statement led to a very public spat with his former ally Faurisson , who insisted that no Jews were killed in the Holocaust . In 1995 , Irving stated in another speech that " I have to take off my hat to my adversaries and the strategies they have employed — the marketing of the very word Holocaust : I half expected to see a little TM after it " . Likewise , depending on his audience , Irving during the 1990s has either used the absence of a written Führerbefehl ( Führer order ) for the " Final Solution " to argue that Hitler was unaware of the Holocaust , or that the absence of a written order meant there was no Holocaust .
= = Racism and antisemitism = =
Irving has expressed racist and antisemitic sentiments , both publicly and privately . Irving has often expressed his belief in the theory of a sinister Jewish conspiracy ruling the world , and that the belief in the reality of Holocaust was manufactured as part of the same alleged conspiracy . Irving used the label " traditional enemies of the truth " to describe Jews , and in a 1963 article about a speech by Sir Oswald Mosley wrote that the " Yellow Star did not make a showing " . In 1992 , Irving stated that " ... the Jews are very foolish not to abandon the gas chamber theory while they still have time " and claimed he " foresees a new wave of antisemitism " the world over due to Jewish " exploitation of the Holocaust myth " . During an interview with the American writer Ron Rosenbaum , Irving stated his belief that Jews were his " traditional enemy " . In one interview cited in the libel lawsuit , Irving also stated that he would be " willing to put [ his ] signature " to the " fact " that " a great deal of control over the world is exercised by Jews " .
Several of these statements were cited by the judge 's decision in Irving 's lawsuit against Penguin Books and Deborah Lipstadt , leading the judge to conclude that Irving " had on many occasions spoken in terms which are plainly racist . " One example brought was his diary entry for 17 September 1994 , in which Irving wrote about a ditty he composed for his young daughter " when halfbreed children are wheeled past " :
I am a Baby Aryan
Not Jewish or Sectarian
I have no plans to marry anApe or Rastafarian .
Christopher Hitchens wrote that Irving sang the rhyme to Hitchens ' wife , Carol Blue , and daughter , Antonia , in the elevator following drinks in the family 's Washington apartment .
= = Persona non grata = =
After Irving denied the Holocaust in two 1989 speeches given in Austria , the Austrian government issued an arrest warrant for him and barred him from entering the country . In early 1992 a German court found him guilty of Holocaust denial under the Auschwitzlüge section of the law against Volksverhetzung ( a failed appeal by Irving would see the fine rise from 10 @,@ 000 DM to 30 @,@ 000 DM ) , and he was subsequently barred from entering Germany . Other governments followed suit , including Italy and Canada , where he was arrested in November 1992 and deported back to the United Kingdom . In an administrative hearing surrounding those events , he was found by the hearing office to have engaged in a " total fabrication " in telling a story of an exit from and return to Canada which would , for technical reasons , have made the original deportation order invalid . He was also barred from entering Australia in 1992 , a ban he made five unsuccessful attempts to overturn .
In 1992 , Irving signed a contract with Macmillan for a biography of Joseph Goebbels entitled Goebbels : Mastermind of the Third Reich . Following charges that Irving had selectively " edited " a recently discovered complete edition of Goebbels 's diaries in Moscow , Macmillan cancelled the book deal . The decision by the Sunday Times ( who had bought the rights to serialised extracts from the diaries before Macmillan published them ) in July 1992 to hire Irving as a translator of Goebbels 's diary was criticised by historian Peter Pulzer , who argued that Irving , because of his views about the Third Reich , was not the best man for the job . Andrew Neil , the editor of the Sunday Times , called Irving " reprehensible " , but defended hiring Irving because he was only a " transcribing technician " , which others criticised as a poor description of translation work .
On 27 April 1993 Irving was ordered to attend court to be examined on charges relating to the Loi Gayssot in France , making it an offence to question the existence or size of the category of crimes against humanity . The law does not extend to extradition , and Irving refused to travel to France . Then , in February 1994 , Irving spent 10 days of a three @-@ month sentence in London 's Pentonville prison for contempt of court following a legal wrangling over publishing rights .
In 1995 , St. Martin 's Press of New York City agreed to publish the Goebbels biography ; but after protests , they cancelled the contract , leaving Irving in a situation in which , according to D. D. Guttenplan , he was desperate for financial help , publicity , and the need to re @-@ establish his reputation as a historian . The book was eventually self @-@ published .
= = = Libel suit = = =
On 5 September 1996 , Irving filed a libel suit against Deborah Lipstadt and her British publisher Penguin Books for publishing a British edition of Lipstadt 's book , Denying the Holocaust , which had first been published in the United States in 1993 . In her book , Denying the Holocaust , Lipstadt called Irving a Holocaust denier , falsifier , and bigot , and said that he manipulated and distorted real documents .
Lipstadt hired the British solicitor Anthony Julius to present her case , while Penguin Books hired Kevin Bays and Mark Bateman , libel specialist from media firm Davenport Lyons . They briefed the libel barrister Richard Rampton QC and Penguin also briefed junior barrister Heather Rogers . The defendants ( with Penguin 's insurers paying the fee ) also retained Professor Richard J. Evans , historian and Professor of Modern History at Cambridge University , as an expert witness . Also working as expert witnesses were the American Holocaust historian Christopher Browning , the German historian Peter Longerich and the Dutch architectural expert Robert Jan van Pelt . The latter wrote a report attesting to the fact that the death camps were designed , built and used for the purpose of mass murder , while Browning testified for the reality of the Holocaust . Evans ' report was the most comprehensive , in @-@ depth examination of Irving 's work :
Not one of [ Irving 's ] books , speeches or articles , not one paragraph , not one sentence in any of them , can be taken on trust as an accurate representation of its historical subject . All of them are completely worthless as history , because Irving cannot be trusted anywhere , in any of them , to give a reliable account of what he is talking or writing about . ... if we mean by historian someone who is concerned to discover the truth about the past , and to give as accurate a representation of it as possible , then Irving is not a historian .
The BBC quoted Evans further : -
Irving , ( ... ) had deliberately distorted and wilfully mistranslated documents , consciously used discredited testimony and falsified historical statistics . ( ... ) Irving has fallen so far short of the standards of scholarship customary amongst historians that he does not deserve to be called a historian at all . "
Not only did Irving lose the case , but in light of the evidence presented at the trial a number of his works that had previously escaped serious scrutiny were brought to public attention . He was also liable to pay all of Penguin 's costs of the trial , estimated to be as much as £ 2 million ( US $ 3 @.@ 2 million ) though it remains uncertain how much of these liabilities he will ultimately pay for . When he did not meet these , Davenport Lyons moved to make him bankrupt on behalf of their client . He was forced into bankruptcy in 2002 and lost his home , though he has been able to travel around the world despite his financial losses .
= = = Life after libel suit = = =
Early in September 2004 , Michael Cullen , the deputy prime minister of New Zealand , announced that Irving would not be permitted to visit the country , where he had been invited by the National Press Club to give a series of lectures under the heading " The Problems of Writing about World War II in a Free Society " . The National Press Club defended its invitation of Irving , saying that it amounted not to an endorsement of his views , but rather an opportunity to question him . A government spokeswoman said that " people who have been deported from another country are refused entry " to New Zealand . Irving rejected the ban and attempted to board a Qantas flight for New Zealand from Los Angeles on 17 September 2004 . He was not allowed on board .
On 11 November 2005 , the Austrian police in the southern state of Styria , acting under the 1989 warrant , arrested Irving . Irving pleaded guilty to the charge of " trivialising , grossly playing down and denying the Holocaust " and was sentenced to three years ' imprisonment in accordance with the law prohibiting National Socialist activities ( officially Verbotsgesetz , " Prohibition Statute " ) . After he was arrested , Irving claimed in his plea that he changed his opinions on the Holocaust , " I said that then based on my knowledge at the time , but by 1991 when I came across the Eichmann papers , I wasn 't saying that anymore and I wouldn 't say that now . The Nazis did murder millions of Jews . " Irving sat motionless as judge Peter Liebetreu asked him if he had understood the sentence , to which he replied " I 'm not sure I do " before being bundled out of the court by Austrian police . Later , Irving declared himself shocked by the severity of the sentence . He had reportedly already purchased a plane ticket home to London .
In December 2006 , Irving was released from prison , and banned from ever returning to Austria . Upon Irving 's arrival in the UK he reaffirmed his position , stating that he felt " no need any longer to show remorse " for his Holocaust views . On 18 May 2007 , he was expelled from the 52nd Warsaw International Book Fair in Poland because books he took there were deemed by the organizers as promoting Nazism and antisemitism , which is in violation of Polish law .
Since then , Irving has continued to work as a freelance writer , despite his troubled public image . He was drawn into the controversy surrounding Bishop Richard Williamson , who in a televised interview recorded in Germany in November 2008 denied the Holocaust took place , only to see Williamson convicted for incitement in April 2010 after refusing to pay a fine of 12 @,@ 000 euros . Irving subsequently found himself beset by protesters on a book tour of the United States . Irving has actively toured the United States . Irving has also given lectures and tours in the UK and Europe ; one tour to Poland in September 2010 which led to particular criticism included the Treblinka death camp as an itinerary stop . During his 2008 tour of the US Deborah Lipstadt stated that Irving 's audience was mainly limited to like @-@ minded people .
Irving and Nick Griffin ( then the British National Party leader ) were invited to speak at a forum on free speech at the Oxford Union on 26 November 2007 , along with Anne Atkins and Evan Harris . The debate took place after Oxford Union members voted in favour of it , but was disrupted by protesters . As of 2013 , Irving was lecturing to small audiences at venues disclosed only to attendants on various topics including alleged Jewish conspiracies and alleged holocaust denial ; more recently , lecture topics included the life and death of Heinrich Himmler , or the saturation bombings during World War II .
Irving established a website selling Nazi memorabilia in 2009 . The items are offered by other people , with Irving receiving a commission from each sale for authenticating them . Irving stated in 2009 that the website was the only way he could make money after being bankrupted in 2002 . Items sold through the website include Hitler 's walking stick and a lock of the dictator 's hair . Irving has also investigated the authenticity of bones purported to be from Hitler and Eva Braun .
= = = David Irving controversy in 2008 / 2009 = = =
In October 2008 a controversy erupted in Norway over the invitation of David Irving to speak at the 2009 Norwegian Festival of Literature . Several of Norway 's most distinguished authors protested against the invitation . The leader of the board for the festival , Jesper Holte , defended the invitation by stating that " Our agenda is to invite a liar and a falsifier of history to a festival about truth . And confront him with this . Irving has been invited to discuss his concept of truth in light of his activity as a writer of historical books and the many accusations he has been exposed to as a consequence of this . " Although Irving is introduced in the festival 's webpages as " historian and writer " the board chair leader defended the more aggressive language being used to characterize Irving in connection with the controversy that had arisen . Lars Saabye Christensen and Roy Jacobsen were two authors who had threatened to boycott the festival on account of Irving 's invitation and Anne B. Ragde stated that Sigrid Undset would have turned around in her grave . As the festival has as its subsidiary name " Sigrid Undset Days " , a representative of Undset 's family had requested that the name of the Nobel laureate be removed in connection with the festival . Also the Norwegian free speech organization Fritt Ord was critical towards letting Irving speak at the festival and had requested that its logo be removed from the festival . In addition Edvard Hoem announced that he would not attend the 2009 festival with Irving taking part . Per Edgar Kokkvold , leader of the Norwegian Press Confederation advocated cancelling Irving 's invitation .
Days after the controversy had started , the invitation was rescinded . This led to the resignation of Stig Sæterbakken from his position as content director as he was the person who had invited Irving to the event . The head of the Norwegian Festival of Literature , Randi Skeie , deplored what had taken place , stating " Everything is fine as long as everyone agrees , but things get more difficult when one doesn 't like the views being put forward . " Sæterbakken characterized his colleagues as " damned cowards " arguing that they were walking in lockstep .
According to editor @-@ in @-@ chief Sven Egil Omdal of Stavanger Aftenblad the opposition to Irving 's participation at the festival appeared as a concerted effort and Omdal suggested campaign journalism from two of Norway 's largest newspapers , Dagbladet and Aftenposten and Norway 's public service broadcaster NRK .
David Irving commented that he had not been told that the festival was going to present him as a liar , and that he was preparing a lecture about the real history of what took place in Norway during World War II , contrary to what official historians have presented . Irving stated that he had thought the Norwegian people to be made of tougher stuff .
Only days after the cancellation David Irving announced that he would go to Lillehammer during the literature festival and deliver his 2 @-@ hour lecture from a hotel room . He did not come .
= = Reception by historians = =
Irving , once highly regarded for his expert knowledge of German military archives , was a controversial figure from the start . His interpretations of the war were widely regarded as unduly favourable to the German side . At first this was seen as personal opinion , unpopular but consistent with full respectability as a historian . By 1988 , however , Irving had begun to reject the status of the Holocaust as a systematic and deliberate genocide ; and he soon became the main proponent of Holocaust denial . This , along with his association with far @-@ right circles , dented his standing as a historian . A marked change in Irving 's reputation can be seen in the surveys of the historiography of the Third Reich produced by Ian Kershaw . In the first edition of Kershaw 's book The Nazi Dictatorship in 1985 , Irving was called a " maverick " historian working outside the mainstream of the historical profession . By the time of the fourth edition of The Nazi Dictatorship in 2000 , Irving was described only as a historical writer who had in the 1970s engaged in " provocations " intended to provide an " exculpation of Hitler 's role in the Final Solution " . Other critical responses to his work tend to follow this chronological pattern .
= = = Books = = =
= = = Translations = = =
The Memoirs of Field @-@ Marshal Keitel ( 1965 )
The Memoirs of General Gehlen ( 1972 )
= = = Monographs = = =
The Night the Dams Burst ( 1973 )
Von Guernica bis Vietnam ( in German only ) ( 1982 )
Die deutsche Ostgrenze ( in German only ) ( 1990 )
Banged Up ( 2008 )
= = = Collected articles in German = = =
Und Deutschlands Städte starben nicht ( 1963 )
Nürnberg : Die letzte Schlacht ( 1979 )
Wie krank war Hitler wirklich ? ( 1980 )
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= USS Orizaba ( ID @-@ 1536 ) =
USS Orizaba ( ID @-@ 1536 / AP @-@ 24 ) was a transport ship for the United States Navy in both World War I and World War II . She was the sister ship of Siboney but the two were not part of a ship class . In her varied career , she was also known as USAT Orizaba in service for the United States Army , as SS Orizaba in interwar civilian service for the Ward Line , and as Duque de Caxias ( U @-@ 11 ) as an auxiliary in the Brazilian Navy after World War II .
Orizaba made 15 transatlantic voyages for the Navy carrying troops to and from Europe in World War I with the second shortest average in @-@ port turnaround time of all Navy transports . The ship was turned over to the War Department in 1919 for use as Army transport USAT Orizaba . After her World War I service ended , Orizaba reverted to the Ward Line , her previous owners . The ship was briefly engaged in transatlantic service to Spain and then engaged in New York – Cuba – Mexico service until 1939 , when the ship was chartered to United States Lines . While Orizaba was in her Ward Line service , American poet Hart Crane leapt to his death from the rear deck of the liner off Florida in April 1932 .
In World War II the ship was requisitioned by the War Shipping Administration and again assigned to the War Department as USAT Orizaba . After completing one voyage as an Army transport , the ship was transferred to the US Navy , where she was re @-@ commissioned as USS Orizaba ( AP @-@ 24 ) . The ship made several transatlantic runs , was damaged in an air attack in the Allied invasion of Sicily , and made trips to South America . The transport also served in the Pacific Theatre , making several transpacific voyages , and one to the Aleutians .
In June 1945 , Orizaba was transferred under Lend @-@ Lease to the Brazilian Navy where she served as Duque de Caxias ( U @-@ 11 ) . In August 1945 , Duque de Caxis carried parts of the Brazilian Expeditionary Force from Naples back to Rio de Janeiro . The ship was badly damaged by a fire in 1947 , but was repaired and remained in service . Permanently transferred to Brazil in 1953 , Duque de Caxias was decommissioned in 1959 and scrapped in 1963 .
= = World War I = =
Orizaba — named after the town of Orizaba , Veracruz , Mexico — was laid down for the Ward Line by William Cramp & Sons Ship and Engine Building Company of Philadelphia and launched in February 1917 . In mid @-@ 1917 the United States Shipping Board ( USSB ) commandeered and received title to all private shipbuilding projects in progress , including the still @-@ incomplete Orizaba and her sister ship Siboney . Plans for both ships were modified for troop @-@ carrying duties . Upon Orizaba ’ s completion , the USSB delivered her to the US Navy for transport duty on 11 April 1918 , and she was commissioned as USS Orizaba on 27 May .
Assigned to the Atlantic Transport Service , Orizaba carried over 15 @,@ 000 troops in six convoy trips to France before the end of World War I. In one such voyage , Orizaba ’ s executive officer , ordnance expert William Price Williamson , worked closely with Commander Richard Drace White — Orizaba ’ s commanding officer , himself an ordnance expert — to develop a workable depth charge launcher which would provide the transport with a measure of protection from enemy submarines . Williamson set about modifying a Lyle gun into a depth charge launcher , and successfully tested it on 16 August 1918 . While attempting another test with an increased propellant charge the following day , a defective fuse exploded the depth charge prematurely , killing Williamson and three other sailors . White , four other officers , and twenty @-@ two enlisted men were also wounded in the blast .
Four days later on 21 August at 08 : 30 , Orizaba , traveling with Siboney , spotted a submarine in the act of submerging . Orizaba attempted to ram the sub and dropped depth charges , but there was no indication that the attack was successful .
In December 1918 , she was temporarily assigned to assist the French government in repatriating French , Belgian , and Italian prisoners of war . Detached from that duty on 10 January 1919 , she joined the Cruiser and Transport Force at Brest , and in nine voyages returned over 31 @,@ 700 troops to the United States . After the completion of transport duty service in the summer of 1919 , she decommissioned on 4 September and was turned over to the Army for further transport service as USAT Orizaba . The boat served in that capacity until returned to the Ward Line in 1920 .
According to the Statistical Department of the US Navy , Orizaba had the second @-@ shortest average in @-@ port turnaround time out of 37 US Navy transports used in World War I. The ship completed 15 round trips with an average turn @-@ around time of just over 30 days per trip , while the overall Navy average was 39 @.@ 8 days .
= = Post @-@ war civilian service = =
After both were reacquired by the Ward Line , Orizaba and Siboney were placed in transatlantic service on New York – Cuba – Spain routes in 1920 , with Orizaba calling at Corunna , Santander , and Bilbao in Spain . The two ships accommodated 306 first @-@ class , 60 second @-@ class , and 64 third @-@ class passengers , with each ship making several trips on the route , but a lack of passengers ( along with the grounding of Siboney at Vigo in September 1920 ) led to the abandonment of the route .
By October 1921 , Orizaba was placed in New York – Cuba – Mexico service , where business thrived , in part because of Prohibition in the United States . Ward Line cruises to Havana were one of the quickest and least expensive ways to what one author called " alcohol @-@ enriched vacations " . Three years later , the ship underwent a major refit that , among other things , lengthened her funnels . A typical voyage at this time sailed from New York and called at Nassau , Havana , Progreso , Veracruz and Tampico .
By the early 1930s , Orizaba ’ s typical route had remained virtually the same , though Nassau and Tampico were dropped as ports of call . It was in this period that American poet Hart Crane leapt to his death from Orizaba . At around noon on 27 April 1932 , while the ship was headed to New York — some 275 miles ( 443 km ) north of Havana and 10 miles ( 16 km ) off the Florida coast — Crane , clad in pajamas and overcoat , climbed the rail at the stern of the ship and plunged into the ocean . The captain of Orizaba immediately stopped the ship and launched four lifeboats that searched in vain for two hours , but no trace of the poet was ever found . Before he jumped , Crane had been drinking and , the night before , had been the victim of homophobic violence after a pick @-@ up attempt of a crewman ended with a severe beating .
In April 1934 , American actress Katharine Hepburn sailed from New York on Orizaba , eventually ending up in Mérida , Yucatán . After her arrival there on 22 April , she filed for divorce from businessman Ludlow ( " Luddy " ) Ogden Smith , whom she had married in December 1928 . After the divorce was finalized she and her travel companion , Laura Harding , planned to spend a week in Havana and return to New York on the Ward Line ship Morro Castle . Other notable passengers on Orizaba in the 1930s included Ecuadorean diplomat Gonzalo Zaldumbide and Cuban president Fulgencio Batista . Zaldumbide , the Ecuadorean Minister to the United States , sailed to Mexico for his new posting as Minister to Mexico in August 1932 . In February 1939 , Orizaba carried Cuban leader Fulgencio Batista back to Havana after a two @-@ week goodwill visit to Mexico .
Beginning in the mid @-@ 1930s , Orizaba often carried gold and silver bars from Veracruz to New York for the Federal Reserve Bank of New York , Chase National Bank , or for later transshipment to London . In October 1933 three short tons ( 2 @.@ 7 tonnes ) of gold bars and coins were shipped on Orizaba for eventual delivery to London , prompting some to believe that gold was being smuggled into Mexico to take advantage of its policy of not charging duties on gold . In July 1934 Orizaba brought in 16 cases of Mexican gold , and in January 1935 , 20 cases ; in both instances , for delivery to Chase National Bank . Twice in 1935 , the Ward liner delivered over 1 @,@ 000 bars of silver for the Federal Reserve Bank , bringing 1 @,@ 390 bars in March , and 1 @,@ 933 bars in July . Mexico was not the only place from which Orizaba delivered precious metals . In March 1934 , she delivered 12 cases of gold — consisting of 84 bars , and worth $ 1 @,@ 624 @,@ 000 — from Havana for Chase .
In mid @-@ 1939 , Orizaba was chartered to United States Lines as one of five ships added to increase what was perceived as a slow rate of return of US citizens fleeing war @-@ torn Europe . In September , the ship was diverted to Galway to pick up American survivors of SS Athenia , torpedoed by U @-@ 30 on 3 September ; Orizaba returned with 240 of the survivors later that month . After completing evacuation service , the ship was laid up in New York in the summer of 1940 , and subsequently purchased by the Maritime Commission on behalf of the Army on 27 February 1941 .
= = World War II = =
After her reacquisition by the War Department , Orizaba completed one round trip to the Panama Canal Zone . On her return she put in for a refit by the Bethlehem Steel Company at New York . After she was transferred to the Navy on 4 June 1941 , she was commissioned as Orizaba ( AP @-@ 24 ) on 15 June 1941 .
Following several months of coastal operations , Orizaba , now armed with two 5 @-@ inch ( 130 mm ) guns and four 3 @-@ inch ( 76 mm ) guns , departed New York in April 1942 on the first transatlantic run of her second world war . Sailing via Iceland , she steamed to England , Cape Town , Recife , and Norfolk , Virginia , from which she got underway for Bermuda and Puerto Rico . Returning to Norfolk in January 1943 , she plied the eastern seaboard for a month , then took up transatlantic duties again . Until July she traversed the ocean to Oran , Algeria , carrying troops over and prisoners of war back to New York .
On 5 July she left Oran in Task Force ( TF ) 81 . The next day , she rendezvoused with TF 85 and on 9 July stood off Gela , Sicily , disembarking troops into landing craft . On 11 July , she sustained slight damage in an enemy air attack and retired to Algeria with casualties and prisoners on board the next day . She returned to Sicily at the end of the month to discharge troops and cargo at Palermo and then , on the night of 1 August , weighed anchor and stood out for home .
Arriving at New York on 22 August 1943 , she underwent an overhaul , then took on runs to Brazil and the Caribbean . At the end of the year she left the east coast , passed through the Panama Canal , and sailed on to the Southwestern Pacific . After calls at Samoa , Nouméa , Brisbane , and Milne Bay , she returned to the west coast in March 1944 , only to leave again for another Central Pacific run . Back at San Francisco in June , she underwent repairs ; completed a run to the Marshalls and Marianas ; and then sailed north to the Aleutians . Completing her northern run at Seattle , Washington on 1 December , she carried men and supplies to Hawaii , then returned to San Francisco , later sailing to New Guinea , the Philippines , and Ulithi to add men and materiel to forces gathering for the Battle of Okinawa .
From Ulithi , Orizaba sailed east , passed through the Panama Canal again , and , as the battle for Okinawa raged , arrived at Tampa , Florida . Decommissioning on 23 April , she underwent an overhaul and on 16 July 1945 she was transferred to Brazil under the terms of Lend @-@ Lease . The ship was permanently transferred to Brazil in June 1953 and struck from the US Naval Vessel Register on 20 July of that same year . Orizaba received one battle star for her US Navy service in World War II . As of 2008 , no other US Navy ship has been named Orizaba .
= = Brazilian Navy service = =
Assuming control of the vessel at Tampa on 16 July 1945 , the Brazilian Navy renamed the veteran transport Duque de Caxias ( U @-@ 11 ) , the second ship of that navy named in honor of Luís Alves de Lima e Silva , Duke of Caxias , the patron of the Brazilian Army .
Duque de Caxias headed to Naples and on 28 August 1945 left there with elements of the returning Brazilian Expeditionary Force . The ship arrived at Rio de Janeiro for the first time on 17 September 1945 . The ship then loaded American military stores from US bases in Brazil and sailed for New York , arriving on 10 November 1945 , with plans to repatriate wounded Brazilian soldiers who had been recuperating in the US .
On 31 July 1947 , a day after sailing from Rio de Janeiro for Europe , oil spilled on the ship ’ s boilers , causing an engine @-@ room fire that quickly spread through the first class cabins and killed 27 . The ship was towed from its position off Cabo Frio into Rio de Janeiro on 1 August 1947 . The ship had been carrying 1 @,@ 060 passengers bound for Lisbon , Naples , and Marseille , along with 500 crew members , and had been scheduled to carry Italian refugees on its return voyage .
In 1953 , Duque de Caxias was converted into a training ship , and in August of that year began a European and Mediterranean training cruise , which included a 12 @-@ day visit to New York in March 1954 as part of its homeward leg . The ship visited the United States again in December 1955 , with midshipmen aboard touring the United States Naval Academy and honored at a cocktail by the Brazilian Ambassador , Joao Carlos Muniz , at the Brazilian Embassy in Washington , D.C. In October the following year , Duque de Caxias called at Philadelphia , and the new Brazilian Ambassador Ernani do Amaral Peixoto — also an Admiral in the Brazilian Navy — and his wife sponsored a tea dance in honor of Captain Antonio Andrade , other officers of the ship , and the midshipmen aboard the ship ; Peixoto had traveled to Philadelphia to greet Andrade , a former naval attaché at the embassy . The ship was decommissioned 13 April 1959 , and finally scrapped in 1963 .
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= Toothcomb =
A toothcomb ( also tooth comb or dental comb ) is a dental structure found in some mammals , comprising a group of front teeth arranged in a manner that facilitates grooming , similar to a hair comb . The toothcomb occurs in lemuriform primates ( which includes lemurs and lorisoids ) , treeshrews , colugos , hyraxes , and some African antelopes . The structures evolved independently in different types of mammals through convergent evolution and vary both in dental composition and structure . In most mammals the comb is formed by a group of teeth with fine spaces between them . The toothcombs in most mammals include incisors only , while in lemuriform primates they include incisors and canine teeth that tilt forward at the front of the lower jaw , followed by a canine @-@ shaped first premolar . The toothcombs of colugos and hyraxes take a different form with the individual incisors being serrated , providing multiple tines per tooth .
The toothcomb is usually used for grooming . While licking the fur clean , the animal will run the toothcomb through the fur to comb it . Fine grooves or striations are usually cut into the teeth during grooming by the hair and may be seen on the sides of the teeth when viewed through a scanning electron microscope . The toothcomb is kept clean by either the tongue or , in the case of lemuriforms , the sublingua , a specialized " under @-@ tongue " . The toothcomb can have other functions , such as food procurement and bark gouging . Within lemuriforms , fork @-@ marked lemurs and indriids have more robust toothcombs to support these secondary functions . In some lemurs , such as the aye @-@ aye , the toothcomb has been lost completely and replaced with other specialized dentition .
In lemuriform primates , the toothcomb has been used by scientists in the interpretation of the evolution of lemurs and their kin . They are thought to have evolved from early adapiform primates around the Eocene or earlier . One popular hypothesis is that they evolved from European adapids , but the fossil record suggests that they evolved from an older lineage that migrated to Africa during the Paleocene ( 66 to 55 mya ) and might have evolved from early cercamoniines from Asia . Fossil primates such as Djebelemur , ' Anchomomys ' milleri , and Plesiopithecus may have been their closest relatives . The lack of a distinct toothcomb in the fossil record prior to 40 mya has created a conflict with molecular clock studies that suggest an older divergence between lemurs and lorisoids , and the existence of a ghost lineage of lemuriform primates in Africa .
= = Homologous and analogous structures = =
The toothcomb , a special morphological arrangement of teeth in the anterior lower jaw , is best known in extant strepsirrhine primates , which include lemurs and lorisoid primates ( collectively known as lemuriforms ) . This homologous structure is a diagnostic character that helps define this clade ( related group ) of primates . An analogous trait is found in the bald uakari ( Cacajao calvus ) , a type of New World monkey .
Toothcombs can also be found in colugos and treeshrews , both close relatives of primates ; however , the structures are different and these are considered to examples of convergent evolution . Likewise , small- or medium @-@ sized African antelopes , such as the impala ( Aepyceros melampus ) , have a similar structure sometimes referred to as the " lateral dental grooming apparatus " . Living and extinct hyraxes ( hyracoids ) also exhibit a toothcomb , although the number of tines in the comb vary throughout the fossil record .
Dating to the Eocene epoch over 50 mya , Chriacus and Thryptacodon — two types of arctocyonids ( primitive placental mammals ) — also possessed an independently evolved toothcomb .
= = Anatomical structure = =
The toothcomb of most lemuriforms includes six finely spaced teeth , four incisors and two canine teeth that are procumbent ( tilt forward ) in the front of the mouth . The procumbent lower canine teeth are the same shape as the incisors located between them , but they are more robust and curve upward and inward , more so than the incisors . In the permanent dentition , the canines erupt after the incisors . The crowns of the incisors are also angled in the direction of the forward tilt , and the crowns of both the incisors and canines are elongated and compressed side @-@ to @-@ side . The apical ridge , following along the front edges of the toothcomb teeth , is V @-@ shaped in most lemuriforms , tapering off from the midline . As a result of this dental reconfiguration , the upper and lower incisors do not contact one another , and often the upper incisors are reduced or lost completely .
The French anatomist Henri Marie Ducrotay de Blainville first identified the two lateral teeth of the lemuriform toothcomb as canines in 1840 . Canine teeth are normally used to pierce or grasp objects . With modified lower canine teeth , the first lower premolars following the toothcomb are usually shaped like typical canine teeth ( caniniform ) and assume their function . These premolars are commonly confused with canines . Normally the true canines in the lower jaw sit in front of the upper canines , and in toothcombed primates , the caniniform premolars rest behind it .
The lemuriform toothcomb is kept clean by the sublingua or " under @-@ tongue " , a specialized muscular structure that acts like a toothbrush to remove hair and other debris . The sublingua can extend below the end of the tongue and is tipped with keratinized , serrated points that rake between the front teeth .
Among lemurs , the toothcomb is variable in structure . Among indriids ( Indriidae ) , the toothcomb is less procumbent and consists of four teeth instead of six . The indriid toothcomb is more robust and wider , with shorter incisors , wider spaces between the teeth ( interdental spaces ) , and a broader apical ridge . It is unclear whether this four @-@ toothed toothcomb consists of two pairs of incisors or one pair of incisors and one pair of canines . In fork @-@ marked lemurs ( Phaner ) the toothcomb is more compressed , with significantly reduced interdental spaces . All six teeth are longer , straighter , and form a more continuous apical ridge . In the recently extinct monkey lemurs ( Archaeolemuridae ) and sloth lemurs ( Palaeopropithecidae ) , the toothcomb was lost and the incisors and canines resumed a typical configuration in the front of the mouth . The aye @-@ aye also lost its toothcomb , replacing it with continually growing ( hypselodont ) front teeth , similar to the incisors of rodents .
In colugos , the toothcomb has a completely different structure . Instead of individual incisors and canine teeth being finely spaced to act like the teeth of a comb , the biting edge of the four incisors have become serrated with as many as 15 tines each , while the canine acts more like a molar . These serrated incisors are kept clean using the front of the tongue , which is serrated to match the serrations of the incisors . Similarly , the hyracoid toothcomb consists of incisors with multiple tines , called " pectinations " . In contrast to the colugos , the size and shape of the tines are more uniform .
The toothcomb of treeshrews is like the lemuriform toothcomb in that it uses interdental spaces to form the comb tines , but only two of its three pairs of lower incisors are included in the toothcomb and the canines are also excluded . The lateral two incisors in the toothcomb are generally larger . In the extinct arctocyonids , all six lower incisors were part of the toothcomb . In African antelopes , the toothcomb is strikingly similar to that of lemuriforms in that it consists of two pairs of incisors and a pair of canines .
= = Functions = =
As a homologous structure in lemuriforms , the toothcomb serves variable biological roles , despite its superficially stereotypic shape and appearance . It is primarily used as a toiletry device or grooming comb . Additionally , some species use their toothcomb for food procurement or to gouge tree bark .
= = = Grooming = = =
The primary function of the toothcomb , grooming , was first noted by the French naturalist Georges Cuvier in 1829 , who pointed out that the ring @-@ tailed lemur ( Lemur catta ) had lower incisors that " sont de véritables peignes " ( " are real combs " ) . More than 100 years later , the grooming function was questioned since it was difficult to observe and the interdental spaces were thought to be too small for fur . Observations later showed the teeth were used for that purpose and that immediately after grooming , hair may be found trapped in the teeth , but is removed by the sublingua later .
In 1981 , scanning electron microscopy revealed fine grooves or striations on the teeth in lemuriform toothcombs . These grooves were only found on the sides of the teeth on the concave surfaces between the sides , as well on the back ridge of the teeth . Between 10 and 20 µm wide , these grooves indicate that hair moved repeatedly across the teeth . Inside these grooves were even finer grooves , less than 1 µm , created by abrasion with the cuticular layer of the hair .
Among non @-@ primates , the extinct Chriacus exhibits microscopic groves on its toothcomb , but the Philippine colugo ( Cynocephalus volans ) does not . The toothcomb of the colugos is generally considered to function as a toothcomb , but due to the lack of striations on the teeth and no documented observations of toothcomb use during oral grooming , its use seems to be limited to food procurement .
In African antelopes , the lateral dental grooming apparatus does not appear to be used during grazing or browsing . Instead , it is used during grooming when the head sweeps upward in a distinctive motion . It is thought to comb the fur and remove ectoparasites .
= = = Olfaction in lemuriforms = = =
In lemuriform primates , the toothcomb may also play a secondary role in olfaction , which may account for the size reduction of the poorly studied upper incisors . The toothcomb may provide pressure to stimulate glandular secretions which are then spread through the fur . Furthermore , the size reduction of the upper incisors may create a gap between the teeth ( interincisal diastema ) that connects the philtrum ( a cleft in the middle of the wet nose , or rhinarium ) to the vomeronasal organ in the roof of the mouth . This would allow pheromones to be more easily transferred to the vomeronasal organ .
= = = Food procurement and other uses = = =
Mouse lemurs ( Microcebus ) , sifakas ( Propithecus ) , and the indri ( Indri ) use their toothcombs to scoop up fruit pulp . Other small lemuriforms , such as fork @-@ marked lemurs ( Phaner ) , the hairy @-@ eared dwarf lemur ( Allocebus ) , and galagos ( particularly the genera Galago and Euoticus ) use their toothcombs to tooth @-@ scrape plant exudates , such as gum and sap . In fork @-@ marked lemurs , the toothcomb is specially adapted to minimize food trapment since the interdental spaces are greatly reduced . The herbivorous colugos in the genus Cynocephalus may also use their toothcomb for food procurement .
Indriids such as the sifakas use their toothcombs to gouge bark or dead wood ( bark @-@ prising ) , which is done prior to scent @-@ marking with the gland on their chest . The more robust structure of their toothcomb is thought to help it withstand the compressive forces experienced during regular bark @-@ prising .
= = Evolution in lemuriforms = =
The origins of the lemuriform toothcomb and the clade it characterizes have been the center of considerable debate for more than a century . In 1920 , British palaeoanthropologist Wilfrid Le Gros Clark proposed that the toothcomb found in treeshrews ( which he believed were primates ) was an early version of the dental structure found in lemuriforms . Because he viewed the fossil lorisoids from the Miocene as not having fully developed the modern lemuriform toothcomb , he implied that lemurs and lorisoids had evolved the trait independently . This view was later overturned , and the monophyletic relationship between lemurs and lorisoids is now accepted .
The ancestral condition of the anterior dentition on the lower jaw , based on Eocene primate fossils , suggests that earliest primates had lacked a differentiated toothcomb . Most fossil strepsirrhines lacked the stereotypic lemuriform toothcomb . Collectively , early strepsirrhine primates are known as adapiforms . Adapiforms are considered to be a paraphyletic group ( containing many but not all of the descendants of the last common ancestor of the group 's members ) because the lemuriforms are assumed to have evolved from one of several groups of adapiforms . In terms of ecology , the evolution of the toothcomb is assumed to have required a folivorous ( leaf @-@ eating ) diet among the ancestral adapiform population , since that would select for reduced incisors , which would serve as an exaptation ( a trait with adaptive value for something other than what it was originally selected for ) , which could then be used for personal or social grooming . However , the inclusion of the canines into the toothcomb must have required exceptional conditions , since large lemuriforms have secondarily modified caniniform premolars to substitute for the loss .
A popular hypothesis about the origins of the lemuriform clade is that they evolved from European adapiforms known as adapids . In some adapids , the crests of the lower incisors and canines align to form functional cropping unit , and the American paleontologist Philip D. Gingerich has suggested this foreshadowed the development of the lemuriform toothcomb . However , no lemuriform toothcomb has been found in the fossil record of the Eocene , and the European adapid lower jaws from that time did not resemble the derived state seen in lemuriforms .
Lemuriforms are currently thought to have evolved in Africa , and the earliest known strepsirrhine primates from Africa are azibiids from the early Eocene , which likely descended from a very early colonization of the Afro @-@ Arabian land mass in the Paleocene ( 66 to 55 mya ) . Stem lemuriforms , including Djebelemur and ' Anchomomys ' milleri , have been found in Africa and date from 50 to 48 mya and were very distinct from European adapiforms . However , they lack a toothcomb . These stem lemuriforms suggest an early common ancestry with cercamoniines from outside of Europe . Based on large , procumbent lower teeth , Plesiopithecus , a fossil primate found in late Eocene deposits at the Fayum Depression in Egypt , is thought to be most closely related to lemuriforms . Together , Djebelemur , ‘ Anchomomys ’ milleri , and Plesiopithecus are considered to be sister taxa ( the closest relatives ) of lemuriform primates .
= = = Dating inconsistencies = = =
Although stem lemuriforms like Djebelemur may have been contemporaneous with related toothcombed primates around 50 to 48 mya , the sparse African fossil record suggests toothcomb differentiation occurred around 52 to 40 mya according to the French paleoanthropologist Marc Godinot . This would conflict with the molecular clock estimates by evolutionary anthropologist Anne Yoder and others , which predict lemur – lorisoid divergence dating between 61 and 90 @.@ 8 mya .
In 2001 , the discovery of Bugtilemur , a fossil primate from Pakistan dating to the Oligocene and initially thought to be a cheirogaleid lemur , further challenged the theory of lemur origins ; however , it was later shown to be a type of adapiform primate and not a lemur .
The minimum paleontological estimate for the divergence of lemurs and lorisoids nearly doubled when additional discoveries were made in northern Egypt during the 2000s of a stem galagid ( Saharagalago ) and a stem or crown lorisoid ( Karanisia ) dating to 37 and 40 mya respectively . Karanisia is the oldest fossil primate to exhibit a distinct lemuriform toothcomb . This , as well as studies of other African adapiforms like ‘ Anchomomys ’ milleri , suggests a more ancient ghost lineage for lemuriforms in Africa .
= = = Original function of the lemuriform toothcomb = = =
The selective pressure that shaped the original lemuriform toothcomb has been a topic of considerable debate since the 1970s . Evidence can be seen as supporting a grooming function , food procurement function , or both . In the early 1900s , there was less debate . Grooming was seen as the primary function since primates lack the claws needed to adequately comb the fur , although prosimian primates ( strepsirrhines and tarsiers ) possess at least one grooming claw on each foot to compensate . Grooming — in the form of fur @-@ combing — is generally considered the primary function and original role of the lemuriform toothcomb , and subsequent changes in morphology across multiple lineages have altered its function and obscured its original function .
The hypothesis that the toothcomb evolved for food procurement was based on observations of recent lemuriform taxa , such as cheirogaleid lemurs ( particularly fork @-@ marked lemurs and the hairy @-@ eared dwarf lemur ) and galagos , which demonstrate tooth @-@ scraping of plant exudates , as well as sifakas , which practice bark @-@ prising . Each of these were considered " primitive " forms among the living strepsirrhines , suggesting the first lemuriforms exhibited similar behaviors . Also , strong selective pressure from feeding ecology placed on the anterior dentition was emphasized , based on the specialized upper anterior dentition seen in the recently extinct koala lemurs ( Megaladapis ) . If feeding ecology could have such profound effects on the shape of the anterior dentition , then convergent evolution might explain the similarities seen between the compressed lower incisors of the lemuriform toothcomb and the exudate feeding adaptations in the genus Callithrix ( a type of marmoset ) .
In contrast , the grooming hypothesis emphasized that all lemuriforms use their toothcombs for grooming , and long , thin teeth are poorly suited for the mechanical stress of gouging and exudate feeding . Also the interdental spaces seen in most lemuriforms favor fur combing and would also promote bacterial growth and tooth decay if used for exudate feeding . Supporting this , reduced interdental spacing is found in exudate feeding lemuriforms . Furthermore , the canine included in the toothcomb provides additional interdental spacing for fur combing . Even the behavior of young lemuriforms suggests that grooming plays a more important role in the use of the toothcomb than food procurement .
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= Mike Vernon ( ice hockey ) =
Michael " Mike " Vernon ( born February 24 , 1963 ) is a Canadian former professional ice hockey goaltender . He played 19 seasons in the National Hockey League ( NHL ) for the Calgary Flames , Detroit Red Wings , San Jose Sharks and Florida Panthers . He is a two @-@ time Stanley Cup champion , with the Flames in 1989 and the Red Wings in 1997 . He appeared in five NHL All @-@ Star games , was named a second team All @-@ Star in 1989 , shared the William M. Jennings Trophy in 1996 and was named the winner of the Conn Smythe Trophy as most valuable player of the playoffs in 1997 . Vernon won over 300 games in his NHL career .
Vernon was a standout goaltender in junior for the Calgary Wranglers of the Western Hockey League ( WHL ) . He was named both goaltender of the year and most valuable player in 1982 and 1983 . He was loaned to the Portland Winterhawks for the 1983 Memorial Cup and was named the top goaltender of the tournament in leading Portland to the championship .
Selected by the Flames in the second round , 56th overall in the 1981 NHL Entry Draft , Vernon began his professional career in 1982 and ended it 20 years later , also in Calgary . The Flames retired his number 30 in 2007 and he was inducted into the Alberta Sports Hall of Fame in 2010 . Vernon represented Canada internationally on two occasions , winning a bronze medal at the 1983 World Junior Championship and silver at the 1991 World Championship .
= = Playing career = =
= = = Junior = = =
A native of Calgary , Vernon played his junior hockey in his hometown . First for the Calgary Canucks of the Alberta Junior Hockey League in 1979 – 80 , and then the Calgary Wranglers of the Western Hockey League ( WHL ) . He appeared in 59 games in his first WHL season , 1980 – 81 , posting a 33 – 17 – 1 record before leading the team to the WHL finals where the Wranglers lost the best @-@ of @-@ seven championship to the Victoria Cougars , 4 games to 3 . He attracted the attention of the Calgary Flames , who selected him with their third round pick , 56th overall , at the 1981 NHL Entry Draft .
Vernon returned to the Wranglers for the 1981 – 82 season where he posted a 22 – 14 – 3 record with three shutouts . He was named a WHL all @-@ star at goal , and was the recipient of the Del Wilson Trophy as top goaltender and named WHL most valuable player . Though the Wranglers were eliminated in the playoffs , junior rules of the time allowed the league champion to add an extra goaltender on loan for the Memorial Cup tournament . Vernon accepted an invitation to join the Portland Winter Hawks for the 1982 tournament where the team finished fourth in the four team event . Vernon made his professional debut following the tournament , appearing in one playoff game for the Central Hockey League 's Oklahoma City Stars .
He spent a third season with the Wranglers in 1982 – 83 , however injuries during the season to Reggie Lemelin and Don Edwards forced the Flames to recall him to the NHL . Vernon made his NHL debut on December 12 , 1982 , against the Detroit Red Wings . A poor effort by the Flames resulted in Vernon surrendering six goals in the first two periods before being pulled in a 7 – 3 loss . Vernon appeared in one additional game , also a loss , before returning to the WHL where he repeated as the league 's top goaltender and most valuable player . Vernon also played with the Canadian team at the 1982 World Junior Championship , winning two games in three appearances and helping Canada win the bronze medal .
Vernon again joined the Winter Hawks , for the 1983 Memorial Cup , but not without controversy . The WHL champion Lethbridge Broncos first requested he join their team for the tournament , but he was unwilling to play under the team 's coach and refused . The Broncos were upset by Vernon 's refusal , calling it " garbage " that he was allowed to join the rival Winter Hawks , who were hosting the tournament , after turning them down . Winning all three games he started , Vernon led Portland to the championship . He was named recipient of the Hap Emms Memorial Trophy as the most valuable goaltender of the tournament while the Winter Hawks became the first American team to win the Memorial Cup .
= = = Calgary Flames = = =
Turning professional in 1982 – 83 , Vernon spent most of the season with the CHL 's Colorado Flames where he was named to the league 's second all @-@ star team after posting a 30 – 13 – 2 record in 46 games . He returned to the Flames in 1983 @-@ 84 but had a loss so he returned to the CHL . Considered at that point to be Calgary 's goaltender of the future , he moved up to the Moncton Golden Flames of the American Hockey League ( AHL ) for 1984 – 85 . The season was a disappointment for Vernon as he struggled throughout the year . He won only 10 of 41 starts and posted a goals against average ( GAA ) of 3 @.@ 94 . Vernon began the 1985 – 86 season as the fourth goaltender on the Flames ' depth chart behind Lemelin , Marc D 'Amour and Rick Kosti . He split the first half of the season between Moncton in the AHL and the Salt Lake Golden Eagles of the International Hockey League ( IHL ) .
In the midst of what was ultimately a franchise record losing streak , wishing to rest Lemelin and facing a minor injury to backup Marc D 'Amour , the Flames brought Vernon up to play an exhibition game against Soviet club Dynamo Moscow during the 1986 Super Series . Vernon was outstanding in goal , leading the Flames to a 4 – 3 victory . Following a 9 – 1 loss to the Hartford Whalers that was Calgary 's 11th consecutive defeat , Vernon was given his first regular season start on January 9 , 1986 , against the Vancouver Canucks . He led the team to a 5 – 4 overtime victory to end the streak . It was also Vernon 's first NHL win . He recorded his first career shutout , also against Vancouver , on February 26 in a 4 – 0 win during a stretch where Vernon went two months without losing in which he started .
Three of Vernon 's nine regular season wins came against the Winnipeg Jets , Calgary 's first round opponent in the 1986 Stanley Cup Playoffs . Though he had only 21 @-@ games of NHL experience , Vernon was named the starter for the series . He led the Flames to a three @-@ game sweep of Winnipeg , followed by seven @-@ game series victories over the Oilers and St. Louis Blues to lead the Flames into the Stanley Cup Final where the Flames ultimately fell to the Montreal Canadiens and their rookie goaltender Patrick Roy in five games .
Vernon solidified his position as the Flames ' starting goaltender in 1986 – 87 , finishing third in the NHL with 30 wins . His 39 wins the following season was second in the league , one behind Grant Fuhr . He played in the 1988 All @-@ Star Game , his first of four consecutive appearances in the event , and helped the Flames win the Presidents Trophy as the top team in the regular season . The Flames were upset by the Oilers in the playoffs , however .
The 1988 – 89 season was one of Vernon 's finest . He led all NHL goaltenders in wins with 37 and was second with a 2 @.@ 65 GAA . He was named to the second All @-@ Star Team and helped Calgary post the best record in the League . He finished second to Roy in voting for the Vezina Trophy as the league 's top goaltender . The Flames entered the 1989 playoffs as heavy favourites to defeat Vancouver in the opening round , but the Canucks forced Calgary to a seventh and deciding game in the series . The game went to overtime , during which Vernon was forced to make a spectacular glove save on a Stan Smyl breakaway . That save came to be a defining moment of Vernon 's career , and was later called " the save that won the Cup " . The Flames defeated Vancouver when Joel Otto scored the winner , then went on to defeat the Los Angeles Kings , Chicago Blackhawks and Montreal Canadiens to win Calgary 's first Stanley Cup championship .
Vernon remained among the NHL leaders in wins the following seasons , finishing 6th in 1989 – 90 with 23 and 2nd in 1990 – 91 with 31 . He was voted to the starting lineup for both the 1990 and 1991 All @-@ Star Games via fan balloting . He served as the backup goaltender for Team Canada at the 1991 World Championship , and though he lost both games he appeared in , Vernon and the Canadians won the silver medal . Despite his success with the Flames , Vernon was often criticized for letting in weak goals , and was routinely booed by the fans in Calgary when he did so . Some fans chose to direct insults towards his family in the stands , causing his parents to stop attending games . Discussing his relationship with Flames fans later in his career , Vernon remarked : " You 've got to have a pretty thick skin to play goal . Fans at hockey games get very emotional . They 're very passionate . They don 't enjoy watching their team give up goals . "
He also battled through recurring back problems that occasionally forced him out of the lineup . Playing through it all , Vernon became the 38th goaltender in league history to win 200 games , reaching the milestone on November 14 , 1992 , against the Tampa Bay Lightning . He played in his fifth All @-@ Star Game in 1992 – 93 , and was named to play his sixth the following season but had to withdraw due to a knee injury . After nearly ten seasons with Vernon as Calgary 's starting goaltender , the Flames felt it was time to hand the starting goaltender duties to Trevor Kidd . On June 29 , 1994 , they traded Vernon to the Detroit Red Wings in exchange for defenceman Steve Chiasson . The Red Wings had been pursuing a deal for Vernon since the previous season .
= = = Detroit , San Jose and Florida = = =
Detroit anticipated that the veteran Vernon would help develop their young goaltender Chris Osgood . As Detroit 's top goaltender in 1994 – 95 , Vernon posted a 19 – 6 – 4 record and helped the Red Wings win the Presidents Trophy as the top regular season team . The Red Wings reached the 1995 Stanley Cup Final – their first appearance in the championship series since 1966 – but were swept in four games by the New Jersey Devils . Vernon and the Red Wings struggled to agree on a new contract following the season . Their dispute went to arbitration after Vernon and his agent accepted an offer of a two @-@ year , US $ 5 @.@ 45 million contract that the team claimed to have withdrawn . The arbitrator sided with the Red Wings , making Vernon an unrestricted free agent . The two sides ultimately agreed on a two @-@ year contract , of which the financial terms were not released .
While Osgood began to establish his position as the Red Wings ' starter in 1995 – 96 , Vernon won 21 games against only 7 regulation losses as the Red Wings set an NHL record with 62 victories in the regular season . Vernon and Osgood shared the William M. Jennings Trophy as the goaltending duo on the team with the fewest goals against . Vernon was the backup goaltender to Osgood during the 1996 – 97 season , but became the 13th player in NHL history to win 300 games . He reached the milestone on March 26 , 1997 , against the Colorado Avalanche in a game in which he also fought Colorado goaltender Patrick Roy .
Head coach Scotty Bowman turned to the veteran Vernon as the team 's starter in the 1997 Stanley Cup Playoffs after Osgood struggled late in the regular season . He recorded a 16 – 4 record with a 1.76GAA in the post @-@ season , and was named the Conn Smythe Trophy winner as the most valuable player of the playoffs as Detroit won its first Stanley Cup championship in 42 years . Placed in a position where the Red Wings had to trade a goaltender due to the waiver draft , Detroit chose to trade Vernon to the San Jose Sharks in exchange for two draft picks on August 18 , 1997 .
Vernon played two full seasons with the Sharks , winning 30 games in 1997 – 98 and leading the team to the post @-@ season in both 1998 and 1999 . However , he was supplanted by Steve Shields as the Sharks 's top goaltender early in the 1999 – 2000 season and on December 30 , 1999 , was traded to the Florida Panthers along with a draft pick in exchange for Radek Dvorak . Vernon appeared in 34 games with the Panthers , winning 18 , and led them to the playoffs for the first time in three seasons . Following the season , he was claimed by the Minnesota Wild in the 2000 NHL Expansion Draft on June 23 , 2000 , but was immediately traded to the Calgary Flames in exchange for Dan Cavanaugh and an eighth round selection in the 2000 NHL Entry Draft .
= = = Return to Calgary = = =
Returning to the franchise he began his career with , the 37 @-@ year @-@ old Vernon was expected to split goaltending duties with Fred Brathwaite . He played in 41 games in 2000 – 01 , winning 12 games , losing 23 and posting a 3 @.@ 23 GAA . He appeared in 18 games in 2001 – 02 , and though his GAA improved to 2 @.@ 76 , he won only two . Vernon left the game following the season , announcing his retirement on September 13 , 2002 . Vernon retired seventh all time in regular season wins with 385 , fourth among goalies in playoff appearances at 138 and fifth in playoff wins with 77 . He played in four Stanley Cup finals , winning two championships .
He held virtually every Flames franchise goaltending record upon his retirement . His regular season records : games played ( 526 ) , wins ( 262 ) and minutes played ( 29 @,@ 650 ) have all subsequently been broken by Miikka Kiprusoff , but he remains the team leader in playoff games played ( 81 ) and wins ( 43 ) . The Flames honoured Vernon on February 6 , 2007 , retiring his # 30 jersey . He was the second player in franchise history , after Lanny McDonald to have his number retired . He was inducted into the Alberta Sports Hall of Fame in 2010 . Vernon returned to the ice 2011 to play in the alumni game at the Heritage Classic outdoor game .
Hockey Hall of Fame goaltender Glenn Hall considered Vernon one of the best goaltenders of his era : " I always thought Grant Fuhr was the best goalie of his time . But I always thought Vernie was very close . " Vernon said that playing against the likes of Fuhr and Roy led him to improve at his position . He was a stand @-@ up goaltender early in his career , but learned to adopt aspects of the butterfly style after watching them play . Standing only 5 feet 9 inches ( 1 @.@ 75 m ) tall , he relied on speed and reflexes to be a successful goaltender in the NHL .
= = Personal life = =
Vernon was born February 24 , 1963 , in Calgary . His father Martin worked in construction and was president of the South Calgary community hockey organization where young Mike played his youth hockey . Vernon attended Central Memorial High School and Henry Wise Wood Senior High School . He was always a goaltender , often joining his father for practices by the age of 4 and always focusing on the goaltenders . He considered his mother , Lorraine , his first coach and claimed his introduction to goaltending came from his family : " I had three brothers and when it came time to play hockey , they always said the same thing : ' Get Mikey , he ’ ll play net . ' "
Vernon and his wife Jane were married three days after his 1994 trade to Detroit . The couple have four children . Daughter Amelia and three sons : Matthew , John and William . The couple live in Calgary , but maintain a home in Invermere , British Columbia . Following his hockey career , Vernon has become involved in Real estate development in the Windermere region near Invermere . He was also an investor in the Bear Mountain resort near Victoria , British Columbia .
= = Career statistics = =
= = = Regular season and playoffs = = =
= = = International = = =
= = Awards and honours = =
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= Early Netherlandish painting =
Early Netherlandish painting refers to the work of artists , sometimes known as the Flemish Primitives , active in the Burgundian and Habsburg Netherlands during the 15th- and 16th @-@ century Northern Renaissance ; especially in the flourishing cities of Bruges , Ghent , Tournai and Brussels . Their work follows the International Gothic style and begins approximately with Robert Campin and Jan van Eyck in the early 1420s . It lasts at least until the death of Gerard David in 1523 , although many scholars extend it to the start of the Dutch Revolt in 1566 or 1568 ( Max J. Friedländer 's acclaimed surveys run through Pieter Bruegel the Elder ) . Early Netherlandish painting coincides with the Early and High Italian Renaissance but is seen as an independent artistic culture , separate from the Renaissance humanism that characterised developments in Italy . Because these painters represent the culmination of the northern European medieval artistic heritage and the incorporation of Renaissance ideals , they are sometimes categorised as belonging to both the Early Renaissance and Late Gothic .
The major Netherlandish painters include Campin , van Eyck , Rogier van der Weyden , Dieric Bouts , Petrus Christus , Hans Memling , Hugo van der Goes and Hieronymus Bosch . These artists made significant advances in natural representation and illusionism , and their work typically features complex iconography . Their subjects are usually religious scenes or small portraits , with narrative painting or mythological subjects being relatively rare . Landscape is often richly described but relegated as a background detail before the early 16th century . The painted works are generally oil on panel , either as single works or more complex portable or fixed altarpieces in the form of diptychs , triptychs or polyptychs . The period is also noted for its sculpture , tapestries , illuminated manuscripts , stained glass and carved retables .
The first generations of artists were active during the height of Burgundian influence in Europe , when the Low Countries became the political and economic centre of Northern Europe , noted for its crafts and luxury goods . Assisted by the workshop system , panels and a variety of crafts were sold to foreign princes or merchants through private engagement or market stalls . A majority were destroyed during waves of iconoclasm in the 16th and 17th centuries ; today only a few thousand examples survive . Early northern art in general was not well regarded from the early 17th to the mid @-@ 19th century and the painters and their works were not well documented until the mid @-@ 19th century . Art historians spent almost another century determining attributions , studying iconography , and establishing bare outlines of even the major artists ' lives . Attribution of some of the most significant works is still debated .
Scholarship of Early Netherlandish painting was one of the main activities of 19th and 20th @-@ century art history , and was a major focus of two of the most important art historians of the 20th century : Max J. Friedländer ( From Van Eyck to Breugel and Early Netherlandish Painting ) and Erwin Panofsky ( Early Netherlandish Painting ) .
= = Terminology and scope = =
The term " Early Netherlandish art " applies broadly to painters active during the 15th and 16th centuries in the northern European areas controlled by the Dukes of Burgundy and later the Habsburg dynasty . These artists became an early driving force behind the Northern Renaissance and the move away from the Gothic style . In this political and art @-@ historical context , the north follows the Burgundian lands which straddled areas that encompass parts of modern France , Germany , Belgium and the Netherlands .
The Netherlandish artists have been known by a variety of terms . " Late Gothic " is an early designation which emphasises continuity with the art of the Middle Ages . In the early 20th century the artists were variously referred to in English as the " Ghent @-@ Bruges school " or the " Old Netherlandish school " . " Flemish Primitives " is a traditional art @-@ historical term borrowed from the French that became popular after 1902 and remains in use today , especially in Dutch and German . In this context , " primitive " does not refer to a perceived lack of sophistication , but rather identifies the artists as originators of a new tradition in painting . Erwin Panofsky preferred the term ars nova ( " new art " ) , which linked the movement with innovative composers of music such as Guillaume Dufay and Gilles Binchois , who were favoured by the Burgundian court over artists attached to the lavish French court . When the Burgundian dukes established centres of power in the Netherlands , they brought with them a more cosmopolitan outlook . According to Otto Pächt a simultaneous shift in art began sometime between 1406 and 1420 when a " revolution took place in painting " ; a " new beauty " in art emerged , one that depicted the visible rather than the metaphysical world .
In the 19th century the Early Netherlandish artists were classified by nationality , with Jan van Eyck identified as German and van der Weyden ( born Roger de la Pasture ) as French . Scholars were at times preoccupied as to whether the school 's genesis was in France or Germany . These arguments and distinctions dissipated after World War I , and following the leads of Friedländer , Panofsky , and Pächt , English @-@ language scholars now almost universally describe the period as " Early Netherlandish painting " , although many art historians view the Flemish term as more correct .
In the 14th century , as Gothic art gave way to the International Gothic era , a number of schools developed in northern Europe . Early Netherlandish art originated in French courtly art , and is especially tied to the tradition and conventions of illuminated manuscripts . Modern art historians see the era as beginning with 14th @-@ century manuscript illuminators . They were followed by panel painters such as Melchior Broederlam and Robert Campin , the latter generally considered the first Early Netherlandish master , under whom van der Weyden served his apprenticeship . Illumination reached a peak in the region in the decades after 1400 , mainly due to the patronage of Burgundian and House of Valois @-@ Anjou dukes such as Philip the Bold , Louis I of Anjou and Jean , Duke of Berry . This patronage continued in the low countries with the Burgundian dukes , Philip the Good and his son Charles the Bold . The demand for illuminated manuscripts declined towards the end of the century , perhaps because of the costly production process in comparison to panel painting . Yet illumination remained popular at the luxury end of the market , and prints , both engravings and woodcuts , found a new mass market , especially those by artists such as Martin Schongauer and Albrecht Dürer .
Following van Eyck 's innovations , the first generation of Netherlandish painters emphasised light and shadow , elements usually absent from 14th @-@ century illuminated manuscripts . Biblical scenes were depicted with more naturalism , which made their content more accessible to viewers , while individual portraits became more evocative and alive . Johan Huizinga said that art of the era was meant to be fully integrated with daily routine , to " fill with beauty " the devotional life in a world closely tied to the liturgy and sacraments . After about 1500 a number of factors turned against the pervasive Northern style , not least the rise of Italian art , whose commercial appeal began to rival Netherlandish art by 1510 , and overtook it some ten years later . Two events symbolically and historically reflect this shift : the transporting of a marble Madonna and Child by Michelangelo to Bruges in 1506 , and the arrival of Raphael 's tapestry cartoons to Brussels in 1517 , which were widely seen while in the city . Although the influence of Italian art was soon widespread across the north , it in turn had drawn on the 15th @-@ century northern painters , with Michelangelo 's Madonna based on a type developed by Hans Memling .
Netherlandish painting ends in the narrowest sense with the death of Gerard David in 1523 . A number of mid- and late @-@ 16th @-@ century artists maintained many of the conventions , and they are frequently but not always associated with the school . The style of these painters is often dramatically at odds with that of the first generation of artists . In the early 16th century artists began to explore illusionistic depictions of three dimensions . The painting of the early @-@ 16th century can be seen as leading directly from the artistic innovations and iconography of the previous century , with some painters , following the traditional and established formats and symbolism of the previous century , continuing to produce copies of previously painted works . Others came under the influence of Renaissance humanism , turning towards secular narrative cycles , as biblical imagery was blended with mythological themes . A full break from the mid @-@ 15th @-@ century style and subject matter was not seen until the development of Northern Mannerism around 1590 . There was considerable overlap , and the early- to mid @-@ 16th @-@ century innovations can be tied to the Mannerist style , including naturalistic secular portraiture , the depiction of ordinary ( as opposed to courtly ) life , and the development of elaborate landscapes and cityscapes that were more than background views .
= = Chronology = =
The origins of the Early Netherlandish school lie in the miniature paintings of the late Gothic period . This was first seen in manuscript illumination , which after 1380 conveyed new levels of realism , perspective and skill in rendering colour , peaking with the Limbourg brothers and the Netherlandish artist known as Hand G , to whom the most significant leaves of the Turin @-@ Milan Hours are usually attributed . Although his identity has not been definitively established , Hand G , who contributed c . 1420 , is thought to have been either Jan van Eyck or his brother Hubert . According to Georges Hulin de Loo , Hand G 's contributions to the Turin @-@ Milan Hours " constitute the most marvelous group of paintings that have ever decorated any book , and , for their period , the most astounding work known to the history of art . "
Jan van Eyck 's use of oil as a medium was a significant development , allowing artists far greater manipulation of paint . The 16th @-@ century art historian Giorgio Vasari claimed van Eyck invented the use of oil paint ; a claim that , while exaggerated , indicates the extent to which van Eyck helped disseminate the technique . Van Eyck employed a new level of virtuosity , mainly from taking advantage of the fact that oil dries so slowly ; this gave him more time and more scope for blending and mixing layers of different pigments , and his technique was quickly adopted and refined by both Robert Campin and Rogier van der Weyden . These three artists are considered the first rank and most influential of the early generation of Early Netherlandish painters . Their influence was felt across northern Europe , from Bohemia and Poland in the east to Austria and Swabia in the south .
A number of artists traditionally associated with the movement had origins that were neither Dutch nor Flemish in the modern sense . Van der Weyden was born Roger de la Pasture in Tournai . The German Hans Memling and the Estonian Michael Sittow both worked in the Netherlands in a fully Netherlandish style . Simon Marmion is often regarded as an Early Netherlandish painter because he came from Amiens , an area intermittently ruled by the Burgundian court between 1435 and 1471 . The Burgundian duchy was at its peak influence , and the innovations made by the Netherlandish painters were soon recognised across the continent . By the time of van Eyck 's death , his paintings were sought by wealthy patrons across Europe . Copies of his works were widely circulated , a fact that greatly contributed to the spread of the Netherlandish style to central and southern Europe . Central European art was then under the dual influence of innovations from Italy and from the north . Often the exchange of ideas between the Low Countries and Italy led to patronage from nobility such as Matthias Corvinus , King of Hungary , who commissioned manuscripts from both traditions .
The first generation were literate , well educated and mostly from middle @-@ class backgrounds . Van Eyck and van der Weyden were both highly placed in the Burgundian court , with van Eyck in particular assuming roles for which an ability to read Latin was necessary ; inscriptions found on his panels indicate that he had a good knowledge of both Latin and Greek . A number of artists were financially successful and much sought @-@ after in the Low Countries and by patrons across Europe . Many artists , including David and Bouts , could afford to donate large works to the churches , monasteries and convents of their choosing . Van Eyck was a valet de chambre at the Burgundian court and had easy access to Philip the Good . Van der Weyden was a prudent investor in stocks and property ; Bouts was commercially minded and married the heiress Catherine " Mettengelde " ( " with the money " ) . Vrancke van der Stockt invested in land .
The Early Netherlandish masters ' influence reached artists such as Stefan Lochner and the painter known as the Master of the Life of the Virgin , both of whom , working in mid @-@ 15th @-@ century Cologne , drew inspiration from imported works by van der Weyden and Bouts . New and distinctive painterly cultures sprang up ; Ulm , Nuremberg , Vienna and Munich were the most important artistic centres in the Holy Roman Empire at the start of the 16th century . There was a rise in demand for printmaking ( using woodcuts or copperplate engraving ) and other innovations borrowed from France and southern Italy . Some 16th @-@ century painters borrowed heavily from the previous century 's techniques and styles . Even progressive artists such as Jan Gossaert made copies , such as his reworking of van Eyck 's Madonna in the Church . Gerard David linked the styles of Bruges and Antwerp , often travelling between the cities . He moved to Antwerp in 1505 , when Quentin Matsys was the head of the local painters ' guild , and the two became friends .
By the 16th century the iconographic innovations and painterly techniques developed by van Eyck had become standard throughout northern Europe . Albrecht Dürer emulated van Eyck 's precision . Painters enjoyed a new level of respect and status ; patrons no longer simply commissioned works but courted the artists , sponsoring their travel and exposing them to new and wide @-@ ranging influences . Hieronymus Bosch , active in the late 15th and early 16th centuries , remains one of the most important and popular of the Netherlandish painters . He was anomalous in that he largely forewent realistic depictions of nature , human existence and perspective , while his work is almost entirely free of Italian influences . His better @-@ known works are instead characterised by fantastical elements that tend towards the hallucinatory , drawing to some extent from the vision of hell in van Eyck 's Crucifixion and Last Judgement diptych . Bosch followed his own muse , tending instead towards moralism and pessimism . His paintings , especially the triptychs , are among the most significant and accomplished of the late Netherlandish period
The Reformation brought changes in outlook and artistic expression as secular and landscape imagery overtook biblical scenes . Sacred imagery was shown in a didactic and moralistic manner , with religious figures becoming marginalized and relegated to the background . Pieter Bruegel the Elder , one of the few who followed Bosch 's style , is an important bridge between the Early Netherlandish artists and their successors . His work retains many 15th @-@ century conventions , but his perspective and subjects are distinctly modern . Sweeping landscapes came to the fore in paintings that were provisionally religious or mythological , and his genre scenes were complex , with overtones of religious skepticism and even hints of nationalism .
= = Technique and material = =
Campin , van Eyck and van der Weyden established naturalism as the dominant style in 15th @-@ century northern European painting . These artists sought to show the world as it actually was , and to depict people in a way that made them look more human , with a greater complexity of emotions than had been previously seen . This first generation of Early Netherlandish artists were interested in the accurate reproduction of objects ( according to Panofsky they painted " gold that looked like gold " ) , paying close attention to natural phenomena such as light , shadow and reflection . They moved beyond the flat perspective and outlined figuration of earlier painting in favour of three @-@ dimensional pictorial spaces . The position of viewers and how they might relate to the scene became important for the first time ; in the Arnolfini Portrait , Van Eyck arranges the scene as if the viewer has just entered the room containing the two figures . Advancements in technique allowed far richer , more luminous and closely detailed representations of people , landscapes , interiors and objects .
Although , the use of oil as a binding agent can be traced to the 12th century , innovations in its handling and manipulation define the era . Egg tempera was the dominant medium until the 1430s , and while it produces both bright and light colours , it dries quickly and is a difficult medium in which to achieve naturalistic textures or deep shadows . Oil allows smooth , translucent surfaces and can be applied in a range of thicknesses , from fine lines to thick broad strokes . It dries slowly and is easily manipulated while still wet . These characteristics allowed more time to add subtle detail and enable wet @-@ on @-@ wet techniques . Smooth transitions of colour are possible because portions of the intermediary layers of paint can be wiped or removed as the paint dries . Oil enables differentiation among degrees of reflective light , from shadow to bright beams , and minute depictions of light effects through the use of transparent glazes . This new freedom in controlling light effects gave rise to more precise and realistic depictions of surface textures ; van Eyck and van der Weyden typically show light falling on surfaces such as jewellery , wooden floors , textiles and household objects .
The paintings were most often painted on wood , but sometimes on the less expensive canvas . The wood was usually oak , often imported from the Baltic region , with the preference for radially cut boards which are less likely to warp . Typically the sap was removed and the board well @-@ seasoned before use . Wood supports allow for dendrochronological dating , and the particular use of Baltic oak gives clues as to the artist 's location . The panels generally show very high degrees of craftsmanship . Lorne Campbell notes that most are " beautifully made and finished objects . It can be extremely difficult to find the joins . " Many paintings ' frames were altered , repainted or gilded in the 18th and early 19th centuries when it was common practice to break apart hinged Netherlandish pieces so they could be sold as genre pieces . Many surviving panels are painted on both sides or with the reverse bearing family emblems , crests or ancillary outline sketches . In the case of single panels , the markings on the reverse are often wholly unrelated to the obverse and may be later additions , or as Campbell speculates , " done for the artist 's amusement " . Painting each side of a panel was practical since it prevented the wood from warping . Usually the frames of hinged works were constructed before the individual panels were worked on .
Glue binder was often used as an inexpensive alternative to oil . Many works using this medium were produced but few survive today because of the delicateness of the linen cloth and the solubility of the hide glue from which the binder was derived . Well known and relatively well preserved – though substantially damaged – examples include Matsys ' Virgin and Child with Saints Barbara and Catherine ( c . 1415 – 25 ) and Bouts ' Entombment ( c . 1440 – 55 ) . The paint was generally applied with brushes or sometimes with thin sticks or brush handles . The artists often softened the contours of shadows with their fingers , at times to blot or reduce the glaze .
= = Guilds and workshops = =
The most usual way in the 15th century for a patron to commission a piece was to visit a master 's workshop . Only a certain number of masters could operate within any city 's bounds ; they were regulated by artisan guilds to whom they had to be affiliated to be allowed to operate and receive commissions . Guilds protected and regulated painting , overseeing production , export trade and raw material supply ; and they maintained discrete sets of rules for panel painters , cloth painters and book illuminators . For example , the rules set higher citizenship requirements for miniaturists and prohibited them from using oils . Overall , panel painters enjoyed the highest level of protection , with cloth painters ranking below .
Membership of a guild was highly restricted and access was difficult for newcomers . A master was expected to serve an apprenticeship in his region , and show proof of citizenship , which could be obtained through birth in the city or by purchase . Apprenticeship lasted four to five years , ending with the production of a " masterpiece " that proved his ability as a craftsman , and the payment of a substantial entrance fee . The system was protectionist at a local level through the nuances of the fee system . Although it sought to ensure a high quality of membership , it was a self @-@ governing body that tended to favour wealthy applicants . Guild connections sometimes appear in paintings , most famously in van der Weyden 's Descent from the Cross , in which Christ 's body is given the t @-@ shape of a crossbow to reflect its commission for a chapel for the Leuven guild of archers .
Workshops typically consisted of a family home for the master and lodging for apprentices . The masters usually built up inventories of pre @-@ painted panels as well as patterns or outline designs for ready sale . With the former , the master was responsible for the overall design of the painting , and typically painted the focal portions , such as the faces , hands and the embroidered parts of the figure 's clothing . The more prosaic elements would be left to assistants ; in many works it is possible to discern abrupt shifts in style , with the relatively weak Deesis passage in van Eyck 's Crucifixion and Last Judgement diptych being a better @-@ known example . Often a master 's workshop was occupied with both the reproduction of copies of proven commercially successful works , and the design of new compositions arising from commissions . In this case , the master would usually produce the underdrawing or overall composition to be painted by assistants . As a result , many surviving works that evidence first @-@ rank compositions but uninspired execution are attributed to workshop members or followers .
= = Patronage = =
By the 15th century the reach and influence of the Burgundian princes meant that the Low Countries ' merchant and banker classes were in the ascendancy . The early to mid @-@ century saw great rises in international trade and domestic wealth , leading to an enormous increase in the demand for art . Artists from the area attracted patronage from the Baltic coast , the north German and Polish regions , the Iberian Peninsula , Italy and the powerful families of England and Scotland . At first , masters had acted as their own dealers , attending fairs where they could also buy frames , panels and pigments . The mid @-@ century saw the development of art dealership as a profession ; the activity became purely commercially driven , dominated by the mercantile class .
Smaller works were not usually produced on commission . More often the masters anticipated the formats and images that would be most sought after and their designs were then developed by workshop members . Ready made paintings were sold at regularly held fairs , or the buyers could visit workshops , which tended to be clustered in certain areas of the major cities . The masters were allowed to display in their front windows . This was the typical mode for the thousands of panels produced for the middle class – city officials , clergy , guild members , doctors and merchants .
Less expensive cloth paintings ( tüchlein ) were more common in middle @-@ class households , and records show a strong interest in domestically owned religious panel paintings . Members of the merchant class typically commissioned smaller devotional panels , containing specified subject matter . Alterations varied from having individualised panels added to a prefabricated pattern , to the inclusion of a donor portrait . The addition of coats @-@ of @-@ arms were often the only change – an addition seen in van der Weyden 's Saint Luke Drawing the Virgin , which exists in several variations .
Many of the Burgundian dukes could afford to be extravagant in their taste . Philip the Good followed the example set earlier in France by his great @-@ uncles including John , Duke of Berry by becoming a strong patron of the arts and commissioning a large number of artworks . The Burgundian court was seen as the arbiter of taste and their appreciation in turn drove demand for highly luxurious and expensive illuminated manuscripts , gold @-@ edged tapestries and jewel @-@ bordered cups . Their appetite for finery trickled down through their court and nobles to the people who for the most part commissioned local artists in Bruges and Ghent in the 1440s and 1450s . While Netherlandish panel paintings did not have intrinsic value as did for example objects in precious metals , they were perceived as precious objects and in the first rank of European art . A 1425 document written by Philip the Good explains that he hired a painter for the " excellent work that he does in his craft " . Jan van Eyck painted the Annunciation while in Philip 's employ , and Rogier van der Weyden became the duke 's portrait painter in the 1440s .
Burgundian rule created a large class of courtiers and functionaries . Some gained enormous power and commissioned paintings to display their wealth and influence . Civic leaders also commissioned works from major artists , such as Bouts ' Justice for Emperor Otto III , van der Weyden 's The Justice of Trajan and Herkinbald and David 's Justice of Cambyses . Civic commissions were less common and were not as lucrative , but they brought notice to and increased a painter 's reputation , as with Memling , whose St John Altarpiece for Bruges ' Sint @-@ Janshospitaal brought him additional civic commissions .
Wealthy foreign patronage and the development of international trade afforded the established masters the chance to build up workshops with assistants . Although first @-@ rank painters such as Petrus Christus and Hans Memling found patrons among the local nobility , they catered specifically to the large foreign population in Bruges . Painters not only exported goods but also themselves ; foreign princes and nobility , striving to emulate the opulence of the Burgundian court , hired painters away from Bruges .
= = Iconography = =
The paintings of the first generation of Netherlandish artists are often characterised by the use of symbolism and biblical references . Van Eyck pioneered , and his innovations were taken up and developed by van der Weyden , Memling and Christus . Each employed rich and complex iconographical elements to create a heightened sense of contemporary beliefs and spiritual ideals . Morally the works express a fearful outlook , combined with a respect for restraint and stoicism . The paintings above all emphasise the spiritual over the earthly . Because the cult of Mary was at an apex at the time , iconographic elements related to the Life of Mary vastly predominate .
Craig Harbison describes the blending of realism and symbolism as perhaps " the most important aspect of early Flemish art " . The first generation of Netherlandish painters were preoccupied with making religious symbols more realistic . Van Eyck incorporated a wide variety of iconographic elements , often conveying what he saw as a co @-@ existence of the spiritual and material worlds . The iconography was embedded in the work unobtrusively ; typically the references comprised small but key background details . The embedded symbols were meant to meld into the scenes and " was a deliberate strategy to create an experience of spiritual revelation . " Van Eyck 's religious paintings in particular " always present the spectator with a transfigured view of visible reality " . To him the day @-@ to @-@ day is harmoniously steeped in symbolism , such that , according to Harbison , " descriptive data were rearranged ... so that they illustrated not earthly existence but what he considered supernatural truth . " This blend of the earthly and heavenly evidences van Eyck 's belief that the " essential truth of Christian doctrine " can be found in " the marriage of secular and sacred worlds , of reality and symbol " . He depicts overly large Madonnas , whose unrealistic size shows the separation between the heavenly from earthly , but placed them in everyday settings such as churches , domestic chambers or seated with court officials .
Yet the earthly churches are heavily decorated with heavenly symbols . A heavenly throne is clearly represented in some domestic chambers ( for example in the Lucca Madonna ) . More difficult to discern are the settings for paintings such as Madonna of Chancellor Rolin , where the location is a fusion of the earthly and celestial . Van Eyck 's iconography is often so densely and intricately layered that a work has to be viewed multiple times before even the most obvious meaning of an element is apparent . The symbols were often subtly woven into the paintings so that they only became apparent after close and repeated viewing , while much of the iconography reflects the idea that , according to John Ward , there is a " promised passage from sin and death to salvation and rebirth " .
Other artists employed symbolism in a more prosaic manner , despite van Eyck 's great influence on both his contemporaries and later artists . Campin showed a clear separation between spiritual and earthly realms ; unlike van Eyck , he did not employ a programme of concealed symbolism . Campin 's symbols do not alter the sense of the real ; in his paintings a domestic scene is no more complicated than a one showing religious iconography , but one the viewer would recognise and understand . Van der Weyden 's symbolism was far more nuanced than Campin 's but not as dense as van Eyck 's . According to Harbison , van der Weyden incorporated his symbols so carefully , and in such an exquisite manner , that " Neither the mystical union that results in his work , nor his reality itself for that matter , seems capable of being rationally analyzed , explained or reconstructed . " His treatment of architectural details , niches , colour and space is presented in such an inexplicable manner that " the particular objects or people we see before us have suddenly , jarringly , become symbols with religious truth . "
Paintings and other precious objects served an important aid in the religious life of those who could afford them . Prayer and meditative contemplation were means to attain salvation , while the very wealthy could also build churches ( or extend existing ones ) , or commission artworks or other devotional pieces as a means to guarantee salvation in the afterlife . Vast numbers of Virgin and Child paintings were produced , and original designs were widely copied and exported . Many of the paintings were based on Byzantine prototypes of the 12th and 13th century , of which the Cambrai Madonna is probably the best known . In this way the traditions of the earlier centuries were absorbed and re @-@ developed as a distinctly rich and complex iconographical tradition .
Marian devotion grew from the 13th century , mostly forming around the concepts of the Immaculate Conception and her Assumption into heaven . In a culture that venerated the possession of relics as a means to bring the earthly closer to the divine , Mary left no bodily relics , thus assuming a special position between heaven and humanity . By the early 15th century , Mary had grown in importance within the Christian doctrine to the extent that she was commonly seen as the most accessible intercessor with God . It was thought that the length each person would need to suffer in limbo was proportional to their display of devotion while on earth . The veneration of Mary reached a peak in the early 15th century , an era that saw an unending demand for works depicting her likeness . From the mid 15th century Netherlandish portrayals of the life of Christ tended to be centred on the iconography of the Man of Sorrows .
Those who could afford to commissioned donor portraits . Such a commission was usually executed as part of a triptych , or later as a more affordable diptych . Van der Weyden popularised the existing northern tradition of half @-@ length Marian portraits . These echoed the " miracle @-@ working " Byzantine icons then popular in Italy . The format became extremely popular across the north , and his innovations are an important contributing factor to the emergence of the Marian diptych .
= = Formats = =
Although the Netherlandish artists are primarily known for their panel paintings , their output includes a variety of formats , including illuminated manuscripts , sculpture , tapestries , carved retables , stained glass , brass objects and carved tombs . According to art historian Susie Nash , by the early 16th century the region led the field in almost every aspect of portable visual culture , " with specialist expertise and techniques of production at such a high level that no one else could compete with them " . The Burgundian court favoured tapestry and metalwork , which are well recorded in surviving documentation , while demand for panel paintings is less evident – they may have been less suited to itinerant courts . Wall hangings and books functioned as political propaganda and as a means to showcase wealth and power , whereas portraits were less favoured . According to Maryan Ainsworth , those that were commissioned functioned to highlight lines of succession , such as van der Weyden 's portrait of Charles the Bold ; or for betrothals as in the case of van Eyck 's lost Portrait of Isabella of Portugal .
Religious paintings were commissioned for royal and ducal palaces , for churches , hospitals , and convents , and for wealthy clerics and private donors . The richer cities and towns commissioned works for their civic buildings . Artists often worked in more than one medium ; van Eyck and Petrus Christus are both thought to have contributed to manuscripts . Van der Weyden designed tapestries , though few survive . The Netherlandish painters were responsible for many innovations , including the advancement of the diptych format , the conventions of donor portraits , new conventions for Marian portraits , and , through works such as van Eyck 's Madonna of Chancellor Rolin and van der Weyden 's Saint Luke Drawing the Virgin in the 1430s , laying the foundation for the development of landscape painting as a separate genre .
= = = Illuminated manuscript = = =
Before the mid @-@ 15th century illuminated books were considered a higher form of art than panel painting , and their ornate and luxurious qualities better reflected the wealth , status and taste of their owners . Manuscripts were ideally suited as diplomatic gifts or offerings to commemorate dynastic marriages or other major courtly occasions . From the 12th century specialist monastery @-@ based workshops ( in French libraires ) produced books of hours ( collections of prayers to be said at canonical hours ) , psalters , prayer books and histories , as well as romance and poetry books . At the start of the 15th century Gothic manuscripts from Paris dominated the northern European market . Their popularity was in part due to the production of more affordable , single leaf miniatures which could be inserted into unillustrated books of hours . These were at times offered in a serial manner designed to encourage patrons to " include as many pictures as they could afford " , which clearly presented them as an item of fashion but also as form of indulgence . The single leaves had other uses rather than inserts ; they could be attached to walls as aids to private meditation and prayer , as seen in Christus ' 1450 – 60 panel Portrait of a Young Man , now in the National Gallery , which shows a small leaf with text to the Vera icon illustrated with the head of Christ . The French artists were overtaken in importance from the mid @-@ 15th century by masters in Ghent , Bruges and Utrecht . English production , once of the highest quality , had greatly declined and relatively few Italian manuscripts went north of the Alps . The French masters did not give up their position easily however , and even in 1463 were urging their guilds to impose sanctions on the Netherlandish artists .
The Limbourg brothers 's ornate Très Riches Heures du Duc de Berry perhaps marks both the beginning and a highpoint of Netherlandish illumination . Later the Master of the Legend of Saint Lucy explored the same mix of illusionism and realism . The Limbourgs ' career ended just as van Eyck 's began – by 1416 all the brothers ( none of whom had reached 30 ) and their patron Jean , Duke of Berry were dead , most likely from plague . Van Eyck is thought to have contributed several of the more acclaimed miniatures of the Turin @-@ Milan Hours as the anonymous artist known as Hand G. A number of illustrations from the period show a strong stylistic resemblance to Gerard David , though it is unclear whether they are from his hands or those of followers .
A number of factors led to the popularity of Netherlandish illuminators . Primary was the tradition and expertise that developed in the region in the centuries following the monastic reform of the 14th century , building on the growth in number and prominence of monasteries , abbeys and churches from the 12th century that had already produced significant numbers of liturgical texts . There was a strong political aspect ; the form had many influential patrons such as Jean , Duke of Berry and Philip the Good , the latter of whom collected more than a thousand illuminated books before his death . According to Thomas Kren , Philip 's " library was an expression of the man as a Christian prince , and an embodiment of the state – his politics and authority , his learning and piety " . Because of his patronage the manuscript industry in the Lowlands grew so that it dominated Europe for several generations . The Burgundian book @-@ collecting tradition passed to Philip 's son and his wife , Charles the Bold and Margaret of York ; his granddaughter Mary of Burgundy and her husband Maximilian I ; and to his son @-@ in @-@ law , Edward IV , who was an avid collector of Flemish manuscripts . The libraries left by Philip and Edward IV formed the nucleus from which sprang the Royal Library of Belgium and the English Royal Library .
Netherlandish illuminators had an important export market , designing many works specifically for the English market . Following a decline in domestic patronage after Charles the Bold died in 1477 , the export market became more important . Illuminators responded to differences in taste by producing more lavish and extravagantly decorated works tailored for foreign elites , including Edward IV of England , James IV of Scotland and Eleanor of Viseu .
There was considerable overlap between panel painting and illumination ; van Eyck , van der Weyden , Christus and other painters designed manuscript miniatures . In addition , miniaturists would borrow motifs and ideas from panel paintings ; Campin 's work was often used as a source in this way , for example in the " Hours of Raoul d 'Ailly " . Commissions were often shared between several masters , with junior painters or specialists assisting , especially with details such as the border decorations , these last often done by women . The masters rarely signed their work , making attribution difficult ; the identities of some of the more significant illuminators are lost .
Netherlandish artists found increasingly inventive ways to highlight and differentiate their work from manuscripts from surrounding countries ; such techniques included designing elaborate page borders and devising ways to relate scale and space . They explored the interplay between the three essential components of a manuscript : border , miniature and text . An example is the Nassau book of hours ( c . 1467 – 80 ) by the Vienna Master of Mary of Burgundy , in which the borders are decorated with large illusionistic flowers and insects . These elements achieved their effect by being broadly painted , as if scattered across the gilded surface of the miniatures . This technique was continued by , among others , the Flemish Master of James IV of Scotland ( possibly Gerard Horenbout ) , known for his innovative page layout . Using various illusionistic elements , he often blurred the line between the miniature and its border , frequently using both in his efforts to advance the narrative of his scenes .
During the early 19th century , the collection of 15th and 16th century Netherlandish cut @-@ out , as miniatures or parts for albums became fashionable amongst connoisseurs such as William Young Ottley , leading to the destruction of many manuscripts . Originals were highly sought after , a revival that helped the rediscovery of Netherlandish art in the later part of the century .
= = = Tapestry = = =
During the mid @-@ 15th century tapestry was one of the most expensive and prized artistic products in Europe . Commercial production proliferated across the Netherlands and northern France from the early 15th century , especially in the cities of Arras , Bruges and Tournai . The perceived technical ability of these artisans was such that , in 1517 , Pope Julius II sent Raphael 's cartoons to Brussels to be woven into hangings . Such woven wall hangings played a central political role as diplomatic gifts , especially in their larger format ; Philip the Good gifted several to participants at the Congress of Arras in 1435 , where the halls were draped from top to bottom and all around ( tout autour ) with tapestries showing scenes of the " Battle and Overthrow of People of Liege " . At Charles the Bold and Margaret of York 's wedding the room " was hung above with draperies of wool , blue and white , and on the sides was tapestried with a rich tapestry woven with the history of Jason and the Golden Fleece " . Rooms typically were hung from ceiling to floor with tapestries and some rooms named for a set of tapestries , such as a chamber Philip the Bold named for a set of white tapestries with scenes from The Romance of the Rose . For about two centuries , during the Burgundian period , master weavers produced " innumerable series of hangings heavy with gold and silver thread , the like of which the world had never seen . "
The practical use of textiles results from their portability ; tapestries provided easily assembled interior decorations suited to religious or civic ceremonies . Their value is reflected in their positioning in contemporary inventories , in which they are typically found at the top of the record , then ranked in accordance with their material or colouring . White and gold were considered of the highest quality . Charles V of France had 57 tapestries , of which 16 were white . Jean de Berry owned 19 , while Mary of Burgundy , Isabella of Valois , Isabeau of Bavaria and Philip the Good all held substantial collections .
Tapestry production began with design . The designs , or cartoons were typically executed on paper or parchment , put together by qualified painters , then sent to weavers , often across a great distance . Because cartoons could be re @-@ used , craftsmen often worked on source material that was decades old . As both paper and parchment are highly perishable , few of the original cartoons survive . Once a design was agreed upon its production might be farmed out among many weavers . Looms were active in all the major Flemish cities , in most of the towns and in many of the villages .
Looms were not controlled by the guilds . Dependent on a migrant workforce , their commercial activity was driven by entrepreneurs , who were usually painters . The entrepreneur would locate and commission patrons , hold a stock of cartoons and provide raw materials such as wool , silk , and sometimes gold and silver – which often had to be imported . The entrepreneur was in direct contact with the patron , and they would often go through the nuances of the design at both the cartoon and final stages . This examination was often a difficult business and necessitated delicate management ; in 1400 Isabeau of Bavaria rejected a completed set by Colart de Laon having earlier approved the designs , to de Laon 's – and presumably his commissioner 's – considerable embarrassment .
Because tapestries were designed largely by painters , their formal conventions are closely aligned with the conventions of panel painting . This is especially true with the later generations of 16th @-@ century painters who produced panoramas of heaven and hell . Harbison describes how the intricate , dense and overlaid detail of Bosch 's Garden of Earthly Delights resembles , " in its precise symbolism ... a medieval tapestry " .
= = = Triptychs and altarpieces = = =
Northern triptychs and polyptychs were popular across Europe from the late 14th century , with the peak of demand lasting until the early 16th century . During the 15th century they were the most widely produced format of northern panel painting . Preoccupied with religious subject matter , they come in two broad types : smaller , portable private devotional works , or larger altarpieces for liturgical settings . The earliest northern examples are compound works incorporating engraving and painting , usually with two painted wings that could be folded over a carved central corpus .
Polyptychs were produced by the more accomplished masters . They provide greater scope for variation , and a greater number of possible combinations of interior and exterior panels that could be viewed at one time . That hinged works could be opened and closed served a practical purpose ; on religious holidays the more prosaic and everyday outer panels were replaced by the lush interior panels . The Ghent Altarpiece , completed in 1432 , had different configurations for weekdays , Sundays and church holidays .
The first generation of Netherlandish masters borrowed many customs from 13th- and 14th @-@ century Italian altarpieces . The conventions for Italian triptychs before 1400 were quite rigid . In central panels the mid @-@ ground was populated by members of the Holy Family ; early works , especially from the Sienese or Florentine traditions , were overwhelmingly characterised by images of the enthroned Virgin set against a gilded background . The wings usually contain a variety of angels , donors and saints , but there is never direct eye contact , and only rarely a narrative connection , with the central panel 's figures . Netherlandish painters adapted many of these conventions , but subverted them almost from the start . Van der Weyden was especially innovative , as apparent in his 1442 – 45 Miraflores Altarpiece and c . 1452 Braque Triptych . In these paintings members of the Holy Family appear on the wings instead of just the central panels , while the latter is notable for the continuous landscape connecting the three inner panels . From the 1490s Hieronymus Bosch painted at least 16 triptychs , the best of which subverted existing conventions . Bosch 's work continued the move towards secularism and emphasised landscape . Bosch also unified the scenes of the inner panels .
Triptychs were commissioned by German patrons from the 1380s , with large @-@ scale export beginning around 1400 . Few of these very early examples survive , but the demand for Netherlandish altarpieces throughout Europe is evident from the many surviving examples still extant in churches across the continent . Till @-@ Holger Borchert describes how they bestowed a " prestige which , in the first half of the 15th century , only the workshops of the Burgundian Netherlands were capable of achieving . " By the 1390s , Netherlandish altarpieces were produced mostly in Brussels and Bruges . The popularity of Brussels ' altarpieces lasted until about 1530 , when the output of the Antwerp workshops grew in favour . This was in part because they produced at a lower cost by allocating different portions of the panels among specialised workshop members , a practice Borchert describes as an early form of division of labour .
Multi @-@ panel Netherlandish paintings fell out of favour and were considered old @-@ fashioned as Antwerp Mannerism came to the fore in the mid @-@ 16th century . Later the iconoclasm of the Reformation deemed them offensive , and many works in the Low Countries were destroyed . Extant examples are found mostly in German churches and monasteries . As secular works grew in demand , triptychs were often broken up and sold as individual works , especially if a panel or section contained an image that could pass as a secular portrait . A panel would sometimes be cut down to only the figure , with the background over @-@ painted so that " it looked sufficiently like a genre piece to hang in a well @-@ known collection of Dutch 17th @-@ century paintings . "
= = = Diptychs = = =
Diptychs were widely popular in northern Europe from the mid @-@ 15th to the early 16th century . They consisted of two equally sized panels joined by hinges ( or , less often , a fixed frame ) ; the panels were usually linked thematically . Hinged panels could be opened and closed like a book , allowing both an interior and exterior view , while the ability to close the wings allowed protection of the inner images . Originating from conventions in Books of Hours , diptychs typically functioned as less expensive and more portable altarpieces . Diptychs are distinct from pendants in that they are physically connected wings and not merely two paintings hung side by side . They were usually near @-@ miniature in scale , and some emulated medieval " treasury art " -small pieces made of gold or ivory . The tracery seen in works such as van der Weyden 's Virgin and Child reflects ivory carving of the period . The format was adapted by van Eyck and van der Weyden on commission from members of the House of Valois @-@ Burgundy , and refined by Hugo van der Goes , Hans Memling and later Jan van Scorel .
Netherlandish diptychs tend to illustrate only a small range of religious scenes . There are numerous depictions of the Virgin and Child , reflecting the Virgin 's contemporary popularity as a subject of devotion . The inner panels consisted mainly of donor portraits – often of husbands and their wives – alongside saints or the Virgin and Child . The donor was nearly always shown kneeling in full or half length , with hands clasped in prayer . The Virgin and Child are always positioned on the right , reflecting the Christian reverence for the right hand side as the " place of honour " alongside the divine .
Their development and commercial worth has been linked to a change in religious attitude during the 14th century , when a more meditative and solitary devotion – exemplified by the Devotio Moderna movement – grew in popularity . Private reflection and prayer was encouraged and the small @-@ scale diptych fitted this purpose . It became popular among the newly emerging middle class and the more affluent monasteries across the Low Countries and northern Germany . Ainsworth says that regardless of size , whether a large altarpiece or a small diptych , Netherlandish painting is a " matter of small scale and meticulous detail " . The small size was meant to entice the viewer into a meditative state for personal devotion and perhaps the " experience of miraculous visions . "
Late 20th @-@ century technical examination has shown significant differences in technique and style between the panels of individual diptychs . The technical inconsistencies may be the result of the workshop system , in which the more prosaic passages were often completed by assistants . A change in style between panels can be seen , according to historian John Hand , because the divine panel was usually based on general designs sold on the open market , with the donor panel added after a patron was found .
Few intact diptychs survive . As with altarpieces , the majority were later separated and sold as single " genre " pictures . In the workshop system some were interchangeable , and the religious works may have been paired with newly commissioned donor panels . Later many diptychs were broken apart , thus creating two saleable works from one . During the Reformation , religious scenes were often removed .
= = = Portraiture = = =
Secular portraiture was a rarity in European art before 1430 . The format did not exist as a separate genre and was only found infrequently at the highest end of the market in betrothal portraits or royal family commissions . While such undertakings may have been profitable , they were considered a lower art form and the majority of surviving pre @-@ 16th @-@ century examples are unattributed . Large numbers of single devotional panels showing saints and biblical figures were being produced , but depictions of historical , known individuals did not begin until the early 1430s . Van Eyck was the pioneer ; his seminal 1432 Léal Souvenir is one of the earliest surviving examples , emblematic of the new style in its realism and acute observation of the small details of the sitter 's appearance . His Arnolfini Portrait is filled with symbolism , as is the Madonna of Chancelor Rolin , commissioned as testament to Rolin 's power , influence , and piety .
Van der Weyden developed the conventions of northern portraiture and was hugely influential on the following generations of painters . Rather than merely follow van Eyck 's meticulous attention to detail , van der Weyden created more abstract and sensual representations . He was highly sought after as a portraitist , yet there are noticeable similarities in his portraits , likely because he used and reused the same underdrawings , which met common ideals of rank and piety . These were then adapted to show the facial characteristics and expressions of the particular sitter .
Petrus Christus placed his sitter in a naturalistic setting rather than a flat and featureless background . This approach was in part a reaction against van der Weyden , who , in his emphasis on sculptural figures , utilised very shallow pictorial spaces . In his 1462 Portrait of a Man , Dieric Bouts went further by situating the man in a room complete with a window that looks out at a landscape , while in the 16th century , the full @-@ length portrait became popular in the north . The latter format was practically unseen in earlier northern art , although it had a tradition in Italy going back centuries , most usually in fresco and illuminated manuscripts . Full @-@ length portraits were reserved for depictions of the highest echelon of society , and were associated with princely displays of power . Of the second generation of northern painters , Hans Memling became the leading portraitist , taking commissions from as far as Italy . He was highly influential on later painters and is credited with inspiring Leonardo 's positioning of the Mona Lisa in front of a landscape view . Van Eyck and van der Weyden similarly influenced the French artist Jean Fouquet and the Germans Hans Pleydenwurff and Martin Schongauer among others .
The Netherlandish artists moved away from the profile view – popularised during the Italian Quattrocento – towards the less formal but more engaging three @-@ quarter view . At this angle , more than one side of the face is visible as the sitter 's body is rotated towards the viewer . This pose gives a better view of the shape and features of the head and allows the sitter to look out towards the viewer . The gaze of the sitter rarely engages the viewer . Van Eyck 's 1433 Portrait of a Man is an early example , which shows the artist himself looking at the viewer . Although there is often direct eye contact between subject and viewer , the look is normally detached , aloof and uncommunicative , perhaps to reflect the subject 's high social position . There are exceptions , typically in bridal portraits or in the case of potential betrothals , when the object of the work is to make the sitter as attractive as possible . In these cases the sitter was often shown smiling , with an engaging and radiant expression designed to appeal to her intended .
Around 1508 , Albrecht Dürer described the function of portraiture as " preserving a person 's appearance after his death " . Portraits were objects of status , and served to ensure that the individual 's personal success was recorded and would endure beyond his lifetime . Most portraits tended to show royalty , the upper nobility or princes of the church . The new affluence in the Burgundian Netherlands brought a wider variety of clientele , as members of the upper middle class could now afford to commission a portrait . As a result , more is known about the appearance and dress of the region 's people than at any time since the late Roman period . Portraits did not generally require lengthy sittings ; typically a series of preparatory drawings were used to flesh out the final panel . Very few of these drawings survive , a notable exception being van Eyck 's study for his Portrait of Cardinal Niccolò Albergati .
= = = Landscape = = =
Landscape was a secondary concern to Netherlandish painters before the mid 1460s . Geographical settings were rare and when they did appear usually consisted of glimpses through open windows or arcades . They were rarely based on actual locations ; the settings tended to be largely imagined , designed to suit the thematic thrust of the panel . Because most of the works were donor portraits , very often the landscapes were tame , controlled and served merely to provide a harmonious setting for the idealised interior space . In this , the northern artists lagged behind their Italian counterparts who were already placing their sitters within geographically identifiable and closely described landscapes . Some of the northern landscapes are highly detailed and notable in their own right , including van Eyck 's unsentimental c . 1430 Crucifixion and Last Judgement diptych and van der Weyden 's widely copied 1435 – 40 Saint Luke Drawing the Virgin .
Van Eyck was almost certainly influenced by the Labours of the Months landscapes the Limbourg brothers painted for the Très Riches Heures du Duc de Berry . The influence can be seen in the illuminations painted in the Turin @-@ Milan Hours , which show rich landscapes in the tiny bas de page scenes . These , according to Pächt , should be defined as early examples of Netherlandish landscape painting . The landscape tradition in illuminated manuscripts would continue for at least the next century . Simon Bening " explored new territory in the genre of landscape " , seen in several of the leaves he painted for the c . 1520 Grimani Breviary .
From the late 15th century a number of painters emphasised landscape in their works , a development led in part by the shift in preference from religious iconography to secular subjects . Second @-@ generation Netherlandish painters applied the mid @-@ 14th @-@ century dictum of natural representation . This was born of the rising affluence of the region 's middle class , many of whom had now travelled south and seen countryside noticeably different from their flat homeland . At the same time , the later part of the century saw the emergence of specialisation and a number of masters focused on detailing landscape , most notably Konrad Witz in the mid @-@ 15th century , and later Joachim Patinir . Most innovations in this format came from artists living in the Dutch regions of the Burgundian lands , most notably from Haarlem , Leiden and ' s @-@ Hertogenbosch . The significant artists from these areas did not slavishly reproduce the scenery before them , but in subtle ways adapted and modified their landscapes to reinforce the emphasis and meaning of the panel they were working on .
Patinir developed what is now called the world landscape genre , which is typified by biblical or historical figures within an imagined panoramic landscape , usually mountains and lowlands , water and buildings . Paintings of this type are characterised by an elevated viewpoint , with the figures dwarfed by their surroundings . The format was taken up by , among others , Gerard David and Pieter Bruegel the Elder , and became popular in Germany , especially with painters from the Danube school . Patinir 's works are relatively small and use a horizontal format ; this was to become so standard for landscapes in art that it is now called " landscape " format in ordinary contexts , but at the time it was a considerable novelty , as the vast majority of panel paintings before 1520 were vertical in format . World landscape paintings retain many of the elements developed from the mid @-@ 15th century , but are composed , in modern cinematic terms , as a long rather than a medium shot . The human presence remained central rather than serving as mere staffage . Hieronymus Bosch adapted elements of the world landscape style , with the influence especially notable in his single @-@ panel paintings .
The most popular subjects of this type include the Flight into Egypt and the plight of hermits such as Saints Jerome and Anthony . As well as connecting the style to the later Age of Discovery , the role of Antwerp as a booming centre both of world trade and cartography , and the wealthy town @-@ dweller 's view of the countryside , art historians have explored the paintings as religious metaphors for the pilgrimage of life .
= = Relationship to the Italian Renaissance = =
The progressions in northern art developed almost simultaneously with the early Italian Renaissance . The philosophical and artistic traditions of the Mediterranean were not however part of the northern heritage , to the extent that many elements of Latin culture were actively disparaged in the north . The role of Renaissance humanism in art , for example , was less pronounced in the Low Countries than in Italy . Local religious trends had a strong influence on early northern art , as can be seen in the subject matter , composition and form of many late 13th- and early 14th @-@ century artworks . The northern painters ' doctrine was also built on elements of recent Gothic tradition , and less on the classical tradition prevalent in Italy .
While devotional paintings – especially altarpieces – remained dominant in Early Netherlandish art , secular portraiture became increasingly common in both northern and southern Europe as artists freed themselves from the prevailing idea that portraiture should be restricted to saints and other religious figures . In Italy this development was tied to the ideals of humanism .
Italian influences on Netherlandish art are first apparent in the late 15th century , when some of the painters began to travel south . This also explains why a number of later Netherlandish artists became associated with , in the words of art historian Rolf Toman , " picturesque gables , bloated , barrel @-@ shaped columns , droll cartouches , ' twisted ' figures , and stunningly unrealistic colours – actually employ [ ing ] the visual language of Mannerism " . Wealthy northern merchants could afford to buy paintings from the top tier of artists . As a result , painters became increasingly aware of their status in society : they signed their works more often , painted portraits of themselves , and became well @-@ known figures because of their artistic activities .
The northern masters were greatly admired in Italy . According to Friedländer they exercised a strong influence over 15th @-@ century Italian artists , a view Panofsky agrees with . However , Italian painters began to move beyond Netherlandish influences by the 1460s , as they concentrated on composition with a greater emphasis on harmony of parts belonging together – " that elegant harmony and grace ... which is called beauty " , evident , for example , in Andrea Mantegna 's Entombment . By the early 16th century the reputation of the northern masters was such that there was an established north @-@ south trade in their works , although many of the paintings or objects sent south were by lesser artists and of lower quality . Innovations introduced in the north and adopted in Italy included the setting of figures in domestic interiors and the viewing of interiors from multiple vantage points , through openings such as doors or windows . Hugo van der Goes ' Portinari Altarpiece , in Florence 's Uffizi , played an important role in introducing Florentine painters to trends from the north , and artists like Giovanni Bellini came under the influence of northern painters working in Italy .
Memling successfully merged the two styles , exemplified in his Virgin and Child with Two Angels . By the mid @-@ 16th @-@ century , however , Netherlandish art was seen as crude ; Michelangelo claimed it was appealing only to " monks and friars " . At this point northern art began to fall almost completely out of favour in Italy . By the 17th century , when Bruges had lost its prestige and position as the pre @-@ eminent European trading city ( the rivers silted and ports were forced to close ) , the Italians dominated European art .
= = Destruction and dispersal = =
= = = Iconoclasm = = =
Religious images came under close scrutiny as actually or potentially idolatrous from the start of the Protestant Reformation in the 1520s . Martin Luther accepted some imagery , but few Early Netherlandish paintings met his criteria . Andreas Karlstadt , Huldrych Zwingli and John Calvin were wholly opposed to public religious images , above all in churches , and Calvinism soon became the dominant force in Netherlandish Protestantism . From 1520 , outbursts of reformist iconoclasm broke out across much of Northern Europe . These might be official and peaceable , as in England under the Tudors and the English Commonwealth , or unofficial and often violent , as in the Beeldenstorm or " Iconoclastic Fury " in 1566 in the Netherlands . On 19 August 1566 , this wave of mob destruction reached Ghent , where Marcus van Vaernewijck chronicled the events . He wrote of the Ghent Altarpiece being " taken to pieces and lifted , panel by panel , into the tower to preserve it from the rioters " . Antwerp saw very thorough destruction in its churches in 1566 , followed by more losses in the Spanish Sack of Antwerp in 1576 , and a further period of official iconoclasm in 1581 , which now included city and guild buildings , when Calvinists controlled the city council .
Many thousands of religious objects and artefacts were destroyed , including paintings , sculptures , altarpieces , stained glass , and crucifixes , and the survival rate of works by the major artists is low – even Jan van Eyck has only some 24 extant works confidently attributed to him . The number grows with later artists , but there are still anomalies ; Petrus Christus is considered a major artist , but is given a smaller number of works than van Eyck . In general the later 15th century works exported to southern Europe have a much higher survival rate .
Many of the period 's artworks were commissioned by clergy for their churches , with specifications for a physical format and pictorial content that would complement existing architectural and design schemes . An idea of how such church interiors might have looked can be seen from both van Eyck 's Madonna in the Church and van der Weyden 's Exhumation of St Hubert . According to Nash , van der Weyden 's panel is an insightful look at the appearance of pre @-@ Reformation churches , and the manner in which images were placed so that they resonated with other paintings or objects . Nash goes on to say that , " any one would necessarily be seen in relation to other images , repeating , enlarging , or diversifying the chosen themes " . Because iconoclasts targeted churches and cathedrals , important information about the display of individual works has been lost , and with it , insights about the meaning of these artworks in their own time . Many other works were lost to fires or in wars ; the break @-@ up of the Valois Burgundian state made the Low Countries the cockpit of European conflict until 1945 . Van der Weyden 's The Justice of Trajan and Herkinbald polyptych is perhaps the most significant loss ; from records it appears to have been comparable in scale and ambition to the Ghent Altarpiece . It was destroyed by French artillery during the bombardment of Brussels in 1695 , and is today known only from a tapestry copy .
= = = Documentation = = =
There have been significant challenges for art historians in establishing the names of Netherlandish masters and attributing specific works . The historical record is very poor , such that some major artists ' biographies are still bare outlines , while attribution is an ongoing and often contentious debate . Even the most widely accepted attributions are typically only as a result of decades of scientific and historical research originating from after the start of the 20th century . Some painters , such as Adriaen Isenbrandt and Ambrosius Benson of Bruges , who were mass @-@ producing panels to be sold at fair stalls , have had as many as 500 painting attributed to them .
The avenues for research have been limited by many historical factors . Many archives were destroyed in bombing campaigns in the two world wars , and a great number of works for which records do exist are themselves lost or destroyed . The record @-@ keeping in the region was inconsistent , and often the export of works by major artists was , owing to the pressures of commercial demand , not adequately recorded . The practice of signing and dating works was rare until the 1420s , and while the inventories of collectors may have elaborately described the works , they attached little importance to recording the artist or workshop that produced them . Surviving documentation tends to come from inventories , wills , payment accounts , employment contracts and guild records and regulations .
Because Jan van Eyck 's life is well documented in comparison to his contemporary painters , and because he was so clearly the period 's innovator , a great number of works were attributed to him after art historians began to research the period . Today Jan is credited with about 26 – 28 extant works . This reduced number in part follows from the identification of other mid @-@ 15th @-@ century painters such as van der Weyden , Christus and Memling , while Hubert , so highly regarded by late @-@ 19th @-@ century critics , is now relegated as a secondary figure with no works definitively attributed to him . Many early Netherlandish masters have not been identified , and are today known by " names of convenience " , usually of the " Master of ... " format . The practice lacks an established descriptor in English , but the " notname " term is often used , a derivative of a German term . Collecting a group of works under one notname is often contentious ; a set of works assigned one notname could have been produced by various artists whose artistic similarities can be explained by shared geography , training , and response to market @-@ demand influences . Some major artists who were known by pseudonyms are now identified , sometimes controversially , as in the case of Campin , who is usually , but not always , associated with the Master of Flémalle .
Many unidentified late @-@ 14th- and early @-@ 15th @-@ century northern artists were of the first rank , but have suffered academic neglect because they have not been attached to any historical person ; as Nash puts it , " much of what cannot be firmly attributed remains less studied " . Some art historians believe that this situation has fostered a lack of caution in connecting works with historical persons , and that such connections often rest on tenuous circumstantial evidence . The identities of a number of well @-@ known artists have been founded on the basis of a single signed , documented or otherwise attributed work , from which follow further attributions based on technical evidence and geographical proximity . The so @-@ called Master of the Legend of the Magdalen , who may have been Pieter van Coninxloo , is one of the more notable examples ; others include Hugo van der Goes , Campin , Stefan Lochner and Simon Marmion .
The lack of surviving theoretical writing on art and recorded opinion from any of the pre @-@ 16th century major artists presents still more difficulties in attribution . Dürer , in 1512 , was the first artist of the era to properly set down in writing his theories of art , followed by Lucas de Heere in 1565 and Karel van Mander in 1604 . Nash believes a more probable explanation for the absence of theoretical writing on art outside Italy is that the northern artists did not yet have the language to describe their aesthetic values , or saw no point in explaining in writing what they had achieved in painting . Surviving 15th @-@ century appreciations of contemporary Netherlandish art are exclusively written by Italians , the best known of which include Cyriacus Ancona in 1449 , Bartolommeo Fazio in 1456 , and Giovanni Santi in 1482 .
= = Rediscovery = =
The dominance of Northern Mannerism in the mid @-@ 16th century was built on a subversion of the conventions of Early Netherlandish art , which in turn fell out of public favour . Yet it remained popular in some royal art collections ; Mary of Hungary and Philip II of Spain both sought out Netherlandish painters , sharing a preference for van der Weyden and Bosch . By the early 17th century , no collection of repute was complete without 15th- and 16th @-@ century northern European works ; the emphasis however tended to be on the Northern Renaissance as a whole , more towards the German Albrecht Dürer , by far the most collectable northern artist of the era . Giorgio Vasari in 1550 and Karel van Mander ( c . 1604 ) placed the art works of era at the heart of Northern Renaissance art . Both writers were instrumental in forming later opinion about the region 's painters , with emphasis on van Eyck as the innovator .
The Netherlandish painters were largely forgotten in the 18th century . When Musée du Louvre was converted to an art gallery during the French Revolution , Gerard David 's Marriage at Cana – then attributed to van Eyck – was the only piece of Netherlandish art on display there . More large panels were added to the collection after the French conquered the Low Countries . These works had a profound effect on German literary critic and philosopher Karl Schlegel , who after a visit in 1803 wrote an analysis of Netherlandish art , sending it to Ludwig Tieck , who had the piece published in 1805 .
In 1821 Johanna Schopenhauer became interested in the work of Jan van Eyck and his followers , having seen early Netherlandish and Flemish paintings in the collection of the brothers Sulpiz and Melchior Boisserée in Heidelberg . Schopenhauer did primary archival research because there was very little historical record of the masters , apart from official legal documents . She published Johann van Eyck und seine Nachfolger in 1822 , the same year Gustav Friedrich Waagen published the first modern scholarly work on early Netherlandish painting , Ueber Hubert van Eyck und Johann van Eyck ; Waagen 's work drew on Schlegel and Schopenhauer 's earlier analyses . Waagen went on to become director of the Gemäldegalerie in Berlin , amassing a collection of Netherlandish art , including most of the Ghent panels , a number of van der Weyden triptychs , and a Bouts altarpiece . Subjecting the works to meticulous analysis and examination in the course of acquisition , based on distinguishing characteristics of individual artists , he established an early scholarly system of classification .
In 1830 the Belgian Revolution split Belgium from the Netherlands of today and created divisions between the cities of Bruges ( home of van Eyck and Memling ) , Antwerp ( Matsys ) , Brussels ( van der Weyden and Bruegel ) and Leuven ( Bouts ) . As the newly created state of Belgium sought to establish a cultural identity , Memling 's reputation came to equal that of van Eyck in the 19th century . Memling was seen as the older master 's match technically , and as possessing a deeper emotional resonance . When in 1848 the collection of Prince Ludwig of Oettingen @-@ Wallerstein at Schloss Wallerstein was forced onto the market , his cousin Prince Albert arranged a viewing at Kensington Palace ; though a catalogue of works attributed to the School of Cologne , Jan van Eyck and van der Weyden was compiled by Waagen , there were no other buyers so Albert purchased them himself . At a period when London 's National Gallery sought to increase its prestige , Charles Eastlake purchased Rogier van der Weyden 's The Magdalen Reading panel in 1860 from Edmond Beaucousin 's " small but choice " collection of early Netherlandish paintings .
Netherlandish art became popular with museum @-@ goers in the late 19th century . At the beginning of the 20th century , van Eyck and Memling were the most highly regarded , with van der Weyden and Christus little more than footnotes . Later many of the works then attributed to Memling were found to be from van der Weyden or his workshop . In 1902 , Bruges hosted the first exhibition of Netherlandish art with 35 @,@ 000 visitors , an event that was a " turning point in the appreciation of early Netherlandish art " . For a number of reasons , the chief of which was the difficulty of securing paintings for the exhibition , only a few of van Eyck 's and van der Weyden 's panels were displayed , while almost 40 of Memling 's pieces were shown . Nevertheless , van Eyck and van der Weyden , to an extent , were then considered the first rank of Netherlandish artists .
The Bruges exhibition renewed interest in the period and initiated scholarship that was to flourish in the 20th century . Johan Huizinga was the first historian to place Netherlandish art squarely in the Burgundian period – outside of nationalistic borders – suggesting in his book The Waning of the Middle Ages , published in 1919 , that the flowering of the school in the early 15th century resulted wholly from the tastes set by the Burgundian court . Another exhibition visitor , Georges Hulin de Loo , published an independent critical catalogue highlighting the large number of mistakes in the official catalogue , which had used attributions and descriptions from the owners . He and Max Friedländer , who visited and wrote a review of the Bruges exhibition , went on to become leading scholars in the field .
= = Scholarship and conservation = =
The most significant early research of Early Netherlandish art occurred in the 1920s , in German art historian Max Jakob Friedländer 's pioneering Meisterwerke der Niederländischen Malerei des 15 @.@ und 16 . Jahrhunderts . Friedländer focused on the biographical details of the painters , establishing attribution , and examining their major works . The undertaking proved extremely difficult , given the scant historical record of even the most significant artists . Fellow @-@ German Erwin Panofsky 's analysis in the 1950s and 1960s followed and in many ways challenged Friedländer 's work . Writing in the United States , Panofsky made the work of the German art historians accessible to the English @-@ speaking world for the first time . He effectively legitimized Netherlandish art as a field of study , and raised its status to something similar to the early Italian renaissance .
Panofsky was one of the first art historians to abandon formalism . He built on Friedländer 's attempts at attribution , but focused more on social history and religious iconography . Panofsky developed the terminology with which the Netherlandish paintings are usually described , and made significant advances identifying the rich religious symbolism especially of the major altarpieces . Panofsky was the first scholar to connect the work of Netherlandish painters and illuminators , noticing the considerable overlap . He considered the study of manuscripts to be integral to the study of panels , though in the end came to view illumination as less significant than panel painting – as a prelude to the truly significant work of the northern artists of the 15th and 16th centuries .
Otto Pächt and Friedrich Winkler continued and developed on Panofsky 's work . They were key in identifying sources of iconography and ascribing attribution , or at least differentiating anonymous masters under names of convenience . The paucity of surviving documentation has made attribution especially difficult , a problem compounded by the workshop system . It was not until the late 1950s , after the research of Friedländer , Panofsky and Meyer Schapiro , that the attributions generally accepted today were established .
More recent research from art historians such as Lorne Campbell relies on X @-@ ray and infrared photography to develop an understanding of the techniques and materials used by the painters . The conservation of the Ghent Altarpiece in the mid @-@ 1950s pioneered methodologies and scholarship in technical studies . Examination of paint layers and underlayers was later applied to other Netherlandish works , allowing for more accurate attributions . Van Eyck 's work , for example , typically shows underdrawings unlike Christus ' work . These discoveries , too , hint at the relationships between the masters of the first rank and those in the following generations , with Memling 's underdrawings clearly showing van der Weyden 's influence .
Scholarship since the 1970s has tended to move away from a pure study of iconography , instead emphasizing the paintings ' and artists ' relation to the social history of their time . According to Craig Harbison , " Social history was becoming increasingly important . Panofsky had never really talked about what kind of people these were . " Harbison sees the works as objects of devotion with a " prayer book mentality " available to middle @-@ class burghers who had the means and the inclination to commission devotional objects . Most recent scholarship is moving away from the focus on religious iconography ; instead , it investigates how a viewer is meant to experience a piece , as with donor paintings that were meant to elicit the feeling of a religious vision . James Marrow thinks the painters wanted to evoke specific responses , which are often hinted at by the figures ' emotions in the paintings .
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= Blood Knights =
Blood Knights is a hack and slash action role @-@ playing game for Microsoft Windows , PlayStation 3 ( through PlayStation Network ) , and Xbox 360 ( through Xbox Live Arcade ) . The game was developed by German studio Deck13 Interactive and published by Kalypso Media , also from Germany . Blood Knights was released on 1 November 2013 for the Xbox 360 , 13 November 2013 for the PC , and 19 November 2013 for the PlayStation 3 , with an ESRB rating of Mature .
The game features two playable characters : Jeremy , a vampire hunter , and Alysa , a vampire that Jeremy became ritually bound to , on a quest to retrieve an artifact that can cause cataclysms . The game features both single player and local cooperative gameplay ( co @-@ op ) modes , but does not allow for online co @-@ op . Blood Knights received generally negative reviews upon release , with a large number of critics faulting the game for showing a lack of creativity and having uninteresting gameplay .
= = Gameplay = =
The game combines platformer , role @-@ playing , and combat elements . Players move about several levels , including a forest and a castle , using precision jumping and puzzle solving to move about the level . Players can discover equipable weapons and armor that improves effectiveness in combat by exploring levels for chests . Combat takes the form of set piece battles , in which a number of enemies appear and must be defeated before the player can continue to progress through the area . These enemies include human outlaws , demons , werewolves , and other vampires . The game also contains boss battles , in which the player must defeat a significantly stronger enemy that is aided by normal enemies .
Players assume control of Jeremy , a sword @-@ wielding , melee @-@ focused character , and Alysa , who uses crossbows to deliver ranged attacks . The game can be played as a single player game , in which the player alternates between controlling Jeremy and Alysa , or as a local co @-@ op game , in which two players play cooperatively , with one controlling each character . Blood Knights does not support online co @-@ op . Like most hack and slash games , the control scheme is minimal . When controlling Jeremy , players can chain attacks using one button ( the X button on the Xbox 360 ) , and can use a number of special attacks that have a cooldown timer , including a heavy blow , a whirlwind attack , and a power that draws distant enemies to Jeremy . While controlling Alysa , the game functions as a twin @-@ stick shooter , in which movement is controlled by one thumbstick or set of keys , and firing weapons is controlled by the other thumbstick or another set of keys . Alysa also has special attacks , including the ability to fire flaming arrows and a grenade attack . In single player gameplay , the player can switch between Jeremy and Alysa by pressing a button ( the Y button on the Xbox 360 ) . Players can transfer health , in the form of blood , between the two playable characters , healing one at the expense of the other .
= = Plot = =
Blood Knights takes place in a fictional version of Earth in which humans and vampires are at war . The main character , Jeremy , is the captain of a holy order that fights vampires . At the beginning of the game , the order travels to a set of ruins to protect the Blood Seal , a powerful artifact , from being captured by the vampires . The order suffers heavy losses in the attempt , and in desperation the priest Bartholomew uses a ritual to bind Jeremy to the vampire Alysa . During the course of Jeremy 's attempt to retrieve the seal , he is turned into a vampire , and the vampires seize the seal themselves . With the seal removed from its resting place , the moon begins to crack apart , causing unpredictable and violent tides . Because Jeremy has been turned into a vampire himself , Bartholomew and another member of the holy order , Castello , kick Jeremy and Alysa into an abyss inside the ruins , abandoning them for dead . Castello assumes Jeremy 's place as the captain of the order .
Jeremy and Alysa escape the ruins and pursue the vampires that stole the Blood Seal . Castello and the holy order are also pursuing the vampires . Jeremy and Alysa reach Godskeep , a human stronghold . In order to pass through the town , the pair must first rescue the town 's sheriff , who went into a nearby forest with the town guard in an attempt to kill the powerful vampire Blood Fox . Jeremy and Alysa defeat Blood Fox , and in the town , Jeremy encounters Bartholomew , who split from Castello after an argument . Bartholomew tasks Jermey with recovering the Relic of Light , a powerful weapon that can be used against the vampires , in order to prove that Jeremy is still loyal to the order .
After retrieving the weapon , Jeremy is informed that the Lords of Pikehold , a group of knights that defends the area , have defeated the vampire army carrying the blood seal . On his way to Pikehold Castle , Jeremy is then ambushed by Castello . The pair fight Castello , who falls off a cliff after being defeated . Inside Pikehold Castle , Jeremy discovers that the Lords of Pikehold have become thralls to a succubus . Jeremy and Alysa defeat the Lords of Pikehold and the succubus , who informs Jeremy that the Blood Seal has been taken by a vampire mage to the top of a mountain .
Bartholomew meets Jeremy and Alysa at the top of the mountain , and informs the pair that the vampires have already summoned a powerful demon that will slaughter mankind . Bartholomew has called upon the army of Rome , led by the powerful First Paladin of Rome , to defeat the demon . Jeremy , knowing that the First Paladin of Rome would kill him and Alysa on sight , sets off to defeat the demon before the army of Rome arrives . When Jeremy and Alysa confront the demon , it explains that it was summoned because the humans have become too numerous , and with increased numbers they have gone from fearing vampires to hunting them . Jeremy and Alysa kill the demon and Bartholomew recovers the Blood Seal . As he does this , the First Paladin of Rome arrives and demands the seal for himself . Bartholomew gives the seal to Jeremy instead , and battles the Paladin to delay the army of Rome .
Jeremy travels back to the ruins from the beginning of the game , only to find that the army of Rome has beaten him there . Jeremy and Alysa meet the First Paladin in the Blood Seal 's resting chamber . The Paladin explains that he wishes to destroy the seal , causing a great deluge that will bring the people , who had stopped believing the Church 's teachings , back under the Church 's influence . Jeremy refuses to allow the Paladin to do this , and the Paladin attacks . After being injured , the Paladin pulls back and Castello appears and attacks . Jeremy and Alysa kill Castello , and the Paladin re @-@ enters the fight . Jeremy and Alysa appear to severely wound the First Paladin , but he boasts that vampires cannot kill him , as he is under the protection of Rome . Bartholomew emerges from behind the Blood Seal 's resting place and slits the First Paladin 's throat from behind , killing him . Bartholomew claims that although the Blood Seal was destroyed in battle , the moon will heal itself . He reveals that while he has heard that it can be done , he does not personally know how to turn Jeremy back into a human , and unless he is human , the bond between him and Alysa cannot be undone . The game ends with Jeremy and Alysa agreeing to work together to find a way to reverse Jeremy 's transformation into a vampire .
= = Development = =
Blood Knights went through a number of delays before being published . Announced by German publisher dtp entertainment in July 2012 , the game was originally scheduled for release in the summer of 2012 . In a Game Informer article published on 3 September 2012 , the release date was given as 31 October 2012 ( Halloween ) . This date was later shifted back to December 2012 , citing " legal negotiations " , and then to 20 February 2013 , citing a need for more development time . 20 February passed with neither the release of the game nor an announcement by the developer or publisher , although both Xbox.com and Amazon.de now listed release dates in mid @-@ march . Developer Deck13 Interactive then announced a release date of 19 March 2013 . On 5 March 2013 , Deck 13 founder Jan Klose explained that the release date remained uncertain , expecting the game to be released no later than mid @-@ May 2013 . Klose called the game 99 @.@ 9 % complete , and blamed the delays on financial difficulties at dtp entertainment , which necessitated that Deck 13 become a co @-@ publisher and take on responsibilities that the studio not planned for . The game was eventually released by a different publisher , Kalypso Media , as the first game under their digital @-@ only label " Kobolt Games " . The game was finally released on 1 November 2013 for the Xbox 360 , 13 November 2013 for the PC , and 19 November 2013 for the PlayStation 3 .
= = Reception = =
Blood Knights received mixed to poor reviews upon release . At Metacritic , a video game review aggregator , the Xbox 360 version of the game received an average score of 45 out of 100 , based on 7 reviews . The UK Official Xbox Magazine remarked that " Blood Knights holds as much annoyance as satisfaction " , while the US version of Official Xbox Magazine contended that " Blood Knights is too easy to ever become actively irritating , but its deficit of danger makes it too darn dull to hold even a devoted horror nut ’ s attention for long " .
Critics took issue with the game 's lack of originality . Henry Kelly of The Digital Fix comments that " The character models are quite basic and unimaginative - Jeremy has typically harsh features and the female characters are given skimpy outfits to show off their stereotyped fantasy physiques " . X @-@ ONE Magazine calls the game an " unashamed clone of Diablo " , which borrows mechanics , naming conventions , and character archetypes from Diablo . The gameplay was considered by critics to be too easy , with a terrible enemy AI that made combat unchallenging , interspersed with what Henry Kelly called " painfully simple non @-@ puzzles " . Other components that faced criticism included the shallowness of the RPG elements , the lack of online co @-@ op , and the dialogue , which was considered poorly written and occasionally poorly acted .
Reviewers did , however , have positive things to say about the game 's co @-@ op system , lack of online support notwithstanding . Cameron Lewis of Official Xbox Magazine US , in the summary of his review , noted that " complementary characters make local co @-@ op effective " . The UK version of the magazine called the co @-@ op " pleasant " , while X @-@ ONE Magazine felt that the mode gave the game more substance .
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= New York State Route 31F =
New York State Route 31F ( NY 31F ) is an east – west state highway located in the vicinity of Rochester , New York , in the United States . The western terminus of the route is at an intersection with NY 96 north of the Monroe County village of Pittsford . Its eastern terminus is at a junction with NY 31 in the Wayne County village of Macedon . Along the way , NY 31F serves the villages of East Rochester and Fairport and connects to Interstate 490 ( I @-@ 490 ) in the town of Pittsford . From Fairport eastward , NY 31F roughly parallels the Erie Canal , which the route crosses over twice : once west of Fairport and again north of Macedon .
The origins of NY 31F date back to 1908 when the modern alignment of the route was designated as part of Route 20 by the New York State Legislature . Route 20 , an unsigned legislative route , was rerouted in 1921 to use NY 31 and NY 250 between Macedon and Fairport instead . The section of Route 20 's pre @-@ 1921 alignment west of modern NY 350 received a designation c . 1931 when it became part of New York State Route 33B , an alternate route of NY 33 ( now NY 441 ) that extended from Pittsford to Walworth via Macedon Center . NY 33 was truncated to end in Rochester in 1949 , at which time NY 33B was renumbered to NY 31F and rerouted to end in Macedon .
= = Route description = =
Upon separating from NY 96 in the town of Pittsford directly in front of St. John Fisher College , NY 31F becomes Fairport Road , the name that the route dons for its first 3 @.@ 4 miles ( 5 @.@ 5 km ) . The highway , four lanes wide , heads east , skirting the southern edge of the St. John Fisher campus for a half @-@ mile ( 0 @.@ 8 km ) before connecting to I @-@ 490 at exit 25 . Past the expressway , NY 31F begins to straddle the boundary line between the village of East Rochester and the town of Pittsford . After intersecting NY 153 , the primary roadway linking East Rochester and the village of Pittsford , NY 31F passes to the south of the East Rochester Union Free School District campus prior to leaving the vicinity of the village and entering Perinton .
Within Perinton , the route initially passes through residential areas similar to those located in East Rochester and Pittsford but soon enters a heavily commercial area centered on the intersection between NY 31F and Jefferson Avenue . During this stretch , the route passes under the CSX Transportation @-@ owned West Shore Subdivision railroad line , here situated on a large embankment . At the eastern edge of the commercial strip , NY 31F narrows to two lanes and crosses over the Erie Canal into Fairport , where it becomes West Church Street .
NY 31F continues through the residential western portion of the village to an intersection with NY 250 ( South Main Street ) just south of the village 's business district and adjacent to the First Baptist Church of Fairport . After crossing NY 250 , NY 31F becomes East Church Street and begins to parallel the canal as both exit the village . Now solely in Perinton once more , NY 31F cuts to the north along Turk Hill Road , crossing the Erie Canal and the Rochester Subdivision , CSX 's main line through the Rochester area , on a large overpass . The route resumes its eastward path at an intersection with High Street in the northeast corner of the village , becoming Macedon Center Road in the process .
East of Fairport , the route becomes predominantly rural in nature in a stark departure from its first 6 miles ( 10 km ) . NY 31F heads east on a nearly @-@ linear routing through eastern Perinton and the Wayne County town of Macedon to the hamlet of Macedon Center , located at the junction of NY 31F and Canandaigua Road . Not long after , NY 31F encounters NY 350 . Here , NY 31F and NY 350 turn south , concurrently following Ontario Center Road for 1 @.@ 75 miles ( 2 @.@ 82 km ) to the village of Macedon , where both NY 31F and NY 350 terminate at NY 31 . During this final stretch , NY 31F passes under the CSX main line and over the Erie Canal once again .
Maintenance of NY 31F is split between the New York State Department of Transportation ( NYSDOT ) , the village of Fairport , and Monroe County . The highway is state @-@ maintained from NY 96 east to the Fairport village line , at which point ownership and maintenance of the road shifts to the village . NY 31F becomes a state highway once again at NY 250 and remains NYSDOT @-@ maintained until it turns north onto the county @-@ owned and maintained Turk Hill Road . While on Turk Hill Road , NY 31F overlaps with County Route 50 , the designation assigned to the entire length of Turk Hill Road within Monroe County . The remainder of NY 31F east of Turk Hill Road is state @-@ maintained .
= = History = =
All of what is now NY 31F was originally designated as part of Route 20 , an unsigned legislative route , by the New York State Legislature in 1908 . Route 20 entered the village of Macedon on modern NY 31 and continued westward to Rochester on current NY 96 . On March 1 , 1921 , Route 20 was realigned to utilize modern NY 31 and NY 250 between Macedon and Fairport . Although all of modern NY 31F was part of a legislative route at one time and was state @-@ maintained west of Fairport and from Macedon Center to Macedon by 1926 , it was not assigned a posted route number until the 1930s .
The portion of current NY 31F west of NY 350 in the town of Macedon was designated as part of NY 33B c . 1931 . NY 33B continued north from Macedon on modern NY 350 to an intersection with NY 33 ( now NY 441 ) in Walworth . NY 350 was assigned by the following year ; however , it was initially confined to the segment it now shares with NY 31F between NY 31 in the village of Macedon and then @-@ NY 33B . NY 350 was extended northward to Ontario Center in the early 1940s , overlapping NY 33B from Macedon to Walworth . NY 33 was truncated westward to Rochester on January 1 , 1949 . As a result , NY 33B was renumbered to NY 31F and rerouted east of Macedon Center to travel south along NY 350 to Macedon , where it connected to NY 31 .
The first section of the Eastern Expressway ( now I @-@ 490 ) opened in the mid @-@ 1950s , extending from NY 31F south to NY 96 in Bushnell 's Basin . Initially , NY 96 was realigned to follow the freeway between the two locations and Fairport Road between the north end of the freeway and its original routing on East Avenue . As a result , NY 31F was truncated to begin at the new freeway . The latter change was short @-@ lived , however , as NY 31F was re @-@ extended to its original terminus c . 1957 after NY 96 was moved onto a northwestern extension of the Eastern Expressway to what is now the Can of Worms in Rochester .
NY 31F originally ran through the center of Fairport , turning north at NY 250 and sharing Main Street with NY 250 on a short concurrency between Church Street and High Street . NY 31F turned east at High Street and followed it to Turk Hill Road , where NY 31F continued east on its current alignment . The route was realigned onto its current alignment through Fairport on April 1 , 1984 , as a result of a highway maintenance swap between the state of New York and the village of Fairport . In the swap , ownership and maintenance of High Street was transferred from the state to Fairport in exchange for control over the portion of East Church Street between NY 250 and Turk Hill Road .
= = Major intersections = =
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= Malvern College =
Malvern College is an independent coeducational day and boarding school in Malvern , Worcestershire , England . It is a public school in the British sense of the term and is a member of the Rugby Group and of the Headmasters ' and Headmistresses ' Conference . Since its foundation in 1865 , it has remained on the same grounds , which are located near the town centre of Great Malvern . The campus , now covering some 250 acres ( 101 ha ) , is set against the backdrop of the Malvern Hills .
There are currently about 670 pupils enrolled at the school , aged between 13 and 18 . Additionally , there are about 310 pupils aged from 3 to 13 at The Downs , Malvern College Prep School , in nearby Colwall in Herefordshire . Across the two schools , in total , there are nearly 1000 pupils .
Among the alumni of the College are at least two Commonwealth Prime Ministers , two Nobel Laureates ( five Nobel Prizes including prep school alumni ) , an Olympic Gold medalist and many other notable persons from various fields . The novelist C. S. Lewis , author of The Chronicles of Narnia , is a former pupil of the school .
In collaboration with its Chinese partners , the College has two schools in China , Malvern College Qingdao and Malvern College Chengdu . A third school in Cairo , Egypt is under construction , and Malvern College Hong Kong had been allocated a new site in Tai Po , New Territories , Hong Kong , adjacent to the Hong Kong Science Park .
= = History = =
Set in the Malvern Hills , the school 's location owes much to Malvern 's emergence in the nineteenth century as a fashionable spa resort , appreciated for its unpolluted air and the healing qualities of its famous spring water . The school opened its doors for the first time on 25 January 1865 under the headship of the Rev. Arthur Faber . Initially , there were only twenty @-@ four boys , of whom eleven were day boys , six masters and two houses , named Mr McDowall 's ( No.1 ) and Mr Drew 's ( No.2 ) , but the new school 's expansion was rapid . One year later , there were sixty @-@ four boys . By 1875 , there were 200 on the Roll and five boarding houses ; by the end of the 19th century , the numbers had risen to more than 400 boys and ten houses . American poet Henry Longfellow visited the school in 1868 , Prince and Princess Christian on speech @-@ day in 1870 and The Duke and Duchess of Teck visited in 1891 with their daughter , Princess May ( later Queen Mary ) . Lord Randolph Churchill 's speech @-@ day comments on education in 1889 were reported in The Times . The school was one of the twenty four Public Schools listed in the Public Schools Yearbook of 1889 and was incorporated by Royal Charter in 1928 . Further expansion of pupil numbers and buildings continued between the end of the First World War in 1918 and the start of the Second World War in 1939 . During the two Wars , 457 and 258 former pupils , respectively , gave their lives . Seven former pupils were among ' the few ' who took part in the Battle of Britain .
Following the onset of World War II , the College premises were requisitioned by the Admiralty between October 1939 and July 1940 , with the result that the school was temporarily relocated to Blenheim Palace . In 1942 , its premises were again needed for governmental use , on this occasion by the TRE and , from May 1942 to July 1946 , the school was housed with Harrow School . QinetiQ , a private sector successor to the government 's original research facility , is still sited on former college land .
Having traditionally been a school for boys aged from 13 to 18 years old , in 1992 it merged with Ellerslie Girls ’ School and Hillstone prep school to become a coeducational school for pupils aged 3 to 18 years old . The college also departed from the full boarding tradition of the English public school and allows day pupils , although over two thirds of pupils still choose to board . In September 2008 , the College 's Prep School merged with The Downs prep school on the latter 's nearby site in Colwall , Herefordshire to form The Downs , Malvern College Prep School .
= = = Recent developments = = =
The year 2008 also saw the start of a multimillion @-@ pound development scheme that included a new sports complex , new athletics and viewing facilities at the pitches and two new boarding houses . The sports complex and new houses were opened in October 2009 by The Duke of York . Ellerslie House was opened for girls , commemorating the eponymous former girls ' school , and the other new house has become the new permanent residence for the boys of No. 7 .
In 2010 part of the school suffered very serious damage when fire broke out on 10 April in one of the boarding houses . The 1871 Grade II listed building which was the boarding house for 55 girls and living accommodation of the housemistress and her family , was almost completely destroyed . Over 70 firefighters and 13 fire engines from Malvern , Worcester and Stourport @-@ on @-@ Severn depots fought the blaze .
= = The Downs = =
The original preparatory school , Hillstone , opened in 1883 . When the college went coeducational , Hillstone was absorbed into Malvern to become its prep department . The prep school merged with The Downs , a Quaker school founded in 1900 , and the new school is now known as The Downs Malvern .
Boarding is available to pupils in the prep school aged 7 and above . They reside in a separate boarding house known as The Warren .
= = Governance = =
The school is governed by a College Council of approximately fifteen members , chaired since 2002 by Lord MacLaurin , a former pupil himself . Educationalist and former cricketer Antony Clark joined the school as Headmaster in 2008 .
= = Educational and social care standards = =
An Ofsted report , following an October 2010 inspection , rated the school 's services against specific criteria and assigned an overall quality rating of Grade 1 ( outstanding ) . This compares to an overall rating of Grade 2 ( good ) in the previous report published in 2008 . In the latest report , " organisation " and health and safety provision were upgraded to Grade 1 while boarding accommodation was rated Grade 2 . Other areas assessed included " helping children to achieve " , to " make a positive contribution " and to " enjoy what they do " and these remained Grade 1 ( outstanding ) . The report states that four recommendations made in Ofsted 's last report had all been addressed and that the school " delivers an outstanding service that continues to be developed " .
= = Curriculum = =
While academic success is considered important , emphasis is also placed on the all @-@ round development of the individual rather than on academic results alone . In the Sixth Form , courses are offered at A @-@ Level in art , business studies , classical civilisation , design and technology , drama and theatre studies , economics , English literature , geography , Greek , history , history of art , key skills , Latin , mathematics , modern languages ( French , German , Spanish ) , music , music technology , physical education , politics and the sciences ( biology , chemistry , physics ) . Further courses are available at International Baccalaureate level and special arrangements are sometimes made for other courses upon request .
= = Academic performance = =
In both the 2008 and 2010 Ofsted reports , a Grade 1 ( outstanding ) rating was assigned for " helping children to achieve " , to " make a positive contribution " and to " enjoy what they do " . In 2010 , the school was , according to OFSTED , ranked 28th among private schools for value added to its student 's A Level results , placing it within the top 5 % nationally . In 2011 , it was 79th among co @-@ ed independent boarding schools for A @-@ Level results . The school 's pupils have achieved particularly good results at IB level . In 2011 , the school was ranked 18th for the average grades of its IB pupils . In 2012 , The Independent review of both A level and IB results , based on government issued statistics , ranked Malvern 32nd in the UK with 1080 @.@ 7 points , ahead of Harrow ( 34th ) , Winchester ( 73rd ) , Eton ( 80th ) and Wellington ( 89th ) .
= = Admission = =
Generally , parents register their children up to two years in advance , in order to secure a place at age 13 , through sitting a Common Entrance exam , or via the award of an open Academic Scholarship . Sixth Form entry is gained either through a scholarship exam , or by tests in the subjects to be studied . Bursaries are available for new entrants , and subject scholarships are awarded for Art , Drama , Music , Science / Technology and Sport .
= = Sport = =
The school has a strong sporting tradition . For boys ' sports , some Malvernians would consider the College to be best known as a football school although its cricket sides have also produced players who have gone on to play at international level . Traditionally , sport for boys used to be split between the original ' major sports ' of football , cricket , and rackets ( rugby was added later ) , and ' minor sports ' . Colours were awarded for each major sport , as appropriate . After 1995 , the distinction between ' major sport ' and ' minor sport ' was removed . The girls ' main sports are hockey and lacrosse in the winter , lacrosse and netball in the Lent Term and tennis and rounders in the summer .
The College also plays a multitude of other sports such as Rackets , Fives , Athletics , Tennis , Squash , Croquet , Basketball , Badminton and Polo . Some boys ' hockey and girls ' football are played .
On 16 October 2009 , a new sports complex and hospitality suite was opened by The Duke of York . The opening was attended by several well known sports personalities including athlete Dame Kelly Holmes , cricketers Michael Vaughan and Graham Gooch , footballer Peter Shilton , rugby union player Jason Leonard , athlete Christina Boxer and hockey player Rachel Walker . The indoor complex , which was built on the site of the old sports hall and swimming pool , offers an 8 court sports hall , a dance studio and fitness suite , a climbing wall , two squash courts , a shooting range , a large function suite , and a 6 lane swimming pool and its facilities are also available for use by the wider community . They are also used by Worcestershire County Cricket Club for their winter training programme . In February 2010 , the school also hosted the England Blind Cricket squad for training sessions .
In November 2010 Vera Hughes opened the two newly refurbished Rackets courts . The courts were named after her husband Ron Hughes who was the Rackets Professional at Malvern from 1956 until 1986 The courts are now both tournament quality .
= = Activities = =
Activities offered in addition to the academic curriculum include sports ( see above ) , Combined Cadet Force ( CCF ) , the Duke of Edinburgh 's Award , First Aid , Orchestra / Band , Orienteering , Outdoor Pursuits , Photography , Practical Engineering , Riding , and Skiing . A wider range of activities depending on the demand may also be available and include , Ballet / Dance , Ceramics , Chess , Choir , Climbing , Community Service , Current Affairs , Dancing , Debating / Public Speaking , Design / Technology , Drama / Theatre Studies , Life Saving , First Aid , Outdoor Pursuits , Photography , Practical Engineering , Textiles , and Young Enterprise .
Facilities are also available ( in some cases , by prior arrangement ) for independent extra @-@ curricular activities such as journalism and music rehearsal .
= = Year names = =
= = Houses = =
A House is a component of the school community and a place where pupils reside and engage in private study . Normally , a pupil remains at his chosen House until he or she leaves the school . Each house has its own colours . Competitions are regularly arranged between the Houses in a range of academic , artistic and sporting activities . With the exceptions of School House and Ellerslie House , the eleven houses at Malvern are named with numbers 1 to 9 , a system which used to be used at Roedean School , a girls ' school founded by the sisters of the Old Malvernian judge Sir Paul Ogden Lawrence . The houses , in order of foundation are :
= = Traditions = =
= = = Events = = =
Commemoration Day
The main social event of the school calendar Commemoration Day , or " Commem " as it is known in the school , celebrates the founding of the school . A service is held where prizes are awarded . A cricket match then takes place between the 1st cricket XI and the Free Foresters . The inter @-@ house Athletics competition and the Summer Concert take place on the Friday before Commem . It is held on the Saturday of Half @-@ term in the Summer term .
The CVS Ball
The School Council organises a charity ball , a black tie themed event that takes place in the 5th week of every Autumn Term . A similar event called The Autumn Ball is held for the Lower School .
The inter @-@ house Singing Cup Competition
This is held annually in the winter term . It is one of a number of different inter @-@ house events on the school social calendar .
The Ledder
The Ledder , or Ledbury Run , is a 7 @.@ 5 @-@ mile ( 12 @.@ 1 km ) cross country race that starts in the town of Ledbury , goes over the Malvern Hills and finishes on the Senior , the main cricket pitch in the centre of the College . The first 9 runners receive Ledder Caps . In its early days there was no organised route and pupils simply had to get back to college as fast as they could .
Remembrance Sunday
On the Sunday closest to 11 November , known as Remembrance Sunday , the entire college assembles in front of St. George to await a procession of parents , alumni , guests and teachers . Two minutes silence is followed by The Last Post and a reading . Representatives of the student body ( the Senior Chapel Prefect , who is the Head Boy or Girl ) and of the Old Malvernian Society then place wreaths at the foot of St. George . A memorial service follows in the chapel for the more than 400 Malvernians who lost their lives in the Great War .
= = = Carmen Malvernense = = =
The school song was written and composed by two masters , M. A. Bayfield and R. E. Lyon . It was first sung on speech day in 1888 .
Exultemus , O sodales ,
Iam cessare fas novales ,
Paululum laxemus mentes ,
Dulcem , domum repententes ,
Age soror iuxta fratrem ,
Celebremus Almam Matrem ,
Quae nos ornat , haec ornanda ,
Quae nos amat , adamanda .
The same song became the school song of Eastbourne College when Bayfield became headmaster there in 1895 .
= = Innovations = =
The College has a history of innovation in the field of education . In 1963 , it was the first independent school to have a language laboratory . It is thought to be the first school in the country to have had a careers service . Under the direction of John Lewis , a former master , it pioneered Nuffield Physics in the 1960s , Science in Society in the 1970s , and the Diploma of Achievement in the 1990s . At the beginning of the 1990s , Malvern College became one of the first schools in Britain to offer the choice between the International Baccalaureate and A @-@ Levels in the Sixth Form . The school was one of the first boys ' public schools to become fully coeducational from the preparatory department all the way to sixth form .
Each summer the staff and some older pupils run a summer school , Young Malvern , which incorporates many sports , activities and learning experiences . Malvern College is one of the two schools in the country ( the other being Dulwich College ) to offer Debating in the curriculum and pupils participate in regional and national competitions including the Debating Matters competition and the Three Counties Tournament . The subject is compulsory at Foundation Year level .
= = Notable alumni = =
The school 's alumni ( " old boys " ) are known as Old Malvernians , or OMs . The Malvernian Society holds many annual reunions and events and Old Malvernians , including former pupils of The Downs , Hillstone , and Ellerslie schools which have merged with Malvern College , benefit from a remission in fees for their own children . Other Old Malvernian clubs and societies include OM Lodge , Court Games , Golf , Sailing , Shooting , the Old Malvernians Cricket Club , and the Old Malvernians Football Club , a record breaking club competing in the Arthurian League .
Old Malvernians have been instrumental in the formation of sporting and charitable organisations such as Blackburn Rovers FC and the Docklands Settlements .
At least two of the school 's former pupils have become Nobel Laureates . Some past pupils are royalty from various nations , and others have become Heads of State , military officers , jurists , authors , and sportspeople .
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= 3 Juno =
Juno , minor @-@ planet designation 3 Juno in the Minor Planet Center catalogue system , is an asteroid in the asteroid belt . Juno was the third asteroid discovered , on 1 September 1804 by German astronomer Karl L. Harding . It is the 11th @-@ largest asteroid , and one of the two largest stony ( S @-@ type ) asteroids , along with 15 Eunomia . It is estimated to contain 1 % of the total mass of the asteroid belt .
= = History = =
= = = Discovery = = =
Juno was discovered in 1804 by Karl Ludwig Harding . It was the third asteroid found , but was initially considered to be a planet ; it was reclassified as an asteroid and minor planet during the 1850s .
= = = Name = = =
3 Juno is named after the mythological Juno , the highest Roman goddess . The adjectival form is Junonian ( jūnōnius ) .
With two exceptions , ' Juno ' is the international name , subject to local variation : Italian Giunone , French Junon , Russian Yunona , etc . Its planetary symbol is ③ . An older symbol , still occasionally seen , is ⚵ ( ) .
= = Characteristics = =
Juno is one of the larger asteroids , perhaps tenth by size and containing approximately 1 % the mass of the entire asteroid belt . It is the second @-@ most @-@ massive S @-@ type asteroid after 15 Eunomia . Even so , Juno has only 3 % the mass of Ceres .
The orbital period of 3 Juno is 4 @.@ 36578 years .
Amongst S @-@ type asteroids , Juno is unusually reflective , which may be indicative of distinct surface properties . This high albedo explains its relatively high apparent magnitude for a small object not near the inner edge of the asteroid belt . Juno can reach + 7 @.@ 5 at a favourable opposition , which is brighter than Neptune or Titan , and is the reason for it being discovered before the larger asteroids Hygiea , Europa , Davida , and Interamnia . At most oppositions , however , Juno only reaches a magnitude of around + 8 @.@ 7 — only just visible with binoculars — and at smaller elongations a 3 @-@ inch ( 76 mm ) telescope will be required to resolve it . It is the main body in the Juno family .
Juno was originally considered a planet , along with 1 Ceres , 2 Pallas , and 4 Vesta . In 1811 , Schröter estimated Juno to be as large as 2290 km in diameter . All four were reclassified as asteroids as additional asteroids were discovered . Juno 's small size and irregular shape preclude it from being designated a dwarf planet .
Juno orbits at a slightly closer mean distance to the Sun than Ceres or Pallas . Its orbit is moderately inclined at around 12 ° to the ecliptic , but has an extreme eccentricity , greater than that of Pluto . This high eccentricity brings Juno closer to the Sun at perihelion than Vesta and further out at aphelion than Ceres . Juno had the most eccentric orbit of any known body until 33 Polyhymnia was discovered in 1854 , and of asteroids over 200 km in diameter only 324 Bamberga has a more eccentric orbit .
Juno rotates in a prograde direction with an axial tilt of approximately 50 ° . The maximum temperature on the surface , directly facing the Sun , was measured at about 293 K on October 2 , 2001 . Taking into account the heliocentric distance at the time , this gives an estimated maximum temperature of 301 K ( + 28 ° C ) at perihelion .
Spectroscopic studies of the Junonian surface permit the conclusion that Juno could be the progenitor of chondrites , a common type of stony meteorite composed of iron @-@ bearing silicates such as olivine and pyroxene . Infrared images reveal that Juno possesses an approximately 100 km @-@ wide crater or ejecta feature , the result of a geologically young impact .
= = Observations = =
Juno was the first asteroid for which an occultation was observed . It passed in front of a dim star ( SAO 112328 ) on February 19 , 1958 . Since then , several occultations by Juno have been observed , the most fruitful being the occultation of SAO 115946 on December 11 , 1979 , which was registered by 18 observers . Juno occulted the magnitude 11 @.@ 3 star PPMX 9823370 on July 29 , 2013 , and 2UCAC 30446947 on July 30 , 2013 .
Radio signals from spacecraft in orbit around Mars and on its surface have been used to estimate the mass of Juno from the tiny perturbations induced by it onto the motion of Mars . Juno 's orbit appears to have changed slightly around 1839 , very likely due to perturbations from a passing asteroid , whose identity has not been determined .
In 1996 , Juno was imaged by the Hooker Telescope at Mount Wilson Observatory at visible and near @-@ IR wavelengths , using adaptive optics . The images spanned a whole rotation period and revealed an irregular shape and a dark albedo feature , interpreted as a fresh impact site .
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= Seal of Indiana =
The Seal of the State of Indiana is used by the Governor of Indiana to certify official documents . The seal has gone through several revisions since the region was a part of the Northwest Territory . It is likely the original seal , which is similar to the current one , was created by William Henry Harrison during his administration of the Indiana Territory . The current design of the seal was standardized by the Indiana General Assembly in 1963 .
= = Usage = =
The state seal is maintained by the Governor of Indiana . It is used to certify the authenticity of official state documents . The seal is placed on departmental reports , bills the Governor signs into law , and official communications from the Governor to other high @-@ ranking office holders . The seal is also used on all commissions granted by the state as proof of the commission 's authority .
= = History = =
The United States Congress passed legislation on May 8 , 1792 , that directed the U.S. Secretary of State to " provide proper seals for the several and respective public offices in the said Territories " . Indiana was part of the Northwest Territory at that time and a seal was created by the United States Department of State to be used on official papers of the territory . The original seal was maintained by Governor Arthur St. Clair and the first recorded use was in a proclamation made on July 26 , 1788 .
On May 10 , 1800 , the Indiana Territory was created by an act of Congress , but no provision for an official seal was included in the measure . The earliest recorded use of Indiana Territory 's seal was on court documents that were signed by Governor William Henry Harrison in January 1801 . The seal he used was an adaptation of the original seal created for the Northwest Territory . Although its origin is uncertain , it is likely that it was Harrison who made the alterations .
The constitution of 1816 contained a clause that stated the governor should maintain a state seal and use it in official communication . The design of the seal was first proposed during the first session of the Indiana General Assembly in 1816 . On November 22 , 1816 , representative Davis Floyd of Harrison County proposed the adoption of a seal with a design he referred to as " A forest and a woodman felling a tree , a buffalo leaving the forest and fleeing through the plain to a distant forest , and sun in the west with the word Indiana . " The bill was put through a joint conference of both houses of the General Assembly and funds where voted to purchase a printer to create the seal .
In 1819 , the state seal was part of a state crisis . Lieutenant Governor Christopher Harrison became acting @-@ governor when Governor Jonathan Jennings was away conducting negotiations with northern Indiana 's native tribes . When Jennings returned , Harrison refused to step down as governor , claiming that Jennings ' actions had invalidated his governorship . Harrison seized the state seal and set up his own governor 's office . After several weeks of debate in the state legislature , Harrison was forced to return the seal to Jennings and vacate the office of the governor .
During 1895 , Robert S. Hatcher , the reading clerk of the Indiana Senate , was directed to ascertain the legal status of the design of the state seal . After a thorough review , Hatcher found that the laws that authorized the seal did not explicitly state what its design should be . He recommended that a bill be passed to standardize the seal . Senator McCord submitted legislation for that purpose , but no action was taken on it .
On January 28 , 1905 , an article ran in the Indianapolis News containing information on the origin of the seal , some of it dubious . The article received much attention and started an informal inquiry into the history of the seal , and namely to discover if the sun in the seal was rising or setting . Jacob Piatt Dunn , the preeminent Indiana historian of the time , consulted several history and arrived at the conclusion that the sun was rising . Dunn cited the fact the state was young , and the mountains were to the east of the state , not the west — clearly indicating the sun was rising .
The current design of the seal was standardized by the Indiana General Assembly in 1963 . During the meeting of the General Assembly , Representative Taylor I. Morris introduced legislation to standardize the design of the state seal . His bill described a seal that depicts a woodsman chopping a sycamore tree , while an American Bison runs in the foreground and the sun rises in the background . The leaves of the state tree , the tulip , were to be the border design . The bill passed the assembly that session and became law .
In 2004 , the 1963 statute came under criticism because it states the sun in the state seal is setting rather than rising . A thorough investigation by the Indiana Historical Bureau into the history of the seal led to the discovery that original seal was created with the intention that the sun should , in fact , be depicted as rising . In both 2004 and 2005 legislation was introduced to change the wording of the statute , but as of 2008 no action had been taken to correct the error .
= = Current statute = =
The law created to standardize the state seal has been in effect since 1963 . The stature states :
Indiana State Code : IC 1 @-@ 2 @-@ 4 @-@ 1
The official seal for the state of Indiana shall be described as follows : A perfect circle , two and five eighths ( 2 5 / 8 ) inches in diameter , inclosed by a plain line . Another circle within the first , two and three eighths ( 2 3 / 8 ) inches in diameter inclosed by a beaded line , leaving a margin of one quarter ( 1 / 4 ) of an inch . In the top half of this margin are the words " Seal of the State of Indiana " .
At the bottom center , 1816 , flanked on either side by a diamond , with two ( 2 ) dots and a leaf of the tulip tree ( liriodendron tulipifera ) , at both ends of the diamond . The inner circle has two ( 2 ) trees in the left background , three ( 3 ) hills in the center background with nearly a full sun setting behind and between the first and second hill from the left .
There are fourteen ( 14 ) rays from the sun , starting with two ( 2 ) short ones on the left , the third being longer and then alternating , short and long . There are two ( 2 ) sycamore trees on the right , the larger one being nearer the center and having a notch cut nearly half way through , from the left side , a short distance above the ground . The woodsman is wearing a hat and holding his ax nearly perpendicular on his right . The ax blade is turned away from him and is even with his hat .
The buffalo is in the foreground , facing to the left of front . His tail is up , front feet on the ground with back feet in the air , as he jumps over a log .
The ground has shoots of blue grass , in the area of the buffalo and woodsman .
= = Iconography = =
The sun rising in the picture represents that Indiana has a bright future ahead and is just beginning . The mountains it rises over are a representation of the Allegheny Mountains showing that Indiana is in the west . The woodman represents civilization subduing the wilderness that was Indiana . The buffalo represents the wilderness fleeing westward away from the advancing civilization .
= = Government Seals of Indiana = =
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= Shelby Corcoran =
Shelby Corcoran is a recurring fictional character from the Fox musical comedy @-@ drama series Glee . Portrayed by actress Idina Menzel , Shelby was introduced in the fourteenth episode of the show as the coach of Vocal Adrenaline , a rival show choir to New Directions , the show 's primary musical group . Fans had lobbied for Menzel to be cast as Rachel Berry 's ( Lea Michele ) biological mother , due to the strong physical resemblance between Menzel and Michele . After it is revealed that Shelby is , in fact , Rachel 's biological mother , Shelby discloses that she had signed a contract that stated that she could not seek out her daughter until she was eighteen . She tells Rachel that instead of trying to act like mother and daughter , they should just be grateful that they have met , and maintain their distance .
In the season one finale , Shelby adopts Quinn and Puck 's newborn daughter , Beth . She leaves Vocal Adrenaline before the beginning of the next school year . Shelby returns in the second episode of the third season , having been recruited to lead a second glee club at McKinley High by Sugar Motta 's father when Sugar is refused entry into New Directions . Shelby offers to include both Quinn and Puck in Beth 's life . Struggling at being a mother , she forms a romantic bond with eighteen @-@ year @-@ old student Puck , leading to a sexual relationship before she tells him that their relationship is a mistake and resigns from McKinley in the eighth episode . While Menzel 's musical performances on the show have been lauded , Shelby 's storylines were characterized as rushed , incomprehensible and polarizing by contemporary reviewers .
= = Storylines = =
Shelby Corcoran is introduced in the fourteenth episode of the series as the coach of Vocal Adrenaline , a rival show choir to New Directions , the show 's primary musical group . New Directions ' director , Will ( Matthew Morrison ) , on a visit to Carmel High School , meets Shelby and they end up at his apartment making out , but Will is unable to continue and tells her about his relationship problems . Shelby suggests that as Will had been with Terri ( Jessalyn Gilsig ) since he was fifteen and has immediately moved on to a new relationship , he ought to take some time out for himself . She later observes as New Directions ' star singer , Rachel Berry ( Lea Michele ) , and Vocal Adrenaline 's Jesse St. James ( Jonathan Groff ) kiss , and exchanges knowing looks with Jesse . In " Dream On " , Rachel confides in Jesse of her lifelong dream to discover the identity of her mother . While they are searching through boxes of records from her basement , Jesse takes a cassette tape from his jacket and pretends that it came from the box . The tape is labeled as a message from mother to daughter . Rachel refuses to listen to the tape , stating that she is not ready . Jesse later meets with Shelby , who reveals that she is Rachel 's biological mother , but a contractual agreement with Rachel 's two fathers prevents her from meeting with Rachel until she is 18 . She implores Jesse to convince Rachel to listen to the tape . Back at Rachel 's house , Jesse starts the tape playing as Rachel enters her bedroom , then leaves her to listen to it . On the tape , Shelby sings " I Dreamed a Dream " , leading to a duet with Rachel in a dream sequence , ending with Rachel back in her room in tears .
While subsequently spying on a Vocal Adrenaline rehearsal , Rachel realizes that Shelby is her biological mother . After introducing herself , Will meets with Shelby , concerned that she is not as invested in forging a relationship as Rachel is . Shelby confesses that she can no longer have children , but wishes she could have her baby back , rather than the now fully grown Rachel , whom she feels does not need her . She tells Rachel that instead of trying to act like mother and daughter , they should just be grateful that they have met , and maintain their distance . Rachel hugs her goodbye , and they duet on an acoustic version of " Poker Face " . In " Journey to Regionals " , the show 's first season finale , Rachel asks Shelby to help coach New Directions , but Shelby tells Rachel that she 's tired of coaching glee clubs , and is stepping down as Vocal Adrenaline 's coach to settle down and start a family . Shelby adopts Quinn 's ( Dianna Agron ) baby , whom she names Beth at Puck 's ( Mark Salling ) request .
Shelby returns in the second episode of the third season , " I Am Unicorn " , having been headhunted to coach a second glee club at McKinley High financed by Sugar Motta 's ( Vanessa Lengies ) wealthy and doting father . Shelby reaches out to Rachel , Puck and Quinn . She lets Puck see Beth , but rejects Quinn 's desire to do likewise due to Quinn 's bad @-@ girl attitude , appearance and behavior . Quinn quickly resumes her normal appearance , but reveals to Puck she is only pretending to behave in order to take Beth back from Shelby , and intends to pursue full custody . After Puck tells Shelby of Quinn 's true intentions , Shelby informs Quinn that she does not want her in Beth 's life . Shelby tells Puck that she is struggling at being a mother ; as the episode ends , they kiss . Puck falls in love with her , but Shelby tells him in " Mash Off " that the kiss was a mistake . She compounds the mistake in " I Kissed a Girl " when she sleeps with him , and resigns from McKinley in the eighth episode , " Hold On to Sixteen " . In the season four " Sweet Dreams " episode , which establishes that she is living in New York with Beth and is running a day care business , she tells Rachel to be original in her choice of music at her audition for the role of Fanny Brice in the upcoming Broadway revival of Funny Girl .
= = Development = =
During its initial run of episodes , Glee fans lobbied for the Broadway actress ( Idina Menzel ) to be cast as the biological mother of Rachel Berry , due to the strong resemblance between her and Michele . Series creator Ryan Murphy commented to the media that he had met with Menzel , by December 2009 , the break in the first season , but had not yet decided upon a role for her . The actress was ultimately cast as the coach of rival glee club Vocal Adrenaline , with Murphy comparing her character to Faye Dunaway 's character , Diana Christensen , in Network . Menzel makes her first appearance in " Hell @-@ O " . On July 15 , 2011 , it was announced that Menzel would be returning to Glee in the third season " for a major arc that could span as many as 10 @-@ 12 episodes " . Murphy was quoted as saying , " I 'm really excited [ ... ] that Idina is joining the family again . We missed her last year and we 're happy that she is coming back . " The article also noted that her character , Shelby , would be " returning from New York to Ohio to join William McKinley High School as a new teacher " . Menzel herself said that she would " be back and forth in Glee all throughout the season " , which she was " very excited about " .
= = Critical reception = =
Upon the character 's introduction , Lisa Respers France of CNN wrote that she was " praying " that Shelby would turn out to be Rachel 's biological mother , noting the stark resemblance between the two actresses . The A.V. Club author Todd VanDerWerff deemed the make @-@ out sequence between Shelby and Will nonsensical , but wrote that Menzel brought " such an air of authority to what she 's doing that the scene still plays . " The revelation that Shelby is Rachel 's biological mother , in the " Dream On " episode , was greeted as poignant and realistic by VanDerWeff , and as " great " and humanizing by Entertainment Weekly 's Tim Stack . Respers France was so impressed with the storyline that she was initially concerned it may be a dream sequence , and Eric Goldman of IGN found it the episode 's strongest attribute . Both James Poniewozik of Time and VanDerWerff praised the Rachel / Shelby storyline in " Theatricality " . The former commended Michele and Menzel for conveying " straight emotion " and the latter asserted that the storyline was " very well @-@ handled , another emotional story that the series is mostly nailing the execution of " . In contrast , BuddyTV editor Henrik Batallones criticized the storyline , suggesting that it was rushed and would have been better stretched out across the remainder of the season . VanDerWerff wrote that he did not " completely buy " Shelby 's " sudden " decision to adopt Beth in " Journey to Regionals " .
Samantha Urban of The Dallas Morning News dismissed the fact that Shelby had been hired to form a second glee club at McKinley as " mind @-@ bogglingly idiotic " . Amy Reiter of the Los Angeles Times found the idea incomprehensible , and Vanity Fair 's Brett Berk wrote , " Given Will 's ongoing struggles to fill his own crooning baker 's dozen , this is about as realistic a plan as Michele Bachmann starting a rival chapter of PFLAG at Liberty University . " Vicki Hyman of The Star @-@ Ledger characterized the notion of " Shelby deciding to give up a burgeoning Broadway career because she was missing her daughter grow up " to take a part @-@ time job in Lima as " ridiculous " , and the whole scenario as " more than a little bizarre " . Puck and Shelby 's kiss in the " Pot o ' Gold " episode was characterized as " creepy " and " super awkward " by AOLTV 's Crystal Bell , as either " super creepy " or " romantic " by BuddyTV 's John Kubicek , and as " groan @-@ inducing " in the " You 're actually going to go there ? " vein by IGN journalist Robert Canning . Critics were polarized by Puck and Shelby 's sexual encounter in the " I Kissed a Girl " episode . Kubicek declared that " the dumbest storyline Glee has ever done gets even dumber , " MTV contributor Kevin Sullivan called it " the most divisive plot line of the season " , and Bell asked , " Instead of these super creepy scenes between Puck and Shelby , can we please get more screen time for Shelby and Rachel ? "
= = Musical performances = =
Michele and Menzel 's " I Dreamed a Dream " duet attracted critical praise . Aly Semigran of MTV proclaimed that the performance represented " what musical theater lovers ' dreams are made of . " At the time , Raymund Flandez of The Wall Street Journal described the number as one of the most poignant duets the series had done , and concluded that " the vulnerability they conveyed is stunning in its simplicity and perfection . " Respers France said that the two outdid themselves , Bobby Hankinson of the Houston Chronicle praised Menzel 's " awesome voice " , and Gerrick D. Kennedy of the Los Angeles Times wrote , " Menzel and Michele together ? Singing ? Die with me . Again , soundtrack please " . VanDerWerff spoke of " absolute perfection " , while Blair Baldwin of Zap2it acclaimed it as " an ideal pairing of wicked @-@ great vocalists , " and as the show 's best musical sequence since its inception .
The acoustic performance of Lady Gaga 's " Poker Face " , in the " Theatricality " episode , sung by Rachel and Shelby was met with mixed reviews . Menzel opined that the sexual meaning of the song is different in the context of the show , calling it " actually very simple and truthful . " Both Mary Hanrahan of Broadway World and Kevin Coll of Fused Film noted that it was well done , but badly matched with the mother – daughter scene and storyline . Despite considering the track 's lyricism " a tad weird " in a mother – daughter context , Stack gave the performance an " A + " , named it one of his " all @-@ time favorite Glee moments " , and called their vocal performance " incredible " , as did Hankinson , who additionally applauded the duet 's " beautiful " arrangement and favored it as the installment 's best musical number . VanDerWeff said the " incredibly bizarre " selection " worked because Menzel and Michele sold it " .
The duet of " Somewhere " , in the " I Am Unicorn " episode , featuring Rachel and Shelby was generally complimented . Both Anthony Benigno , writing for The Faster Times , and Rae Votta of Billboard compared it favorably to their previous duet , " Poker Face " , from season one . Benigno gave the performance a " B + " , while Michael Slezak of TVLine gave it an " A − " and praised their " powerful , evocative voices " . Rolling Stone 's Erica Futterman was not impressed and characterized it as " Lite FM snooze that does nothing to showcase these Broadway belters in a new and exciting way " , and Amy Lee of The Huffington Post named it " pretty bland " . Flandez , however , hailed the duet as " pitch @-@ perfect " and " so sublime it makes you catch your breath " .
The mash @-@ up of " You and I " by Lady Gaga and another " You and I " by Eddie Rabbitt and Crystal Gayle , in the " Mash Off " episode , performed by Menzel and Morrison was well received by critics . Berk said that the mash @-@ up " almost worked " , while Los Angeles Times writer L 'Oreal Thompson praised the vocals of Menzel : " It 's official . Shelby sings Gaga as good as , if not better than , Gaga sings Gaga . " Slezak awarded the performance a " B " grade , and opined : " I loved the audacity of mashing up Lady Gaga with an Eddie Rabbit – Crystal Gayle chestnut , and the results had the sheen of ' 70s a.m. radio fare . Shelby 's voice was almost too crystal clear for the Gaga half of the composition . " Futterman said that Menzel " can kill a Gaga ballad " , and while she " outshines " Morrison , he " complements her nicely " . Entertainment Weekly journalist Abby West gave the mash @-@ up a " B + " , called it " really well @-@ done " and said it was " elevated " by Menzel 's voice . Sullivan wanted Menzel to interpret more songs by Lady Gaga . Votta , however , described the sequence as " horrendous " .
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= Tern =
Terns are seabirds in the family Sternidae that have a worldwide distribution and are normally found near the sea , rivers , or wetlands . Previously considered a subfamily of the gulls , Laridae , they are now usually given full family status and divided into eleven genera . They are slender , lightly built birds with long , forked tails , narrow wings , long bills , and relatively short legs . Most species are pale grey above and white below , with a contrasting black cap to the head , but the marsh terns , the Inca tern , and some noddies have dark plumage for at least part of the year . The sexes are identical in appearance , but young birds are readily distinguishable from adults . Terns have a non @-@ breeding plumage , which usually involves a white forehead and much @-@ reduced black cap .
The terns are birds of open habitats that typically breed in noisy colonies and lay their eggs on bare ground with little or no nest material . Marsh terns construct floating nests from the vegetation in their wetland habitats , and a few species build simple nests in trees , on cliffs or in crevices . The white tern , uniquely , lays its single egg on a bare tree branch . Depending on the species , one to three eggs make up the clutch . Most species feed on fish caught by diving from flight , but the marsh terns are insect @-@ eaters , and some large terns will supplement their diet with small land vertebrates . Many terns are long @-@ distance migrants , and the Arctic tern may see more daylight in a year than any other animal .
Terns are long @-@ lived birds and are relatively free from natural predators and parasites ; most species are declining in numbers due directly or indirectly to human activities , including habitat loss , pollution , disturbance , and predation by introduced mammals . The Chinese crested tern is in a critical situation and three other species are classed as endangered . International agreements provide a measure of protection , but adults and eggs of some species are still used for food in the tropics . The eggs of two species are eaten in the West Indies because they are believed to have aphrodisiac properties .
= = Taxonomy = =
The Charadriiformes order of birds contains 18 coastal seabird and wader families . Within the order , the terns form a lineage with the gulls , and , less closely , with the skimmers , skuas , and auks . Early authors such as Conrad Gessner , Francis Willughby , and William Turner did not clearly separate terns from gulls , but Linnaeus recognised the distinction in his 1758 Systema Naturae , placing the gulls in the genus Larus and the terns in Sterna . He gave Sterna the description rostrum subulatum , " awl @-@ shaped bill " , referring to the long , pointed bills typical of this group of birds , a feature that distinguishes them from the thicker @-@ billed gulls . Behaviour and morphology suggest that the terns are more closely related to the gulls than to the skimmers or skuas , and although Charles Lucien Bonaparte created the family Sternidae for the terns in 1838 , for many years they were considered to be a subfamily , Sterninae , of the gull family , Laridae . Relationships between various tern species , and between the terns and the other Charadriiformes , were formerly difficult to resolve because of a poor fossil record and the misidentification of some finds .
Following genetic research in the early twenty @-@ first century , the terns are now usually treated as a separate family : Sternidae . Most terns were formerly treated as belonging to one large genus , Sterna , with just a few dark species placed in other genera ; in 1959 , only the noddies and the Inca tern were excluded from Sterna . A recent analysis of DNA sequences supported the splitting of Sterna into several smaller genera . One study of part of the cytochrome b gene sequence found a close relationship between terns and a group of waders in the suborder Thinocori . These results are in disagreement with other molecular and morphological studies , and have been interpreted as showing either a large degree of molecular convergent evolution between the terns and these waders , or the retention of an ancient genotype .
The word " stearn " was used for these birds in Old English as early as the eighth century , and appears in the poem The Seafarer , written in the ninth century or earlier . Variants such as " tearn " occurred by the eleventh century , although the older form lingered on in Norfolk dialect for several centuries . As now , the term was used for the inland black tern as well as the marine species . Some authorities consider " tearn " and similar forms to be variants of " stearn " , while others derive the English words from Scandinavian equivalents such as Danish and Norwegian terne or Swedish tärna , and ultimately from Old Norse þerna . Linnaeus adopted " stearn " or " sterna " ( which the naturalist William Turner had used in 1544 as a Latinisation of an English word , presumably " stern " , for the black tern ) or a North Germanic equivalent for his genus name Sterna .
= = = Species = = =
The cladogram shows the relationships between the tern genera , and the currently recognised species , based on mitochondrial DNA studies , are listed below :
Genus Anous — noddies
Brown noddy ( Anous stolidus )
Black noddy ( A. minutus sometimes considered to be a subspecies of the lesser noddy )
Lesser noddy ( A. tenuirostris )
Genus Procelsterna — noddies
Blue noddy ( Procelsterna cerulea )
Grey noddy ( P. albivitta sometimes considered to be a subspecies of the blue noddy )
Genus Gygis — noddies
White tern ( Gygis alba )
Genus Onychoprion — brown @-@ backed terns
Spectacled tern ( Onychoprion lunatus )
Bridled tern ( O. anaethetus )
Sooty tern ( O. fuscatus )
Aleutian tern ( O. aleuticus )
Genus Sternula — little white terns
Fairy tern ( Sternula nereis )
Damara tern ( S. balaenarum )
Little tern ( S. albifrons )
Saunders 's tern ( S. saundersi formerly considered to be a subspecies of the little tern )
Least tern ( S. antillarum formerly considered to be a subspecies of the little tern )
Yellow @-@ billed tern ( S. superciliaris )
Peruvian tern ( S. lorata )
Genus Phaetusa — large @-@ billed terns
Large @-@ billed tern ( Phaetusa simplex )
Genus Hydroprogne — Caspian terns
Caspian tern ( Hydroprogne caspia )
Genus Gelochelidon — gull @-@ billed terns
Gull @-@ billed tern ( Gelochelidon nilotica )
Genus Larosterna — Inca terns
Inca tern ( Larosterna inca )
Genus Chlidonias — marsh terns
Black tern ( Chlidonias niger )
White @-@ winged tern ( or white @-@ winged black tern C. leucopterus )
Whiskered tern ( C. hybridus )
Black @-@ fronted tern ( C. albostriatus sometimes placed in Sterna )
Genus Thalasseus — crested terns
Lesser crested tern ( Thalasseus bengalensis )
Royal tern ( T. maximus )
Greater crested tern ( or swift tern , T. bergii )
Chinese crested tern ( T. bernsteini )
Elegant tern ( T. elegans )
Sandwich tern ( T. sandvicensis )
Cabot 's tern ( T. acuflavidus newly split from T. sandvicensis )
Genus Sterna — large white terns
Forster 's tern ( Sterna forsteri )
Snowy @-@ crowned tern ( S. trudeaui )
Common tern ( S. hirundo )
Roseate tern ( S. dougallii )
White @-@ fronted tern ( S. striata )
Black @-@ naped tern ( S. sumatrana )
South American tern ( S. hirundinacea )
Antarctic tern ( S. vittata )
Kerguelen tern ( S. virgata )
Arctic tern ( S. paradisaea )
River tern ( S. aurantia )
Black @-@ bellied tern ( S. acuticauda possibly Chlidonias )
White @-@ cheeked tern ( S. repressa possibly Chlidonias )
In addition to extant species , the fossil record includes a Miocene palaeospecies , Sterna milne @-@ edwardsii .
The genera Anous , Procelsterna and Gygis are collectively known as noddies , the Chlidonias species are the marsh terns , and all other species comprise the sea terns .
= = Description = =
Terns range in size from the least tern , at 23 cm ( 9 @.@ 1 in ) in length and weighing 30 – 45 g ( 1 @.@ 1 – 1 @.@ 6 oz ) , to the Caspian tern at 48 – 56 cm ( 19 – 22 in ) , 500 – 700 g ( 18 – 25 oz ) . They are longer @-@ billed , lighter @-@ bodied , and more streamlined than gulls , and their long tails and long narrow wings give them an elegance in flight . Male and female plumages are identical , although the male can be 2 – 5 % larger than the female and often has a relatively larger bill . Sea terns have deeply forked tails , and at least a shallow " V " is shown by all other species . The noddies ( genera Anous , Procelsterna and Gygis ) have unusual notched @-@ wedge shaped tails , the longest tail feathers being the middle @-@ outer , rather than the central or outermost . Although their legs are short , terns can run well . They rarely swim , despite having webbed feet , usually landing on water only to bathe .
The majority of sea terns have light grey or white body plumage as adults , with a black cap to the head . The legs and bill are various combinations of red , orange , yellow , or black depending on species . The pale plumage is conspicuous from a distance at sea , and may attract other birds to a good feeding area for these fish @-@ eating species . When seen against the sky , the white underparts also help to hide the hunting bird from its intended prey . The Inca tern has mainly dark plumage , and three species that mainly eat insects , the black tern , white @-@ winged tern , and black @-@ bellied tern , have black underparts in the breeding season . The Anous noddies have dark plumage with a pale head cap . The reason for their dark plumage is unknown , but it has been suggested that in tropical areas , where food resources are scarce , the less conspicuous colouration makes it harder for other noddies to detect a feeding bird . Plumage type , especially the head pattern , is linked to the phylogeny of the terns , and the pale @-@ capped , dark @-@ bodied noddies are believed to have diverged earlier than the other genera from an ancestral white @-@ headed gull , followed by the partially black @-@ headed Onychoprion and Sternula groupings .
Juvenile terns typically have brown- or yellow @-@ tinged upperparts , and the feathers have dark edges that give the plumage a scaly appearance . They have dark bands on the wings and short tails . In most species , the subsequent moult does not start until after migration , the plumage then becoming more like the adult , but with some retained juvenile feathers and a white forehead with only a partial dark cap . By the second summer , the appearance is very like the adult , and full mature plumage is usually attained by the third year . After breeding , terns moult into a winter plumage , typically showing a white forehead . Heavily worn or aberrant plumages such as melanism and albinism are much rarer in terns than in gulls .
= = = Voice = = =
Terns have a wide repertoire of vocalisations . For example , the common tern has a distinctive alarm , kee @-@ yah , also used as a warning to intruders , and a shorter kyar , given as an individual takes flight in response to a more serious threat ; this quietens the usually noisy colony while its residents assess the danger . Other calls include a down @-@ slurred keeur given when an adult is approaching the nest with a fish , and a kip uttered during social contact . Parents and chicks can locate one another by call , and siblings also recognise each other 's vocalisations from about the twelfth day after hatching , which helps to keep the brood together .
Vocal differences reinforce species separation between closely related birds such as the least and little terns , and can help humans distinguish similar species , such as common and Arctic terns , since flight calls are unique to each species .
= = Distribution and habitat = =
Terns have a world @-@ wide distribution , breeding on all continents including Antarctica . The northernmost and southernmost breeders are the Arctic tern and Antarctic tern respectively . Many terns breeding in temperate zones are long @-@ distance migrants , and the Arctic tern probably sees more annual daylight than any other animal as it migrates from its northern breeding grounds to Antarctic waters , a return journey of more than 30 @,@ 000 km ( 19 @,@ 000 mi ) . A common tern that hatched in Sweden and was found dead five months later on Stewart Island , New Zealand , must have flown at least 25 @,@ 000 km ( 16 @,@ 000 mi ) . Actual flight distances are , of course , much greater than the shortest possible route . Arctic terns from Greenland were shown by radio geolocation to average 70 @,@ 000 km ( 43 @,@ 000 mi ) on their annual migrations .
Most terns breed on open sandy or rocky areas on coasts and islands . The yellow @-@ billed , large @-@ billed , and black @-@ fronted terns breed only on rivers , and common , least and little terns also sometimes use inland locations . The marsh terns , Trudeau 's tern and some Forster 's terns nest in inland marshes . The black noddy and the white tern nest above ground level on cliffs or in trees . Migratory terns move to the coast after breeding , and most species winter near land , although some marine species , like the Aleutian tern , may wander far from land . The sooty tern is entirely oceanic when not breeding , and healthy young birds are not seen on land for up to five years after fledging until they return to breed . They lack waterproof plumage , so they cannot rest on the sea . Where they spend the years prior to breeding is unknown .
= = Behaviour = =
= = = Breeding = = =
Terns are normally monogamous , although trios or female @-@ female pairings have been observed in at least three species . Most terns breed annually and at the same time of year , but some tropical species may nest at intervals shorter than 12 months or asynchronously . Most terns become sexually mature when aged three , although some small species may breed in their second year . Some large sea terns , including the sooty and bridled terns , are four or older when they first breed . Terns normally breed in colonies , and are site @-@ faithful if their habitat is sufficiently stable . A few species nest in small or dispersed groups , but most breed in colonies of up to a few hundred pairs , often alongside other seabirds such as gulls or skimmers . Large tern species tend to form larger colonies , which in the case of the sooty tern can contain up to two million pairs . Large species nest very close together and sit tightly , making it difficult for aerial predators to land among them . Smaller species are less closely packed and mob intruders . Peruvian and Damara terns have small dispersed colonies and rely on the cryptic plumage of the eggs and young for protection .
The male selects a territory , which he defends against conspecifics , and re @-@ establishes a pair bond with his mate or attracts a new female if necessary . Courtship involves ritualised flight and ground displays , and the male often presents a fish to his partner . Most species have little or no nest , laying the eggs onto bare ground , but Trudeau 's tern , Forster 's tern and the marsh terns construct floating nests from the vegetation in their wetland habitats . Black and lesser noddies build nests of twigs , feathers and excreta on tree branches , and brown , blue , and grey noddies make rough platforms of grass and seaweed on cliff ledges , in cavities or on other rocky surfaces . The Inca tern nests in crevices , caves and disused burrows , such as that of a Humboldt penguin . The white tern is unique in that it lays its single egg on a bare tree branch .
Tropical species usually lay just one egg , but two or three is typical in cooler regions if there is an adequate food supply . The time taken to complete the clutch varies , but for temperate species incubation takes 21 – 28 days . The eggs of most gulls and terns are brown with dark splotches , so they are difficult for predators to spot on the beach . The precocial chicks fledge in about four weeks after hatching . Tropical species take longer because of the poorer food supply . Both parents incubate the eggs and feed the chicks , although the female does more incubating and less fishing than her partner . Young birds migrate with the adults . Terns are generally long @-@ lived birds , with individuals typically returning for 7 – 10 breeding seasons . Maximum known ages include 34 for an Arctic tern and 32 for a sooty . Although several other species are known to live in captivity for up to 20 years , their greatest recorded ages are underestimates because the birds can outlive their rings . Interbreeding between tern species is rare , and involves closely related species when it occurs . Hybrids recorded include common tern with roseate , Sandwich with lesser @-@ crested , and black with white @-@ winged .
= = = Feeding = = =
Most terns hunt fish by diving , often hovering first , and the particular approach technique used can help to distinguish similar species at a distance . Sea terns often hunt in association with porpoises or predatory fish , such as bluefish , tuna or bonitos , since these large marine animals drive the prey to the surface . Sooty terns feed at night as the fish rise to the surface , and are believed to sleep on the wing since they become waterlogged easily . Terns of several species will feed on invertebrates , following the plough or hunting on foot on mudflats . The marsh terns normally catch insects in the air or pick them off the surface of fresh water . Other species will sometimes use these techniques if the opportunity arises . An individual tern 's foraging efficiency increases with its age .
The gull @-@ billed tern is an opportunist predator , taking a wide variety of prey from marine , freshwater and terrestrial habitats . Depending on what is available it will eat small crabs , fish , crayfish , grasshoppers and other large insects , lizards and amphibians . Warm @-@ blooded prey includes mice and the eggs and chicks of other beach @-@ breeding birds ; least terns , little terns and members of its own species may be victims . The greater crested tern will also occasionally catch unusual vertebrate species such as agamid lizards and green sea turtle hatchlings , and follows trawlers for discards .
The eyes of terns cannot accommodate under water , so they rely on accurate sighting from the air before they plunge @-@ dive . Like other seabirds that feed at the surface or dive for food , terns have red oil droplets in the cones of their retinas ; birds that have to look through an air / water interface have more deeply coloured carotenoid pigments in the oil drops than other species . The pigment also improves visual contrast and sharpens distance vision , especially in hazy conditions , and helps terns to locate shoals of fish , although it is uncertain whether they are sighting the phytoplankton on which the fish feed , or other feeding birds . The red colouring reduces ultraviolet sensitivity , which in any case is an adaptation more suited to terrestrial feeders like the gulls , and this protects the eye from UV damage .
= = Predators and parasites = =
The inaccessibility of many tern colonies gave them a measure of protection from mammalian predators , especially on islands , but introduced species brought by humans can seriously affect breeding birds . These can be predators such as foxes , raccoons , cats and rats , or animals that destroy the habitat , including rabbits , goats and pigs . Problems arise not only on formerly mammal @-@ free islands , as in New Zealand , but also where an alien carnivore , such as the American mink in Scotland , presents an unfamiliar threat .
Adult terns may be hunted by owls and raptors , and their chicks and eggs may be taken by herons , crows or gulls . Less obvious nest predators include ruddy turnstones in the Arctic , and gull @-@ billed terns in little tern colonies . Adults may be robbed of their catch by avian kleptoparasites such as frigatebirds , skuas , other terns or large gulls .
External parasites include chewing lice of the genus Saemundssonia , feather lice and fleas such as Ceratophyllus borealis . Lice are often host specific , and the closely related common and Arctic terns carry quite different species . Internal parasites include the crustacean Reighardia sternae , and tapeworms such as Ligula intestinalis and members of the genera Diphyllobothrium and Schistocephalus . Terns are normally free of blood parasites , unlike gulls that often carry Haemoproteus species . An exception is the brown noddy , which sometimes harbours protozoa of that genus . In 1961 the common tern was the first wild bird species identified as being infected with avian influenza , the H5N3 variant being found in an outbreak involving South African birds . Several species of terns have been implicated as carriers of West Nile virus .
= = Relationships with humans = =
Terns and their eggs have long been eaten by humans and island colonies were raided by sailors on long voyages since the eggs or large chicks were an easily obtained source of protein . Eggs are still illegally harvested in southern Europe , and adults of wintering birds are taken as food in West Africa and South America . The roseate tern is significantly affected by this hunting , with adult survival 10 % lower than would otherwise be expected . In the West Indies , the eggs of roseate and sooty terns are believed to be aphrodisiacs , and are disproportionately targeted by egg collectors . Tern skins and feathers have long been used for making items of clothing such as capes and hats , and this became a large @-@ scale activity in the second half of the nineteenth century when it became fashionable to use feathers in hatmaking . This trend started in Europe but soon spread to the Americas and Australia . White was the preferred colour , and sometimes wings or entire birds were used .
Terns have sometimes benefited from human activities , following the plough or fishing boats for easy food supplies , although some birds get trapped in nets or swallow plastic . Fishermen looked for feeding tern flocks , since the birds could lead them to fish shoals . Overfishing of small fish such as sand eels can lead to steep declines in the colonies relying on these prey items . More generally , the loss or disruption to tern colonies caused by human activities has caused declines in many species . Pollution has been a problem in some areas , and in the 1960s and 1970s DDT caused egg loss through thinning of the shells . In the 1980s , organochlorides caused severe declines in the Great Lakes area of the US . Because of their sensitivity to pollutants , terns are sometimes used as indicators of contamination levels .
Habitat enhancements used to increase the breeding success of terns include floating nest platforms for black , common and Caspian terns , and artificial islands created for a number of different species . More specialised interventions include providing nest boxes for roseate terns , which normally nest in the shelter of tallish vegetation , and using artificial eelgrass mats to encourage common terns to nest in areas not vulnerable to flooding .
= = Conservation status = =
A number of terns face serious threats , and the Chinese crested tern is classed as " critically endangered " by BirdLife International . It has a population of fewer than 50 birds and a breeding range of just 9 km2 ( 3 @.@ 5 mi2 ) . It is declining due to egg collection , human disturbance and the loss of coastal wetlands in China . Three other species are categorised as " endangered " , with declining populations of less than 10 @,@ 000 birds . The South Asian black @-@ bellied tern is threatened by habitat loss , egg collecting for food , pollution and predation . In New Zealand , the black @-@ fronted tern is facing a rapid fall in numbers due to predation by introduced mammals and Australian magpies . Disturbance by cattle and sheep and by human activities is also a factor . The Peruvian tern was initially damaged by the collapse of anchoveta stocks in 1972 , but breeding colonies have subsequently been lost due to building , disturbance and pollution in their coastal wetlands .
The Australasian fairy tern is described as " vulnerable " . Disturbance by humans , dogs and vehicles , predation by introduced species and inappropriate water level management in South Australia are the main reasons for its decline . Five species are " near threatened " , indicating less severe concerns or only potential vulnerability . The elegant tern is so categorised because 95 % of the population breeds on one island , Isla Rasa in the Gulf of California , and the Kerguelen tern has a population of less than 5 @,@ 000 adults breeding on small and often stormy Pacific islands . Three species , the Inca , Damara , and river terns , are expected to decline in the future due to habitat loss and disturbance . Some tern subspecies are endangered , including the California least tern and the Easter Island race of the grey noddy .
Most tern species are declining in numbers due to the loss or disturbance of breeding habitat , pollution and increased predation . Gull populations have increased over the last century because of reduced persecution and the availability of food from human activities , and terns have been forced out of many traditional nesting areas by the larger birds . A few species are defying the trend and showing local increases , including the Arctic tern in Scandinavia , Forster 's tern around the Great Lakes , the Sandwich tern in eastern North America and its yellow @-@ billed subspecies , the Cayenne tern , in the Caribbean .
Terns are protected by international legislation such as the Agreement on the Conservation of African @-@ Eurasian Migratory Waterbirds ( AEWA ) and the US @-@ Canada Migratory Bird Treaty Act of 1918 . Parties to the AWEA agreement are required to engage in a wide range of conservation strategies described in a detailed action plan . The plan is intended to address key issues such as species and habitat conservation , management of human activities , research , education , and implementation . The North American legislation is similar , although there is a greater emphasis on protection .
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= Jane Eyre ( 1910 film ) =
Jane Eyre is a 1910 American silent short classic drama produced by the Thanhouser Film Corporation . Adapted from Charlotte Brontë 's 1847 novel , Jane Eyre , the film mirrors the events and plot of the original book . The writer of the scenario is unknown , but Lloyd Lonergan probably adapted the work . The film 's director is often and erroneously claimed to be Theodore Marston , but Barry O 'Neil or Lloyd B. Carleton are possible candidates . The cast of the film was credited , an act rare and unusual in the era .
This was the first American , first English language and second or third worldwide movie adaptation , of at least 27 film and television versions – of the novel . Such repeated dissemination has made the Brontë sisters ' two major works ubiquitous .
The single reel film , approximately 1000 feet long , was released on May 6 , 1910 . It was later credited by Edwin Thanhouser as marking the assured success of the company . The popularity of the production resulted in the production of additional copies , so the Thanhouser company had more orders than could be filled . Critical reception to the film was generally positive , but with some minor criticisms . The film is presumed lost .
= = Plot = =
This shortened and streamlined version of Jane Eyre follows the overall themes of the original novel . The condensed events were summarized and the official synopsis was published in the The Moving Picture World . It states : " Jane Eyre is left an orphan and penniless at the age of 14 . She is adopted by her uncle , who has ample means of providing for her , and who also loves her dearly . Her uncle 's kin , however , consider her adoption as an intrusion , do all in their power to prevent her becoming a member of the family . But her uncle insists on her remaining , and during his lifetime she receives some degree of kindness and consideration . Unfortunately , Uncle Reed dies and leaves Jane without a friend in the world . She is sent to an orphan asylum by her unfeeling aunt . Five years later she leaves the asylum to [ accept ] the position of governess to Lord Rochester 's little niece . The child is the daughter of Rochester 's dead brother . Her mother has become insane and is living in Lord Rochester 's home , under his protection . "
" Jane is engaged by Lord Rochester 's housekeeper , during his absence from home , and her first meeting with her employer is both exciting and romantic . She is sitting by the edge of the road reading when Lord Rochester rides up to his ancestral home . The sight of his huge dog , coming upon her suddenly , so startles Jane that she jumps to her feet , causing Lord Rochester 's horse to shy and throw its rider . He injures his ankle , and has to be assisted to remount by ' the little witch , ' as he calls her , who is the cause of his accident . One evening the maniac escapes from her nurse and sets fire to the room in which Lord Rochester has fallen asleep . He is saved from a horrible death by Jane . When next Jane 's haughty aunt and cousins call upon Lord Rochester , they are just in time to be introduced to his bride , who is none other than the despised Jane Eyre . "
= = Cast = =
Marie Eline as a young Jane Eyre
Gloria Gallop as Georginia Reed
Frank H. Crane as Lord Rochester ( Mr. Rochester in original )
Amelia Barleon as Mrs. Rochester
Charles Compton as John Reed
Martin Faust as Uncle Reed
Irma Taylor
Alphonse Ethier
William Garwood
= = Production = =
The scenario for the film was adapted from Charlotte Brontë 's 1847 novel Jane Eyre . Brontë 's work was modeled after her own life . The book was considered a classic for many decades before the Thanhouser adaptation . The film adaptation was not the first , the earliest known adaption being a 1909 Italian silent film . The writer of the scenario is unknown , but it may have been Lloyd Lonergan . Lonergan was an experienced newspaperman still employed by The New York Evening World while writing scripts for the Thanhouser productions . He was the most important script writer for Thanhouser , averaging 200 scripts a year from 1910 to 1915 .
There has been considerable debate over the identity of the film 's director . Most commonly , the directional credit is given to Theodore Marston . The apparent origin of this error is from the American Film @-@ Index 1908 – 1915 . Film historian Q. David Bowers consulted one of the co @-@ authors of the book , Gunnar Lundquist , and confirmed that the credit of Marston was in error . Theodore Marston worked with Pathé , Kinemacolor , Vitagraph and other companies , but there is no record of Marston working with Thanhouser . This error has persisted in the following decade in several publications . Also , I sentieri del cinema : guida per argomenti al primo secolo di film also credits Marston . Among the more prominent citations of Marston 's role at Thanhouser is in American Silent Horror , Science Fiction and Fantasy Feature Films , 1913 – 1929 by John T. Soister . While the director of the film is not known , two Thanhouser directors are possible . Barry O 'Neil was the stage name of Thomas J. McCarthy , who would direct many important Thanhouser pictures , including its first two @-@ reeler , Romeo and Juliet . Lloyd B. Carleton was the stage name of Carleton B. Little , a director who would stay with the Thanhouser Company for a short time , moving to Biograph Company by the summer of 1910 . Bowers does not attribute either as the director for this particular production nor does Bowers credit a cameraman . Blair Smith was the first cameraman of the Thanhouser company , but he was soon joined by Carl Louis Gregory who had years of experience as a still and motion picture photographer . The role of the cameraman was uncredited in 1910 productions .
Cast in the role of a young Jane Eyre was Marie Eline , soon to be known and famous as the " Thanhouser Kid " . Almost nothing is known about Gloria Gallop 's role or work in the Thanhouser productions , but she is credited with the minor filler subject , The Cigars His Wife Brought and this film . Frank H. Crane was an early leading man of the Thanhouser company and was already credited in four previous films by the company . Amelia Barleon was a minor actress at Thanhouser with more stage experience . It is unknown how many films she appeared in , but this is credited as her first and The Winter 's Tale as her second and last . Charles Compton may have had his film career start in this Thanhouser production , but he was better known for his juvenile roles on the stage . Bowers credits Martin J. Faust as one of the most important actors in for Thanhouser in 1910 and 1911 , but Faust 's role in productions were often went uncredited . Both Irma Taylor and Alphonese Ethier were actors that appeared in Thanhouser productions with few credits . The last identified member of the cast is William Garwood , who was among the most important actors at Thanhouser . He joined the company in late 1909 and remained until 1911 before returning in 1912 . This is known as his first credited work with Thanhouser .
= = Release and reception = =
The single reel film , approximately 1 @,@ 000 feet ( 300 m ) long , was released on May 6 , 1910 . Publicity for the release of this film was handled by Bert Adler and was successful in generating trade interest and promised a better work then Thanhouser 's St. Elmo from the previous month . The high expectations for the film were picked up and included in subsequent articles in The Moving Picture World and The New York Dramatic Mirror in advance of its release . Also , the players in the production were credited for their work , something which was rare and unusual at the time . Edwin Thanhouser would later mark Jane Eyre as the point in which he became confident in the success of the company . The release saw the new company suddenly having more orders than it could fill and the laboratory had to work overtime to produce additional prints to meet the demand . The popularity of the stage production in advertisements makes identifying the showings of the film more difficult than other Thanhouser productions of the time , but theaters across the nation displayed advertisements for the film . Theaters include Indiana , Kansas , Missouri , and North Carolina .
Jane Eyre helped secure the future of the Thanhouser Company and reviewers were largely positive with only minor criticism about the acting or photography . The Morning Telegraph said the production was excellent save for the lack of emotion displayed over the death of Uncle Reed . There were two reviews of the film in The Moving Picture World , both of which were positive . The first review was positive for its acting and clear adaption , but cautioned itself against further flattery of Edwin Thanhouser 's new company . The reviewer noted there were signs of inexperience the company 's best work – in the fall from the horse having been depicted as instead as a clumsy dismount . The second review was much more positive , it praised the adaptation and acting , but found the photography to not be of the same standard as its previous work . The film is presumed lost .
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= Attachment disorder =
Attachment disorder is a broad term intended to describe disorders of mood , behavior , and social relationships arising from a failure to form normal attachments to primary care giving figures in early childhood . Such a failure would result from unusual early experiences of neglect , abuse , abrupt separation from caregivers between 6 months and three years of age , frequent change or excessive numbers of caregivers , or lack of caregiver responsiveness to child communicative efforts resulting in a lack of basic trust . A problematic history of social relationships occurring after about age three may be distressing to a child , but does not result in attachment disorder .
The term attachment disorder is used to describe emotional and behavioral problems of young children , and also applied to school @-@ age children , teenagers and adults . The specific difficulties implied depend on the age of the individual being assessed , and a child 's attachment @-@ related behaviors may be very different with one familiar adult than with another , suggesting that the disorder is within the relationship and interactions of the two people rather than an aspect of one or the other personality . No list of symptoms can legitimately be presented but generally the term attachment disorder refers to the absence or distortion of age appropriate social behaviors with adults . For example , in a toddler , attachment @-@ disordered behavior could include a failure to stay near familiar adults in a strange environment or to be comforted by contact with a familiar person , whereas in a six @-@ year @-@ old attachment @-@ disordered behavior might involve excessive friendliness and inappropriate approaches to strangers .
There are currently two main areas of theory and practice relating to the definition and diagnosis of attachment disorder , and considerable discussion about a broader definition altogether . The first main area is based on scientific enquiry , is found in academic journals and books and pays close attention to attachment theory . It is described in ICD @-@ 10 as reactive attachment disorder , or " RAD " for the inhibited form , and disinhibited attachment disorder , or " DAD " for the disinhibited form . In DSM @-@ IV @-@ TR both comparable inhibited and disinhibited types are called reactive attachment disorder or " RAD " .
The second area is controversial and considered pseudoscientific . It is found in clinical practice , on websites and in books and publications , but has little or no evidence base . It makes controversial claims relating to a basis in attachment theory . The use of these controversial diagnoses of attachment disorder is linked to the use of pseudoscientific attachment therapies to treat them .
Some authors have suggested that attachment , as an aspect of emotional development , is better assessed along a spectrum than considered to fall into two non @-@ overlapping categories . This spectrum would have at one end the characteristics called secure attachment ; midway along the range of disturbance would be insecure or other undesirable attachment styles ; at the other extreme would be non @-@ attachment . Agreement has not yet been reached with respect to diagnostic criteria .
Finally , the term is also sometimes used to cover difficulties arising in relation to various attachment styles which may not be disorders in the clinical sense .
= = Attachment and attachment disorder = =
Attachment theory is primarily an evolutionary and ethological theory . In relation to infants , it primarily consists of proximity seeking to an attachment figure in the face of threat , for the purpose of survival . Although an attachment is a " tie , " it is not synonymous with love and affection , despite their often going together and a healthy attachment is considered to be an important foundation of all subsequent relationships . Infants become attached to adults who are sensitive and responsive in social interactions with the infant , and who remain as consistent caregivers for some time . Parental responses lead to the development of patterns of attachment which in turn lead to ' internal working models ' which will guide the individual 's feelings , thoughts and expectations in later relationships .
A fundamental aspect of attachment is called basic trust . Basic trust is a broader concept than attachment in that it extends beyond the infant @-@ caregiver relationship to " ... the wider social network of trustable and caring others . " and " ... links confidence about the past with faith about the future . " " Erikson argues that the sense of trust in oneself and others is the foundation of human development " and with a balance of mistrust produces hope .
In the clinical sense , a disorder is a condition requiring treatment as opposed to risk factors for subsequent disorders . There is a lack of consensus about the precise meaning of the term ' attachment disorder ' although there is general agreement that such disorders only arise following early adverse caregiving experiences . Reactive attachment disorder indicates the absence of either or both the main aspects of proximity seeking to an identified attachment figure . This can occur either in institutions , or with repeated changes of caregiver , or from extremely neglectful primary caregivers who show persistent disregard for the child 's basic attachment needs after the age of 6 months . Current official classifications of RAD under DSM @-@ IV @-@ TR and ICD @-@ 10 are largely based on this understanding of the nature of attachment .
The words attachment style or pattern refer to the various types of attachment arising from early care experiences , called secure , anxious @-@ ambivalent , anxious @-@ avoidant , ( all organized ) , and disorganized . Some of these styles are more problematic than others , and , although they are not disorders in the clinical sense , are sometimes discussed under the term ' attachment disorder ' .
Discussion of the disorganized attachment style sometimes includes this style under the rubric of attachment disorders because disorganized attachment is seen as the beginning of a developmental trajectory that will take the individual ever further from the normal range , culminating in actual disorders of thought , behavior , or mood . Early intervention for disorganized attachment , or other problematic styles , is directed toward changing the trajectory of development to provide a better outcome later in the person 's life .
Zeanah and colleagues proposed an alternative set of criteria ( see below ) of three categories of attachment disorder , namely " no discriminated attachment figure " , " secure base distortions " and " disrupted attachment disorder " . These classifications consider that a disorder is a variation that requires treatment rather than an individual difference within the normal range .
= = Classification = =
ICD @-@ 10 describes Reactive Attachment Disorder of Childhood , known as RAD , and Disinhibited Disorder of Childhood , less well known as DAD . DSM @-@ IV @-@ TR also describes Reactive Attachment Disorder of Infancy or Early Childhood . It divides this into two subtypes , Inhibited Type and Disinhibited Type , both known as RAD . The two classifications are similar and both include :
markedly disturbed and developmentally inappropriate social relatedness in most contexts ,
the disturbance is not accounted for solely by developmental delay and does not meet the criteria for Pervasive Developmental Disorder ,
onset before 5 years of age ,
requires a history of significant neglect , and
implicit lack of identifiable , preferred attachment figure .
ICD @-@ 10 includes in its diagnosis psychological and physical abuse and injury in addition to neglect . This is somewhat controversial , being a commission rather than omission and because abuse in and of itself does not lead to attachment disorder .
The inhibited form is described as " a failure to initiate or respond ... to most social interactions , as manifest by excessively inhibited responses " and such infants do not seek and accept comfort at times of threat , alarm or distress , thus failing to maintain ' proximity ' , an essential element of attachment behavior . The disinhibited form shows " indiscriminate sociability ... excessive familiarity with relative strangers " ( DSM @-@ IV @-@ TR ) and therefore a lack of ' specificity ' , the second basic element of attachment behavior . The ICD @-@ 10 descriptions are comparable . ' Disinhibited ' and ' inhibited ' are not opposites in terms of attachment disorder and can co @-@ exist in the same child . The inhibited form has a greater tendency to ameliorate with an appropriate caregiver whilst the disinhibited form is more enduring .
While RAD is likely to occur following neglectful and abusive childcare , there should be no automatic diagnosis on this basis alone as children can form stable attachments and social relationships despite marked abuse and neglect . Abuse can occur alongside the required factors but on its own does not explain attachment disorder . Experiences of abuse are associated with the development of disorganised attachment , in which the child prefers a familiar caregiver , but responds to that person in an unpredictable and somewhat bizarre way . Within official classifications , attachment disorganization is a risk factor but not in itself an attachment disorder . Further although attachment disorders tend to occur in the context of some institutions , repeated changes of primary caregiver or extremely neglectful identifiable primary caregivers who show persistent disregard for the child 's basic attachment needs , not all children raised in these conditions develop an attachment disorder .
= = Boris and Zeanah 's typology = =
Many leading attachment theorists , such as Zeanah and Leiberman , have recognized the limitations of the DSM @-@ IV @-@ TR and ICD @-@ 10 criteria and proposed broader diagnostic criteria . There is as yet no official consensus on these criteria . The APSAC Taskforce recognised in its recommendations that " attachment problems extending beyond RAD , are a real and appropriate concern for professionals working with children " , and set out recommendations for assessment .
Boris and Zeanah ( 1999 ) , have offered an approach to attachment disorders that considers cases where children have had no opportunity to form an attachment , those where there is a distorted relationship , and those where an existing attachment has been abruptly disrupted . This would significantly extend the definition beyond the ICD @-@ 10 and DSM @-@ IV @-@ TR definitions because those definitions are limited to situations where the child has no attachment or no attachment to a specified attachment figure .
Boris and Zeanah use the term " disorder of attachment " to indicate a situation in which a young child has no preferred adult caregiver . Such children may be indiscriminately sociable and approach all adults , whether familiar or not ; alternatively , they may be emotionally withdrawn and fail to seek comfort from anyone . This type of attachment problem is parallel to Reactive Attachment Disorder as defined in DSM and ICD in its inhibited and disinhibited forms as described above .
Boris and Zeanah also describe a condition they term " secure base distortion " . In this situation , the child has a preferred familiar caregiver , but the relationship is such that the child cannot use the adult for safety while gradually exploring the environment . Such children may endanger themselves , may cling to the adult , may be excessively compliant , or may show role reversals in which they care for or punish the adult .
The third type of disorder discussed by Boris and Zeanah is termed " disrupted attachment " . This type of problem , which is not covered under other approaches to disordered attachment , results from an abrupt separation or loss of a familiar caregiver to whom attachment has developed . The young child 's reaction to such a loss is parallel to the grief reaction of an older person , with progressive changes from protest ( crying and searching ) to despair , sadness , and withdrawal from communication or play , and finally detachment from the original relationship and recovery of social and play activities .
Most recently , Daniel Schechter and Erica Willheim have shown a relationship between maternal violence @-@ related posttraumatic stress disorder and secure base distortion ( see above ) which is characterized by child recklessness , separation anxiety , hypervigilance , and role @-@ reversal .
= = Problems of attachment style = =
The majority of 1 year old children can tolerate brief separations from familiar caregivers and are quickly comforted when the caregivers return . These children also use familiar people as a " secure base " and return to them periodically when exploring a new situation . Such children are said to have a secure attachment style , and characteristically continue to develop well both cognitively and emotionally .
Smaller numbers of children show less positive development at age 12 months . Their less desirable attachment styles may be predictors of poor later social development . Although these children 's behavior at 12 months is not a serious problem , they appear to be on developmental trajectories that will end in poor social skills and relationships . Because attachment styles may serve as predictors of later development , it may be appropriate to think of certain attachment styles as part of the range of attachment disorders .
Insecure attachment styles in toddlers involve unusual reunions after separation from a familiar person . The children may snub the returning caregiver , or may go to the person but then resist being picked up . They may reunite with the caregiver , but then persistently cling to him / her , and fail to return to their previous play . These children are more likely to have later social problems with peers and teachers , but some of them spontaneously develop better ways of interacting with other people .
A small group of toddlers show a distressing way of reuniting after a separation . Called a disorganized / disoriented style , this reunion pattern can involve looking dazed or frightened , freezing in place , backing toward the caregiver or approaching with head sharply averted , or showing other behaviors that seem to imply fearfulness of the person who is being sought . Disorganized attachment has been considered a major risk factor for child psychopathology , as it appears to interfere with regulation or tolerance of negative emotions and may thus foster aggressive behavior . Disorganized patterns of attachment have the strongest links to concurrent and subsequent psychopathology , and considerable research has demonstrated both within @-@ the @-@ child and environmental correlates of disorganized attachment .
= = Diagnosis = =
Recognised assessment methods of attachment styles , difficulties or disorders include the Strange Situation procedure ( Mary Ainsworth ) , the separation and reunion procedure and the Preschool Assessment of Attachment ( " PAA " ) , the Observational Record of the Caregiving Environment ( " ORCE " ) and the Attachment Q @-@ sort ( " AQ @-@ sort " ) . More recent research also uses the Disturbances of Attachment Interview or " DAI " developed by Smyke and Zeanah , ( 1999 ) . This is a semi @-@ structured interview designed to be administered by clinicians to caregivers . It covers 12 items , namely having a discriminated , preferred adult , seeking comfort when distressed , responding to comfort when offered , social and emotional reciprocity , emotional regulation , checking back after venturing away from the care giver , reticence with unfamiliar adults , willingness to go off with relative strangers , self endangering behavior , excessive clinging , vigilance / hypercompliance and role reversal .
= = Treatment = =
There are a variety of mainstream prevention programs and treatment approaches for attachment disorder , attachment problems and moods or behaviors considered to be potential problems within the context of attachment theory . All such approaches for infants and younger children concentrate on increasing the responsiveness and sensitivity of the caregiver , or if that is not possible , changing the caregiver . Such approaches include ' Watch , wait and wonder , ' manipulation of sensitive responsiveness , modified ' Interaction Guidance , ' . ' Preschool Parent Psychotherapy , ' . Circle of Security ' , Attachment and Biobehavioral Catch @-@ up ( ABC ) , the New Orleans Intervention , and Parent @-@ Child psychotherapy . Other known treatment methods include Developmental , Individual @-@ difference , Relationship @-@ based therapy ( DIR ) ( also referred to as Floor Time ) by Stanley Greenspan , although DIR is primarily directed to treatment of pervasive developmental disorders Some of these approaches , such as that suggested by Dozier , consider the attachment status of the adult caregiver to play an important role in the development of the emotional connection between adult and child . This includes foster parents , as children with poor attachment experiences often do not elicit appropriate caregiver responses from their attachment behaviors despite ' normative ' care .
Treatment for reactive attachment disorder for children usually involves a mix of therapy , counseling , and parenting education . These must be designed to make sure the child has a safe environment to live in and to develop positive interactions with caregivers and improves their relationships with their peers .
Medication can be used as a way to treat similar conditions , like depression , anxiety , or hyperactivity ; however , there is no quick fix for treating reactive attachment disorder . A pediatrician may recommend a treatment plan . For example , a mix of family therapy , individual psychological counseling , play therapy , special education services and parenting skills classes . .
= = Possible mechanisms = =
One study has reported a connection between a specific genetic marker and disorganized attachment ( not RAD ) associated with problems of parenting . Another author has compared atypical social behavior in genetic conditions such as Williams syndrome with behaviors symptomatic of RAD .
Typical attachment development begins with unlearned infant reactions to social signals from caregivers . The ability to send and receive social communications through facial expressions , gestures and voice develops with social experience by seven to nine months . This makes it possible for an infant to interpret messages of calm or alarm from face or voice . At about eight months , infants typically begin to respond with fear to unfamiliar or startling situations , and to look to the faces of familiar caregivers for information that either justifies or soothes their fear . This developmental combination of social skills and the emergence of fear reactions results in attachment behavior such as proximity @-@ seeking , if a familiar , sensitive , responsive , and cooperative adult is available . Further developments in attachment , such as negotiation of separation in the toddler and preschool period , depend on factors such as the caregiver 's interaction style and ability to understand the child 's emotional communications .
With insensitive or unresponsive caregivers , or frequent changes , an infant may have few experiences that encourage proximity seeking to a familiar person . An infant who experiences fear but who cannot find comforting information in an adult 's face and voice may develop atypical ways of coping with fearfulness such as the maintenance of distance from adults , or the seeking of proximity to all adults . These symptoms accord with the DSM criteria for reactive attachment disorder . Either of these behavior patterns may create a developmental trajectory leading ever farther from typical attachment processes such as the development of an internal working model of social relationships that facilitates both the giving and the receiving of care from others .
Atypical development of fearfulness , with a constitutional tendency either to excessive or inadequate fear reactions , might be necessary before an infant is vulnerable to the effects of poor attachment experiences .
Alternatively , the two variations of RAD may develop from the same inability to develop " stranger @-@ wariness " due to inadequate care . Appropriate fear responses may only be able to develop after an infant has first begun to form a selective attachment . An infant who is not in a position to do this cannot afford not to show interest in any person as they may be potential attachment figures . Faced with a swift succession of carers the child may have no opportunity to form a selective attachment until the possible biologically @-@ determined sensitive period for developing stranger @-@ wariness has passed . It is thought this process may lead to the disinhibited form .
In the inhibited form infants behave as if their attachment system has been " switched off " . However the innate capacity for attachment behavior cannot be lost . This may explain why children diagnosed with the inhibited form of RAD from institutions almost invariably go on to show formation of attachment behavior to good carers . However children who suffer the inhibited form as a consequence of neglect and frequent changes of caregiver continue to show the inhibited form for far longer when placed in families .
Additionally , the development of Theory of Mind may play a role in emotional development . Theory of Mind is the ability to know that the experience of knowledge and intention lies behind human actions such as facial expressions . Although it is reported that very young infants have different responses to humans than to non @-@ human objects , Theory of Mind develops relatively gradually and possibly results from predictable interactions with adults . However , some ability of this kind must be in place before mutual communication through gaze or other gesture can occur , as it does by seven to nine months . Some neurodevelopmental disorders , such as autism , have been attributed to the absence of the mental functions that underlie Theory of Mind . It is possible that the congenital absence of this ability , or the lack of experiences with caregivers who communicate in a predictable fashion , could underlie the development of reactive attachment disorder .
= = Pseudoscientific diagnoses and treatment = =
In the absence of officially recognized diagnostic criteria , and beyond the ambit of the discourse on a broader set of criteria discussed above , the term attachment disorder has been increasingly used by some clinicians to refer to a broader set of children whose behavior may be affected by lack of a primary attachment figure , a seriously unhealthy attachment relationship with a primary caregiver , or a disrupted attachment relationship . Although there are no studies examining diagnostic accuracy , concern is expressed as to the potential for over @-@ diagnosis based on broad checklists and ' snapshots ' . This form of therapy , including diagnosis and accompanying parenting techniques , is scientifically unvalidated and is not considered to be part of mainstream psychology or , despite its name , to be based on attachment theory , with which it is considered incompatible . It has been described as potentially abusive and a pseudoscientific intervention , that has resulted in tragic outcomes for children .
A common feature of this form of diagnosis within attachment therapy is the use of extensive lists of " symptoms " which include many behaviours that are likely to be a consequence of neglect or abuse , but are not related to attachment , or not related to any clinical disorder at all . Such lists have been described as " wildly inclusive " . The APSAC Taskforce ( 2006 ) gives examples of such lists ranging across multiple domains from some elements within the DSM @-@ IV criteria to entirely non @-@ specific behavior such as developmental lags , destructive behaviors , refusal to make eye contact , cruelty to animals and siblings , lack of cause and effect thinking , preoccupation with fire , blood and gore , poor peer relationships , stealing , lying , lack of a conscience , persistent nonsense questions or incessant chatter , poor impulse control , abnormal speech patterns , fighting for control over everything , and hoarding or gorging on food . Some checklists suggest that among infants , " prefers dad to mom " or " wants to hold the bottle as soon as possible " are indicative of attachment problems . The APSAC Taskforce expresses concern that high rates of false positive diagnoses are virtually certain and that posting these types of lists on web sites that also serve as marketing tools may lead many parents or others to conclude inaccurately that their children have attachment disorders . "
There is also a considerable variety of treatments for alleged attachment disorders diagnosed on the controversial alternative basis outlined above , popularly known as attachment therapy . These therapies have little or no evidence base and vary from talking or play therapies to more extreme forms of physical and coercive techniques , of which the best known are holding therapy , rebirthing , rage @-@ reduction and the Evergreen model . In general these therapies are aimed at adopted or fostered children with a view to creating attachment in these children to their new caregivers . Critics maintain these therapies are not based on an accepted version of attachment theory . The theoretical base is broadly a combination of regression and catharsis , accompanied by parenting methods which emphasise obedience and parental control . These therapies concentrate on changing the child rather than the caregiver . An estimated six children have died as a consequence of the more coercive forms of such treatments and the application of the accompanying parenting techniques .
Two of the most well @-@ known cases are those of Candace Newmaker in 2001 and the Gravelles in 2003 through 2005 . Following the associated publicity , some advocates of attachment therapy began to alter views and practices to be less potentially dangerous to children . This change may have been hastened by the publication of a Task Force Report on the subject in January 2006 , commissioned by the American Professional Society on the Abuse of Children ( APSAC ) which was largely critical of attachment therapy , although these practices continue . In April 2007 , ATTACh , an organisation originally set up by attachment therapists , formally adopted a White Paper stating its unequivocal opposition to the use of coercive practices in therapy and parenting .
|
= Adam Levine =
{ { Infobox person | name |
= Adam Levine | image =
AdamLevine2011.jpg | caption |
= Adam Levine in 2011 | birth _ name =
Adam Noah Levine | birth _ date |
= ( 1979 @-@ 03 @-@ 18 ) March 18 , 1979 | birth _ place =
Los Angeles , California , U.S.
| occupation =
Adam Noah Levine ( born March 18 , 1979 ) is an American singer and songwriter . He is the lead singer for the Los Angeles pop rock band Maroon 5 .
Born and raised in Los Angeles California , Levine began his musical career in 1994 , when he co @-@ founded the alternative rock band Kara 's Flowers , of which he was the lead vocalist and guitarist . The band split up after their only album , The Fourth World ( released in 1997 ) , which did not gain popularity . In 2001 , the group was reformed – with guitarist James Valentine joining the line @-@ up – and began a new , musical chapter , changing their name to Maroon 5 . In 2002 , the band released their first album , Songs About Jane , which went multi @-@ platinum in the US . Since then , they have released four more albums , It Won 't Be Soon Before Long ( 2007 ) , Hands All Over ( 2010 ) , Overexposed ( 2012 ) and V ( 2014 ) . As part of Maroon 5 , Levine has received three Grammy Awards , two Billboard Music Awards , two American Music Awards , an MTV Video Music Award and a World Music Award .
Since 2011 , Levine has served as a coach on NBC 's reality talent show The Voice . The winners of the first , fifth and ninth seasons , Javier Colon , Tessanne Chin and Jordan Smith , were on his team . In 2012 , he made his acting debut as a recurring character in the horror television show American Horror Story : Asylum for the series ' second season . He also starred in the film Begin Again .
As an entrepreneur , Levine launched his own eponymous fragrance line in 2013 . The same year , he collaborated with K @-@ Mart and ShopYourWay.com to develop his menswear collection . He also owns a record label , 222 Records . In 2013 , The Hollywood Reporter reported that " sources familiar with his many business dealings " estimated Levine would earn more than $ 35 million that year .
= = Early life = =
Adam Noah Levine was born in Los Angeles on March 18 , 1979 to Fred Levine , the founder of retail chain M. Fredric , and Patsy ( née Noah ) Levine , an admissions counselor . He has two uncles , journalist and author Timothy Noah and television producer and writer Peter Noah . He is also the nephew of economist Jordan Levine . He has two brothers , Michael and Sam . Levine 's parents divorced when he was seven . Growing up , he spent weekdays with his mother and weekends with his father . He underwent therapy for his parents ' divorce , but called it a " waste of time " explaining that his parents could not " accept the fact that I might have been OK with it . I cried my eyes out and kicked and screamed and said , ' Why ? ' and all the things you do when you find out . A few days later I was fine but I still had to go to therapy . "
Levine describes his family as " very musical " and credits his mother with " start [ ing ] me out on the path " . He also attributes his mother 's idols – Simon & Garfunkel , Fleetwood Mac and , most notably , The Beatles – to shaping his musical style , calling them " a huge part of my upbringing " . He attended Brentwood School , where he met Jesse Carmichael and Mickey Madden , his future bandmates . He carried his musical interests to high school , where he states he was " a little rebellious . I didn 't want to do the things they were teaching me ... [ music ] consumed my every thought . "
Levine used hallucinogenic drugs in his adolescence . In an interview with Q , he said that using mushrooms " really forced me to look at myself " but added that he had never abused drugs . On Jimmy Kimmel Live ! , he stated that he stopped using prescription drugs after his first experience with prescription drug Ambien , which left him unconscious for an hour .
Levine 's father and maternal grandfather are Jewish , while his maternal grandmother was Protestant . Levine considers himself Jewish , though according to an interview with The Jewish Chronicle , he " has rejected formal religious practice for a more generalized , spiritual way of life " . He chose not to have a Bar Mitzvah as a child , explaining : " I felt as though a lot of kids were trying to cash in ... I just don 't think it 's the most respectful way to deal with God and beliefs and years and years and years of cultural heritage . "
= = Kara 's Flowers = =
In September 1995 , Levine , along with Mickey Madden , Jesse Carmichael , and Ryan Dusick , another Brentwood High student , formed garage band Kara 's Flowers . The group played their first gig at the Whisky a Go Go , a nightclub in West Hollywood , California , with Levine on vocals and guitar . In 1997 , the band was discovered while they were performing at a beach party in Malibu by independent producer Tommy Allen . Allen , along with his partner John DeNicola , had the band record an 11 @-@ track album . Owing to a string of industry showcases in Los Angeles , they were signed on to Reprise Records through producer Rob Cavallo . In 1997 , Kara 's Flowers released their first album , titled The Fourth World . That same year , the band appeared on an episode of the drama series Beverly Hills , 90210 . After their graduation , the band toured in support of their debut . Despite high expectations , the album had little success , selling about 5 @,@ 000 copies , and its only single , " Soap Disco " , failed commercially . Finally , on Cavallo 's exit from the label , Reprise decided to drop the band . Disappointed with the results of their album , the band broke up . Later , Levine would say of the experience : " Kara ’ s Flowers was just floating up the wall beneath the sticks . Make a record quickly , put it out . No touring base , no nothing . Just try to make it happen right out of the gate and it just doesn ’ t work " .
= = Maroon 5 and mainstream success = =
After the break up of Kara 's Flowers , Levine , along with Carmichael , left Los Angeles to pursue further studies in New York . On MTV News , in 2002 , he said : " That 's when I started waking up to the whole hip @-@ hop , R & B thing . We had friends named Chaos and Shit . It was not Brentwood High " . After dropping out of Five Towns College , in Dix Hills , Long Island , New York , where he and Jesse Carmichael spent a semester , they reunited with Mickey Madden and Ryan Dusick to form a band once more . They experimented with several styles , including country and folk , before deciding groove @-@ based music would become their genre . Levine explained the need for a makeover for the band : " We were just so sick of being a typical rock ' n 'roll band ... I felt like I needed to look elsewhere for vocal inspiration . " The band put together a demo that was rejected by several labels , before falling into the hands of Octone Records executives James Diener , Ben Berkman , and David Boxenbaum . Following Berkman 's advice , the band added a fifth member , James Valentine , and was renamed Maroon 5 . In an interview with HitQuarters , Berkman explained that Levine " seemed to be a very shy , shoe @-@ gazing type ... a fifth member could play the guitar to free up the singer [ Levine ] , so he could be the star I perceived him to be " .
Around this time , Levine had been working as a writer 's assistant on the CBS television show Judging Amy , whose producer Barbara Hall was his family friend . While on the show , he would spend time writing songs about his ex @-@ girlfriend Jane . These songs were put into Maroon 5 's debut album Songs About Jane , which was released in June 2002 . The album slowly gained airplay , and eventually became a sleeper hit , selling an estimated 10 million copies and becoming the tenth best @-@ selling album of 2004 , two years after its release . In 2005 , Maroon 5 won their first Grammy Award , for Best New Artist . The next year , they won the Grammy Award for Best Pop Performance by a Duo or Group with Vocals for the second Songs About Jane single " This Love " .
By 2006 , the band started recording once again , and in May 2007 , Maroon 5 's second album It Won 't Be Soon Before Long was released . Levine described the album as " a vast improvement " , explaining : " I think this record is a little more self @-@ confident and powerful lyrically " . To support the album , the band performed on a " six @-@ date club tour " in which they visited small venues in Boston , San Francisco , Los Angeles , Minneapolis , Miami , and New York City in early June 2007 . The album and its lead , third and penultimate singles ( " Makes Me Wonder " , " Won 't Go Home Without You " and " If I Never See Your Face Again " , respectively ) each received Grammy nominations , although only " Makes Me Wonder " secured a win .
After winding down from a world tour in support It Won 't Be Soon Before Long , the band began recording in Switzerland in 2009 , in collaboration with record producer and songwriter Robert John " Mutt " Lange . Levine said Lange " worked me harder than anyone ever has " . In 2010 , Maroon 5 released their third studio album , Hands All Over . The album did not initially meet expectations . In an interview with Los Angeles Times , Levine explained that the album suffered from being " all these disparate ideas and songs that didn 't make any sense together " . After the moderate success of the album 's first three singles , the band released " Moves like Jagger " which Levine classified as " one of those songs that was definitely a risk ; it 's a bold statement " . The single became a success worldwide ; it was the ninth @-@ best @-@ selling digital single of 2011 with sales of 8 @.@ 5 million copies and , as of 2012 , the eighth @-@ best @-@ selling digital single of all time . Levine later credited the song with " totally reviving the band " .
Since " Moves Like Jagger " was the first time Maroon 5 had collaborated with an outside writer , the band decided to attempt it again on their next album , entitled Overexposed . Its title is supposedly an allusion to Levine 's public ubiquity . In an interview with Rolling Stone , he opined that is their most dance @-@ driven album ever , commenting : " It 's very much an old @-@ fashioned disco tune . I have a love / hate relationship with it - but mostly I love it " . The album and its lead single " Payphone " gave Maroon 5 their second Grammy Award for Best Pop Vocal Album and Best Pop Duo / Group Performance nominations . In support of Overexposed , the band conducted the Overexposed Tour from 2012 – 13 ( with the European leg extending to 2014 due to scheduling conflicts ) , and also headlined the 12th Annual Honda Civic Tour , which included The Voice contestant Tony Lucca .
Over 2014 , Maroon 5 continued their collaboration with Ryan Tedder , Max Martin and others to release their fifth studio album , entitled V. Levine acknowledged that they followed the same song @-@ writing process that they tried with Overexposed , saying : " We developed a really nice system on the last record — we found songs we were passionate about , developed them and put our stamp on them [ ... ] this time we kept it going but looked for different types of songs . " Five singles were released from it . In support of the album , the band undertook the Maroon 5 World Tour 2015 , which kicked off with a show in Dallas in February 2015 .
In 2007 , Levine had stated that he believed Maroon 5 was reaching its peak and might make one more album before disbanding . He was quoted explaining : " Eventually I want to focus on being a completely different person because I don 't know if I want to do this into my 40s and 50s and beyond " . But in 2010 , he dispelled any rumors of the band breaking up , saying : " I love what I do and think that , yes , it might be tiring and complicated at times [ but ] we don 't have any plans on disbanding any time soon " . He has also turned down the idea of having a solo career , stating that " there will never be a solo record . I would sooner have another band " .
= = Other work = =
= = = Musical collaborations = = =
Levine has collaborated with several musical artists . In 2005 , he was featured on the song " Live Again " by hip @-@ hop duo Ying Yang Twins . The same year , he appeared on Kanye West 's album Late Registration , on the third single , " Heard ' Em Say " , a collaboration Levine called " very pure and very easy " . The song was created during an airplane flight that he and West shared , and its refrain was later used for the Maroon 5 song " Nothing Lasts Forever " from It Won 't Be Soon Before Long . He also appeared on Alicia Keys ' third album Alicia Keys : MTV Unplugged , as part of the cover of The Rolling Stones song " Wild Horses " . Around the same time , he featured on fellow Octone Records singer K 'naan 's single " Bang Bang " . In 2009 , he recorded " Gotten " , a song for Slash 's first solo album Slash ( 2010 ) . In February 2010 , he was among approximately 80 musicians who sang on the charity @-@ single remake of " We Are the World " , called " We Are the World 25 for Haiti " . In 2011 , he appeared on the Gym Class Heroes song , " Stereo Hearts " . He also worked with hip @-@ hop artist 50 Cent on his song " My Life " , recording the vocals almost two years before it was released as a single in 2012 , which included rapper Eminem . He is also featured as a singer for his band 's song " She Will Be Loved " in the music rhythm game , Band Hero . In 2015 , Adam Levine was featured on duo , R. City 's , single , " Locked Away " .
= = = TV and media = = =
Levine has made four notable comic appearances on television . During 2007 , he appeared in the 33rd season premiere of Saturday Night Live in an SNL Digital Short called Iran So Far , performing with Andy Samberg , Fred Armisen and Jake Gyllenhaal . Levine played himself while singing a humorous bridge to a " love song " for Mahmoud Ahmadinejad . In 2008 , he performed on Comedy Central 's " Night of Too Many Stars " . He also had a cameo on Jimmy Kimmel Live ! for the night of stars and endorsed Barack Obama in the 2008 Presidential Election . In 2013 , he hosted Saturday Night Live and featured alongside Kendrick Lamar on Lonely Island 's digital short " YOLO " , which parodies the acronym for You Only Live Once . His hosting was generally disliked by reviewers , who called it " mediocre " and " subpar " .
Since its inception in 2011 , Levine has served as a contestant judge / coach on the reality talent TV show , The Voice . The winner of the first season , Javier Colon , was on his team , as was the Season 5 winner , Tessanne Chin and Season 9 winner Jordan Smith . The Voice has been credited with reviving Maroon 5 's " faltering " career after the sub @-@ par sales of Hands All Over as well as increasing Levine 's popularity . According to polling firm E @-@ Poll Market Research , awareness of Levine has nearly tripled since he joined the show . He has also been described as the " breakout " star of the series , with # TeamAdam and @ AdamLevine scoring a respective 203 @,@ 000 and 2 @.@ 14 million Twitter mentions in the show 's third season , higher than all the other coaches . In 2013 , The Hollywood Reporter estimated that Levine was paid $ 10 – 12 million for each season of The Voice .
In 2012 , Levine appeared as a recurring character in American Horror Story : Asylum , the second season of the anthology series . He plays Leo Morrison , a newly @-@ wed photographer visiting modern @-@ day Briarcliff Manor , an insane asylum , on honeymoon with wife . Teresa , played by Jenna Dewan @-@ Tatum . The scenes were shot around his summer touring schedule . In an interview with E ! , he said of his role : " It sounded like so much fun and that 's why I wanted to do it ... this sounds , like , hysterical , funny , dark and cool and right up my alley " . However , he admitted to not being a fan of the show nor horror genre in general , stating he didn 't watch the episodes because " it 's just so weird and disturbing " .
In June 2012 , Levine was cast in the musical romance @-@ drama film Begin Again . The film was directed by John Carney and had Keira Knightley and Mark Ruffalo play the lead roles . In it , he plays Dave Kohl , Knightley 's songwriting partner and former boyfriend of five years , who leaves her behind on finding success in the music industry . The film premiered at the 2013 Toronto International Film Festival to generally favorable reviews from critics .
In November 2013 , Levine was named People magazine 's Sexiest Man Alive , becoming the first singer and the second non @-@ actor ( after John F. Kennedy , Jr . ) to claim the title . He was ranked # 41 on Glamour 's " Sexiest Men of 2012 " list . In 2008 , he appeared on People 's " Single and Sexy Men " list . He was elected TV 's Most Crushworthy Male Reality Host / Judge in a poll held by Zap2it . In April 2012 , Shalom Life ranked him Number 7 on its list of " Top 50 Hottest Jewish men in the world " . Levine stripped naked for testicular cancer awareness for a centerfold in Cosmopolitan UK 's February 2011 issue .
In June 2016 , sources close to Levine stated he was considering not returning to The Voice after the murder of former contestant Christina Grimmie , citing his feelings of guilt over the singer 's death and his belief that The Voice should do more to protect its current and former contestants .
= = = Business ventures and endorsements = = =
In October 2008 , Levine collaborated with First Act to create the First Act 222 Guitar , which was fashioned to his specifications . The guitar was made available for purchase at Target retail stores . Two years later , he launched his own fashion line , entitled " 222 " , at the Project Trade Show in Las Vegas . The collection is a minimalistic line of jeans , basic T @-@ shirts and leather jackets , a style he described as " simple and pure and durable " . The venture was organized in partnership with his father , Fred Levine ( who operates a chain of specialty boutiques ) , and his cousin , Sami Cooper .
In June 2011 , Levine took part in an educational campaign to raise awareness of Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder . The project , titled " Own It " , was created by Shire and organized in collaboration with the Attention Deficit Disorder Association ( ADDA ) , Children and Adults with Attention Deficit / Hyperactivity Disorder ( CHADD ) . The project targets people who were previously diagnosed with the disorder , focusing on how it may continue into adulthood . Levine , who himself was diagnosed with it as a teenager , said , " This campaign is important to me because it can help young adults and adults realize that there 's a chance they may still have ADHD if they had it as a kid " . In connection to this , he wrote an article in ADDitude Magazine about his personal experience with it .
Levine founded his own record label , 222 Records , in February 2012 . He stated that he was inspired to start the label to sign on Rozzi Crane , an USC music student he discovered through a mutual friend . She became the first singer signed on to the label , followed by Glee actor Matthew Morrison , Mexican artist Diego Boneta and The Voice season 2 contestant and part of Team Adam , the singer Tony Lucca . It was reported that he was negotiating further with potential distributors , as well as organizing staff , to operate as a full @-@ fledged record company with departments such as marketing , radio and publicity .
In 2013 , Levine collaborated with ID Perfumes to create his debut eponymous scent . The line was launched at the Premiere Fragrance Installation in Los Angeles in February 2013 . The fragrance range , consisting of scents for both for men and women , is sold through Macy 's department stores in microphone @-@ shaped bottles . Speaking at its launch , Levine said : " The task was to make something that I would wear . So that was a process and we finally came to a great conclusion and it smells great " The fragrance garnered media attention for contradicting his tweet the previous year , in which he said that he wanted to " put an official ban on celebrity fragrances . Punishable by death from this point forward " .
In 2013 , Adam Levine became a celebrity spokesperson for Proactiv , a well @-@ known company with acne @-@ fighting products . In the commercial , Adam shares details about his acne experiences in high school , and promotes Proactiv Plus .
In 2013 , it was announced that Levine would be entering a partnership with Sears Holdings to launch a multi @-@ department lifestyle brand to develop apparel and accessories collections . The company , which owns Kmart and ShopYourWay , a shopping social platform , also included rapper Nicki Minaj in the same contract . The menswear collection was launched on October 1 that year and conducts business via 500 Kmart stores across the US , as well as online . In an official statement , Levine said : " Partnering with ShopYourWay to develop this line was an exciting opportunity for me and I am really looking forward to diving into the process of designing an apparel and accessory collection " . In an interview with People , he commented further , " it was cool that they really promoted creative control . I like to be involved with process rather than just phoning it in " .
= = Artistry = =
Levine 's interest in music started at around ten years of age , when he first started playing the guitar . He found music an outlet for feelings , stating : " I picked up a guitar and that was it . I fell so madly in love with it , it 's all I did " . He performed his first professional gig at The Troubadour when he was twelve , but was so nervous he played with his back to the audience . Throughout his childhood , he had been influenced by the diverse groups like the Beatles , Fleetwood Mac , The Who , Pearl Jam , Soundgarden , Alice in Chains , and Nirvana , and , in high school , by Bob Marley , Bill Withers , Al Green , Stevie Wonder , Marvin Gaye and Michael Jackson . He also incorporated elements of The Police and Prince into his music . In an interview with Billboard , he explained the diversity of his influences : " I love every single kind of music ... even the most saccharine , sugary pop song can be the greatest thing ever . But so can a 25 @-@ minute crazy avant @-@ garde fusion gnarly Herbie Hancock jam from the ' 70s " .
Levine remembers that listening to " Are You That Somebody ? " by Aaliyah convinced him to pursue a more soulful sound than that of his then @-@ band Kara 's Flowers . His move to New York introduced him to a new music scene that involved hip @-@ hop , R & B , gospel and soul music . He took to changing his musical style , extensively emulating Stevie Wonder . Subsequently , Songs About Jane was released , deemed " bluesy funk " and similar to Busted 's music . Critics also drew comparisons between Levine and Jamiroquai singer Jay Kay .
While earlier work was deemed " vaguely funky white @-@ soul " and " rock " , recent ones have been judged to have a more reggae , anthemic pop sound , evoking comparisons to Coldplay . Levine refuses to fit his music into a genre , saying : " There 's so much variety in music , it 's silly to belong to a specific club and try to sound a certain way " . He considers himself an orthodox lyricist sticking to conventional themes , acknowledging : " Romance , love , the lack thereof are still very big themes . I haven 't figured out a way to use everything yet . As a songwriter , I 'm still limited to that one thing . " He also claims he does not like mincing words , stating in a Rolling Stone interview : " I was so sick of typical lyrics like ' Ooh , baby ' and ' I love you ' and all this vague shit . I thought the more explicit I got without being totally explicit was a nice approach " .
Levine is tenor , he has a 3 and a half octave vocal range and has been noted for his falsettos . Salon wrote : " When he ’ s crooning come @-@ ons , his voice lends the music a satisfying lewdness , a sense of sticky physicality that gives his snaky hooks a pheromonal urgency . " In a review of It Won 't Be Soon Before Long , Entertainment Weekly described his vocals as " smug , R & B @-@ slick deadpan ... there 's a twisted logic to his dispassionate delivery " . In another review , Allmusic noted that " he knows that he 's a pop guy , somewhat in the tradition of Hall & Oates , but he isn 't trying to be retro , he 's ... making records that are melodic , stylish , and soulful " . In a review of the 2013 Honda Civic Tour , The Boston Globe also commented positively on his on @-@ stage presence , which " exude [ s ] a sense of up @-@ for @-@ anything playfulness ... combined with a rock solid work ethic and a clear love for their audiences and performing " .
Levine 's popularity outside of his musical work has seen him tagged as a " stand @-@ alone star " , which critics say have pushed other members of Maroon 5 to the backseat , even in their music . Their guitarist Valentine noted that his vocals were a central aspect around which their music revolved . Conversely , others opine that Levine 's fame has been a boost to the band , with Paper writing : " Maroon 5 has managed to ebb and flow with the times ... thanks in no small part to their frontman 's uncanny ability to be extremely entertaining " . Delta Sky described him as " a natural , if slightly neurotic , leading man " . He claims that the image was consciously cultivated , explaining : " We talked about it a long time ago and decided I would step out , for us , not for me or my own ego ... We wanted there to be a frontman " .
= = Personal life = =
In early 2010 , while performing at the Sports Illustrated Swimsuit Issue release party in Las Vegas , Levine met Russian Sports Illustrated swimsuit cover @-@ model Anne Vyalitsyna . They began a relationship which ended in April 2012 .
Levine began dating Namibian Victoria 's Secret model Behati Prinsloo in May 2012 . They broke up in March 2013 , but later reconciled and subsequently became engaged in July that year . The couple were married on July 19 , 2014 in Cabo San Lucas , Mexico . In March 2016 , it was announced that the couple are expecting their first child together .
Levine practices yoga under instructor Chad Dennis and has stated that " yoga will drastically improve you in every way imaginable " . He began the practice as a way to improve his back pain and eventually replaced his weightlifting with yoga .
Levine , whose brother openly identifies as gay , is an outspoken supporter of same @-@ sex marriage and LGBT rights . In 2011 , he made a video on Maroon 5 's official YouTube account in support of the It Gets Better Project . In January 2012 , he announced that Maroon 5 had changed the location of their post @-@ Grammy Awards show because of the " unnamed Los Angeles restaurant 's backing of Proposition 8 " .
In 2013 , Levine was mentioned in a hostile work environment lawsuit filed in Los Angeles Superior Court by an unnamed security guard who claimed that Universal Music Publishing Group 's Santa Monica location was " infiltrated with pervasive drug use where you could smell marijuana seeping from various offices and openly used in common areas , and lounges " . The guard claimed that when she complained about the cannabis smoke coming from one of the studios , she was told that " it 's Adam Levine ... if he wants to come to the lobby and do a line of cocaine on the floor , it 's OK " . In an official statement to The Hollywood Reporter , UMPG described the allegations as " absurd " .
= = Discography = =
= = = Singles as an artist = = =
= = = Guest appearances = = =
= = Filmography = =
= = = Film = = =
= = = Television = = =
= = = Video games = = =
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= Chrysler Building =
The Chrysler Building is an Art Deco @-@ style skyscraper located on the East Side of Midtown Manhattan in New York City , at the intersection of 42nd Street and Lexington Avenue in the Turtle Bay neighborhood . At 1 @,@ 046 feet ( 319 m ) , the structure was the world 's tallest building for 11 months before it was surpassed by the Empire State Building in 1931 .
It is the tallest brick building in the world , albeit with a steel frame . After the destruction of the World Trade Center , it was again the second @-@ tallest building in New York City until December 2007 , when the spire was raised on the 1 @,@ 200 @-@ foot ( 365 @.@ 8 m ) Bank of America Tower , pushing the Chrysler Building into third position . In addition , The New York Times Building , which opened in 2007 , is exactly level with the Chrysler Building in height . Both buildings were then pushed into fourth position , when the under @-@ construction One World Trade Center surpassed their height , and then to fifth position by 432 Park Avenue which was completed in 2015 .
The Chrysler Building is a classic example of Art Deco architecture and considered by many contemporary architects to be one of the finest buildings in New York City . In 2007 , it was ranked ninth on the List of America 's Favorite Architecture by the American Institute of Architects . It was the headquarters of the Chrysler Corporation from 1930 until the mid @-@ 1950s . Although the building was built and designed specifically for the car manufacturer , the corporation did not pay for the construction of it and never owned it , as Walter P. Chrysler decided to pay for it himself , so that his children could inherit it .
= = History = =
The Chrysler Building was designed by architect William Van Alen for a project of Walter P. Chrysler . When the ground breaking occurred on September 19 , 1928 , there was an intense competition in New York City to build the world 's tallest skyscraper . Despite a frantic pace ( the building was built at an average rate of four floors per week ) , no workers died during the construction of this skyscraper .
= = = Design beginnings = = =
Van Alen 's original design for the skyscraper called for a decorative jewel @-@ like glass crown . It also featured a base in which the showroom windows were tripled in height and topped by 12 stories with glass @-@ wrapped corners , creating an impression that the tower appeared physically and visually light as if floating in mid @-@ air . The height of the skyscraper was also originally designed to be 246 meters ( 807 ft ) . However , the design proved to be too advanced and costly for building contractor William H. Reynolds , who disapproved of Van Alen 's original plan . The design and lease were then sold to Walter P. Chrysler , who worked with Van Alen and redesigned the skyscraper for additional stories ; it was eventually revised to be 282 m ( 925 ft ) tall . As Walter Chrysler was the chairman of the Chrysler Corporation and intended to make the building into Chrysler 's headquarters , various architectural details and especially the building 's gargoyles were modeled after Chrysler automobile products like the hood ornaments of the Plymouth ; they exemplify the machine age in the 1920s ( see below ) .
= = = Construction = = =
Construction commenced on September 19 , 1928 . In total , 391 @,@ 881 rivets were used and approximately 3 @,@ 826 @,@ 000 bricks were manually laid , to create the non @-@ loadbearing walls of the skyscraper . Contractors , builders and engineers were joined by other building @-@ services experts to coordinate construction .
Prior to its completion , the building stood about even with a rival project at 40 Wall Street , designed by H. Craig Severance . Severance increased the height of his project and then publicly claimed the title of the world 's tallest building . ( This distinction excluded structures that were not fully habitable , such as the Eiffel Tower . ) In response , Van Alen obtained permission for a 38 @-@ meter ( 125 ft ) long spire and had it secretly constructed inside the frame of the building . The spire was delivered to the site in four different sections . On October 23 , 1929 , the bottom section of the spire was hoisted to the top of the building 's dome and lowered into the 66th floor of the building . The other remaining sections of the spire were hoisted and riveted to the first one in sequential order in just 90 minutes .
= = = Completion = = =
Upon completion on May 27 , 1930 , the added height of the spire allowed the Chrysler Building to surpass 40 Wall Street as the tallest building in the world and the Eiffel Tower as the tallest structure . It was the first man @-@ made structure to stand taller than 1 @,@ 000 feet ( 305 m ) . Van Alen 's satisfaction in these accomplishments was likely muted by Walter Chrysler 's later refusal to pay the balance of his architectural fee . Less than a year after it opened to the public on May 27 , 1930 , the Chrysler Building was surpassed in height by the Empire State Building , but the Chrysler Building is still the world 's tallest steel @-@ supported brick building . As of November 2 , 2011 , the building 's height was surpassed by the under construction One World Trade Center at the height of 1 @,@ 106 feet .
= = = Property = = =
The east building wall of the base out of which the tower rises runs at a slant to the Manhattan street grid , following a property line that predated the Commissioners ' Plan of 1811 . The land on which the Chrysler Building stands was donated to The Cooper Union for the Advancement of Science and Art in 1902 . The land was originally leased to William H. Reynolds , but , when he was unable to raise money for the project , the building and the development rights to the land were acquired by Walter P. Chrysler in 1928 . Contrary to popular belief , the Chrysler Corporation was never involved in the construction or ownership of the Chrysler Building , although it was built and designed for the corporation and served as its headquarters until the mid @-@ 1950s . It was a project of Walter P. Chrysler for his children .
The ownership of the building has changed several times . The Chrysler family sold the building in 1953 to William Zeckendorf , and in 1957 , it was purchased by Sol Goldman and Alex DiLorenzo , and owned by Massachusetts Mutual Life Insurance Company . The lobby was refurbished and the facade renovated in 1978 – 1979 . The building was bought by Jack Kent Cooke in 1979 . The spire underwent a restoration that was completed in 1995 . In 1998 , Tishman Speyer Properties and the Travelers Insurance Group bought the Chrysler Building and the adjoining Kent Building in 1997 for about $ 220 million ( equal to $ 320 million in 2015 ) from a consortium of banks and the estate of Jack Kent Cooke . Tishman Speyer Properties had negotiated a 150 @-@ year lease from the Cooper Union , and the college continues to own the land under the Chrysler Building . Cooper Union 's name is on the deed .
In 2001 , a 75 % stake in the building was sold , for US $ 300 million ( equal to $ 400 million in 2015 ) , to TMW , the German arm of an Atlanta @-@ based investment fund . On June 11 , 2008 it was reported that the Abu Dhabi Investment Council was in negotiations to buy TMW 's 75 % economic interest , and a 15 % interest from Tishman Speyer Properties in the building , and a share of the Trylons retail structure next door for US $ 800 million . On July 9 , 2008 it was announced that the transaction had been completed , and that the Abu Dhabi Investment Council was now the 90 % owner of the building .
= = Architecture = =
The Chrysler Building is considered a leading example of Art Deco architecture . The corners of the 61st floor are graced with eagles ; on the 31st floor , the corner ornamentation are replicas of the 1929 Chrysler radiator caps . The building is constructed of masonry , with a steel frame , and metal cladding . The building currently contains a total of 3 @,@ 862 windows on its facades . Inside , there are four banks of 8 elevators designed by the Otis Elevator Corporation . The building was declared a National Historic Landmark in 1976 , and a New York City Landmark in 1978 .
The Chrysler Building is also renowned and recognized for its terraced crown . Composed of seven radiating terraced arches , Van Alen 's design of the crown is a cruciform groin vault constructed into seven concentric members with transitioning setbacks , mounted up one behind another . The stainless @-@ steel cladding is ribbed and riveted in a radiating sunburst pattern with many triangular vaulted windows , transitioning into smaller segments of the seven narrow setbacks of the facade of the terraced crown . The entire crown is clad with silvery " Enduro KA @-@ 2 " metal , an austenitic stainless steel developed in Germany by Krupp and marketed under the trade name " Nirosta " ( a German acronym for nichtrostender Stahl , meaning " non @-@ rusting steel " ) .
When the building first opened , it contained a public viewing gallery on the 71st floor , which was closed to the public in 1945 . This floor is now the highest occupied floor of the Chrysler Building , it was occupied by an office space management firm in 1986 . The private Cloud Club occupied a three @-@ floor high space from the 66th – 68th floors , but closed in the late 1970s . Above the 71st floor , the stories of the building are designed mostly for exterior appearance , functioning mainly as landings for the stairway to the spire . These top stories are very narrow with low , sloped ceilings , and are useful only for holding radio @-@ broadcasting and other mechanical and electrical equipment . Television station WCBS @-@ TV ( Channel 2 ) originally transmitted from the top of the Chrysler in the 1940s and early 1950s , before moving to the Empire State Building . For many years , WPAT @-@ FM and WTFM ( now WKTU ) also used the Chrysler Building as a transmission site , but they also moved to the Empire State Building by the 1970s . There are currently no commercial broadcast stations located at the Chrysler Building .
There are two sets of lighting in the top spires and decoration . The first are the V @-@ shaped lighting inserts in the steel of the building itself . Added later were groups of floodlights that are on mast arms directed back at the building . This allows the top of the building to be lit in many colors for special occasions .
= = Representation = =
The Chrysler Building has been shown in several movies that take place in New York . In the summer of 2005 , New York 's own Skyscraper Museum asked one hundred architects , builders , critics , engineers , historians , and scholars , among others , to choose their 10 favorites among 25 New York towers . The Chrysler Building came in first place as 90 % of them placed the building in their top @-@ 10 favorite buildings .
The Chrysler Building 's distinctive profile has inspired similar skyscrapers worldwide , including One Liberty Place in Philadelphia .
= = Tenants = =
Blank Rome
InterMedia Partners
Regus
Troutman Sanders
Reprieve ( organisation )
YES Network
= = Gallery = =
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= Il ritorno d 'Ulisse in patria =
Il ritorno d 'Ulisse in patria ( SV 325 , The Return of Ulysses to his Homeland ) is an opera consisting of a prologue and five acts ( later revised to three ) , set by Claudio Monteverdi to a libretto by Giacomo Badoaro . The opera was first performed at the Teatro Santi Giovanni e Paolo in Venice during the 1639 – 1640 carnival season . The story , taken from the second half of Homer 's Odyssey , tells how constancy and virtue are ultimately rewarded , treachery and deception overcome . After his long journey home from the Trojan Wars Ulisse , king of Ithaca , finally returns to his kingdom where he finds that a trio of villainous suitors are importuning his faithful queen , Penelope . With the assistance of the gods , his son Telemaco and a staunch friend Eumete , Ulisse vanquishes the suitors and recovers his kingdom .
Il ritorno is the first of three full @-@ length works which Monteverdi wrote for the burgeoning Venetian opera industry during the last five years of his life . After its initial successful run in Venice the opera was performed in Bologna before returning to Venice for the 1640 – 41 season . Thereafter , except for a possible performance at the Imperial court in Vienna late in the 17th century , there were no further revivals until the 20th century . The music became known in modern times through the 19th @-@ century discovery of an incomplete manuscript score which in many respects is inconsistent with the surviving versions of the libretto . After its publication in 1922 the score 's authenticity was widely questioned , and performances of the opera remained rare during the next 30 years . By the 1950s the work was generally accepted as Monteverdi 's , and after revivals in Vienna and Glyndebourne in the early 1970s it became increasingly popular . It has since been performed in opera houses all over the world , and has been recorded many times .
Together with Monteverdi 's other Venetian stage works , Il ritorno is classified as one of the first modern operas . Its music , while showing the influence of earlier works , also demonstrates Monteverdi 's development as a composer of opera , through his use of fashionable forms such as arioso , duet and ensemble alongside the older @-@ style recitative . By using a variety of musical styles , Monteverdi is able to express the feelings and emotions of a great range of characters , divine and human , through their music . Il ritorno has been described as an " ugly duckling " , and conversely as the most tender and moving of Monteverdi 's surviving operas , one which although it might disappoint initially , will on subsequent hearings reveal a vocal style of extraordinary eloquence .
= = Historical context = =
Monteverdi was an established court composer in the service of Duke Vincenzo Gonzaga in Mantua when he wrote his first operas , L 'Orfeo and L 'Arianna , in the years 1606 – 08 . After falling out with Vincenzo 's successor , Duke Francesco Gonzaga , Monteverdi moved to Venice in 1613 and became director of music at St Mark 's Basilica , a position he held for the rest of his life . Alongside his steady output of madrigals and church music , Monteverdi continued to compose works for the stage , though not actual operas . He wrote several ballets and , for the Venice carnival of 1624 – 25 , Il combattimento di Tancredi e Clorinda ( " The Battle of Tancred and Clorinda " ) , a hybrid work with some characteristics of ballet , opera and oratorio .
In 1637 fully @-@ fledged opera came to Venice with the opening of the Teatro San Cassiano . Sponsored by the wealthy Tron family , this theatre was the first in the world specifically devoted to opera . The theatre 's inaugural performance , on 6 March 1637 , was L 'Andromeda by Francesco Manelli and Benedetto Ferrari . This work was received with great enthusiasm , as was the same pair 's La Maga fulminata the following year . In rapid succession three more opera houses opened in the city , as the ruling families of the Republic sought to express their wealth and status by investing in the new musical fashion . At first , Monteverdi remained aloof from these activities , perhaps on account of his age ( he was over 70 ) , or perhaps through the dignity of his office as maestro di capella at St. Mark 's . Nevertheless , an unidentified contemporary , commenting on Monteverdi 's silence , opined that the maestro might yet produce an opera for Venice : " God willing , one of these nights he too will step onto the stage . " This remark proved prescient ; Monteverdi 's first public contribution to Venetian opera came in the 1639 – 40 carnival season , a revival of his L 'Arianna at the Teatro San Moisè .
L 'Arianna was followed in rapid succession by three brand new Monteverdi operas , of which Il ritorno was the first . The second , Le nozze d ' Enea in Lavinia ( " The Marriage of Aeneas to Lavinia " ) , was performed during the 1640 – 41 carnival ; Monteverdi 's music is lost , but a copy of the libretto , of unknown authorship , survives . The last of the three , written for the 1642 – 43 carnival , was L 'incoronazione di Poppea ( " The Coronation of Poppea " ) , performed shortly before the composer 's death in 1643 .
= = Creation = =
= = = Libretto = = =
Giacomo Badoaro ( 1602 – 1654 ) was a prolific poet in the Venetian dialect who was a member of the Accademia degli Incogniti , a group of free @-@ thinking intellectuals interested in promoting musical theatre in Venice — Badoaro himself held a financial interest in the Teatro Novissimo . Il ritorno was his first libretto ; he would later , in 1644 , write another Ulysses @-@ based libretto for Francesco Sacrati . The text of Il ritorno , originally written in five acts but later reorganised as three , is a generally faithful adaptation of Homer 's Odyssey , Books 13 – 23 , with some characterisations altered or expanded . Badoaro may have been influenced in his treatment of the story by the 1591 play Penelope by Giambattista della Porta . The libretto was written with the express purpose of tempting Monteverdi to enter the world of Venetian opera , and it evidently captured the elderly composer 's imagination . Badoaro and Monteverdi used a classical story to illustrate the human condition of their own times .
The Monteverdi scholar Ellen Rosand has identified 12 versions of the published libretto that have been discovered in the years since the first performance . Most of these appear to be 18th @-@ century copies , possibly from a single source ; some are literary versions , unrelated to any theatrical performances . All but one of the 12 identify Badoaro as the author , while the other gives no name . Only two refer to Monteverdi as the composer , though this is not significant — composers ' names were rarely given on printed librettos . The texts are all generally the same in each case , and all differ from the one surviving copy of Monteverdi 's musical score , which has three acts instead of five , a different prologue , a different ending , and many scenes and passages either omitted or rearranged . Some of the libretto copies locate the opera 's first performance at Teatro San Cassiano , although Teatro SS Giovanni e Paolo is now generally accepted as the opening venue .
= = = Composition = = =
It is not known when Monteverdi received the libretto from Badoaro , but this was presumably during or before 1639 since the work was being prepared for performance in the 1639 – 40 carnival . In keeping with the general character of Venetian opera , the work was written for a small band — around five string players and various continuo instruments . This reflected the financial motives of the merchant princes who were sponsoring the opera houses — they demanded commercial as well as artistic success , and wanted to minimise costs . As was common at the time , precise instrumentation is not indicated in the score , which exists in a single handwritten manuscript discovered in the Vienna National Library in the 19th century .
A study of the score reveals many characteristic Monteverdi features , derived from his long experience as a composer for the stage and of other works for the human voice . Rosand believes that rather than casting doubts on Monteverdi 's authorship , the significant differences between the score and the libretto might lend support to it , since Monteverdi was well known for his adaptations of the texts presented to him . Ringer reinforces this , writing that " Monteverdi boldly reshaped Badoaro 's writing into a coherent and supremely effective foundation for a music drama " , adding that Badoaro claimed that he could no longer recognise the work as his own . Contemporaries of the composer and the librettist saw an identification between Ulysses and Monteverdi ; both are returning home — " home " in Monteverdi 's case being the medium of opera which he had mastered and then left , 30 years earlier .
= = = Authenticity = = =
Before and after the publication of the score in 1922 , scholars questioned the work 's authenticity , and its attribution to Monteverdi continued to be in some doubt until the 1950s . The Italian musicologist Giacomo Benvenuti maintained , on the basis of a 1942 performance in Milan , that the work was simply not good enough to be by Monteverdi . Apart from the stylistic differences between Il ritorno and Monteverdi 's other surviving late opera , L 'incoronazione di Poppea , the main issue which raised doubts was the series of discrepancies between the score and the libretto However , much of the uncertainty concerning the attribution was resolved through the discovery of contemporary documents , all confirming Monteverdi 's role as the composer . These documents include a letter from the unknown librettist of Le nozze d 'Enea in Lavinia , which discusses Monteverdi 's setting of Il ritorno . There is also Badoaro 's preface to the Il ritorno libretto , addressed to the composer , which includes the wording " I can firmly state that my Ulysses is more indebted to you than ever was the real Ulysses to the ever @-@ gracious Minerva " . A 1644 letter from Badoaro to Michelangelo Torcigliani contains the statement " Il ritorno d 'Ulisse in patria was embellished with the music of Claudio Monteverdi , a man of great fame and enduring name " . Finally , a 1640 booklet entitled Le Glorie della Musica indicates the Badoaro @-@ Monteverdi pairing as the creators of the opera . In the view of conductor and instrumentalist Sergio Vartolo , these findings establish Monteverdi as the principal composer " beyond a shadow of a doubt " . Although parts of the music may be by other hands , there is no doubt that the work is substantially Monteverdi 's and remains close to his original conception .
= = Roles = =
The work is written for a large cast — thirty roles including small choruses of heavenly beings , sirens and Phaecians — but these parts can be organised among fourteen singers ( three sopranos , two mezzo @-@ sopranos , one alto , six tenors and two basses ) by appropriate doubling of roles . This approximates to the normal forces employed in Venetian opera . In the score , the role of Eumete changes midway through Act II from tenor to soprano castrato , suggesting that the surviving manuscript may have been created from more than one source . In modern performances the latter part of Eumete 's role is usually transposed to a lower range , to accommodate the tenor voice throughout .
= = Synopsis = =
The action takes place on and around the island of Ithaca , ten years after the Trojan Wars . English translations used in the synopsis are from Geoffrey Dunn 's version , based on Raymond Leppard 's 1971 edition , and from Hugh Ward @-@ Perkins 's interpretation issued with Sergio Vartolo 's 2006 recording for Brilliant Classics . Footnotes provide the original Italian .
= = = Prologue = = =
The spirit of human frailty ( L 'umana fragilità ) is mocked in turn by the gods of Time ( Tempo ) , Fortune ( Fortuna ) and Love ( Amore ) . Man , they claim , is subject to their whims : " From Time , ever fleeting , from Fortune 's caresses , from Love and its arrows ... No mercy from me ! " They will render man " weak , wretched and bewildered . "
= = = Act 1 = = =
In the palace at Ithaca , Penelope mourns the long absence of Ulysses : " The awaited one does not return , and the years pass by . " Her grief is echoed by her nurse , Ericlea . As Penelope leaves , her attendant Melanto enters with Eurimaco , a servant to Penelope 's importunate suitors . The two sing passionately of their love for each other ( " You are my sweet life " ) . The scene changes to the Ithacan coast , where the sleeping Ulisse is brought ashore by the Phaecians ( Faeci ) , whose action is in defiance of the wishes of gods Giove and Nettuno . The Phaecians are punished by the gods who turn them and their ship to stone . Ulysses awakes , cursing the Phaecians for abandoning him : " To your sails , falsest Phaeacians , may Boreas be ever hostile ! " From the goddess Minerva , who appears disguised as a shepherd boy , Ulisse learns that he is in Ithaca , and is told of " the unchanging constancy of the chaste Penelope " , in the face of the persistent importunings of her evil suitors . Minerva promises to lead Ulisse back to the throne if he follows her advice ; she tells him to disguise himself so that he can penetrate the court secretly . Ulisse goes to seek out his loyal servant Eumete , while Minerva departs to search for Telemaco , Ulisse 's son who will help his father reclaim the kingdom . Back at the palace , Melanto tries vainly to persuade Penelope to choose one of the suitors : " Why do you disdain the love of living suitors , expecting comfort from the ashes of the dead ? " In a wooded grove Eumete , banished from court by the suitors , revels in the pastoral life , despite the mockery of Iro , the suitors ' parasitic follower , who sneers : " I live among kings , you here among the herds . " After Iro is chased away , Ulisse enters disguised as a beggar , and assures Eumete that his master the king is alive , and will return . Eumete is overjoyed : " My long sorrow will fall , vanquished by you . "
= = = Act 2 = = =
Minerva and Telemaco return to Ithaca in a chariot . Telemaco is greeted joyfully by Eumete and the disguised Ulisse in the woodland grove : " O great son of Ulysses , you have indeed returned ! " After Eumete goes to inform Penelope of Telemaco 's arrival a bolt of fire descends on Ulisse , removing his disguise and revealing his true identity to his son . The two celebrate their reunion before Ulisse sends Telemaco to the palace , promising to follow shortly . In the palace , Melanto complains to Eurimaco that Penelope still refuses to choose a suitor : " In short , Eurymachus , the lady has a heart of stone . " Soon afterwards Penelope receives the three suitors ( Antinoo , Pisandro , Anfinomo ) , and rejects each in turn despite their efforts to enliven the court with singing and dancing : " Now to enjoyment , to dance and song ! " After the suitors ' departure Eumete tells Penelope that Telemaco has arrived in Ithaca , but she is doubtful : " Such uncertain things redouble my grief . " Eumete 's message is overheard by the suitors , who plot to kill Telemaco . However , they are unnerved when a symbolic eagle flies overhead , so they abandon their plan and renew their efforts to capture Penelope 's heart , this time with gold . Back in the woodland grove , Minerva tells Ulisse that she has organised a means whereby he will be able to challenge and destroy the suitors . Resuming his beggar 's disguise , Ulisse arrives at the palace , where he is challenged to a fight by Iro , ( " I will pluck out the hairs of your beard one by one ! " ) , a challenge he accepts and wins . Penelope now states that she will accept the suitor who is able to string Ulisse 's bow . All three suitors attempt the task unsuccessfully . The disguised Ulisse then asks to try though renouncing the prize of Penelope 's hand , and to everyone 's amazement he succeeds . He then angrily denounces the suitors and , summoning the names of the gods , kills all three with the bow : " This is how the bow wounds ! To death , to havoc , to ruin ! "
= = = Act 3 = = =
Deprived of the suitors ' patronage , Iro commits suicide after a doleful monologue ( " O grief , O torment that saddens the soul ! " ) Melanto , whose lover Eurimaco was killed with the suitors , tries to warn Penelope of the new danger represented by the unidentified slayer , but Penelope is unmoved and continues to mourn for Ulisse . Eumete and Telemaco now inform her that the beggar was Ulisse in disguise , but she refuses to believe them : " Your news is persistent and your comfort hurtful . " The scene briefly transfers to the heavens , where Giunone , having been solicited by Minerva , persuades Giove and Nettune that Ulisse should be restored to his throne . Back in the palace the nurse Ericlea has discovered Ulisse 's identity by recognising a scar on his back , but does not immediately reveal this information : " Sometimes the best thing is a wise silence . " Penelope continues to disbelieve , even when Ulisse appears in his true form and when Ericlea reveals her knowledge of the scar . Finally , after Ulisse describes the pattern of Penelope 's private bedlinen , knowledge that only he could possess , she is convinced . Reunited , the pair sing rapturously to celebrate their love : " My sun , long sighed for ! My light , renewed ! "
= = Reception and performance history = =
= = = Early performances = = =
Il ritorno was first staged during the 1639 – 40 Venice carnival by the theatrical company of Manelli and Ferrari , who had first brought opera to Venice . The date of the Il ritorno première is not recorded . According to Carter the work was performed at least ten times during its first season ; it was then taken by Manelli to Bologna , and played at the Teatro Castrovillani before returning to Venice for the 1640 – 41 carnival season . From markings in the extant score , it is likely that the first Venice performances were in five acts , the three @-@ act form being introduced either in Bologna or in the second Venice season . A theory offered by Italian opera historian Nino Pirrotta that the Bologna performance was the work 's première is not supported by subsequent research . The opera 's revival in Venice only one season after its première was very unusual , almost unique in the 17th century , and testifies to the opera 's popular success — Ringer calls it " one of the most successful operas of the century " . Carter offers a reason for its appeal to the public : " The opera has enough sex , gore and elements of the supernatural to satisfy the most jaded Venetian palate . "
The venue for Il ritorno 's première was at one time thought to be the Teatro Cassiano , but scholarly consensus considers it most likely that both the 1639 – 40 and 1640 – 41 performances were at the Teatro SS Giovanni e Paolo . This view is supported by a study of the performance schedules for other Venice operas , and by the knowledge that the Manelli company had severed its connection with the Teatro Cassiano before the 1639 – 40 season . The Teatro SS Giovanni e Paolo , owned by the Grimani family , would also be the venue for the premières of Monteverdi 's Le nozze d 'Enea and Poppea . In terms of its staging Il ritorno is , says Carter , fairly undemanding , requiring three basic sets — a palace , a seascape and a woodland scene — which were more or less standard for early Venetian opera . It did , however , demand some spectacular special effects : the Phaecian ship turns to stone , an airborne chariot transports Minerva , a bolt of fire transforms Ulisse .
After the Venice 1640 – 41 revival there is no record of further performances of Il ritorno in Venice , or elsewhere , before the discovery of the music manuscript in the 19th century . The diacovery of this manuscript in Vienna suggests that at some time the opera was staged there , or at least contemplated , perhaps before the Imperial court . The Monteverdi scholar Alan Curtis dates the manuscript 's arrival in Vienna to 1675 , during the reign of the Emperor Leopold I who was a considerable patron of the arts , and opera in particular .
= = = Modern revivals = = =
The Vienna manuscript score was published by Robert Haas in 1922 . Publication was followed by the first modern performance of the opera , in an edition by Vincent d 'Indy , in Paris on 16 May 1925 . For the next half @-@ century performances remained rare . The BBC introduced the opera to British listeners with a radio broadcast on 16 January 1928 , again using the d 'Indy edition . The Italian composer Luigi Dallapiccola prepared his own edition , which was performed in Florence in 1942 , and Ernst Krenek 's version was shown in Wuppertal , Germany , in 1959 . The first British staging was a performance at St. Pancras Town Hall , London , on 16 March 1965 , given with the English Chamber Orchestra conducted by Frederick Marshall .
The opera entered a wider repertory in the early 1970s , with performances in Vienna ( 1971 ) and Glyndebourne ( 1972 ) . The Vienna performance used a new edition prepared by Nikolaus Harnoncourt , whose subsequent partnership with the French opera director Jean @-@ Pierre Ponnelle led to the staging of the opera in many European cities . Ponnelle 's 1978 presentation in Edinburgh was later described as " infamous " ; at the time , critic Stanley Sadie praised the singers but criticised the production for its " frivolity and indeed coarseness " . In January 1974 Il ritorno received its United States première at Washington 's Kennedy Center , on the basis of the Harnoncourt edition . More recently the opera has been performed at the New York Lincoln Center by New York City Opera , and at other venues throughout the United States . A 2006 Welsh National Opera production by David Alden , designed by Ian McNeil , featured neon signs , stuffed cats , a Neptune in flippers and a wet suit , Minerva in the form of the aviatrix Amelia Earhart , and Jupiter as a small @-@ time hustler , an interpretation defended by the critic Anna Picard – " the gods were always contemporary fantasies , while an abandoned wife and a humbled hero are eternals . "
The German composer Hans Werner Henze was responsible for the first two @-@ act version , which was produced at the Salzburg Festival on 11 August 1985 , with divided critical reaction . Two @-@ act productions have since become increasingly common . The South African artist and animator William Kentridge devised a version of the opera based on the use of puppets and animated film , using around half of the music . This version was shown in Johannesburg in 1998 and then toured the world , appearing at New York 's Lincoln Center in 2004 and at the Edinburgh Festival in 2009 .
= = Music = =
According to Denis Arnold , although Monteverdi 's late operas retain elements of the earlier Renaissance intermezzo and pastoral forms , they may be fairly considered as the first modern operas . In the 1960s , however , music reviewer Richard Johnson found it necessary to warn prospective Il ritorno listeners that if they expected to hear opera akin to Verdi , Puccini or Mozart , they would be disappointed : " You have to submit yourself to a much slower pace , to a much more chaste conception of melody , to a vocal style that is at first or second hearing merely like dry declamation and only on repeated hearings begins to assume an extraordinary eloquence . " A few years later , Jeremy Noble in a Gramophone review wrote that Il ritorno was the least known and least performed of Monteverdi 's operas , " quite frankly , because its music is not so consistently full of character and imagination as that of Orfeo or Poppea . " Arnold called the work an " ugly duckling " . Later analysts have been more positive ; to Mark Ringer Il ritorno is " the most tender and moving of Monteverdi 's operas " , while in Ellen Rosand 's view the composer 's ability to portray real human beings through music finds its fullest realisation here , and in Poppea a few years later .
The music of Il ritorno shows the unmistakable influence of the composer 's earlier works . Penelope 's lament , which opens Act I , is reminiscent both of Orfeo 's Redentemi il mio ben and the lament from L 'Arianna . The martial @-@ sounding music which accompanies references to battles and the killing of the suitors , derives from Il combattimento di Tancredi e Clorinda , while for the song episodes in Il ritorno Monteverdi draws in part on the techniques which he developed in his 1632 vocal work Scherzi musicale . In typical Monteverdi fashion the opera 's characters are vividly portrayed in their music . Penelope and Ulisse , with what is described by Ringer as " honest musical and verbal declamation " , overcome the suitors whose styles are " exaggerated and ornamental " . Iro , perhaps " the first great comic character in opera " , opens his Act 3 monologue with a wail of distress that stretches across eight bars of music . Penelope begins her lament with a reiteration of E flats that , according to Ringer , " suggest a sense of motionless and emotional stasis " that well represents her condition as the opera begins . At the work 's end , her travails over , she unites with Ulisse in a duet of life @-@ affirming confidence which , Ringer suggests , no other composer bar Verdi could have achieved .
Rosand divides the music of Il ritorno into " speech @-@ like " and " musical " utterances . Speech , usually in the form of recitative , delivers information and moves the action forward , while musical utterances , either formal songs or occasional short outbursts , are lyrical passages that enhance an emotional or dramatic situation . This division is , however , less formal than in Monteverdi 's earlier L 'Orfeo ; in Il ritorno information is frequently conveyed through the use of arioso , or even aria at times , increasing both tunefulness and tonal unity . As with Orfeo and Poppea , Monteverdi differentiates musically between humans and gods , with the latter singing music which is usually more profusely melodic — although in Il ritorno , most of the human characters have some opportunity for lyrical expression . According to the reviewer Iain Fenlon , " it is Monteverdi 's mellifluous and flexible recitative style , capable of easy movement between declamation and arioso , which remains in the memory as the dominant language of the work . " Monteverdi 's ability to combine fashionable forms such as the chamber duet and ensembles with the older @-@ style recitative from earlier in the century further illustrate the development of the composer 's dramatic style . Monteverdi 's trademark feature of " stilo concitato " ( rapid repetition of notes to suggest dramatic action or excitement ) is deployed to good effect in the fight scene between Ulisse and Iro , and in the slaying of the suitors . Arnold draws attention to the great range of characters in the opera — the divine , the noble , the servants , the evil , the foolish , the innocent and the good . For all of these " the music expresses their emotions with astonishing accuracy . "
= = List of musical items = =
The following is a list of the " scenes " into which the libretto is divided . Each separate scene is typically a mixture of musical elements : recitative , arioso , arietta and sometimes ensemble , with occasional instrumental interludes .
= = Recording history = =
The first recording of the opera was issued in 1964 by Vox , a version which incorporated substantial cuts . The first complete recording was that of Nikolaus Harnoncourt and Concentus Musicus Wien in 1971 . Raymond Leppard 's 1972 Glyndebourne version was recorded in a concert performance in the Royal Albert Hall ; the following year the same Glyndebourne cast was recorded in a full stage performance . Leppard 's third Glyndebourne version was issued in 1980 , when the orchestration with strings and brass drew critical comment from Denis Arnold in his Gramophone review : " Too much of the music left with a simple basso continuo line in the original has been fully orchestrated with strings and brass , with the result that the expressive movement between recitative , arioso and aria is obscured . " Much the same criticism , says Arnold , may be levelled at Harnoncourt 's 1971 recording .
Among more recent issues is the much praised 1992 René Jacobs performance with Concerto Vocale , " a recording that all serious Monteverdians will wish to return to frequently " , according to Fenlon . Jacobs 's version is in the original five @-@ act form , and uses music by Luigi Rossi and Giulio Caccini for some choruses which appear in the libretto but which are missing from Monteverdi 's score . More than thirty years after his first issue , Harnoncourt 's 2002 version , with Zurich Opera , was recorded live in DVD format . While the quality of the vocal contributions were praised , Harnoncourt 's " big @-@ band score " and bold instrumentation were highlighted by Gramophone critic Jonathan Freeman @-@ Attwood as a likely source of future debate .
= = Editions = =
Since the publication of the Vienna manuscript score in 1922 the opera has been edited frequently , sometimes for specific performances or recordings . The following are the main published editions of the work , to 2010 .
Robert Hass ( Vienna , 1922 in the series Denkmäler der Tonkunst in Österreich )
Vincent d 'Indy ( Paris , 1926 )
Gian Francesco Malipiero ( Vienna , 1930 in Claudio Monteverdi : Tutte le opere )
Luigi Dallapiccola ( Milan , 1942 )
Ernst Krenek ( Wuppertal , 1959 )
Nikolaus Harnoncourt ( Vienna , 1971 )
Raymond Leppard ( London , 1972 )
Hans Werner Henze ( Salzburg , 1985 )
Alan Curtis ( London , 2002 )
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= Ion Creangă =
Ion Creangă ( Romanian pronunciation : [ iˈon ˈkre ̯ aŋɡə ] ; also known as Nică al lui Ștefan a Petrei , Ion Torcălău and Ioan Ștefănescu ; March 1 , 1837 or June 10 , 1839 – December 31 , 1889 ) was a Moldavian @-@ born Romanian writer , raconteur and schoolteacher . A main figure in 19th century Romanian literature , he is best known for his Childhood Memories volume , his novellas and short stories , and his many anecdotes . Creangă 's main contribution to fantasy and children 's literature includes narratives structured around eponymous protagonists ( " Harap Alb " , " Ivan Turbincă " , " Dănilă Prepeleac " , " Stan Pățitul " ) , as well as fairy tales indebted to conventional forms ( " The Story of the Pig " , " The Goat and Her Three Kids " , " The Mother with Three Daughters @-@ in @-@ Law " , " The Old Man 's Daughter and the Old Woman 's Daughter " ) . Widely seen as masterpieces of the Romanian language and local humor , his writings occupy the middle ground between a collection of folkloric sources and an original contribution to a literary realism of rural inspiration . They are accompanied by a set of contributions to erotic literature , collectively known as his " corrosives " .
A defrocked Romanian Orthodox priest with an unconventional lifestyle , Creangă made an early impact as an innovative educator and textbook author , while pursuing a short career in nationalist politics with the Fracțiunea liberă și independentă group . His literary debut came late in life , closely following the start of his close friendship with Romania 's national poet Mihai Eminescu and their common affiliation with the influential conservative literary society Junimea . Although viewed with reserve by many of his colleagues there , and primarily appreciated for his records of oral tradition , Creangă helped propagate the group 's cultural guidelines in an accessible form . Later criticism has often described him , alongside Eminescu , Ion Luca Caragiale and Ioan Slavici , as one of the most accomplished representatives of Junimist literature .
Ion Creangă was posthumously granted several honors , and is commemorated by a number of institutions in both Romania and neighboring Moldova . These include the Bojdeuca building in Iași , which , in 1918 , was opened as the first memorial house in Romania . His direct descendants include Horia Creangă , one of the leading Romanian architects during the interwar period .
= = Biography = =
= = = Background and family = = =
Ion Creangă was born in Humulești , a former village which has since been incorporated into Târgu Neamț city , the son of Orthodox trader Ștefan sin Petre Ciubotariul and his wife Smaranda . His native area , bordering on heavily forested areas , was in the Eastern Carpathian foothills , and included into what was then the principality of Moldavia . The surrounding region 's population preserved an archaic way of life , dominated by shepherding , textile manufacturing and related occupations , and noted for preserving the older forms of local folklore . Another characteristic of the area , which left an impression on Creangă 's family history , was related to the practice of transhumance and the links between ethnic Romanian communities on both sides of the mountains , in Moldavia and Transylvania : on his maternal side , the writer descended from Maramureș @-@ born peasants , while , according to literary historian George Călinescu , his father 's origin may have been further southwest , in Transylvania @-@ proper .
The family had reached a significant position within their community : Ștefan sin Petre had made a steady income from his itinerant trade in wool , while his wife was the descendant of the Creangăs of Pipirig , a family of community leaders . The latter 's members included Moldavian Metropolitan Iacob Stamati , as well as Smaranda 's father , Vornic David , and her uncle Ciubuc Clopotarul , a monk at Neamț Monastery . Proud of this tradition , it was her who insisted for her son to pursue a career in the Church . According to his own recollection , the future writer was born on March 1 , 1837 — a date which has since been challenged . Creangă 's other statements mention March 2 , 1837 , or an unknown date in 1836 . The exactitude of other accounts is equally unreliable : community registers from the period gave the date of June 10 , 1839 , and mention another child of the same name being born to his parents on February 4 , 1842 ( the more probable birth date of Creangă 's younger brother Zahei ) . The imprecision also touches other aspects of his family life : noting the resulting conflicts in data , Călinescu decided that it was not possible for one to know if the writer 's parents were married to each other ( and , if so , if they were on their first marriage ) , nor how many children they had together . At a time when family names were not legally required , and people were primarily known by various nicknames and patronymics , the boy was known to the community as Nică , a hypocorism formed from Ion , or more formally as Nică al lui Ștefan a Petrei ( " Nică of Ștefan of Petru " , occasionally Nic @-@ a lui Ștefan a Petrei ) .
= = = Childhood , youth and ordination = = =
After an idyllic period , which is recounted in the first section of his Childhood Memories , Ion Creangă was sent to primary school , an institution then in the care of Orthodox Church authorities , where he became noted for his rebellious attitude and appetite for truancy . Among his colleagues was a female student , Smărăndița popii ( known later as Smaranda Posea ) , for whom he developed an affection which lasted into his adult life , over decades in which the two no longer saw each other . He was taught reading and writing in Cyrillic alphabet through peer tutoring techniques , before the overseeing teacher , Vasile a Ilioaiei , was lassoed off the street and conscripted by the Moldavian military at some point before 1848 . After another teacher , whom the Memories portray as a drunk , died from cholera in late 1848 , David Creangă withdrew his grandson from the local school and took him to a similar establishment in Broșteni , handing him into the care of a middle @-@ aged woman , Irinuca . Ion Creangă spent several months at Irinuca 's remote house on the Bistrița River , before the proximity of goats resulted in a scabies infection and his hastened departure for Pipirig , where he cured himself using birch extract , a folk remedy mastered by his maternal grandmother Nastasia .
After returning to school between late 1849 and early 1850 , Creangă was pulled out by his financially struggling father , spent the following period working in wool @-@ spinning , and became known by the occupational nickname Torcălău ( " Spinster " ) . He only returned in third grade some four years later , having been sent to the Târgu Neamț public school , newly founded by Moldavian Prince Grigore Alexandru Ghica as part of the Regulamentul Organic string of reforms . A colleague of future philosopher Vasile Conta in the class of priest and theologian Isaia " Popa Duhu " Teodorescu , Creangă was sent to the Fălticeni seminary in 1854 . After having been registered as Ioan Ștefănescu ( a variant of his given name and a family name based on his patronymic ) , the adolescent student eventually adopted his maternal surname of Creangă . According to Călinescu , this was done either " for aesthetic reasons " ( as his new name , literally meaning " branch " or " bough " , " sounds good " ) or because of a likely discovery that Ștefan was not his real father . Dan Grădinaru , a researcher of Creangă 's work , believes that the writer had a special preference for the variant Ioan , generally used in more learned circles , instead of the variant Ion that was consecrated by his biographers .
Having witnessed , according to his own claim , the indifference and mundane preoccupations of his peers , Creangă admitted to having taken little care in his training , submitting to the drinking culture , playing practical jokes on his colleagues , and even shoplifting , while pursuing an affair with the daughter of a local priest . According to his own statement , he was a philanderer who , early in his youth , had already " caught the scent " of the catrință ( the skirt in traditional costumes ) . In August 1855 , circumstances again forced him to change schools : confronted with the closure of his Fălticeni school , Creangă left for the Central Seminary attached to Socola Monastery , in Moldavia 's capital of Iași . Ștefan sin Petre 's 1858 death left him without means of support , and he requested being directly ordained , but , not being of the necessary age , was instead handed a certificate to attest his school attendance . He was soon after married , after a brief courtship , to the 15 @-@ year @-@ old Ileana , daughter of Priest Ioan Grigoriu from the church of the Forty Saints , where he is believed to have in training as a schoolteacher . The ceremony took place in August 1859 , several months after the personal union between Moldavia and its southern neighbor Wallachia , effected by the election of Alexandru Ioan Cuza as Domnitor . Having been employed as a cantor by his father in law 's church , he was ordained in December of the same year , assigned to the position of deacon in Holy Trinity Church , and , in May 1860 , returned to Forty Saints .
Relations between Creangă and Grigoriu were exceptionally tense . Only weeks after his wedding , the groom , who had probably agreed to marriage only because it could facilitate succeeding Grigoriu , signed a complaint addressed to Metropolitan Sofronie Miclescu , denouncing his father in law as " a killer " , claiming to have been mistreated by him and cheated out of his wife 's dowry , and demanding to be allowed a divorce . The response to this request was contrary to his wishes : he was ordered into isolation by the Dicasterie , the supreme ecclesiastical court , being allowed to go free only on promise to reconcile with Grigoriu .
= = = Beginnings as schoolteacher and clash with the Orthodox Church = = =
In 1860 , Creangă enlisted at the Faculty of Theology , part of the newly founded University of Iași , and , in December 1860 , fathered a son , Constantin . His life still lacked in stability , and he decided to move out of Grigoriu 's supervision and into Bărboi Church , before his position as deacon was cut out of the budget and his belongings were evicted out of his temporary lodging in 1864 . He contemplated leaving the city , and even officially requested a new assignment in the more remote Bolgrad . Since January 1864 , when the Faculty of Theology had been closed down , he had been attending Iași 's Trei Ierarhi Monastery normal school ( Trisfetite or Trei Sfetite ) , where he first met the young cultural figure Titu Maiorescu , who served as his teacher and supervisor , and whence he graduated as the first in his class ( June 1865 ) . Embittered by his own experience with the education system , Creangă became an enthusiastic promoter of Maiorescu 's ideas on education reform and modernization , and in particular of the new methods of teaching reading and writing . During and after completing normal school , he was assigned to teaching positions at Trisfetite . While there , he earned the reputation of a demanding teacher ( notably by accompanying his reports on individual students with characterizations such as " idiot " , " impertinent " or " envious " ) . Accounts from the period state that he made use of corporal punishment in disciplining his pupils , and even surpassed the standards of violence accepted at the time .
In parallel , he was beginning his activities in support of education reform . By 1864 , he and several others , among them schoolteacher V. Răceanu , were working on a new primer , which saw print in 1868 under the title Metodă nouă de scriere și cetire pentru uzul clasei I primară ( " A New Method of Writing and Reading for the Use of 1st Grade Primary Course Students " ) . It mainly addressed the issues posed by the new Romanian alphabetical standard , a Romanization replacing Cyrillic spelling ( which had been officially discarded in 1862 ) . Largely based on Maiorescu 's principles , Metodă nouă ... became one the period 's most circulated textbooks . In addition to didactic texts , it also featured Creangă 's isolated debut in lyric poetry , with a naïve piece titled Păsărica în timpul iernii ( " The Little Bird in Wintertime " ) . The book was followed in 1871 by another such work , published as Învățătoriul copiilor ( " The Children 's Teacher " ) and co @-@ authored by V. Răceanu . It included several prose fables and a sketch story , " Human Stupidity " , to which later editions added Poveste ( " A Story " ) and Pâcală ( a borrowing of the fictional folk character better known as Păcală ) .
In February 1866 , having briefly served at Iași 's Pantelimon Church , he was welcomed by hegumen Isaia Vicol Dioclias into the service of Golia Monastery . Around 1867 , his wife Ileana left him . After that moment , Creangă began losing interest in performing his duties in the clergy , and , while doing his best to hide that he was no longer living with his wife , took a mistress . The marriage 's breakup was later attributed by Creangă himself to Ileana 's adulterous affair with a Golia monk , and rumors spread that Ileana 's lover was a high @-@ ranking official , the protopope of Iași . Creangă 's accusations , Călinescu contends , are nevertheless dubious , because the deacon persisted in working for the same monastery after the alleged incident .
By the second half of the 1860s , the future writer was also pursuing an interest in politics , which eventually led him to rally with the more nationalist group within the Romanian liberal current , known as Fracțiunea liberă și independentă . An agitator for his party , Creangă became commonly known under the nickname Popa Smântână ( " Priest Sour Cream " ) . In April 1866 , shortly after Domnitor Cuza was toppled by a coup d 'état , and just before Carol I was selected to replace him , the Romanian Army intervened to quell a separatist riot in Iași , instigated by Moldavian Metropolitan Calinic Miclescu . It is likely that Creangă shared the outlook of his fellow Fracțiunea members , according to which secession was preferable to Carol 's rule , and was probably among the rioters . At around the same time , the priest also began circulating antisemitic tracts , and is said to have demanded that Christians boycott Jewish business . He is thought to have coined the expression Nici un ac de la jidani ( " Not even a needle from the kikes " ) . He was eventually selected as one of the Fracțiunea candidates for an Iași seat in the Romanian Deputies ' Chamber , as documented by the memoirs of writer Iacob Negruzzi , who was his conservative adversary for the same seat . The episode is supposed to have taken place at the earliest during the 1871 suffrage .
By 1868 , Creangă 's rebellious stance was irritating his hierarchical superiors , and , according to Călinescu , his consecutive actions show that he was " going out of his way for scandal " . He was initially punished for attending a Iași Theater performance , as well as for defiantly claiming that there was " nothing scandalous or demoralizing " in what he had seen , and reportedly further antagonized the monks by firing a gun to scare off the rooks nesting on his church . The latter incident , which some commentators believe fabricated by Creangă 's detractors , was judged absurd by the ecclesiastical authorities , who had been further alarmed by negative reporting in the press . When told that no clergyman other than him had been seen using a gun , Creangă issued a reply deemed " Nasreddinesque " by George Călinescu , maintaining that , unlike others , he was not afraid of doing so . Confronted by Metropolitan Calinic himself , Creangă allegedly argued that he could think of no other way to eliminate rooks , being eventually pardoned by the prelate when it was ruled that he had not infringed on canon law .
= = = Defrocking and the Bojdeuca years = = =
Creangă eventually moved out of the monastery , but refused to relinquish his key to the church basement , and , in what was probably a modernizing intent , chopped off his long hair , one of the traditional marks of an Orthodox priest . The latter gesture scandalized his superiors , particularly since Creangă explained himself using an ancient provision of canon law , which stipulated that priests were not supposed to grow their hair long . After some assessment , his superiors agreed not to regard this action as more than a minor disobedience . He was temporarily suspended in practice but , citing an ambiguity in the decision ( which could be read as a banishment in perpetuity ) , Creangă considered himself defrocked . He relinquished his clerical clothing altogether and began wearing lay clothes everywhere , a matter which caused public outrage .
By then a teacher at the 1st School for Boys , on Română Street , Creangă was ordered out of his secular assignment in July 1872 , when news of his status and attitude reached Education Minister Christian Tell . Upset by the circumstances , and objecting in writing on grounds that it did not refer to his teaching abilities , he fell back on income produced by a tobacconist 's shop he had established shortly before being dismissed . This stage marked a final development in Creangă 's conflict with the church hierarchy . Summoned to explain why he was living the life of a shopkeeper , he responded in writing by showing his unwillingness to apologize , and indicated that he would only agree to face secular courts . The virulent text notably accused the church officials of being his enemies on account of his " independence , sincerity , honesty " in supporting the cause of " human dignity " . After the gesture of defiance , the court recommended his defrocking , its decision being soon after confirmed by the synod .
In the meantime , Creangă moved into what he called Bojdeuca ( or Bujdeuca , both being Moldavian regional speech for " tiny hut " ) , a small house located on the outskirts of Iași . Officially divorced in 1873 , he was living there with his lover Ecaterina " Tinca " Vartic . A former laundress who had earlier leased one of the Bojdeuca rooms , she shared Creangă 's peasant @-@ like existence . This lifestyle implied a number of eccentricities , such as the former deacon 's practice of wearing loose shirts throughout summer and bathing in a natural pond . His voracious appetite , called " proverbial gluttony " by George Călinescu , was attested by contemporary accounts . These depict him consuming uninterrupted successions of whole meals on a daily basis .
In May 1874 , soon after taking over Minister of Education in the Conservative Party cabinet of Lascăr Catargiu , his friend Maiorescu granted Creangă the position of schoolteacher in the Iași area of Păcurari . During the same period , Ion Creangă met and became best friends with Mihai Eminescu , posthumously celebrated as Romania 's national poet . This is said to have taken place in summer 1875 , when Eminescu was working as an inspector for Maiorescu 's Education Ministry , overseeing schools in Iași County : reportedly , Eminescu was fascinated with Creangă 's talents as a raconteur , while the latter admired Eminescu for his erudition .
= = = Junimea reception = = =
At around the same time , Creangă also began attending Junimea , an upper class literary club presided upon by Maiorescu , whose cultural and political prestige was increasing . This event , literary historian Z. Ornea argued , followed a time of indecision : as a former Fracțiunea affiliate , Creangă was a natural adversary of the mainstream Junimist " cosmopolitan orientation " , represented by both Maiorescu and Negruzzi , but was still fundamentally committed to Maiorescu 's agenda in the field of education . Literary historians Carmen @-@ Maria Mecu and Nicolae Mecu also argue that , after attending Junimea , the author was able to assimilate some of its innovative teachings into his own style of pedagogy , and thus helped diffuse its message outside the purely academic environment .
The exact date of his reception is a mystery . According to Maiorescu 's own recollections , written some decades after the event , Creangă was in attendance at a Junimea meeting of 1871 , during which Gheorghe Costaforu proposed to transform the club into a political party . The information was considered dubious by Z. Ornea , who argued that the episode may have been entirely invented by the Junimist leader , and noted that it contradicted both Negruzzi 's accounts and minutes kept by A. D. Xenopol . According to Ornea 's assessment , with the exception of literary critic Vladimir Streinu , all of Creangă 's biographers have come to dismiss Maiorescu 's statement . Several sources mention that the future writer was introduced to the society by Eminescu , who was an active member around 1875 . This and other details lead Ornea to conclude that membership was granted to Creangă only after the summer break of 1875 .
Gradually or instantly , Creangă made a positive impression by confirming with the Junimist ideal of authenticity . He also became treasured for his talkative and jocular nature , self @-@ effacing references to himself as a " peasant " , and eventually his debut works , which became subjects of his own public readings . His storytelling soon earned him dedicated spectators , who deemed Creangă 's fictional universe a " sack of wonders " at a time when the author himself had started casually using the pseudonym Ioan Vântură @-@ Țară ( " Ioan Gadabout " ) . Although still in his forties , the newcomer was also becoming colloquially known to his colleagues as Moș Creangă ( " Old Man Creangă " or " Father Creangă " ) , which was a sign of respect and sympathy . Among Ion Creangă 's most dedicated promoters were Eminescu , his former political rival Iacob Negruzzi , Alexandru Lambrior and Vasile Pogor , as well as the so @-@ called caracudă ( roughly , " small game " ) section , which comprised Junimists who rarely took the floor during public debates , and who were avid listeners of his literary productions ( it was to this latter gathering that Creangă later dedicated his erotic texts ) . In parallel to his diversified literary contribution , the former priest himself became a noted voice in Junimist politics , and , like his new friend Eminescu , voiced support for the group 's nationalist faction , in disagreement with the more cosmopolitan and aristocratic segment led by Maiorescu and Petre P. Carp . By that the late 1870s , he was secretly redirecting the political support of some former Fracțiunea colleagues toward his new colleagues , as confirmed by an encrypted letter he addressed to Negruzzi in March 1877 .
= = = Literary consecration = = =
Autumn 1875 is also often described as his actual debut in fiction prose , with " The Mother with Three Daughters @-@ in @-@ Law " , a short story first publish in October by the club 's magazine Convorbiri Literare . In all , Convorbiri Literare would publish 15 works of fiction and the four existing parts of his Childhood Memories before Creangă 's death . Reportedly , the decision to begin writing down his stories had been the direct result of Eminescu 's persuasion . His talent for storytelling and its transformation into writing fascinated his new colleagues . Several among them , including poet Grigore Alexandrescu , tasked experimental psychologist Eduard Gruber with closely studying Creangă 's methods , investigations which produced a report evidencing Creangă 's laborious and physical approach to the creative process . The latter also involved his frequent exchanges of ideas with Vartic , in whom he found his primary audience . In addition to his fiction writing , the emerging author followed Maiorescu 's suggestion and , in 1876 , published a work of educational methodology and the phonemic orthography favored by Junimea : Povățuitoriu la cetire prin scriere după sistema fonetică ( " Guide to Reading by Writing in the Phonetic System " ) . It was supposed to become a standard textbook for the training of teachers , but was withdrawn from circulation soon afterward , when the Catargiu cabinet fell .
After losing his job as school inspector following the decisions of a hostile National Liberal executive , Mihai Eminescu spent much of his time in Bojdeuca , where he was looked after by the couple . For five months after quarreling with Samson Bodnărescu , his fellow poet and previous landlord , Eminescu even moved inside the house , where he reputedly pursued his discreet love affair with woman writer Veronica Micle , and completed as many as 22 of his poems . Creangă introduced his younger friend to a circle of companions which included Zahei Creangă , who was by then a cantor , as well as Răceanu , priest Gheorghe Ienăchescu , and clerk Nicșoi ( all of whom , Călinescu notes , had come to share the raconteur 's lifestyle choices and his nationalist opinions ) . Eminescu was especially attracted by their variant of simple life , the rudimentary setting of Creangă 's house and the group 's bohemian escapades . Circumstances drew the two friends apart : by 1877 , Eminescu had relocated in Bucharest , the capital city , regularly receiving letters in which Creangă was asking him to return . He was however against Eminescu 's plan to marry Veronica Micle , and made his objection known to the poet . In 1879 , as a sign that he was formalizing his own affair with Tinca Vartic , Creangă purchased the Bojdeuca in her name , paying his former landlord 40 Austrian gulden in exchange . That same year , he , Răceanu and Ienăchescu published the textbook Geografia județului Iași ( " The Geography of Iași County " ) , followed soon after by a map of the same region , researched by Creangă and Răceanu . A final work in the area of education followed in 1880 , as a schoolteacher 's version of Maiorescu 's study of Romanian grammar , Regulile limbei române ( " Rules of the Romanian Language " ) .
= = = Illness and death = = =
By the 1880s , Creangă had become afflicted with epilepsy , suffering accelerated and debilitating episodes . He was also severely overweight , weighing some 120 kilograms ( over 250 pounds ) , with a height of 1 @.@ 85 meters ( 6 feet ) , and being teasingly nicknamed Burduhănosul ( " Tubby " ) by his friends ( although , according to testimonies by his son and daughter @-@ in @-@ law , he did not actually look his size ) .
Despite his activity being much reduced , he still kept himself informed about the polemics agitating Romania 's cultural and political scene . He was also occasionally hosting Eminescu , witnessing his friend 's struggle with mental disorder . The two failed to reconnect , and their relationship ended . After one of the meetings , he recorded that the delusional poet was carrying around a revolver with which to fend off unknown attackers — among the first in a series of episodes which ended with Eminescu 's psychiatric confinement and death during June 1889 . Around that time , Creangă , like other Junimists , was involved in a clash of ideas with the emerging Romanian socialist and atheistic group , rallied around Contemporanul magazine . This occurred after Contemporanul founder Ioan Nădejde publicly ridiculed Învățătoriul copiilor over its take on creationism , quoting its claim that " the invisible hand of God " was what made seeds grow into plants . Creangă replied with a measure of irony , stating that " had God not pierced the skin over our eyes , we would be unable to see each other 's mistakes " . Nevertheless , Călinescu argued , Nădejde 's comments had shaken his adversary 's religious sentiment , leading Creangă to question the immortality of the soul in a letter he addressed to one of his relatives in the clergy . According to other assessments , he was himself an atheist , albeit intimately so .
In 1887 , the National Liberal Ministry of Dimitrie Sturdza removed Creangă from his schoolteacher 's post , and he subsequently left for Bucharest in order to petition for his pension rights . Having hoped to be granted assistance by Maiorescu , he was disappointed when the Junimea leader would not respond to his request , and , during his final years , switched allegiance to the literary circle founded by Nicolae Beldiceanu ( where he was introduced by Gruber ) . Among Creangă 's last works was a fourth and final part of his Memories , most likely written during 1888 . The book remained unfinished , as did the story Făt @-@ frumos , fiul iepei ( " Făt @-@ Frumos , Son of the Mare " ) . He died after an epileptic crisis , on the last day of 1889 , his body being buried in Iași 's Eternitatea Cemetery . His funeral ceremony was attended by several of Iași 's intellectuals ( Vasile Burlă , A. C. Cuza , Dumitru Evolceanu , Nicolae Iorga and Artur Stavri among them ) .
= = Work = =
= = = Cultural context = = =
The impact of Ion Creangă 's work within its cultural context was originally secured by Junimea . Seeking to revitalize Romanian literature by recovering authenticity , and reacting against those cultural imports it deemed excessive , the group notably encouraged individual creativity among peasants . Reflecting back on Maiorescu 's role in the process , George Călinescu wrote : " A literary salon where the personal merit would take the forefront did not exist [ before Junimea ] and , had Creangă been born two decades earlier , he would not have been able to present ' his peasant material ' to anyone . Summoning the creativity of the peasant class and placing it in direct contact with the aristocrats is the work of Junimea . " His cogenerationist and fellow literary historian Tudor Vianu issued a similar verdict , commenting : " Junimea is itself ... an aristocratic society . Nevertheless , it is through Junimea that surfaced the first gesture of transmitting a literary direction to some writers of rural extraction : a phenomenon of great importance , the neglect of which would render unexplainable the entire subsequent development of our literature . " Also referring to cultural positioning within and outside the group , Carmen @-@ Maria Mecu and Nicolae Mecu took the acceptance of " literate peasants " such as Creangă as exemplary proof of Junimist " diversity " and " tolerance " .
Maiorescu is known to have had much appreciation for Creangă and other writers of peasant origin , such as Ion Popovici @-@ Bănățeanu and Ioan Slavici . Late in life , he used this connection to challenge accusations of Junimist elitism in the face of criticism from more populist traditionalists . Nonetheless , Junimea members in general found Creangă more of an entertainer rather than a serious writer , and treasured him only to the measure where he illustrated their theories about the validity of rural literature as a source of inspiration for cultured authors . Therefore , Iacob Negruzzi sympathetically but controversially referred to his friend as " a primitive and uncouth talent " . Maiorescu 's critical texts also provide little individual coverage of Creangă 's contributions , probably because these failed to comply exactly with his stratification of literary works into poporane ( " popular " , that is anonymous or collective ) and otherwise . Tudor Vianu 's theory defines Creangă as a prime representative of the " popular realism " guidelines ( as sporadically recommended by the Junimist doyen himself ) , cautioning however that Creangă 's example was never mentioned in such a context by Maiorescu personally .
Although he occasionally downplayed his own contribution to literature , Creangă himself was aware that his texts went beyond records of popular tradition , and made significant efforts to be recognized as an original author ( by corresponding with fellow writers and willingly submitting his books to critical scrutiny ) . Vianu commented at length on the exact relationship between the narrative borrowed from oral tradition and Creangă 's " somewhat surreptitious " method of blending his own style into the folkloric standard , likening it to the historical process whereby local painters improvised over the strict canons of Byzantine art . Creangă 's complex take on individuality and the art of writing was attested by the his own foreword to an edition of his collected stories , in which he addressed the reader directly : " You may have read many stupid things since you were put on this Earth . Please read these as well , and where it should be that they don 't agree with you , take hold of a pen and come up with something better , for this is all I could see myself doing and did . "
An exception among Junimea promoters was Eminescu , himself noted for expressing a dissenting social perspective which only partly mirrored Maiorescu 's take on conservatism . According to historian Lucian Boia , the " authentic Moldavian peasant " that was Creangă also complemented Eminescu 's own " more metaphysical " peasanthood . Similarly , Z. Ornea notes that the poet used Creangă 's positions to illustrate his own ethnonationalist take on Romanian culture , and in particular his claim that rural authenticity lay hidden by a " superimposed stratum " of urbanized ethnic minorities . 20th century critics have described Creangă as one of his generation 's most accomplished figures , and a leading exponent of Junimist literature . This verdict is found in several of Vianu 's texts , which uphold Creangă as a great exponent of his generation 's literature , comparable to fellow Junimea members Eminescu , Slavici and Ion Luca Caragiale . This view complements George Călinescu 's definition , placing the Moldavian author in the company of Slavici and Caragiale as one of the " great prose writers " of the 1880s . Lucian Boia , who noted that " the triad of Romanian classics " includes Creangă alongside Eminescu and Caragiale , also cautioned that , compared to the other two ( with whom " the Romanians have said almost all there is to say about themselves " ) , Creangă has " a rather more limited register " .
The frequent comparison between Creangă and Caragiale in particular is seen by Vianu as stemming from both their common " wide @-@ ranging stylistic means " and their complementary positions in relations to two superimposed phenomenons , with Caragiale 's depiction of the petite bourgeoisie as the rough equivalent of Creangă 's interest in the peasantry . The same parallelism is explained by Ornea as a consequence of the two authors ' social outlook : " [ Their works ] have cemented aesthetically the portrayal of two worlds . Creangă 's is the peasant world , Caragiale 's the suburban and urban one . Two worlds which represent , in fact , two characteristic steps and two sociopolitical models in the evolution of Romanian structures which ... were confronting themselves in a process that would later prove decisive . " According to the same commentator , the two plus Eminescu are their generation 's great writers , with Slavici as one " in their immediate succession . " While listing what he believes are elements bridging the works of Creangă and Caragiale , other critics have described as strange the fact that the two never appear to have mentioned each other , and stressed that , although not unlikely , a direct encounter between them was never recorded in sources .
= = = Narrative style and language = = =
Highlighting Ion Creangă 's recourse to the particularities of Moldavian regionalisms and archaisms , their accumulation making Creangă 's work very difficult to translate , George Călinescu reacted against claims that the narratives reflected antiquating patterns . He concluded that , in effect , Creangă 's written language was the equivalent of a " glossological museum " , and even contrasted by the writer 's more modern everyday parlance . Also discussing the impression that Creangă 's work should be read with a Moldavian accent , noted for its " softness of sound " in relation to standard Romanian phonology , Călinescu cautioned against interpretative exaggerations , maintaining that the actual texts only offer faint suggestions of regional pronunciation . Contrasting Creangă with the traditions of literature produced by Wallachians in what became the standard literary language , Călinescu also argued in favor of a difference in mentality : the " balance " evidenced by Moldavian speech and illustrated in Ion Creangă 's writings is contrasted by the " discoloration and roughness " of " Wallachianism " . He also criticized those views according to which Creangă 's variant of the literary language was " beautiful " , since it failed to " please everyone on account of some acoustical beauty " , and since readers from outside the writer 's native area could confront it " with some irritation . " For Călinescu , the result nevertheless displays " an enormous capacity of authentic speech " , also found in the works of Caragiale and , in the 20th century , Mihail Sadoveanu . According to the same commentator , the dialectical interventions formed a background to a lively vocabulary , a " hermetic " type of " argot " , which contained " hilarious double entendres and indecent onomatopoeia " , passing from " erudite beauty " to " obscene laughter " . Some of the expressions characteristic of Creangă 's style are obscure in meaning , and some other , such as " drought made the snake scream inside the frog 's mouth " , appear to be spontaneous and nonsensical . Another specific trait of this language , commented upon by Vianu 's and compared by him to the aesthetics of Classicism , sees much of Creangă 's prose being set to a discreet poetic meter .
The recourse to oral literature schemes made it into his writings , where it became a defining trait . As part of this process , Călinescu assessed , " Creangă acts as all his characters in turn , for his stories are almost entirely spoken . ... When Creangă recounts , the composition is not extraordinary , but once his heroes begin talking , their gesticulation and wording reach a height in typical storytelling . " According to the critic , discovering this " fundamental " notion about Creangă 's work was the merit of literary historian and Viața Românească editor Garabet Ibrăileanu , who had mentioned it as a main proof of affiliation to realism . The distinctive manner of characterization through " realistic dialogues " is seen by Vianu as a highly personal intervention and indicator of the Moldavian writer 's originality . Both Vianu and Călinescu discussed this trait , together with the technique of imparting subjective narration in @-@ between characters ' replies , as creating other meeting points between Creangă and his counterpart Caragiale . Partly replicating in paper the essence of social gatherings , Ion Creangă often tried to transpose the particular effects of oral storytelling into writing . Among these characteristic touches were interrogations addressed to the readers as imaginary listeners , and pausing for effect with the visual aid of ellipsis . He also often interrupted his narratives with concise illustrations of his point , often in verse form , and usually introduced by vorba ceea ( an expression literally meaning " that word " , but covering the sense of " as word goes around " ) . One example of this connects the notions of abundance and personal satisfaction :
In other cases , the short riddles relate to larger themes , such as divine justification for one 's apparent fortune :
= = = Creangă 's specificity = = =
Despite assuming the external form of traditional literature , Ion Creangă 's interests and creative interventions , Călinescu noted , separated him from his roots : " peasants do not have [ his ] entirely cultured gifts . ... Too much ' atmosphere ' , too much dialogic ' humor ' , too much polychromy at the expense of linear epic movements . The peasant wants the bare epic and desires the unreal . " The commentator passed a similar judgment on the author 's use of ancient sayings , concluding that , instead of crystallizing and validating local folklore , the accounts appeal to cultured tastes , having as the generation of comedy and volubility as their main purpose . According to Vianu 's assessment Creangă was " a supreme artist " whose use of " typical sayings " attests " a man of the people , but not an anonymous and impersonal sample . " These verdicts , directly contradicting Junimist theories , were mirrored by several other 20th century exegetes belonging to distinct schools of thought : Pompiliu Constantinescu , Benjamin Fondane and Ion Negoițescu . Writing during the second half of the century , critic Nicolae Manolescu passed a similar judgment , believing that Creangă was motivated by a " strictly intellectual sensuousness " and the notion that " pleasure arises from gratuitousness " , while Manolescu 's colleague Mircea Braga referred to " the great secret of the man who has managed to transfer unaltered the code of popular creativity into the immanence of the cultured one . " In Braga 's assessment , this synthesis managed " the impossible " , but the difficulty of repeating it with each story also resulted in mediocre writings : " from among his few texts , even fewer are located on the relatively highest level of the relative aesthetic hierarchy " .
Călinescu viewed such intellectual traits as shared by Creangă with his Wallachian counterpart Anton Pann , in turn linking both writers to the satirical component of Renaissance literature , and specifically to François Rabelais . Within local tradition , the literary historian saw a symbolic connection between Creangă and the early 18th century figure , Ion Neculce , one of Moldavia 's leading chroniclers . While he made his own comparison between Creangă and Pann , Tudor Vianu concluded that the Moldavian writer was in fact superior , as well as being more relevant to literature than Petre Ispirescu , the prime collector of tales in 19th @-@ century Wallachia . Also making use of the Rabelais analogy , literary chronicler Gabriela Ursachi found another analogy in local letters : Ion Budai @-@ Deleanu , an early 19th @-@ century representative of the Transylvanian School , whose style mixes erudite playfulness with popular tastes . These contextual traits , researchers assess , did not prevent Creangă 's overall work from acquiring a universal aspect , particularly since various of his writings use narrative sequences common throughout world literature .
George Călinescu also assessed that these literary connections served to highlight the elevated nature of Creangă 's style , his " erudite device " , concluding : " Writers such as Creangă can only show up in places where the word is ancient and equivocal , and where experience has been condensed into unchanging formulas . It would have been more natural for such a prose writer to have emerged a few centuries later , into an era of Romanian humanism . Born much earlier , Creangă showed up where there exists an ancient tradition , and therefore a species of erudition , ... in a mountain village ... where the people is unmixed and keeping [ with tradition ] . " Outlining his own theory about the aspects of " national specificity " in Romanian letters , he expanded on these thoughts , listing Creangă and Eminescu as " core Romanians " who illustrated a " primordial note " , complemented by the " southern " and " Balkan " group of Caragiale and others . Claiming that the " core " presence had " not primitive , but ancient " origins , perpetuated by " stereotyped wisdom " and " energetic fatalism " , he asserted : " Creangă shows our civilization 's contemporaneity with the world 's oldest civilizations , our Asian age . " The alternating national and regional characteristics in Creangă 's writings are related by historian Neagu Djuvara with the writer 's place of birth , an affluent village in an isolated region , contrasting heavily with the 19th century Wallachian countryside : " if the mud hut villages of the Danube flood plain are to be taken into account , one finds himself in a different country . " Ornea , who noted that Eminescu effectively shared Creangă 's worldview , believed the latter to have been dominated by nostalgia for a world of independent landowning peasants , and argued that Creangă 's literary and political outlook were both essentially conservative . Ornea commented : " One could say that it was through [ this form of nostalgia ] that the writer debuted and that , within the space of his work it became , in its own right , an expression of the world that was about to vanish . " Commenting on Creangă 's " robust realism " and lack of " sentimentality " , Vianu contrarily asserted : " Creangă 's nostalgia ... has an individual , not social , sense . "
The witty and playful side of Creangă 's personality , which became notorious during his time at Junimea and constituted a significant part of his appeal , was reflected into a series of anecdotes . These accounts detail his playing the ignorant in front of fellow Junimists in order not to antagonize sides during literary debates ( notably , by declaring himself " for against " during a two @-@ option vote ) , his irony in reference to his own admirers ( such as when he asked two of them to treasure the photograph of himself in the middle and the two of them on either side , while comparing it to the crucifixion scene and implicitly assigning them the role of thieves ) , and his recourse to puns and proverbs which he usually claimed to be citing from oral tradition and the roots of Romanian humor . The latter habit was notably illustrated by his answer to people who would ask him for money : " not since I born was I as poor as I was poor yesterday and the day before yesterday and last week and last week and throughout life " . His joyfulness complemented his overall Epicureanism and his gourmand habits : his accounts are often marked by a special interest in describing acts related to food and drink . Overall , Eduard Gruber 's report contended , Creangă 's writing relied on him being " a strong sensual and auditive type " , and a " very emotional " person .
Ion Creangă 's sense of humor was instrumental in forging the unprecedented characteristics of his work . American critic Ruth S. Lamb , the writer 's style merges " the rich vocabulary of the Moldavian peasant " with " an original gaiety and gusto comparable to that of Rabelais . " According to George Călinescu : " [ Creangă ] got the idea that he was a clever man , like all men of the people , and therefore used irony to make himself seem stupid . " In Călinescu 's view , the author 's antics had earned him a status equivalent to that of his Wallachian Junimist counterpart Caragiale , with the exception that the latter found his inspiration in urban settings , matching " Nasreddinisms " with " Miticism " . Z. Ornea sees the main protagonists in Creangă 's comedic narratives as , in effect , " particularized incarnations of the same symbolic character " , while the use of humor itself reflects the traditional mindset , " a survival through intelligence , that of a people with an old history , whose life experience has for centuries been concentrated into gestures and words . "
= = = Most prominent tales = = =
Part of Ion Creangă 's contribution to the short story , fantasy and children 's literature genres involved collecting and transforming narratives circulating throughout his native region , which intertwine with his characteristic storytelling to the point where they become original contributions . According to Călinescu , the traditional praise for Ion Creangă as a creator of literary types is erroneous , since his characters primarily answered to ancient and linear narrative designs . The conclusion is partly shared by Braga , who links Creangă 's tales to ethnological and anthropological takes on the themes and purposes of fairy tales , postulating the prevalence of three ancient and related narrative pretexts throughout his contributions : the preexistence of a " perturbing situation " ( attributable to fatality ) , the plunging of the hero into a rite of passage @-@ type challenge , a happy ending which brings the triumph of good over evil ( often as a brutal and uncompromising act ) . Like their sources and predecessors in folklore , these accounts also carry transparent morals , ranging from the regulation of family life to meditations about destiny and lessons about tolerating the marginals . However , Swedish researcher Tom Sandqvist argues , they also illustrate the absurdist vein of some traditional narratives , by featuring " grotesqueries " and " illogical surprises " .
With " The Goat and Her Three Kids " , written mainly as a picturesque illustration of motherly love , Creangă produced a fable in prose , opposing the eponymous characters , caricatures of a garrulous but hard @-@ working woman and her restless sons , to the sharp @-@ toothed Big Bad Wolf , a satirical depiction of the cunning and immoral stranger . The plot shows the wolf making his way into the goat 's house , where he eats the two older and less obedient kids , while the youngest one manages to escape by hiding up the chimney — the symbolism of which was psychoanalyzed by Dan Grădinaru , who claims it constitutes an allusion to Creangă 's own childhood . The dénouement sees an inversion of the natural roles , an episode which , ethnologist Șerban Anghelescu notes , is dominated by " the culinary fire " : the goat exercises her brutal revenge by trapping and slowly cooking the predator . This approach partly resonates with that of " The Mother with Three Daughters @-@ in @-@ Law " , in which Creangă makes ample use of a traditional theme in Romanian humor , which portrays mothers @-@ in @-@ law as mean , stingy and oppressive characters . The embodiment of such offensive traits , she is also shown to be ingenious , pretending that she has a hidden third eye which always keeps things under watch . The narrator sides with the three young women in depicting their violent retribution , showing them capturing their oppressor , torturing her until she is left speech impaired , and leaving her on the brink of death . The mother @-@ in @-@ law 's end turns into a farce : the eldest and most intelligent of the killers manipulates her victim 's dying sounds into a testament partitioning her wealth , and a thin decorum is maintained at the funeral ceremony by the daughters ' hypocritical sobbing .
" The Story of the Pig " partly illustrates the notion that parental love subdues even physical repulsion , showing an elderly peasant couple cherishing their adopted porcine son , who , unbeknown to them , is enchanted . The creature instantly offsets his parents ' sadness and immobility by his witty intelligence . Having applied his perseverance and spells to erect a magical bridge , the piglet fulfills the requirement for marrying the emperor 's daughter , after which it is uncovered that he is a Făt @-@ Frumos or Prince Charming character who assumes his real identity only by night . Although the plot is supposed to deal with imperial magnificence in fairy tale fashion , the setting is still primarily rural , and the court itself is made to look like an elevated peasant community . According to researcher Marcu Beza , the text is , outside of its humorous context , a distant reworking of ancient legends such as Cupid and Psyche . The story introduces three additional characters , old women who assess and reward the efforts of the virtuous : Holy Wednesday , Holy Friday and Holy Sunday . They represent a mix of Christian and pagan traditions , by being both personifications of the liturgical calendar and fairy @-@ like patrons of the wilderness ( zâne ) .
A similar perspective was favored by " The Old Man 's Daughter and the Old Woman 's Daughter " . Here , the theme echoes Cinderella , but , according to Călinescu , the rural setting provides a sharp contrast to the classical motif . Persecuted by her stepmother and stepsister , the kind and loving daughter of the old man is forced into a position of servitude reflecting the plight of many peasant women in Creangă 's lifetime . In this case , the old man is negatively depicted as cowardly and entirely dominated by his mean wife . The focal point of the narrative is the meeting between the good daughter and Holy Sunday . The latter notices and generously rewards the girl 's helpful nature and mastery of cooking ; in contrast , when her envious sister attempts the same and fails , she ends up being eaten by serpent @-@ like creatures ( balauri ) . The happy ending sees the good girl marrying not Prince Charming , but a simple man described as " kind and industrious " — this outcome , Călinescu assessed , did not in effect spare the old man 's daughter from a life of intense labor . A story very similar to " The Old Man 's Daughter ... " is " The Purse a ' Tuppence " , which teaches that greed can shatter families , while offering symbolic retribution to men who are unhappy in marriage . The old man 's rooster , chased away by the old woman for being unproductive , ends up amassing a huge fortune , which he keeps inside his belly and regurgitates back into the courtyard ; the jealous old woman ends up killing her favorite hen , who has failed in replicating the rooster 's feat .
= = = Devil @-@ themed stories and " Harap Alb " = = =
Several of Creangă 's characteristic novellas are infused with themes from Christian mythology , fictionalizing God , Saint Peter and the army of devils , most often with the comedic intent of showing such personages behaving like regular people . A defining story in this series is " Dănilă Prepeleac " , whose eponymous peasant hero is characterized by what Șerban Anghelescu calls " idiocy serving to initiate " , or , according to Gabriela Ursachi , " complete , and therefore sublime , stupidity . " The first part of the story shows Dănilă exchanging his oxen for an empty bag — a set of dialogues which , George Călinescu argued , is almost exactly like a comedy play . In what was described as a complete reversal in characterization , the hero uses intelligence and ruse to trick and frighten several devils . Contrarily , " Stan Pățitul " shows its hero fraternizing with a lesser demon . Following the opening episode , in which the latter accidentally eats a bit of mămăligă dedicated by Stan to those who honor God , Satan himself condemns his subordinate to service the peasant . Călinescu highlights the naturalness of exchanges between the two protagonists , the latter of whom assumes the endearing form of a frail boy , Chirică , who ends up moving in with Stan and entering his service . The writing was also noted for other realistic elements alluding to everyday life , such as the overtly colloquial exchange between Chirică and Satan , or the episodes in which the young devil helps Stan woo a peasant woman . Although relatively young , Stan himself is referred to as stătut ( " frowzy " or " lacking in freshness " ) , and the wording reflects rural attitudes about men who fail to marry during a certain age interval . Toward the end , the story focuses on a corrupt old woman who tries to trick Stan 's new wife into committing adultery , but fails and is banished to the remotest area of Hell . Viewed by Călinescu as Creangă 's " most original manner of dealing with the fabulous " , and paralleled by him with Caragiale 's Kir Ianulea on account of its realist approach to the supernatural , " Stan Pățitul " is , according to Vianu , untraceable in its inspiration : " [ its ] folk origin could not be identified , but it is not dismissible " .
Another account in this series is " Ivan Turbincă " , whose protagonist , a Russian serviceman , is shown rebelling against Heaven and Hell , and ultimately accomplishing the human ideal of cheating Death . The plot retells a theme present in both Romanian tradition and Ukrainian folklore , while , according to researcher of children 's literature Muguraș Constantinescu , the main character is similar to German tradition 's Till Eulenspiegel . In the beginning of the account , God rewards the soldier 's exemplary charity by granting him a pouch ( turbincă ) , which can miraculously trap anything in existence . In order to circumvent the laws of nature , Ivan subsequently makes use of both his magical item and his innate shrewdness . In one such episode , pretending not to understand the proper position of bodies inside a coffin , he tricks impatient Death into taking his place , and traps her inside . Eventually , he is allowed to keep his life , but is promised an eternity of old age , which he ingeniously counterbalances by attending an endless succession of wedding parties , and therefore never having to feel sad .
" Harap Alb " , one of Ion Creangă 's most complex narratives , carries a moral defined by Călinescu as " the gifted man will earn a reputation under any guise . " The story opens with a coming of age quest , handed down by a king to his three sons : the most fit among them is supposed to reach the court of the Green Emperor , who is the king 's brother , and succeed him to the throne . According to Călinescu , the mission bases itself on travels undertaken by young men in Creangă 's native region , while the subsequent episodes in the narrative reinforce the impression of familiarity , from the " peasant speech " adopted by the villain known as the Bald Man , to the " crass vulgarity " evidenced by the antagonist Red Emperor . Forced to pass himself off as a foreign servant ( or " Moor " ) , the prince is three times tested and aided by Holy Sunday , who doubles as the queen of zâne creatures . Călinescu described as " playful realism " the method through which Creangă outlined the mannerisms of several other characters , in particular the allegorical creatures who provide the youngest prince with additional and serendipitous assistance . In one noted instance , the characters Setilă ( " Drink @-@ All " ) and Flămânzilă ( " Eat @-@ All " ) help the hero overcome seemingly impossible tasks set by the Red Emperor , by ingesting unnaturally huge amounts of food and drink .
The tale builds on intricate symbolism stemming from obscure sources . It features what Muguraș Constantinescu calls " the most complex representation of Holy Sunday " , with mention of her isolated and heavenly abode on " flower island " . A background antithesis opposes the two fictional monarchs , with the Red Emperor replicating an ancient tradition which attributes malignant characteristics to the color . By contrast , the Green Emperor probably illustrates the ideals of vitality and healthy lifestyle , as hinted by his culinary preference for " lettuce from the garden of the bear " . Historian Adrian Majuru , building on earlier observations made by linguist Lazăr Șăineanu , also connects the servant @-@ prince 's antagonists with various reflections of ethnic strife in Romanian folklore : the Red Emperor as standing for the medieval Khazars ( " Red Jews " ) , the Bald Man as a popular view of the Tatars .
= = = Childhood Memories = = =
Childhood Memories is , together with a short story about his teacher Isaia Teodorescu ( titled " Popa Duhu " ) , one of Creangă 's two memoirs . George Călinescu proposed that , like his fairy tales , the book illustrates popular narrative conventions , a matter accounting for their special place in literature : " The stories are true , but typical , without depth . Once retold with a different kind of gesticulation , the subject would lose all of its lively atmosphere . " Also based on the techniques of traditional oral accounts , it features the topical interventions of a first @-@ person narrator in the form of soliloquies , and reflects in part the literary canon set by frame stories . The resulting effect , Călinescu argued , was not that of " a confession or a diary " , but that of a symbolic account depicting " the childhood of the universal child . " According to Vianu , the text is especially illustrative of its author 's " spontaneous passage " between the levels of " popular " and " cultured " literature : " The idea of fictionalizing oneself , of outlining one 's formative steps , the steady accumulation of impressions from life , and then the sentiment of time , of its irreversible flow , of regret for all things lost in its consumption , of the charm relived through one 's recollections are all thoughts , feelings and attitudes defining a modern man of culture . No popular model could have ever stood before Creangă when he was writing his Memories , but , surely , neither could the cultured prototypes of the genre , the first autobiographies and memoirs of the Renaissance " . Grădinaru and essayist Mircea Moț analyzed the volume as a fundamentally sad text , in stated contrast with its common perception as a recollection of joyful moments : the former focused on moments which seem to depict Nică as a loner , the latter highlighted those sections which include Creangă 's bitter musings about destiny and the impregnability of changes . A distinct interpretation was provided by critic Luminița Marcu , who reacted against the tradition of viewing Creangă 's actual childhood as inseparable from his own subjective rendition .
Several of the book 's episodes have drawn attention for the insight they offer into the culture , structure and conflicts of traditional society before 1900 . Commenting on this characteristic , Djuvara asserted : " even if we take into account that the grown @-@ up will embellish , transfigure , ' enrich ' the memories of his childhood , how could we not recognize the sincerity in Creangă 's heart @-@ warming evocation of his childhood 's village ? " The book stays true to life in depicting ancient customs : discussing the impact of paganism on traditional Romanian customs , Marcu Beza communicated a detail of Creangă 's account , which shows how January 1 celebrations of Saint Basil opposed the loud buhai players reenacting a fertility rite to people preferring a quieter celebration . The work also offers details on the traditional roles of a rural society such as that of Humulești , in the context of social change . Muguraș Constantinescu highlights the important roles of old men and women within Nică 's universe , and especially that of his grandfather and " clan leader " David Creangă . The latter , she notes , is an " enlightened man " displaying " the wisdom and balance of the ripe age " , a person able to insist on the importance of education , and a churchgoer who frowns on " his wife 's bigotry . " The seniors ' regulatory role within the village is evidenced throughout the book , notoriously so in the episode where the boy captures a hoopoe who bothers his morning sleep , only to be tricked into releasing it by old man , who understands the bird 's vital role as village alarm clock .
Another significant part of the account , detailing Creangă 's education , shows him frustrated by the old methods of teaching , insisting on the absurd image of children learning by heart and chanting elements of Romanian grammar and even whole texts . The narrator refers to this method as " a terrible way to stultify the mind " . The negative portrayal of teaching priests was commented by writer and critic Horia Gârbea as proof of the author 's anticlericalism , in line with various satirical works targeting the Romanian clergy : " Creangă 's Memories of the catechism school would discourage any candidate . "
= = = Didactic writings = = =
Creangă 's contribution to literature also covers a series of didactic fables written as lively dialogues , among them " The Needle and the Sledge Hammer " , in which the objects of traditional metalworking scold the byproducts of their work for having forgotten their lowly origin . The inspiration behind this theme was identified by Călinescu as " The Story of a Gold Coin " , written earlier by Creangă 's Junimist colleague Vasile Alecsandri . A similar piece , " The Flax and the Shirt " , reveals the circuit of fibers from weed @-@ like plants into recycled cloth , leading to the conclusion that " all things are not what they seem ; they were something else once , they are something else now ; — and shall become something else . " The technique employed by Creangă has the flax plant teaching the less knowledgeable textile , a dialogue which Călinescu likened to that between old women in a traditional society . Included alongside the two stories were : Pâcală , a writing which , Mircea Braga argued , is not as much didactic as it is a study in dialogue ; " The Bear Tricked by the Fox " , which uses legendary and humorous elements in an attempt to explain why bears are the tail @-@ less species among mammals ; and Cinci pâini ( " Five Loafs of Bread " ) , which serves as a condemnation of greed .
With " Human Stupidity " , Creangă builds a fable about incompetence in its absolute forms . The story centers on a peasant 's quest to find people who are less rational than his wife , having been infuriated by her panic at the remote possibility that a ball of salt could fall from its place of storage and kill their baby . This , essayist and chronicler Simona Vasilache argues , highlights " a family @-@ based division " of illogical behavior , in which women are depicted as the main propagators of both " astonishing nonsense " and " prudent stupidity " . Instead , literary critic Ion Pecie identified inside the narrative a meditation on " the link between spirit and nature " , with the unpredictable ball of salt representing the equivalent of a " sphinx " . His colleague Gheorghe Grigurcu argued that such conclusions " may seem excessive " , but that they were ultimately validated by the literary work being " a plurality of levels " . A similar piece is the prose fable " The Story of a Lazy Man " : fed up with the protagonist 's proverbial indolence , which has led him as far as to view chewing food as an effort , his fellow villagers organize a lynching . This upsets the sensibility of a noblewoman who happens to witness the incident . When she offers to take the lazy man into her care and feed him bread crumbs , he seals his own fate by asking : " But are your bread crumbs soft ? " The peculiar effect of this moral is underlined by Anghelescu : " The lazy man dies as a martyr of his own immobility . " Braga interpreted the story as evidence of " the primacy of ethics " over social aspects in the local tradition . Ion Pecie saw in the story proof of Creangă 's own support for capital punishment with a preventive or didactic purpose , even in cases were the fault was trivial or imagined , concluding : " Here , ... Creangă loses much of his depth . " Pecie 's conclusion was treated with reserve by Grigurcu , who believed that , instead , the narrator refrains from passing any judgment on " the community 's instinctual eugenic reaction " .
Partly didactic in scope , several of Creangă 's anecdotes involve Ion Roată , a representative to the ad hoc Divan which voted in favor of Moldo @-@ Wallachian union , and the newly elected Domnitor Alexandru Ioan Cuza . The texts convey a sense of tension between the traditional boyar aristocracy and the peasant category , closely reflecting , according to historian Philip Longworth , a conflict mounting during the second half of the 19th century . The same is argued by Ornea , who also proposes that the protagonist offers insight into Creangă 's own conservative reflexes and his complex views on the union , while outlining several connections which the brand of social criticism professed by Junimea . Although Roată , a real @-@ life person , was a representative of the pro @-@ union National Party , his main interest , according to the stories themselves , was in curbing the boyars ' infringement of peasant rights . The stories ' narrator directs his hostility not at boyars in general , but at the younger Romantic nationalist ones , whom he portrays as gambling on Moldavia 's future : " [ There was ] a clash of ideas opposing old boyars to the youth of Moldavia 's ad hoc Divan , even though both were in favor of ' Union ' . It 's only that the old ones wanted a negotiated ' Union ' , and the young ones a ' Union ' done without proper thinking , as it came to pass . " According to Muguraș Constantinescu : " [ Roată ] opposes the intelligence of common folk , their common sense , their humor and the pleasure of allegorical discourse to the pompous and hollow speeches of some politicians " . In this context , Cuza 's presence is depicted as both legitimate and serendipitous , as he takes a personal interest in curbing boyar abuse .
= = = Moș Nichifor Coțcariul and " corrosives " = = =
Seen by Romanian critic Radu Voinescu as an extended anecdote , the novella Moș Nichifor Coțcariul ( " Old Man Nichifor Slyboots " ) establishes a connection with the language of fairy tales , being located in a legendary and non @-@ historical age . It details the elaborate seduction of a young Jewish bride by a worldly Moldavian wagoner , on the route between Târgu Neamț and Piatra . The episode , which the text itself indicates is just one in a series of Nichifor 's conquests among his female clients , highlights the seducer 's verbose monologue , which covers accounts of his unhappy marriage , allusions about the naturalness of physical love , and intimidating suggestions that wolves may be tempted to attack the wagon ( prompting the young woman to seek refuge in his arms ) . The seducer 's behavior , Constantinescu notes , presents an alternative to the theme of old age as a time of immobility : " the still @-@ green old man , the rake , the joker who enjoys his amorous escapades , while justifying them by the natural course of life " . Nichifor mostly expresses himself with the help of folk sayings , which he casually mixes in with personal observations about the situation . The background to the plot is a record of various superstitions , some anticlerical or antisemitic : Nichifor voices the belief that priests crossing one 's path will produce bad luck , as well as the claim that Jewish apothecaries sold " poisons " .
The reception of Moș Nichifor Coțcariul by Junimea illustrated its ambivalence toward Creangă . Maiorescu found the text " interesting in its way and decisively Romanian " , but asked Convorbiri Literare journal to either modify it or refrain from publishing it altogether . This was complemented by its author 's own self @-@ effacing assessment : calling the text " a childish thing " , he suggested to Maiorescu that revisions were needed , stating " I have written it long , because there was no time for me to write it short . " Contrarily , the writer 's posterity referred to it as one of the greatest Romanian contributions to the genre : according to George Călinescu , the insight into Nichifor 's musings resulted in transforming the writing as a whole into " the first great Romanian novella with a stereotypical hero " , while Voinescu described the entire story as " a true masterpiece . "
The narrative approaches of Moș Nichifor Coțcariul bordered on Creangă 's contributions to erotic literature , pieces collectively known as " corrosives " and which have for long treated with discretion by literary historians . In Călinescu 's view , this chapter in Creangă 's literature created another link between the Moldavian writer and the Renaissance tradition of Rabelais : " All Rabelaisians have penetrated deeply into the realm of vulgarity . " The taste for titillating accounts was also cultivated by Junimea members , who discreetly signaled their wish to hear more explicit content by asking Creangă to recount stories from " the wide street " . A product of this context , Moș Nichifor Coțcariul itself is said to have had at least one sexually explicit variant , circulated orally .
Two stories with explicit pornographic content survive as samples of Creangă 's erotic authorship : " The Tale of Ionică the Fool " and " The Tale of All Tales " ( also known as Povestea pulei , " Tale of the Dick " or " Tale of the Cock " ) . The former shows its cunning hero having intercourse with a priest 's daughter , moving between prose and verse to describe the act . " The Tale of All Tales " , which makes ample use of vulgar speech , recounts how a peasant disrespectful of divinity has his entire maize harvest transformed into male genitalia , but is able to turn out a profit by catering to the sexual appetites of women . The final section , seen by Gârbea as a sample of anticlerical jeers recorded by " the defrocked Creangă " , depicts the rape of a priest by one such sexual object . Although explicit , literary historian Alex . Ștefănescu argued , the text " is refined and full of charm " . While acknowledging both " corrosives " for their " popular charm " in the line of Rabelais and Geoffrey Chaucer , and noting that they still display the author 's place as a " great stylist " , Voinescu also signaled the texts ' " very obvious " debt to folkloric sources . In his definition , Ion Creangă is " possibly the only writer " to draw on the legacy of " luscious popular jests " found in local " erotic folklore " . Nevertheless , according to literary critic Mircea Iorgulescu , " The Tale of All Tales " may in fact be based on Parapilla , a pornographic leaflet circulating in Italian and French .
= = Legacy = =
= = = Estate , family and early cultural impact = = =
Soon after the Creangă 's death , efforts began to collect his manuscript writings and the updated versions of his printed works . This project involved his son Constantin , alongside A. D. Xenopol , Grigore Alexandrescu and Eduard Gruber , the latter of whom obtained the works from Tinca Vartic . The first edition was published as two volumes , in 1890 – 1892 , but the project came to an abrupt halt due to Gruber 's insanity and death . Creangă 's final known work , the fragment of Făt @-@ frumos , fiul iepei , was published by Convorbiri Literare in 1898 . The Gruber copies were sold to a Dr. Mendel , and only a part of them was recovered by exegetes , alongside various fragments accidentally discovered at Iași market , where they were being used for wrapping paper . The collection , structured into a whole by folklorist Gheorghe T. Kirileanu , was published by Editura Minerva in 1902 and 1906 . In addition to being mentioned in the memoirs of several prominent Junimists , Creangă had his political career fictionalized and satirized by Iacob Negruzzi , who transformed him , as Popa Smântână , into a character of his satirical poems Electorale ( " Electorals " ) . The same author referred to his counterpart in one of his epigrams .
Shortly after her lover 's death , Tinca Vartic married a man who lived in the same part of Iași . The target of organized tourism from as early as 1890 , the Iași Bojdeuca nevertheless fell into disrepair . It was eventually purchased by a " Ion Creangă Committee " , whose members included Constantin Creangă , Kirileanu and the ultra @-@ nationalist politician A. C. Cuza . It was set up as the first of Romania 's " memorial houses " on April 15 , 1918 . Restored the same year and again in 1933 – 1934 , it houses an important part of Creangă 's personal items and the first known among Creangă 's portraits , painted by his contemporary V. Mușnețanu . While Constantin Creangă had a successful career in the Romanian Army , one of the writer 's two grandsons , Horia Creangă , became one of the celebrated modern architect of the interwar period , earning his reputation by redisigning much of downtown Bucharest .
The popularity of Ion Creangă 's accounts outside his regional and dialectal context , together with his own contribution as an educator , played a part in the evolution of standard Romanian , at a new phase in which many dialectal variations were incorporated into the spoken language . His primers Metodă nouă ... and Învățătoriul copiilor went through many editions during the late 19th century . The impact of his works was also a contributing factor to preserving a noted interest in rural subjects , a subsequent defining trait in modern Romanian literature . Discussing " stylistic harmony " , which he believed to be bridging all of Romania 's social and literary environments , philosopher Mircea Eliade wrote : " Romanians consider Ion Creangă a classic writer belonging to the modern age . His work can be read and understood by the entire range of social classes , in all the provinces of our country . In spite of the abundant presence of Moldavian words in his writings , the work would not remain a stranger to its readers . What other European culture can take pride in having a classic writer read by all categories of readers ? " The " thematic grip of the village " was noted by American academic Harold Segel , who investigated its impact on " some of the most revered names in the history of Romanian literature " , from Creangă and Slavici to interwar novelist Liviu Rebreanu .
= = = Early 20th century and interwar echoes = = =
A more thorough evaluation of Creangă 's literature began after 1900 . At the time , it became a topic of interest to the emerging traditionalist and populist trend , illustrated by the two venues rivaling Junimea : the right @-@ wing Sămănătorul , led by Nicolae Iorga , and the left @-@ wing Poporanists , among which was Garabet Ibrăileanu . The new editions of his works enlisted the collaboration of Sămănătorist intellectuals Ilarie Chendi and Ștefan Octavian Iosif . Tudor Vianu however noted that , unlike Eminescu 's outlook , Creangă 's " authentic ruralism " did not complement the " spiritual complications " , global social class perspective and intellectual background associated with these trends , making Creangă " the least Sămănătorist among our writers . " According to Ornea , Creangă has " nothing in common " with the Sămănătorul ideology in particular : while the group shared his nostalgic outlook on the rural past in stark contrast to the modernized world , the Moldavian author could " maintain , intelligently , the middle ground between contraries " . Likewise , Mircea Braga reacted against the perception of Creangă as announcing a " series " of authors , noting that , for all imitation , he was " an exceptional and , as far as Romanian literary history goes , unique creator . "
Directly influenced by Creangă , several early 20th century and interwar authors within the new traditionalist trend explicitly stood for the legacy of folkloric , spontaneous and unskilled literature : the peasant writer I. Dragoslav , whose memoirs borrow stylistic elements from Creangă 's accounts ; Constantin Sandu @-@ Aldea , an agriculturalist by profession , who took inspiration from his techniques of rendering dialogue ; and Ion Iovescu , whom the Sburătorul literary circle acclaimed as " a new Creangă " , and who made ample use of a modernized Muntenian dialect . Similarly , the Aromanian activist and author Nicolae Constantin Batzaria , who divided his career between Romania and the southern Balkans , combined Creangă 's storytelling techniques with the traditions of Turkish literature , while the reworking of regional folklore themes earned intellectual Constantin S. Nicolăescu @-@ Plopșor a reputation as " the Oltenian Creangă " . During the 1910s , folklorist Tudor Pamfile published a specialized magazine named Ion Creangă in honor of the writer . Creangă 's various works also provided starting points for several other writers of diverse backgrounds . They included representatives of the Symbolist movement , such as Victor Eftimiu , who was inspired by Creangă 's narrative style in writing his fantasy and verse play Înșir 'te mărgărite . Another such author was poetess Elena Farago , whose didactic children 's story Într @-@ un cuib de rândunică ( " Inside a Swallow 's Nest " ) borrows from " The Flax and the Shirt " .
With the interwar period and the spread of modernist literature , a new generation of critics , most notably George Călinescu and Vladimir Streinu , dedicated important segments of their activity to the works of Ion Creangă . Other such figures were Șerban Cioculescu , whose contribution attempts to elucidate the more mysterious parts of the writer 's vocabulary , and educator Dumitru Furtună , whose biographical studies provided a main source for subsequent research . By then , interest in Creangă 's life and writings had diversified . This phenomenon first touched Romanian theater when I. I. Mironescu dramatized a section of Creangă 's Memories as Catiheții de la Humulești ( " The Catechists from Humulești " ) — a literary contribution judged " superfluous " by George Călinescu , who noted that the original was already " dramatic " in style . The writer 's stories also became an inspiration for Alfred Mendelsohn and Alexandru Zirra , two Romanian composers who worked in children 's musical theater , who adapted , respectively , " Harap Alb " and " The Goat and Her Three Kids " . Creangă was also a secondary presence in Mite and Bălăuca , two biographical novels centered on Eminescu 's amorous life , written by the prominent interwar critic Eugen Lovinescu , to whom Călinescu reproached having largely ignored Creangă in his nonfictional texts . Creangă 's writings also earned followers among the more radical wing of the modernist scene . The authenticity and originality of Creangă 's prose were highlighted and treasured by the influential modernist venue Contimporanul , in particular by its literary chroniclers Ion Vinea and Benjamin Fondane . Likewise , while formally affiliating with Surrealism , the avant @-@ garde author Ion Călugăru contributed various prose works which borrow some of Creangă 's storytelling techniques to depict the lives of Jewish Romanian communities from Moldavia .
In stages after World War I , the 19th century writer became better known to an international audience . This process produced translations into English , some of which , Călinescu argued , reached significant popularity among British readers of Romanian literature . In contrast , writer Paul Bailey assessed that the variants used antiquated words and " sounded terrible " in English . Among the series of early English @-@ language versions was a 1920 edition of Creangă 's Memories , translated by Lucy Byng and published by Marcu Beza . It was also during the interwar that Jean Boutière published the first @-@ ever French @-@ language monograph on the Romanian writer , originally as a Ph.D. thesis for the University of Paris .
While their author continued to receive praise for his main contributions , the erotic tales were most often kept hidden from the public eye . George Călinescu summarized this contrast by stating : " The ' corrosives ' left by Creangă are not known publicly . " An exception to this rule was Kirileanu 's Creangă reader of 1938 , published by Editura Fundațiilor Regale as the first critical edition of his entire literature . According to critic Adrian Solomon , the Romanian tradition of silencing obscene language and sexually explicit literature through censorship made " The Tale of All Tales " circulate " rather like a samizdat " , which left writers with " no solid tradition to draw on , and precious little chance to evade ... the vigilant morals of a straitlaced public . " The nationalist aspects of Ion Creangă 's public discourse were however approved of and recovered by the far right of the 1920s and ' 30s . High @-@ ranking Orthodox cleric Tit Simedrea referred to Creangă as a predecessor when , in 1937 , he urged his congregation to refrain from purchasing merchandise sold by Jews ( a measure which he believed was a practical alternative to the Jews ' forced eviction ) . In 1939 , as part of a press campaign targeting Călinescu 's work , the fascist journal Porunca Vremii accused the literary historian of having exposed Creangă 's biography for the sake of compromising the " genial Moldavian " by turning him into " an unfrocked epileptic and a drunk . "
Creangă inspired a 1920 painting by Octav Băncilă , which shows Creangă listening to Eminescu reading his poems . Two busts of the author were erected in Iași , respectively at his grave site and , in 1932 , the gardens of Copou neighborhood . After 1943 , another such piece was unveiled in Bucharest 's Cișmigiu Gardens , as part of Rotunda Scriitorilor monument .
= = = Under communism = = =
During Romania 's restrictive communist period , which lasted between 1948 and 1989 , the critical evaluation of Ion Creangă 's work went through several periods , complementing political developments . Throughout the first part of this interval , when socialist realism was politically imposed on Romanian letters , Creangă was spared the posthumous censorship which affected several other classical writers ( see Censorship in Communist Romania ) . His work was officially praised for its aesthetic qualities , but its association with the condemned Junimea was omitted from critical commentary , and readers were instead referred to Creangă as a realist critical of bourgeois society . In 1948 , the new authorities granted him posthumous membership in the Romanian Academy . The following year , at the height of Soviet occupation , official critic Barbu Lăzăreanu controversially described Creangă as a writer indebted to Russian folklore .
By the second half of communist rule , several new approaches in the critical assessment of Creangă 's literature were emerging . His work became a main topic of critical interest and the sole subject of many works , to the point where Nicolae Manolescu assessed that " everything has been said about Creangă " . Within this exegetic phenomenon , an original interpretation of his stories from an esoteric perspective was written by philosopher Vasile Lovinescu as Creangă și Creanga de aur ( " Creangă and the Golden Bough " ) . During the final two decades of communism , under Nicolae Ceaușescu , the recovery of nationalist discourse into official dogma also encouraged the birth of Protochronism . In one of its aspects , theorized by cultural historian Edgar Papu , this approach controversially reevaluated various Romanian writers , Creangă included , presenting them as figures who anticipated most developments on the world stage . Papu 's own conclusion about " Harap Alb " , outlined in a 1983 volume , depicted Creangă as a direct predecessor of Italian semiotician Umberto Eco and his celebrated volume The Open Work — a conclusion which literary historian Florin Mihăilescu has seen as proof of Papu 's " exegetic obsession " , lacking in " sense of humor , not just sense of reality . " One of Papu 's disciples , national communist ideologue Dan Zamfirescu , claimed that Creangă was equal to , or even more important than world classics Homer , William Shakespeare and Johann Wolfgang von Goethe , while asserting that the eponymous protagonist of " Ivan Turbincă " stands as " the character who dominates world history in our century " . Left outside the scope of this critical interest , the " corrosives " were left out of new Creangă readers ( such as Iorgu Iordan 's 1970 edition ) , being , according to a 1976 essay by scholar George Munteanu , " still unpublishable " for lack of " a general level of aesthetic education " among Romanians .
A second museum entirely dedicated to the writer was opened at his Târgu Neamț home in 1951 , and donated to the state by his successors in 1965 . During the following decades , it reportedly became the most visited memorial house in Romania . The authorities also financed a new cultural center , raised in the immediate vicinity of Bojdeuca during 1984 – 1989 . In 1965 , the Ion Creangă Children 's Theater , a state @-@ run institution , was founded in Bucharest , and its subsequent activity included staging several of the writer 's fairy tales for a junior public . Among such contributions were two adaptation of " Harap Alb " , directed respectively by Ion Lucian and Zoe Anghel Stanca . In 1983 , Timișoara @-@ based author Șerban Foarță also completed work on a stage version of " Ivan Turbincă " .
A new publishing house , Editura Ion Creangă , was created as a main publisher of children 's literature , and its output included editions of Creangă 's own works . The new editions were illustrated by several visual artists of note , among them Corneliu Baba , Eugen Taru and Lívia Rusz , while " Harap Alb " became a project of comic book artist Sandu Florea , earning him a Eurocon prize . A major project of the time involved Creangă translations into other languages , including Hungarian ( a celebrated contribution by Hungarian @-@ Romanian author András Sütő ) . During the same epoch , Creangă and his stories first became sources of inspiration for the Romanian film industry . Among the first were two contributions of filmmaker Elisabeta Bostan , both released in the early 1960s and based on the Memories : Amintiri din copilărie ( starring child actor Ion Bocancea as the young Nică and Ștefan Ciubotărașu as the grown @-@ up narrator ) , and Pupăza din tei ( focusing on the hoopoe story ) . In 1965 , celebrated Romanian director Ion Popescu @-@ Gopo released De @-@ aș fi Harap Alb , a loose adaptation of " Harap Alb " , starring Florin Piersic in the title role . Popescu @-@ Gopo also directed the 1985 film Povestea dragostei , which was based on " The Story of the Pig " . The series also includes Nicolae Mărgineanu 's biographical film of 1989 , Un bulgăre de humă , focuses on the friendship between Creangă ( played by Dorel Vișan ) and Eminescu ( Adrian Pintea ) .
The legacy of Ion Creangă was also tangible in the Soviet Union , and especially in the Moldavian SSR ( which , as the larger section of Bessarabia , had been part of interwar Greater Romania , and later became independent Moldova ) . Initially , his writings , titled Moldavian Stories , formed part of the Soviet curriculum in the Moldavian Autonomous Region ( Transnistria ) . Following the Soviet occupation of Bessarabia , Creangă was one of the Romanian @-@ language writers whose works were still allowed for publishing by the new authorities . This provided local contributors to Romanian literature contact with older cultural models , directly inspiring the experimental or Postmodern prose pieces by Vlad Ioviță and Leo Butnaru . The endorsement of Creangă 's public image within the Moldavian SSR was also reflected in art : in 1958 , the writer 's bust , the work of sculptor Lev Averbruh , was assigned to the Alley of Classics in Chișinău . His works were illustrated by one of the Moldavian SSR 's leading visual artists , Igor Vieru , who also painted a portrait of the author . In 1967 , Ioviță and filmmaker Gheorghe Vodă released Se caută un paznic : an adaptation of " Ivan Turbincă " and one of the successful samples of early Moldovan cinema , it was also noted for the musical score , composed by Eugen Doga . Also during that period , " The Goat ... " and " The Purse a ' Tuppence " were made into animated shorts ( directed by Anton Mater and Constantin Condrea ) . In 1978 , an operatic version of " The Goat and Her Three Kids " was created by composer Zlata Tkach , based on a libretto by Grigore Vieru .
= = = After 1989 = = =
After the 1989 Revolution , which signaled the end of communism , Creangă 's work was subject to rediscovery and reevaluation . This implied the publishing of his " corrosives " , most notably in a 1998 edition titled Povestea poveștilor generației ' 80 ( " The Tale of the Tales of the 80s Generation " ) . Edited by Dan Petrescu and Luca Pițu , it featured a Postmodern reworking of Povestea poveștilor by Mircea Nedelciu , a leading theorist of the Optzeciști writers . A trilingual edition of Creangă 's original text was published in 2006 as a Humanitas project , with illustrations made for the occasion by graphic artist Ioan Iacob . The book included versions of the text in English ( the work of Alistair Ian Blyth ) and French ( translated by Marie @-@ France Ionesco , the daughter of playwright Eugène Ionesco ) , both of which were noted for resorting exclusively to antiquated slang . In 2004 , another one of Creangă 's stories was subjected to a Postmodern interpretation , with Stelian Țurlea 's novel Relatare despre Harap Alb ( " A Report about Harap Alb " ) . In 2009 , Țurlea followed up with a version of " The Old Man 's Daughter and the Old Woman 's Daughter " ; a year later , his colleague Horia Gârbea published a personal take on " The Story of a Lazy Man " . Ion Creangă 's own didactic tales have remained a presence in the Romanian curriculum after 2000 , particularly in areas of education targeting the youngest students .
New films based on Creangă 's writings include , among others , Mircea Daneliuc 's Tusea și junghiul of 1992 ( an adaptation of " The Old Man 's Daughter ... " ) and Tudor Tătaru 's Moldovan @-@ Romanian co @-@ production Dănilă Prepeleac ( 1996 ) . There were also several post @-@ 1989 theatrical adaptations of Ion Creangă 's texts , contributed by various Romanian dramaturges . Some of these are Cornel Todea 's variant of " Harap Alb " ( with music by Nicu Alifantis ) , Cristian Pepino 's take on " The Goat and Her Three Kids " , Mihai Mălaimare 's Prostia omenească ( from " Human Stupidity " ) and Gheorghe Hibovski 's Povestea poveștilor , a fringe theater show using both Creangă 's original and Nedelciu 's text .
In 1993 , answering a petition signed by a group of cultural personalities from Iași , Metropolitan Daniel ( the future Patriarch of All Romania ) signed a decision to posthumously revert the decision to exclude Ion Creangă from among the Moldavian clergy . The public polled during a 2006 program produced by the Romanian Television nominated Creangă 43rd among the 100 greatest Romanians . New monuments honoring the writer include a bust unveiled in Târgu Neamț , the work of sculptor Ovidiu Ciobotaru . The patrimony associated with Creangă 's life has also sparked debates : local authorities in Târgu Neamț were criticized for not maintaining the site near his house in its best condition , while the Fălticeni where he once lived was controversially put up for sale by its private owners in 2009 , at a time when city hall could not exercise its pre @-@ emption right .
Creangă 's name was assigned to several education institutions , among them Bucharest 's Ion Creangă National College , and to an annual prize granted by the Romanian Academy . There is a Ion Creangă commune , in Neamț County , and streets or squares were also named in the writer 's honor in cities throughout Romania : Târgu Neamț , Iași , Fălticeni , Bucharest , Arad , Brăila , Brașov , Cluj @-@ Napoca , Craiova , Drobeta @-@ Turnu Severin , Oradea , Ploiești , Sibiu , Suceava , Târgu Mureș , Tecuci , Timișoara , Tulcea , etc . A quarter in northern Bucharest , near Colentina , is also named Ion Creangă . Creangă 's name was assigned to several landmarks and institutions in post @-@ Soviet Moldova . Among them is the Ion Creangă Pedagogical State University , founded on the basis of Chișinău 's normal school .
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= Dishaster =
Dishaster is an action game released for the Atari 2600 in 1983 by Zimag . Another version of the game was released by Bit Corporation under the name Dancing Plates which features oriental @-@ themed graphics and adds eight game variations .
Dishaster was inspired by the circus tradition of keeping spinning plates suspended on poles . The player controls a girl attempting to keep a group of several spinning plates balanced on poles from falling . The game received negative reviews ; criticism focused on the game 's repetition and monotony .
= = Gameplay = =
The girl can stabilize wobbling dishes by pressing the button on the controller . If a plate falls , the player is able to capture it if the girl touches it before it hits the ground , and a new one appears at the top of the pole . The number of poles to spin varies between the selected skill level ; there are six on the easiest setting , and ten on the hardest . The player loses if they let four dishes hit the ground .
= = Reception = =
The game received negative reviews . Author Brett Weiss stated that Dishaster was " as bad as its unfunny title implies " and that it was " a hopelessly repetitive game " . While Weiss opined the graphics were " convincing " , he remarked that " the plate @-@ spinning action gets old in a hurry " . Al Backiel , a reviewer for the magazine Digital Press , wrote :
Dishaster gets to be so monotonous so quickly because if you play in a systematic manner it 's too easy : I move sequentially from left to right and repeat . Yep , really tough pattern . I was able to max out the easy version without dropping a plate after several hours . I was hoping something interesting would happen , but the score just resets to zero after passing 999 @,@ 999 .
Another Digital Press writer , Kevin Oleniacz , also disliked Dishaster , including the game in his " The Worst of the Atari 2600 " list , writing : " The lack of sound effects , details or any background whatsoever while maneuvering around one unchanging screen would surely claim this as a DISASTER " . Oleniacz reserved special criticism for the game 's music . The reviewer for TV Gamer magazine wrote " Dishaster may be enjoyed by very young gamers , but it is not sophisticated enough for any battle @-@ hardened arcade gamers . "
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= IPhone 5S =
The iPhone 5S ( marketed with a stylized lowercase ' s ' as iPhone 5s ) is a smartphone designed and marketed by Apple Inc . Part of the iPhone series , the device was unveiled on September 10 , 2013 at Apple 's Cupertino headquarters . It was released on September 20 , 2013 along with its mid @-@ range counterpart , the iPhone 5C .
The iPhone 5S maintains almost the same design to its predecessor , the iPhone 5 . A redesigned home button with Touch ID , a fingerprint recognition system which can be used to unlock the phone and authenticate App Store and iTunes Store purchases , has been introduced . The camera has been updated with a larger aperture and a dual @-@ LED flash optimized for different color temperatures . It also introduced the A7 dual @-@ core processor , which the company proclaimed to be the first 64 @-@ bit processor to be used on a smartphone , accompanied by the M7 " motion co @-@ processor " . Unlike previous models , the iPhone 5S shipped in a white / gold color scheme in addition to white / silver and gray / black .
The iPhone 5S was the first Apple device to ship with iOS 7 , which introduced a revamped visual appearance and other new features . Designed by Jonathan Ive , iOS 7 departs from skeuomorphic elements used by previous versions of iOS in favor of a flat , colorful design . Among new software features introduced to the iPhone 5S include AirDrop , an ad @-@ hoc Wi @-@ Fi sharing platform , Control Center , a control panel containing a number of commonly used functions , and iTunes Radio , an internet radio service . Earphones known as EarPods are included with the iPhone 5S . Apple has released accessories including a case and a dock for the iPhone 5S .
Reception towards the device was generally positive , with some outlets considering it to be best smartphone available on the market due to its upgraded hardware , Touch ID , and other changes introduced by iOS 7 . However , others criticized the iPhone 5S for being too similar to its predecessors , while others expressed security concerns about the Touch ID system . Nine million units of the iPhone 5S and iPhone 5C were sold on their weekend of release , breaking Apple 's sales record for iPhones . The iPhone 5S was the best selling phone on all major U.S. carriers in September 2013 .
The iPhone 5S was succeeded as Apple 's flagship smartphone by the larger iPhone 6 . On March 21 , 2016 , the 5S received a direct replacement with the announcement of the iPhone SE , which incorporates internal hardware similar to the iPhone 6S , but retains the smaller form factor and design of the 5S .
= = History = =
Before its official unveiling , media speculation primarily centered on reports that the next iPhone would include a fingerprint scanner ; including Apple 's July 2012 acquisition of AuthenTec , a developer of mobile security products , references to a fingerprint sensor on the home button in the beta release of iOS 7 and leaked packaging for an iPhone 5S showing that the traditional home button now had a metallic " ring " around it . Similar ring @-@ based imagery was seen on the official invitation to Apple 's iPhone press event in September 2013 , where the new device was unveiled . Shortly before its official unveiling , The Wall Street Journal also reported the rumor .
Apple announced the iPhone 5C and the iPhone 5S during a media event at its Cupertino headquarters on September 10 , 2013 . While the iPhone 5C became available for preorder on September 13 , 2013 , the iPhone 5S was not available for preorder . Both devices were released on September 20 , 2013 . While most of the promotion focused on Touch ID , the 64 @-@ bit Apple A7 processor was also a highlight during the event .
This is the first @-@ ever 64 @-@ bit processor in a phone of any kind . I don ’ t think the other guys are even talking about it yet . Why go through all this ? The benefits are huge . The A7 is up to twice as fast as the previous @-@ generation system at CPU tasks , and up to twice as fast at graphics tasks , too .
Schiller then showed demos of Infinity Blade III to demonstrate the A7 's processing power and the device 's camera using untouched photographs . The release of iOS 7 on September 18 , 2013 was also announced during the keynote .
The iPhone 5S was released on September 20 , 2013 , in the United States , United Kingdom , Canada , China , France , Germany , Australia , Japan , Hong Kong , and Singapore . It was released in 25 additional countries on October 25 , 2013 , and in 12 countries on November 1 , 2013 . Indonesia was the last country to receive the iPhone 5S , on January 26 , 2014 .
On September 19 , 2014 , the iPhone 5S was succeeded as Apple 's flagship smartphone by the iPhone 6 and iPhone 6 Plus , but the older model remains available for purchase at a reduced price , while the 64GB version was discontinued . The gold edition of the iPhone 5S was discontinued on September 9 , 2015 , when Apple revealed the iPhone 6S and iPhone 6S Plus
The iPhone 5S was discontinued on March 21 , 2016 , and succeeded by the iPhone SE , which continues the same form factor but features vastly upgraded internals similar to the flagship iPhone 6S . This was a break with Apple 's product positioning trend ( in North America and Western Europe ) , starting with iPhone 4S released in September 2011 , which gave each newly released model one year as the flagship phone , then moving it to midrange for its second year of production , with the third and final year as the entry @-@ level offering before discontinuation . While iPhone 5S was expected to continue on sale until September 2016 , replacing it and its A7 processor early means that Apple " just reduced its long @-@ term chip support window by a year " for iOS . In addition , a new iPhone launch was meant to stimulate demand , as sales of iPhone 6S and 6S Plus had not met expectations since their September 2015 release and the iPhone family may suffer its first ever negative growth quarter in 2016 .
= = Specifications = =
= = = Design = = =
The iPhone 5S maintains a similar design to the iPhone 5 , with a 4 in ( 10 cm ) LCD multi @-@ touch Retina display and a screen resolution of 640 × 1136 at 326 ppi . Its home button has been updated with a new flat design using a laser @-@ cut sapphire cover surrounded by a metallic ring ; the button is no longer concave , nor does it contain the familiar squircle icon seen on previous models . The phone itself is 0 @.@ 30 in ( 7 @.@ 6 mm ) thick and weighs 112 grams ( 4 @.@ 0 oz ) . The phone uses an aluminum composite frame . The device is available in three color finishes ; " space @-@ gray " ( replacing black with slate trim on the iPhone 5 ) , white with silver trim , and white with gold trim . The iPhone 5S was the first iPhone to be available in gold color ; this decision was influenced by the fact that gold is seen as a popular sign of a luxury product among Chinese customers .
= = = Hardware = = =
The iPhone 5S is powered by the Apple A7 system @-@ on @-@ chip , which the company proclaimed to be the first 64 @-@ bit processor ever used on a smartphone . The device 's operating system and pre @-@ loaded software were optimized to run in 64 @-@ bit mode , promising increased performance , although third @-@ party app developers would need to optimize their apps to take advantage of these enhanced capabilities . The A7 processor is designed by Apple and manufactured by Samsung . The A7 processor is accompanied by a new M7 " motion co @-@ processor " , a dedicated processor for processing motion data from the iPhone 's accelerometer and gyroscopes without requiring the attention of the main processor , which integrates with iOS 7 's new CoreMotion APIs . The same A7 SoC and M7 motion co @-@ processor are also found in the iPad Air and iPad Mini 2 which were released in the same quarter as the iPhone 5S .
The phone includes a 1560 mAh battery , which provides 10 hours of talk time and 250 hours of standby time .
While the camera is still 8 megapixels in resolution with the image capture size of 3264 × 2448 ( 4 : 3 ) , the lens has a larger aperture ( f / 2 @.@ 2 ) and larger sized pixels in its image sensor than previous iPhone models . The flashlight has dual " True Tone " flashes , consisting of an amber LED and a white LED , which are variably used based on the color temperature of the photo to improve color balancing . The camera also includes automatic image stabilization , dynamic tone mapping , 10 fps burst mode , " best shot " mode and slow motion video at 120 fps .
The home button on the iPhone 5S incorporates a fingerprint recognition system known as Touch ID , based on technology from AuthenTec , a company which Apple had acquired in 2012 . The sensor uses a capacitive CMOS @-@ based sensor which can detect the " sub @-@ epidermal layers " of fingers at 500 pixels per inch , and uses a 360 @-@ degree design that can read the print at any angle . The sensor itself is activated by a touch @-@ sensitive metallic ring surrounding the button . Touch ID can be used for various authentication activities within the operating system , such as unlocking the device or authenticating App Store and iTunes purchases instead of an Apple ID password . The sensor can be trained to recognize the fingerprints of multiple fingers and multiple users . Fingerprint data is stored in an encrypted format within a " secure enclave " of the A7 chip itself , and is not accessible to any other apps or servers ( including iCloud ) .
= = = Operating system and software = = =
The iPhone 5S is supplied with iOS 7 , released on September 20 , 2013 . Jonathan Ive , the designer of iOS 7 's new elements , described the update as " bringing order to complexity " , highlighting features such as refined typography , new icons , translucency , layering , physics , and gyroscope @-@ driven parallaxing as some of the major changes to the design . The design of both iOS 7 and OS X Mavericks ( version 10 @.@ 9 ) noticeably depart from skeuomorphic elements such as green felt in Game Center , wood in Newsstand , and leather in Calendar , in favor of flat , colorful design .
iOS 7 adds AirDrop , an ad @-@ hoc Wi @-@ Fi sharing platform . Users can share files with the iPhone 5 onwards , the iPod Touch ( 5th generation ) , iPad ( 4th generation ) onwards , or iPad Mini ( 1st generation ) onwards . The operating system also adds Control Center , a control panel accessed by swiping up from the bottom of the screen . Control Center contains a number of commonly used functions , such as volume and brightness controls , along with toggles for enabling Wi @-@ Fi , Bluetooth , Airplane mode , and for using the rear camera 's flash LED as a flashlight .
iTunes Radio , an Internet radio service , is also included on the iPhone 5S . It is a free , ad @-@ supported service available to all iTunes users , featuring Siri integration on iOS . Users are able to skip tracks , customize stations , and purchase the station 's songs from iTunes Store . Users can also search through their history of previous songs .
= = = Accessories = = =
Earphones known as Apple EarPods are included with the iPhone 5S . According to technology commentators , the design of the earphones is aimed to improve sound quality by allowing air to travel in and out more freely . Apple states that the design of their earphones allows it to " rival high @-@ end headphones that cost hundreds of dollars more " . Reviews by Gizmodo and TechRadar reported that although the earphones sounded better than its predecessor , reviewers felt that quality of sound produced is poor . TechRadar further opined that the EarPods are inferior to other earphones of a similar price .
= = Apple accessories = =
Apple announced during the keynote a case for the iPhone 5S that is made of soft microfiber on the inside and leather on the outside . This case was announced along with iPhone 5C 's case , both of which are the first cases Apple has announced since the iPhone 4 Bumpers .
Docks for both the iPhone 5S and 5C were found on the Apple Online Store after the announcement . Because of the casing difference between the iPhone 5S and 5C , they have separate docks , each made specifically for each respective phone .
= = Reception = =
= = = Critical reception = = =
The iPhone 5S received a mostly positive reception from reviewers and commentators . Walt Mossberg of All Things Digital gave the phone a favorable review , saying that Touch ID " sounds like a gimmick , but it ’ s a real advance , the biggest step ever in biometric authentication for everyday devices , " and labeled it " the best smartphone on the market . " David Pogue of The New York Times praised Touch ID , but said that the innovation of the smartphone market has been saturated , and " maybe the age of annual mega @-@ leaps is over . " He focused much of his review on iOS 7 , which he believed was the biggest change of the device over previous generations , eulogizing new Siri features , Control Center , and AirDrop . In an editorial , Pogue stated that iOS 7 was the biggest change in the iPhone series , citing utilitarian interface changes as the main contributor to this . Scott Stein of CNET criticized the lack of design change over iPhone 5 and said that although the iPhone 5S " is not a required upgrade , but it 's easily the fastest and most advanced Apple smartphone to date . " Although praised the new iPhone for its camera , 64 @-@ bit A7 chip , M7 motion @-@ chip , and fingerprint scanning capabilities , some investors thought that the iPhone 5S , although a notable improvement over the iPhone 5 , was still relatively unchanged from its predecessor , and worried that the iPhone line had become a stagnant , dull product . Apple 's share price fell 5 @.@ 4 % after the launch to close at a month low of $ 467 @.@ 71 on the NASDAQ .
Darrell Etherington of TechCrunch who praised the iPhone 5S as the best smartphone available said " looks may not be different from the iPhone 5 , but the internal components have a dramatic impact on day @-@ to @-@ day activities normal for a smartphone user , " and went into detail explaining the impact of the improved camera and specifications on the phone . Etherington suggested that the 64 @-@ bit A7 processor will not reach its full potential until developers create applications supporting it . Myriam Joire of Engadget found that the iPhone 5S could benefit significantly from the A7 if developers created applications optimized for the 64 @-@ bit processor . Anand Lal Shimpi of AnandTech praised the phone 's A7 processor , describing it as " seriously impressive " , and stated that it was the most " futureproof of any iPhone ever launched . As much as it pains me to use the word futureproof , if you are one of those people who likes to hold onto their device for a while - the iPhone 5S is as good a starting point as any . " Scott Lowe of IGN also speaking highly of its 64 @-@ bit processor , " which has a substantial lead in processing power over the HTC One and Samsung Galaxy S4 , accounting for a graphics boost of up to 32 % and 38 % in CPU benchmarks . " The debut of Apple 's 64 @-@ bit A7 processor took rival Android smartphone makers by surprise , particularly Qualcomm whose own 64 @-@ bit system @-@ on @-@ chip was not released until 2015 .
Most reviewers recommended the iPhone 5S over the iPhone 5C which was released at the same time . The 5C retained almost the same hardware as the discontinued iPhone 5 , while the iPhone 5S featured substantially improved performance / features thanks to its new 64 @-@ bit A7 processor , as well as extra storage space , all for a relatively small additional upfront cost over the iPhone 5C ( US $ 650 versus US $ 550 in March 2014 ) . This was especially the case when iOS 8 was released and both iPhone 5S and iPhone 5C were move to the mid and low end of the iPhone range , respectively ; the iPhone 5S still had 16 or 32 GB storage available while the iPhone 5C had to make do with 8 GB storage with only 4.9GB available to the user after installing iOS 8 . Furthermore , the 5C 's polycarbonate exterior received a mixed reception and seen as a cost @-@ cutting downgrade compared to the iPhone 5 's aluminum / glass case ; the 5S retained the latter design and looked even more premium due its additional gold finish .
As of 2015 – 16 , there were still a significant number of customers who preferred the 4 @-@ inch screen size of iPhone 5S , which remained the second @-@ most popular iPhone after the iPhone 6 and ahead of the iPhone 6S . Apple stated in their event that they sold 30 million 4 @-@ inch iPhones in 2015 , even as that form factor was succeeded as the flagship iPhone by the redesigned larger display 4 @.@ 7 / 5 @.@ 5 @-@ inch iPhone 6 and 6 Plus back in September 2014 . Furthermore , the 5 and 5S design was regarded as " long been the golden child of Apple phone design and a benchmark for phones in general " ( with the 5S 's gold finish adding a premium touch to the 5 's already well @-@ regarded look ) , while the succeeding 6 and 6S design was less critically acclaimed as it " felt a little bit wrong , as though you were holding a slick $ 650 bar of soap " . The iPhone 5 was described as " elegance rooted in the way the aluminum and glass work together . It felt streamlined , yet substantial , which is different from iPhone 6 , which feels substantial in size alone . Plus , unlike the ubiquitous rounded corners of the 6 , iPhone 5 didn ’ t really look like anything else on the market at the time " . However , the iPhone 5 / 5S design was not suited to scaling up , in contrast to the iPhone 6 / 6S which could better accommodate the growing consumer trend towards larger screen sizes and indeed spawned the 6 / 6S Plus phablet models . When Apple discontinued the iPhone 5S , it was replaced by the iPhone SE which outwardly appears almost identical to the 5S even as the SE 's internal hardware has been upgraded significantly .
= = = Commercial reception = = =
The iPhone 5S and 5C sold over nine million units in the first three days , which sets a record for first weekend smartphone sales , with the 5S selling three times more units than iPhone 5C . After the first day of release , 1 % of all iPhones in the US were iPhone 5Ss , while 0 @.@ 3 % were iPhone 5Cs . Gene Munster of Piper Jaffray reported that the line at the Fifth Avenue Apple Store contained 1 @,@ 417 people on release day , compared to 1 @,@ 300 for the iPhone 4 in 2010 , and 549 for the iPhone 3G in 2008 on their respective release days . This was the first time that Apple launched two models simultaneously . The first @-@ day release in China also contributed to the record sales result .
On launch day , major stock shortages were reported in most stores , across all countries where the iPhone 5S initially went on sale . A great many customers in line outside Apple Stores worldwide were left disappointed due to severe shortages across all 5S models , with the gold model in particular being in highly limited supply . While this situation eased in the US in the days following the launch , other countries have reported receiving very little restocks . Some commentators have questioned how Apple have handled the initial release , as online pre @-@ orders were not offered for the iPhone 5S , meaning large numbers of people queuing outside physical stores , with most in line not receiving a unit . In the US , Apple has offered an online reservation system , so customers can keep checking units available at their local Apple Stores , and order for pickup . Online orders have also been in short supply on launch day , with the shipping date across all model sizes and colors , changing from " 7 @-@ 10 working days " to sometime " October " in all countries , within hours of online orders being taken .
The iPhone 5S was the best selling phone on AT & T , Sprint , Verizon , and T @-@ Mobile in September 2013 in the United States , outselling the iPhone 5C and Samsung Galaxy S4 . According to Consumer Intelligence Research Partners , the iPhone 5S outsold the 5C by a two @-@ to @-@ one margin during its September release , confirming Apple CEO Tim Cook 's view that the high @-@ end smartphone market was not reaching a point of market saturation . While commentators viewed iPhone 5C as a flop because of supply chain cuts signifying a decline in demand , the iPhone 5S was viewed as a massive success . Apple admitted that it had failed to anticipate the sales ratio between the iPhone 5C and the iPhone 5S , leading to an overstocking of the 5C and shortages of the 5S .
Six months after the release of the iPhone 5S , on March 25 , 2014 , Apple announced that sales of the iPhone brand has crossed 500 million units . By May 2014 , despite being on the market for 8 months , the iPhone 5S reportedly outsold the newly released Samsung Galaxy S5 by 40 % , with 7 million iPhone 5S units versus 5 million Galaxy S5 units . The Galaxy S5 's failure to oust the iPhone 5S from the top selling spot was major setback for Samsung Mobile , as the preceding Samsung Galaxy SIII and Samsung Galaxy S4 , in the first quarter of their releases , had outsold the iPhone 4S and iPhone 5 , respectively .
= = = Impact of Touch ID = = =
A number of technology writers , including Adrian Kingsley @-@ Hughes and Kevin Roose of New York believed that the fingerprint scanning functionality of the iPhone 5S could help spur the adoption of the technology as an alternative to passwords by mainstream users ( especially in " bring your own device " scenarios ) , as fingerprint @-@ based authentication systems have only enjoyed wider usage in enterprise environments . However , citing research by biometrics engineer Geppy Parziale , Roose suggested that the CMOS @-@ based sensor could become inaccurate and wear out over time unless Apple had designed the sensor to prevent this from occurring . Brent Kennedy , a researcher of the United States Computer Emergency Readiness Team , recommended that users not immediately rely on the technology , citing the uncertainty over whether the system could properly reject a spoofed fingerprint .
Following the release of the iPhone 5S , the German Chaos Computer Club announced on September 21 , 2013 that they had bypassed Apple 's new Touch ID fingerprint sensor by using " easy everyday means " . The group explained that the security system had been defeated by photographing a fingerprint from a glass surface and using that captured image to make a latex model thumb which was then pressed against the sensor to gain access . The spokesman for the group stated , " We hope that this finally puts to rest the illusions people have about fingerprint biometrics . It is plain stupid to use something that you can 't change and that you leave everywhere every day as a security token . " However , in 2013 , 39 % of American smartphone users used no security measures at all to protect their smartphone . Others have also used Chaos Computer Club 's method , but concluded that it is not an easy process in either time or effort , given that the user has to use a high resolution photocopy of a complete fingerprint , special chemicals and expensive equipment , and because the spoofing process takes some time to achieve .
= = = Problems = = =
Several problems were experienced with the iPhone 5S 's hardware after its release . The most widely reported issue is that the angle reported by the phone 's level sensor had drifted by several degrees , which caused the gyroscope , compass , and accelerometer to become inaccurate . Reports suggested that this is a hardware @-@ induced problem . Some encountered other problems such as crashing with a blue screen and then restarting , the power button making a rattling noise when the phone was shaken , overheating , the microphone not working , and Touch ID not working for iTunes purchases . Some of these issues have been fixed by software updates .
= = Timeline of models = =
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= Eagle Cash =
Eagle Cash ( stylized as EagleCash ) , and sister program EZpay , are cash management applications that use stored @-@ value card technology to process financial transactions in " closed @-@ loop " operating environments . The programs are sponsored by the United States Department of the Treasury for the U.S. Armed Forces . The programs are administered for the Treasury by the Federal Reserve Bank of Boston , and are in use at approved U.S. military facilities inside and outside the continental United States . The systems utilize a plastic payment card , similar to a credit or debit card , which has an embedded microchip which keeps track of the amount of money stored on the card and interfaces with encrypted card acceptance devices . This allows soldiers with the card to purchase goods and services at U.S. military posts and canteens , without carrying cash , or manage their personal bank accounts while on deployment or in training . The program reduces the amount of American currency required overseas , reduces theft , saves thousands of man @-@ hours in labor , helps reduce the risk of transporting cash in battlefield environments , and increases security and convenience for service members . It helped reduce or eliminate the need for cash and money orders .
= = Overview and history = =
Originally developed in 1997 , the EZpay system was born as a pilot project aimed at inductees going into basic training , to alleviate some of the stress and cost of managing money while away from home . Many U.S. military bases are structured like small towns , where goods and services are available for sale . However , transferring wages into cash , in order to purchase desired products has traditionally been a struggle . The system works through soldiers receiving an advance on their wages in the form of the EZPay card , which they can then use to purchase goods and services , such as haircuts , snacks , and recreational activities at on @-@ base shops and stores . At the end of basic training , the balance on the card would be reconverted into cash , and paid back to the soldiers . The project was a great success , since it eliminated the need for bases to keep money on hand , and saved soldiers approximately $ 125 @,@ 000 a year in banking fees .
Around the same time , the EZPpay system was expanded for overseas use during the aftermath of the 1992 @-@ 1995 War in Bosnia and Herzegovina , where U.S. personnel were deployed on peace @-@ keeping missions . Named " EagleCash " , the overseas system functions similarly to the EZpay system , but with the added ability of soldiers to attach personal bank accounts to the card , allowing them to load , and reload , without having to access their financial institutions back home . As 386th Air Expeditionary Wing financial manager , Catherine Miles explained in a 2007 article , " It 's like a gift card . [ ... ] You can put as little or as much money as you want on it and it comes from your checking account . " Unlike regular debit cards , the Eagle Cash is managed on @-@ base , using batch processing which ensures that the cards remained useful even when connections to banks and credit unions State @-@ side are severed . The system was given widespread acceptance in 1999 , just before the War in Iraq ; it has since been expanded to many military bases such as Camp Anaconda on the front lines .
= = Benefits and savings = =
For soldiers , the benefits are straightforward , but for the officers in charge of the system the benefits are much more extensive . Transporting U.S. currency overseas costs the military hundreds of thousands of dollars annually — during the Iraq War , for every $ 1 @,@ 000 @,@ 000 sent to pay soldiers in Iraq , it cost $ 60 @,@ 000 in security , logistics , and support fees . It also eliminates the need for the World War II practice of producing the Military Payment Certificate . The use of a cashless economy at military stores reduces transaction times , freeing personnel from tasks like stamping money orders or counting coins — during 9 months of the Iraq War , this saved approximately 5000 hours of processing time for financial personnel . It also prevents counterfeiting .
Since the initial adoption of the EagleCash system , it has been augmented by ATM @-@ like kiosks which allow soldiers to add funds to the card without visiting the base 's finance office . Originally , this requirement caused long lines to refill cards , reducing the utility of the system . The conversion to the kiosk system , developed by NCR Corporation , remedied these problems and increased the ability of the system to provide easy cash for soldiers away from home — " something we often take for granted , but for soldiers deployed on foreign land , it has always been a challenge " . To date , 3 @.@ 2 million EagleCash and EZpay cards have been issued and used to process 16 @.@ 5 million electronic transactions valued at over $ 3 @.@ 6 billion .
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= 2 / 33rd Battalion ( Australia ) =
The 2 / 33rd Battalion was an infantry battalion of the Australian Army during the Second World War . It was formed as part of the Second Australian Imperial Force in the United Kingdom in June 1940 as the " 72nd Battalion " to create the 25th Brigade , which eventually became part of the 7th Division . After the threat of invasion had passed , the battalion was transferred to the Middle East in early 1941 , and after a period of garrison duty in the Western Desert , the battalion fought against the Vichy French in the invasion of Syria and Lebanon .
Later , in early 1942 , in response to Japan 's entry to the war , the battalion was transferred back to Australia and after a period of re @-@ organisation and training it was sent to New Guinea where it took part in the Kokoda Track campaign . Arriving at the height of the fighting , after the Japanese advance stalled it took part in the pursuit of Japanese forces to the northern coast , fighting around the beachheads at Buna – Gona . In 1943 , after returning to Australia for six months to refit , the battalion was committed to the Salamaua – Lae campaign , and then the Ramu Valley – Finisterre Range campaign . Returning to Australia in early 1944 , a long period of inactivity followed before the 2 / 33rd undertook its last campaign in Borneo in the final months of the war . The battalion was disbanded in Brisbane in March 1946 .
= = History = =
= = = Formation in the United Kingdom = = =
Raised on 27 June 1940 , as part of the 25th Brigade , the battalion was initially designated the 72nd Battalion , as a continuation of the numbers assigned to the infantry battalions of the Australian Imperial Force , which had been raised during the First World War . One of three Australian infantry battalions established in the United Kingdom during the early months of the war – the others being 2 / 31st and 2 / 32nd Battalions – it was formed from surplus Australian infantry reinforcements and support corps personnel – drawn from all Australian states , these personnel had originally been assigned to the 6th Division – who were sent to bolster the garrison following the Fall of France when the threat of invasion loomed . Understrength and lacking support personnel and large amounts of specialist equipment , the battalion initially consisted of only three rifle companies , each consisting of three platoons . The companies were designated ' A ' to ' C ' , while the platoons were numerically designated 1 through to 9 . This was one rifle company short of the standard establishment of the time , and at the time the battalion had a strength of just over 460 personnel , well below its authorised strength of around 900 . In addition , the battalion headquarters company , which consisted of six platoons – signals , anti @-@ aircraft , mortars , carrier , pioneer , and transport – was also understrength , and lacked a large amount of specialist equipment at the outset .
Commanded by Lieutenant Colonel Rudolph Bierwirth , in September , the battalion was issued with a circular brown over red Unit Colour Patch ( UCP ) , with a border of grey to denote that the battalion was a 2nd AIF unit . However , the circumstances of the battalion 's establishment overseas resulted in the situation of the battalion 's personnel being issued two different UCPs . Personnel who were in the United Kingdom at the end of 1940 were issued with the brown over red UCP . However , this UCP was issued without reference to Army Headquarters in Australia , who issued battalion reinforcements in Australia with a UCP consisting of a black over green oval in a circle of grey : this was intended to link the battalion to the 33rd Battalion , which had served during the First World War . Upon arrival in the Middle East , though , these patches were replaced with the brown and red patches .
In October , the unit moved from Tidworth to Colchester and around the same time it was redesignated as the 2 / 33rd Battalion , to bring it into line with the other battalions of the Second Australian Imperial Force . At Colchester , the Australians undertook a period of intensive training which was followed by defensive duties amidst the backdrop of the ongoing Battle of Britain , which took place in the skies overhead . During this time , the battalion was allocated the role of mobile reserve , assigned the task of counter @-@ attacking around Harwich in the event of a German invasion ; in this role they undertook further training operating with and against tanks , with British armoured vehicles and crews being assigned to the battalion during training exercises .
= = = Garrison duties in North Africa and fighting in Syria = = =
By the end of 1940 , the threat of invasion had dissipated and the Australian troops that had been sent to the United Kingdom were transferred to the Middle East . Travelling by train from Colchester to Glasgow in January 1941 , the main body of the battalion embarked upon the transport Nea Hellas and sailed via Freetown and Durban . They reached Egypt in early March 1941 where the 25th Brigade , was assigned to the 7th Division . Moving to a camp in Palestine , the battalion 's fourth rifle company – designated ' D ' Company – was taken on strength , having previously been formed at Beit Jirja in September 1940 from excess reinforcements from the 6th Division . At the time , the 7th Division was preparing to go to Greece , to follow in the wake of the 6th Division ; however , the entry of the Afrika Korps into the fighting in the Western Desert and early German successes prompted their movement to the fortress at Mersa Metruh , to guard against a possible German advance into Egypt from Libya .
The 2 / 33rd remained at Mersa Metruh , undertaking defensive duties , until May 1941 , but did not see combat . After this , the 7th Division began to prepare for an invasion of Vichy French @-@ held Syria and Lebanon . A short @-@ lived campaign , from early June until mid @-@ July , the 2 / 33rd took part in the fighting around Merdjayoun – attacking Fort Khiam in the early stages of the campaign – and Jezzine , fighting mainly in disparate company groups . Following the French capitulation , the battalion undertook garrison duties in Lebanon as part of the Allied occupation force established there to defend against a possible German invasion through Turkey ; in September the battalion occupied a position around the port of Tripoli . They remained there until early 1942 when the Australian government requested the return of the 7th Division to Australia , following Japan 's entry into the war . The battalion 's role , and indeed that of the whole 7th Division , in the fighting against the Vichy French was largely censored at the time due to concerns about negative public opinion in Australia and the battalion 's historian , William Crooks , notes that later this caused some friction between 7th Division personnel and those from the 6th and 9th Divisions , and a general lack of public awareness of what they had done . Casualties sustained by the battalion in Syria and Lebanon numbered 21 dead , 84 wounded and 26 captured .
= = = Fighting against the Japanese in New Guinea = = =
Embarking on the Mt Vernon in Port Tewfik , the battalion sailed from Egypt in early February and arrived in Adelaide , South Australia , in mid @-@ March . After this , the battalion camped at Woodside , in the Adelaide Hills , where a period of re @-@ conditioning and exercises followed until mid @-@ April when the majority of its personnel were sent on home leave . At the end of the month , those that remained undertook a five @-@ day train journey to Casino , New South Wales . Limited training was undertaken until mid @-@ May , around which time orders were received for another move , this time to Caboolture , Queensland . By the end of the month , the battalion returned to almost full strength when the final leave draft returned . At the time , the strategic situation in the Pacific was in the balance ; the Japanese were advancing south and due to concerns about a possible Japanese invasion , the 25th Brigade was tasked with defending the coastal area north of Brisbane .
In late August 1942 , the 2 / 33rd deployed to New Guinea , where the Kokoda Track campaign was reaching its climax as the Japanese advanced on Port Moresby . Embarking on the Katoomba in late August , they landed at Port Moresby on 9 September . Four days later the battalion was thrown into battle against the Japanese around Ioribaiwa , leading the 25th Brigade forward . As the Japanese advance continued , the Australians withdrew back to Imita Ridge . As the 25th Brigade withdrew , the 2 / 33rd formed a rearguard , covering the withdrawal . After completing the movement rearwards , the battalion subsequently assumed a position in depth on the right . The Japanese then began to withdraw , having reached the limits of their supply line , and the Australians pursued them back to the beachheads on the northern coast where the Japanese had originally landed in July . Throughout October and November , the battalion fought significant engagements at Myola and Gorari , before being thrown into further fighting around Gona in late November and early December . Casualties were heavy , and by the time the Japanese beachhead had been destroyed , the battalion was withdrawn to Port Moresby , the battalion had been reduced to only two companies ; early in January 1943 , the main body of 2 / 33rd returned to Australia upon the transports Both and Duntroon . The rear detail followed in the middle of the month aboard the Taroona . Total casualties sustained by the 2 / 33rd during this period had included 46 dead and 121 wounded .
Concentrating at Ravenshoe , in Queensland , in the early months of 1943 the 2 / 33rd was reorganised as part of the 7th Division 's conversion to the jungle divisional establishment . As a part of this , the battalion 's establishment was dropped to just over 800 men and it lost its carrier platoon , receiving in its place a machine gun platoon equipped with four Vickers machine guns . In addition , the anti @-@ aircraft platoon was re @-@ roled as a tank @-@ attack platoon and the transport platoon was reduced to a third , with its complement of 74 vehicles and 14 motorcycles being replaced by 25 jeeps . Following this , an intense period of training was undertaken as the battalion received a batch of around 300 reinforcements to replace its losses in New Guinea ; by July it was ready to deploy once again and subsequently returned to New Guinea to join the Salamaua – Lae campaign .
Throughout the final weeks of July , the battalion was transported to Port Moresby aboard three transports : Canberra , Duntroon and Katoomba . Establishing a camp at " Pom @-@ Pom " east of Port Moresby , the battalion spent the following month preparing for an airlift into Nadzab , in support of US paratroopers . On 7 September 1943 , while the battalion 's personnel waited to fly out to Nadzab from Jackson 's Airfield , near Port Moresby , a heavily laden US B @-@ 24 Liberator bomber crashed into trucks carrying the battalion , killing 60 and injuring a further 92 ; this represented a third of the battalion 's casualties for the entire war . The following day , the 2 / 33rd was flown into Nadzab and they subsequently took part in the capture of Lae ; at the end of the month , they were transported by air to Kaipit from where they were committed to the advance up the Ramu Valley into the Finnesterre Range during which they were involved mainly in small unit actions and patrols . The battalion 's casualties in New Guinea during the campaigns of 1943 – 44 numbered 84 dead and 70 wounded .
= = = Borneo : Final campaign and disbandment = = =
In early February 1944 , the battalion was withdrawn back to Australia , returning aboard the Kanimbla . A long period of training and rebuilding followed , as US forces assumed the primary responsibility for the fighting against the Japanese in the Pacific . Inter @-@ Allied politics , coupled with a rapidly evolving strategic situation resulted in a period of operational uncertainty for the Australian Army during which there was significant ambiguity about their future employment against the Japanese . As a result , it was not until close to the end of the war that the 2 / 33rd went into action again . In June 1945 , the battalion embarked for Morotai Island , from where they subsequently took part in the re @-@ capture of Balikpapan the following month . During the landing , the 2 / 33rd formed part of the floating reserve , but after the early stages of the assault it came ashore on the second day along with the 25th Brigade 's two other infantry battalions , and they assumed control of the central part of the Australian beachhead . The following day , the 25th Brigade began to advance inland up the main north @-@ eastern axis , which the Australians dubbed the " Milford Highway " . The 2 / 33rd took up position on the right hand side of the brigade 's front , coming up against stiff Japanese resistance as it advanced around Chilton Road , but this was overcome with machine gun and artillery support , after which the advance inland continued .
A series of minor actions followed as the Australians continued their advance up the Milford Highway . After a month of fighting , the island was largely secured and following the bombing of Hiroshima and Nagasaki in early August 1945 , the Japanese sued for peace and hostilities came to an end . During the fighting in Borneo the 2 / 33rd had lost 25 dead and 57 wounded . In the immediate aftermath of the war , the Australians remained on Borneo as an occupation force , while the Army was slowly demobilised . During this time the battalion was steadily reduced as personnel were repatriated to Australia for discharge , or were transferred to other units for further service , including providing personnel to the 34th Brigade , which was raised for occupation duties in Japan .
In February 1946 , the remaining cadre returned to Australia and the following month it was disbanded in Brisbane . During the war , 3 @,@ 065 men served in the battalion , while a further 588 were posted to it following the war ; of these , the 2 / 33rd lost 200 men killed and 363 wounded . Members of the battalion received the following decorations : two Distinguished Service Orders , seven Military Crosses , 11 Military Medals and 27 Mentions in Despatches .
= = Battle honours = =
For its service during the war , the 2 / 33rd was awarded the following battle and theatre honours :
North Africa ; Syria 1941 ; Syrian Frontier ; Merjayun ; South @-@ West Pacific 1942 – 1945 ; Kokoda Trail ; Ioribaiwa ; Eora Creek – Templeton 's Crossing II ; Oivi – Gorari ; Buna – Gona ; Gona ; Lae – Nadzab ; Lae Road ; Liberation of Australian New Guinea ; Ramu Valley ; Shaggy Ridge ; Borneo 1945 ; Balikpapan ; Milford Highway .
= = Commanding officers = =
The following officers commanded the 2 / 33rd throughout the war :
Lieutenant Colonel Rudolph Bierwirth ( 1940 – 41 ) ;
Lieutenant Colonel John Graham Monaghan ( 1941 ) ;
Lieutenant Colonel John Armstrong Corby ( 1941 – 42 )
Lieutenant Colonel Alfred William Buttrose ( 1942 – 43 )
Lieutenant Colonel Thomas Richard Worgan Cotton ( 1943 – 45 )
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= Gareloi Volcano =
The Gareloi Volcano is a stratovolcano in the Aleutian Islands of Alaska , United States , about 1 @,@ 259 miles ( 2 @,@ 026 km ) from Anchorage . Gareloi is located on Gareloi Island , and comprises most of its land mass . The island also has two small glaciers which protrude to the northwest and southeast .
The volcano is 6 miles ( 10 km ) by 5 miles ( 8 km ) at its base , possessing two summits . The southern crater is far greater in size , 984 feet ( 300 m ) wide with fumaroles , which can be attributed to edifice failure in the southern wall , while Gareloi 's northern crater is enclosed .
= = Discovery and accessibility = =
Vitus Bering had been a prominent sailor in Russia . After successful expeditions in 1725 , 1728 , and 1730 , Bering was sent to explore what is now the Bering Sea area of the Pacific in 1740 . He soon settled on Kamchatka , where he started a settlement and built two additional vessels , dubbed St. Peter and St. Paul . In 1741 Bering and his company started towards North America , but were stalled by a storm and in being delayed were forced to take land . During the storm they could not make out the Alaskan coast . The storm proved too powerful so the ships turned around , along the way charting several of the Aleutians , including Gareloi . Since then , it has been barely studied , resulting in a fragmentary knowledge of its eruptions and possibly even unrecorded episodes .
Gareloi Island is uninhabited and is part of the Alaska Maritime National Wildlife Refuge managed by the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service .
= = Geography and geology = =
Gareloi is the northernmost volcano of the Delarof Group , a subgroup of the Aleutian Islands . It is composed of two craters , the older of which is covered by lava flows running to the northwest and southern coasts . The northern crater is small , with a feature suggesting dome collapse in its northwest flank . The southern flank , higher up and considerably larger , contains fumarolic activity . A fissure created by Gareloi 's 1929 eruption runs along the southern summit of the volcano . Steep sea cliffs on the southwest side of the island cut into the older caldera . Three masses offshore of the island were produced by debris flows from the volcano .
Gareloi is of lava flows and pyroclastic origin . Two main episodes contributed to its creation . Lava deposits on the mountain vary from 3 feet ( 1 m ) to 20 feet ( 6 m ) in thickness . Some of them extend from external vents on the volcano , suggesting that activity during the Pleistocene took place .
There are two large lava valleys on the island 's southwest side which are u @-@ shaped . The oldest of these flows are of Pleistocene age composed of basaltic trachyandesite and basaltic andesite , with smaller amounts of plagioclase , clinopyroxene , olivine , and hornblende .
= = = Rock = = =
The rock that makes up Gareloi Island and its volcano is estimated to be of Pleistocene age . Several factors contribute to this inference , mainly the presence of glaciers and edifice failure ( landslide ) debris . The rock , which comprises dissected lava flows and pyroclastic masses , has been shaped by glacial retreat that began around 10 @,@ 000 years past and fleshed out newly formed rocks . Other landslides have been generated on the north and east flanks of the volcano .
= = = Mapping = = =
The Alaska Volcano Observatory proceeded to map the volcano and its surrounding area in 2003 , in addition to implementing seismic monitors in June .
= = Eruptive history = =
Gareloi has an extensive eruptive history , dating back to at least 1760 . At least 12 eruptions have occurred at the summit , accompanied by lava and pyroclastic flows . Typically they have been characterized by a central vent eruption followed by an explosive eruption , and sometimes a phreatic explosion . All have been of Volcanic Explosivity Index ( VEI ) of 1 to 3 . Such eruptions have occurred in 1790 , 1791 , 1792 , 1873 , 1922 , April 1929 , 1950 , January 17 , 1952 , August 7 , 1980 , January 15 , 1982 , September 4 , 1987 , and August 17 , 1989 . Uncertain eruptions occurred in 1760 , 1828 , 1927 , and 1996 .
= = = 1929 = = =
In 1929 Gareloi Volcano underwent a major explosive eruption where it generated four lava flows , andesitic tuff , volcanic glass , and scoria of red tone . Thirteen craters , all located in the fissure , contributed to this episode . All are most likely phreatic . During the eruption , pyroclastic flows convened with tephra , as suggested by deposits . Lahar also streamed from the summit .
= = = 1980s – 1990s = = =
On August 8 , 1980 Gareloi erupted for the first time in records since 1929 , sending ash plumes over 35 @,@ 000 feet ( 10 @,@ 668 m ) into the atmosphere . Precursor earthquakes occurred on August 8 and 9 , both west of the Adak seismic network . A similar episode took place in 1982 when an ash cloud exceeding 23 @,@ 000 feet ( 7 @,@ 010 m ) appeared on satellite images on January 15 . 1987 marked a milestone in Gareloi 's eruptive history , when a flow , likely to be of volcanic origin , was observed by a commercial airplane pilot . The mass extended for 1 @,@ 312 feet ( 400 m ) down the volcano . Steam reportedly emanated from the volcano , but volcanologists were unable to verify an eruption . In 1989 an employee of the US Fish and Wildlife Service spotted another ash plume covering the caldera and climbing 2 @,@ 300 feet ( 701 m ) from the summit on August 17 . A minor eruption occurred on September 27 , 1996 was reported to the National Weather Service Aviation Weather Unit in nearby Anchorage . The plume , consisting of ash and steam , rose 5 @,@ 000 feet ( 1 @,@ 524 m ) from the volcano 's summit .
= = Threat = =
Proximal volcanic hazards pose a significant threat to human life near Gareloi . If Gareloi were to erupt unexpectedly , ash clouds , falling volcanic ash , pyroclastic flows , and debris avalanches ( such as lahars ) could easily span deadly hazards such as tsunamis . As volcanic ash can induce engine failure , it puts commercial airplanes in particular at high risk . Inhalation of volcanic ash , also known as tephra , creates respiratory complexities and irritation of the eye .
Pyroclastic flows from an eruption would destroy much wildlife about the volcano . Gareloi has historically produced several pyroclastic flows , which can travel extremely fast . Future flows at Gareloi Volcano could travel off the island into the Pacific Ocean and , if large enough , could fall into the ocean and generate tsunamis , though unlikely .
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= Fabyan Windmill =
The Fabyan Windmill is an authentic , working Dutch windmill dating from the 1850s located in Geneva , Kane County , Illinois , just north of Batavia , Illinois , off Illinois Route 25 . The five @-@ story wooden smock mill with a stage , which stands 68 feet ( 21 m ) tall , sits upon the onetime estate of Colonel George Fabyan , but is now part of the Kane County Forest Preserve District .
In 1979 , the windmill was listed on the National Register of Historic Places as the Dutch Mill . The following year , the windmill was selected to be on a U.S. postage stamp , as part of a series of five windmills in a stamp booklet called " Windmills USA . " It originally operated as a custom grinding mill .
= = History = =
During the mid @-@ 19th century , the Fabyan Windmill was constructed by German craftsmen , Louis Blackhaus , and his brother @-@ in @-@ law Freidrick Brockmann , on a site at Meyers Road near 16th Street in York Township between Elmhurst and Oak Brook , Illinois ( now Lombard , Illinois ) .
By the early 20th century , the windmill had fallen into a state of disrepair . In 1914 , George Fabyan purchased the disused windmill for approximately $ 8 @,@ 000 from Mrs. Fred Runge . He then had it moved to its present location in Geneva Township on the east side of the Fox River , close to Illinois Route 25 in July 1915 . Fabyan spent an estimated $ 75 @,@ 000 to have it moved , reconstructed , and restored .
The Edgar E. Belding Company of West Chicago was contracted by Fabyan to move the windmill from York Center . It was slowly dismantled piece by piece , with Roman numerals carved into the beams and braces to facilitate correct reconstruction . Some of the largest beams had to be hauled by a team of mules .
The windmill was reassembled on its present site by a Danish millwright named Rasmussen , with the assistance of John Johnson and six others from the Wilson Bros. Construction Co . After nineteen months , the relocation and reconstruction were completed . The mill was a wonder in its day , because it is thought to be the only fully automatic wind @-@ driven mill of its type .
George Fabyan died in 1936 , and his wife died two years later . The estate was then sold by the executors of the will to the Kane County Forest Preserve District for $ 70 @,@ 500 .
= = Structure = =
The giant cypress wood beams , trimmed with black walnut , are all hand joined and doweled with wood dowels . In fact , there are no metal nails used inside the structure . Even the original gearing was handmade of hickory and maple , with all five floors containing different mechanisms .
The windmill was a functioning mill used by the Fabyans for grinding several types of grain , including corn , wheat , rye , and oats . It also served as a grain mill for Fabyan 's herd of prized Jersey cattle .
At the mill 's top , or cap , is a huge cogged wheel called the brake wheel , which was turned by wind blowing against the sails . The sails are covered with canvas sailcloths to help catch the wind . The sails had to be entirely reconstructed by Rasmussen and John Johnson , because they were missing when Fabyan bought the mill . The sails span 74 feet 4 inches . The brake wheel , located in the cap , rotates an upright shaft running the height of the mill . This shaft supplied power to all of the mill 's operations .
There is a set of belt @-@ driven elevators , remarkable for its time , that moved the grains from chutes to hoppers , and even from floor to floor , making the mill almost fully automatic . Most other mills required workers to hand shovel materials between operations .
During its reconstruction , the Colonel had a new foundation poured , which created a basement . In the basement , he had ovens installed whose vents and chimney extended underground beneath Route 25 to a structure that once stood on the other side . In addition to the ovens , marble slabs and cooling racks were also installed . It is thought that at one time , the windmill basement was an operating bakery . During the flour rationing of World War I , the bakery supposedly produced bread for the Fabyan family and even for their two bears , Tom and Jerry . However , the extent of use of the mill 's bakery is debatable due to an inadequate oven draft .
= = Significance = =
The wind @-@ powered mill is a type that was rarely built in the United States , where grist mills are usually powered by water . Its wooden gears and nail @-@ less construction techniques are of interest both technically and architecturally . The mill is also an example of an America folly , a structure built primarily to enhance the landscape or view . In this case , George Fabyan , a wealthy merchant , purchased and moved the by @-@ then inoperative mill to beautify his estate , but maintained it as a private mill with no commercial value .
= = Today = =
Kane County considered the windmill 's demolition as early as 1990 when it became structurally unsafe for public inspection . However , local citizens began fighting to keep the mill intact . In 1997 , the Forest Preserve District contracted third @-@ generation Dutch windmill maker Lucas Verbij to fully restore the windmill for a cost of over $ 900 @,@ 000 . It made its public debut in June 2005 .
The Fabyan Windmill is the best example of an authentic Dutch windmill in the United States , actually it 's a treasure and would be the most popular windmill in the Netherlands ( we currently have 1000 windmills ) .
The grinding mechanisms to make flour have been restored and are in use today by mill volunteers who do demonstrations to the public .
Even now , the varnish from 1915 is in near perfect condition because the climate inside the mill varies little from season to season due to its superior construction , and the Roman numeral markings carved into the beams used in original reconstruction are still visible .
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= University of Wisconsin Experimental College =
The University of Wisconsin Experimental College was a two @-@ year college designed and led by Alexander Meiklejohn inside the University of Wisconsin – Madison with a great books , liberal arts curriculum . It was established in 1927 and closed in 1932 . Meiklejohn proposed the idea for an alternative college in a 1925 Century magazine article . The magazine 's editor @-@ in @-@ chief , Glenn Frank , became the University of Wisconsin 's president and invited Meiklejohn to begin the college within the university . Despite pushback from the faculty , the college opened in the fall of 1927 with a self @-@ governing community of 119 students and less than a dozen faculty . Students followed a uniform curriculum : Periclean Athens for freshmen and modern America for sophomores . The program sought to teach democracy and to foster an intrinsic love of learning within its students .
The college 's students became known as free spirited outsiders within the university for their different dress , apathetic demeanor , and greater interest in reading books . The college 's demographics were unlike the rest of the university , with students largely not from Wisconsin and disproportionately of Jewish and East Coast families . The college developed a reputation for radicalism and wanton anarchy , especially within Wisconsin . The students lived and worked with their teachers , called advisers , in Adams Hall , away from the heart of the university . They had no fixed schedule , no compulsory lessons , and no semesterly grades , though they read from a common syllabus . The advisers taught primarily through tutorial instead of lectures . Extracurricular groups , including philosophy , law , and theater clubs , were entirely student @-@ led .
The Great Depression and lack of outreach to Wisconsinites and UW faculty led to the college 's slow decline . Enrollment decreased every year since the program began , which its statewide reputation exacerbated . After his son was expelled in 1931 by dean and Experimental College critic George Sellery , Meiklejohn recommended the college 's dissolution . Public criticism of the college included student radicalism , lack of discipline , administrative issues , and financial issues . Meiklejohn wrote a retrospective of the college , which philosopher John Dewey reviewed favorably and noted for its contribution to educational philosophy . University of Wisconsin faculty and regents voted to dissolve the college in May 1932 . Some advisers stayed to teach in the university , and Meiklejohn remained briefly before moving to Berkeley . The Experimental College influenced programs internal to the university , and was the precursor to its Integrated Liberal Studies undergraduate program .
= = Background = =
In June 1923 , Alexander Meiklejohn had been asked to step down as president of Amherst College . He was recruited specifically to revitalize the college a decade earlier with the views on education for which he was known . Meiklejohn announced curriculum reform with a singular focus on " understanding human life as to be ready and equipped for the practice of it " , and subsequently made the humanities coursework more interdisciplinary , added social sciences courses , and attracted new faculty members interested in the Socratic method . Meiklejohn had student support , but clashed with senior faculty and alumni , and was ultimately removed due to his administrative mismanagement and not his educational reforms .
Meiklejohn resolved to open a new , experimental liberal arts college in late 1924 , but struggled to find funding . Seeking $ 3 million for the venture , he was rejected by Bernard Baruch and Abraham Flexner but through support from The New Republic 's Herbert Croly was offered planning funds from the magazine 's main benefactor . The planning team included journalist Mark Sullivan , New School professor Alvin Johnson , and The Century Magazine editor @-@ in @-@ chief Glenn Frank . Frank had previously published Meiklejohn 's work and was sympathetic to his cause .
In January 1925 , Century published Meiklejohn 's plan for a new and " experimental " college , " A New College : Notes on a Next Step in Higher Education " . The proposed college would have a " unified " two @-@ year curriculum and closer ties between faculty and students , who were to be " coequal partners " . Meiklejohn called for a small school with a maximum of 35 professors and 300 students , with tutorial as the chief means of instruction . The planned program eschewed division by academic discipline and preferred holistic study of human civilization , particularly ancient Athens and the contemporary United States . The school sought to foster students who understood themselves in the context of their surrounding society as a " total human undertaking " . Meiklejohn wanted students who would independently volunteer to live in self @-@ governance . Meiklejohn biographer Adam Nelson wrote that for the 1920s , this idea of voluntary interest in study " seemed almost laughable " . The augmented liberal arts program was a departure from vocational education trends of the time , as was its emphasis on smaller classes in a time of large lectures for burgeoning college populations .
Frank stepped down from the magazine in May 1925 to become the incoming president of the University of Wisconsin ( UW ) . He invited Meiklejohn to open his school there and offered him a distinguished professorship . Meiklejohn planned the experimental college in secret and moved to Madison in January 1926 to teach in the philosophy department . Meiklejohn finished his experimental college proposal by April 1926 . It was similar in style to his Century article and became codified as the Experimental College based on its colloquial reference in correspondence between Meiklejohn and Frank . Meiklejohn presented his proposal to the All @-@ University Study Commission convened by Frank " to investigate the first two years of liberal college work " . The university faculty received the proposal apprehensively , and criticized its vagueness , lack of control group , costliness , and effect on their livelihoods . It was eventually approved on the condition that the faculty could review its details and regular progress . The Wisconsin legislature approved two years of funding , and the Experimental College was scheduled to open in fall 1927 .
Meiklejohn prioritized compatibility in his staff selection , and so hired ten of his friends who could work in " intimate fellowship " . The college received hundreds of faculty applications in the summer of 1926 , and the final makeup included six from Amherst , two from Brown , and one from Scotland , mostly in idealist philosophy and labor economics disciplines . The team met through the winter and into the 1927 spring to plan the program . They received 119 applications even though the program was unadvertised . Half of the applicant pool was interested in working with Meiklejohn specifically , and he was excited to work with " an entirely self @-@ selected and therefore truly democratic community of learning . "
= = Program = =
Meiklejohn 's Experimental College proposal called for two years of compulsory and interdisciplinary study of civilizations : ancient Athens for freshmen , and contemporary America for sophomores . The plan had students and teachers living and working together in the same residence hall with no fixed schedule , no compulsory lessons , and no semester grades , but a common syllabus . Their only grade was to be the single final exam . The college aimed " to inspire students to want to learn " and to teach democracy through " the intrinsic value of learning " over bribery , coercion , and physical violence .
The teachers , called advisers , would instruct via small , weekly tutorials and occasional schoolwide lectures on their personal research . Adviser appointments were split with two @-@ thirds in the Experimental College and one @-@ third in the rest of the university , a compromise between Meiklejohn and the College of Letters and Sciences . The program 's budget and appointments were negotiated directly with President Frank , bypassing the UW College of Letters and Science and its dean , George Sellery .
Meiklejohn saw books as the main instrument of a liberal education , and chose a great books curriculum so as to model the human intellect he wished to impart and to connect the timeless philosophical questions that occupy all such works . He wanted his college to read the same books and to debate the same questions simultaneously . Meiklejohn did not prefer one " great book " over another and saw them as interchangeable and in pursuit of the same essential questions about goodness , justice , and truth . Freshmen studied ancient Athens in the age of Pericles , reading authors such as Aeschylus , Herodotus , Homer , Plato , Thucydides , and Xenophon . Meiklejohn 's curriculum accentuated the author 's thoughts behind the work as related to general questions about society , and forewent emphasis on the texts themselves .
Plato 's The Republic was the freshman year capstone , as " the apex of literary and philosophical achievement in ancient Athenian thought " and the book that best embodied their civilization . Meiklejohn asked the students to synthesize how the contents of their first year were " interrelated in the experience of the individuals and of the community as a whole " . Over the summers , Meiklejohn assigned Middletown studies where students drew conclusions about American society based a view of their hometowns as typical of society . The returning sophomores were expected to exhibit self @-@ regulation as the primary regulator of their understanding , to educate themselves self @-@ sufficiently , and to wean themselves of the college institution . This freedom was taught so as to empower students towards independence while the advisers continued to hold pedagogical power . Henry Adams 's The Education of Henry Adams was the sophomore year capstone , chosen for its complexity , self @-@ criticism , and study of modern America 's development . Meiklejohn biographer Adam Nelson compared the Ex College curriculum and Adams 's autobiography as both lamenting " the tragedy of lost spiritual and intellectual unity " and enabling students to relate " their literary and lived experiences " .
= = = Extracurriculars = = =
All extracurricular groups were student @-@ led . Clubs included the Philosophy Club ( held weekly at Meiklejohn 's house ) , the Law Group , the Forum , and the Experimental College Players ( a theater troupe ) . The Philosophy Club discussed topics such as the self and the relation between philosophy and science , for which Meiklejohn invited Clarence Ayres from Amherst to speak . The Law Group discussed liberty , state action , and laissez @-@ faire , while the Forum discussed current events like war , behaviorism , and imperialism . The Players performed classical plays including Antigone , The Clouds , Euripedes 's Electra , and Lysistrata , which caused a particular stir for its cross @-@ gender acting in erotic scenes . The English department chair and dean of women both castigated President Frank for letting the play run . Meiklejohn also invited several prominent speakers , including Bertrand Russell , Clarence Darrow , Frank Lloyd Wright , and Lewis Mumford .
= = = Facilities = = =
The College was based in Adams Hall , where students and their advisers lived and worked by the shore of Lake Mendota ( except for Meiklejohn , who lived in a large house several blocks away ) . Adams Hall was constructed in 1926 , with a Renaissance @-@ style quad and eight identical divisions , each with its own common room , den , and facilities for 30 students , two advisers , and a fellow . The surrounding facilities afforded abundant sporting opportunities , and the site offered distance from the city and university . The students shared part of Adams Hall with non @-@ Experimental College students , and the nearby common dining hall with the UW students in Tripp Hall . The other students were said to be bothered by the Experimental College 's disregard for property , rambunctiousness , noise , and dining hall biscuit fights .
= = Rise = =
The first class arrived in fall 1927 . The incoming Experimental College class was more diverse than the larger university 's population . One third of students hailed from Wisconsin ( as opposed to 90 percent in the university ) , most were from urban areas ( the East Coast had particularly strong representation ) , one third were second @-@ generation immigrants , and Meiklejohn estimated their Jewish population at 40 percent . The College was all @-@ male , due in part to space availability and the regents ' refusal of mixed @-@ sex living arrangements , in keeping with American college conventions . The students were largely well @-@ versed in current affairs , with higher scores on entrance exams and lower high school grades than their UW counterparts . Meiklejohn appreciated the challenges of reconciling this diversity and related this task to those facing the country 's democratic governance .
Meiklejohn recommended student government to the fall 1927 class , but they couldn 't decide on its form and ultimately voted against government . Put another way , they democratically voted against democratic governance in favor of anarchy . This disappointed Meiklejohn , but he thought they would eventually change their minds .
As freshmen struggled with the Athenian curriculum , he reverted to classification by academic discipline and offered companion texts in the field of the current work studied . In their dorms , the college students were known for their lack of respect for property , with three times the breakage in dorm assets than the rest of the university . Meiklejohn saw this as desirable and indicative of abetting nonconformity , and did not attempt to curb it . Meiklejohn had full reign over the college , so the university and its disciplinary proceedings could not intervene . Upon their exit two years later , students transferred to a number of Ivy League and prominent state universities . By this time , the college was known throughout the nation and Europe .
The college was reputed to be a radical institution . A judge presiding over a case involving three students in a socialist march declared the school " a hotbed of radical activity " . Meiklejohn bemoaned this characterization of his school and blamed the college 's media prominence for disproportionate coverage of an avant @-@ garde minority . Two such cases included a former student who announced his Communist Party gubernatorial bid from jail , and another who organized a labor march with the college 's students that ended in a face @-@ off described as " bearded ' Experimenters ' " against varsity athletes " bent on ' smashing the heads of the Reds ' " . The Experimental College students acted differently from those of the rest of the university . They grew beards , wore their hair long , carried an air of apathy conspicuously , and did not tend as meticulously to their outward presentation . They developed a tradition of wearing dark blue blazers with pearl gray trim , emblazoned with the owl of Athena , worn in the " spirit of fellowship " and to set the college apart from the university . Many of the advisers ( including Meiklejohn ) were indeed progressive @-@ minded activists .
Despite their stereotypical " queerness " , The Daily Cardinal reported in 1930 that a majority of Experimental College students participated in sport , and that a number joined intramural teams , pledged for Greek life , and joined campus clubs . However , the students abnormally read an average of 16 non @-@ assigned books each semester and had an average of " only two dates a month " , which the paper considered abnormal amid hints of homosexuality . As these claims became widespread , Meiklejohn imported psychiatrist Frankwood Williams from New York to study the students ' sexual habits . He found the students to be " warped and twisted " as " normal for ... their age " , praised the program for aiding their psychosexual growth where others inhibit , and concluded that the advisers made the students subservient to their demands even as they spoke in praise of student autonomy .
= = Decline = =
With the onset of the Great Depression in 1929 , the Experimental College began a slow decline . Many students couldn 't afford tuition , fewer had additional savings , and several dropped out . Along with books and campus salaries , the Experimental College became a budgetary luxury during a time of economic need for both students and the state , and its funding was in jeopardy . Meiklejohn started an Experimental College interest @-@ fee loan fund for unfunded students , and asked advisers and monied students to donate . During this period , some sophomores absconded the college for two weeks to live like the vagrant hobos who traveled the Midwest by rail looking for work . They returned to write papers about their experiences , which Meiklejohn is said to have appreciated for its syncretism of experience and the great questions grounded in their readings .
A 1930 faculty review of the curriculum questioned the program 's focus and choice of civilizations . The advisers entertained the Enlightenment , Middle Ages , and Renaissance as alternatives to their ancient Athens curriculum , but ultimately did not change course . By early 1930 , Meiklejohn began to show a loss of faith in the experiment and in education reform , chiefly in the ability to teach " rational self @-@ criticism " . Around the same time , Meiklejohn received letters from the Baraboo , Wisconsin , schools superintendent and a Baraboo judge noting the Experimental College 's sordid reputation in the state and its habit of repelling " ordinary " students whose parents were uninterested in the ramifications of such an education . Within the community , a January 1930 student committee reported a widespread lack of individual responsibility in their living arrangements . Parents began to complain about the college 's public esteem , the qualities forming in their sons , and the curriculum . The experiment was in ill repute .
Enrollment dropped every year since the program 's inception such that , when compounded by dropouts , the program was below half @-@ capacity three years later . UW President Glenn Frank had warned of decreased enrollment in August 1928 and of its consequences for the college . UW College of Letters and Science Dean George Sellery offered support conditional on codified discipline and uniform final exams , which Meiklejohn refused . Sellery later refused to allow transfer students into the college . Meiklejohn wrote letters to Wisconsin high schools in April 1929 that acknowledged the college 's stereotypes and welcomed demographic change , but the campaign backfired . He sent an adviser to tour the state and solve what he saw as a communication issue . The adviser found high school seniors largely interested in vocational training , and that the prospect of traditional college excited students to the point where they did not consider improvements upon that model . The adviser found students uninterested in the Experimental College 's prospects .
The locals saw Meiklejohn as an outsider . He was foreign to Madison in his politics , social life , and personality . Dean Sellery and President Frank 's professional relationship was untrusting and contemptuous , which extended to Meiklejohn due to his close association with Frank . Sellery had the support of the faculty , who were envious of the Experimental College advisers ' arrangements for higher salaries . In objection to the college 's reputation for radicalism , the son of the man who endowed Meiklejohn 's professorship revoked his funding . Frank needed the donor 's support , and so the incident marked Frank 's waning support for the college . Sellery spoke out against the Experimental College in the first quarter of 1929 , and Frank attempted to fire him in response . In 1931 , Sellery received letters from spies who found Meiklejohn 's son Donald , a philosophy doctoral student at the university and a part @-@ time Experimental College adviser , engaged in sex acts against university policy . Sellery pursued expulsion and denied Meiklejohn and his son 's separate requests for a lesser punishment . A week later , Meiklejohn asked the advisers to close the college .
Common public explanations for the college 's closure include student radicalism , lack of discipline , administrative issues , and financial issues . The Nation 's Eliseo Vivas blamed its lack of grades as detrimental to student incentive , and judged the effort to create self @-@ motivated students through freedom to be a failure . In School and Society , Professor Grant Showerman also credited the college 's freedoms and lack of compulsions with its demise . Proponents of the Experimental College painted it as the foil of a conservative , standard college , and blamed educational stagnation on the existing order . Meiklejohn believed in a liberal education 's power to change society through imagining alternatives to the status quo . He aimed to produce students who could counterbalance society with independence of thought , but admitted that he did not know how to facilitate this .
The University of Wisconsin faculty and regents voted to end the Experimental College in May 1932 . There was a farewell banquet for 250 guests in June 1932 . Meiklejohn did not judge the college 's success by its permanence , which he did not expect — he said he attempted the college as a test . Meiklejohn asked Sellery to give his graduate student advisers university assistantships , but was denied . Meiklejohn began to work on adult education in the University of Wisconsin Extension Division in July 1932 , where some of the Experimental College 's ideas took hold . He later moved to Berkeley . Advisers who stayed after the program 's end — such as classicist Walter Agard , philosopher Carl Bögholt , and political scientist John Gaus — were known as popular and innovative , and Agard became the Classics department chair .
= = Legacy = =
Meiklejohn wrote a retrospective of the Experimental College during the first half of 1932 . John Dewey reviewed the published book and declared it " a contribution to the philosophy of American education " . He saw the college to be a true expression of liberal education as it fostered rational faculties and self @-@ criticism , and noted the college 's place in fighting norms on a much larger timescale . For its ability to produce free @-@ thinkers in an age without similar values , Dewey found the college " a tragic success " .
Experimental College alumni celebrated reunions in 1942 at the University of Chicago , in 1957 at St. John 's College in Annapolis , Maryland , and in 1962 back in Madison . At St. John 's , Meiklejohn addressed the audience and read his favorite poets . Over a hundred alumni announced a fund for the Alexander Meiklejohn Award for Academic Freedom through the American Association of University Professors . At the Madison reunion , alumni announced the Alexander Meiklejohn Lectureship on the Meaning and Methods of Education for Freedom . Their reunions featured notably intellectual speakers , and would take on the air of their college discussions . Over the next two decades , Meiklejohn would return to speak in Madison at the behest of the Memorial Union Forum Committee and philosophy department .
In The University of Wisconsin : A Pictorial History , Arthur Hove states that the Experimental College " had little discernible influence beyond the university " , though it served as a prototype for the university 's Integrated Liberal Studies ( ILS ) program , spawned interest in learning , and showed the university 's role in making individuals as well as workers . Cronon and Jenkins ' The University of Wisconsin : A History , 1925 – 1945 notes the college 's recognition as the " best known example of [ Wisconsin ] curricular innovation " at the time , and blamed the college 's closure on the depression but more so " the hubris of its architects " for not evangelizing its value to Wisconsinites and UW faculty . Cronon and Jenkins also saw the college 's influence in Charles Russell Bardeen 's fourth @-@ year medical school preceptor program , the academic recommendations from the 1930 Fish and 1940 Daniels Committees , and the inception of Integrated Liberal Studies . Similar to the Experimental College , the Integrated Liberal Studies started in the late 1940s was a great books , liberal arts , tutorial curriculum . It was developed in part by Agard , the Classics professor and former Experimental College adviser . An English professor described ILS 's ambience as that of a " small college " within a large university . Meiklejohn received an honorary Doctor of Letters degree from Madison in June 1964 , where he was escorted by the first ILS director , Robert Pooley .
A 1939 announcement described him as " one of the university 's greatest teachers " . Notable alumni include Victor Wolfson , a Broadway playwright and founder of the college 's theater group .
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= U.S. Route 18 in Iowa =
U.S. Highway 18 ( US 18 ) is the northernmost east – west U.S. Highway in the state of Iowa . As with all state highways in Iowa , it is maintained by the Iowa Department of Transportation ( Iowa DOT ) . It enters the state by crossing the Big Sioux River between Inwood and Canton , South Dakota . It travels 311 miles ( 501 km ) and connects Spencer , Mason City and Charles City . The highway leaves the state via the Marquette – Joliet Bridge over the Mississippi River at Marquette . Prior to becoming a U.S. Highway , the route US 18 follows was known as Primary Road No. 19 and the National Parks Pike .
= = Route description = =
US 18 begins at the Big Sioux River approximately 2 miles ( 3 @.@ 2 km ) east of Canton , South Dakota . It runs easterly through rural Lyon County , in the northwestern corner of the state . At Inwood it meets Iowa 182 , which provides access to Sioux Falls , South Dakota , via Iowa 9 and South Dakota Highway 42 . US 18 turns south at Inwood and heads into Sioux County . The highway crosses the Rock River on its way towards Rock Valley and Hull . West of Hull , at Perkins , US 18 juts to the south along US 75 before turning east again closer to Hull . The highway continues east towards Sheldon .
As it crosses into O 'Brien County on the western edge of Sheldon , US 18 intersects the business loop of Iowa 60 . The two routes head east towards a diamond interchange with Iowa 60 on the eastern side of town where the business loop ends . The highway roughly parallels the Dakota , Minnesota and Eastern Railroad ( DM & E Railroad ) . In Sanborn , US 18 is briefly overlapped by US 59 , which joins from the north and leaves to the south . Continuing east , it passes through Hartley and then enters Clay County . North of Spencer , it intersects US 71 and the two routes head south together through town . On the south side of Spencer , the two routes come to a T intersection and each route heads in the opposite direction – US 18 to the east and US 71 to the west .
East of Spencer , US 18 passes through Ruthven in Palo Alto County . Between Ruthven and Emmetsburg , it is joined by Iowa 4 from the north . The two routes split again in Emmetsburg as Iowa 4 heads south . US 18 continues east , briefly heading south to enter Cylinder . The route curves back to the east at the DM & E Railroad line . An intersection with Iowa 15 near Whittemore marks the Palo Alto – Kossuth county line . Iowa 15 follows US 18 for 1 mile ( 1 @.@ 6 km ) before it splits away to the north . On the northern edge of Algona , the highway meets US 169 . At the eastern county line , shared with Hancock County , is an intersection with Iowa 17 , which marks that route 's northern end .
In Hancock County , the route passes through Britt before meeting US 69 1 mile ( 1 @.@ 6 km ) west of Garner ; the two highways split in Garner . East of Garner , the route takes a north @-@ northeasterly path as it goes through Ventura and skirts the northern shore of Clear Lake . Near the northeastern shore of the lake , it enters the city of Clear Lake , where it meets Interstate 35 ( I @-@ 35 ) . Iowa 122 and U.S. Route 18 Business ( US 18 Bus . ) head east from the interchange with the interstate . US 18 traffic follows southbound I @-@ 35 for 4 miles ( 6 @.@ 4 km ) . Iowa 27 , the Avenue of the Saints highway , which had hitherto followed I @-@ 35 southbound now follows US 18 eastbound . The two routes , now on a four @-@ lane , controlled @-@ access highway , follow a path which passes to the south of Mason City . They meet US 65 and US 18 Bus. at exit 186 .
At the Floyd county line , US and Iowa 27 become a limited @-@ access road and angle slightly to the northeast , passing Rudd . At Floyd , the two routes are joined by US 218 . The three routes head south along a bypass of Charles City . They intersect Iowa 14 on the western side of town and take a 90 @-@ degree curve to the east . At exit 218 of the expressway , US 18 leaves US 218 and Iowa 27 , which continue southeastward towards Cedar Falls – Waterloo . US 18 briefly heads north into Charles City with US 218 Bus .. The two routes meet the northern end of Iowa 14 , and US 18 splits away to the east to cross the Cedar River .
Heading east again , the route enters Chickasaw County and passes through Bassett on its way to New Hampton . It meets US 63 at a four @-@ lane bypass on the western side of town . The two routes head south for 8 miles ( 13 km ) , splitting at the mile 196 interchange which is also the eastern end of Iowa 346 . The route turns to travel due @-@ east through Fredericksburg .
Continuing due @-@ east , US 18 does not enter another community for 20 miles ( 32 km ) until it reaches West Union in Fayette County . In West Union , it intersects Iowa 150 . East of town , it crosses into the Driftless Area , an area that was untouched by glaciation during the last ice age . The route turns to the northeast to through Clermont and then to the north to meet US 52 at Postville in southern Allamakee County . The two routes head east through Postville and turn south into Clayton County . Near Froelich , US 52 leaves to the south towards Dubuque . Heading to the northeast towards , McGregor and Marquette , its business loop goes through the towns while the mainline skirts around them . The business loop rejoins the mainline at the foot of the Marquette – Joliet Bridge , which spans the Mississippi River . US 18 continues east into Wisconsin with Wisconsin Highway 60 , which begins at the state line .
= = History = =
Before it and the rest of the U.S. Highway System were designated on November 11 , 1926 , US 18 was known by two names in the state . It was first known as Primary Road No. 19 , which was assigned to the route when the Iowa State Highway Commission published its first state highway map in 1919 . The route was also called the National Parks Pike , which began at Yellowstone National Park and ended in Madison , Wisconsin , encompassing all of Primary Road No. 19 in the state . The Pike was registered with the on April 29 , 1920 . The National Parks Pike name fell into disuse after the highway became US 18 .
By 1927 , a significant portion of the route was paved , while the remainder was gravelled . All of O 'Brien County and 80 miles ( 129 km ) between Algona and Charles City were paved . In seven years , the gap between O 'Brien County and Algona was finished which created 160 miles ( 257 km ) of continuous pavement . During those same seven years , the route from West Union to the Mississippi River and all of Primary Road No. 59 , which included the 7 @-@ mile @-@ long ( 11 km ) overlap of US 18 near New Hampton were paved . Primary Road No. 59 is now known as US 63 . By the start of World War II , the only remaining section of US 18 that wasn 't paved was an 11 @-@ mile ( 18 km ) section west of Rock Valley in Sioux County . That last section would not be completed for another ten years .
Prior to 1932 , the only way vehicles traveling US 18 could cross the Mississippi River was by ferry . That changed in when identical suspension bridges were built to cross the river between Marquette and Prairie du Chien , Wisconsin . Built in 1931 – 1932 , each bridge was 450 feet ( 140 m ) long and crossed a main channel of the river and were divided by a 2 @,@ 000 @-@ foot @-@ long ( 610 m ) island causeway . The first car to cross the bridges did so on March 7 , 1932 . Users of the bridge had to pay a toll until July 15 , 1954 . The bridges remained in use for another twenty years , when they were replaced by the Marquette – Joliet Bridge . In 1988 – 89 , a bypass was built around McGregor so US 18 could connect directly to the Marquette – Joliet Bridge . A short road had previously provided access to and from the bridge . The old alignment of the route became US 18 Bus .
Over the late @-@ 1990s , construction began on the Avenue of the Saints corridor near Mason City . A new controlled @-@ access facility was built south of the city east to Rudd . On December 5 , 1999 , this section of freeway opened and US 18 was realigned onto the new road . The old alignment became Iowa Highway 122 . By the end of the next year , the four @-@ lane expressway was extended to Charles City . By 2003 , an expressway carrying US 63 was built around New Hampton . US 18 was rerouted onto the expressway and the western end of Iowa 24 was moved to the US 63 / US 18 interchange .
= = Major intersections = =
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= Tropical Storm Doria ( 1971 ) =
Tropical Storm Doria was the costliest tropical cyclone in the 1971 Atlantic hurricane season . The fifth tropical storm of the season , Doria developed from a tropical wave on August 20 to the east of the Lesser Antilles , and after five days without development it attained tropical storm status to the east of Florida . Doria turned to the north , and reached peak winds of 65 mph ( 105 km / h ) as it was making landfall near Morehead City , North Carolina . It turned to the northeast , and moved through the Mid @-@ Atlantic and New England as a tropical storm before becoming an extratropical storm over Maine on August 29 .
In North Carolina , Doria produced moderate rainfall , resulting in localized flooding and damage . The storm spawned a tornado near Norfolk , Virginia , damaging twelve houses and downing hundreds of trees . Tropical Storm Doria dropped heavy precipitation in New Jersey , peaking at 10 @.@ 29 inches ( 261 mm ) in Little Falls . The rainfall led to record @-@ breaking river levels and flooding in several houses , resulting in damage to dozens of houses across the state . Moderate damage and rainfall continued along its path into New England and southeastern Canada . In all , Tropical Storm Doria caused seven deaths and $ 147 @.@ 6 million ( 1971 USD , $ 862 million 2016 USD ) .
= = Meteorological history = =
On August 15 , a tropical wave moved off the coast of Africa , and tracked westward while slowly organizing . On August 20 , subsequent to the development of a low @-@ level circulation , an area of convection along the wave developed into a tropical depression while located about 1 @,@ 000 miles ( 1 @,@ 600 km ) east @-@ northeast of Grenada . Initially failing to organize further , the depression moved to the west @-@ northwest , and on August 23 , it passed through the northern Lesser Antilles . The depression moved to the north of Puerto Rico , Hispaniola , and the Bahamas , and began to show further signs of organization on August 25 . After briefly weakening on August 26 , the depression re @-@ strengthened while turning to the north , and attained tropical storm status on August 27 while located 230 miles ( 370 km ) east of Daytona Beach , Florida .
After reaching tropical storm status , Doria quickly intensified as its wind field expanded while moving northward . The minimum central pressure quickly dropped , as well , and late on August 27 , Doria reached its peak intensity of 65 mph ( 105 km / h ) while making landfall on North Carolina near Morehead City . The storm maintained its peak winds as it moved north @-@ northeastward through North Carolina , and weakened slightly to a 60 mph ( 95 km / h ) tropical storm after entering Virginia on August 28 . Doria turned to the northeast , passing through the Chesapeake Bay and Delmarva Peninsula before entering southern New Jersey . It paralleled the state a short distance inland , and after moving through New York City Doria became extratropical over northwestern Maine on August 29 . The extratropical remnant continued northeastward until losing its identity near the border of New Brunswick and Quebec in Canada .
= = Impact = =
= = = Southeast United States and Virginia = = =
Doria passed near or through the northern Caribbean Islands and the Bahamas as a tropical depression , though effects , if any , are unknown . Tropical Storm Doria passed about 160 miles ( 260 km ) east of Charleston , South Carolina , though its large wind field produced 22 mph ( 35 km / h ) winds in the town . The storm also dropped light rainfall of up to 1 @.@ 75 inches ( 44 mm ) , and resulted in a storm tide of 5 @.@ 7 feet ( 1 @.@ 7 m ) above the mean low water level .
Upon making landfall in North Carolina , Doria produced a storm tide of 2 feet ( 0 @.@ 6 m ) above normal at Cape Fear . Sustained winds in the state peaked at 41 mph ( 66 km / h ) in Hatteras , while gusts reached 69 mph ( 111 km / h ) in Atlantic Beach . In most areas , wind damage was minimal . Tropical Storm Doria dropped moderate rainfall across the state , including a report of 4 @.@ 17 inches ( 106 mm ) in Cape Hatteras . Over 5 inches ( 125 mm ) of rain fell around the Albemarle Sound and near New Bern . The rainfall led to flooding and mudslides , which blocked roads and highways . In localized areas , the flooding caused severe damage to roads and houses . Flooding from Doria also damaged water and sewage systems . Rainfall in the state persisted for two weeks after the passage of Doria .
In Virginia , the storm produced a storm tide of 3 @.@ 6 feet ( 1 @.@ 1 m ) above normal in Norfolk . Sustained winds peaked at 60 mph ( 95 km / h ) in Langley Air Force Base , while gusts reached 71 mph ( 114 km / h ) in Norfolk . The bands of the storm spawned an F1 tornado near Portsmouth and Chesapeake , damaging twelve homes and downing hundreds of trees . Damage from the tornado amounted to $ 250 @,@ 000 ( 1971 USD , $ 1 @.@ 46 million 2016 USD ) . Rainfall from Doria was moderate , peaking at 6 @.@ 44 inches ( 164 mm ) at a location 2 miles ( 3 @.@ 2 km ) south @-@ southeast of Halifax . One person drowned in Alexandria when she fell into a draining ditch . The storm severely damaged a large warehouse in Norfolk , as well . Damage in Virginia totaled $ 375 @,@ 000 ( 1971 USD , $ 2 @.@ 19 million 2016 USD ) . Floodwaters from Doria clogged sewage systems near Norfolk , Virginia with sand and silt . This forced the sewage to be dumped into the Chesapeake Bay , resulting in the closure of several beaches for days .
= = = Mid @-@ Atlantic states = = =
Tropical Storm Doria dropped 3 @.@ 85 inches ( 98 mm ) of rain in Washington National Airport in Washington , D.C. In Maryland , the storm resulted in tides 2 @.@ 7 feet ( 0 @.@ 8 m ) above normal in Fort McHenry . Rainfall in the state peaked at 4 @.@ 39 inches ( 112 mm ) in Baltimore , while wind gusts reached a maximum of 63 mph ( 101 km / h ) at the United States Coast Guard station in Ocean City . The storm produced 5 @.@ 09 inches ( 129 mm ) of rain in Wilmington , Delaware and a storm tide of 3 @.@ 2 feet ( 1 m ) above normal in Lewes . In Pennsylvania , the passage of Tropical Storm Doria resulted in 6 @.@ 57 inches ( 167 mm ) of rain and peak wind gusts of 73 mph ( 117 km / h ) in Philadelphia . Moderate winds downed trees and power lines in Pennsylvania , and one person died in the state . Several rivers in the southeastern portion of the state experienced record @-@ breaking flooding .
In New Jersey , Doria produced wind gusts of up to 54 mph ( 87 km / h ) and storm tides 5 @.@ 3 feet ( 1 @.@ 6 m ) above normal in Atlantic City . The outer bands of the storm spawned an F2 tornado near Cape May . It moved quickly northward through Cape May County , and caused about $ 250 @,@ 000 in damage ( 1971 USD , $ 1 @.@ 46 million 2016 USD ) in damage along its 29 mile ( 47 km ) path . The storm dropped heavy rainfall , peaking at 10 @.@ 29 inches ( 261 mm ) in Little Falls . Record 24 @-@ hour rainfall totals occurred in Newark with 7 @.@ 84 inches ( 199 mm ) and Trenton with 7 @.@ 55 inches ( 192 mm ) . The rainfall led to record flooding on several small streams in the state . The Beden Brook crested at over 5 feet ( 1 @.@ 5 m ) above normal , which destroyed a bridge near Princeton . The Raritan River at Manville crested at 9 @.@ 8 feet ( 3 m ) , a record that stood until the passage of Hurricane Floyd in 1999 . The heavy rainfall overtopped the levee system in Zarephath , causing severe damage to the Alma White College and preventing it from opening in the fall of 1971 . The rainfall also flooded two fire houses in Somerville with several feet of water , and the water treatment plant in Bridgewater Township with 18 inches ( 457 mm ) of floodwaters in what was catalogued as a 50 @-@ year flood event . Following the flooding to the water treatment plant , officials raised the beams of the plant to withstand a 500 @-@ year flood event . Eleven houses experienced flooding damage in Montgomery Township . Doria killed three people and caused $ 138 million in damage ( 1971 USD ) in the state .
= = = Northeast United States and Canada = = =
Tropical Storm Doria produced moderate winds in New York City with gusts to 48 mph ( 77 km / h ) . The storm tide reached 3 @.@ 8 feet ( 1 @.@ 2 m ) above normal at Battery Park , and rainfall peaked at 5 @.@ 96 inches ( 151 mm ) . LaGuardia Airport recorded 2 @.@ 29 inches ( 58 mm ) of rain in a one @-@ hour period . The threat of the storm cancelled a baseball game between the Los Angeles Dodgers and the New York Mets . Heavy rainfall flooded streets and subways in New York . In Connecticut , Doria produced up to 3 @.@ 12 inches ( 79 mm ) of rain and wind gusts peaking at 48 mph ( 77 km / h ) in Hartford . Doria dropped light rain in Rhode Island , including a report of 0 @.@ 97 inches ( 25 mm ) in Providence . The storm also produced wind gusts of up to 61 mph ( 98 km / h ) and a storm tide of 5 @.@ 9 feet ( 1 @.@ 8 m ) above mean water level . In Boston , rainfall totaled to 0 @.@ 83 inches ( 21 mm ) , while wind gusts peaked at 80 mph ( 130 km / h ) at the Blue Hill Meteorological Observatory . Two people drowned in Marblehead when they were swept away by surf from the storm .
The storm dropped moderate rainfall in Vermont , including a total of 5 @.@ 73 inches ( 141 mm ) in Mays Mill . The rainfall caused road washouts , landslides , and damage to bridges in the southeast portion of the state . The center of Tropical Storm Doria passed over south @-@ central New Hampshire , resulting in heavy rains and damaging winds . Sustained winds in Maine were generally around 30 mph ( 48 km / h ) , while gusts peaked at 61 mph ( 98 km / h ) in Lewiston . The strong winds resulted in downed trees and widespread outages to power and telephone service . The winds also damaged a mobile home in Sabattus and a steel shed in Lewiston . Doria produced moderate rainfall , including a total of 1 @.@ 75 inches ( 44 mm ) in Lewiston , though little flooding occurred .
Moisture from Tropical Storm Doria entered southeastern Canada , peaking at over 3 inches ( 75 mm ) in the Montérégie region of Quebec . The rainfall led to severe flooding in Victoriaville , causing damage to roads , bridges , and crops . Damage totalled to about $ 250 @,@ 000 ( 1971 CND , $ 245 @,@ 000 1971 USD ) .
Throughout its path , Tropical Storm Doria caused seven deaths and $ 147 @.@ 6 million in damage ( 1971 USD ) .
In early September 1971 , President Richard Nixon declared counties in New Jersey , New York , and Pennsylvania as disaster areas due to heavy rains and flooding . This allowed citizens in disaster areas to apply for federal assistance .
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= Atomic Energy Act of 1946 =
The Atomic Energy Act of 1946 ( McMahon Act ) determined how the United States would control and manage the nuclear technology it had jointly developed with its World War II allies , the United Kingdom and Canada . Most significantly , the Act ruled that nuclear weapon development and nuclear power management would be under civilian , rather than military control , and established the United States Atomic Energy Commission for this purpose .
It was sponsored by Senator Brien McMahon , a Democrat from Connecticut , who chaired the United States Senate Special Committee on Atomic Energy , and whose hearings in late 1945 and early 1946 led to the fine tuning and passing of the Act . The Senate passed the Act unanimously through voice vote , and it passed the House of Representatives 265 – 79 . Signed into law by President Harry S. Truman on August 1 , 1946 , it went into effect on January 1 , 1947 , and the Atomic Energy Commission assumed responsibility for nuclear energy from the wartime Manhattan Project .
The Act was subsequently amended to promote private development of nuclear energy under the Eisenhower administration 's Atoms for Peace program in 1954 . In restricting the access to nuclear information to other countries , it created a rift between the United States and its allies , particularly Britain and Canada , which had participated in the Manhattan Project . This resulted in cumbersome command and control arrangements , and in Britain developing its own nuclear weapons . The Act was amended in 1958 to allow the United States to share information with its close allies .
= = Origins = =
Nuclear weapons were developed during World War II by the wartime Manhattan Project . Key scientists working on the project anticipated that their development would have wide @-@ ranging implications . However the project director , Major General Leslie R. Groves , Jr . , was reluctant to spend project funds on activities beyond those required to win the war . Nonetheless , Arthur Compton of the Metallurgical Project in Chicago commissioned a report on post @-@ war nuclear energy , and the Military Policy Committee , the Manhattan Project 's governing body , commissioned a similar study by Richard Tolman . Both reports called for a comprehensive , government @-@ supported nuclear energy program , with military , scientific , and industrial aspects .
In July 1944 , Vannevar Bush , James B. Conant and Irvin Stewart produced a proposal for domestic legislation to control nuclear energy . Conant submitted this to the Secretary of War Henry L. Stimson in September 1944 , and then to the Interim Committee , a body created by President Harry S. Truman in May 1945 to supervise , regulate and control nuclear energy until such a time as Congress created a permanent body to do so . In June 1945 , the Interim Committee asked George L. Harrison , an assistant to Stimson and a member of the committee , to prepare legislation .
= = Creation of the Act = =
= = = May – Johnson Bill = = =
Harrison brought in two experienced Harvard Law School @-@ educated War Department lawyers , Brigadier General Kenneth Royall and William L. Marbury to take up the job of drafting the legislation . The legislation was based on Bush and Conant 's proposal , and the organization that it proposed was based on the existing structure of the Manhattan Project . Their draft bill would have created a nine @-@ man commission consisting of five civilian and four military members . It granted the commission broad powers to acquire property , operate facilities , conduct research , regulate all forms of nuclear energy and administer its own security , administrative and audit regimes .
Royall and Marbury envisaged nuclear energy being controlled by experts , with a minimum of political interference . The commissioners would be appointed for indefinite terms , and the President 's power to remove them would be limited . They would be supported by four advisory boards , for military applications , industrial uses , research and medicine , the membership of which would be restricted to those with technical qualifications . Day @-@ to @-@ day running of the organization would be in the hands of an administrator and his deputy . The Royall – Marbury Bill was reviewed by the Interim Committee at its July 19 meeting and revised in line with their suggestions . After the atomic bombings of Hiroshima and Nagasaki lifted the veil of secrecy surrounding the Manhattan Project , Royall and Marbury were able to consult with the Attorney General , the Judge Advocate General and the Office of Scientific Research and Development . The draft was sent to the President in August for circulation among , and comment from , affected government agencies . Only the State Department had objections , on the basis that it was still involved in trying to hammer out an international agreement on nuclear energy .
On October 3 , 1945 , the bill was introduced in the House of Representatives by Congressman Andrew J. May from Kentucky , the chairman of the House Military Affairs Committee , and in the Senate by Senator Edwin C. Johnson from Colorado , the ranking member of the Senate Military Affairs Committee . The bill was known as the May @-@ Johnson Bill for its sponsors . May immediately had the bill referred to the Military Affairs Committee , which held hearings on October 9 . Bush , Conant and Groves all testified before the committee . But in the Senate Military Affairs Committee , the bill was held up by Senator Arthur H. Vandenberg .
There was a storm of criticism from scientists , particularly those at the Metallurgical Laboratory in Chicago . Leó Szilárd and Harold Urey were particularly notable critics . The bill created a powerful administrator and deputy administrator , and specifically stated that they might be members of the armed forces . It was feared that they would dominate the part @-@ time commissioners . The fact that the bill emphasized that the administrator had to keep the deputy fully informed further aroused suspicion that the administrator would be an Army officer and the deputy a Navy officer . The secrecy provisions also frightened many scientists ; it contained severe penalties of up to ten years imprisonment and $ 10 @,@ 000 in fines for security breaches . The Chicago Sun headline accused the War Department of attempting to railroad the legislation through Congress .
Legislators found themselves in an unusual and uncomfortable situation . Nuclear weapons were terrifying , and the nature of nuclear energy was not widely understood . Because it was so new , there were no policies or precedents to guide legislators , and traditional party alignments were absent . The scientists who had developed the new technology had never been vocal before , but suddenly were now . The victorious conclusion of World War II gave the armed forces enormous prestige , but there still remained the long @-@ standing American distrust of standing armies , and the tradition of civilian control of the military .
= = = McMahon Bill = = =
On December 20 , 1945 , Senator Brien McMahon introduced an alternative bill on atomic energy , drafted by the Senate Military affairs Committee , which quickly became known as the McMahon Bill . This was initially a very liberal bill regarding the control of scientific research , and was broadly supported by scientists . McMahon framed the controversy as a question of military versus civilian control of atomic energy , although the May @-@ Johnson Bill also provided for civilian control . The McMahon Bill attempted to address the controversial aspects of the May @-@ Johnson Bill . The number of commissioners was reduced to five , and they would serve full @-@ time . No exemption was provided for serving military officers . An amendment specified that they have staggered terms of five years .
While the bill was being debated , the news broke on February 16 , 1946 , of the defection of Igor Gouzenko in Canada , and the subsequent arrest of 22 people . The members of Congress debating the bill feared that " atomic secrets " were being systematically stolen by Soviet atomic spies . McMahon convened an executive session at which Federal Bureau of Investigation Director J. Edgar Hoover , Secretary of State James F. Byrnes and Groves were called to appear . Groves revealed that the British physicist Alan Nunn May had passed information about the Manhattan Project to Soviet agents .
The more conservative elements in Congress now moved to toughen the act . Section 10 , which was formerly titled " Dissemination of Information " , now became " Control of Information " . This new section contained the novel doctrine later described as " born secret " or " classified at birth " . All information concerning the design , development and manufacture of nuclear weapons was " restricted data " , and regardless of how it was derived or obtained , was considered classified unless it was specifically declassified . This restriction on free speech , covering an entire subject matter , is still enforced . The " wall of secrecy " set up by the Act meant that atomic energy research and development had to be conducted under the supervision of the Atomic Energy Commission .
Representative Helen Gahagan Douglas , who sponsored the McMahon Bill in the House , vigorously defended the dissemination provisions of Section 10 against counterarguments . She dismissed objections that it would " give away the secret of the bomb " , asserting that America 's advantage in nuclear weapons could only be temporary , whereas the bill could perpetuate its lead in scientific research . An important addition , known as the Vandenberg Amendment , created a Military Liaison Committee to advise the commission on defense matters . Section 2 of the Act also created a General Advisory Committee , and a new Joint Committee on Atomic Energy to oversee the new organization .
The Senate passed the Act unanimously through voice vote on June 1 , 1946 . Considerable political maneuvering was required before it was passed by the House 265 – 79 on July 20 . A compromise bill was then agreed to by both houses on July 26 . Truman signed the compromise bill into law as the Atomic Energy Act of 1946 on August 1 , 1946 . When it went into effect at midnight on January 1 , 1947 , the newly created Atomic Energy Commission assumed responsibility for nuclear energy from the wartime Manhattan Project .
= = Amendment = =
= = = Private production of nuclear energy = = =
An important omission from the Atomic Energy of 1946 was any mention of non @-@ governmental use of nuclear energy , since military applications overshadowed all others at the time . The restrictions of the act related to secrecy , the control of fissile materials , the ownership of patents and the operation of production facilities placed a number of legal roadblocks in the way of private nuclear power stations .
This was at odds with the Eisenhower administration 's Atoms for Peace program , and resulted in pressure on federal officials to develop a civilian nuclear power industry that could help justify the government 's considerable expenditures on the nuclear weapons program . In 1953 the Atomic Energy Commission presented a set of draft amendments to the Joint Committee on Atomic Energy for consideration . After some debate , this resulted in the Atomic Energy Act of 1954 .
The Atomic Energy Act of 1954 proved insufficient in its objective of encouraging privately built and run nuclear reactors . A series of accidents with research reactors , including partial core meltdowns , made private companies cautious , and reluctant to become involved with nuclear energy without protection from liability . This led to the Price – Anderson Nuclear Industries Indemnity Act of 1957 , which capped private liability for nuclear accidents , while providing for adequate compensations for accident victims .
= = = International relations = = =
Implementing the McMahon Act created a substantial rift between United States and Britain . The new control of " restricted data " prevented the United States ' allies from receiving any information , despite the fact that the British and Canadian governments , before contributing technology and manpower to the Manhattan Project , had made agreements with the United States about the post @-@ war sharing of nuclear technology . Those agreements had been formalized in the 1943 Quebec Agreement . In the case of the United Kingdom , these were developed further in the 1944 Hyde Park Agreement , which was signed by Winston Churchill and Franklin Roosevelt .
The Hyde Park Agreement was lost in Roosevelt 's papers after his death , and until the American copy of the document was found American officials were puzzled when the British mentioned it . The Quebec Agreement was an executive agreement that only applied to the Roosevelt administration , and the Senate had not seen the document . McMahon told Churchill in 1952 that " If we had seen this Agreement , there would have been no McMahon Act . " The McMahon Act fueled resentment from British scientists and Churchill , and led to Britain developing its own nuclear weapons .
Lewis Strauss , the Chairman of the Atomic Energy Commission , proposed in January 1958 that the President should be able to share nuclear information with allies that were making " substantial and material contributions to the national defense and security " . In addition to its own nuclear weapons , Britain had hosted American Strategic Air Command nuclear bombers since 1948 . Congress modified the Atomic Energy Act of 1954 in June 1958 , and America and Britain again began sharing nuclear research under the 1958 US – UK Mutual Defence Agreement .
The stipulations contained in the Act caused significant controversy during debates over NATO 's military command structure . Both Striking Fleet Atlantic and the United States Sixth Fleet have never been allowed to be placed anywhere but directly under American commanding officers — the Supreme Allied Commander Atlantic and Commander @-@ in @-@ Chief , Allied Forces Southern Europe — because the dominant legal interpretation of the McMahon Act has been that nuclear striking forces cannot be controlled by non @-@ US commanders . This was the reason for the formation of Striking Fleet Atlantic as an independent entity , instead of being operationally subordinated to the UK Admiral serving as Commander @-@ in @-@ Chief , Eastern Atlantic , in October – November 1952 . This was also the reason why the Sixth Fleet , in its NATO guise as Naval Striking and Support Force , South , was placed under American control rather than Allied Forces Mediterranean when the European commands were agreed at the same time .
= = Case law = =
A 2012 court decision concerning a state law attempting to shut down the Vermont Yankee Nuclear Power Plant affirmed that the Act gives the federal government exclusive authority over safety at nuclear power plants . This allowed Vermont Yankee to continue operating until it was voluntarily shut down by the owner for economic reasons .
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= Kilogram =
The kilogram or kilogramme ( SI unit symbol : kg ) , is the base unit of mass in the International System of Units ( SI ) ( the Metric system ) and is defined as being equal to the mass of the International Prototype of the Kilogram ( IPK , also known as " La Grande K " or " Big K " ) .
The gram , 1 / 1000 of a kilogram , was provisionally defined in 1795 as the mass of one cubic centimeter of water at the melting point of ice . The final kilogram , manufactured as a prototype in 1799 and from which the IPK was derived in 1875 , had a mass equal to the mass of 1 dm3 of water at its maximum density , approximately 4 ° C.
The kilogram is the only SI base unit with an SI prefix ( " kilo " , symbol " k " ) as part of its name . It is also the only SI unit that is still directly defined by an artifact rather than a fundamental physical property that can be reproduced in different laboratories . Three other base units ( cd , A , mol ) and 17 derived units ( N , Pa , J , W , C , V , F , Ω , S , Wb , T , H , kat , Gy , Sv , lm , lx ) in the SI system are defined relative to the kilogram , so its stability is important . Only 8 other units do not require the kilogram in their definition : temperature ( K , ° C ) , time and frequency ( s , Hz , Bq ) , length ( m ) , and angle ( rad , sr ) .
The International Prototype Kilogram was commissioned by the General Conference on Weights and Measures ( CGPM ) under the authority of the Metre Convention ( 1875 ) , and in the custody of the International Bureau of Weights and Measures ( BIPM ) who hold it on behalf of the CGPM . After the International Prototype Kilogram had been found to vary in mass over time relative to its reproductions , the International Committee for Weights and Measures ( CIPM ) recommended in 2005 that the kilogram be redefined in terms of a fundamental constant of nature . At its 2011 meeting , the CGPM agreed in principle that the kilogram should be redefined in terms of the Planck constant . The decision was originally deferred until 2014 ; in 2014 it was deferred again until the next meeting . There are currently several different proposals for the redefinition ( some of which have been abandoned ) ; these are described in the Proposed Future Definitions section below .
The International Prototype Kilogram ( IPK ) is rarely used or handled . Copies of the IPK kept by national metrology laboratories around the world were compared with the IPK in 1889 , 1948 , and 1989 to provide traceability of measurements of mass anywhere in the world back to the IPK .
The avoirdupois ( or international ) pound , used in both the imperial and US customary systems , is defined as exactly 0 @.@ 45359237 kg , making one kilogram approximately equal to 2 @.@ 2046 avoirdupois pounds . Other traditional units of weight and mass around the world are also defined in terms of the kilogram , making the IPK the primary standard for virtually all units of mass on Earth .
= = Name and terminology = =
The word kilogramme or kilogram is derived from the French kilogramme , which itself was a learned coinage , prefixing the Greek stem of χίλιοι khilioi " a thousand " to gramma , a Late Latin term for " a small weight " , itself from Greek γράμμα . The word kilogramme was written into French law in 1795 , in the Decree of 18 Germinal , which revised the older system of units introduced by the French National Convention in 1793 , where the gravet had been defined as weight ( poids ) of a cubic centimetre of water , equal to 1 / 1000 of a grave . In the decree of 1795 , the term gramme thus replaced gravet , and kilogramme replaced grave .
The French spelling was adopted in the United Kingdom when the word was used for the first time in English in 1797 , with the spelling kilogram being adopted in the United States . In the United Kingdom both spellings are used , with " kilogram " having become by far the more common . UK law regulating the units to be used when trading by weight or measure does not prevent the use of either spelling .
In the 19th century the French word kilo , a shortening of kilogramme , was imported into the English language where it has been used to mean both kilogram and kilometer . While kilo is acceptable in many generalist texts , for example The Economist , its use is typically considered inappropriate in certain applications including scientific , technical and legal writing , where authors should adhere strictly to SI nomenclature . When the United States Congress gave the metric system legal status in 1866 , it permitted the use of the word kilo as an alternative to the word kilogram , but in 1990 revoked the status of the word kilo .
During the 19th century , the standard system of metric units was the centimetre – gram – second system of units , treating the gram as the fundamental unit of mass and the kilogram simply as a derived unit . In 1901 , however , following the discoveries by James Clerk Maxwell to the effect that electric measurements could not be explained in terms of the three fundamental units of length , mass and time , Giovanni Giorgi proposed a new standard system which would include a fourth fundamental unit to measure quantities in electromagnetism . In 1935 this was adopted by the IEC as the Giorgi system , now also known as MKS system , and in 1946 the CIPM approved a proposal to adopt the ampere as the electromagnetic unit of the " MKSA system " . In 1948 the CGPM commissioned the CIPM " to make recommendations for a single practical system of units of measurement , suitable for adoption by all countries adhering to the Metre Convention " . This led to the launch of SI in 1960 and the subsequent publication of the " SI Brochure " , which stated that " It is not permissible to use abbreviations for unit symbols or unit names ... " . The CGS and MKS systems co @-@ existed during much of the early @-@ to @-@ mid 20th century , but as a result of the decision to adopt the " Giorgi system " as the international system of units in 1960 , the kilogram is now the SI base unit for mass , while the definition of the gram is derived from that of the kilogram .
= = Nature of mass = =
The kilogram is a unit of mass , a property which corresponds to the common perception of how " heavy " an object is . Mass is an inertial property ; that is , it is related to the tendency of an object at rest to remain at rest , or if in motion to remain in motion at a constant velocity , unless acted upon by a force . According to " Newton 's laws of motion " and the equation F = ma , ( second law of motion ) when acted upon by a force F of one newton , an object with mass m of one kilogram will accelerate a at the rate of one meter per second per second ( 1 m / s2 ) — about one @-@ tenth the acceleration due to Earth 's gravity
While the weight of an object is dependent upon the strength of the local gravitational field , the mass of an object is independent of gravity , as mass is a measure of how much matter an object contains . Accordingly , for astronauts in microgravity , no effort is required to hold objects off the cabin floor ; they are " weightless " . However , since objects in microgravity still retain their mass and inertia , an astronaut must exert ten times as much force to accelerate a 10 ‑ kilogram object at the same rate as a 1 ‑ kilogram object .
Because at any given point on Earth the weight of an object is proportional to its mass , the mass of an object in kilograms is usually measured by comparing its weight to the weight of a standard mass , whose mass is known in kilograms , using a device called a weighing scale . The ratio of the force of gravity on the two objects , measured by the scale , is equal to the ratio of their masses .
= = Kilogramme des Archives = =
On April 7 , 1795 , the gram was decreed in France to be " the absolute weight of a volume of pure water equal to the cube of the hundredth part of the metre , and at the temperature of melting ice . " The concept of using a unit volume of water to define a unit measure of mass was proposed by the English philosopher John Wilkins in his 1668 essay as a means of linking mass and length .
Since trade and commerce typically involve items significantly more massive than one gram , and since a mass standard made of water would be inconvenient and unstable , the regulation of commerce necessitated the manufacture of a practical realization of the water @-@ based definition of mass . Accordingly , a provisional mass standard was made as a single @-@ piece , metallic artifact one thousand times as massive as the gram — the kilogram .
At the same time , work was commissioned to precisely determine the mass of a cubic decimeter ( one liter ) of water . Although the decreed definition of the kilogram specified water at 0 ° C — its highly stable temperature point — the French chemist Louis Lefèvre @-@ Gineau and the Italian naturalist Giovanni Fabbroni after several years of research chose to redefine the standard in 1799 to water 's most stable density point : the temperature at which water reaches maximum density , which was measured at the time as 4 ° C. They concluded that one cubic decimeter of water at its maximum density was equal to 99 @.@ 9265 % of the target mass of the provisional kilogram standard made four years earlier . That same year , 1799 , an all @-@ platinum kilogram prototype was fabricated with the objective that it would equal , as close as was scientifically feasible for the day , the mass of one cubic decimeter of water at 4 ° C. The prototype was presented to the Archives of the Republic in June and on December 10 , 1799 , the prototype was formally ratified as the kilogramme des Archives ( Kilogram of the Archives ) and the kilogram was defined as being equal to its mass . This standard stood for the next 90 years .
= = International prototype kilogram = =
Since 1889 the magnitude of the kilogram has been defined as the mass of an object called the international prototype kilogram , often referred to in the professional metrology world as the " IPK " . The IPK is made of a platinum alloy known as " Pt ‑ 10Ir " , which is 90 % platinum and 10 % iridium ( by mass ) and is machined into a right @-@ circular cylinder ( height = diameter ) of 39 @.@ 17 millimeters to minimize its surface area . The addition of 10 % iridium improved upon the all @-@ platinum Kilogram of the Archives by greatly increasing hardness while still retaining platinum 's many virtues : extreme resistance to oxidation , extremely high density ( almost twice as dense as lead and more than 21 times as dense as water ) , satisfactory electrical and thermal conductivities , and low magnetic susceptibility . The IPK and its six sister copies are stored at the International Bureau of Weights and Measures ( known by its French @-@ language initials BIPM ) in an environmentally monitored safe in the lower vault located in the basement of the BIPM 's Pavillon de Breteuil in Sèvres on the outskirts of Paris ( see External images , below , for photographs ) . Three independently controlled keys are required to open the vault . Official copies of the IPK were made available to other nations to serve as their national standards . These are compared to the IPK roughly every 40 years , thereby providing traceability of local measurements back to the IPK .
The Metre Convention was signed on May 20 , 1875 and further formalized the metric system ( a predecessor to the SI ) , quickly leading to the production of the IPK . The IPK is one of three cylinders made in 1879 by Johnson Matthey , which continues to manufacture nearly all of the national prototypes today . In 1883 , the mass of the IPK was found to be indistinguishable from that of the Kilogramme des Archives made eighty @-@ four years prior , and was formally ratified as the kilogram by the 1st CGPM in 1889 .
Modern measurements of Vienna Standard Mean Ocean Water , which is pure distilled water with an isotopic composition representative of the average of the world 's oceans , show it has a density of 0 @.@ 999975 ± 0 @.@ 000001 kg / L at its point of maximum density ( 3 @.@ 984 ° C ) under one standard atmosphere ( 101 325 Pa or 760 torr ) of pressure . Thus , a cubic decimeter of water at its point of maximum density is only 25 parts per million less massive than the IPK ; that is to say , the 25 milligram difference shows that the scientists over 217 years ago managed to make the mass of the Kilogram of the Archives equal that of a cubic decimeter of water at 4 ° C , with a margin of error at most within the mass of a single excess grain of rice .
= = = Copies of the international prototype kilogram = = =
The various copies of the international prototype kilogram are given the following designations in the literature :
The IPK itself . Located in Sèvres , France .
Six sister copies , numbered : K1 , 7 , 8 ( 41 ) , 32 , 43 and 47 . Located in Sèvres , France .
Three unofficial copies , numbered : 25 , 88 and 91 ( numbers 9 and 31 were used before 2004 but were replaced by 88 and 91 ) . Located in Sèvres , France .
National prototypes , stored in Australia ( 44 and 87 ) , Austria ( 49 ) , Belgium ( 28 and 37 ) , Brazil ( 66 ) , Canada ( 50 and 74 ) , China ( 60 and 64 ; 75 in Hong Kong ) , Czech Republic ( 67 ) , Denmark ( 48 ) , Egypt ( 58 ) , Finland ( 23 ) , France ( 35 ) , Germany ( 52 , 55 and 70 ) , Hungary ( 16 ) , India ( 57 ) , Indonesia ( 46 ) , Israel ( 71 ) , Italy ( 5 and 76 ) , Japan ( 6 and 94 ) , Kazakhstan , Kenya ( 95 ) , Mexico ( 21 , 90 and 96 ) , Netherlands ( 53 ) , North Korea ( 68 ) , Norway ( 36 ) , Pakistan ( 93 ) , Poland ( 51 ) , Portugal ( 69 ) , Romania ( 2 ) , Russia ( 12 and 26 ) , Serbia ( 11 and 29 ) , Singapore ( 83 ) , Slovakia ( 41 and 65 ) , South Africa ( 56 ) , South Korea ( 39 , 72 and 84 ) , Spain ( 24 and 3 ) , Sweden ( 86 ) , Switzerland ( 38 and 89 ) , Taiwan ( 78 ) , Thailand ( 80 ) , Turkey ( 54 ) , United Kingdom ( 18 , 81 and 82 ) and the United States ( 20 , 4 , 79 , 85 and 92 ) .
Some additional copies held by non @-@ national organizations , such as the French Academy of Sciences in Paris ( 34 ) and the Istituto di Metrologia G. Colonnetti in Turin ( 62 ) .
= = = Stability of the international prototype kilogram = = =
By definition , the error in the measured value of the IPK 's mass is exactly zero ; the IPK is the kilogram . However , any changes in the IPK 's mass over time can be deduced by comparing its mass to that of its official copies stored throughout the world , a rarely undertaken process called " periodic verification " . The only three verifications occurred in 1889 , 1948 , and 1989 . For instance , the US owns four 90 % platinum / 10 % iridium ( Pt ‑ 10Ir ) kilogram standards , two of which , K4 and K20 , are from the original batch of 40 replicas delivered in 1884 . The K20 prototype was designated as the primary national standard of mass for the US . Both of these , as well as those from other nations , are periodically returned to the BIPM for verification .
Note that none of the replicas has a mass precisely equal to that of the IPK ; their masses are calibrated and documented as offset values . For instance , K20 , the US 's primary standard , originally had an official mass of 1 kg − 39 micrograms ( μg ) in 1889 ; that is to say , K20 was 39 µg less than the IPK . A verification performed in 1948 showed a mass of 1 kg − 19 µg . The latest verification performed in 1989 shows a mass precisely identical to its original 1889 value . Quite unlike transient variations such as this , the US 's check standard , K4 , has persistently declined in mass relative to the IPK — and for an identifiable reason . Check standards are used much more often than primary standards and are prone to scratches and other wear . K4 was originally delivered with an official mass of 1 kg − 75 µg in 1889 , but as of 1989 was officially calibrated at 1 kg − 106 µg and ten years later was 1 kg − 116 µg . Over a period of 110 years , K4 lost 41 µg relative to the IPK .
Beyond the simple wear that check standards can experience , the mass of even the carefully stored national prototypes can drift relative to the IPK for a variety of reasons , some known and some unknown . Since the IPK and its replicas are stored in air ( albeit under two or more nested bell jars ) , they gain mass through adsorption of atmospheric contamination onto their surfaces . Accordingly , they are cleaned in a process the BIPM developed between 1939 and 1946 known as " the BIPM cleaning method " that comprises firmly rubbing with a chamois soaked in equal parts ether and ethanol , followed by steam cleaning with bi @-@ distilled water , and allowing the prototypes to settle for 7 – 10 days before verification . Cleaning the prototypes removes between 5 and 60 µg of contamination depending largely on the time elapsed since the last cleaning . Further , a second cleaning can remove up to 10 µg more . After cleaning — even when they are stored under their bell jars — the IPK and its replicas immediately begin gaining mass again . The BIPM even developed a model of this gain and concluded that it averaged 1 @.@ 11 µg per month for the first 3 months after cleaning and then decreased to an average of about 1 µg per year thereafter . Since check standards like K4 are not cleaned for routine calibrations of other mass standards — a precaution to minimize the potential for wear and handling damage — the BIPM 's model of time @-@ dependent mass gain has been used as an " after cleaning " correction factor .
Because the first forty official copies are made of the same alloy as the IPK and are stored under similar conditions , periodic verifications using a large number of replicas — especially the national primary standards , which are rarely used — can convincingly demonstrate the stability of the IPK . What has become clear after the third periodic verification performed between 1988 and 1992 is that masses of the entire worldwide ensemble of prototypes have been slowly but inexorably diverging from each other . It is also clear that the mass of the IPK lost perhaps 50 µg over the last century , and possibly significantly more , in comparison to its official copies . The reason for this drift has eluded physicists who have dedicated their careers to the SI unit of mass . No plausible mechanism has been proposed to explain either a steady decrease in the mass of the IPK , or an increase in that of its replicas dispersed throughout the world . This relative nature of the changes amongst the world 's kilogram prototypes is often misreported in the popular press , and even some notable scientific magazines , which often state that the IPK simply " lost 50 µg " and omit the very important caveat of " in comparison to its official copies " . Moreover , there are no technical means available to determine whether or not the entire worldwide ensemble of prototypes suffers from even greater long @-@ term trends upwards or downwards because their mass " relative to an invariant of nature is unknown at a level below 1000 µg over a period of 100 or even 50 years " . Given the lack of data identifying which of the world 's kilogram prototypes has been most stable in absolute terms , it is equally valid to state that the first batch of replicas has , as a group , gained an average of about 25 µg over one hundred years in comparison to the IPK .
What is known specifically about the IPK is that it exhibits a short @-@ term instability of about 30 µg over a period of about a month in its after @-@ cleaned mass . The precise reason for this short @-@ term instability is not understood but is thought to entail surface effects : microscopic differences between the prototypes ' polished surfaces , possibly aggravated by hydrogen absorption due to catalysis of the volatile organic compounds that slowly deposit onto the prototypes as well as the hydrocarbon @-@ based solvents used to clean them .
It has been possible to rule out many explanations of the observed divergences in the masses of the world 's prototypes proposed by scientists and the general public . The BIPM 's FAQ explains , for example , that the divergence is dependent on the amount of time elapsed between measurements and not dependent on the number of times the artifacts have been cleaned or possible changes in gravity or environment . Reports published in 2013 by Peter Cumpson of Newcastle University based on the X @-@ ray photoelectron spectroscopy of samples that were stored alongside various prototype kilograms suggested that one source of the divergence between the various prototypes could be traced to mercury that had been absorbed by the prototypes being in the proximity of mercury @-@ based instruments . The IPK has been stored within centimeters of a mercury thermometer since at least as far back as the late 1980s . In this Newcastle University work six platinum weights made in the nineteenth century were all found to have mercury at the surface , the most contaminated of which had the equivalent of 250 µg of mercury when scaled to the surface area of a kilogram prototype .
Scientists are seeing far greater variability in the prototypes than previously believed . The increasing divergence in the masses of the world 's prototypes and the short @-@ term instability in the IPK has prompted research into improved methods to obtain a smooth surface finish using diamond turning on newly manufactured replicas and has intensified the search for a new definition of the kilogram . See Proposed future definitions , below .
= = = Dependency of the SI on the IPK = = =
The stability of the IPK is crucial because the kilogram underpins much of the SI system of measurement as it is currently defined and structured . For instance , the newton is defined as the force necessary to accelerate one kilogram at one meter per second squared . If the mass of the IPK were to change slightly , so too must the newton by a proportional degree . In turn , the pascal , the SI unit of pressure , is defined in terms of the newton . This chain of dependency follows to many other SI units of measure . For instance , the joule , the SI unit of energy , is defined as that expended when a force of one newton acts through one meter . Next to be affected is the SI unit of power , the watt , which is one joule per second . The ampere too is defined relative to the newton , and ultimately , the kilogram .
With the magnitude of the primary units of electricity thus determined by the kilogram , so too follow many others , namely the coulomb , volt , tesla , and weber . Even units used in the measure of light would be affected ; the candela — following the change in the watt — would in turn affect the lumen and lux .
Because the magnitude of many of the units comprising the SI system of measurement is ultimately defined by the mass of a 137 @-@ year @-@ old , golf @-@ ball @-@ sized piece of metal , the quality of the IPK must be diligently protected to preserve the integrity of the SI system . Yet , despite the best stewardship , the average mass of the worldwide ensemble of prototypes and the mass of the IPK have likely diverged another 6 @.@ 4 µg since the third periodic verification 27 years ago . Further , the world 's national metrology laboratories must wait for the fourth periodic verification to confirm whether the historical trends persisted .
Fortunately , definitions of the SI units are quite different from their practical realizations . For instance , the meter is defined as the distance light travels in a vacuum during a time interval of 1 ⁄ 299 @,@ 792 @,@ 458 of a second . However , the meter 's practical realization typically takes the form of a helium – neon laser , and the meter 's length is delineated — not defined — as 1579800 @.@ 298728 wavelengths of light from this laser . Now suppose that the official measurement of the second was found to have drifted by a few parts per billion ( it is actually extremely stable with a reproducibility of a few parts in 1015 ) . There would be no automatic effect on the meter because the second — and thus the meter 's length — is abstracted via the laser comprising the meter 's practical realization . Scientists performing meter calibrations would simply continue to measure out the same number of laser wavelengths until an agreement was reached to do otherwise . The same is true with regard to the real @-@ world dependency on the kilogram : if the mass of the IPK was found to have changed slightly , there would be no automatic effect upon the other units of measure because their practical realizations provide an insulating layer of abstraction . Any discrepancy would eventually have to be reconciled though , because the virtue of the SI system is its precise mathematical and logical harmony amongst its units . If the IPK 's value were definitively proven to have changed , one solution would be to simply redefine the kilogram as being equal to the mass of the IPK plus an offset value , similarly to what is currently done with its replicas ; e.g. , " the kilogram is equal to the mass of the IPK + 42 parts per billion " ( equivalent to 42 µg ) .
The long @-@ term solution to this problem , however , is to liberate the SI system 's dependency on the IPK by developing a practical realization of the kilogram that can be reproduced in different laboratories by following a written specification . The units of measure in such a practical realization would have their magnitudes precisely defined and expressed in terms of fundamental physical constants . While major portions of the SI system would still be based on the kilogram , the kilogram would in turn be based on invariant , universal constants of nature . Much work towards that end is ongoing , though no alternative has yet achieved the uncertainty of 20 parts per billion ( ~ 20 µg ) required to improve upon the IPK . However , as of April 2007 , the US 's National Institute of Standards and Technology ( NIST ) had an implementation of the watt balance that was approaching this goal , with a demonstrated uncertainty of 36 µg . See Watt balance below .
The avoirdupois pound , used in both the imperial and US customary systems , is defined as exactly 0 @.@ 45359237 kg , making one kilogram approximately equal to 2 @.@ 2046 avoirdupois pounds .
= = Proposed future definitions = =
In the following sections , wherever numeric equalities are shown in ' concise form ' — such as 1 @.@ 85487 ( 14 ) × 1013 — the two digits between the parentheses denote the uncertainty at 1σ standard deviation ( 68 % confidence level ) in the two least significant digits of the significand . A final X in a proposed definition denotes digits yet to be agreed on .
As of 2014 the kilogram was the only SI unit still defined by an artifact . In 1960 the meter , having previously also been defined by reference to an artifact ( a single platinum @-@ iridium bar with two marks on it ) was redefined in terms of invariant , fundamental physical constants ( the wavelength of a particular emission of light emitted by krypton , and later the speed of light ) so that the standard can be reproduced in different laboratories by following a written specification . At the 94th Meeting of the International Committee for Weights and Measures ( CIPM ) ( 2005 ) it was recommended that the same be done with the kilogram .
In October 2010 , the CIPM voted to submit a resolution for consideration at the General Conference on Weights and Measures ( CGPM ) , to " take note of an intention " that the kilogram be defined in terms of the Planck constant , h ( which has dimensions of energy times time ) together with other fundamental units . This resolution was accepted by the 24th conference of the CGPM in October 2011 and in addition the date of the 25th conference was moved forward from 2014 to 2015 . Such a definition would theoretically permit any apparatus that was capable of delineating the kilogram in terms of the Planck constant to be used as long as it possessed sufficient precision , accuracy and stability . The watt balance ( discussed below ) may be able to do this .
In the project to replace the last artifact that underpins much of the International System of Units ( SI ) , a variety of other very different technologies and approaches were considered and explored over many years . They too are covered below . Some of these now @-@ abandoned approaches were based on equipment and procedures that would have enabled the reproducible production of new , kilogram @-@ mass prototypes on demand ( albeit with extraordinary effort ) using measurement techniques and material properties that are ultimately based on , or traceable to , fundamental constants . Others were based on devices that measured either the acceleration or weight of hand @-@ tuned kilogram test masses and which expressed their magnitudes in electrical terms via special components that permit traceability to fundamental constants . All approaches depend on converting a weight measurement to a mass , and therefore require the precise measurement of the strength of gravity in laboratories . All approaches would have precisely fixed one or more constants of nature at a defined value .
= = = Watt balance = = =
The watt balance is essentially a single @-@ pan weighing scale that measures the electric power necessary to oppose the weight of a kilogram test mass as it is pulled by Earth 's gravity . It is a variation of an ampere balance in that it employs an extra calibration step that nulls the effect of geometry . The electric potential in the watt balance is delineated by a Josephson voltage standard , which allows voltage to be linked to an invariant constant of nature with extremely high precision and stability . Its circuit resistance is calibrated against a quantum Hall resistance standard .
The watt balance requires exquisitely precise measurement of the local gravitational acceleration g in the laboratory , using a gravimeter . ( See " FG ‑ 5 absolute gravimeter " in External images , below ) . For instance , the NIST compensates for Earth 's gravity gradient of 309 µGal per meter when the elevation of the center of the gravimeter differs from that of the nearby test mass in the watt balance ; a change in the weight of a one @-@ kilogram test mass that equates to about 316 µg / m .
In April 2007 , the NIST 's implementation of the watt balance demonstrated a combined relative standard uncertainty ( CRSU ) of 36 µg and a short @-@ term resolution of 10 − 15 µg . The UK 's National Physical Laboratory 's watt balance demonstrated a CRSU of 70 @.@ 3 µg in 2007 . That watt balance was disassembled and shipped in 2009 to Canada 's Institute for National Measurement Standards ( part of the National Research Council ) , where research and development with the device could continue .
If the CGPM adopts the new proposal and the new definition of the kilogram becomes part of the SI , the value in SI units of the Planck constant ( h ) , which is a measure that relates the energy of photons to their frequency , would be precisely fixed ( the currently accepted value of 6 @.@ 626070040 ( 81 ) × 10 − 34 J s has an uncertainty of ± about 1 in 23 million ) . Once agreed upon internationally , the kilogram would no longer be defined as the mass of the IPK . All the remaining units in the International System of Units ( the SI ) that today have dependencies upon the kilogram and the joule would also fall in place , their magnitudes ultimately defined , in part , in terms of photon oscillations rather than the IPK .
Gravity and the nature of the watt balance , which oscillates test masses up and down against the local gravitational acceleration g , are exploited so that mechanical power is compared against electrical power , which is the square of voltage divided by electrical resistance . However , g varies significantly — by nearly 1 % — depending on where on the Earth 's surface the measurement is made ( see Earth 's gravity ) . There are also slight seasonal variations in g due to changes in underground water tables , and larger semimonthly and diurnal changes due to tidal distortions in the Earth 's shape caused by the Moon . Although g would not be a term in the definition of the kilogram , it would be crucial in the delineation of the kilogram when relating energy to power . Accordingly , g must be measured with at least as much precision and accuracy as are the other terms , so measurements of g must also be traceable to fundamental constants of nature . For the most precise work in mass metrology , g is measured using dropping @-@ mass absolute gravimeters that contain an iodine @-@ stabilized helium – neon laser interferometer . The fringe @-@ signal , frequency @-@ sweep output from the interferometer is measured with a rubidium atomic clock . Since this type of dropping @-@ mass gravimeter derives its accuracy and stability from the constancy of the speed of light as well as the innate properties of helium , neon , and rubidium atoms , the ' gravity ' term in the delineation of an all @-@ electronic kilogram is also measured in terms of invariants of nature — and with very high precision . For instance , in the basement of the NIST 's Gaithersburg facility in 2009 , when measuring the gravity acting upon Pt ‑ 10Ir test masses ( which are denser , smaller , and have a slightly lower center of gravity inside the watt balance than stainless steel masses ) , the measured value was typically within 8 ppb of 9 @.@ 80101644 m / s2 .
The virtue of electronic realizations like the watt balance is that the definition and dissemination of the kilogram would no longer be dependent upon the stability of kilogram prototypes , which must be very carefully handled and stored . It would free physicists from the need to rely on assumptions about the stability of those prototypes . Instead , hand @-@ tuned , close @-@ approximation mass standards would simply be weighed and documented as being equal to one kilogram plus an offset value . With the watt balance , while the kilogram would be delineated in electrical and gravity terms , all of which are traceable to invariants of nature ; it would be defined in a manner that is directly traceable to just three fundamental constants of nature . The Planck constant defines the kilogram in terms of the second and the meter . By fixing the Planck constant , the definition of the kilogram would depend only on the definitions of the second and the meter . The definition of the second depends on a single defined physical constant : the ground state hyperfine splitting frequency of the caesium 133 atom Δν ( 133Cs ) hfs . The meter depends on the second and on an additional defined physical constant : the speed of light c . If the kilogram is redefined in this manner , mass artifacts — physical objects calibrated in a watt balance , including the IPK — would no longer be part of the definition , but would instead become transfer standards .
Scales like the watt balance also permit more flexibility in choosing materials with especially desirable properties for mass standards . For instance , Pt ‑ 10Ir could continue to be used so that the specific gravity of newly produced mass standards would be the same as existing national primary and check standards ( ≈ 21 @.@ 55 g / ml ) . This would reduce the relative uncertainty when making mass comparisons in air . Alternatively , entirely different materials and constructions could be explored with the objective of producing mass standards with greater stability . For instance , osmium @-@ iridium alloys could be investigated if platinum 's propensity to absorb hydrogen ( due to catalysis of VOCs and hydrocarbon @-@ based cleaning solvents ) and atmospheric mercury proved to be sources of instability . Also , vapor @-@ deposited , protective ceramic coatings like nitrides could be investigated for their suitability to isolate these new alloys .
The challenge with watt balances is not only in reducing their uncertainty , but also in making them truly practical realizations of the kilogram . Nearly every aspect of watt balances and their support equipment requires such extraordinarily precise and accurate , state @-@ of @-@ the @-@ art technology that — unlike a device like an atomic clock — few countries would currently choose to fund their operation . For instance , the NIST 's watt balance used four resistance standards in 2007 , each of which was rotated through the watt balance every two to six weeks after being calibrated in a different part of NIST headquarters facility in Gaithersburg , Maryland . It was found that simply moving the resistance standards down the hall to the watt balance after calibration altered their values 10 ppb ( equivalent to 10 µg ) or more . Present @-@ day technology is insufficient to permit stable operation of watt balances between even biannual calibrations . If the kilogram is defined in terms of the Planck constant , it is likely there will only be a few — at most — watt balances initially operating in the world .
Alternative approaches to redefining the kilogram that were fundamentally different from the watt balance were explored to varying degrees with some abandoned , as follows :
= = = Atom @-@ counting approaches = = =
= = = = Carbon @-@ 12 = = = =
Though not offering a practical realization , this definition would precisely define the magnitude of the kilogram in terms of a certain number of carbon ‑ 12 atoms . Carbon ‑ 12 ( 12C ) is an isotope of carbon . The mole is currently defined as " the quantity of entities ( elementary particles like atoms or molecules ) equal to the number of atoms in 12 grams of carbon ‑ 12 " . Thus , the current definition of the mole requires that 1000 ⁄ 12 ( 83 ⅓ ) moles of 12C has a mass of precisely one kilogram . The number of atoms in a mole , a quantity known as the Avogadro constant , is experimentally determined , and the current best estimate of its value is 6 @.@ 022140857 ( 74 ) × 1023 entities per mole . This new definition of the kilogram proposed to fix the Avogadro constant at precisely 6.02214X × 10 ^ 23 with the kilogram being defined as " the mass equal to that of 1000 ⁄ 12 · 6.02214X × 10 ^ 23 atoms of 12C " .
The accuracy of the measured value of the Avogadro constant is currently limited by the uncertainty in the value of the Planck constant — a measure relating the energy of photons to their frequency . That relative standard uncertainty has been 50 parts per billion ( ppb ) since 2006 . By fixing the Avogadro constant , the practical effect of this proposal would be that the uncertainty in the mass of a 12C atom — and the magnitude of the kilogram — could be no better than the current 50 ppb uncertainty in the Planck constant . Under this proposal , the magnitude of the kilogram would be subject to future refinement as improved measurements of the value of the Planck constant become available ; electronic realizations of the kilogram would be recalibrated as required . Conversely , an electronic definition of the kilogram ( see Electronic approaches , below ) , which would precisely fix the Planck constant , would continue to allow 83 ⅓ moles of 12C to have a mass of precisely one kilogram but the number of atoms comprising a mole ( the Avogadro constant ) would continue to be subject to future refinement .
A variation on a 12C @-@ based definition proposes to define the Avogadro constant as being precisely 84 @,@ 446 @,@ 8893 ( ≈ 6 @.@ 02214162 × 1023 ) atoms . An imaginary realization of a 12 @-@ gram mass prototype would be a cube of 12C atoms measuring precisely 84 @,@ 446 @,@ 889 atoms across on a side . With this proposal , the kilogram would be defined as " the mass equal to 84 @,@ 446 @,@ 8893 × 83 ⅓ atoms of 12C . "
= = = = Avogadro project = = = =
Another Avogadro constant @-@ based approach , known as the International Avogadro Coordination 's Avogadro project , would define and delineate the kilogram as a softball @-@ size ( 93 @.@ 6 mm diameter ) sphere of silicon atoms . Silicon was chosen because a commercial infrastructure with mature processes for creating defect @-@ free , ultra @-@ pure monocrystalline silicon already exists to service the semiconductor industry . To make a practical realization of the kilogram , a silicon boule ( a rod @-@ like , single @-@ crystal ingot ) would be produced . Its isotopic composition would be measured with a mass spectrometer to determine its average relative atomic mass . The boule would be cut , ground , and polished into spheres . The size of a select sphere would be measured using optical interferometry to an uncertainty of about 0 @.@ 3 nm on the radius — roughly a single atomic layer . The precise lattice spacing between the atoms in its crystal structure ( ≈ 192 pm ) would be measured using a scanning X @-@ ray interferometer . This permits its atomic spacing to be determined with an uncertainty of only three parts per billion . With the size of the sphere , its average atomic mass , and its atomic spacing known , the required sphere diameter can be calculated with sufficient precision and low uncertainty to enable it to be finish @-@ polished to a target mass of one kilogram .
Experiments are being performed on the Avogadro Project 's silicon spheres to determine whether their masses are most stable when stored in a vacuum , a partial vacuum , or ambient pressure . However , no technical means currently exist to prove a long @-@ term stability any better than that of the IPK 's because the most sensitive and accurate measurements of mass are made with dual @-@ pan balances like the BIPM 's FB ‑ 2 flexure @-@ strip balance ( see External links , below ) . Balances can only compare the mass of a silicon sphere to that of a reference mass . Given the latest understanding of the lack of long @-@ term mass stability with the IPK and its replicas , there is no known , perfectly stable mass artifact to compare against . Single @-@ pan scales , which measure weight relative to an invariant of nature , are not precise to the necessary long @-@ term uncertainty of 10 – 20 parts per billion . Another issue to be overcome is that silicon oxidizes and forms a thin layer ( equivalent to 5 – 20 silicon atoms ) of silicon dioxide ( quartz ) and silicon monoxide . This layer slightly increases the mass of the sphere , an effect which must be accounted for when polishing the sphere to its finished dimension . Oxidation is not an issue with platinum and iridium , both of which are noble metals that are roughly as cathodic as oxygen and therefore don 't oxidize unless coaxed to do so in the laboratory . The presence of the thin oxide layer on a silicon @-@ sphere mass prototype places additional restrictions on the procedures that might be suitable to clean it to avoid changing the layer 's thickness or oxide stoichiometry .
All silicon @-@ based approaches would fix the Avogadro constant but vary in the details of the definition of the kilogram . One approach would use silicon with all three of its natural isotopes present . About 7 @.@ 78 % of silicon comprises the two heavier isotopes : 29Si and 30Si . As described in Carbon ‑ 12 above , this method would define the magnitude of the kilogram in terms of a certain number of 12C atoms by fixing the Avogadro constant ; the silicon sphere would be the practical realization . This approach could accurately delineate the magnitude of the kilogram because the masses of the three silicon nuclides relative to 12C are known with great precision ( relative uncertainties of 1 ppb or better ) . An alternative method for creating a silicon sphere @-@ based kilogram proposes to use isotopic separation techniques to enrich the silicon until it is nearly pure 28Si , which has a relative atomic mass of 27 @.@ 9769265325 ( 19 ) . With this approach , the Avogadro constant would not only be fixed , but so too would the atomic mass of 28Si . As such , the definition of the kilogram would be decoupled from 12C and the kilogram would instead be defined as 1000 ⁄ 27 @.@ 9769265325 · 6 @.@ 02214179 × 1023 atoms of 28Si ( ≈ 35 @.@ 74374043 fixed moles of 28Si atoms ) . Physicists could elect to define the kilogram in terms of 28Si even when kilogram prototypes are made of natural silicon ( all three isotopes present ) . Even with a kilogram definition based on theoretically pure 28Si , a silicon @-@ sphere prototype made of only nearly pure 28Si would necessarily deviate slightly from the defined number of moles of silicon to compensate for various chemical and isotopic impurities as well as the effect of surface oxides .
= = = = Ion accumulation = = = =
Another Avogadro @-@ based approach , ion accumulation , since abandoned , would have defined and delineated the kilogram by precisely creating new metal prototypes on demand . It would have done so by accumulating gold or bismuth ions ( atoms stripped of an electron ) and counted them by measuring the electric current required to neutralize the ions . Gold ( 197Au ) and bismuth ( 209Bi ) were chosen because they can be safely handled and have the two highest atomic masses among the mononuclidic elements that is effectively non @-@ radioactive ( bismuth ) or is perfectly stable ( gold ) . See also Table of nuclides .
With a gold @-@ based definition of the kilogram for instance , the relative atomic mass of gold could have been fixed as precisely 196 @.@ 9665687 , from the current value of 196 @.@ 9665687 ( 6 ) . As with a definition based upon carbon ‑ 12 , the Avogadro constant would also have been fixed . The kilogram would then have been defined as " the mass equal to that of precisely 1000 ⁄ 196 @.@ 9665687 · 6 @.@ 02214179 × 1023 atoms of gold " ( precisely 3 @,@ 057 @,@ 443 @,@ 620 @,@ 887 @,@ 933 @,@ 963 @,@ 384 @,@ 315 atoms of gold or about 5 @.@ 07700371 fixed moles ) .
In 2003 , German experiments with gold at a current of only 10 µA demonstrated a relative uncertainty of 1 @.@ 5 % . Follow @-@ on experiments using bismuth ions and a current of 30 mA were expected to accumulate a mass of 30 g in six days and to have a relative uncertainty of better than 1 ppm . Ultimately , ion ‑ accumulation approaches proved to be unsuitable . Measurements required months and the data proved too erratic for the technique to be considered a viable future replacement to the IPK .
Among the many technical challenges of the ion @-@ deposition apparatus was obtaining a sufficiently high ion current ( mass deposition rate ) while simultaneously decelerating the ions so they could all deposit onto a target electrode embedded in a balance pan . Experiments with gold showed the ions had to be decelerated to very low energies to avoid sputtering effects — a phenomenon whereby ions that had already been counted ricochet off the target electrode or even dislodged atoms that had already been deposited . The deposited mass fraction in the 2003 German experiments only approached very close to 100 % at ion energies of less than around 1 eV ( < 1 km / s for gold ) .
If the kilogram had been defined as a precise quantity of gold or bismuth atoms deposited with an electric current , not only would the Avogadro constant and the atomic mass of gold or bismuth have to have been precisely fixed , but also the value of the elementary charge ( e ) , likely to 1.60217X × 10 ^ − 19 C ( from the currently recommended value of 1 @.@ 6021766208 ( 98 ) × 10 − 19 C ) . Doing so would have effectively defined the ampere as a flow of 1 ⁄ 1.60217X × 10 ^ − 19 electrons per second past a fixed point in an electric circuit . The SI unit of mass would have been fully defined by having precisely fixed the values of the Avogadro constant and elementary charge , and by exploiting the fact that the atomic masses of bismuth and gold atoms are invariant , universal constants of nature .
Beyond the slowness of making a new mass standard and the poor reproducibility , there were other intrinsic shortcomings to the ion ‑ accumulation approach that proved to be formidable obstacles to ion @-@ accumulation @-@ based techniques becoming a practical realization . The apparatus necessarily required that the deposition chamber have an integral balance system to enable the convenient calibration of a reasonable quantity of transfer standards relative to any single internal ion @-@ deposited prototype . Furthermore , the mass prototypes produced by ion deposition techniques would have been nothing like the freestanding platinum @-@ iridium prototypes currently in use ; they would have been deposited onto — and become part of — an electrode imbedded into one pan of a special balance integrated into the device . Moreover , the ion @-@ deposited mass wouldn 't have had a hard , highly polished surface that can be vigorously cleaned like those of current prototypes . Gold , while dense and a noble metal ( resistant to oxidation and the formation of other compounds ) , is extremely soft so an internal gold prototype would have to be kept well isolated and scrupulously clean to avoid contamination and the potential of wear from having to remove the contamination . Bismuth , which is an inexpensive metal used in low @-@ temperature solders , slowly oxidizes when exposed to room @-@ temperature air and forms other chemical compounds and so would not have produced stable reference masses unless it was continually maintained in a vacuum or inert atmosphere .
= = = Ampere @-@ based force = = =
This approach would define the kilogram as " the mass which would be accelerated at precisely 2 × 10 − 7 m / s2 when subjected to the per @-@ meter force between two straight parallel conductors of infinite length , of negligible circular cross section , placed one meter apart in vacuum , through which flow a constant current of 1 ⁄ 1.60217X × 10 ^ − 19 elementary charges per second " .
Effectively , this would define the kilogram as a derivative of the ampere rather than present relationship , which defines the ampere as a derivative of the kilogram . This redefinition of the kilogram would specify elementary charge ( e ) as precisely 1.60217X × 10 ^ − 19 coulomb rather than the current recommended value of 1 @.@ 6021766208 ( 98 ) × 10 − 19 C. It would necessarily follow that the ampere ( one coulomb per second ) would also become an electric current of this precise quantity of elementary charges per second passing a given point in an electric circuit . The virtue of a practical realization based upon this definition is that unlike the watt balance and other scale @-@ based methods , all of which require the careful characterization of gravity in the laboratory , this method delineates the magnitude of the kilogram directly in the very terms that define the nature of mass : acceleration due to an applied force . Unfortunately , it is extremely difficult to develop a practical realization based upon accelerating masses . Experiments over a period of years in Japan with a superconducting , 30 g mass supported by diamagnetic levitation never achieved an uncertainty better than ten parts per million . Magnetic hysteresis was one of the limiting issues . Other groups performed similar research that used different techniques to levitate the mass .
= = SI multiples = =
Because SI prefixes may not be concatenated ( serially linked ) within the name or symbol for a unit of measure , SI prefixes are used with the gram , not the kilogram , which already has a prefix as part of its name . For instance , one @-@ millionth of a kilogram is 1 mg ( one milligram ) , not 1 µkg ( one microkilogram ) .
The microgram is typically abbreviated " mcg " in pharmaceutical and nutritional supplement labelling , to avoid confusion , since the " µ " prefix is not always well recognized outside of technical disciplines . ( The expression " mcg " is also the symbol for an obsolete CGS unit of measure known as the " millicentigram " , which is equal to 10 µg . )
In the UK , because serious medication errors have been made from the confusion between milligrams and micrograms when micrograms has been abbreviated , the recommendation given in the Scottish Palliative Care Guidelines is that doses of less than one milligram must be expressed in micrograms and that the word microgram must be written in full , and that it is never acceptable to use " mcg " or " μg " . [ 2 ]
The decagram ( dag in SI ) is in much of Europe often abbreviated " dkg " ( from the local spelling " dekagram " ) and is used for typical retail quantities of food ( such as cheese and meat ) .
The unit name " megagram " is rarely used , and even then typically only in technical fields in contexts where especially rigorous consistency with the SI standard is desired . For most purposes , the name " tonne " is instead used . The tonne and its symbol , " t " , were adopted by the CIPM in 1879 . It is a non @-@ SI unit accepted by the BIPM for use with the SI . According to the BIPM , " In English speaking countries this unit is usually called ' metric ton ' . " The unit name " megatonne " or " megaton " ( Mt ) is often used in general @-@ interest literature on greenhouse gas emissions , whereas the equivalent unit in scientific papers on the subject is often the " teragram " ( Tg ) .
= = Glossary = =
Abstracted : Isolated and its effect changed in form , often simplified or made more accessible in the process .
Artifact : A simple human @-@ made object used directly as a comparative standard in the measurement of a physical quantity .
Check standard :
A standard body 's backup replica of the international prototype kilogram ( IPK ) .
A secondary kilogram mass standard used as a stand @-@ in for the primary standard during routine calibrations .
Definition : A formal , specific , and exact specification .
Delineation : The physical means used to mark a boundary or express the magnitude of an entity .
Disseminate : To widely distribute the magnitude of a unit of measure , typically via replicas and transfer standards .
IPK : Abbreviation of " international prototype kilogram " , the unique physical object , kept in France , which is internationally recognized as having the defining mass of precisely one kilogram .
Magnitude : The extent or numeric value of a property
National prototype : A replica of the IPK possessed by a nation .
Practical realization : A readily reproducible apparatus to conveniently delineate the magnitude of a unit of measure .
Primary national standard :
A replica of the IPK possessed by a nation
The least used replica of the IPK when a nation possesses more than one .
Prototype :
A human @-@ made object that serves as the defining comparative standard in the measurement of a physical quantity .
A human @-@ made object that serves as the comparative standard in the measurement of a physical quantity .
The IPK and any of its replicas
Replica : An official copy of the IPK .
Sister copy : One of six official copies of the IPK that are stored in the same safe as the IPK and are used as check standards by the BIPM .
Transfer standard : An artifact or apparatus that reproduces the magnitude of a unit of measure in a different , usually more practical , form .
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= Pentachaeta bellidiflora =
Pentachaeta bellidiflora ( white @-@ rayed pentachaeta or Whiteray pygmydaisy ) is a Californian wildflower in the genus Pentachaeta of the ( Asteraceae ) family . It is included in both the state and federal lists of endangered species .
It is endemic to the San Francisco Bay Area of California , United States , and occurs only at altitudes less than 620 metres ( 2 @,@ 034 ft ) . P. bellidiflora is found chiefly on rocky , grassy areas . The conservation status of this species was , as of 1999 , characterized by a declining population , with a severely diminished and fragmented range . The specific bellidiflora refers to the similarity of the flowers with those of common daisies ( Bellis ) .
= = Description = =
Pentachaeta bellidiflora is a small annual wildflower growing from a slender taproot , which , although it appears smooth , is actually covered by fine hairs . The sparsely hairy stems may number between 6 – 17 cm ( 2 – 7 in ) in length and are typically simple , or branching in the lower half of plant . They are erect , generally flexible , and of green to reddish color . White @-@ rayed Pentachaeta leaves are normally narrowly linear , ciliate ( fringed with hair ) and green , measuring less than 4 @.@ 5 cm ( 1 @.@ 8 in ) long and one millimeter wide . Upper and lower leaf surfaces are smooth .
The terminal inflorescences number four or five solitary , roughly circular heads per plant . Peduncles are wispy , with bell @-@ shaped involucres measuring 3 to 7 millimeters , and they range from glabrous to short @-@ haired . Like all of its genus , P. bellidiflora has green phyllaries in two to three generally equal series , lanceolate to obovate , with margins widely scarious ( dry and membranous ) , and a naked receptacle . The yellow corollas are five @-@ lobed , and each of the 16 to 38 disk shaped florets ( per head ) has linear , acute style tips . They may be slightly red @-@ tinged underneath . Fruits are 1 @.@ 5 to 3 @.@ 0 millimeters in diameter and are generally compressed in an oblong to fusiform shape ; they are typically covered with small hairs . The plant presents fragile pappuses with five or fewer slender bristles , slightly expanded at the base . Flowering season ranges from late March until late June . From a chromosomal standpoint , the species is diploid , ( contains one set of chromosomes from each parent ) , and has 2n = 18 .
= = Distribution and habitat = =
White @-@ rayed pentachaeta is found in serpentine grassland as well as valley and foothill grassland . It is currently known only to survive in serpentine bunchgrass communities and native prairies in two small areas of San Mateo County , including populations in Edgewood County Park and on San Francisco Water District lands at serpentine outcrops on the eastern slopes of Crystal Springs Reservoir , in the vicinity of State Route 92 . It was formerly known to occur from Marin to Santa Cruz counties . One study declares only one population remains . Prior range is defined by the following USGS maps : Soquel ( 387B ) * 3612188 , Santa Cruz ( 387E ) 3612281 , Castle Rock Ridge ( 408A ) * 3712221 , Big Basin ( 408B ) * 3712222 , Davenport ( 408C ) * 3712212 , Felton ( 408D ) * 3712211 , Woodside ( 429A ) 3712243 , San Francisco South ( 448B ) * 3712264 , Montara Mountain ( 448C ) * 3712254 , San Mateo ( 448D ) * 3712253 , San Quentin ( 466B ) * 3712284 , San Rafael ( 467A ) * 3712285 , Point Bonita ( 467D ) * .
= = Conservation = =
As of the declaration of Federal endangerment status , the finding of the United States Environmental Protection Agency was that the total species population was sufficiently small and fragmented that it was subject to stochastic extinction . Recent habitat destruction by urban development , off road vehicle use and actions of highway maintenance crews have been responsible for the severe reduction in range and viability of this species .
Population sizes vary from year to year depending on local rainfall and competition from invasive plants . In 1997 , P. bellidiflora was the subject of a recovery workshop conducted by the California Department of Fish and Game , where the need for permanently protecting and managing the existing populations , and reintroduction strategies for populations into suitable protected habitat were analyzed . Management and recovery actions for the species have been addressed in the United States Federal Recovery Plan for Serpentine Soil Species of the San Francisco Bay Area , finalized in 1998 .
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= Noronha skink =
The Noronha skink ( Trachylepis atlantica ) is a species of skink from the island of Fernando de Noronha off northeastern Brazil . It is covered with dark and light spots on the upperparts and is usually about 7 to 10 cm ( 3 to 4 in ) in length . The tail is long and muscular , but breaks off easily . Very common throughout Fernando de Noronha , it is an opportunistic feeder , eating both insects and plant material , including nectar from the Erythrina velutina tree , as well as other material ranging from cookie crumbs to eggs of its own species . Introduced predators such as feral cats prey on it and several parasitic worms infect it .
Perhaps seen by Amerigo Vespucci in 1503 , it was first formally described in 1839 . Its subsequent taxonomic history has been complex , riddled with confusion with Trachylepis maculata and other species , homonyms , and other problems . The species is classified in the otherwise mostly African genus Trachylepis and is thought to have reached its island from Africa by rafting . The enigmatic Trachylepis tschudii , supposedly from Peru , may well be the same species .
= = Discovery and taxonomy = =
In an early account of what may be Fernando de Noronha , purportedly based on a voyage by Amerigo Vespucci in 1503 , the island was said to be inhabited by " lizards with two tails " , which is thought be a reference to the Noronha skink . The tail is long and fragile , and it breaks easily , like that of many skinks and other lizards , following which it may regenerate . However , when it does not completely break off , a new tail may nevertheless grow out of the broken part , so that the tail appears forked .
= = = 19th century = = =
The species was first formally described by John Edward Gray in 1839 , based on two specimens collected by HMS Chanticleer before 1838 . He introduced the names Tiliqua punctata , for the Noronha skink , and Tiliqua maculata , for a species from Guyana , among many others . Six years later , he transferred both to the genus Euprepis . In 1887 , George Boulenger placed both in the genus Mabuya ( misspelled " Mabuia " ) and considered them identical , using the name " Mabuia punctata " for the species , which was said to occur both on Fernando de Noronha and in Guyana . He also included Mabouya punctatissima O 'Shaughnessy , 1874 , purportedly from South Africa , as a synonym .
= = = 20th century = = =
In 1900 , L.G. Andersson claimed that Gray 's name punctata was preoccupied by Lacerta punctata Linnaeus , 1758 , which he identified as Mabuya homalocephala . He therefore replaced the name punctata with its junior synonym maculata , using the name Mabuya maculata for the skink of Fernando de Noronha . Linnaeus 's Lacerta punctata in fact refers to the Asian species Lygosoma punctatum , not to Mabuya homalocephala , but Gray 's name punctata remains invalid regardless . In 1931 , C.E. and M.D. Burt resurrected the name Mabuya punctata ( now spelled correctly ) for the Noronha skink , noting that it was " apparently a very distinct species " , but did not mention maculata , and in 1935 , E.R. Dunn disputed Boulenger 's conclusion as to the synonymy of punctata and maculata and , in apparent ignorance of Andersson 's work , restored the name Mabuya punctata for the Noronha skink . He wrote that the Noronha skink was very distinct from other American Mabuya and more similar in some respects to African species .
K.P. Schmidt , in 1945 , agreed with Dunn 's conclusion that maculata and punctata of Gray were not the same , but he noted Andersson 's point that punctata was preoccupied and therefore introduced the new name Mabuya atlantica to replace punctata . The next year , H. Travassos , disagreeing with Dunn and unaware of Andersson 's and Schmidt 's contributions , considered both of Gray 's names to be synonymous and restored the name Mabuya punctata for the Noronha skink . He also considered Mabouya punctatissima and Trachylepis ( Xystrolepis ) punctata Tschudi , 1845 , described from Peru , as synonyms of this species . In 1948 , he acknowledged the preoccupation of punctata noted by Andersson and accordingly retired Mabuya punctata in favor of Mabuya maculata , as Andersson had done . The name Mabuya maculata remained in general usage for the Noronha skink in subsequent decades , though some have used Mabuya punctata , " not ... aware of the last nomenclatural changes . "
= = = 21st century = = =
In 2002 , P. Mausfeld and D. Vrcibradic published a note on the nomenclature of the Noronha skink informed by a re @-@ examination of Gray 's original type specimens ; despite extensive attempts to correctly name the species , they were apparently the first to do so since Boulenger in 1887 . Based on differences in the number of scales , subdigital lamellae ( lamellae on the lower sides of the digits ) , and keels ( longitudinal ridges ) on the dorsal scales ( located on the upperparts ) , as well as the separation of the parietal scales ( on the head behind the eyes ) in maculata , they concluded that the two were not , after all , identical , and that Schmidt 's name Mabuya atlantica should therefore be used . Mausfeld and Vrcibradic considered Mabouya punctatissima to represent a different species on the basis of morphological differences , but were unable to resolve the status of Trachylepis ( Xystrolepis ) punctata .
In the same year , Mausfeld and others conducted a molecular phylogenetic study on the Noronha skink , using the mitochondrial 12S and 16S rRNA genes , and showed that the species is more closely related to African than to South American Mabuya species , as previously suggested on the basis of morphological similarities . They split the old genus Mabuya into four genera for geographically discrete clades , including Euprepis for the African – Noronha clade , thus renaming the Noronha species to Euprepis atlanticus . In 2003 , A.M. Bauer found that the name Euprepis had been incorrectly applied to this clade and that Trachylepis was correct instead , so that the Noronha skink is currently referred to as Trachylepis atlantica . Additional molecular phylogenetic studies published in 2003 and 2006 confirmed the relationship between the Noronha skink and African Trachylepis .
In 2009 , Miralles and others reviewed the taxon maculata and concluded that the animal now known as Trachylepis maculata also belongs in the African clade , but they were unable to determine whether or not it is indigenous to Guyana . They also reviewed Trachylepis ( Xystrolepis ) punctata and replaced it with Trachylepis tschudii because the older name was preoccupied by Linnaeus 's and Gray 's punctata . Although they were unable to resolve the identity of T. tschudii , which is still known from a single specimen , they believed that it is most likely the same species as the Noronha skink ; it may be either a representative of an undiscovered Amazonian population of the latter or simply a mislabeled animal from Fernando de Noronha .
= = Description = =
The Noronha skink is covered with light and dark spots above , but there is substantial variation in the precise colors . There are no longitudinal stripes . The scales on the underparts are yellowish or grayish . The eyelids are white to yellow . It has a small head with small nostrils , which are placed far to the front at the sides of the head . The mouth contains small and conical teeth and a thin but well @-@ developed tongue . The eyes are small and placed laterally and contain dark , rounded irises . There are three to five well @-@ developed auricular lobules ( small projections ) in front of the ears ; these lobules are absent in true Mabuya . The hindlimbs are longer and stronger than the forelimbs , which are small . The tail is longer than the body and is muscular but very brittle . It is nearly cylindrical in form and tapers towards the end .
In reptiles , features of the scales are important in distinguishing among species and groups of species . In the Noronha skink , the supranasal scales ( located above the nose ) are in contact , as are the prefrontal scales ( behind the nose ) in most individuals . The two frontoparietal scales ( above and slightly behind the eyes ) are not fused . Unlike in T. maculata , the parietal scales ( behind the frontoparietals ) are in contact with each other . There are four supraocular scales ( above the eyes ) in almost all specimens and five supraciliary scales ( immediately above the eyes , below the supraoculars ) . The dorsal scales ( on the upperparts ) have three keels , two fewer than in T. maculata . There are 34 to 40 ( mode 38 ) midbody scales ( counted around the body midway between the fore- and hindlimbs ) , 58 to 69 ( mode 63 – 64 ) dorsal , and 66 to 78 ( mode 70 ) ventral scales ( on the underparts ) . Mabuya species and T. maculata generally have fewer midbody scales ( up to 34 ) . There are 21 to 29 subdigital lamellae under the fourth toe , more than in T. maculata , which has 18 . The Noronha skink has 26 presacral vertebrae ( located before the sacrum ) , similar to most Trachylepis , but unlike American Mabuya , which have at least 28 .
Although there is substantial variation in measurements within the species , no discrete groups can be detected and it is not possible to separate the sexes unambiguously using measurements alone . Among 15 male and 21 female T. atlantica collected in 2006 , snout to vent length was 80 @.@ 6 to 103 @.@ 1 mm ( 3 @.@ 17 to 4 @.@ 06 in ) , averaging 95 @.@ 3 mm ( 3 @.@ 75 in ) , in males and 65 @.@ 3 to 88 @.@ 1 mm ( 2 @.@ 57 to 3 @.@ 47 in ) , averaging 78 @.@ 3 mm ( 3 @.@ 08 in ) , in females and body mass was 10 @.@ 2 to 26 @.@ 0 g ( 0 @.@ 36 to 0 @.@ 92 oz ) , averaging 19 @.@ 0 g ( 0 @.@ 67 oz ) , in males and 6 @.@ 0 to 15 @.@ 0 g ( 0 @.@ 21 to 0 @.@ 53 oz ) , averaging 10 @.@ 0 g ( 0 @.@ 35 oz ) , in females . Males are significantly larger than females . In 100 specimens collected in 1876 , head length was 12 @.@ 0 to 18 @.@ 9 mm ( 0 @.@ 47 to 0 @.@ 74 in ) , averaging 14 @.@ 8 mm ( 0 @.@ 58 in ) ; head width was 7 to 14 @.@ 4 mm ( 0 @.@ 28 to 0 @.@ 57 in ) , averaging 9 mm ( 0 @.@ 35 in ) , and tail length was 93 to 170 mm ( 3 @.@ 7 to 6 @.@ 7 in ) , averaging 117 mm .
= = Ecology and behavior = =
The Noronha skink is very abundant throughout Fernando de Noronha , even occurring commonly in houses , and also occurs on the smaller islands that surround the main island of the archipelago . Its abundance may be a result of the absence of ecologically similar competitors . Apart from T. atlantica , the reptile fauna of Fernando de Noronha consists of the indigenous amphisbaenian Amphisbaena ridleyi and two introduced lizards , the gecko Hemidactylus mabouia and the tegu Tupinambis merianae .
The species is found in several microhabitats , but most often on rocks . Although predominantly ground @-@ dwelling , it is a good climber . Nothing is known about its reproduction except that skinks studied in late October and early November , during the dry season , showed little evidence of reproductive activity . The Noronha skink is oviparous ( egg @-@ laying ) , like many Trachylepis , but unlike Mabuya , which are all viviparous ( giving live birth ) .
Trachylepis atlantica is active during the day . Its body temperature averages 32 ° C ( 90 ° F ) , a few degrees higher than the environment temperature . During the day , body temperature peaks at up to 38 ° C ( 100 ° F ) around midday and is lower earlier and later . In the early morning , the lizard may bask in the sun . During foraging , it spends about 28 @.@ 4 % of its time moving on average , a relatively high value for Trachylepis .
A geologist who visited the island in 1876 noted that the skink is curious and bold :
While seated upon the bare rocks I have often observed these little animals watching me , apparently with as much curiosity as I watched them , turning their heads from side to side as if in an effort to be wise . If I kept quiet for a few minutes they would creep up to me and finally upon me ; if I moved , they ran down the faces of the rocks , and turning , stuck their heads above the edges to watch me .
= = = Diet = = =
The Noronha skink is an opportunistic omnivore and " thrives on anything edible " . Analysis of stomach contents indicates that it mainly eats plant material , at least during the dry period , but it also feeds on insects , including larvae , termites ( Isoptera ) , ants ( Formicidae ) , and beetles ( Coleoptera ) . Its prey is mostly mobile , rather than sedentary , which is consistent with the relatively high proportion of time it spends moving . Related skink species eat mostly insects , but island populations may often be more herbivorous . Animal prey averages 6 @.@ 9 mm3 in volume , less than in most other Trachylepis .
When the mulungu tree Erythrina velutina blooms during the dry season , Noronha skinks climb up to 12 m ( 39 ft ) to reach the inflorescences of the tree and to eat the nectar by inserting their heads into the flowers . They probably use the nectar both for its sugar and water content . In this way , the skinks aid in pollinating the tree , as they acquire pollen on their scales and leave pollen on stigmas when visiting a flower . Pollination is rare behavior among lizards , but occurs most frequently in island species . Humans have introduced additional food sources to the island , including Acacia seeds , feces of the rock cavy ( Kerodon rupestris ) , carrion flies , juvenile Hemidactylus mabouya , and even cookie crumbs given by tourists . The availability of these additional food sources may increase the abundance of the skink . In 1887 , H. N. Ridley observed Noronha skinks eating banana skins and yolk from doves ' eggs . Several cases of cannibalism have been reported , involving skinks eating eggs , juveniles , and the tail of an adult .
= = = Relationships with other species = = =
The Noronha skink probably lacked predators before Fernando de Noronha was discovered by humans , but several species that arrived since do prey on it , most commonly the cat ( Felis catus ) and cattle egret ( Bubulcus ibis ) . These may negatively affect skink abundance at some localities on the island . The Argentine black and white tegu lizard , Tupinambis merianae , and three introduced rodents , the house mouse ( Mus musculus ) , brown rat ( Rattus norvegicus ) and black rat ( Rattus rattus ) , have also been observed to eat Noronha skinks , but the rodents , particularly the house mouse , may have been scavenging on already dead skinks .
According to a 2006 study , the Noronha skink is infected by several parasitic worms , most frequently by the nematode Spinicauda spinicauda . Another nematode , Moaciria alvarengai , is much rarer . Other rare parasites include two trematodes — Mesocoelium monas and an undetermined species of Platynossomum — and an undetermined species of Oochoristica , a cestode . S. spinicauda is usually only found in teiid lizards ; it may have entered the archipelago when Tupinambis merianae , a teiid , was introduced to the island in 1960 . Among nematodes , previous studies in 1956 and 1957 had only reported M. alvarengai and Thelandros alvarengai from the skink ; the presence of S. spinicauda could explain the rarity of M. alvarengai and absence of T. alvarengai in Noronha skinks observed in 2006 .
= = Origin = =
Phylogenetic analyses using a variety of mitochondrial and nuclear genes places the Noronha skink among the tropical African species of Trachylepis , a position also supported by morphological similarities . It may have arrived on its island on rafting vegetation from southwestern Africa via the Benguela Current and the South Equatorial Current , which passes Fernando de Noronha . This possibility was first suggested by Alfred Russel Wallace before 1888 . Mausfeld and coworkers calculated that the journey from Africa to Fernando de Noronha would take 139 days . Because this period seemed too long for the skink to survive , they proposed that the Noronha skink instead arrived via Ascension Island , where a skink may have persisted into historical times .
The South American and Caribbean Mabuya skinks form a clade that appears to be derived from a separate colonization from Africa . Both transatlantic colonization events are believed to have occurred within the last 9 million years .
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= Mega Man Battle Network ( video game ) =
Mega Man Battle Network , known as Battle Network Rockman EXE ( バトルネットワーク ロックマンエグゼ , Batoru Nettowāku Rokkuman Eguze ) in Japan , is a video game developed by Capcom for the Game Boy Advance ( GBA ) handheld console . It is the first title of the Mega Man Battle Network series of games . It was originally released in Japan as a GBA launch game on March 21 , 2001 and was released later that year in North America and Europe . It was also released via the Wii U Virtual Console in Japan on July 9 , 2014 , in Europe on July 24 , 2014 , and in North America on July 31 , 2014 .
Battle Network takes place during the 21st century in a world where society and everyday life is driven by the internet . Users are able to interact with and virtually explore nearly any electronic device using highly advanced , online avatars called " NetNavis " . The game follows a young boy named Lan Hikari and his NetNavi MegaMan.EXE as they solve a series of crimes instigated by the " WWW ( World Three ) " organization . Rather than share the platform gameplay of its predecessors , Battle Network is a tactical role @-@ playing game ( RPG ) in which the player respectively controls Lan in the game 's outside world and MegaMan.EXE in its virtual world . Battles take place in real @-@ time ; special abilities called " Battle Chips " can be accessed to fight off the numerous computer viruses present in the game 's cyberspace environments .
Battle Network was created amidst the success of Nintendo 's portable RPG franchise Pokémon . According to producer Keiji Inafune , the development team wanted Battle Network to identify specifically with younger gamers by creating a setting resembling the real world and a gameplay model that mixes traditional action and RPG elements . Battle Network received positive reviews from critics . Its unconventional combat system was given significant praise and its presentation was well @-@ regarded . However , its storyline was met with mixed opinions . The game was followed by a number of sequels and spin @-@ off titles , as well as other media .
= = Plot = =
Mega Man Battle Network is set in an ambiguous year in the 21st century ( " 20XX AD " ) in an alternate reality to the original Mega Man series . Within the world of Battle Network , the Net has become humanity 's primary means of communication , commerce , and even crime . Users are able to " jack in " to the Net and other computerized devices , and explore their various aspects using program avatars called " NetNavis ( Network Navigators ) " as if they were physical locations . The Net and the inner workings of computers are displayed as a virtual world with which computer programs of all varieties , as personified in a humanoid form , can interact . Users often do so by accessing their NetNavis via a " PET ( PErsonal information Terminal ) " device . The plot of Mega Man Battle Network follows one such pair , Lan Hikari and his NetNavi MegaMan.EXE. Lan is a fifth grader in the town of ACDC . His father , Dr. Yuichiro Hikari , is one of the world 's top scientists and NetNavi researchers . Not long into the story , Lan and MegaMan.EXE take it upon themselves to solve various criminal cases around ACDC involving other Navis and their operators . Some of the confrontations with the various criminals involve desperate , life @-@ threatening situations including a bus rigged to explode , oxygen being cut off at a large party , the entire city 's clean water freezing , and school students being re @-@ educated as mindless slaves . The duo continuously crosses paths with Eugene Chaud , an official " NetBattler " commissioned by the government to investigate crimes on the Net . Chaud and his NetNavi ProtoMan.EXE act as rivals to Lan and MegaMan.EXE.
The protagonists eventually learn that the criminals are all connected to an organization called the " WWW ( World Three ) " . The WWW intentionally infects computer networks with computer viruses so as to hinder their normal operations and hack vital information . The group is led by Dr. Wily , a former colleague of Lan 's grandfather . While working together , Wily had specialized in robotics while Lan 's grandfather specialized in networks , which eventually led to NetNavis . The government cut Wily 's funding , opting instead to pursue Hikari 's NetNavi project . Wily 's goal throughout the game is to collect four super programs with which the " LifeVirus " may be constructed . The LifeVirus is a nearly indestructible virus capable of wiping out the Net and all associated devices . The protagonists infiltrate the WWW , but MegaMan.EXE becomes disabled . Chaud arrives and gives Lan a batch file from Dr. Hikari to restore his Navi . After receiving the file " Hub.bat " , Lan questions his father about the name . It is revealed the MegaMan.EXE is actually a unique Navi made by Lan 's father . When Lan 's twin brother , Hub , died at a young age , Dr. Hikari transferred Hub 's consciousness into the NetNavi MegaMan.EXE. This created a special physical and virtual bond between the two brothers . In the end , Lan and MegaMan.EXE manage to defeat Wily , destroy the LifeVirus , and restore peace to ACDC .
= = Gameplay = =
Unlike the previous action @-@ platformer entries of the Mega Man franchise , Mega Man Battle Network is a real @-@ time tactical RPG . To progress through the game the player must alternately navigate the outside world as Lan Hikari and the Net as MegaMan.EXE , each containing certain tasks that must be completed to allow advancement in the other . Controlling Lan , the player may travel around the world map , interact with non @-@ player characters , check email , purchase items , initiate Net missions , or speak with MegaMan.EXE through his PET . In contrast with traditional Mega Man entries in which battle and movement through the levels happen in the same setting , Battle Network 's combat occurs only through by battling computer viruses within the Net . This cyber world is represented by a series of branching pathways and nodes , where MegaMan.EXE can travel to both new and previously visited locations , find and purchase items , and fight viruses . Battles do not generally appear on the field screen of the Net but are usually set as random encounters . The battlefield itself is made up of 18 tiles divided into two groups of nine , one group being space in which MegaMan.EXE may freely move and the other group being space inhabited by enemies . Akin to other Mega Man games , MegaMan.EXE possesses an arm cannon called the " Mega Buster " . The player can transition among the nine provided tiles and fire the Mega Buster at enemies from across the screen . The objective of each battle is to delete all the viruses by reducing their hit points ( HP ) to zero . If MegaMan.EXE 's own health depletes , a game over occurs . Certain power @-@ up programs can be found that upgrade MegaMan.EXE 's HP , defense , or Mega Buster power .
The Mega Buster is quite weak on its own , so in order to delete viruses more efficiently , the player must access special abilities called " Battle Chips " . These are minor programs that contain data that the Navi can utilize to perform more powerful attacks , summon other Navis for help , or execute supportive actions such as restoring HP or destroying tiles on the enemies ' side of the battlefield . Battle Chips are uploaded to MegaMan.EXE by Lan 's PET in a process called " Customization . " Each turn in battle presents the player with five random chips from which to choose , though the player is limited to chips of the same variety or chips with the same alphabetic code . Once the " Battle Gauge " ( or " Custom Gauge " ) at the top of the screen fills during battle , another random set of chips can be chosen from a general pool called the " folder " . At any given time , the player may only have exactly 30 chips in the folder from which the Customization process may draw . The player is only allowed to carry up to ten of the same kind of chip and up to five Navi @-@ summon chips in the folder . However , a player may possess any number of other chips in inactive reserve , called the " sack " , which may be moved to the active folder outside of battle . Every chip and enemy is aligned to one of five elements : Neutral , Fire , Water , Electric , and Wood . If MegaMan.EXE hits an enemy with an attack aligned to an element they are weak against , the attack will do double damage .
Battle Network features a very limited multiplayer option . Up to two players may connect with each other using a Game Link Cable and then give or trade Battle Chips . Players may also engage in battles with one another . The " test battle " mode has no stakes whereas the " real battle " mode allows the winning player to take a battle chip from the loser .
= = Development and release = =
Mega Man Battle Network was developed by Capcom Production Studio 2 amidst the success of Nintendo 's portable RPG franchise Pokémon . Rather than extend upon the traditional action @-@ platform formula for the Mega Man series as they had done with the 3D Mega Man Legends , Capcom followed Nintendo 's example on the latter 's then @-@ newest handheld console , the GBA . While creating Battle Network , director Masahiro Yasuma found difficulty in blending action attributes with " the kind of fun you get from a Pokémon game " in order to make it enjoyable , new , and fresh . Yasuma recalled that production was further challenged because no effective precursor of its type had been made before . Producer Keiji Inafune stated that the development team wanted to add a " real world " feel to the Mega Man series by placing the protagonist of Battle Network in a location where the internet is prevalent . With the release of the portable GBA , the team felt that they should target modern gamers , specifically children , as an audience for the new series . The developers thought such a theme would be both successful and relevant because these younger gamers grew up with and utilized such technology on a daily basis . To ensure the game 's popularity , Capcom marketed Battle Network alongside an afternoon anime adaptation , emphasized head @-@ to @-@ head matches between players , and provided fans with exclusive content via special events .
Inafune credited himself for redesigning the protagonist Mega Man as MegaMan.EXE for the Battle Network series , though he recounted the character designers were reluctant to hand over the responsibility to him and even altered his illustrations afterwards . The character 's initial concept art went through a large number of changes before it was finalized to a much simpler design , so that even very young fans could easily draw it . Yuji Ishihara acted as a primary character artist for the game . Each of the game 's boss characters was designed so that their bodies would exude a certain motif ; for example , StoneMan.EXE was meant to look like a huge castle made from stone masonry . Some bosses resembled their original Mega Man series counterparts while others were a large departure from these more humanoid appearances . Ishihara explained that the artists chose size and shape variety among the characters to " provide a little bit of surprise and excitement " to fans familiar with their classic forms . The musical score for Battle Network was composed by Akari Kaida , who would later work on the fifth installment of the series . All 22 musical tracks for Mega Man Battle Network were included on the Rockman EXE 1 ~ 3 Game Music Collection , released in Japan by Suleputer on December 18 , 2002 .
The Japanese version of Battle Network was first announced in August 2000 as one of four games set to be released for the recently unveiled GBA . A demo of the game was promoted at Nintendo Space World that month , where it was displayed on only two out of the 140 playable consoles . The game was displayed on five kiosks at the Tokyo Game Show the following month . According to series planners Masakazu Eguchi and Masahiro Yasuma , this beta build of the game involved the player fighting a malevolent WoodMan.EXE within the school 's electronic blackboard . Battle Network was officially released in Japan as a GBA launch title on March 21 , 2001 . A television advertisement of the game featured the song " Neo Venus " by Japanese rock band Janne Da Arc . The English localization of Battle Network was announced on May 17 , 2001 , just prior to the Electronic Entertainment Expo . The game was released in North America and Europe on October 31 and November 30 respectively . Ubisoft published Mega Man Battle Network in PAL regions as part of a seven @-@ GBA game licensing agreement with Capcom . < Its first sequel , Mega Man Battle Network 2 , was announced before the Japan World Hobby Fair in June 2001 . Attendees to the fair were able to download chip data for the character Bass.EXE into their original Battle Network cartridges .
As stated , in an inside @-@ Games Interview , by the game developers , the game was initially conceptualized with the intention of being a horror game .
= = Reception and legacy = =
Mega Man Battle Network has been generally well @-@ received , holding aggregates score of 80 % on GameRankings and 79 out of 100 on Metacritic . The graphics of Battle Network were overall favored by reviewers . IGN 's Craig Harris , GameSpy contributor James Fudge , and Kristian Brogger of Game Informer were all impressed by the game 's crisp , colorful style and futuristic locales . As far as the sound was concerned , Justin Speer of GameSpot opined that the music appropriately matched the rich visuals . Brogger otherwise accepted the sound as " enough [ ... ] to get by " , but that nothing would be missed if it were turned off . Harris comparably stated that " the standard Japanese tunage could have been given a bit more variety " . The reviewers gave mixed opinions of the game 's storyline . Though Brogger called it " engrossing " , Harris recognized the plot as the game 's one major fault , describing it as " kiddy " and disliking the consistent use of computer terminology for character names . Speer similarly summarized , " If there 's something that might hold you back from enjoying the game , it 's the lighthearted and somewhat goofy story . However , the game doesn 't take itself too seriously , so neither should you . "
The battle system of Battle Network was a positive stand @-@ out aspect for many critics . In his Battle Network series decade retrospective , 1UP.com 's Jeremy Parish felt the first game suffered from terrible plotting , unbalanced play design , and unattractive and annoying environment navigation . Still , Parish perceived the game 's combat mechanics to be its sole reason for success , marrying the original Mega Man action qualities with an RPG structure and requiring " a combination of sharp thinking and quick reflexes " on the player 's part . Speer found battle within the game to rightfully capture the spirit of Mega Man as its " most original and compelling feature " . Harris likewise regarded the battle interface to be well @-@ designed , a refreshing change from traditional Japanese RPGs , what gives the game its charm , and a very appreciative addition to the game 's limited multiplayer mode . Fudge summarized the combat as " very easy to learn , but difficult to master -- and yet very satisfying " . He admitted that the random encounters can occasionally be overwhelming . Brogger considered the gameplay both deep and simple to pick up on , but thought the menu system to be " clunky " at times and its battles to be repetitive .
Mega Man Battle Network entered Japanese sales charts at number 12 , selling approximately 43 @,@ 048 units during its first week . A total of 224 @,@ 837 units were sold in Japan during 2001 , with the game being listed by Dengeki Online as the 50th best @-@ selling video game in the region for that year . The success of Mega Man Battle Network led to several sequels and spin @-@ offs on other consoles , mobile phones , and arcade ; an anime series ; and numerous pieces of merchandise . A successor series called Mega Man Star Force began in 2006 after the Capcom decided to stop developing new Battle Network titles . Rockman EXE Operate Shooting Star , a remake of the first Battle Network game for the Nintendo DS , was released in 2009 and integrated elements from the Star Force series .
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= Pokémon Black and White =
Pokémon Black Version and Pokémon White Version ( ポケットモンスターブラック & ホワイト , Poketto Monsutā Burakku & Howaito , " Pocket Monsters : Black & White " ) are role @-@ playing games developed by Game Freak and published by Nintendo for the Nintendo DS . They are the first installments in the fifth generation of the Pokémon series of role @-@ playing games . First released in Japan on September 18 , 2010 , they were later released in Europe on March 4 , 2011 , in North America on March 6 , 2011 , and Australia on March 10 , 2011 .
Similar to previous installments of the series , the two games follow the journey of a young Pokémon trainer through the region of Unova , as they train Pokémon used to compete against other trainers , while thwarting the schemes of the criminal organization Team Plasma . Black and White introduced 156 new Pokémon to the franchise , 5 more than the previous record holder Red and Blue , as well as many new features , including a seasonal cycle , rotation battles , fully animated Pokémon sprites and triple battles . Both titles are independent of each other , but feature largely the same plot , and while both can be played separately , trading Pokémon between both of the games is necessary in order to complete the games ' Pokédex .
Upon their release , Black and White received positive reviews ; critics praised the advancements in gameplay , as well as several of the new Pokémon introduced . Reviewers , however , were divided on some of the character designs , and some critics felt that the games did not innovate as much as expected . Nevertheless , the games were commercial successes ; prior to the games ' Japanese release , Black and White sold one million consumer pre @-@ orders and sold five million copies as of January 2011 , making it one of the best selling DS games to date . As of March 2015 , the games ' combined sales have reached 15 @.@ 60 million , putting the titles amongst the best selling games for the Nintendo DS , but still being outsold by their predecessors , Diamond and Pearl . Sequels to Pokémon Black and White , named Pokémon Black 2 and White 2 , were released in Japan for the Nintendo DS in June 2012 , with October releases in North America , Europe , and Australia .
= = Gameplay = =
Pokémon Black and White are role @-@ playing video games with adventure elements , presented in a third @-@ person , overhead perspective . There are three basic screens : an overworld , in which the player navigates the main character ; a battle screen ; and the menu , in which the player configures their party , items , or gameplay settings . The player controls a Pokémon Trainer who begins the game with a single Pokémon and is able to capture more using Poké Balls . Like all other Trainers , the player can carry up to six Pokémon at one time . However , the game also includes a network of PCs to store hundreds of Pokémon . PCs are found in certain buildings — namely , " Pokémon Centers " , where the player heals their Pokémon with low health .
Most Pokémon evolve into other forms when certain conditions are met , such as when they reach a certain level — levels range from 1 to 100 — or have a certain item used on them . They can learn up to four moves , including attacking moves , healing moves , and moves that inflict status conditions on the opponent . They have six stats that affect battle performance : maximum HP ( hit points ) , Attack , Defense , Special Attack , Special Defense , and Speed . Attack and Special Attack are distinguished from Defense and Special Defense by the types of moves being considered : generally , moves involving physical exertion are physical , while moves involving supernatural or elemental powers are special . Moves are classed as one of eighteen types , ( Normal , Water , Grass , Fire , Electric , Ghost , Bug , Fighting , Ice , Steel , Rock , Fairy , Poison , Psychic , Dark , Dragon , Ground , and Flying ) ; Pokémon can have one or two types . Generally , most of a Pokémon 's moves correspond to its typing . A Pokémon 's type makes it vulnerable or resistant to others ; for example , Fire @-@ type Pokémon are weak to Water @-@ type moves , while Grass @-@ type moves do little damage to them and Electric @-@ type moves do normal damage .
When the player encounters a wild Pokémon or is challenged by another Trainer to a battle , the screen switches to a turn @-@ based battle screen where the Pokémon fight . During battle , the player may fight , use an item , switch the active Pokémon , or flee . However , the player cannot flee a battle against another Trainer or against certain wild Pokémon that are stronger than the player 's . When a Pokémon 's HP is reduced to zero , it faints until it is revived . If an opposing Pokémon faints , all of the player 's Pokémon who participated in defeating it receive experience points . After accumulating enough experience points , a Pokémon may level up , increasing its stats . Many Pokémon evolve into other forms , usually by reaching certain levels . At the " Day Care " location , the player can breed two of their Pokémon — usually , a male and a female — to create Eggs that hatch into baby Pokémon at level 1 .
The world of Pokémon Black and White , known as Unova , consists of a number of cities and towns connected by " Routes " . Random encounters may take place in tall grass along routes or in bodies of water . The player occasionally battles Trainers in cities and towns , as well as along routes . In addition , eight of the game 's cities and towns are homes to " Gym Leaders " , powerful Trainers specializing in certain types of Pokémon ; beating a Gym Leader gives the player a " Badge " . All eight Badges are needed to unlock the Pokémon League , where the player faces off against the " Elite Four " and , finally , the Champion . Across Unova , items can be found on the ground or purchased from " Poké Marts " . For example , Hyper Potions restore HP , Antidotes cure poisoning , and Revives revitalize fainted Pokémon . TMs ( Technical Machines ) teach moves to Pokémon , and HMs ( Hidden Machines ) are a special class of TMs for important moves that allow the player to traverse the environment . The " Surf " HM move , as one example , is used to cross bodies of water .
= = = New features = = =
The graphics have been improved from Diamond and Pearl . The dialog boxes of previous games have been changed to speech balloons that appear over other characters ' heads , allowing more than one character to speak at once . Japanese players can have kanji appear on screen , rather than only hiragana and katakana . During battles , the sprites of the Pokémon are fully animated and the camera changes position to highlight specific parts of the battle . In addition to continuing the day and night cycle introduced in Gold and Silver , Black and White introduces a seasonal cycle , with the seasons advancing every month rather than being linked to the calendar . Outside areas appear differently depending on the season , such as changing of leaves in autumn or snow on the ground in winter . Certain areas are only accessible during certain seasons , and different Pokémon can be found in the wild in winter where others are encountered in the other seasons . The Pokémon Deerling and Sawsbuck change their physical appearance to match the seasons .
There are two new battle mechanics : Triple Battles and Rotation Battles . In Triple Battles , both teams must send out three Pokémon in a row at once ; Pokémon on the left or right side can only attack the opponent 's Pokémon on the same side or in the center . Changing position takes up one turn . In Rotation Battles , each side sends out three Pokémon at once , but they are arranged in a circle that can be rotated at will . Black has more Rotation Battles than Triple Battles , and the opposite is true in White . Another introduction is Combination Moves : a starter Pokémon can be taught one of three moves , and using them together in Double or Triple battles produces more powerful attacks . In the wild , walking through different @-@ colored tall grass can trigger Double Battles against wild Pokémon rather than only Single Battles as usual .
Occasionally , the player can find rustling patches of grass and rippling water , where they can encounter either a rare Pokémon , a Pokémon more common in the opposite game version , or the highest evolutionary form of a Pokémon whose lower forms can normally be found in the area . This is the only way to capture Pokémon such as Audino , Emolga , and Alomomola . Also , dust clouds in caves and the shadows of flying Pokémon on certain bridges can be entered to either find a rare item or encounter Drilbur , Excadrill , Ducklett , or Swanna , none of which can be found in the wild otherwise . Occasionally , when throwing a Poké Ball , the capture rate is highly increased , triggered by a random event . There are also new side @-@ games and sidequests : the player can compete in Pokémon Musicals , a side @-@ game similar to the Pokémon Contests of previous games ; the Battle Subway , similar to the Battle Towers and Battle Frontiers of previous games ; and on the Royal Unova , a cruise ship that the player can ride and fight Trainers aboard to win otherwise rare items .
= = = Connectivity to other devices = = =
The C @-@ Gear ( Cギア , Shī Gia ) replaces the Pokétech from Diamond and Pearl on the Nintendo DS 's bottom screen . It controls the game 's wireless capabilities , including infrared ( IR ) communication for battling and trading , wireless communications in the Xtranceiver video chat access to the Entralink to transfer content from the Pokémon Dream World , using the Wi @-@ Fi to sync with the Pokémon Global Link servers , and the new " Pass By mode " which allows the game to communicate with other copies through infrared while the DS is asleep . The Feeling Check ( フィーリングチェック , Fīringu Chekku ) function tests the compatibility between two players and awards them items accordingly . In the " Pass By " feature , the player answers various survey questions and receives one of several items depending on how many other players they have connected with . In the " Random Matchup " feature , the player can battle others randomly . When playing against others online or in IR battles , a new mechanic called the Wonder Launcher allows healing items to be used in battle .
Two features were added to transfer Pokémon from older DS Pokémon games to Black and White . For normal transfer , the Poké Transfer feature is available after completion of the main storyline . Unlike the " Pal Park " feature from previous games , the Poké Transfer is a mini @-@ game in which after six Pokémon are transferred , the player uses the touch screen to launch Poké Balls at the transferred Pokémon to catch them within a time limit . Another feature called the Relocator is used to transfer the Pokémon given away in promotions for the film Pokémon : Zoroark : Master of Illusions so the player can obtain the rare Pokémon Zorua and Zoroark . Unlike the Poké Transfer , this is available before the main game is completed .
Unique to Black and White is the Pokémon Dream World , which is dependent on the official Pokémon Global Link website . Here , the player can befriend Pokémon that are not normally obtainable in @-@ game and that have unique abilities . This occurs after syncing the game back with the Dream World , similarly to the Pokéwalker from HeartGold and SoulSilver . The player can maintain a house in the Dream World that other players can visit as well as grow berries . In addition to allowing access to Pokémon acquired in the Dream World , the Entralink also enables players to interact with each other and play side @-@ games . These side @-@ games award points that can be traded for temporary powers such as increasing experience , improving capture rate , or lowering prices of items in Poké Marts .
= = Plot = =
= = = Setting = = =
Black and White are set in the Unova region , a continental mass located far away from the previous regions , Kanto , Johto , Hoenn and Sinnoh . Unlike the previous regions which were based on real locations in Japan , Unova is modeled after New York City , an idea developed by game director Junichi Masuda when he visited the city for the launch of Diamond and Pearl . One particular example of this is Castelia City , which serves as the region 's central metropolis and had such inspirations as its " Brooklyn Bridge @-@ style suspension bridge " and its " huge skyscrapers " . Masuda also wanted to convey a " feeling of communities " in Castelia 's streets . Unova is host to large urban areas , a harbor , an airport , an amusement park , several bridges , and several mountain ranges . In addition to a diversity of new landscapes , the Unova region is also home to a diversity of people who vary in skin tone and occupation . The region 's Japanese name " Isshu " ( イッシュ ) is derived from the Japanese words tashu ( 多種 ? , meaning " many kinds " ) and isshu ( 一種 ? , meaning " one kind " ) ; the many kinds of people and Pokémon seen up close look like only one kind of life from afar .
= = = Story = = =
Like previous Pokémon games , Black and White both follow a linear storyline ; the main events occur in a fixed order . The protagonist of Pokémon Black and White is a teenager who sets out on a journey through Unova to become the Pokémon master . At the beginning of the games , the player chooses either Snivy , Tepig , or Oshawott as their starter Pokémon as a gift from Professor Juniper . The protagonist 's friends , Cheren and Bianca , are also rival Pokémon Trainers who occasionally battle the player , Cheren will choose the Pokémon with a type advantage against yours , while Bianca will choose the Pokémon with a type disadvantage . The player 's primary goal is to obtain the eight Gym Badges of Unova and ultimately challenge the Elite Four of the Pokémon League , and its Champion , to win the game .
In addition to the standard gameplay , the player will also have to defeat the games ' main antagonist force , Team Plasma , a Knights Templar @-@ esque group who believe Pokémon are being enslaved by humans and work to " liberate " them . Team Plasma is led by " N " , a young man who was brought up alongside Pokémon and sees them as friends rather than tools for sport . Throughout the game , the player has some encounters with N , who claims that by capturing one of the legendary Dragon Pokémon of Unova and defeating the Pokémon Champion Alder , he will be recognized as Unova 's hero and will be able to convince the humans to part with their Pokémon . Depending on the game version , N will capture the Deep Black Pokémon Zekrom in Black or the Vast White Pokémon Reshiram in White .
After the player defeats the Elite Four and enters the Champion 's chamber , he or she finds that N has defeated Alder and has become the newest Pokémon Champion . Soon after , he summons a large castle that surrounds the Pokémon League , challenging the player to find him to take part in one final battle . When the player finally reaches him , Reshiram in Black or Zekrom in White appears before the player , and the player must capture the legendary Pokémon before challenging N. After his defeat , N laments the possibility that his ideals are mistaken , as Ghetsis intrudes and angrily reveals that his true intentions were to use N to ensure that he would be the only human left with control over Pokémon and use them to rule the world . In his rage , Ghetsis challenges the player to battle . After Ghetsis 's defeat , he is arrested , allowing Alder to resume his position as the Pokémon Champion of the Unova region . N then thanks the player for helping realize his mistake about the nature of the relationship between people and their Pokémon before leaving the castle on his captured Dragon Pokémon to a far @-@ off land .
After Team Plasma 's defeat , Looker arrives in Unova and tasks the player with finding the remaining Sages of Team Plasma , so they can be brought to justice . The player can also challenge the Elite Four once again , and challenge Alder , ultimately becoming the Unova region 's new Pokémon Champion . The player also gains access to the eastern portion of Unova , which contains Pokémon from the previous games in the series , as well as access to an area unique to each game version : the ultra @-@ metropolitan Black City , home to powerful Pokémon trainers ; and the White Forest , home to humans and Pokémon living in harmony . Cynthia , a former Champion of the Sinnoh region , is also found in this area of the game and can be challenged . A non @-@ player character named after Shigeki Morimoto , a Game Freak programmer , creature designer , and the director of the HeartGold and SoulSilver games , can also be found and battled in the game .
= = Development = =
On January 29 , 2010 , the Pokémon Company announced that a new game was in development for the Nintendo DS to be released later that year . Director Junichi Masuda stated that several aspects of the series were being revamped for the new generation . On April 9 , 2010 , the Japanese website updated with the titles of the versions as Pokémon Black and White , and announced a Q3 2010 release date . The games feature an improved visual style from other Pokémon games , with an increased use of 3D computer graphics than any other of the handheld series . It also has a special feature that allows the user to upload their saved game to the Internet , allowing them to do certain things on an official website .
On August 3 , 2010 , Masuda announced on his blog that the Black and White game versions will initially only contain brand @-@ new Pokémon to evoke a feeling of it being a brand @-@ new game , like when the original Pokémon games were first released . In all of the games following the first generation , there were a series of new Pokémon introduced interspersed with Pokémon from the previous generations . For example , Pikachu was introduced in Red and Green , and was obtainable in Blue , Yellow , and all subsequent main series games ; however , Pikachu will not be obtainable in Black and White from the start of the game . It was later confirmed that Black and White are region locked on the Nintendo DSi and 3DS .
Game director and composer Junichi Masuda stated that to keep the games fresh , he looks at every previous element to decide what to adapt to the new game , stating " people may not like what they like in the past , trend wise " . He explained the new battle styles , stating that while triple battles take more strategy , rotation battles take more luck to win . Masuda stated that their goal when making the games was to make it fun for new players , but they also wanted to get players who have not played the series in a while to come back . He said that it was hard to find that balance to satisfy both kinds of players . For the new players , there is good explanation in how to play , while for old players , they incorporated the C @-@ Gear , which makes the ability to trade and battle easier . When asked about the decision to introduce over 150 new species of Pokémon , Masuda stated that they did this so old players would not be able to know what is a good Pokémon to use , and it would level the playing ground for new players .
= = = Music = = =
Nintendo DS Pokémon Black · White Super Music Collection ( ニンテンドーDS ポケットモンスター ブラック ・ ホワイト スーパーミュージックコレクション , Nintendō Dī Esu Poketto Monsutā Burakku · Howaito Sūpā Myūjikku Korekushon ) is a four @-@ disc soundtrack featuring the games ' music scored by Masuda , Go Ichinose , Shota Kageyama , Hitomi Sato , Morikazu Aoki , Minako Adachi , and Satoshi Nohara . The soundtrack was released on October 20 , 2010 , in Japan . Ichinose was in charge of directing all Pokémon voices for the game while Minako Adachi produced all sound effects .
= = Promotion and release = =
Pokémon Black and White were released in Japan on September 18 , 2010 , in Europe on March 4 , 2011 , and in North America on March 6 , 2011 . The Australian release was on March 10 , 2011 .
= = = Japanese release = = =
A silhouette of a new Pokémon was shown by Junichi Masuda on the February 7 , 2010 episode of Pokémon Sunday , stated to be in the film for the summer and to be identified in a future episode on February 21 . This new Pokémon would also be featured in the March 2010 issue of CoroCoro Comic available on February 15 , and is the start of the fifth generation of the Pokémon franchise . Since then , the Pokémon has been named " Zoroark " , and it evolves from a Pokémon named " Zorua " . Both were featured in the film Pocket Monsters Diamond & Pearl The Movie : Phantom Ruler : Zoroark . For pre @-@ order ticket holders , an alternate @-@ colored Raikou , Entei , or Suicune was available for transfer to their Diamond , Pearl , Platinum , HeartGold , or SoulSilver games . At the theater , players would be able to download a Celebi to the same games . Both of these Pokémon would activate special events in Black and White involving Zoroark and Zorua , respectively .
On April 18 , 2010 , the episode of Pokémon Sunday showed game footage of a player character walking around in a 3D environment and a single screenshot depicting a battle between the player 's Zoroark and an enemy Zorua . Host Shoko Nakagawa made note of how the player 's Zoroark 's sprite was a full body sprite as viewed from behind , when in the past all such sprites only showed a smaller portion of the player 's Pokémon 's body . On May 9 , 2010 , the episode of Pokémon Sunday revealed silhouettes of the three Pokémon available to choose from at the beginning of the games , which were later revealed to be the Grass Snake Pokémon Tsutarja , the Fire Pig Pokémon Pokabu , and the Sea Otter Pokémon Mijumaru . Other information revealed is that the game takes place in the Isshu Region which includes the Hiun City metropolis . On May 16 , 2010 , the episode of Pokémon Sunday showed game battle footage , illustrating the new in @-@ battle animations and dynamic camera positioning ; also described were Zoroark 's Illusion ability and the special Zoroark acquired by the movie ticket pre @-@ order gift Pokémon .
On May 28 , 2010 , both the official Japanese and English Pokémon websites revealed names and designs of the two major Legendary Pokémon of these games , who also serve as the game version mascots : the White Yang Pokémon Reshiram for Pokémon Black and the Black Yin Pokémon Zekrom for Pokémon White . The July 2010 issue of CoroCoro Comic revealed the C @-@ Gear wireless interactivity features , the ability to upload game data to the internet and the player 's computer , several brand @-@ new Pokémon , new Pokémon moves , Reshiram and Zekrom 's Pokémon types , details on the Celebi / Zorua event , and a new character : Professor Araragi , the first female Pokémon professor to appear in the video games . The June 27 , 2010 , episode of Pokémon Sunday , made the announcement of the release date as September 18 , 2010 , and a yet @-@ to @-@ be named character . The June 28 episode of Oha Suta , showed a trailer , which included its release date , new gameplay footage , several new characters , more new Pokémon , and a three @-@ on @-@ three battle system . The August 2010 issue of CoroCoro Comic elaborated upon many new game mechanics : the three @-@ on @-@ three system , the online Global Link system , an online Dream World that can allow for access to other Pokémon , access to an area that uses the Wi @-@ Fi called the Hilink ( similar to the Underground ) , a special feature called the Live Caster for video chat on the Nintendo DSi and Nintendo 3DS , kanji support , aesthetic differences between the two versions of the game , areas exclusive to the game versions , new characters , new moves , new abilities , and new Pokémon .
The July 25 , 2010 , episode of Pokémon Sunday introduced the new phantom Pokémon Victini , which initially appeared in a trailer for the 2011 Pokémon film that was shown with screenings of Phantom Ruler : Zoroark . It is noted to be Pokémon No. 000 in Isshu 's regional Pokédex , and is only accessible by downloading a special item from Nintendo Wi @-@ Fi Connection , DS Stations , and Nintendo Zones ( such as those found in Japanese McDonald 's restaurants ) to a game save . This was initially available for a month following the games ' release date . Another promotional Pokémon given out after the games ' release is a Kumasyun , a Pokémon that is difficult to find in the games unless it is during the games ' winter season .
On the day of the Japanese release , Nintendo of America sent cease and desist letters to two English language Pokémon fansites , PokéBeach and Serebii , after they published screenshots and various other media from the newly released games . Nintendo claimed the posting of the media was infringing copyright and noted their intention to shut down the websites under the Digital Millennium Copyright Act unless the media was removed . The screenshots were subsequently taken down from both websites . Luke Plunkett of video game blog Kotaku initially speculated that Nintendo of America issued the cease and desist letters over the belief that the images were illegally obtained via a ROM image ; however , Jon Sahagian of PokéBeach stated the images in question had been obtained from the Japanese forum 2channel . Charlie Scibetta , Nintendo of America 's senior director of corporate communications , later stated that it was the choice of images that were of concern to the company . In a statement to Kotaku , he said , " Nintendo supports and appreciates the efforts that Pokémon fans go through to create fan sites . In most cases there is no issue with the content that is posted , but on this occasion we had to contact a select few websites to ask them to take down confidential images . "
= = = International release = = =
The foreign promotion for the games began on November 22 , 2010 , when the official website for the North American , European , and Australian markets was updated , including the localized names of the starter Pokémon ( Snivy , Tepig , and Oshawott in English , Dutch , Italian , Brazilian Portuguese , and Spanish markets ) and the setting ( Unova Region ) . Floats of version mascots Reshiram and Zekrom accompanied the Pikachu balloon during the Macy 's Thanksgiving Day Parade on November 25 , 2010 , the following Thursday .
On December 27 , 2010 , the official websites for the international releases updated once more , revealing the English names for many of the first Pokémon revealed during the promotion for the Japanese release . In addition , the English names for the game location Hiun City and the character Professor Araragi were revealed to be Castelia City and Professor Juniper , respectively .
Starting on January 3 and lasting until January 9 , 2011 , in the United States , players of Diamond , Pearl , Platinum , HeartGold , and SoulSilver were able to visit GameStop stores to download the special shiny Raikou that was previously given out for Phantom Ruler : Zoroark pre @-@ order ticket holders in Japan . Similar downloads would be available for the shiny Entei ( January 17 to 23 ) and shiny Suicune ( January 31 to February 6 ) . All three of these Pokémon still enabled the event for Zoroark in the North American Black and White versions . These three Pokémon were later distributed via the Nintendo Wi @-@ Fi Connection for European , Australian , and North American markets ( for a second time ) starting February 7 to 13 with Raikou , again , with subsequent staggered releases for Entei and Suicune throughout February .
The Celebi event was run in North America and distributed through GameStop stores from February 21 to March 6 , 2011 , or it could be acquired from the tour promoting the Black and White games that began on February 5 , 2011 . In France and Spain , this same Celebi was available through various retailers from February 1 through March 3 , 2011 . Italian players could get this Celebi from specific video game retailers from January 21 through March 3 .
The event to distribute the item to allow players to capture Victini was also be run following the games ' release internationally . North American players were able to download the item from Nintendo WFC from March 6 to April 10 , 2011 . European players were able to get the item from March 4 to April 22 . Australian players were able to download it from March 10 to April 28 , 2011 .
= = Reception = =
= = = Critical response = = =
Pokémon Black and White have received largely positive reviews by critics , having an aggregate score of 87 % on Metacritic , indicating generally favorable reviews . Japanese magazine Famitsu Weekly awarded the game a perfect 40 / 40 score , becoming the 15th game to receive such a distinction , as well as obtaining the highest score ever given to a Pokémon video game by the publication . Game Informer 's Annette Gonzalez remarked that " Pokémon Black and White do a great job building upon already solid features and taking them to the next level . " VideoGamer.com 's Jamin Smith criticized the games for not innovating as much as some people would have liked , but stated that " rest assured in the knowledge that Black and White are damn fine games ; the best the series has to offer . " Official Nintendo Magazine referred to them as " A beautiful refinement of a great series [ ... ] the best Pokémon ever . " Nintendo Power expressed that " the Pokémon series 's latest pair of adventures is as addictive as ever . " Edge acknowledged that " where next for Pokémon Black and White don 't suggest any answers , but they do remind us why we 'd care in the first place . "
IGN gave the games a 9 / 10 , a higher rating than any of the other Nintendo DS Pokémon games . The review praised the games for renewing interest in the series , though criticized some of the new Pokémon designs , explaining that " aside from a weaker lineup of monsters ( largely an aesthetic complaint ) , this is the best Pokémon has to offer on every level , renewing my waning interest in monster battling " . Jeremy Parish of Retronauts criticized Black and White , commenting that he grew tired of it shortly after starting and feeling like it was too similar to all previous Pokémon games . He further went on to say that EVs and IVs , invisible mechanics in the game , are not necessarily beneficial . By contrast , he noted that it would be great to new players . He also compared it to the Pokémon Mystery Dungeon games and Final Fantasy XIII , arguing that they all share the common element of being bad before they get good . Fellow Retronauts contributor Justin Haywald criticized the games ' release on the DS , which had received two main Pokémon series games published before them . GamesRadar editor Carolyn Gudmundson stated " It may not break the Pokemon mold , but Black / White offers enough new content coupled with the series ' classic , deep battle mechanics to make it endlessly playable . If you could only play one game for the rest of your life , this would be a wise choice . "
= = = Commercial performance = = =
In August 2010 , one month before the games ' release in Japan , Pokémon Black and White gained a total of 1 @.@ 08 million pre @-@ orders , becoming the fastest game on the Nintendo DS to break the one million mark . In the first two days on sale , it sold more than 2 @.@ 6 million copies , becoming the biggest launch in the series history in Japan . By November 3 , the games had sold over 4 @.@ 3 million copies in Japan . As of January 9 , 2011 , the games became the fastest DS titles to sell five million copies .
Upon release its in the UK , White and Black took the # 1 and # 2 spots respectively in the UK overall sales charts , with White becoming the second fastest @-@ selling DS game ever in the UK after Professor Layton and Pandora 's Box , selling 13 @,@ 000 more copies than Black . Combined , their sales became Nintendo 's third biggest ever launch in the UK , behind Wii Fit and Mario Kart Wii , and the biggest opening weekend ever for a pair of Pokémon titles .
In the US , Black and White sold more than 1 @.@ 08 million copies on day one , breaking the previous day @-@ one record held by predecessors Diamond and Pearl of 780 @,@ 000 copies . According to the NPD Group , Nintendo sold 1 @.@ 3 million units of White and 1 @.@ 1 million units of Black in March 2011 , making them the # 1 and # 2 top selling games in the US for the month . In April 2011 , Nintendo 's financial earnings report confirmed that Pokémon Black and White had sold 11 @.@ 5 million copies worldwide , making them the highest selling DS games for Nintendo in the 2010 @-@ 11 financial year , and third overall , behind only the Wii games , Wii Sports and Wii Sports Resort . As of March 2015 , the games ' combined sales have reached 15 @.@ 60 million .
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= Infinity Blade =
Infinity Blade is a fighting game with role @-@ playing elements developed by Chair Entertainment and Epic Games and released through the Apple App Store on December 9 , 2010 . It is the first iOS video game to run on the Unreal Engine . In the game , the unnamed player character fights a series of one @-@ on @-@ one battles in a derelict castle to face the immortal God King . When in battle , players swipe the screen to attack and parry , and tap the screen to dodge and block enemy attacks . Upon victory or defeat , the player restarts the game as the character 's descendant with the same items and experience level .
The game was developed by a team of twelve people , who took two months to make a playable demo and three more to finish the game . Infinity Blade was intended to demonstrate the new iOS version of the Unreal Engine , and to combine the swordplay of Karateka and Prince of Persia with the loneliness of Shadow of the Colossus . The game received four free expansions that added new equipment , endings , and game modes .
Infinity Blade was the fastest @-@ grossing app in the history of iOS upon its release . It made US $ 1 @.@ 6 million in its first four days , and over US $ 23 million by the end of 2011 . It was well received by gaming critics . Reviews heavily praised the graphics and compared the mobile game favorably to console games . Critics also praised the swipe @-@ based combat system , but split opinions on the cyclical gameplay as either addictive or repetitive . Chair later released an arcade port and two iOS sequels : Infinity Blade II and Infinity Blade III . Author Brandon Sanderson also wrote two novellas set between the games : Infinity Blade : Awakening and Infinity Blade : Redemption .
= = Gameplay = =
In the primary portion of Infinity Blade , the player @-@ character travels a largely linear path through a ruined castle and fights one @-@ on @-@ one battles with oversized enemies . The path through the castle is a series of discrete locations where the player can pan the camera around the stationary player @-@ character to view a fully three @-@ dimensional area . The player taps locations highlighted onscreen to trigger either a short cutscene as the player @-@ character moves to the next location , or a sword battle with an enemy . During combat , the player controls the character 's sword by swiping a finger across the screen . Players can touch icons at the bottom of the screen to dodge attacks by ducking right or left , or to block attacks with a shield , which has a limited number of uses during a single battle . Players may also parry incoming attacks with an intercepting sword move that , for example , parries an attack from the left with a swipe to the left . Each of these three counters can leave the enemy vulnerable to counterattack for a short period , but incorrect counters result in damage to the player @-@ character , as reflected in the health bar . When players fail in battle en route to the God King , the game resets to the location preceding the previous battle . Enemies can perform attacks that cannot be parried or blocked — such as a shield bash — that must be dodged . Players use two special abilities via icons atop the screen : the Super Attack temporarily stuns the opponent , and magic heals or attacks as indicated by drawing a given symbol . Both require time to recharge after use . When attacking , the player can swipe in any direction , and can do specific attack combinations to deal extra damage .
In addition to combat , there is also a mild role @-@ playing component . An experience point system levels up the player @-@ character and their equipment ( weapons , armor , shields , helms , and magic rings ) . Equipment pieces have special properties and a predetermined amount of experience points required to master them . Mastering a piece of equipment increases its sale value but decreases the player 's experience gain by 20 % . Upon leveling up or mastering a piece of equipment , players gain attribute points that can be allotted towards four character attributes : health , attack , shield power , or magic . Each point can only be allocated once and is a permanent upgrade to the character . Players can purchase new equipment using in @-@ game money from sacks and treasure chests found throughout the castle , defeated enemies , and sales of unused equipment . In @-@ game money can be purchased with real money within the game .
The game follows a cyclical narrative structure in which the player @-@ character and his descendants individually explore a castle in a quest to battle the primary antagonist , the immortal God King . In the game 's introduction , the player @-@ character has just finished this quest , but is slain by the God King . The player then assumes the role of the dead character 's descendant as he starts his own journey at the beginning of the castle . This cycle , called a bloodline , continues after the player finally faces the God King and either dies , wins , or chooses to join the God King instead of fighting . Enemy difficulty increases with each bloodline cycle . Another bloodline ending is unlocked after purchasing the Infinite Blade item : the sword is placed into a pedestal in the castle 's underground dungeons and three doors open . After then defeating each of the three " Deathless " — immortal beings like the God King — of increasing difficulty found within , a final fourth door opens and the player faces a mechanized warrior guarding the high @-@ tech chamber where the God King is reborn whenever he is killed . Upon defeating the mechanized warrior , the chamber is revealed to be controlled by an ancestor of the playable character , who chose to serve the God King . After fighting the ancestor , the player @-@ character is told that the Infinity Blade has the ability to prevent immortals like the God King from resurrecting after death . The player is then given the option of either starting the next bloodline as they do when defeated , or resetting the game and starting New Game + mode , which resets all gold and item progression but maintains the character 's experience level , letting the player remaster the items and level up even further .
= = = Expansions = = =
Chair Entertainment released four expansions as free updates to the game . The first , released December 20 , 2010 , added a new enemy , equipment , and microtransactions . It also removed an experience level cap . The second update , titled Infinity Blade : The Deathless Kings , was released on March 2 , 2011 and added the dungeons as a second branch to the game 's path . This expansion also added new equipment , enemies , and the second ending where the player @-@ character defeats his ancestor . The third update , Infinity Blade : Arena , was released on May 19 , 2011 . It added the player vs. player " Arena Mode " , a tiered combat game progression where one player fights as the hero and the other as an enemy from the game . The update also included new equipment and a single @-@ player version of Arena Mode called " Survival Mode " . On October 4 , 2011 , a fourth update added a new enemy and new equipment to coincide with the announcement of the forthcoming sequel Infinity Blade II .
= = Development = =
Infinity Blade was created by Chair Entertainment , a subsidiary company of Epic Games . In July 2010 , Chair had both recently finished the Xbox Live Arcade game Shadow Complex and been acquired by Epic . Chair was brainstorming Kinect and Wii games , including an idea similar to Infinity Blade , and Epic was nearing completion of an iOS version of the Unreal Engine 3 graphics engine and in need of a " killer game " to show it off . Epic had previously licensed the engine for use in numerous console and personal computer games . They asked Chair to develop a game for the engine in five months , with a playable demo for the Apple Special Event conference in two months . The team decided within a few days to work on the Infinity Blade concept , codenamed " Project Sword " . In lieu of the normal initial game development where working prototypes test gameplay ideas , Chair spent the first week of development refining the gameplay concept on paper before beginning to code . Many of the core gameplay ideas were developed in their first few hours . Geremy Mustard , Chair 's co @-@ founder and technical director , estimates that the team cut two @-@ third of that initial design due to lack of time . Refining the complex touch @-@ based interface was complicated due to the Unreal Engine 's incomplete status and the native iOS code library 's lack of support for fast touch @-@ based gameplay . The five @-@ month development was completed by a team of twelve people from Chair , with assistance from Epic . In addition to Geremy Mustard , the team was composed of Chair co @-@ founder and creative director Donald Mustard ; Simon Hurley as producer ; Joshua Andersen and Scott K. Bowen as programmers ; Adam Ford as art director ; Orlando Barrowes , Bert Lewis , Mike Low , Scott Stoddard , and Nathan Trewartha as artists and animators ; and Brandon Raul Campos as lead tester .
The game 's swipe @-@ based swordplay was based on Donald Mustard 's desire for an uncommon gameplay based on nuanced sword fighting and parrying . He described the game 's influences as the combat of Karateka and Prince of Persia combined with the " lonely epicness " of Shadow of the Colossus . Chair sought to develop an experience that could be picked up and played for a minute ( a single battle ) or for half an hour ( a bloodline ) . They felt that many other developers accustomed to consoles were wrong to make iOS games that required long playing experiences to feel meaningful , and so Chair developed the bloodline concept as a natural breakpoint . They also felt that mobile games like Infinity Blade with constant action elements went too long without giving the player time to relax and resulted in player exhaustion , and so Chair kept their individual battles short with brief cinematic pauses in longer battles . Chair showed their playable demo at the Apple conference on September 1 , 2010 , after weeks of rehearsal , and attracted a lot of attention to the game . It was released on December 9 , 2010 . While Chair itself spent little on marketing , Apple used the game extensively in advertisements for its devices .
The music for the game was composed by Josh Aker , who had written the music for previous Chair games . The soundtrack was intended by Aker to be " intense " during combat , but to vary between " serene " and " otherworldly " outside battle . It is a mixture of live and synthetic instrument performances . Cello and nyckelharpa were the primary instruments used . Aker wanted to have " avant @-@ garde performances " for the recordings . The soundtrack was sold as a digital album , Infinity Blade : Original Soundtrack , through several online music retailers . Chair began to develop the game 's first update before the initial game was released . They intended only to add new monsters and features , but added the ability to purchase gold due to customer requests . Chair did not rebalance the game to incentivize in @-@ app purchases . Work on The Deathless Kings update began immediately afterwards . Chair felt that releasing several large , free updates to the game would increase their overall user base and result in more total sales due to word of mouth .
= = Reception = =
Infinity Blade was noted for its sales at launch , selling more than 270 @,@ 000 copies and making over US $ 1 @.@ 6 million in its first four days — the " fastest @-@ grossing app " ever released for iOS at the time . By the end of 2011 , it had made at least US $ 23 million in revenue . Around fourteen months after the initial release , Chair noted that half of the game 's sales were for the iPhone and half were for the iPad and iPod . After releasing the sequel , Epic Games noted in 2012 that the series was Epic 's most profitable by measure of revenue against person @-@ hours spent in development .
Infinity Blade was reviewed by several major gaming sites in addition to mobile game @-@ focused sites . Critics praised the game 's graphics heavily . IGN reviewer Hilary Goldstein said that it was " an absolute stunner for any handheld device and ushers in a new era of possibility for high @-@ end graphics . " GamePro 's Ryan Rigney called the game " downright gorgeous " and said that the graphics were almost at the level of a Xbox 360 game , which was echoed by John Meyer of Wired , who claimed that it had the best graphics of any iPad game . The reviewer for Edge further praised the art direction , especially with regards to the enemy and armor designs .
The gameplay was generally praised by reviewers , who typically found the combat engaging but were split on the repetitive aspects of the game . 1UP.com 's Matt Clark said that the sword gameplay " just feels right " , while Mark Brown of Eurogamer said that the combat had an excitement factor that pushed players to keep on going for one more battle . Tracy Erickson of Pocket Gamer described the swipe @-@ based combat system as " easy to understand , though tough to master " , and Nick Chester of Destructoid said that although the combat was not very complicated , it was fun to play . The role @-@ playing game elements were praised — Destructoid 's Chester called them " satisfying " and IGN 's Goldstein said that they added to the game 's difficulty . Brown 's review for Eurogamer , however , said that while good they were not as engaging as the combat , and the Edge review dismissed them as minimal . Reviewers had mixed opinions on the effectiveness of the bloodline system 's repetition : Destructoid 's Chester described it as addictive and IGN 's Goldstein agreed , but Erickson 's review for Pocket Gamer said that the game had problems with repetition and Wired 's Meyer dismissed it as " repetitive ... as the title suggests " . J. Nicholas Geist , writing for Kill Screen , focused his entire review on the cyclical nature of the game , treating its nature of repetition with small changes between each bloodline as a metaphor for life . Most reviewers found themselves between the two extremes , with Brown of Eurogamer simultaneously describing it as " alarmingly repetitious " but still addictive and 1UP.com 's Clark saying that enjoying the game required getting past the repetition , despite being " stellar " .
= = Sequels and spin @-@ offs = =
On October 28 , 2011 , Epic Games and Adrenaline Amusements released an arcade version of the game , Infinity Blade FX . The game is played on a 46 @-@ inch screen rigged with optical sensors so as to mimic a large iPhone or iPad screen . Each arcade stand contains up to three screens , and players can play against each other or in the single @-@ player game . A sequel to the iOS game , Infinity Blade II , was announced on October 4 , 2011 , during the Apple iPhone 4S keynote presentation . It was released on December 1 , 2011 , and features enhanced graphics , a new storyline , and new fighting styles . A spinoff game , Infinity Blade : Dungeons , was in development for iOS by Epic Games subsidiary Impossible Games , but was cancelled in February 2013 when Impossible Games was shut down . A final game in the trilogy , Infinity Blade III , was released on September 18 , 2013 .
A novella by author Brandon Sanderson was released prior to both Infinity Blade II and III to serve as a story bridge between the games . Infinity Blade : Awakening was released as an e @-@ book on October 4 , 2011 to correspond with the announcement of Infinity Blade II . The story gives the protagonist of the first game a name , Siris , introduces the idea that the God King was one of multiple Deathless in the world , as is Siris , and has Siris and the assassin Isa journey to find the Worker of Secrets in order to kill the resurrected God King and the other Deathless . The second e @-@ book novella , Infinity Blade : Redemption , was released on September 9 , 2013 just prior to the third game . In it , Siris and the God King escape from their imprisonment by the Worker of Secrets , while extensive flashbacks show the rise of the Deathless in a future @-@ Earth analogue . While Siris disrupts the Worker of Secret 's plans , the God King confronts and is killed by the Worker .
A Chinese version of the game for Xbox One and Android will be published by Tencent Games on November 28 , 2015 .
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= Stronger ( What Doesn 't Kill You ) =
" Stronger ( What Doesn 't Kill You ) " is a song by American recording artist Kelly Clarkson and the titular song from her fifth studio album , Stronger ( 2011 ) . Originally titled as " What Doesn 't Kill You ( Stronger ) " , the song served as the album 's second single on January 17 , 2012 through RCA Records . Written by Jörgen Elofsson , Ali Tamposi , and David Gamson , with additional writing and production by Greg Kurstin , " Stronger " is an uptempo song which draws from the genres of pop rock , dance @-@ pop and electropop . Its lyrical content mainly explores themes of empowerment and recovery following a heartbreak , with the chorus inspired by a Friedrich Nietzsche quotation : " That which does not kill us makes us stronger . "
In the United States , " Stronger " became her third song to top the Billboard Hot 100 chart for three non @-@ consecutive weeks , surpassing " A Moment Like This " ( 2002 ) and " My Life Would Suck Without You " ( 2009 ) as her longest @-@ running number one single on the chart . It also topped fifteen other Billboard charts , including Adult Pop Songs , Adult Contemporary , Hot Dance Club Songs , and Pop Songs charts , more than any other song Clarkson has ever released . Internationally , " Stronger " topped the national charts of Poland and Slovakia and attained a top @-@ ten position in over fifteen countries around the world , eventually selling over five million copies worldwide , becoming one of the best @-@ selling singles of all time . Its success helped its parent album to sustain commercial longevity for over a year . " Stronger " merited consideration for several industry awards — including three Grammy Award nominations , and a World Music Award nomination .
The song 's accompanying music video was filmed by Shane Drake , which incorporates the theme of a global flash mob dance , featuring submitted videos of people dancing to the song . The music video garnered positive reception from critics who felt that its overall impact was exuberant . It earned Clarkson a nomination for a MuchMusic Video Award . With its continued success , she performed " Stronger " on several live award shows and television appearances around the world , debuting it during the first season of the The X Factor ( U.S. ) and performing it on the 37th season of Saturday Night Live , the 2012 MuchMusic Video Awards , and the 2012 American Music Awards . Clarkson also included the song in the set list of her Stronger Tour and on the encore set of her 2012 Summer Tour with The Fray .
= = Writing and production = =
Originally titled as " What Doesn 't Kill You " , " Stronger " was written by Jörgen Elofsson , Ali Tamposi , David Gamson , and Greg Kurstin in September 2010 . In an interview with American Songwriter , Tamposi revealed that the song was inspired by the Friedrich Nietzsche adage ( " That which does not kill us makes us stronger " ) that her mother told her as advice . Although Tamposi found the phrase as saccharine , she submitted it as an idea to Elofsson and Gamson during their writing sessions . Elofsson originally intended " Stronger " for Leona Lewis , who turned it down in the process . Tamposi 's manager , Tom Maffei , then had one of his producers , Matty Trump , to produce a demo track later to be pitched to RCA A & R executive Jeff Aldrich , who later gave the song to Clarkson . Tamposi revealed that Clarkson had also altered a lyric from the track . Aldrich had then commissioned Greg Kurstin , whom Clarkson wanted to collaborate with , to produce and add additional writing to the final version . Kurstin recalled , " I rethought the music part of it , I guess . It had a different tempo , beat , chords , and I kinda just came up with that guitar riff that goes into the verse , and that was the first thing that I kinda contributed just changed the feel of the song . " The song 's uplifting theme of empowerment led Clarkson to name her fifth studio album Stronger. saying that it is one of her favorite songs in the album , she said , " Everybody loves the message ' What doesn 't kill you makes you stronger . ' It 's a perfect representation of my life . "
= = Composition = =
" Stronger " is a pop rock song with a length of three minutes and 41 seconds . According to the sheet music published by Hal Leonard Corporation , it is set in a common time and has a moderately fast tempo of 116 beats per minute . Written in the key of A minor , it follows the chord progression Am – F – C @-@ G / B. Clarkson 's vocals span two octaves , from G3 to G5 . The song begins with a " rumbling guitar " and a " shimmering synth " riff as Clarkson sings the opening line " You know the bed feels warmer / Sleeping here alone . " Jason Lipshutz of Billboard noted that the guitar riff in the verses is reminiscent of Clarkson 's " Since U Been Gone " which narrates an anthem of personal reinvention , and dancing . The bridges contain pulsating beats with synth and electric guitar that display some elements of electronic sound . During chorus , the song explodes into an upbeat dance @-@ pop number , complete with guitars and electronic drums as Clarkson sings " What doesn 't kill you makes you stronger / Stand a little taller / Doesn 't mean I 'm lonely when I 'm alone . " Jonathan Keefe of Slant felt nobody else could sell the song 's " ginormous chorus " better than Clarkson . Lyrically , " Stronger " explores the theme of moving on from an inimical relationship . In an interview , Clarkson remarked that the song doesn 't refer to a specific person , stating " I didn 't have a bad breakup or anything , I just think life is about relationships so I always write all about these different ones going on in my life . And I don 't have a filter , so it 's pretty verbatim . " Jason Scott of Blogcritics felt that out of all tracks in Stronger , Clarkson 's vocals are best and trendiest in " What Doesn 't Kill You ( Stronger ) " .
In an interview with MTV News prior to the song 's release , Clarkson compared " Stronger " as similar to " Since U Been Gone " ( 2004 ) . She commented , " We 've already rehearsed it , and it 's so much fun . It 's like this big dance anthem . That 'll be the one [ that 's ] kinda like " Since U Been Gone " , [ with ] people jumping up and down to [ it ] , and it 's just kind of really inspiring , so I can 't wait to perform that one . "
= = Release and reception = =
After returning from a vacation on Tahiti , Clarkson found out over 50 of her newly recorded demo material were leaked online , including " Stronger " . She commented that the leak felt worse than being physically robbed . In an attempt to counter @-@ attack the leakage , RCA finally debuted the song online on October 5 , 2011 , three weeks ahead of the album 's release . An acoustic version of the song appears in Clarkson 's second extended play , iTunes Session . " Stronger " was officially released as the album 's second single to mainstream radio on January 17 , 2012 . A dance remixes of the song were made available on February 3 , 2012 . On February 17 , 2012 , it was released as a CD single .
= = = Critical response = = =
Jenna Hally Rubenstein of MTV Buzzworthy compared it to " Since U Been Gone , " which has " a super radio @-@ friendly hook . " Elizabeth Lancaster of MTV Newsroom listed it as one of five key tracks in Stronger , writing " Upbeat yet soulful , the chorus will drag you up and onto the floor to dance the heartache away alongside her . " Grady Smith of Entertainment Weekly thought that the song 's " belty pop / rock wheelhouse " should please fans of the sound . He later added that " Clarkson might have been better off releasing " What Doesn ’ t Kill You " as the first track from Stronger . " Another positive reception came from Glenn Gamboa of Newsday , who praised Clarkson for " infusing her tales of empowerment after a breakup with her unique combo of vulnerability and sass . " Jonathan Keefe of Slant thought that the song is " tailor @-@ made for radio play " and that " the chilly electro @-@ pop that Greg Kurstin brings to the verses , suggests a top forty version of Robyn 's " Call Your Girlfriend " ( 2010 ) . On March 5 , 2013 Billboard ranked the song number 2 in its list of " Top 100 American Idol Hits of All Time " .
Chris Willman of Reuters criticized the lyrics , commenting that " Never mind how tired that tune 's titular phrase is . For a laugh , look up the YouTube video in which some wag mashed together a medley of 30 different songs that already borrowed " That which does not kill me makes me stronger " as a lyrical hook . " Kevin Ritchie from Now Magazine emphasized that the lyrics are " about as clichéd as a mission statement can get , but it also makes for a solid pop song . " Robert Copsey of Digital Spy gave the song four stars out of five , writing " The message behind her song may already be a well @-@ worn , almost cliched lesson , but as she continues to prove , there 's little shame in coming out with the expected . "
= = = Commercial performance = = =
In the United States , " Stronger " topped sixteen Billboard charts , marking career highs for Clarkson . Boosted by digital sales following the release of Stronger , the song debuted on the Billboard Hot 100 chart as an album cut at number 64 on the week ending October 30 , 2011 . It dropped out following week before returning at number 99 on week ending November 20 , 2011 . Following its release as a single , " Stronger " re @-@ entered Billboard Hot 100 at number 58 after Clarkson performed it on Saturday Night Live on the week ending January 21 , 2012 . On the week ending January 28 , 2012 , the song climbed to number 21 , as well as debuting at number 38 on Adult Pop Songs . The following week , it became her tenth top ten song on the Hot 100 chart as it advanced to number 8 due to the strength of a number 11 to number 3 jump on Hot Digital Songs and vault on Hot 100 Airplay from number 71 to number 44 . With " Mr. Know It All " ( 2011 ) having peaked at number 10 on the Hot 100 , " Stronger " ' s ascent to number 8 marked the first time Clarkson has had a string of consecutive top ten hits since 2004 – 2005 , when she had four consecutive top @-@ ten hits from her second studio album , Breakaway ( 2004 ) . That same week , it debuted at number 30 on Pop Songs and at number 40 on Hot Dance Club Songs . On the week ending February 11 , " Stronger " bounded from number 8 to number 2 on the Hot 100 as it topped the Hot Digital Songs chart fueled by 225 @,@ 000 downloads , becoming her second song to top the Hot Digital Songs after " My Life Would Suck Without You " ( 2009 ) . The following week , it ascended to the top of the Hot 100 , becoming her third number 1 single in the country after " A Moment Like This " and " My Life Would Suck Without You " . It held the top spot for another week , before descending to number 4 on the week ending March 3 , 2012 . That same week , it became her first song to top the Hot Dance Club Songs , making Clarkson only first artist ever to have topped the Hot 100 and each of the Hot Dance Club Songs , Hot Country Songs , Adult Contemporary , and Adult Pop Songs charts . The week after , It returned to number 1 on the Hot 100 for the third time , thus becoming her longest @-@ reigning number 1 single in the United States . On the week ending March 24 , 2012 , " Stronger " became Clarkson 's fourth song to top the Pop Songs chart and her first in six years . It also became her first song to top the Hot 100 Airplay on the week ending April 7 , 2012 , her fourth song to top the Adult Pop Songs on the week ending March 10 , 2012 , and her second song to top the Adult Contemporary chart on the week ending June 16 , 2012 . In its 2012 Year @-@ End issue , Billboard ranked " Stronger " number 7 on the Year @-@ End Hot 100 , marking the first time Clarkson has had a Year @-@ End top ten single on the chart in seven years since " Since U Been Gone " and " Behind These Hazel Eyes " ( 2005 ) . Billboard also ranked it as number 1 on Year @-@ End Adult Contemporary , number 2 on the Year @-@ End Adult Pop Songs , number 11 on the Year @-@ End Pop Songs , and number 35 on the Year @-@ End Hot Dance Club Songs charts .
" Stronger " also outpaced its predecessor " Mr. Know It All " in the international charts except in Australia , Germany , Japan , Scotland , and South Korea . It topped the national charts of Poland and Slovakia and became her biggest hit in over 18 other countries , including Austria , Denmark , Hungary , Luxembourg , Portugal , New Zealand , Spain , Sweden , and the United Kingdom . " Stronger " is also her first single to enter the national charts of Finland , Brazil , Iceland , Lebanon , Mexico , Portugal , and Romania . In Canada , it debuted on the Canadian Hot 100 chart at number 64 on the week ending November 12 , 2011 , eventually peaking at number 3 . In the United Kingdom , debuted on the Official UK Charts at number 21 on the week ending January 14 , 2012 , eventually peaking at number 8 for three non @-@ consecutive weeks as her eighth career top ten single . The song performed better in Scotland , where it attained a peak of number 5 . In Ireland , the song debuted at 40 on January 19 , 2012 and ascended to number four . In Denmark , after debuting at number 11 on the Danish Singles Chart on the week ending January 20 , 2012 , it attained a top ten position at number 8 after two weeks . In France , the song debuted at number 187 and peaked at number 26 , becoming her first song to chart in six years since " Because of You " ( 2006 ) . In the Netherlands , the song debuted on the Single Top 100 at number 96 on the week ending January 7 , 2012 , and peaked at number 59 . In Austria , it entered the Ö3 Austria Top 40 at number 27 and peaked at number 6 . In Belgium , it attained a position on Ultratop 50 in Flanders at number 25 , but failed to enter the Ultratop 50 in Wallonia by reaching only the top of the Walloon Ultratip chart . Elsewhere in Europe , it attained a top ten position in Czech Republic , Hungary , Luxembourg , and Finland ; and a top forty position in Norway , Switzerland , Germany , and Sweden . In Australia , it peaked in the Australian Singles Chart at number 18 . In New Zealand , it peaked on the New Zealand Singles Chart at number 4 .
" Stronger " also marked career @-@ highs in Clarkson 's commercial performance . It became her first song to cross the 3 and 4 million marks in digital downloads , becoming her best @-@ selling single in the United States and the United Kingdom . As of March 3 , 2013 , " Stronger " had sold over 4 @,@ 533 @,@ 000 copies in the United States , . In the United Kingdom is sold over 546 @,@ 000 copies as of April 24 , 2016 . The song sold over 5 million copies worldwide , becoming one of the best @-@ selling singles of all time .
= = = Award nominations = = =
" Stronger " has been recognized with accolades from the music press . Entertainment Weekly ranked the song as the tenth best single of 2011 . In December 2012 , Popjustice ranked " Stronger " at number 1 on their " Top 45 Singles of 2012 " list , stating that " this song is timeless in its amazingness " and claiming that no one " but Kelly Clarkson who could have pulled off this tune . " The song 's music video was nominated for Best International Artist Video at the 2012 MuchMusic Video Awards . At the 2012 Teen Choice Awards , the song received two nominations , Choice Single by a Female Artist and Choice Break @-@ Up Song . " Stronger " received three Grammy Award nominations for Record of the Year , Song of the Year , and Best Pop Solo Performance at the 55th ceremony .
= = Music video = =
= = = Concept and synopsis = = =
On November 21 , 2011 , Clarkson announced on her website that she wanted to incorporate a global flash mob into the accompanying music video of " Stronger " . She posted ,
I 'm shooting my video for " What Doesn 't Kill You " and I 'd like everyone to join me in my global flash mob ! Check out the routine in the video below . Learn it with me and get your cameras ready to record you and your friends rocking these moves in a unique location that shows where you are in the world . Submit your clip using the form below and maybe you 'll see it in my music video ! ! I can 't wait to see your submissions . Remember to be creative , but keep it safe and legal ! Thanks for participating !
The music video premiered on VEVO on December 14 , 2011 . Directed by Shane Drake , the video begins with Clarkson in a video control room , watching select flash mob videos submitted by various participants in different monitors . Throughout the video , scenes of Clarkson performing the song in three different settings ( alone in a stage , with her band in a garden square , and in the control room ) alternate with various flash mob videos . Towards the end of the video , Clarkson , along with the people in the garden square , forms a flash mob featuring a same choreography .
= = = Reception = = =
Critical reception towards the accompanying music video was positive . Prior to its release , Jenna Halley Rubenstein of MTV Buzzworthy predicted that the video would depict women who triumphed over broken relationships as a homage to self @-@ sufficiency . However , she praised the different treatment of the video , complimenting the synchronized dancing and thought that Clarkson kept it classy . Leah Collins of The Vancouver Sun interpreted that the video depicts Clarkson developing a sense of strength and endurance as well as an ability to lead a large @-@ scale dance routine after surviving a trauma . Erin Strecker of Entertainment Weekly enjoyed Clarkson 's goofy expressions and perceived the video as " Since U Been Gone " round two . Rand Duren of The Dallas Morning News also reiterated that the music video is a reminiscent of " Since U Been Gone " and that it was great seeing more dancing and movement from Clarkson . Contessa Gayles of AOL.com described the song as " powerful " and " uplifting " and she believed that the music video did the song justice . Trent Maynard of 4Music had a positive response towards the video and deemed Clarkson 's look as properly fit in the video . He concluded his review writing , " Nobody has a sense of humor quite like the original American Idol . Oh Kelly , you 're the best . " The same opinion was echoed by Robbie Daw of Idolator who thought the video was fun especially " when Kelly herself joins the giant mob at the very end . " He also stated that his personal favorite clip in the video was " the girls who do the moves underwater with fish swimming all around them . " The video placed fourth for VH1 's Top 20 Videos of the Year for 2012 .
= = Live performances = =
Clarkson first performed " Stronger " in live concerts , she first performed it in a Sony @-@ sponsored concert held at The Troubador in Los Angeles on October 19 , 2011 . On November 9 , 2011 , she performed the song at Z100 's annual Jingle Ball concert at Madison Square Garden . She also performed an acoustic version the song on the VH1 Unplugged : Kelly Clarkson special which premiered on VH1 on November 18 , 2011 . " Stronger " has been performed prominently in her fourth headlining tour , the Stronger Tour .
Clarkson also promoted " Stronger " in live television events , the first live televised performance of the song was on November 23 , 2011 , during The X Factor ( U.S. ) results show . On December 18 , 2011 , she performed the song on VH1 Divas Celebrates Soul television special . On January 7 , 2012 , she performed it along with " Mr. Know It All " on the 37th season of Saturday Night Live . On June 6 , 2012 , Clarkson performed it on the British television series This Morning . Clarkson also performed a medley of the " Stronger " with the succeeding single " Dark Side " on various television events , such as at the season finale of the fourteenth season of Dancing with the Stars on May 22 , 2012 , and at the 2012 MuchMusic Video Awards on June 17 , 2012 .
= = Cultural impact = =
= = = Usage in media = = =
" Stronger " was also used in various forms of media . It was used in a 2011 Toyota Camry advertisement which stars Clarkson singing the song with her co @-@ stars Chris Berman , Andrew Zimmern , and James Lipton . Amber Riley , Naya Rivera , and Heather Morris performed the song on the season three episode of Glee titled " On My Way " , which aired on February 21 , 2012 . Raymund Flandez of The Wall Street Journal described the trio 's performance as " fine , fierce and fabulous . " Their version of " Stronger " debuted on the Hot 100 at number 66 on the week ending March 3 , 2012 as " What Doesn 't Kill You ( Stronger ) " . The song was featured in Suburgatory and was used in advertisements promoting the second season of the USA Network series Fairly Legal . It was also featured in a playable piece in the Harmonix video game Rock Band Blitz , Rock Band 3 and Dance Central 3 . On May 6 , 2012 , a video of some of the patients and hospital staff of Seattle Children 's hematology oncology unit dancing to the song were uploaded in YouTube to represent their fight against cancer . The video became a viral hit and has been featured by Time and CBS News . On February 26 , 2012 , Chemmy Alcott and Sean Rice skated to the song on Dancing on Ice . [ 116 ] Maria Menounos and Derek Hough danced to the song in the fourteenth season of Dancing with the Stars . [ 117 ] . The instrumental version has been used as background music to the promotion and the opening theme to the 2013 MDA Show of Strength telethon .
= = = Cover versions = = =
" Stronger " has also been performed by contestants of various televised competition programs . On February 21 , 2012 , It was covered on Glee by Amber Riley and Naya Rivera for the Regionals episode titled " On My Way " . On March 22 , 2012 , it was first performed by Diandra Flores on the sixth season of the Finnish television series Idols . On April 11 , 2012 , it was covered by Hollie Cavanagh , Joshua Ledet and Jessica Sanchez in the eleventh season of American Idol . On May 12 , 2012 , it was performed by Joelle Moses after will.i.am 's recommendation on the first series of The Voice UK .
Clarkson also performed the song with Jordan Meredith on the television series Duets , where she is also a mentor . On March 16 , 2012 , the song was performed by various participants during the season finale of the fifth season of the Danish television series X Factor . On November 8 , 2012 , the song was performed by Team Adam and Team Blake on the third season of The Voice . On November 28 , 2012 , the girl @-@ group Fifth Harmony performed the song on the second season of The X Factor . On October 28 , 2013 , Tessanne Chin covered the song on Season 5 of NBC 's singing competition , The Voice for her performance in the Knockout round vs. Ashley DuBose ( who performed " Hey , Soul Sister " by Train ) .
= = = Involvement in Kanye West 's copyright lawsuit = = =
In 2010 , musician Vincent Peters filed a copyright infringement suit against recording artist Kanye West over the similarities between West 's song " Stronger " ( 2007 ) , Peter 's demo song " Stronger " ( 2006 ) which he sent to John Monopoly , West 's associate . The 7th Circuit Court of Appeals ruled the case in West 's favor , citing both the epigram by Nietzsche from his book Twilight of the Idols ( 1889 ) and Clarkson 's song " Stronger ( What Doesn 't Kill You ) " .
= = Formats and track listing = =
= = Credits and personnel = =
Credits adapted from Stronger liner notes .
Recording
Recorded at Echo Recording Studio , Los Angeles , California
Personnel
= = Charts = =
= = Certifications and sales = =
= = Release and radio history = =
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= Sable Island horse =
The Sable Island Horse , sometimes Sable Island Pony , is a type of small feral horse found on Sable Island , an island off the coast of Nova Scotia , Canada . It is a small type , often pony sized , but with a horse phenotype and horse ancestors , and usually dark in color . The first horses were released on the island in the late eighteenth century , and soon became feral . Additional horses were later transported to improve the herd 's breeding stock . They were rounded up for private use and sale for slaughter , which by the 1950s had placed them in danger of extinction .
In 1960 , the Canadian government protected the horses by law in their feral state . From the 1980s on , long @-@ term , noninvasive herd studies have been performed , and in 2007 a genetic analysis was conducted that concluded the herd was genetically unique enough to interest conservationists . In 2008 , the horses were declared the official horse of Nova Scotia , and in 2011 , the island was declared the Sable Island National Park Reserve . The herd is unmanaged , and legally protected from interference by humans . The horses live only at Sable Island and at the Shubenacadie Wildlife Park on the mainland of Nova Scotia , with the latter herd descended from horses removed from Sable Island in the 1950s .
= = Characteristics = =
The horses that remain on Sable Island are feral . They generally stand between 13 and 14 hands ( 52 and 56 inches , 132 and 142 cm ) . Males from the island average about 360 kilograms ( 790 lb ) and females about 300 kilograms ( 660 lb ) . The available food on the island limits their size , and the offspring of horses removed from the island and fed more nutritious diets are generally larger . Physically , the horses resemble Spanish horses , with arched necks and sloping croups . Overall , they are stocky and short , with short pasterns that allow them to move easily on sandy or rough ground . Sable Island horses have very shaggy coats , manes and tails , especially during the winter . The tail is full and low @-@ set . Their coats are mostly dark colours , but some do have white markings . About half are bays , with the rest distributed among chestnut , palomino and black . Many Sable Island Horses have a natural ambling gait . Prior to their protection , when they could be kept for the use of humans , the horses were known for their sure @-@ footedness and gaits .
The Sable Island horses are a feral horse population that is entirely unmanaged : they are not subject to any kind of interference . Observational research , which is considered noninvasive to the herd , is sometimes conducted . Herd numbers fluctuate between 160 and 360 animals , with numbers changing based on weather severity . The population is split into numerous smaller herds , ranging from 40 to 50 in number , each ranging over approximately 3 square kilometres ( 1 @.@ 2 sq mi ) . Due to the lack of predators , older horses often die of starvation after their teeth are worn down by a lifetime of exposure to sand and marram , a tough grass . A lack of nutritional food on the island limits the horses ' size , and the offspring of those removed from the island and raised on better diets are significantly larger .
= = History = =
Sable Island is a narrow , crescent @-@ shaped island located approximately 300 kilometres ( 190 mi ) southeast of Nova Scotia . It is 42 kilometres ( 26 mi ) long and covered in sand dunes and grasses . Over 350 bird species and 190 plant species are found on the island , in addition to the herd of feral horses , which are the most well @-@ known inhabitants .
Although popular legends claim that Sable Island horses swam ashore from the island 's many shipwrecks , or were introduced by 16th @-@ century Portuguese explorers , this is not supported by historical or genetic evidence . In reality , the horses were deliberately introduced to the island during the 18th century . The first recorded horses were brought by a Boston clergyman , the Reverend Andrew Le Mercier , in 1737 but most were stolen by passing mariners . The present @-@ day horses are thought by most historians and scientists to have descended mostly from horses seized by the British from the Acadians during the Expulsion of the Acadians . The Acadian horses were descendents of several shipments of French horses , including members of the Breton , Andalusian and Norman breeds , later crossed with horses from New England , including Spanish Barbs . The Boston merchant and shipowner Thomas Hancock purchased some Acadian horses and transported them to Sable Island in 1760 , where they grazed the island as pasture . Although often referred to as ponies due to their small size , they have a horse phenotype and an ancestry composed solely of horses .
After the government of Nova Scotia established a lifesaving station on Sable Island in 1801 , workers trained some of the horses to haul supplies and rescue equipment . Lifesaving staff recorded the importation of a stallion , Jolly , taken there in 1801 , who was probably similar in type to the original Acadian horses released on the island . Although Jolly was not the first horse on the island , he was the first to be identified by name in historic records , and is known to have survived on the island until at least 1812 . Other breeding stock , probably including horses of Thoroughbred , Morgan and Clydesdale breeding , were sent to the island during the first half of the 19th century , in the hopes of improving the type of horses found on the island and raising the price for which they could be sold on the mainland .
During the 19th and early 20th centuries , the horses on Sable Island were periodically rounded up and either kept by islanders or transported to the mainland , where they were sold , frequently for slaughter . The meat was primarily used for dog food by the late 1950s , and the island horses were in danger of extinction . A public campaign was begun by school children to save the horses . In 1960 , as part of the Canadian Shipping Act , the Canadian government declared the horses fully protected and no longer able to be rounded up and sold . The law requires that people receive written permission before " feeding , interfering with , or otherwise having anything to do with the horses on the island . "
= = = Study and preservation = = =
Beginning in the mid @-@ 1980s , long term studies were begun of the Sable Island herds , and by the mid @-@ 2000s , most horses living on the island had documented histories . In 2007 , a genetic analysis of the Sable Island herd was performed . It was concluded that these horses were genetically similar to multipurpose and light draft breeds found in eastern mainland Canada , with differences probably created by natural selection and genetic drift . However , the researchers also stated that Sable Island horses had genetically " diverged enough from other breeds to deserve special attention by conservation interest groups , " and that the loss of the Sable Island horses would be more damaging to the genetic diversity of the Canadian horse population than the loss of any other breed . Genetic erosion is a possibility within the Sable Island population , due to the small number of horses . In a study of mitochondrial DNA published in 2012 , the Sable Island horse was found to be the least genetically diverse of the 24 horse populations studied , which included horse and pony breeds as well as feral populations from North America and Europe . A 2014 study by Parks Canada stated that the horses were under threat from their low numbers , excessive inbreeding and extreme weather due to global warming .
In 2008 , the Nova Scotia Legislature declared the Sable Island Horse as one of the provincial symbols , making them the official horse of Nova Scotia . In 2011 , the Canadian government created the Sable Island National Park Reserve , which allows further protection of the island and horses . Aside from the island , Sable Island Horses live only at the Shubenacadie Wildlife Park in Shubenacadie , Nova Scotia . It maintains descendants of Sable Island Ponies removed from the island in the 1950s by the Canadian Department of Transport .
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= Jacqui McQueen =
Jacqueline Bernadette " Jacqui " McQueen ( previously Malota and Ashworth ) is a fictional character from the British Channel 4 soap opera Hollyoaks , played by Claire Cooper . She debuted on @-@ screen during the episode airing on 26 September 2006 and was introduced by series producer Bryan Kirkwood as part of the McQueen family . Cooper has stated that whilst Lucy Allan produced the serial she was not used and Jacqui had " lost her identity " . In 2010 when Paul Marquess took over the role , he recognised she was an under used character split her apart from her on @-@ screen family , subsequently increasing her role within the show . Jacqui has been portrayed as a " tough ex @-@ con " and is extremely feisty , she often takes on the matriarch role within her family . She is also described as loyal and is one of a few characters to remain faithful within a relationship in the serial itself .
Many of Jacqui 's early storylines revolved around her life of crime , marrying illegal immigrant Aleksander Malota to pay off debts and her wayward relationship with Tony Hutchinson , which became popular with viewers . One of her most prominent early plots involved her desire to have her own child after a miscarriage left her unable to , this resulted in failed adoption , various surrogate mother stories involving her family and eventually led to the breakdown of her relationship with Tony . Jacqui 's later storylines involved her relationship with racist Des Townsend , covering up Calvin Valentine 's murder , being blackmailed and held at knife point for sex and a " surprise relationship " with Rhys Ashworth which also become very popular with audiences . In 2011 Jacqui made a rape accusation against Gilly Roach , whether Gilly is guilty or innocent was decided by a jury composed of viewers . The storyline subsequently resulted in Gilly being found not guilty . Various critics have praised the character because of her " feisty and tough persona " . Others have criticised her " chav " dress sense and accused her of being a " trollop " . Cooper has received various award nominations for her portrayal . It was later announced that Cooper had quit Hollyoaks and Jacqui departed Hollyoaks on 26 April 2013 .
= = Casting = =
In May 2010 , Cooper felt that she had been sidelined by former producer Lucy Allan and that Jacqui had lost her identity . New executive producer Paul Marquess also felt that Cooper had been under used . He decided to split Jacqui away from the rest of the McQueens , his reason for which being that there was so much " talent " in terms of acting within the family , he felt Cooper or Jacqui didn 't need that " support system " . He increased her role in storylines . This made Cooper delighted , of the changes she stated : " he seemed to like what I did and he 's worked on it and developed it . Paul has really taken me under his wing , he 's worked me so hard and he 's given me opportunities that I could only have dreamt of . " Speaking of her approach to playing Jacqui , Cooper has said : " I try to tame Claire back because I 'm a really emotional , sensitive person and very different from Jacqui , so I do work hard and I feel very privileged . "
= = Character development = =
= = = Characterisation = = =
Jacqui has been described as a feisty character who is tough and hard . Holy Soap refer to her as a " tough ex @-@ con " . Jacqui often takes on the matriarch role . Jacqui deals with the sisters in a different way and can get different responses from the sisters . Cooper describes her as always being there to pick up the pieces for her family . She also states that Jacqui is very loyal and the most loyal character out of the McQueen family . Speaking of Jacqui 's time away from forefront plots Cooper has said : " I think that Jacqui 's one of those characters who , if she isn 't on screen for a while , it takes the audience time to warm to her again . But when they do , they find her funny , they find her interesting and I try to give them as much as I can . "
Jacqui has never had an affair in the serial , of her morality Cooper states : " It 's all about family for Jacqui and she 's never cheated on any of her sisters . She 's got morals and this isn 't good enough . " Cooper has also spoke of her confusion of the audiences perception that Jacqui is " a bitch " when she has strong morals . Cooper has said she is proud of Jacqui 's wardrobe because it is not glam . She brands her as the complete opposite of the " honey image " the serial sometimes becomes associated with . Describing how she plays Jacqui she states : " It 's great playing Jacqui because I can just be completely grotesque and over the top , snarling and grunting . "
BBC America describe Jacqui as being the toughest of the McQueen sisters and comment on her thieving ways stating : " She began the McQueens ' shoplifting tradition , teaching her younger siblings how to steal while their mother was at work and basically putting stolen goods in Michaela 's hands from birth . "
= = = Relationship with Tony Hutchinson = = =
Jacqui 's relationship with Tony Hutchinson ( Nick Pickard ) was often strained by her desire for children . Her sister Tina McQueen ( Leah Hackett ) agrees to be a surrogate mother for her child . The storyline was included to help house many lies and secrets that had previously been built up prior , including Tony 's affair with Mercedes McQueen ( Jennifer Metcalfe ) and Tina 's affair with Russ Owen ( Stuart Manning ) , of which Kirkwood stated there was " there 's so much ammunition in store " , which would eventually devastate Jacqui . Kirkwood also devised the plot to show of Coopers skills in playing tragedy , of this he commented : " It 'll also give Claire Cooper and Nick Pickard another opportunity to show off their acting talents . Tony and Jacqui are one of those couples that we can have fun with - but also will blow the audience away when dealing with tragedy . "
In a later storyline Tony announces his intentions to marry Cindy Hutchinson ( Stephanie Waring ) , prompting Jacqui to try to talk Tony out of it . Cooper has stated that she believes that her character is meant to be with Tony because " he is the love of Jacqui 's life " and that hearing their engagement makes Jacqui feel like she " has a knife in her back . " Cooper also hopes one day that the pair will reunite stating : " Jacqui needs to move on right now , but ultimately I 'd prefer the story to come full circle and lead back to Tony . " Cooper also revealed that at the time she was often approached by fans asking her when the couple would reconcile . Pickard has also stated he didn 't think Cindy was right for him and that he believed Jacqui to be the love of Tony 's life .
= = = Relationship with Rhys Ashworth = = =
In 2010 , Jacqui embarked on a " surprise " relationship with Rhys Ashworth ( Andrew Moss ) . Moss first hinted at their romance months prior stating : " I think Rhys is going to fall in love again . It 's a character already in the village . It 's quite surprising . It 's a character who 's been here for a while . " The relationship proved popular with viewers ; during an interview with Digital Spy , Cooper spoke of her original lack of optimism towards the pairing , stating : " When the relationship first started , we didn 't know how they were going to gel and how it was going to work , because people were such fans of Jacqui and Tony . Some people still ask me if those two are going to get back together , but people are really taken with Rhys and Jacqui . " Cooper believes it 's her own working relationship with Moss that helps make the pairing a success stating : " It 's a nice collaboration and we try to make it funny , emotional , hard @-@ hitting , three @-@ dimensional and as interesting for the audience as possible . " She also adopted a " couple name " for the pair titled " Ja @-@ Rhys " .
Jacqui and Rhys were given the biggest storyline on spring 2011 in the serial , of this Marquess stated : " They have got the biggest story for the first half of 2011 . I think it may be one of the biggest stories in Hollyoaks history . It 's very , very serious and I think it will really divide the audience . It will really test them and their relationship to the nth degree , and we 'll see whether they can recover from it . "
= = = King of Hearts = = =
In September 2010 , it was announced that actor Darren Day had been cast as new character Danny Houston , described as a gangster who would " spell trouble for Jacqui " . Danny takes a shine to Jacqui and they share a couple of dates ; during an interview Day brands Danny 's attraction to Danny being down to her feisty manner adding : " Jacqui stands up to him , and even though he 's not used to it , I think he likes it . He 's quite intrigued by the fact that she 's so feisty and he likes that edginess about her . "
It was later revealed that a special late night episode had been commissioned which would feature Jacqui . The storyline was described as " sinister " and would involve Danny and returnee Kathleen McQueen ( Alison Burrows ) , as they rig a game of poker with dramatic consequences . Of her involvement in the episode Cooper stated : " I was really chuffed and felt very flattered and privileged to be given the opportunity to do so much . "
On @-@ screen the storyline involves Kathleen blackmailing the McQueens for money , threatening to reveal their roles in Calvin 's murder . Kathleen is described as Jacqui 's " worst enemy " , of this Cooper stated : " She hates her with a passion - her worst enemy ever has been dragged back ! It 's funny and comedic at times , but then it can get deadly serious . " Although she knows the risks of crossing Danny , she tries to fix the poker game ; of this Cooper comments that " It 's pure desperation " on Jacqui 's behalf . When Danny exposes her , he threatens her with Rhys ' life , stating if she does not sleep with him , he will kill Rhys . In a turn of events Jacqui turns him down . Cooper defends Jacqui 's actions stating that she is a " bright girl " and adding " She doesn 't want to sleep with him and also she knows he 's not going to drop Rhys in front of so many people . So when he says it , she considers her options , weighs them up . "
Jacqui faces more horror from Danny when she is threatened at knife point to strip for him , scared for her life she complies . Speaking of Jacqui 's sudden change of heart , Cooper states : " He pulls out a knife . That changes the situation - the dynamic changes immediately . He could do something really horrible to her - it 's not necessarily about killing someone , he could slash her face or anything . In a situation like that , your mind plays tricks as you wonder what someone could do to you . " Cooper has spoken of her feelings of responsibility to portray it correctly and stated " I wanted to show how horrendous it was for Jacqui . She wonders whether she could die like this - all to protect her family … "
= = = Sexual assault = = =
In December 2010 , Channel 4 released a press statement which revealed Jacqui and Gilly Roach ( Anthony Quinlan ) would drunkenly cheat on Rhys together , after she finds out Rhys has slept with Cheryl Brady ( Bronagh Waugh ) and that the night 's events would " change their lives forever " . It was later announced that the storyline would see Jacqui accusing Gilly of raping her . The storyline received much coverage in various tabloid newspapers who also branded it as a " shock plot " for the serial . None of the cast members involved in the storyline knew if Jacqui had actually been raped , of this Cooper states : ' They 're telling the same story but are looking at it from different angles . Just who to believe is a very grey area . It will split the village and the viewers . We don 't know what happened that night , We 've just been told that our characters each think they 're telling the truth . [ Anthony ] and I have talked about it a lot . I even read his scripts to try to work it out . The outcome will be a surprise for both of us.'
The storyline began to play out on @-@ screen in February 2011 , describing how it starts to develop and the effects it has on Gilly a spokesperson for the serial told Inside Soap : " Jacqui loves Rhys , so she 's really hurt when she finds out about his infidelity . Then she runs into Gilly who 's also got relationship problems , . The drink starts to flow , and one thing leads to another ... Gilly consumed with guilt over sleeping with his best friend 's girlfriend , it doesn 't help that Jacqui leaves Gilly 's place while he 's asleep - and runs into Rhys . But after Gilly wakes up , he knows he has to tell his mate what he 's done . When Gilly confesses , Rhys is both furious and hurt , and lashes out violently . [ ... ] Once he 's confronted Gilly , he demands an explanation from Jacqui - and is stunned when she tells him she was actually raped , it 's absolutely devastating . " The storyline later takes another turn when Gilly confronts Jacqui in the village with everyone watching , leading everyone to doubt if he did commit the act or not .
It was later revealed that the details were left unclear because Lime Pictures had decided to leave the outcome of the rape trial into viewers . Viewers have been given the chance to apply for the fictional jury , consisting of a cross section of society , including non @-@ Hollyoaks viewers . They will be shown evidence from the case and then decide whether Gilly is guilty or innocent . Chief executive of Lime Pictures , Carolyn Reynolds stated : " We wanted to open up the thorny issue of how hard it is to be a juror and whether the court room the best place to resolve some of these questions about rape . " The storyline was developed with the " St Mary 's Sexual Assault Referral Centre " and other charities . DCI Ben Snuggs , leader of Don 't Cross the Line campaign , explaining : " This storyline represents an issue that we see all too often , involving whether consent is clear on the part of both parties involved in sexual activity , and particularly when alcohol and drugs are involved . " Gilly was found not guilty , leaving Jacqui devastated .
Gilly later confessed to the rape , as he recalled that Jacqui had not only not consented , but had removed any perceived consent . Gilly left the village and did not go to the police .
= = = Departure = = =
On 21 February 2013 , it was revealed that Cooper had quit the show and her final scenes would air in April . Cooper said that she had the " most incredible and unforgettable " time and Jacqui had been a " fascinating part to play " . She also wanted to explore new roles and concluded that " it 's been one hell of a ride for Miss McQueen and an inspirational one for me . " A spokesperson added that Jacqui 's departure will occur after her involvement with Trudy Ryan ( Danniella Westbrook ) . Cooper filmed her final scenes on 26 February 2013 .
= = Storylines = =
Jacqui arrives home on a tag after being released from prison and hoards money for gangsta Davey but Carmel McQueen ( Gemma Merna ) steals the money to buy breast implants . Mercedes McQueen ( Jennifer Metcalfe ) finds the money to repay Davey but there is still not enough so Jacqui promises to do him a favour one day and he leaves , happy .
Jacqui meets divorcee Tony and an attraction igniting , they have sex . Tony goes away on holiday and starts a relationship with Jacqui on his return . Jacqui violates her prison tag after staying at Tony 's house overnight so she is sent back to prison . Sadly , Tony is forced to dump her because he cannot handle the pressure . Jacqui befriends Becca Dean ( Ali Bastian ) but Becca is killed by another prisoner and Jacqui is devastated . Jacqui decides to make something of herself , not wanting to waste her life and is reunited with Tony and Davey returns with the favour . He forces Jacqui to marry Aleksander Malota ( Jon Lolis ) . Jacqui and Aleksander manage to convince an immigration officer that their romance is genuine and they are married but Jacqui continues her affair with Tony secretly . The family uncover the truth about the marriage when Carmel and Alek 's affair is revealed . Jacqui admits she married Alek to pay off her debt to Davey and is seeing Tony . Myra McQueen ( Nicole Barber @-@ Lane ) is furious and orders Jacqui , Alek and Carmel to leave the house . Jacqui announces her pregnancy ; Tony initially doesn 't want the child , fearing that it may die like his previous child and their dreams are shattered when Jacqui miscarries and is left unable to have children of her own . Tony attacks Alek violently as he blames Alek as he cannot grieve for his baby publicly . Tony announces to the people in The Dog that the baby was his , not Alek 's and Jacqui asks Alek to return to Albania so she can live her life and he agrees . Carmel is shocked to discover Alek is leaving , leaving Carmel devastated . Depressed , Jacqui returns to her old habit of shop lifting , so Neville Ashworth ( Jim Millea ) gets her locked up for the night .
Jacqui accuses Myra of being a bad mother and suggests it would have been better if Myra had aborted her . Jacqui and Tony reconcile again . Jacqui plans to adopt because of her criminal record . Tony discovers he has a secret child called Harry . Jacqui forces Tony to make a choice : Harry or her . Tony chooses Harry and she ends their relationship and leaves . An intoxicated Tony and Mercedes betray Jacqui by sleeping together . Jacqui fails to resist Tony again and they restart their on @-@ off relationship . She then changes her surname back to McQueen from Malota and Mercedes reveals that she is pregnant and Jacqui asks Mercedes to let her and Tony raise the baby , unaware it 's Tony 's baby but Mercedes has an abortion , infuriating Jacqui so Myra offers to be her surrogate but she refuses . Tina sees how desperate her sister is for a child and offers to be the surrogate , leaving Jacqui and Tony ecstatic about having a future child . At Tina 's scan , Tina 's pregnancy paternity results uncover Russ Owen ( Stuart Manning ) is the baby 's father , not her boyfriend and Jacqui convinces her to keep quiet . Niall Rafferty ( Barry Sloane ) attacks Tina upon discovering she is considering adoption . Tina gives birth to a boy , Max McQueen ( Brayden Haynes @-@ Mawdsley ) naming him after Max Cunningham ( Matt Littler ) and then has to have an emergency hysterectomy . Tina then decides to keep Max . Niall holds all the McQueens ' hostage in a church and when Myra arrives , she soon learns that Niall is her son . Niall says Myra has to choose two children to die and Jacqui tells Mercedes that she cannot watch her die so Mercedes reveals her night of passion with Tony . Myra comes to a tough decision and chooses Jacqui and Carmel to die . Jacqui is devastated and Niall detonates the explosives and blows up the church and Tina dies . Jacqui confronts Mercedes and Tony , only to learn that the baby Mercedes aborted , was in fact Tony 's . This pushes her over the edge . She takes Max from Michaela and refuses to forgive Tony , Mercedes or Myra . Jacqui begins to spend Tony 's money and does anything to hurt him , even by sleeping with Mark Gascoyne ( Craig Russell ) . Jacqui and Tony separate and she realises she needs to forgive Myra . Jacqui 's cousin Theresa McQueen ( Jorgie Porter ) arrives and has sex with Tony . Jacqui attacks Tony and reports him to the police , but Theresa later retracts her statement .
Russ becomes angry with Jacqui for trying to stop him from seeing Max . Russ later runs off with Max abroad . Carmel confesses to Jacqui that she let Russ walk away with Max . Jacqui is angry and goes to see Tony , who agrees to pay for a private investigator to help find Max . Jacqui leaves for France in order to find Max , but is unsuccessful . She starts a relationship with Des Townsend ( Kris Deedigan ) but confesses her love to Tony days before his wedding , Tony rejects her . A photographer publishes naked pictures of her after a drunken photoshoot . Jacqui and Des ' relationship is strained by Jacqui 's naked pictures leaking , her lies and stealing from the school canteen .
Mercedes tells Jacqui she is having an affair with Calvin . Jacqui confronts him and steals a gun from Lauren Valentine ( Dominique Jackson ) . Theresa finds the gun and shoots Calvin . Jacqui decides to cover for Theresa . Jacqui tries to frame Gaz Bennett ( Joel Goonan ) , but Kyle Ryder ( Neil Toon ) is later charged with the murder . Shortly after Des proposes to her , Jacqui discovers that he was a racist from Michaela 's boyfriend Zak Ramsey ( Kent Riley ) . Consequently , for Des , Jacqui declines his proposal and he leaves the village after being arrested alongside his sister Rose .
Jacqui , along with Rhys then gets a new job at Chez Chez , a new bar that is owned by Cheryl and her brother Brendan Brady ( Emmett J Scanlan ) . Jacqui and Rhys unknowingly meet on an internet dating website and fall for each other . Horrified when they find out , they kiss . Jacqui 's cousin Bart McQueen ( Jonny Clarke ) moves into the McQueen household and causes a rift when he steals money from her . This causes Jacqui to move in with Rhys . Jacqui meets gangster Danny and they begin dating despite her feelings for Rhys . She cheats on Danny with Rhys , leaving Danny furious . Jacqui tells Rhys they need to keep their affair secret . However she ends their relationship as Jacqui catches Cheryl Brady ( Bronagh Waugh ) and Rhys having sex . Revengefully , Jacqui gets intoxicated and beds Gilly . She later tells Rhys that Gilly has sexually assaulted her , reports him to the police and he is charged .
Jacqui 's father William Alexander ( Richard Graham ) arrives in the village and asks for a kidney transplant . Jacqui refuses and before learning that Theresa is also her half sister . He leaves shamed when they discover the kidney is needed for his other daughter Emily Alexander ( Elizabeth Henstridge ) . William returns for the trial and she opens up to him . At the trial , Gilly and Jacqui remember the same events very differently . The jury find Gilly not guilty . Rhys tells Jacqui that he believes her and they agree to get married . However realising she is not over her ordeal Jacqui goes to stay with her dad in Spain . Upon her return she agrees to donate a kidney to Emily . When they are not a correct match , Emily tells her they were only interested in her kidney . Jacqui and Rhys marry but their relationship is problematic because Jacqui does not want to be intimate . Jacqui cannot readjust to life in the village . She gets a job working in The Dog . After more arguments Rhys suggests they spend time apart . Jacqui then goes missing , but is later found safe . She goes to see a counsellor and she and Rhys begin to rebuild their relationship .
Rhys and Jacqui find a dog which they keep and call Terry to help Jacqui get over her ordeal . Jacqui and Rhys finally consummate their marriage . Jacqui appears to be getting on with her life when Gilly returns to the village . When Rhys is continually aggressive towards Gilly , Jacqui moves back in with the McQueen 's . Jacqui moves back in with Rhys and they decide to move away from the village . Gilly admits that he raped Jacqui before he leaves the village . Jacqui and Rhys get a lodger Ally Gorman ( Daniel O 'Connor ) to help with the bills and she later clashes with Mercedes after she kisses Rhys .
Jacqui meets homeless teenager Phoebe Jackson ( Mandip Gill ) and invites her to move in to her flat . At Tony and Cindy Cunningham ( Stephanie Waring ) ' s wedding , a bus crashes in to the venue . Rhys becomes trapped under the debris and apologises to Jacqui as he dies in her arms . Jacqui returns home to discover Rhys had planned to leave her and had left a note , detailing his plans to leave her and his affair with a mystery woman . Jacqui becomes suspicious that Cindy was having an affair with Rhys . Jacqui confronts Cindy who is with Bart 's pregnant girlfriend Sinead O 'Connor . She accuses Cindy only for Sinead to confess to having sex with Rhys . Jacqui confronts Sinead and realises Rhys is the father of her baby . She allows Sinead to keep the baby 's paternity a secret when Bart proposes to her . On Christmas Day at the McQueens , which Tony and Cindy have both been invited to , Jacqui discovers items belonging to Rhys in the closet , including his mobile phone , which her family had been hiding from her . She recharges Rhys ' phone and discovers that it was Cindy he was having an affair with . A disgusted Jacqui attacks Cindy with a Santa statue , Cindy recovers in hospital and is persuaded by Tony to keep quiet about attack and say she slipped on the ice . Jacqui drags Cindy from Hospital to Rhys ' grave and warns her to stay away .
Jacqui and Tony get back together until Cindy tells Jacqui that Tony knew about her affair with Rhys leading to Jacqui breaking up with Tony again . Jacqui 's former cellmate Trudy Ryan ( Danniella Westbrook ) arrives and starts causing trouble for Jacqui . Jacqui and Theresa become cleaners for Trudy when they need money but Trudy starts framing Jacqui for theft , planting stolen phones in her bag and paying a security guard to ' rape ' Jacqui - With Trudy ' coming to her rescue ' Just in time and makes a remark about what would have happened if she had actually been raped , to which Jacqui replies " I have " . So Trudy then sits down with Jacqui and tells her she had also been raped by a friend . Both Trudy and Jacqui go back to Jacqui 's and have a heart to heart . Though when Trudy leaves the McQueens ' house after drinking with Jacqui , she smiles wickedly , implying that Trudy has lied . Phoebe also ends up being poisoned by dangerous Vodka of Trudy 's . Jacqui and Tony finally get back together at Chez Chez 's fancy dress party .
When Mercedes gets held to ransom by Clare Devine ( Gemma Bissix ) and wants £ 200 @,@ 000 Jacqui decides she must do whatever she can to help save her . She decides to sell a man , Trevor , an empty van supposing to have vodka in while she gets nana McQueen to sell the actual vodka for £ 50 @,@ 000 but this plan backfires when Phoebe decides to go with her – and find five illegal immigrants in the van . Jacqui lets them free but then has her life threatened by Trevor . Jacqui gets detained by police but it 's Trudy they 're after so Jacqui pretends to be her . But then Trudy gets arrested for human trafficking and leaves the village . With Trevor still after her , Jacqui realises she is no longer safe in Hollyoaks and must leave . But when she finds a stash of money in the loft at Trudy 's office and Trevor walks in , Jacqui is visibly scared . As he advances she manages to knock him to the floor but isn 't quick enough as he gets up and grabs her but Tony comes to the rescue by smashing a monitor over his head . As Jacqui and Tony escape with the money , She kicks an unconscious Trevor and legs it . As she says an emotional goodbye to Phoebe , she has a chat with John Paul and leaves the bag at the stairs for the family to find . As Tony finds Jacqui and tells her he has got Diane O 'Connor ( Alexandra Fletcher ) pregnant Jacqui gets upset and tells Tony It 's not going to be with her and makes him stick by Diane but Tony proposes to Jacqui who turns him down and gets in the taxi leaving Tony devastated .
On 26 April 2013 , Mercedes goes to find Jacqui in Alicante where the two had visited when they were younger . Mercedes finds Jacqui working as a barmaid . At first Jacqui is not happy to see her but the two sit down and have a conversation . Mercedes admits that at first the kidnapping was a scam to get back at Paul Browning ( Joe Thompson ) for supposedly cheating on her and apologizes to Jacqui . At first Jacqui is furious at Mercedes for this and yells at her causing them both to start crying . After insulting Mercedes Jacqui forgives her and tells her that she love her . Jacqui is last seen relaxing by the pool on a sun lounger drinking a cocktail with Mercedes whilst they talk and say their final goodbyes .
In November and December 2014 , Jacqui couldn 't attend Carmel 's funeral , and John @-@ Paul and Ste wedding along with Michaela . In July 2015 , Jacqui decides to not attend her adoptive daughter Phoebe 's funeral , because she is unable to get a flight from Spain and was too upset . However , Jacqui sends flowers .
= = Reception = =
Cooper was nominated for Best Actress at the 2007 Inside Soap Awards and the following year The McQueen 's won the " Best Family " award . She was then nominated for " Best Actress " at the 2010 ceremony . At the 2011 National Television Awards , she received a nomination for " Best Serial Drama Performance " and " Best Actress " at the 2011 British Soap Awards . She was again nominated in the category of " Serial Drama Performance " at the 2012 National Television Awards . On Digital Spy 's 2012 end of year reader poll , Cooper was nominated for " Best Female Soap Actor " and came third with 13 @.@ 7 % of the vote . Virgin Media criticised the character 's dress sense , stating that even though none of the family have style , that Jacqui has the most ' criminal wardrobe ' out of them due to her taste for thigh high boots , skin tight dresses and huge gold earrings . Co @-@ star Kieron Richardson branded Cooper the unsung hero of the cast claiming she deserves more recognition for her work and stated his favourite character is Jacqui . Soap opera reporting website Holy Soap describe Jacqui 's most memorable moment as : " Dealing with Tina 's decision not to give up baby Max , only for her to be killed by long @-@ lost brother Niall . "
Roz Laws of the Sunday Mercury responded negatively to Jacqui 's Promiscuity in 2010 by stating : " I DON 'T like to bandy names about but ... that Jacqui McQueen is a right trollop . " Rhiannon Vivian of the Sunday Mirror describe Jacqui as a " hard @-@ bitten " character . Men 's lifestyle magazine FHM brand Jacqui a " notoriously sexy bad @-@ girl " . On a separate occasion Olly Richards of the magazine stated : " In the soap she always looks a bit hard and like she could definitely beat us up . " Josie Ensor of WalesOnline spoke about Cooper stating : " feisty jailbird character Jacqui has made her infamous on and off screen . " Colin Robertson of newspaper The Sun also agreed with the " feisty brunette " tag . Kris Green of Digital Spy branded Cooper as one of his favourite Hollyoaks actresses due to her portrayal of Jacqui . Dawn Collinson of the Liverpool Echo refers to Jacqui as a " brassy character " . Jaci Stephen of the Daily Mail said that Phoebe appeared to be melting Jacqui 's heart which was " something not normally possible without resorting to use of a blowtorch " . Cooper 's portrayal of Jacqui during the Enjoy The Ride storyline was well received by critics . Inside Soap journalist Sarah said Cooper was one of the " standout performances " and called Cooper one of her " all @-@ time favourite Hollyoaks stars " . All About Soap 's Kerry Barrett said Cooper is " fabulous as always " while her colleague Carena Crawford said " it was Jacqui who made our hearts break as she stayed by her beloved Rhys ’ s side as he died " explaining that Cooper was " absolutely fantastic " during the scenes .
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= Jesus Freak ( song ) =
" Jesus Freak " is a song by the American contemporary Christian music group DC Talk . Released on August 1 , 1995 , it was the lead radio single from ( and lends its name to ) the group 's fourth album . The song was written and produced by Toby McKeehan and Mark Heimermann . Lyrically , the song is about standing up for the belief in Jesus Christ in the midst of persecution . It received largely positive reviews from music critics , including some mainstream music reviewers , and was played on some non @-@ Christian stations . It earned DC Talk three GMA Dove Awards .
= = Origin and lyrics = =
After the success of DC Talk 's third album , Free at Last ( 1992 ) , which was based primarily on hip @-@ hop and pop oriented song writing , the trio decided to innovate their style . Michael Tait , one of the members of DC Talk , said , " I was totally into rock and roll at the time [ ... ] I really wanted to make a rock record . " The band decided to focus on more rock @-@ oriented music , with touches of rap and pop interwoven into the mix . Tait later explained , " We wanted to write songs that would hopefully touch a generation . " DC Talk member Toby McKeehan , writer of the song 's lyrics , wrote the song to be a bold declaration of love for Jesus Christ , even in the midst of persecution . In order to bring the hard @-@ hitting reality of their message to the mainstream , DC Talk combined the raw lyrics with guitar @-@ driven grunge @-@ rock . McKeehan took the song 's title from the derogatory 1970s term " Jesus freak " and turned it on its head ; he noted that when he was looking up the word " freak " in the dictionary , he saw an entry that said " ardent enthusiast " . Since the song and album 's release , many of the group 's fans have donned products with the term " Jesus Freak " .
The first time the band performed the song live , McKeehan only had about a verse written . He later recalled , " We had not yet recorded it for our album , but we had a demo with one verse written . We thought it would be safe to try it [ in South Africa ] . We could not believe the immediate response it got . "
= = Composition = =
" Jesus Freak " begins with acoustic strumming of the main riff written in the key of E minor , followed by guitar distortion as the vocals enter . During this transition , the song moves to the key of F minor . During the verses , which are sung by Michael Tait and Kevin Max respectively , a sparse electric guitar pattern , which outlines the chord progression , is played . During each pre @-@ chorus , McKeehan begins rapping about various people who have been retrospectively labeled as " Jesus Freaks " , such as John the Baptist . After the second chorus , a melodic breakdown is followed by a dissonant guitar solo . Following the repetition of the chorus , the feedback @-@ laden conclusion ends abruptly .
Musically , the song has been described as alternative rock and grunge , with many reviews noting a similarity with the sound of Nirvana . According to the Encyclopedia of American Gospel Music , " Jesus Freak " is believed to be one of the first songs to link alternative rock and rap rock in CCM .
= = Music video = =
The music video for " Jesus Freak " was directed by Simon Maxwell , who also worked on the music video for " Hurt " by Nine Inch Nails . Maxwell 's treatment of the video , reminiscent of his work with Nine Inch Nails , features footage of Christian imagery such as doves and crosses mixed with stock footage of riots , book burnings , hate crimes , a metallic hammer and sickle symbol of Communism , footage of one of Hitler 's speeches and an accompanying Nazi propaganda film projected onto a screen that includes Nazi burnings of " degenerate " materials . Interspersed between the stock footage is video of the band performing the song in a darkened room .
Although the song and video are , on the surface , about expressing one 's belief in Jesus Christ , the band later commented that the song could also be a metaphor for the " preservation of standing up for what you believe in – even in the midst of persecution . "
McKeehan later said that the point of the video was to " push the envelope " for the Christian rock community , and indeed , the song and video proved controversial . Although the song and video were an earnest attempt to " declare a single @-@ hearted faithfulness in Christ in an age when such devotion strikes many as the freakiest kind of fanaticism , " some of the more conservative Christian community members disapproved of the video . The song however , was highly successful on Z Music and managed to achieve air time on MTV .
= = Release and acclaim = =
The song was released as the lead @-@ off single for Jesus Freak in 1995 and received positive comments from music critics . The single was released to alternative and modern rock stations , the band 's first venture into these radio formats . Due to its dark , grunge sound – during an era when alternative rock was ruling the airwaves – the song was even played on some non @-@ Christian stations . As part of the promotion strategy for the song , InterLinc , a Nashville @-@ based Christian music promotion company , sent out over 4 @,@ 000 copies of the CD single to youth pastors , along with Bible study material . Commercially the single was successful ; it initially charted on the Bubbling Under Hot 100 Singles at number 25 with little mainstream radio assistance . The song peaked at number 10 .
" Jesus Freak " received largely positive reviews from music critics . The song was even successful enough to garner praise from secular music reviews . Entertainment Weekly editor Laura Jamison , in a review for the Jesus Freak album , said that DC Talk , " successfully , if derivatively , combines textured vocals , aggressive guitar , and solid songwriting , especially on [ ... ] the raucous title track . " In a review of " Jesus Freak " , the Chicago Tribune said " In considering the group 's artistic merits , it 's time to bury the over @-@ burdened label ' Christian band ' [ ... ] DC Talk deserves to be judged by a different standard . "
In addition to " Colored People " and " Between You and Me " , " Jesus Freak " was considered instrumental in breaking DC Talk into the mainstream . " Jesus Freak " was extremely successful when it came to the GMA Dove Awards . In 1996 , the song won awards for Song of the Year and Rock Recorded Song of the Year . The music video for the song later won the award for Short Form Music Video of the Year in 1997 .
= = Other releases = =
Various version of " Jesus Freak " have appeared on several DC Talk official releases , including the band 's greatest hits album Intermission . A live version of " Jesus Freak " was included on the 1997 live release Welcome to the Freak Show ( 1997 ) . A short , comedic reprise , performed by Michael Tait , is included on the Jesus Freak album . In addition , a remix of the song , available on the " Jesus Freak " single , entitled " Jesus Freak ( Gotee Bros. Freaked Out Remix ) " features a more hip @-@ hop sound , reminiscent of the band 's third album , Free at Last . On August 3 , 2010 , the single was released as downloadable content for Rock Band .
= = = Cover versions = = =
The Newsboys have played this song ever since Tait joined in early 2009 . The band also released a new recording of the song with KJ @-@ 52 on their 2010 album Born Again . On the DC Talk tribute album , Freaked ! ( 2006 ) , both 4th Avenue Jones and Chasing Victory recorded covers of this particular song . " Jesus Freak " has also been covered by Larry Norman . McKeehan , under his stage name TobyMac , also recorded a cover version of the song for his album Alive and Transported . John Jonethis covered the song on his album Lounge Freak .
= = Track listing = =
= = Charts = =
= = Album credits = =
= = Accolades = =
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= Give Me Love ( Give Me Peace on Earth ) =
" Give Me Love ( Give Me Peace on Earth ) " is a song by English musician George Harrison , released as the opening track of his 1973 album Living in the Material World . It was also issued as the album 's lead single , in May that year , and became Harrison 's second US number 1 , after " My Sweet Lord " . In doing so , the song demoted Paul McCartney and Wings ' " My Love " from the top of the Billboard Hot 100 , marking the only occasion that two former Beatles have held the top two chart positions in America . The single also reached the top ten in Britain , Canada , Australia and other countries around the world .
" Give Me Love ( Give Me Peace on Earth ) " is one of its author 's most popular songs , among fans and music critics , and features a series of much @-@ praised slide @-@ guitar solos from Harrison . The recording signalled a deliberate departure from his earlier post @-@ Beatles work , in the scaling down of the big sound synonymous with All Things Must Pass and his other co @-@ productions with Phil Spector over 1970 – 71 . Aside from Harrison , the musicians on the track are Nicky Hopkins , Jim Keltner , Klaus Voormann and Gary Wright . In his lyrics , Harrison sings of his desire to be free of karma and the constant cycle of rebirth ; he later described the song as " a prayer and personal statement between me , the Lord , and whoever likes it " .
Harrison performed " Give Me Love " at every concert during his rare tours as a solo artist , and a live version was included on his 1992 album Live in Japan . The original studio recording appears on the compilation albums The Best of George Harrison ( 1976 ) and Let It Roll : Songs by George Harrison ( 2009 ) . At the Concert for George tribute to Harrison , in November 2002 , Jeff Lynne performed " Give Me Love " with Andy Fairweather @-@ Low and Marc Mann playing the twin slide @-@ guitar parts . Marisa Monte , Dave Davies , Elliott Smith , Ron Sexsmith , Sting , James Taylor and Elton John are among the other artists who have covered the song .
= = Background and inspiration = =
As with most of the songs on his Living in the Material World album , George Harrison wrote " Give Me Love ( Give Me Peace on Earth ) " over 1971 – 72 . During this period , he dedicated himself to assisting refugees of the Bangladesh Liberation War , by staging two all @-@ star benefit concerts in New York and preparing a live album and concert film for release . In addition , much of his time was spent occupied with the business and legal problems afflicting the humanitarian aid project . Author Andrew Grant Jackson writes that Harrison 's frustration with this last issue resulted in a sombre quality pervading much of Material World , yet he " pushed his disillusionment aside for the lead single [ ' Give Me Love ' ] " .
The same period coincided with the height of Harrison 's devotion to Hindu spirituality . As with his religious @-@ themed 1970 – 71 hit , " My Sweet Lord " , and his subsequent singles " What Is Life " and " Bangla Desh " , Harrison wrote " Give Me Love " very quickly . Author Alan Clayson describes it as having " flowed from George with an ease as devoid of ante @-@ start agonies as a Yoko Ono ' think piece ' " . In his autobiography , I , Me , Mine , Harrison recalls of the writing process :
Sometimes you open your mouth and you don 't know what you are going to say , and whatever comes out is the starting point . If that happens and you are lucky , it can usually be turned into a song . This song is a prayer and personal statement between me , the Lord , and whoever likes it .
= = Composition = =
" Give Me Love ( Give Me Peace on Earth ) " continues the precedent that Harrison set on " My Sweet Lord " , through its fusion of the Hindu bhajan ( or devotional song ) with Western gospel tradition . Author Simon Leng comments that the song repeats another of its composer 's hit formulas , by using a three @-@ syllable lyrical hook as its title , like " My Sweet Lord " , " What Is Life " and " Bangla Desh " .
The song 's time signature is 4 / 4 throughout , and the musical key is F major . As on Harrison 's recording , this requires the placing of a capo on the guitar 's third fret , to transpose the chords from D up to the correct key . The intro features strummed acoustic guitar , similar in style to the opening of Bob Dylan 's " Mr. Tambourine Man " . The song builds gradually from its understated introduction , with the rhythm section only fully arriving after the first bridge segment . Harrison biographer Gary Tillery describes the musical mood as " bouncy yet soothing " .
In his lyrics , Harrison expresses his vision for life in the physical world . Following the opening instrumental passage , the song begins with a chorus in which he first pleads for a life devoid of the karmic burden of rebirth , or reincarnation : " Give me love , give me love , give me peace on earth / Give me light , give me life , keep me free from birth . " These lyrics bear a simple , universal message , one that , in the context of the time , related as much to the communal " peace and love " idealism of the 1960s as it did Harrison 's personal spiritual quest .
Harrison also asks for divine assistance to " cope with this heavy load " , while his stated attempt to " touch and reach you with heart and soul " recalls the same plea for a direct relationship with his deity that he expresses in " My Sweet Lord " . These two lines , which complete the chorus , imply a deficiency or unfulfilment on the singer 's part . According to author Ian Inglis , they serve as " an acknowledgment of the trials and tribulations he was facing in a more earthly setting " in the aftermath to the Concert for Bangladesh .
During the two bridge sections , Harrison incorporates the sacred term " Om " within his extended phrase " Oh ... my Lord " . Author Joshua Greene describes this as an example of a theme found in several songs on Material World , whereby Harrison " distilled " spiritual concepts into phrases " so elegant they resembled Vedic sutras : short codes that contain volumes of meaning " . The use of the word " Om " was a further comment from Harrison on the universality of faith , after his switching in " My Sweet Lord " from " hallelujah " refrains to the Hare Krishna mantra . Referring to the second half of the bridges in " Give Me Love " , Inglis views the drawn @-@ out " Please … " as " highly symbolic " , given the " unresolved conflict " that appears to be at the heart of the composition .
= = Recording = =
Harrison 's commitment to overseeing the release of the Concert for Bangladesh documentary film prevented him from being able to start on the follow @-@ up to his All Things Must Pass triple album until midway through 1972 . Another delay was caused by producer Phil Spector 's unreliability , as Harrison waited for him to turn up for the start of the sessions . Author Bruce Spizer writes that " the eccentric producer 's erratic attendance caused George to realize the project would never get done if he kept waiting for Spector " , and by October that year , Harrison had decided to produce the album alone .
As for the majority of Living in the Material World , Harrison recorded the basic track for " Give Me Love " in the autumn of 1972 with the assistance of former Beatles engineer Phil McDonald . The recording location was either FPSHOT , Harrison 's new home studio at Friar Park in Henley @-@ on @-@ Thames , or Apple Studio in London . In a departure from Harrison 's co @-@ productions with Spector , where a large line @-@ up of musicians had been standard , " Give Me Love " featured a pared @-@ down arrangement and more subtle instrumentation . Another contrast was Harrison 's adoption of a production style that partly recalls George Martin 's work with the Beatles . On " Give Me Love " , Inglis notes the same " supple and clear [ acoustic ] guitar @-@ playing that distinguished ' Here Comes the Sun ' " in 1969 , while the less grand production , relative to All Things Must Pass , allowed greater expression for Harrison as a slide guitarist .
Harrison carried out overdubs on the backing track , including twin slide @-@ guitar parts , during the first two months of 1973 . Aside from Harrison 's guitar work , the most prominent instrument on the recording is Nicky Hopkins ' piano , double @-@ tracked and played in his usual melodic style . The rhythm section consisted of bassist Klaus Voormann and drummer Jim Keltner . The organ player on the song was American musician Gary Wright , whose 1971 album Footprint was one of many musical projects in which Harrison was involved between All Things Must Pass and Material World . Peter Lavezzoli , author of The Dawn of Indian Music in the West , comments on how quickly Harrison 's " unique approach " to slide @-@ guitar playing had matured since 1970 , to incorporate sitar , veena and other Hindustani musical stylings , and rates the mid @-@ song solo on " Give Me Love " as " one of his most intricate and melodic " .
= = Release = =
" Give Me Love ( Give Me Peace on Earth ) " was Harrison 's first single in close to two years , after " Bangla Desh " in July 1971 . As with Living in the Material World , however , its release was delayed to allow for other items on Apple Records ' release schedule during the first half of 1973 : the Beatles ' compilations 1962 – 1966 and 1967 – 1970 , and Paul McCartney and Wings ' second album , Red Rose Speedway . In the years since All Things Must Pass , according to author Robert Rodriguez , the public bickering between John Lennon and McCartney and their " subpar " music had done much to diminish the " cachet of being an ex @-@ Beatle " . In his 1977 book The Beatles Forever , Nicholas Schaffner wrote that , because of the altruism inherent in the Bangladesh project compared to the twin " fiascos " of McCartney 's Wild Life album and the Lennon – Ono collaboration Some Time in New York City , " [ a ] receptive audience was guaranteed " for Harrison 's new songs .
Backed by " Miss O 'Dell " , " Give Me Love " was issued on 7 May 1973 in America ( as Apple R 5988 ) and 25 May in Britain ( Apple 1862 ) . Three weeks later , the song appeared as the opening track on Living in the Material World . As with all the songs on the album bar the 1971 @-@ copyright " Sue Me , Sue You Blues " and " Try Some , Buy Some " , Harrison assigned his publishing royalties for " Give Me Love " to his newly launched Material World Charitable Foundation .
Apple 's US distributor , Capitol Records , mastered the single to run at a faster speed than the album track , in order to make the song sound brighter on the radio . Unusually for an Apple release by a former Beatle , the single was packaged in a plain sleeve in the main markets of Britain and the United States . A variety of picture sleeves were available in European countries , including a design incorporating Harrison 's signature and a red Om symbol , both of which were aspects of Tom Wilkes 's artwork for the Material World album .
= = = US chart feat = = =
The single topped the Billboard Hot 100 at the end of June , for one week , and peaked at number 8 on the UK Singles Chart . Repeating the feat of January 1971 , when " My Sweet Lord " and All Things Must Pass sat atop the Billboard charts simultaneously , " Give Me Love " hit number 1 part @-@ way through Material World 's five @-@ week stay at the top of the albums listings .
" Give Me Love ( Give Me Peace on Earth ) " replaced Wings ' " My Love " at number 1 on the Hot 100 singles chart , and in turn was replaced by " Will It Go Round in Circles " , by Harrison 's former Apple Records protégé Billy Preston . For the week ending 30 June that year , the Harrison , McCartney and Preston songs were ranked numbers 1 , 2 and 3 , respectively , on the Billboard Hot 100 , marking the first time since 25 April 1964 that the Beatles occupied the top two positions on that chart . Schaffner described this period as " reminiscent of the golden age of Beatlemania " , due to the amount of Beatles @-@ related product dominating the charts in America . As of October 2013 , the week of 30 June 1973 remained the only time that two former members of the Beatles held the first and second positions on a US singles chart .
= = = Reissue = = =
" Give Me Love " later appeared on the 1976 compilation The Best of George Harrison , as one of just six selections from the artist 's solo career . The song was also included on 2009 's Let It Roll : Songs by George Harrison .
In Martin Scorsese 's 2011 documentary George Harrison : Living in the Material World , released ten years after Harrison 's death , the song plays over footage of the Friar Park grounds and of Harrison making music in the house with Keltner and Voormann . During the segment , Voormann discusses Harrison 's practice of preparing the studio with incense to create a suitable environment , adding : " He really made it into a real tranquil , nice surrounding – everybody felt just great . "
= = Reception = =
= = = Contemporary reviews = = =
" Give Me Love ( Give Me Peace on Earth ) " became one of Harrison 's most popular songs , both from his years with the Beatles and from his subsequent solo career . On release , McCartney described it as " very nice " , adding : " The guitar solo is ace and I like the time changes . " Billboard magazine 's reviewer wrote : " Harrison 's voice and sweet , country tinged guitar work within a rippling but controlled rhythm base , lends itself to this plea for human understanding . His sincere sound engulfs the listener and brings [ them ] into the story . " In Rolling Stone , Stephen Holden lauded the song for its " strong , short @-@ phrased melody whose lyrics are sheer exhortation " , and said that the single was " every bit as good as ' My Sweet Lord ' " .
In Britain , where the national economy was heading into recession after the boom years of the 1960s , lines such as " help me cope with this heavy load " " touched a raw nerve or two " , according to Alan Clayson . In the NME , Tony Tyler derided Harrison for " lay [ ing ] the entire Krishna @-@ the @-@ Goat trip on us " , while Michael Watts of Melody Maker suggested that " Living in the Material World " might have been a better choice for the album 's lead single . Writing in their 1975 book The Beatles : An Illustrated Record , Tyler and Roy Carr said that " Give Me Love " bore " more than a distant resemblance " to Dylan 's " I Want You " , but praised the track for its " excellent and highly idiosyncratic slide @-@ guitar playing " .
= = = Retrospective reviews and legacy = = =
Reviewing the song for AllMusic , Lindsay Planer highlights Harrison 's guitar contribution to this " serene rocker " and likewise acknowledges Hopkins ' " warm and soulful keyboard runs and fills " . Zeth Lundy of PopMatters describes " Give Me Love " as " effervescent " and " a # 1 single that remains one of Harrison 's most iconic and well @-@ loved " . In his liner notes to the Let It Roll compilation , music historian Warren Zanes views " Give Me Love " as " perhaps the best example " of how Harrison 's " post @-@ Beatles songwriting blurs the line between music and prayer without ever sacrificing the pure melodic force for which he was known " .
Mojo contributor John Harris cites " Give Me Love " as evidence of Material World 's standing as " something of a Hindu concept album … a pleasing fusion of Eastern religion , gospel , and the ghost of ' For You Blue ' " . Hugh Fielder of Classic Rock admires Harrison 's " painstaking craftsmanship " and " sublime playing " on this and other Material World tracks and describes it as " one of Harrison 's finest songs " . Writing for Uncut , David Cavanagh considers the album to be a " utopian follow @-@ up " to All Things Must Pass , on which " Give Me Love " " encapsulates the deal : simple message of hope , with gorgeous slide guitar … and fantastic rhythm section " .
Among Harrison and Beatles biographers , Robert Rodriguez recognises Harrison 's achievement in " cloak [ ing ] philosophical concerns in a thoroughly commercial package " , which included his " impossibly compelling slide work " . Simon Leng finds more superlatives for the song 's guitar lines , describing them as " almost too euphonious to be true " . Leng continues : " Living in the Material World could hardly have reveled in a stronger opening song ... A gorgeous ballad , awash with marvelously expressive guitar statements , ' Give Me Love ' retains the emotional power of All Things Must Pass in a compelling three minutes . "
Writing in Still the Greatest : The Essential Solo Beatles Songs , Andrew Grant Jackson considers that with " Give Me Love " , Harrison " captured the essence of what he had set out to do with the [ Bangladesh ] concerts – and what the Beatles had tried to do in their more idealistic moments " . Describing it as Harrison 's " finest plea to God " , with a vocal that " perfectly suits the yearning " implicit in the lyrics , Jackson adds : " ' Give Me Love ( Give Me Peace on Earth ) ' stands alongside ' All You Need Is Love , ' ' Let It Be , ' and ' Imagine ' as the purest expression of the Aquarian Age dream . " In his Harrison obituary for The Guardian in December 2001 , former Melody Maker critic Chris Welch concluded with a reference to the track , saying that the ex @-@ Beatle 's " feelings and needs were best expressed in one of his simplest songs – ' Give Me Love ( Give Me Peace On Earth ) ' " .
In the Concert for George documentary film ( 2003 ) , Eric Clapton names " Give Me Love " as one of his favourite Harrison compositions , along with " Isn 't It a Pity " . AOL Radio listeners voted the track fifth in a 2010 poll to find Harrison 's best post @-@ Beatles songs , while Michael Gallucci of Ultimate Classic Rock placed it fourth on a similar list that he compiled . Guitar World editor Damian Fanelli includes the track among his choice of Harrison 's ten best post @-@ Beatles " Guitar Moments " , praising the mid @-@ song solo as " simply one of the most intricate and melodic things the former Beatle ever played on slide " . David Fricke includes " Give Me Love " in his list of " 25 essential Harrison performances " for Rolling Stone magazine , and describes it as " a soft , intimate hymn , a small @-@ combo reaction to the Wagnerian spectacle of All Things Must Pass " .
= = Performance = =
Harrison performed " Give Me Love ( Give Me Peace on Earth ) " throughout both his 1974 North American tour with Ravi Shankar and his 1991 Japanese tour with Eric Clapton , and during his 1992 benefit show for the Natural Law Party . The latter took place at London 's Royal Albert Hall on 6 April that year and was Harrison 's only full concert as a solo artist in Britain .
In the 1974 shows , the song usually appeared midway through the set and featured Billy Preston 's synthesizer and a flute solo from Tom Scott instead of the familiar slide @-@ guitar breaks . Although widely bootlegged , no version of the song from this tour has been released officially .
= = = Live in Japan version = = =
The Japanese tour in December 1991 was Harrison 's only other tour as a solo artist . His 1992 album Live in Japan contains a version of " Give Me Love " from this tour , recorded at Tokyo Dome on 15 December 1991 . Harrison again delegated the solos to a fellow musician : in this case Andy Fairweather @-@ Low reproduced the slide @-@ guitar parts from the original studio recording . Ian Inglis notes the " impressive interplay " , particularly towards the end of the song , between Harrison and his backup singers , Tessa Niles and Katie Kissoon .
This live version of " Give Me Love " , along with the accompanying concert footage , was subsequently included in the Living in the Material World reissue in September 2006 , as part of a deluxe CD / DVD package . The performance also appears on the DVD included in the eight @-@ disc Apple Years 1968 – 75 box set , released in September 2014 .
= = Cover versions = =
Lindsay Planer writes that two covers of the song " worth noting " are a version by Bob Koenig , issued on his Prose & Icons album in 1996 , and one by Brazilian singer Marisa Monte from the same year . Monte 's version appeared on her album Barulhinho Bom , later released in English @-@ speaking countries as A Great Noise . In 1998 , " Give Me Love ( Give Me Peace on Earth ) " was one of five Harrison songs that composers Steve Wood and Daniel May adapted for their soundtrack to the documentary film Everest ; part of the piece " The Journey Begins " incorporates " Give Me Love " .
Artists other than Harrison who have performed the song live include Elliott Smith and , in April 2002 , Sting , James Taylor and Elton John . These three musicians played " Give Me Love " as part of a tribute to Harrison during the Rock for the Rainforest benefit concert at Carnegie Hall in New York City . In what Planer describes as a " stirring reading " , Jeff Lynne performed the song at the Concert for George on 29 November 2002 , held at the Royal Albert Hall exactly a year after Harrison 's death . Lynne was supported by a band comprising Harrison 's friends and musical associates , including Clapton , Fairweather @-@ Low , Marc Mann , Keltner , Dhani Harrison , Niles and Kissoon .
Dave Davies of the Kinks contributed a version of " Give Me Love " to the multi @-@ artist compilation Songs from the Material World : A Tribute to George Harrison in 2003 . In a statement released in advance of the compilation , Davies explained that he was normally reluctant to perform other artists ' songs yet had made " an exception " with " Give Me Love " , in order to honour Harrison " as a great musical talent but primarily as an advanced soul who was unafraid to share his spiritual vision and journey with us " . Davies subsequently issued the recording on his 2006 album Kinked .
In 2010 , Broadway actress Sherie Rene Scott featured " Give Me Love " in her autobiographical musical Everyday Rapture as the show 's final number . Canadian singer Ron Sexsmith has included the song in his live performances ; a version by him appeared on Harrison Covered , a tribute CD accompanying the November 2011 issue of Mojo magazine .
= = Personnel = =
According to Simon Leng :
George Harrison – vocals , acoustic guitars , slide guitars , backing vocals
Nicky Hopkins – pianos
Gary Wright – organ
Klaus Voormann – bass
Jim Keltner – drums
= = Chart performance = =
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= Ann Rivers =
Ann Rivers ( born 1968 ) is an American politician , who has served as a Republican member of the Washington State Senate since she was appointed to represent the 18th district in 2011 , upon the resignation of Joe Zarelli . Prior to this she was a member of the Washington House of Representatives . In her first full term , a Majority Coalition Caucus was formed , taking control away from the Democrats in the state senate . Rivers was appointed to be majority whip for the session , a rare appointment for a freshman senator . She won re @-@ election for another four @-@ year term in 2012 , with 67 % of the vote against 32 % for her opponent , Ralph Schmidt .
Prior to her holding elected office , Rivers led AMR Consulting , a political consulting firm which aided candidates in their elections for offices , as well as providing political consultation to corporate clients . In 2007 , she was on the short list for candidates to be chosen to replace Richard Curtis in the state house , but Jaime Herrera Beutler was chosen instead . Later , Rivers succeeded Herrera Beutler in the house after the latter 's election to the United States Congress .
= = Early life and career = =
Rivers was born in 1968 in Michigan . She earned a bachelor 's degree in political science from Central Michigan University . After graduating in 1990 , Rivers worked as a 6th grade teacher . In 2002 , she returned to school and graduated from Lewis and Clark College with a secondary teaching certificate .
Though she didn 't run for office herself until much later , she helped Bill Williams in his election to the Alaska legislature in 1992 , and became his chief of staff . During that election , she founded AMR Consulting , a public relations and government affairs consulting firm , which helped in many political campaigns and provided political consultation for corporations . When Representative Richard Curtis resigned from state house in 2007 , Rivers was considered by the Clark County and Lewis County commissions to be a replacement but Jaime Herrera Beutler was chosen instead .
= = State House of Representatives = =
Rivers was elected to the Washington House of Representatives in 2010 succeeding Herrera Beutler after Beutler 's election to the United States Congress . As a state representative , Rivers was the assistant whip for the House Republican Caucus . She also served on the House 's Business and Financial Services Committee , Judiciary Committee , Transportation Committee and Rules Committee . Her website listed communication as being vital as a state representative .
In January 2011 , Rivers was selected to deliver the Republican response to governor Christine Gregoire 's State of the State address . In the address , she listed economic recovery and employment as well as compromise with Gregoire as being the top priorities of her party .
In February , Rivers submitted a bill to provide more funding for food banks and other charitable causes . The bill authorized public utilities to solicit and collect donations from customers to be put towards food programs for the poor . It also made the donations received by utilities separate from gross income , allowing for it to be tax @-@ free . The bill passed in the State House in Feb. 2011 but failed to make it to the Senate floor .
= = State senate = =
= = = Appointment and elections = = =
In June 2012 , about 18 months into her term as a representative , county commissioners appointed Rivers to the state senate to replace Joseph Zarelli , who resigned after 17 years in the senate . Rivers won re @-@ election in the 2012 election to a four @-@ year term , with 67 % of the vote , to 32 % for her opponent , Ralph Schmidt . She outraised by 30 @-@ 1 , with $ 150 @,@ 000 , to just $ 5 @,@ 000 for Schmidt . Rivers ' ideas for improving the economy include making the climate friendlier for business . Her plan includes reducing the burden of worker 's compensation costs for businesses , reducing regulations , and reducing permitting fees .
= = = Tenure = = =
Rivers has spoken strongly about the Columbia River Crossing I @-@ 5 bridge replacement , saying that she disagreed with most everything about the current plan , and that it does not do enough to solve the problem . Willamette Week of Portland labeled Rivers " The CRC killer " for her leadership role in the opposition to the proposed megaproject . Due to their opposition to the project , in July 2013 , Governor Jay Inslee labeled both Rivers and Senator Don Benton from the neighboring 17th district " a brick wall to economic progress and CRC . " Speaking to a group of CRC supports , " The road to this bridge runs through two senators from this region . Those two senators have stymied any progress on this bridge project . … Until that changes , there ’ s not a lot I or you can do about that . "
In early 2012 , Rivers was selected for the Council of State Governments for the Western Legislative Academy . Out of 93 applicants , 39 , including Rivers , were chosen . The academy is a training institute for lawmakers in their first four years of service .
In November 2012 , shortly after entering office , Rivers was appointed to the Republican leadership as the minority whip . When the Majority Coalition Caucus was formed , taking control of the Senate away from the Democrats , Rivers was promoted to majority whip . It is rare for a freshman senator to be appointed to party leadership .
Rivers introduced a bill in February 2013 to exempt nonprofit shooting clubs from paying sales and use taxes when they buy clay pigeons . The bill is cosponsored by Senators Don Benton and Pam Roach . Earlier in February , Rivers also introduced legislation attempting to lower restrictions on initiatives in Washington State , commenting , " If the people take the time to sign their name and say this is something we need to have a look at , we ought to respect that . " Along with cosponsors Roach and Benton , Tim Eyman also is cosponsoring the legislation . In March 2013 , Rivers reprimanded senate Democrats for taking advantage of Janéa Holmquist Newbry 's departure from the senate floor to feed her newborn son , leaving the Democrats in temporary control of the senate floor . Immediately after she left , Democrat David Frockt attempted to pass a bill through the floor . Senator Rivers commented , " I was ashamed that in this day and age they thought they could do that , driving a wedge between a mother and her baby like that . " Commenting on Democrats ' claim to be the party of women and minorities , Rivers said , " Their actions speak so loud that I can 't hear what they are saying . " As part of her duties , Rivers has also hosted high @-@ school aged pages for the Washington State Senate Page Program .
Rivers introduced legislation to increase taxes on medical marijuana . Washington is one of only a few states that has legalized marijuana for both medical and recreational use . Recreational marijuana has a 25 % tax for consumers . However , medical marijuana does not have any taxes . Rivers ' legislation would also force medical marijuana clinics to obtain more permits and waivers .
In June 2013 , fellow state senator Don Benton filed a complaint against Rivers , claiming she had broken a senate floor rule by swearing at him during a floor discussion . Benton also claimed that Rivers had screamed at him on one other occasion , during a Republican caucus . He claimed that he had felt physically threatened , saying , " It was a very uncomfortable feeling . I have been on the receiving end of many heated comments over the years , but I have never before felt the threat of physical violence . " Rivers responded with an apology ; he took issue with some of the wording in the apology and he filed the complaint . Many have come out in support of Rivers , who claims that Benton was harassing her , adding she will , " stand my ground against anyone who attempts to bully , intimidate or threaten me . " Some have labeled Benton a hypocrite , as he recently lifted sanctions against Pam Roach , who had been seen screaming on the floor and had mistreated staff . In a January 2014 decision , officials in the Washington State Legislature have decided both Senators were at fault for the spat . They determined that Benton had harassed Rivers , which provoked her . On the decision , Rivers stated , " I have to conclude that he was trying to bait me into this reaction , which unfortunately he did . ”
At the end of June 2014 , Rivers joined lawmakers including Lieutenant Governor Brad Owen on a state trade mission to Taiwan . Rivers ' district sells more fishing licenses than any other in the state and she would like “ to promote our area as a destination for sport fishing . ”
= = = Clark County Politics = = =
= = = = Freeholder = = = =
In 2013 , Rivers ran for a freeholder position in Clark County 's 1st district . The freeholders are responsible for drafting a new county charter that will , with voter 's approval , turn Clark County into a Charter County . 123 people filed for the 15 freeholder seats . The primary election , held August 5 , was noted for its low turnout ( under 20 % ) , although Rivers garnered enough votes to move on to the general election . In the November 6 election , she was elected with 46 % of the vote in a 5 candidate field and took office on November 26 .
The Board of Freeholders submitted a home rule charter on May 27 which put it on the ballot in the November election . In the November election , the charter was approved with 53 % of the vote .
= = = = Candidacy for Clark County Chair = = = =
In late 2014 and early 2015 , Rivers briefly considered running to be the chair of Clark County , a new position created with the home rule charter that Rivers worked to pass . There is no official rule against serving both as the chair and a state senator , but there were concerns about Rivers ' ability to balance the two offices . In December of 2014 , Rivers officially announced she would run for the office . On March 2 , 2015 , The Columbian reported Rivers would likely be withdrawing from the race later that week . That was confirmed when Rivers released a statement later that day that said Rivers would not be a candidate . Rivers cited the time commitment and desire to stay in the State Senate as reasons for her withdrawal . She was considered the front runner for the office .
= = Personal life = =
Rivers currently resides in La Center , Washington , with her husband , Fred Rivers , a senior account manager for NALCO , and their two children .
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= Norfolk , Virginia =
Norfolk ( / ˈnɔːrfᵿk / NOR @-@ fək , local / ˈnɒfʊk / NOF @-@ uuk ) is an independent city in the Commonwealth of Virginia , United States . At the 2010 census , the population was 242 @,@ 803 ; in 2015 , the population was estimated to be 247 @,@ 189 making it the second @-@ most populous city in Virginia , behind neighboring Virginia Beach .
Norfolk is located at the core of the Hampton Roads metropolitan area , named for the large natural harbor of the same name located at the mouth of Chesapeake Bay . It is one of nine cities and seven counties that constitute the Hampton Roads metro area , officially known as the Virginia Beach @-@ Norfolk @-@ Newport News , VA @-@ NC MSA . The city is bordered to the west by the Elizabeth River and to the north by the Chesapeake Bay . It also shares land borders with the independent cities of Chesapeake to its south and Virginia Beach to its east . One of the oldest of the cities in Hampton Roads , Norfolk is considered to be the historic , urban , financial , and cultural center of the region .
The city has a long history as a strategic military and transportation point . The largest Navy base in the world , Naval Station Norfolk , is located in Norfolk along with one of NATO 's two Strategic Command headquarters . The city also has the corporate headquarters of Norfolk Southern Railway , one of North America 's principal Class I railroads , and Maersk Line , Limited , which manages the world 's largest fleet of US @-@ flag vessels . As the city is bordered by multiple bodies of water , Norfolk has many miles of riverfront and bayfront property , including beaches on the Chesapeake Bay . It is linked to its neighbors by an extensive network of Interstate highways , bridges , tunnels , and three bridge @-@ tunnel complexes — the only bridge @-@ tunnels in the United States .
= = History = =
= = = Colonial years = = =
In 1619 , the Governor for the Virginia Colony , Sir George Yeardley incorporated four jurisdictions , termed citties , for the developed portion of the colony . These formed the basis for colonial representative government in the newly minted House of Burgesses . What would become Norfolk was put under the Elizabeth Cittie incorporation .
In 1634 King Charles I reorganized the colony into a system of shires . The former Elizabeth Cittie became Elizabeth City Shire . After persuading 105 people to settle in the colony , Adam Thoroughgood ( who had immigrated to Virginia in 1622 from King 's Lynn , Norfolk , England ) was granted a large land holding , through the headrights system , along the Lynnhaven River in 1636 .
When the South Hampton Roads portion of the shire was separated , Thoroughgood suggested the name of his birthplace for the newly formed New Norfolk County . One year later , it was split into two counties , Upper Norfolk and Lower Norfolk ( the latter is incorporated within present @-@ day City of Norfolk ) , chiefly on Thoroughgood 's recommendation . This area of Virginia became known as the place of entrepreneurs , including men of the Virginia Company of London .
Norfolk developed in the late 17th century as a " Half Moone " fort was constructed and 50 acres ( 200 @,@ 000 m2 ) were acquired from local natives of the Powhatan Confederacy in exchange for 10 @,@ 000 pounds of tobacco . The House of Burgesses established the " Towne of Lower Norfolk County " in 1680 . In 1691 , a final county subdivision took place when Lower Norfolk County split to form Norfolk County ( included in present @-@ day cities of Norfolk , Chesapeake , and parts of Portsmouth ) and Princess Anne County ( present @-@ day City of Virginia Beach ) .
Norfolk was incorporated in 1705 . In 1730 , a tobacco inspection site was located here . According to the Tobacco Inspection Act the inspection was " At Norfolk Town , upon the fort land , in the County of Norfolk ; and Kemp 's Landing , in Princess Anne , under one inspection . " In 1736 George II granted it a royal charter as a borough . By 1775 , Norfolk developed into what contemporary observers argued was the most prosperous city in Virginia . It was an important port for exporting goods to the British Isles and beyond . In part because of its merchants ' numerous trading ties with other parts of the British Empire , Norfolk served as a strong base of Loyalist support during the early part of the American Revolution . After fleeing the colonial capitol of Williamsburg , Lord Dunmore , the Royal Governor of Virginia , tried to reestablish control of the colony from Norfolk . Dunmore secured small victories at Norfolk but was forced into exile by the American rebels , commanded by Colonel Woodford . His departure brought an end to more than 168 years of British colonial rule in Virginia .
On New Year 's Day , 1776 , Lord Dunmore 's fleet of three ships shelled the city of Norfolk for more than eight hours . The damage from the shells , and fires started by the British and spread by the patriots , destroyed over 800 buildings , almost two @-@ thirds of the city . The patriots destroyed the remaining buildings for strategic reasons in February . Only the walls of Saint Paul 's Episcopal Church survived the bombardment and subsequent fires . A cannonball from the bombardment ( fired by the Liverpool ) remains within the wall of Saint Paul 's .
= = = Nineteenth century = = =
Following recovery from the Revolutionary War 's burning , Norfolk and her citizens struggled to rebuild . In 1804 , another serious fire along the city 's waterfront destroyed some 300 buildings and the city suffered a serious economic setback . During the 1820s , agrarian communities across the American South suffered a prolonged recession , which caused many families to migrate to other areas . Many moved west into the Piedmont , or further into Kentucky and Tennessee . Such migration also followed the exhaustion of soil due to tobacco cultivation in the Tidewater , where it had been the primary commodity crop for generations .
Virginia made some attempts to phase out slavery , and manumissions had increased in the first two decades after the war . Thomas Jefferson Randolph gained passage of an 1832 resolution for gradual abolition in the state , but by that time , increased demand from development in the Deep South created a large internal market for slavery . Invention of the cotton gin in the late 18th century had enabled the profitable cultivation of short @-@ staple cotton in the uplands , which was widely used .
The American Colonization Society proposed to " repatriate " free blacks and freed slaves to Africa by establishing the new colony of Liberia and paying for transportation . But most African Americans wanted to stay in their birthplace of the United States and achieve freedom and rights . For a period , many emigrants to Liberia from Virginia and North Carolina embarked from the port of Norfolk . Joseph Jenkins Roberts , a free person of color native to Norfolk , emigrated via the ACS and later was elected as the first president of Liberia , establishing a powerful family .
On June 7 , 1855 , the 183 @-@ ft. vessel Benjamin Franklin put into Hampton Roads for repairs . She had just sailed from the West Indies where there had been an outbreak of yellow fever . The port health officer ordered the ship quarantined . After eleven days a second inspection found no issues , so she was allowed to dock . A few days later , the first cases of yellow fever were discovered in Norfolk , and a machinist died from the disease on July 8 . By August several people were dying per day , and a third of the city population had fled in the hopes of escaping the epidemic . No one understood how the disease was transmitted . With both Norfolk and Portsmouth being infected , New York banned all traffic from those sites . Neighboring cities also banned residents from Norfolk . The epidemic spread through the city via mosquitoes and poor sanitation , affecting every family and causing widespread panic . The number of infected reached 5 @,@ 000 in September , and by the second week 1 @,@ 500 had died in Norfolk and Portsmouth . As the weather cooled , the outbreak began to wane , leaving a final tally of about 3 @,@ 200 dead . It took the city some time to recover .
In early 1861 , Norfolk voters instructed their delegate to vote for secession . Virginia voted to secede from the Union . In the spring of 1862 , the Battle of Hampton Roads took place off the northwest shore of the city 's Sewell 's Point Peninsula , marking the first fight between two ironclads , the USS Monitor and the CSS Virginia . The battle ended in a stalemate , but changed the course of naval warfare ; from then on , warships were fortified with metal .
In May 1862 , Norfolk Mayor William Lamb surrendered the city to Union General John E. Wool and his forces . They held the city under martial law for the duration of the Civil War . Thousands of slaves from the region escaped to Union lines to gain freedom ; they quickly set up schools in Norfolk to start learning to read and write , years before the end of the war .
= = = 20th century to present = = =
1907 brought both the Virginian Railway and the Jamestown Exposition to Sewell 's Point . The large Naval Review at the Exposition demonstrated the peninsula 's favorable location and laid the groundwork for the world 's largest naval base . Southern Democrats in Congress gained its location here . Commemorating the 300th anniversary of the founding of Jamestown , the exposition featured many prominent officials , including President Theodore Roosevelt , members of Congress , and diplomats from 21 countries . By 1917 , as the US built up to enter World War I , the Naval Air Station Hampton Roads had been constructed on the former exposition grounds .
In the first half of the 20th century , the city of Norfolk expanded its borders through annexation . In 1906 , the city annexed the incorporated town of Berkley , making the city cross the Elizabeth River . In 1923 , the city expanded to include Sewell 's Point , Willoughby Spit , the town of Campostella , and the Ocean View area . The city included the Navy Base and miles of beach property fronting on Hampton Roads and Chesapeake Bay . After a smaller annexation in 1959 , and a 1988 land swap with Virginia Beach , the city assumed its current boundaries .
With the dawn of the Interstate Highway System following World War II , new highways were constructed in the region . A series of bridges and tunnels , constructed during fifteen years , linked Norfolk with the Peninsula , Portsmouth , and Virginia Beach . In 1952 , the Downtown Tunnel opened to connect Norfolk with the city of Portsmouth . The highways also stimulated development of new housing in suburbs , leading to the population spreading out . Additional bridges and tunnels included the Hampton Roads Bridge @-@ Tunnel in 1957 , the Midtown Tunnel in 1962 , and the Virginia Beach @-@ Norfolk Expressway ( Interstate 264 and State Route 44 ) in 1967 . In 1991 , the new Downtown Tunnel / Berkley Bridge complex opened a new system of multiple lanes of highway and interchanges connecting Downtown Norfolk and Interstate 464 with the Downtown Tunnel tubes .
In 1954 the Supreme Court ruled in Brown v. Board of Education that segregated public schools were unconstitutional , as the public system was supported by all taxpayers . It ordered integration , but Virginia pursued a policy of " massive resistance " . ( At this time , most black citizens were still disfranchised under the state 's turn @-@ of @-@ the @-@ century constitution and discriminatory practices related to voter registration and elections . ) The Virginia General Assembly prohibited state funding for integrated public schools .
In 1958 , United States district courts in Virginia ordered schools to open for the first time on a racially integrated basis . In response , Governor James Lindsay Almond , Jr. ordered the schools closed . The Virginia Supreme Court of Appeals declared the state law to be in conflict with the state constitution and ordered all public schools to be funded , whether integrated or not . About 10 days later , Almond capitulated and asked the General Assembly to rescind several " massive resistance " laws . In September 1959 , 17 black children entered six previously segregated Norfolk public schools . Virginian @-@ Pilot editor Lenoir Chambers editorialized against massive resistance and earned the Pulitzer Prize for Editorial Writing .
With new suburban developments beckoning , many white middle @-@ class residents moved out of the city along new highway routes , and Norfolk 's population fell , a pattern repeated in numerous cities in the postwar era independently of segregation issues . In the late 1960s and early 1970s , the advent of newer suburban shopping destinations along with freeways spelled demise for the fortunes of downtown 's Granby Street commercial corridor , located just a few blocks inland from the waterfront . The opening of malls and large shopping centers drew off retail business from Granby Street .
Norfolk 's city leaders began a long push to revive its urban core . While Granby Street underwent decline , Norfolk city leaders focused on the waterfront and its collection of decaying piers and warehouses . Many obsolete shipping and warehousing facilities were demolished . In their place , planners created a new boulevard , Waterside Drive , along which many of the high @-@ rise buildings in Norfolk 's skyline have been erected . In 1983 the city and The Rouse Company developed the Waterside festival marketplace to attract people back to the waterfront and catalyze further downtown redevelopment . Other facilities opened in the ensuing years , including the Harbor Park baseball stadium , home of the Norfolk Tides Triple @-@ A minor league baseball team . In 1995 , the park was named the finest facility in minor league baseball by Baseball America . Norfolk 's efforts to revitalize its downtown have attracted acclaim from economic development and urban planning circles throughout the country . Downtown 's rising fortunes helped to expand the city 's revenues and allowed the city to direct attention to other neighborhoods .
= = Geography = =
According to the United States Census Bureau , the city has a total area of 96 square miles ( 250 km2 ) , of which 54 square miles ( 140 km2 ) is land and 42 square miles ( 110 km2 ) ( 43 @.@ 9 % ) is water . Norfolk is located at 36 ° 55 ′ N 76 ° 12 ′ W ( 36 @.@ 8857 ° N , 76 @.@ 2599 ° W )
The city is located at the southeastern corner of Virginia at the junction of the Elizabeth River and Chesapeake Bay . The Hampton Roads Metropolitan Statistical Area ( officially known as the Virginia Beach @-@ Norfolk @-@ Newport News , VA @-@ NC MSA ) is the 37th largest in the United States , with an estimated population of 1 @,@ 716 @,@ 624 in 2014 . The area includes the Virginia cities of Norfolk , Virginia Beach , Chesapeake , Hampton , Newport News , Poquoson , Portsmouth , Suffolk , Williamsburg , and the counties of Gloucester , Isle of Wight , James City , Mathews , and York , as well as the North Carolina counties of Currituck and Gates . The city of Norfolk is recognized as the central business district , while the Virginia Beach oceanside resort district and Williamsburg are primarily centers of tourism . Virginia Beach is the most populated city within the MSA though it functions more as a suburb . Additionally , Norfolk is part of the Virginia Beach @-@ Norfolk , VA @-@ NC Combined Statistical Area , which includes the Virginia Beach @-@ Norfolk @-@ Newport News , VA @-@ NC MSA , the Elizabeth City , North Carolina Micropolitan Statistical Area , and the Kill Devil Hills , NC Micropolitan Statistical Area . The CSA is the 32nd largest in the nation with a 2013 estimated population of 1 @,@ 810 @,@ 266 .
In addition to extensive riverfront property , Norfolk has miles of bayfront resort property and beaches in the Willoughby Spit and Ocean View communities .
Being low @-@ lying and largely surrounded by water , Norfolk is particularly vulnerable to rising sea levels . In addition , the land on which it is built is slowly subsiding . Some areas already flood regularly at high tide , and the city commissioned a study in 2012 to investigate how to address the issue in the future : it reported the cost of dealing with a sea @-@ level rise of one foot would be around one billion dollars . Since then , in 2013 , scientists at the Virginia Institute of Marine Science have estimated that if current trends hold , the sea in Norfolk will rise by 5 1 / 2 feet or more by the end of this century .
= = = Cityscape = = =
When Norfolk was first settled , homes were made of wood and frame construction , similar to most medieval English @-@ style homes . These homes had wide chimneys and thatch roofs . Some decades after the town was first laid out in 1682 , the Georgian architectural style , which was popular in the South at the time , was used . Brick was considered more substantial construction ; patterns were made by brick laid and Flemish bond . This style evolved to include projecting center pavilions , Palladian windows , balustraded roof decks , and two @-@ story porticoes . By 1740 , homes , warehouses , stores , workshops , and taverns began to dot Norfolk 's streets .
Norfolk was burned down during the Revolutionary War . After the Revolution , Norfolk was rebuilt in Federal style , based on Roman ideals . Federal @-@ style homes kept Georgian symmetry , though they had more refined decorations to look like New World homes . Federal homes had features such as narrow sidelights with an embracing fanlight around the doorway , giant porticoes , gable or flat roofs , and projecting bays on exterior walls . Rooms were oval , elliptical or octagonal . Few of these federal rowhouses remain standing today . A majority of buildings were made of wood and had simple construction .
In the early 19th century , Neoclassical architectural elements began to appear in the federal style row homes , such as iconic columns in the porticoes and classic motifs over doorways and windows . Many Federal @-@ style row houses were modernized by placing a Greek @-@ style porch at the front . Greek and Roman elements were integrated into public buildings such as the old City Hall , the old Norfolk Academy , and the Customs House .
Greek @-@ style homes gave way to Gothic Revival in the 1830s , which emphasized pointed arches , steep gable roofs , towers and tracer @-@ lead windows . The Freemason Baptist Church and St. Mary 's Catholic Church are examples of Gothic Revival . Italianate elements emerged in the 1840s including cupolas , verandas , ornamental brickwork , or corner quoins . Norfolk still had simple wooden structures among its more ornate buildings .
High @-@ rise buildings were first built in the late 19th century when structures such as the current Commodore Maury Hotel and the Royster Building were constructed to form the initial Norfolk skyline . Past styles were revived during the early years of the 20th century . Bungalows and apartment buildings became popular for those living in the city .
As the Great Depression wore on , Art Deco emerged as a popular building style , as evidenced by the Post Office building downtown . Art Deco consisted of streamlined concrete faced appearance with smooth stone or metal , with terracotta , and trimming consisting of glass and colored tiles .
= = = Neighborhoods = = =
Norfolk has a variety of historic neighborhoods . Some neighborhoods , such as Berkley , were formerly cities and towns . Others , such as Willoughby Spit and Ocean View , have a long history tied to the Chesapeake Bay . Today , neighborhoods such as Downtown , Ghent and Fairmount Park have transformed with the revitalization that the city has undergone .
= = = Climate = = =
Norfolk has a humid subtropical climate with moderate changes of seasons . Spring arrives in March with mild days and cool nights , and by late May , the temperature has warmed up considerably to herald warm summer days . Summers are consistently warm and humid , but the nearby Atlantic Ocean often exercises a slight cooling effect on daytime high temperatures , but a slight warming effect on nighttime low temperatures ( compared to areas farther inland ) . As such , Norfolk has occasional days over 90 ° F ( 32 ° C ) . Temperatures over 100 F. are rare , but can occur on occasion . On average , July is the warmest month , and August is the year 's wettest month , due to still @-@ frequent summer thunderstorm activity combined with a rising frequency ( in August ) of tropical activity ( hurricanes and tropical storms ) , which can bring high winds and heavy rains . These usually brush Norfolk and only occasionally make landfalls in the area ; the highest @-@ risk period is mid @-@ August to the end of September . Fall is marked by mild to warm days and cooler nights . Winter is usually mild in Norfolk , with average winter days featuring lows near or slightly above freezing and highs in the upper 40s to mid 50s ( 8 to 13 ° C ) . On average , the coldest month of the year is January . Norfolk 's record high was 105 ° F ( 41 ° C ) on August 7 , 1918 and July 24 and 25 , 2010 , and record low was − 3 ° F ( − 19 ° C ) recorded on January 21 , 1985 . Snow occurs sporadically , with an average annual accumulation of 5 @.@ 8 inches .
= = Demographics = =
As of the census of 2010 , there were 242 @,@ 803 people , 86 @,@ 210 households , and 51 @,@ 898 families residing in the city . The population density was 4 @,@ 362 @.@ 8 people per square mile ( 1 @,@ 684 @.@ 4 / km2 ) . There were 94 @,@ 416 housing units at an average density of 1 @,@ 757 @.@ 3 per square mile ( 678 @.@ 5 / km2 ) . The racial makeup of the city was 47 @.@ 1 % White , 43 @.@ 1 % African American , 0 @.@ 5 % Native American , 3 @.@ 3 % Asian , 0 @.@ 2 % Pacific Islander , 2 @.@ 2 % from other races , and 3 @.@ 6 % from two or more races . Hispanics or Latinos of any race were 6 @.@ 6 % of the population . Non @-@ Hispanic Whites were 44 @.@ 3 % of the population in 2010 , down from 68 @.@ 5 % in 1970 .
There were 86 @,@ 210 households out of which 30 @.@ 3 % had children under the age of 18 living with them , 36 @.@ 9 % were married couples living together , 18 @.@ 8 % had a female householder with no husband present , and 39 @.@ 8 % were non @-@ families . 30 @.@ 2 % of all households were made up of individuals and 9 @.@ 6 % had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older . The average household size was 2 @.@ 45 and the average family size was 3 @.@ 07 .
The age distribution was 24 @.@ 0 % under the age of 18 , 18 @.@ 2 % from 18 to 24 , 29 @.@ 9 % from 25 to 44 , 16 @.@ 9 % from 45 to 64 , and 10 @.@ 9 % who were 65 years of age or older . The median age was 30 years . For every 100 females there were 104 @.@ 6 males . For every 100 females age 18 and over , there were 104 @.@ 8 males . This large gender imbalance is due to the military presence in the city , most notably Naval Station Norfolk .
The median income for a household in the city was $ 31 @,@ 815 , and the median income for a family was $ 36 @,@ 891 . Males had a median income of $ 25 @,@ 848 versus $ 21 @,@ 907 for females . The per capita income for the city was $ 17 @,@ 372 . About 15 @.@ 5 % of families and 19 @.@ 4 % of the population were below the poverty line , including 27 @.@ 9 % of those under age 18 and 13 @.@ 2 % of those age 65 or over .
For the year of 2007 , Norfolk had a total crime index of 514 @.@ 7 per 100 @,@ 000 residents . This was above the national average of 320 @.@ 9 that year . For 2007 , the city experienced 48 homicides , for a murder rate of 21 @.@ 1 per 100 @,@ 000 residents . Total crime had decreased when compared to the year 2000 , which the city had a total crime index of 546 @.@ 3 . The highest murder rate Norfolk has experienced for the 21st century was in 2005 when its rate was 24 @.@ 5 per 100 @,@ 000 residents . For the year 2007 per 100 @,@ 000 , Norfolk experienced 21 @.@ 1 murders , 42 @.@ 6 rapes , 399 @.@ 3 robberies , 381 @.@ 3 assaults , 743 @.@ 3 burglaries , and 450 @.@ 6 automobile thefts . According to the Congressional Quarterly Press ' 2008 City Crime Rankings : Crime in Metropolitan America , Norfolk , Virginia , ranked as the 87th most dangerous city larger than 75 @,@ 000 inhabitants .
= = Economy = =
Since Norfolk serves as the commercial and cultural center for the unusual geographical region of Hampton Roads ( and in its political structure of independent cities ) , it can be difficult to separate the economic characteristics of Norfolk from that of the region as a whole .
The waterways which almost completely surround the Hampton Roads region play an important part in the local economy . As a strategic location at the mouth of the Chesapeake Bay , its protected deep @-@ water channels serve as a major trade artery for the import and export of goods from across the Mid @-@ Atlantic , Mid @-@ West , and internationally .
In addition to commercial activities , Hampton Roads is a major military center , particularly for the United States Navy , and Norfolk serves as the home for Naval Station Norfolk , the world 's largest naval installation . Located on Sewell 's Point Peninsula , in the northwest corner of the city , the station is the headquarters of the United States Fleet Forces Command ( formerly known as the Atlantic Fleet ) , which compromises over 62 @,@ 000 active duty personnel , 75 ships , and 132 aircraft . The base also serves as the headquarters to NATO 's Allied Command Transformation .
The region also plays an important role in defense contracting , with particular emphasis in the shipbuilding and ship repair businesses for the city of Norfolk . Major private shipyards located in Norfolk or the Hampton Roads area include : Huntington Ingalls Industries ( formerly Northrop Grumman Newport News ) in Newport News , BAE Systems Norfolk Ship Repair , General Dynamics NASSCO Norfolk , and Colonna 's Shipyard Inc . , while the US Navy 's Norfolk Naval Shipyard is just across the Downtown Tunnel in Portsmouth . Most contracts fulfilled by these shipyards are issued by the Navy , though some private commercial repair also takes place . Over 35 % of Gross Regional Product ( which includes the entire Norfolk @-@ Newport News @-@ Virginia Beach MSA ) , is attributable to defense spending , and that 75 % of all regional growth since 2001 is attributable to increases in defense spending .
After the military , the second largest and most important industry for Hampton Roads and Norfolk based on economic impact are the region 's cargo ports . Headquartered in Norfolk , the Virginia Port Authority ( VPA ) is a Commonwealth of Virginia owned @-@ entity that , in turn , owns and operates three major port facilities in Hampton Roads for break @-@ bulk and container type cargo . In Norfolk , Norfolk International Terminals ( NIT ) represents one of those three facilities and is home to the world 's largest and fastest container cranes . Together , the three terminals of the VPA handled a total of over 2 million TEUs and 475 @,@ 000 tons of breakbulk cargo in 2006 , making it the second busiest port on the east coast of North America by total cargo volume after the Port of New York and New Jersey .
In addition to NIT , Norfolk is home to Lambert 's Point Docks , the largest coal trans @-@ shipment point in the Northern Hemisphere , with annual throughput of approximately 48 million tons . Bituminous coal is primarily sourced from the Appalachian mountains in western Virginia , West Virginia , and Kentucky . The coal is loaded onto trains and sent to the port where it is unloaded onto large breakbulk cargo ships and destined for New England , Europe , and Asia .
Between 1925 and 2007 , Ford Motor Company operated Norfolk Assembly , a manufacturing plant located on the Elizabeth River that had produced the Model T , sedans and station wagons before building F @-@ 150 pick @-@ up trucks . Before it closed , the plant employed more than 2 @,@ 600 people at the 2 @,@ 800 @,@ 000 @-@ square @-@ foot ( 260 @,@ 000 m2 ) facility .
Most major shipping lines have a permanent presence in the region with some combination of sales , distribution , and / or logistical offices , many of which are located in Norfolk . In addition , many of the largest international shipping companies have chosen Norfolk as their North American headquarters . These companies are either located at the Norfolk World Trade Center building or have constructed buildings in the Lake Wright Executive Center office park . The French firm CMA CGM , the Israeli firm Zim Integrated Shipping Services , and Maersk Line Limited , a subsidiary of the world 's largest shipping line , A. P. Moller @-@ Maersk Group , have their North American headquarters in Norfolk . Major companies headquartered in Norfolk include Norfolk Southern , Landmark Communications , Dominion Enterprises , FHC Health Systems ( parent company of ValueOptions ) , Portfolio Recovery Associates , and BlackHawk Products Group .
Though Virginia Beach and Williamsburg have traditionally been the centers of tourism for the region , the rebirth of downtown Norfolk and the construction of a cruise ship pier at the foot of Nauticus in downtown has driven tourism to become an increasingly important part of the city 's economy . The number of cruise ship passengers who visited Norfolk increased from 50 @,@ 000 in 2003 , to 107 @,@ 000 in 2004 and 2005 . Also in April 2007 , the city completed construction on a $ 36 million state @-@ of @-@ the @-@ art cruise ship terminal alongside the pier . Partly due to this construction , passenger counts dropped to 70 @,@ 000 in 2006 , but is expected to rebound to 90 @,@ 000 in 2007 , and higher in later years . Unlike most cruise ship terminals which are located in industrial areas , the downtown location of Norfolk 's terminal has received favorable reviews from both tourists and the cruise lines who enjoy its proximity to the city 's hotels , restaurants , shopping , and cultural amenities .
Hampton Roads is home to four Fortune 500 companies . Representing the food industry , transportation , retail and shipbuilding , these four companies are located in Smithfield , Norfolk , Chesapeake and Newport News .
213 Smithfield Foods
247 Norfolk Southern
346 Dollar Tree
380 Huntington Ingalls Industries
= = = Top employers = = =
According to a report published by the Virginia Employment Commission , below are the top employers in Norfolk :
= = Arts and culture = =
Norfolk is the cultural heart of the Hampton Roads region . In addition to its museums , Norfolk is the principal home for several major performing arts companies . Norfolk also plays host to numerous yearly festivals and parades , mostly at Town Point Park in downtown .
The Chrysler Museum of Art , located in the Ghent district , is the region 's foremost art museum and is considered by The New York Times to be the finest in the state . Of particular note is the extensive glass collection , the Glass Studio , the Moses Myers House , and American neoclassical marble sculptures . The museum 's main building is undergoing expansion and renovation and is expected to reopen in April 2014 . During the renovation the Glass Studio and the Moses Myers House will remain open and art will be displayed at venues throughout the community .
Nauticus , the National Maritime Center , opened on the downtown waterfront in 1994 . It features hands @-@ on exhibits , interactive theaters , aquaria , digital high @-@ definition films and an extensive variety of educational programs . Since 2000 , Nauticus has been home to the battleship USS Wisconsin , the last battleship to be built in the United States . It served briefly in World War II and later in the Korean and Gulf Wars .
The MacArthur Memorial , located in the 19th century Norfolk court house and city hall in downtown , contains the tombs of the late General and his wife , a museum and a vast research library , personal belongings ( including his famous corncob pipe ) and a short film that chronicles the life of the famous General of the Army .
People for the Ethical Treatment of Animals ( PETA ) , the world 's largest animal rights organization , is based in Norfolk .
The Hermitage Foundation Museum , located in an early 20th @-@ century Tudor @-@ style home on a 12 @-@ acre ( 49 @,@ 000 m2 ) estate fronting the Lafayette River , features an eclectic collection of Asian and Western art , including Chinese bronze and ceramics , Persian rugs , and ivory carvings . Norfolk has a variety of performing groups with regular seasons .
The Virginia Opera was founded in Norfolk in 1974 . Its artistic director since its inception has been Peter Mark , who conducted his 100th opera production for the VOA in 2008 . Though performances are staged statewide , the company 's principal venue is the Harrison Opera House in the Ghent district .
The Virginia Stage Company , founded in 1968 , is one of the country 's leading regional theaters and produces a full season of plays in the Wells Theatre downtown . The company shares facilities with the Governor 's School for the Arts .
The Virginia Symphony Orchestra , founded in 1920 and directed by JoAnn Falletta , has been a regular staple on the regional fine arts scene . Most Norfolk performances take place at Chrysler Hall in the Scope complex downtown . The orchestra also provides musicians for many other performing arts organizations in the area .
Large @-@ scale concerts are held at either the Norfolk Scope arena or the Ted Constant Convocation Center at ODU , while The Norva provides a more intimate atmosphere for smaller groups . Other Norfolk cultural venues include the Attucks Theatre , the Jeanne and George Roper Performing Arts Canter ( formerly the Loew 's State Theater ) and the Naro Expanded Cinema .
The revitalization of downtown Norfolk has helped to improve the Hampton Roads cultural scene . In particular , a large number of clubs , representing a wide range of music interests and sophistication now line the lower Granby Street area .
Norfolk celebrates the rich ethnic diversity of its population with sights , sounds , attractions and special events that pay tribute to the city 's long multicultural heritage .
= = Sports = =
Norfolk serves as home to the two highest level professional franchises in the state of Virginia — the Norfolk Tides plays Triple @-@ A baseball in the International League , and the Norfolk Admirals play ice hockey in the ECHL . Norfolk has two universities with Division I sports teams — the Old Dominion Monarchs and the Norfolk State University Spartans , which provide many sports including football , basketball , and baseball .
From 1970 to 1976 , Norfolk served as home court ( along with Hampton , Richmond and Roanoke ) for the Virginia Squires regional professional basketball franchise of the now @-@ defunct American Basketball Association ( ABA ) . From 1970 to 1971 , the Squires played their Norfolk home games at the Old Dominion University Fieldhouse . In November 1971 , the Virginia Squires played their Norfolk home games at the new Norfolk Scope arena , until the team and the ABA league folded in May 1976 .
In 1971 , Norfolk built an entertainment and sports complex , featuring Chrysler Hall and the 13 @,@ 800 @-@ seat Norfolk Scope indoor arena , located in the northern section of downtown . Norfolk Scope has served as a venue of major events including the American Basketball Association 's All @-@ Star Game in 1974 , and the first and second NCAA Women 's Division I Basketball Championships ( also known as the Women 's Final Four ) in 1982 and 1983 .
Norfolk is also home to the Norfolk Blues Rugby Football Club .
= = Parks and recreation = =
Town Point Park in downtown plays host to a wide variety of annual events from early spring through late fall . Harborfest , the region 's largest annual festival , celebrated its 30th year in 2006 . It is held during the first weekend of June and celebrates the region 's proximity and attachment to the water . The Parade of Sail ( numerous tall sailing ships from around the world form in line and sail past downtown before docking at the marina ) , music concerts , regional food , and a large fireworks display highlight this three @-@ day festival . Bayou Boogaloo and Cajun Food Festival , a celebration of the Cajun people and culture , had small beginnings . This three @-@ day festival during the third week of June has become one of the largest in the region and , in addition to serving up Cajun cuisine , also features Cajun music . Norfolk 's Fourth of July celebration of American independence , contains a spectacular fireworks display and a special Navy reenlistment ceremony . The Norfolk Jazz Festival , though smaller by comparison to some of the big city jazz festivals , still manages to attract the country 's top jazz performers . It is held in August . The Town Point Virginia Wine Festival has become a showcase for Virginia @-@ produced wines and has enjoyed increasing success over the years . Virginia 's burgeoning wine industry has become noted both within the United States and on an international level . The festival has grown with the industry . Wines can be sampled and then purchased by the bottle and / or case directly from the winery kiosks . This event takes place during the third weekend of October . There is also a Spring Wine Festival held during the second weekend of May . Nearby are the museum ship USS Wisconsin ( BB @-@ 64 ) and Wisconsin Square .
The St. Patrick 's Day annual parade in the city 's Ocean View neighborhood , celebrates Ocean View 's rich Irish heritage .
Norfolk has a variety of parks and open spaces in its city parks system . The city maintains three beaches on its north shore in the Ocean View area . Five additional parks contain picnic facilities and playgrounds for children . The city also has some community pools open to city citizens .
The Norfolk Botanical Garden , opened in 1939 , is a 155 @-@ acre ( 0 @.@ 6 km2 ) botanical garden and arboretum located near the Norfolk International Airport . It is open year round .
The Virginia Zoological Park , opened in 1900 , is a 65 @-@ acre ( 260 @,@ 000 m2 ) zoo with hundreds of animals on display , including the critically endangered Siberian tiger and threatened white rhino .
The city is also known for its " Mermaids on Parade , " a public art program launched in 2002 to place mermaid statues all over the city . Tourists can take a walking tour of downtown and locate 17 mermaids while others can be found further afield .
= = Government = =
Norfolk is an independent city with services that both counties and cities in Virginia provide , such as a sheriff , social services , and a court system . Norfolk operates under a council @-@ manager form of government .
Norfolk city government consists of a city council with representatives from seven districts serving in a legislative and oversight capacity , as well as a popularly elected , at @-@ large mayor . The city manager serves as head of the executive branch and supervises all city departments and executing policies adopted by the Council . Citizens in each of the five wards elect one council representative each to serve a four @-@ year term . There are two additional council members elected from two city @-@ wide " Superwards . " The city council meets at City Hall weekly and , as of May 2012 , consists of : Mayor Paul D. Fraim ; Alveta V. Green , Ward 3 ; Vice Mayor Angelia Williams , Superward 7 ; Paul R. Riddick , Ward 4 ; Dr. Theresa W. Whibley , Ward 2 ; Andrew A. Protogyrou , Ward 1 ; Barclay C. Winn , Superward 6 ; Thomas R. Smigiel , Jr . , Ward 5 .
City government has infrastructure to create close working relationships with its citizens . Norfolk 's city government provides services for neighborhoods , including service centers and civic leagues that interact directly with members of City Council . Such services include preserving area histories , home rehabilitation centers , outreach programs , and a university that trains citizens in neighborhood clean @-@ up , event planning , neighborhood leadership , and financial planning . Norfolk 's police department also provides support for neighborhood watch programs including a citizens ' training academy , security design , a police athletic program for youth , and business watch programs .
Norfolk also has a federal courthouse for the United States District Court for the Eastern District of Virginia . The Walter E. Hoffman U.S. Courthouse in Norfolk has four judges , four magistrate judges , and two bankruptcy judges . Additionally , Norfolk has its own General District and Circuit Courts which convene downtown .
Norfolk is located in the Virginia 's 2nd congressional district , served by U.S. Representative Scott Rigell ( Republican ) and in the Virginia 's 3rd congressional district , served by U.S. Representative Robert C. Scott ( Democrat ) .
= = Education = =
Norfolk City Public Schools , the public school system , comprises five high schools , eight middle schools , 34 elementary schools , and nine special @-@ purpose / preschools . In 2005 , Norfolk Public Schools won the $ 1 million Broad Prize for Urban Education award for having demonstrated , " the greatest overall performance and improvement in student achievement while reducing achievement gaps for poor and minority students " . The city had previously been nominated in 2003 and 2004 . There are also a number of private schools located in the city , the oldest of which , Norfolk Academy , was founded in 1728 . Religious schools located in the city include St. Pius X Catholic School , Alliance Christian School , Christ the King School , Norfolk Christian Schools and Trinity Lutheran School . The City also hosts the Governor 's School for the Arts which holds performances and classes at the Wells Theatre .
Norfolk is home to three public universities and one private . It also hosts a community college campus in downtown . Old Dominion University , founded as the Norfolk Division of the College of William and Mary in 1930 , became an independent institution in 1962 and now offers degrees in 68 undergraduate and 95 ( 60 masters / 35 doctoral ) graduate degree programs . Eastern Virginia Medical School , founded as a community medical school by the surrounding jurisdictions in 1973 , is noted for its research into reproductive medicine and is located in the region 's major medical complex in the Ghent district . Norfolk State University founded in 1935 is the largest HBCU in Virginia . Norfolk State offers degrees in a wide variety of liberal arts , Social Work , Nursing , and Engineering . Virginia Wesleyan College is a small private liberal arts college , and shares its eastern border with the neighboring city of Virginia Beach . Tidewater Community College offers two @-@ year degrees and specialized training programs , and is located in downtown . Additionally , several for @-@ profit schools operate in the city .
= = Norfolk Public Library = =
Norfolk Public Library , Virginia 's first public library , consists of one main library , one anchor library , ten branch libraries and a bookmobile . The library also has a local history and genealogy room and contains government documents dating back to the 19th century . The libraries offer services such as computer classes , book reviews , tax forms , and online book clubs .
= = Media = =
Norfolk 's daily newspaper is The Virginian @-@ Pilot . Its alternative papers include the ( now defunct ) Port Folio Weekly , the New Journal and Guide , and the online AltDaily.com. Inside Business serves the regional business community with local business news .
Local universities publish their own newspapers : Old Dominion University 's Mace and Crown , Norfolk State University 's The Spartan Echo , and Virginia Wesleyan College 's Marlin Chronicles .
Hampton Roads Magazine serves as a bi @-@ monthly regional magazine for Norfolk and the Hampton Roads area .
HamptonRoadsTimes.com serves as an online magazine for Norfolk and the Hampton Roads area .
Norfolk is served by a variety of radio stations on the AM and FM dials , with towers located around the Hampton Roads area . These cater to many different interests , including news , talk radio , and sports , as well as an eclectic mix of musical interests .
Norfolk is served by several television stations . The Hampton Roads designated market area ( DMA ) is the 42nd largest in the U.S. with 712 @,@ 790 homes ( 0 @.@ 64 % of the total U.S. ) . The major network television affiliates are WTKR @-@ TV 3 ( CBS ) , WAVY 10 ( NBC ) , WVEC @-@ TV 13 ( ABC ) , WGNT 27 ( CW ) , WTVZ 33 ( MyNetworkTV ) , WVBT 43 ( Fox ) , and WPXV 49 ( Ion Television ) . The Public Broadcasting Service station is WHRO @-@ TV 15 . Norfolk residents also can receive independent stations , such as WSKY broadcasting on channel 4 from the Outer Banks of North Carolina and WGBS @-@ LD broadcasting on channel 11 from Hampton .
Several major motion pictures have been filmed in and around Norfolk , including Rollercoaster ( filmed at the former Ocean View Amusement Park ) , Navy Seals , and Mission : Impossible III ( partially filmed at the Chesapeake Bay Bridge Tunnel ) .
= = = Central Radio controversy = = =
In 2010 the Norfolk Redevelopment and Housing Authority moved to take over the property of Central Radio , a communications and engineering firm , and other businesses and residential properties through eminent domain , and turn the land over to Old Dominion University . In response , Central Radio hung a 375 @-@ square foot banner reading , " 50 years on this street / 78 years in Norfolk / 100 workers / Threatened by eminent domain ! " The city cited Central Radio for sign code infringement and ordered the banner removed .
In 2013 the The Virginia Supreme Court held that the city 's attempt to take over the business properties was illegal . However , the U.S. District Court ruled in favor the city regarding the sign removal . In January 2015 , the 4th Circuit Court of Appeals affirmed the district court 's ruling . In April 2015 , the Institute for Justice asked the U.S. Supreme Court to hear the case as a First Amendment free speech issue .
= = Infrastructure = =
= = = Transportation = = =
Norfolk is linked with its neighbors through an extensive network of arterial and Interstate highways , bridges , tunnels , and bridge @-@ tunnel complexes . The major east @-@ west routes are Interstate 64 , U.S. Route 58 ( Virginia Beach Boulevard ) and U.S. Route 60 ( Ocean View Avenue ) . The major north @-@ south routes are U.S. Route 13 and U.S. Route 460 , also known as Granby Street . Other main roadways in Norfolk include Newtown Road , Waterside Drive , Tidewater Drive , and Military Highway . The Hampton Roads Beltway ( I @-@ 64 , I @-@ 264 , I @-@ 464 , and I @-@ 664 ) makes a loop around Norfolk .
Norfolk is primarily served by the Norfolk International Airport ( IATA : ORF , ICAO : KORF , FAA LID : ORF ) , now the region 's major commercial airport . The airport is located near Chesapeake Bay , along the city limits straddling neighboring Virginia Beach . Seven airlines provide nonstop services to twenty five destinations . ORF had 3 @,@ 703 @,@ 664 passengers take off or land at its facility and 68 @,@ 778 @,@ 934 pounds of cargo were processed through its facilities . Newport News / Williamsburg International Airport also provides commercial air service for the Hampton Roads area . NNWIA is also the only airport in the region with direct international flights , as of February 2013 . The Chesapeake Regional Airport provides general aviation services and is located five miles ( 8 km ) outside the city limits .
Norfolk is served by Amtrak 's Northeast Regional service through the Norfolk station , located in downtown Norfolk adjacent to Harbor Park stadium . The line runs west along Norfolk Southern trackage , paralleling the US Route 460 corridor to Petersburg , thence on to Richmond and beyond . A high @-@ speed rail connection at Richmond to both the Northeast Corridor and the Southeast High Speed Rail Corridor are also under study .
Greyhound provides service from a central bus terminal in downtown Norfolk .
In April 2007 , construction of the new $ 36 million Half Moone Cruise Terminal was completed downtown adjacent to the Nauticus Museum , providing a state @-@ of @-@ the @-@ art permanent structure for various cruise lines and passengers wishing to embark from Norfolk . Previously , makeshift structures were used to embark / disembark passengers , supplies , and crew .
The Intracoastal Waterway passes through Norfolk . Norfolk also has extensive frontage and port facilities on the navigable portions of the Western and Southern Branches of the Elizabeth River .
Light rail , bus , ferry and paratransit services are provided by Hampton Roads Transit ( HRT ) , the regional public transport system headquartered in Hampton . HRT buses operate throughout Norfolk and South Hampton Roads and onto the Peninsula all the way up to Williamsburg . Other routes travel to Smithfield . HRT 's ferry service connects downtown Norfolk to Old Town Portsmouth . Additional services include an HOV express bus to the Norfolk Naval Base , paratransit services , park @-@ and @-@ ride lots , and the Norfolk Electric Trolley , which provides service in the downtown area . The Tide light rail service began operations in August 2011 . The light rail is a starter route running along the southern portion of Norfolk , commencing at Newtown Road and passing through stations serving areas such as Norfolk State University and Harbor Park before going through the heart of downtown Norfolk and terminating at Sentara Norfolk General Hospital . Hampton Roads Transportation , Inc. dispatches Black and White Cabs of Norfolk , Yellow Cab of Norfolk and Norfolk Checker Cab .
= = = Utilities = = =
Water and sewer services are provided by the city 's Department of Utilities . Norfolk receives its electricity from Dominion Virginia Power which has local sources including the Chesapeake Energy Center ( a gas power plant ) , coal @-@ fired plants in Chesapeake and Southampton County , and the Surry Nuclear Power Plant . Norfolk @-@ headquartered Virginia Natural Gas , a subsidiary of AGL Resources , distributes natural gas to the city from storage plants in James City County and Chesapeake .
Norfolk 's water quality has been recognized one of the cleanest water systems in the United States and ranked as the fourth best in the United States by Men 's Health . The city of Norfolk has tremendous capacity for clean fresh water . The city owns nine reservoirs : Lake Whitehurst , Little Creek Reservoir , Lake Lawson , Lake Smith , Lake Wright , Lake Burnt Mills , Western Branch Reservoir , Lake Prince and Lake Taylor . The Virginia tidewater area has grown faster than the local freshwater supply . The river water has always been salty , and the fresh groundwater is no longer available in most areas . Currently , water for the cities of Chesapeake and Virginia Beach is pumped from Lake Gaston ( which straddles the Virginia @-@ North Carolina border ) into the City of Norfolk 's reservoir system and then diverted to the City of Chesapeake for treatment by the City of Chesapeake . Virginia Beach 's portion of water is treated by the City of Norfolk at Moores Bridges water treatment plant and then piped into Virginia Beach . The pipeline is 76 miles ( 122 km ) long and 60 inches ( 1 @,@ 500 mm ) in diameter . Much of its follows the former right @-@ of @-@ way of an abandoned portion of the Virginian Railway . It is capable of pumping 60 million gallons of water per day ; Virginia Beach and Chesapeake are partners in the project .
The city provides wastewater services for residents and transports wastewater to the regional Hampton Roads Sanitation District treatment plants .
= = = Healthcare = = =
Because of the prominence of the Naval Medical Center Portsmouth and the Hampton VA Medical Center in Hampton , Norfolk has had a strong role in medicine . Norfolk is served by Sentara Norfolk General Hospital , Sentara Leigh Hospital , and Bon Secours DePaul Medical Center . The city is also home to the Children 's Hospital of The King 's Daughters and Lake Taylor Transitional Care Hospital .
Norfolk is home to Eastern Virginia Medical School , which is known for its specialists in diabetes , dermatology , and obstetrics . It achieved international fame on March 1 , 1980 , when Drs. Georgianna and Howard Jones opened the first in vitro fertilization clinic in the U.S. at EVMS . The country 's first in vitro test @-@ tube baby was born there in December 1981 .
The international headquarters of Operation Smile , a nonprofit organization that specializes in repairing facial deformities in underprivileged children from around the globe , is located in the city .
Physicians for Peace , a non profit that focuses on providing training and education to medical professionals in the developing world , is based in Norfolk .
= = Notable people = =
= = Sister cities = =
Norfolk has ten sister cities :
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= Guinness Foreign Extra Stout =
Guinness Foreign Extra Stout ( FES ) is a stout produced by the Guinness Brewery , an Irish brewing company owned by Diageo , a drinks multinational . First brewed by Guinness in 1801 , FES was designed for export , and is more heavily hopped than Guinness Draught and Extra Stout , and typically has a higher alcohol content ( at around 7 @.@ 5 % ABV ) , which gives it a more bitter taste . The extra hops were intended as a natural preservative for the long journeys the beer would take by ship .
FES is the Guinness variant that is most commonly found in Asia , Africa and the Caribbean , and it accounts for almost half of Guinness sales worldwide . In 2011 , over 4 million hectolitres of the beer were sold in Africa , where Diageo intend to grow the product into the continent 's highest selling beer .
Guinness Flavour Extract , a dehydrated , hopped wort extract made from barley malt and roasted barley , is used for overseas production of the stout . The syrup is shipped from Ireland , where it is added at the ratio of 1 : 49 to locally brewed pale beer . In most overseas markets , Guinness Flavour Extract ( GFE ) is blended with locally brewed beer to produce FES .
In the 1960s , FES was marketed in Nigeria as " gives you power " . This was updated for 1999 @-@ 2006 with the Michael Power campaign , which aired across Africa . The beer is ranked highly on beer rating websites , while beer critics have varying opinions .
= = History = =
In 1801 , Guinness West India Porter , the direct predecessor of Foreign Extra Stout , was first exported from the St. James 's Gate brewery in Dublin . The product was formulated for Irish immigrant workers in the Caribbean . The beer was only brewed between October and April , which reduced acidification , and was matured in large wooden vats for up to two years , which gave the finished product greater stability . To survive the long journey overseas , which was then taken by ship , it was brewed with extra hops and a higher alcohol content , which acted as natural preservatives for the beer . Exported in barrels , the product was then bottled locally , which helped to reduce costs .
The first recorded shipment of the beer to the United States was in 1817 . In 1827 , the first official shipment of Guinness on the African continent arrived in Sierra Leone . The beer was renamed Foreign Extra Stout from around 1849 onwards . The first recorded exports to South East Asia began in the 1860s .
At the turn of the twentieth century , FES accounted for around 5 per cent of all Guinness production , with two thirds destined for Australia and the United States , where it was largely used as a medicinal product . Australia remained the single largest export market for the product until 1910 , when it was eclipsed by the United States . Due to the expense of importation , FES was a premium product , selling for double the price of domestic stouts . By 1912 , total production had reached 105 @,@ 000 hogsheads . The American trade was disrupted by the onset of World War I and then discontinued entirely with the introduction of Prohibition . The product was not popular when it returned in the 1930s , as drinkers now preferred the lighter and cheaper Guinness Extra Stout . Following discontinuation of export during World War II , FES did not return to the United States until 1956 , but this was not successful , and the beer was withdrawn shortly afterwards .
Prior to 1920 , Guinness export sales were mostly to ethnic Anglo Saxons and Celts . From the 1920s onwards this changed , and among the first natives to develop a taste for the drink were the ethnic Chinese of the Malay Peninsula . In 1924 , a global Guinness salesman was appointed by the company , and sales began to be pursued among native populations .
In 1939 , shortly after the outbreak of World War II , the British War Office purchased 500 @,@ 000 half @-@ pint bottles of FES for distribution to hospitals .
In 1951 , exports totalled 90 @,@ 000 barrels , but by 1964 had grown to 300 @,@ 000 barrels . By 1959 , sales in Ghana had grown large enough for Guinness to establish a joint venture in the country with the United Africa Company . By 1962 , Nigeria had become the largest export market for Guinness , with around 100 @,@ 000 barrels exported to the country every year . This led the company to build a brewery in Ikeja in western Nigeria to supply the demand ; it was only the third brewery in the company 's history . The brewery cost over £ 2 million , had a 150 @,@ 000 barrel capacity , and was 60 per cent owned by Guinness Nigeria , 25 per cent by the United Africa Company with the remaining shares held by local Nigerian interests . Breweries followed in Malaysia ( 1965 ) , Cameroon ( 1970 ) and Ghana ( 1971 ) , whilst licences were granted to other companies to brew Guinness under contract in other African countries and the West Indies . Historically a small proportion of Guinness production , it was this success , especially in Africa but also in Asia , that allowed FES to grow into a 4 @.@ 5 million hectolitre brand .
A new bottle design was debuted in Malaysia in 2005 , and later rolled out worldwide . In 2013 , FES received a packaging redesign in Africa and other selected markets , with a gold foil top and a new label .
= = Production = =
The Irish version of FES is brewed with pale malt , 25 per cent flaked barley ( for head retention and body ) and 10 per cent roasted barley , the latter being what gives the beer its dark hue . It uses the bitter Galena , Nugget and Target hop varieties . There are about a third more hops than in Guinness Draught and the beer has 47 Bitterness Units . The beer is force carbonated .
Guinness Flavour Extract , a dehydrated , hopped wort extract made from barley malt and roasted barley , is used for overseas production of the stout . The syrup is shipped from Ireland , where it is added at the ratio of 1 : 49 to locally brewed pale beer . Each year , six million litres of GFE are made using 9 @,@ 000 tonnes of barley . Guinness Flavour Extract was first created by scientists working for the company in the early 1960s . In 2003 , production of GFE was relocated from St James 's Gate to the former Cherry 's brewery in Mary Street , Waterford , but in 2013 production returned to St James 's .
FES is produced at Diageo owned breweries in Nigeria , Kenya , Ghana , Cameroon , Ethiopia , Tanzania , Uganda , Seychelles , Malaysia and Jamaica . In addition , it is produced under licence in 39 other countries . Diageo has brewing arrangements with the Castel Group to license brew and distribute Guinness in the Democratic Republic of Congo , Gambia , Gabon , Ivory Coast , Togo , Benin , Burkina Faso , Chad , Mali and Guinea .
FES is the oldest variant of Guinness that is still available , although its ingredients and production methods have varied over time . In 1824 , it had an original gravity ( OG ) of 1082 . After a peak in strength in 1840 , when the beer had an OG of 1098 , by 1860 , the beer was reduced to its current standard strength of around 1075 OG . FES was originally brewed with pale and brown malts . Black malt was used from 1819 , and by 1828 its use had entirely replaced brown malt . In 1883 , the beer was produced with 85 per cent pale malt , 10 per cent amber malt and 5 per cent roasted malt . From 1929 – 1930 onwards , Guinness switched from using roasted malt in the beer 's production to roasted barley . Amber malt continued to be added to the grist until 1940 . Flaked barley was introduced in the early 1950s , and the hopping rate was decreased .
Originally a bottle conditioned beer , FES has been pasteurised to ensure quality consistency since 1948 . Since 1950 , in an attempt to recreate the flavour profile of bottle conditioned FES , the beer has been produced by blending fresh FES with 2 per cent FES that has been aged for up to 100 days , which has developed a high lactic acid content . Finally , the beer is allowed to mature in the bottle for 28 days before being sent out for distribution .
= = Markets = =
Foreign Extra Stout constitutes 45 per cent of total Guinness sales globally . Originally exported to British and Irish expatriates , from the 1920s the beer began to be drank by local populations . A 7 @.@ 5 % ABV version is sold throughout most of the world , although lower strength variants are found in some locations .
The beer is available in bottles and cans .
= = = Africa = = =
In Africa , the product retails at a premium price , with an up to 100 per cent higher cost than rival beers . 13 breweries in Africa brew FES . It is brewed and distributed by Guinness Nigeria , which is 54 @.@ 3 per cent owned by Diageo , with the remaining shares held by local Nigerian interests . As of 2012 @-@ 13 , Nigeria has been the largest market for Guinness by sales .
FES was initially introduced into the Nigerian market through importation in the 1940s . Guinness in Nigeria is made from locally sourced sorghum or maize that has been heavily roasted . Some Nigerian versions also contain wheat . The switch from malted barley was made in 1986 when the Nigerian government briefly banned imports of the grain . The use of sorghum and maize continues as it is a cheaper alternative than barley , which has to be imported , and it is less vulnerable to local currency fluctuations . The Nigerian breweries use high gravity brewing techniques to ferment sorghum and pale malt to 1090 OG . Beer writer Roger Protz describes the Nigerian product as " strikingly different " from the Irish brewed version .
The brewing of FES has taken place at Sierra Leone Brewery Limited since October 1967 .
In Ghana , FES is brewed in Kumasi by Guinness Ghana Breweries , which is 50 @.@ 5 per cent owned by Diageo . GFE is mixed with a locally brewed sorghum lager , but it differs from the Nigerian version in that it contains no wheat and has a higher proportion of roast barley . In Ghana , the product is believed to have medicinal properties , strengthening the blood and improving circulation .
In 2003 , a 5 @.@ 5 % ABV , lightly @-@ nitrogenated variant of FES was introduced in Ghana called Guinness Extra Smooth . It was released in Nigeria in 2005 , where it constitutes 5 @-@ 10 per cent of Guinness sales in the country .
= = = Asia = = =
In the year 2012 - 2013 , sales of Guinness in South East Asia were over £ 100 million . FES ( 6 @.@ 8 % ABV ) is brewed and distributed in Malaysia by Guinness Anchor Berhad , a listed company in which Diageo holds a 25 @.@ 5 percent stake . The Malaysian variant is distributed throughout most of South East Asia . The brew was reduced in ABV from 8 to 6 @.@ 8 % in 2008 . Malaysia is the largest Asian market for Guinness , where , in 2012 , the brand grew by between 10 and 15 per cent . In Singapore , FES is brewed and distributed by Asia Pacific Breweries . In Indonesia , Guinness is brewed to 4 @.@ 9 % ABV by PT Multi Bintang ( a subsidiary of Asia Pacific Breweries ) , and is distributed by PT Dima Indonesia . In China , small amounts of FES are sold , where it is positioned as a premium priced import in upmarket bars .
= = = Other markets = = =
FES was sold and then withdrawn in the UK in 1976 as Guinness XXX Extra Strong Stout ; it returned in 1990 when interest in craft beer increased . The beer was again withdrawn from the UK market , returning in 2003 to cater for the increasing African diaspora . The British market is supplied with both the Irish and the Nigerian brewed variants of the beer , the latter of which has annual sales of £ 2 million . Official imports of FES into the US were resumed in 2010 , following a resurgent interest in craft beer ; this was after a period of grey imports , predominantly for African and Caribbean expatriates .
= = Advertising and sponsorship = =
In the 1960s , FES was marketed in Nigeria as " gives you power " and its consumption was linked with an increase in sexual potency . This was updated for 1999 @-@ 2006 with the Michael Power campaign , which aired all over the continent . Guinness credits the campaign with allowing the company to lead the Africa beer market by 50 per cent in 2000 , experience volume growth of up to 50 per cent in some markets , achieve brand recognition of a reported 95 per cent , and by doubling Guinness sales in Africa by 2003 . In 1999 , Saatchi & Saatchi was given worldwide responsibility for marketing the FES brand . In October 2013 , BBDO was awarded responsibility for marketing Guinness in Africa . Saatchi continues to market FES in the rest of the world . Since 2008 , FES has been the largest sponsor of the Nigerian national football team .
= = Reception = =
The beer is ranked highly on beer rating websites . Garrett Oliver notes its refreshing qualities and " distinctive acidic edge " . On the other hand , it has been criticised by British journalist Tony Naylor as being " more about treacly , boozy warmth " than " complex flavour " .
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= HMS Iron Duke ( 1912 ) =
HMS Iron Duke was a dreadnought battleship of the Royal Navy , the lead ship of her class , named in honour of Arthur Wellesley , 1st Duke of Wellington . She was built by Portsmouth Dockyard , and her keel laid in January 1912 . Launched ten months later , she was commissioned into the Home Fleet in March 1914 as the fleet flagship . She was armed with a main battery of ten 13 @.@ 5 @-@ inch ( 340 mm ) guns and was capable of a top speed of 21 @.@ 25 knots ( 39 @.@ 36 km / h ; 24 @.@ 45 mph ) .
Iron Duke served as the flagship of the Grand Fleet during the First World War , including at the Battle of Jutland . There , she inflicted significant damage on the German battleship SMS König early in the main fleet action . In January 1917 , she was relieved as fleet flagship . After the war , Iron Duke operated in the Mediterranean as the flagship of the Mediterranean Fleet . She participated in both the Allied intervention in the Russian Civil War in the Black Sea and the Greco @-@ Turkish War . She also assisted in the evacuation of refugees from Smyrna . In 1926 , she was assigned to the Atlantic Fleet , where she served as a training ship .
Iron Duke only remained on active duty for a few more years ; in 1930 , the London Naval Treaty specified that the four Iron Duke @-@ class battleships be scrapped or otherwise demilitarised . Iron Duke was therefore converted into a gunnery training ship ; her armour and much of her armament was removed to render her unfit for combat . She served in this capacity until the outbreak of the Second World War in September 1939 , when she was moored in Scapa Flow as a harbour defence ship . In October , she was badly damaged by German bombers and was run aground to avoid sinking . She continued to serve as an anti @-@ aircraft platform for the duration of the war , and was eventually refloated and broken up for scrap in the late 1940s .
= = Design = =
Iron Duke was 622 feet 9 inches ( 190 m ) long overall and had a beam of 90 ft ( 27 m ) and an average draught of 29 ft 6 in ( 9 m ) . She displaced 25 @,@ 000 long tons ( 25 @,@ 401 t ) as designed and up to 29 @,@ 560 long tons ( 30 @,@ 034 t ) at combat loading . Her propulsion system consisted of four Parsons steam turbines , with steam provided by eighteen Babcock & Wilcox boilers . The engines were rated at 29 @,@ 000 shaft horsepower ( 21 @,@ 625 kW ) and produced a top speed of 21 @.@ 25 kn ( 39 km / h ; 24 mph ) . Her cruising radius was 7 @,@ 800 nautical miles ( 14 @,@ 446 km ; 8 @,@ 976 mi ) at a more economical 10 kn ( 19 km / h ; 12 mph ) . Iron Duke had a crew of 995 officers and enlisted men , though during wartime this grew to up to 1 @,@ 022 .
Iron Duke was armed with a main battery of ten BL 13 @.@ 5 @-@ inch Mk V naval guns mounted in five twin gun turrets . They were arranged in two superfiring pairs , one forward and one aft ; the fifth turret was located amidships , between the funnels and the rear superstructure . Close @-@ range defence against torpedo boats was provided by a secondary battery of twelve BL 6 @-@ inch Mk VII guns . The ship was also fitted with a pair of QF 3 @-@ inch 20 cwt anti @-@ aircraft guns and four 47 mm ( 2 in ) 3 @-@ pounder guns . As was typical for capital ships of the period , she was equipped with four 21 in ( 530 mm ) torpedo tubes submerged on the broadside . Iron Duke was protected by a main armoured belt that was 12 in ( 305 mm ) thick over the ship 's vitals . Her deck was 2 @.@ 5 in ( 64 mm ) thick . The main battery turret faces were 11 in ( 279 mm ) thick , and the turrets were supported by 10 in ( 254 mm ) thick barbettes .
= = Service history = =
Iron Duke was laid down at Portsmouth Dockyard on 12 January 1912 and launched on 12 October of that year . After completing fitting @-@ out work , she began sea trials on 25 November 1913 . The ship was completed in March 1914 , and she joined the Home Fleet after completing her trials . In the Home Fleet , she served as the flagship of Admiral Sir George Callaghan . On 29 July 1914 , as war loomed on the Continent , Iron Duke and the rest of the Home Fleet was ordered to proceed to Scapa Flow from Portland to safeguard the fleet from a possible German surprise attack .
= = = World War I = = =
In August 1914 , after the outbreak of World War I , the Home Fleet was reorganised as the Grand Fleet ; Iron Duke remained the flagship of the fleet , now under Admiral John Jellicoe , 1st Earl Jellicoe . On the evening of 22 November 1914 , the Grand Fleet conducted a fruitless sweep in the southern half of the North Sea ; Iron Duke stood with the main body in support of Vice Admiral David Beatty 's 1st Battlecruiser Squadron . The fleet was back in port in Scapa Flow by 27 November . Iron Duke and most of the fleet initially remained in port during the German raid on Scarborough , Hartlepool and Whitby on 16 December 1914 , though the 3rd Battle Squadron was sent to reinforce the British forces in the area . After receiving further information about the possibility of the rest of the German fleet being at sea , Jellicoe gave the order for the fleet to sortie to try to intercept the Germans , though by that time they had already retreated . Iron Duke went to sea with the 2nd and 4th Battle Squadrons for gunnery practice north of the Hebrides on 23 and 24 December . The following day , the rest of the fleet joined Iron Duke for a sweep in the North Sea , which concluded on 27 December .
Iron Duke and the rest of the fleet conducted gunnery drills on 10 – 13 January 1915 west of the Orkneys and Shetlands . On the evening of 23 January , the bulk of the Grand Fleet sailed in support of Beatty 's Battlecruiser Fleet , but Iron Duke and the rest of the fleet did not become engaged in the ensuing Battle of Dogger Bank the following day . Upon returning from the operation , Iron Duke went to Invergordon for refit ; while she was away , HMS Centurion acted as the temporary fleet flagship . The work was completed by 23 February , after which she returned to Scapa Flow . On 7 – 10 March , the Grand Fleet conducted a sweep in the northern North Sea , during which it conducted training manoeuvres . Another such cruise took place on 16 – 19 March . On 11 April , the Grand Fleet conducted a patrol in the central North Sea and returned to port on 14 April ; another patrol in the area took place on 17 – 19 April , followed by gunnery drills off the Shetlands on 20 – 21 April .
The Grand Fleet conducted a sweep into the central North Sea on 17 – 19 May without encountering any German vessels . On 25 May , Iron Duke carried Jellicoe to Rosyth to meet with Admiral Henry Jackson , the new First Sea Lord . Iron Duke returned to Scapa Flow on 28 May , in time to participate in another sweep into the North Sea on 29 – 31 May . After returning to Scapa Flow , Iron Duke immediately departed for Cromarty . The fleet conducted gunnery training in mid @-@ June . Iron Duke , the 2nd Battle Squadron , and the 1st Cruiser Squadron conducted gunnery training at Cromarty on 2 August ; after completing the drills , the ships returned to Scapa Flow . On 7 August , the ship again took Jellicoe to Cromarty for another meeting , this time with the Prime Minister , H. H. Asquith . Iron Duke was back in Scapa Flow by 16 August .
On 2 – 5 September , the fleet went on another cruise in the northern end of the North Sea and conducted gunnery drills . Throughout the rest of the month , the Grand Fleet conducted numerous training exercises . Iron Duke went to Invergordon on 1 October for another period of refitting — the work lasted until 11 October . Two days later , the majority of the fleet conducted another sweep into the North Sea , returning to port on 15 October . On 2 – 5 November , Iron Duke participated in another fleet training operation west of the Orkneys . Another such cruise took place on 1 – 4 December . Later in the month , Iron Duke took part in gunnery drills , and during them , conducted an experiment of sorts to determine the accuracy of the ship 's gunners . Jellicoe concluded that the " result was very satisfactory . "
Iron Duke collided with the tanker Prudentia on 12 January 1916 while in Scapa Flow , and the latter sank . The tanker had come loose during a severe gale , which had winds of up to 80 miles per hour ( 130 km / h ) . Iron Duke was undamaged in the accident . The typical routine of gunnery drills and squadron exercises occurred in January . The fleet departed for a cruise in the North Sea on 26 February ; Jellicoe had intended to use the Harwich Force to sweep the Heligoland Bight , but bad weather prevented operations in the southern North Sea . As a result , the operation was confined to the northern end of the sea . On the night of 25 March , Iron Duke and the rest of the fleet sailed from Scapa Flow to support the Battlecruiser Fleet and other light forces that raided the German zeppelin base at Tondern . By the time the Grand Fleet approached the area on 26 March , the British and German forces had already disengaged and a severe gale threatened the light craft . Iron Duke guided the destroyers back to Scapa while the rest of the fleet retired independently .
On 21 April , the Grand Fleet conducted a demonstration off Horns Reef to distract the Germans while the Russian Navy relaid its defensive minefields in the Baltic Sea . The fleet returned to Scapa Flow on 24 April and refuelled before proceeding south in response to intelligence reports that the Germans were about to launch a raid on Lowestoft . The Grand Fleet did not arrive in the area until after the Germans had withdrawn , however . On 2 – 4 May , the fleet conducted another demonstration off Horns Reef to keep German attention focused on the North Sea .
= = = = Battle of Jutland = = = =
In an attempt to lure out and destroy a portion of the Grand Fleet , the German High Seas Fleet , composed of 16 dreadnoughts , six pre @-@ dreadnoughts , six light cruisers , and 31 torpedo boats , departed the Jade early on the morning of 31 May . The fleet sailed in concert with Rear Admiral Franz von Hipper 's five battlecruisers and supporting cruisers and torpedo boats . The Royal Navy 's Room 40 had intercepted and decrypted German radio traffic containing plans of the operation . The Admiralty ordered the Grand Fleet , totalling some 28 dreadnoughts and 9 battlecruisers , to sortie the night before to cut off and destroy the High Seas Fleet . On the day of the battle , Iron Duke steamed with the 4th Battle Squadron , and was the 9th ship in the British line .
The initial action was fought primarily by the British and German battlecruiser formations in the afternoon , but by 18 : 00 , the Grand Fleet approached the scene . At around 18 : 14 , two large @-@ caliber shells fell near Iron Duke but caused no damage . Fifteen minutes later , Iron Duke had closed to effective gunnery range — some 26 @,@ 000 yards ( 24 @,@ 000 m ) — of the German fleet , and took the dreadnought SMS König under fire . Iron Duke 's first salvo fell short , but the next three were on target ; the ship 's gunner claimed at least six hits on the German battleship . In fact , they had scored seven hits on König and inflicted significant damage .
Shortly after 19 : 00 , fighting around the disabled German cruiser SMS Wiesbaden — which had been badly damaged earlier in the engagement — resumed . Iron Duke opened fire on the crippled cruiser and nearby destroyers with her secondary battery at 19 : 11 at a range of 9 @,@ 000 to 10 @,@ 000 yards ( 8 @,@ 200 to 9 @,@ 100 m ) . Iron Duke 's gunners claimed to have sunk one of the destroyers and hit a second , but they had in fact missed their targets entirely . Shortly thereafter , the German destroyers attempted to launch a torpedo attack on the British line ; Iron Duke began firing at 19 : 24 . The sinking of the destroyer SMS S35 is credited to a salvo from Iron Duke , but determining which ship fired which shells in the melee is difficult , according to naval historian John Campbell .
Following the German destroyer attack , the High Seas Fleet disengaged , and Iron Duke and the rest of the Grand Fleet saw no further action in the battle . This was , in part , due to confusion aboard Iron Duke over the exact location and course of the German fleet ; without this information , Jellicoe could not bring his fleet to action . At 21 : 30 , the Grand Fleet began to reorganise into its nighttime cruising formation . Early on the morning of 1 June , the Grand Fleet combed the area , looking for damaged German ships , but after spending several hours searching , they found none . Iron Duke returned to Scapa Flow , arriving at 11 : 30 . Over the course of the battle , Iron Duke had fired ninety rounds from her main battery , along with fifty rounds from her secondary guns .
= = = = Subsequent actions in the North Sea = = = =
On 18 August , the Germans again sortied , this time to bombard Sunderland ; Scheer hoped to draw out Beatty 's battlecruisers and destroy them . British signals intelligence decrypted German wireless transmissions , allowing Jellicoe enough time to deploy the Grand Fleet in an attempt to engage in a decisive battle . Both sides withdrew , however , after their opponents ' submarines inflicted losses : the British cruisers Nottingham and Falmouth were both torpedoed and sunk by German U @-@ boats , and the German battleship SMS Westfalen was damaged by the British submarine E23 . After returning to port , Jellicoe issued an order that prohibited risking the fleet in the southern half of the North Sea due to the overwhelming risk from mines and U @-@ boats unless the odds of defeating the High Seas Fleet in a decisive engagement were high .
In the aftermath of Jutland , the Royal Navy determined that horizontal protection , particularly over ammunition magazines , was insufficient . As a result , many ships in the Grand Fleet had additional armour installed ; Iron Duke went into dock for this work in October . The work , which saw over 100 long tons ( 100 t ) of armour added to the ship , was completed by December . On 28 November 1916 , while she was still in dry dock , Admiral Beatty replaced Jellicoe as the commander of the Grand Fleet ; Iron Duke served as his flagship until January 1917 , when he transferred to Queen Elizabeth . In 1918 , flying @-@ off platforms for aircraft were installed on Iron Duke 's " B " and " Q " turrets .
= = = Post @-@ war career = = =
In March 1919 , Iron Duke was transferred to the Mediterranean Fleet , where she again served as flagship . The ship went into the Black Sea in April to participate in the Allied intervention in the Russian Civil War . While en route , the ship stopped in Constantinople on 7 April . There , Iron Duke was involved in the destruction of warships and other materiel that might be used by the Bolsheviks . On 12 May , Iron Duke travelled from Constantinople to Smyrna , where she provided a landing party to occupy some of the city 's outer forts . She returned to the Black Sea , where she remained until June , when she returned to the Mediterranean .
Iron Duke returned to the Black Sea in late 1919 . She arrived in Novorossiysk on 12 October , where she met the White Russian protected cruiser General Kornilov . On 14 October , the ship stopped in Sevastopol . Iron Duke returned to Novorossiysk on 19 January 1920 . On 25 January , she stopped in the ports of Yalta and Sevastopol to inspect the situation of the White Russians there . On 17 June , shore parties from Iron Duke and the destroyer Shark destroyed Turkish guns in the forts protecting the Bosporus on the Black Sea .
On 2 September 1922 , Iron Duke was steaming to the Dalmatian coast for a training cruise , when she received news of the Greek defeat in Turkey . Admiral Osmond Brock , the Mediterranean Fleet commander , ordered Iron Duke to proceed to Smyrna , where he expected disturbances . There , she served as the flagship of the British naval forces participating in the evacuation of Greek refugees from the city . She was present during the Great Fire that devastated the city . During the chaos , a number of refugees managed to come alongside Iron Duke in small boats , and were brought aboard the battleship . The following month , the Allies held a conference aboard Iron Duke at Mudania to mediate the Greco @-@ Turkish dispute . The ship thereafter proceeded to Constantinople .
In November 1924 , Queen Elizabeth relieved Iron Duke as the Mediterranean Fleet flagship ; Iron Duke was then transferred to the 3rd Battle Squadron , Mediterranean Fleet , where she became the squadron flagship . The 3rd Squadron was moved to the Atlantic Fleet in March 1926 , where it was used as a training squadron . Iron Duke remained the squadron flagship during this period , until 30 May 1928 , when she was relieved by her sister Benbow . In 1927 , the Navy considered adding anti @-@ torpedo bulges to Iron Duke and her sister ships , but the plan was discarded because the ships were due to be replaced in 1931 – 1932 under the terms of the Washington Naval Treaty of 1922 and the plan was not economical . That year , the aircraft launching @-@ platform mounted on Iron Duke 's " B " turret was removed . The ship went into dry dock in May 1928 for a periodic refit ; the work lasted until May 1929 . Two 4 in ( 100 mm ) anti @-@ aircraft guns were installed on the forward superstructure . The aircraft platform on " Q " turret was also removed during this period .
Iron Duke returned to service on 30 May 1929 , when she was recommissioned as a gunnery training ship . She served in this capacity for only a year and a half , however . In November 1931 , under the terms of the London Naval Treaty , Iron Duke was disarmed and converted into a gunnery training vessel . The work lasted until 21 September 1932 , when she was commissioned for new sea trials . The ship 's " B " and " Y " turrets were also removed , and several small guns of various types were installed atop " B " barbette . Two 4 @.@ 7 in ( 120 mm ) anti @-@ aircraft guns were installed as well , but these were later removed in 1935 . A high @-@ angle director for the anti @-@ aircraft guns was also added in place of the aft rangefinder . Over 2 @,@ 500 long tons ( 2 @,@ 500 t ) of steel from her belt armour was removed during the demilitarisation ; in all , 4 @,@ 258 long tons ( 4 @,@ 326 t ) of material was removed from the ship and 202 long tons ( 205 t ) added . The ship was recommissioned on 4 October 1932 at Devonport , again as a gunnery training ship . She was featured in the film Brown on Resolution , which was released in May 1935 . On 16 July 1935 , she was present at the Silver Jubilee Fleet Review at Spithead for King George V. She attended another Fleet Review , the coronation review for George VI , on 20 May 1937 . In 1939 , a twin QF 5 @.@ 25 @-@ inch dual @-@ purpose gun mount was installed aft of " Y " barbette .
= = = Second World War = = =
During the Second World War , she was used as a base ship and a floating anti @-@ aircraft platform at Scapa Flow . Her secondary guns were removed and used for coastal defence around the base . On 17 October , four Junkers Ju 88 medium bombers attacked Scapa Flow , and damaged Iron Duke with several near misses . To prevent her from sinking , her crew had to run the ship aground . On 16 March , the ship , which was still beached , was attacked again by Luftwaffe aircraft . This time , eighteen Ju 88s attacked the harbour and surrounding installations . Iron Duke was again badly damaged , as was the heavy cruiser Norfolk .
The ship 's presence in Scapa Flow may have affected the Germans ' plans during Operation Rheinübung , the Atlantic sortie of the battleship Bismarck in May 1941 . German aerial reconnaissance spotted Iron Duke and two decoy battleships in the harbour , and erroneously identified them as active units of the Home Fleet ; under the mistaken impression that the heavy units of the Home Fleet were still in port , the German fleet commander , Günther Lütjens , decided to break into the Atlantic via the Denmark Strait , which resulted in the Battle of the Denmark Strait .
The ship was later repaired and returned to service as a harbour ship for the duration of the war , though she remained beached . Iron Duke remained in the Royal Navy inventory until March 1946 , when she was sold for scrapping to Metal Industries , still beached in Scapa Flow . The ship was refloated on 19 April 1946 and transferred to Faslane on 19 August . In September 1948 , she was re @-@ sold and moved to Glasgow , arriving on 30 November 1948 , and subsequently broken up for scrap . Iron Duke 's bell is on display at Winchester Cathedral .
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= Promethium =
Promethium , originally prometheum , is a chemical element with the symbol Pm and atomic number 61 . All of its isotopes are radioactive ; it is one of only two such elements that are followed in the periodic table by elements with stable forms , a distinction shared with technetium . Chemically , promethium is a lanthanide , which forms salts when combined with other elements . Promethium shows only one stable oxidation state of + 3 ; however , a few + 2 compounds may exist .
In 1902 , Bohuslav Brauner suggested there was an element with properties intermediate between those of the known elements neodymium ( 60 ) and samarium ( 62 ) ; this was confirmed in 1914 by Henry Moseley who , having measured the atomic numbers of all the elements then known , found there was no element with atomic number 61 . In 1926 , an Italian and an American group claimed to have isolated a sample of element 61 ; both " discoveries " were soon proven to be false . In 1938 , during a nuclear experiment conducted at Ohio State University , a few radioactive nuclides were produced that certainly were not radioisotopes of neodymium or samarium , but there was a lack of chemical proof that element 61 was produced , and the discovery was not generally recognized . Promethium was first produced and characterized at Oak Ridge National Laboratory in 1945 by the separation and analysis of the fission products of uranium fuel irradiated in a graphite reactor . The discoverers proposed the name " prometheum " ( the spelling was subsequently changed ) , derived from Prometheus , the Titan in Greek mythology who stole fire from Mount Olympus and brought it down to humans , to symbolize " both the daring and the possible misuse of mankind 's intellect . " However , a sample of the metal was made only in 1963 .
There are two possible sources for natural promethium : rare decays of natural europium @-@ 151 ( producing promethium @-@ 147 ) , and uranium ( various isotopes ) . Practical applications exist only for chemical compounds of promethium @-@ 147 , which are used in luminous paint , atomic batteries and thickness measurement devices , even though promethium @-@ 145 is the most stable promethium isotope . Because natural promethium is exceedingly scarce , it is typically synthesized by bombarding uranium @-@ 235 ( enriched uranium ) with thermal neutrons to produce promethium @-@ 147 .
= = Properties = =
= = = Physical properties = = =
A promethium atom has 61 electrons , arranged in the configuration [ Xe ] 4f56s2 . In forming compounds , the atom loses its two outermost electrons and one of the 4f @-@ electrons , which belongs to an open subshell . The element 's atomic radius is the third largest among all the lanthanides but is only slightly greater than those of the neighboring elements . It is the only exception to the general trend of the contraction of the atoms with increase of atomic radius ( caused by the lanthanide contraction ) that is not caused by the filled ( or half @-@ filled ) 4f @-@ subshell .
Many properties of promethium rely on its position among lanthanides and are intermediate between those of neodymium and samarium . For example , the melting point , the first three ionization energies , and the hydration energy are greater than those of neodymium and lower than those of samarium ; similarly , the estimate for the boiling point , ionic ( Pm3 + ) radius , and standard heat of formation of monatomic gas are greater than those of samarium and less those of neodymium .
Promethium has a double hexagonal close packed ( dhcp ) structure and a hardness of 63 kg / mm2 . This low @-@ temperature alpha form converts into a beta , body @-@ centered cubic ( bcc ) phase upon heating to 890 ° C.
= = = Chemical properties and compounds = = =
Promethium belongs to the cerium group of lanthanides and is chemically very similar to the neighboring elements . Because of its instability , chemical studies of promethium are incomplete . Even though a few compounds have been synthesized , they are not fully studied ; in general , they tend to be pink or red in color . Treatment of acidic solutions containing Pm3 + ions with ammonia results in a gelatinous light @-@ brown sediment of hydroxide , Pm ( OH ) 3 , which is insoluble in water . When dissolved in hydrochloric acid , a water @-@ soluble yellow salt , PmCl3 , is produced ; similarly , when dissolved in nitric acid , a nitrate results , Pm ( NO3 ) 3 . The latter is also well @-@ soluble ; when dried , it forms pink crystals , similar to Nd ( NO3 ) 3 . The electron configuration for Pm3 + is [ Xe ] 4f4 , and the color of the ion is pink . The ground state term symbol is 5I4 . The sulfate is slightly soluble , like the other cerium group sulfates . Cell parameters have been calculated for its octahydrate ; they lead to conclusion that the density of Pm2 ( SO4 ) 3 · 8 H2O is 2 @.@ 86 g / cm3 . The oxalate , Pm2 ( C2O4 ) 3 · 10 H2O , has the lowest solubility of all lanthanide oxalates .
Unlike the nitrate , the oxide is similar to the corresponding samarium salt and not the neodymium salt . As @-@ synthesized , e.g. by heating the oxalate , it is a white or lavender @-@ colored powder with disordered structure . This powder crystallizes in a cubic lattice upon heating to 600 ° C. Further annealing at 800 ° C and then at 1750 ° C irreversibly transforms it to a monoclinic and hexagonal phases , respectively , and the last two phases can be interconverted by adjusting the annealing time and temperature .
Promethium forms only one stable oxidation state , + 3 , in the form of ions ; this is in line with other lanthanides . According to its position in the periodic table , the element cannot be expected to form stable + 4 or + 2 oxidation states ; treating chemical compounds containing Pm3 + ions with strong oxidizing or reducing agents showed that the ion is not easily oxidized or reduced .
= = = Isotopes = = =
Promethium is the only lanthanide and one of only two elements among the first 83 that has no stable ( or even long @-@ lived ) isotopes . This is a result of a rarely occurring effect of the liquid drop model and stabilities of neighbor element isotopes ; it is also the least stable element of the first 84 . The primary decay products are neodymium and samarium isotopes ( promethium @-@ 146 decays to both , the lighter isotopes generally to neodymium via positron decay and electron capture , and the heavier isotopes to samarium via beta decay ) . Promethium nuclear isomers may decay to other promethium isotopes and one isotope ( 145Pm ) has a very rare alpha decay mode to praseodymium .
The most stable isotope of the element is promethium @-@ 145 , which has a specific activity of 940 Ci ( 35 TBq ) / g and a half @-@ life of 17 @.@ 7 years via electron capture . Because it has 84 neutrons ( two more than 82 , which is a magic number which corresponds to a stable neutron configuration ) , it may emit an alpha particle ( which has 2 neutrons ) to form praseodymium @-@ 141 with 82 neutrons . Thus it is the only promethium isotope with an experimentally observed alpha decay . Its partial half @-@ life for alpha decay is about 6 @.@ 3 × 109 years , and the relative probability for a 145Pm nucleus to decay in this way is 2 @.@ 8 × 10 − 7 % . Several other Pm isotopes ( 144Pm , 146Pm , 147Pm etc . ) also have a positive energy release for alpha decay ; their alpha decays are predicted to occur but have not been observed .
The element also has 18 nuclear isomers , with mass numbers of 133 to 142 , 144 , 148 , 149 , 152 , and 154 ( some mass numbers have more than one isomer ) . The most stable of them is promethium @-@ 148m , with a half @-@ life of 43 @.@ 1 days ; this is longer than the half @-@ lives of the ground states of all promethium isotopes , except only for promethium @-@ 143 to 147 ( note that promethium @-@ 148m has a longer half @-@ life than the ground state , promethium @-@ 148 ) .
= = Occurrence = =
In 1934 , Willard Libby found weak beta activity in pure neodymium , which was attributed to a half @-@ life over 1012 years . Almost 20 years later , it was claimed that the element occurs in natural neodymium in equilibrium in quantities below 10 − 20 grams of promethium per one gram of neodymium . However , these observations were disproved by newer investigations , because for all seven naturally occurring neodymium isotopes , any single beta decays ( which can produce promethium isotopes ) are forbidden by energy conservation . In particular , careful measurements of atomic masses show that the mass difference 150Nd @-@ 150Pm is negative ( − 87 keV ) , which absolutely prevents the single beta decay of 150Nd to 150Pm .
Both isotopes of natural europium have larger mass excesses than sums of those of their potential alpha daughters plus that of an alpha particle ; therefore , they ( stable in practice ) may alpha decay . Research at Laboratori Nazionali del Gran Sasso showed that europium @-@ 151 experimentally decays to promethium @-@ 147 with the half @-@ life of 5 × 1018 years . It has been shown that europium is " responsible " for about 12 grams of promethium in the Earth 's crust . Alpha decays for europium @-@ 153 have not been found yet , and its theoretically calculated half @-@ life is so high ( due to low energy of decay ) that this process will probably never be observed .
Finally , promethium can be formed in nature as a product of spontaneous fission of uranium @-@ 238 . Only trace amounts can be found in naturally occurring ores : a sample of pitchblende has been found to contain promethium at a concentration of four parts per quintillion ( 1018 ) by mass . Uranium is thus " responsible " for 560 g promethium in Earth 's crust .
Promethium has also been identified in the spectrum of the star HR 465 in Andromeda ; it also has been found in HD 101065 ( Przybylski 's star ) and HD 965 . Because of the short half @-@ life of promethium isotopes , they should be formed near the surface of those stars .
= = History = =
= = = Searches for element 61 = = =
In 1902 , Czech chemist Bohuslav Brauner found out that the difference between neodymium and samarium is the largest of all neighboring lanthanides pairs ; as a conclusion , he suggested there was an element with intermediate properties between them . This prediction was supported in 1914 by Henry Moseley who , having discovered that atomic number was an experimentally measurable property of elements , found a few atomic numbers had no element to correspond : the gaps were 43 , 61 , 72 , 75 , 85 , and 87 . With the knowledge of a gap in the periodic table several groups started to search for the predicted element among other rare earths in the natural environment .
The first claim of a discovery was published by Luigi Rolla and Lorenzo Fernandes of Florence , Italy . After separating a mixture of a few rare earth elements nitrate concentrate from the Brazilian mineral monazite by fractionated crystallization , they yielded a solution containing mostly samarium . This solution gave x @-@ ray spectra attributed to samarium and element 61 . In honor of their city , they named element 61 " florentium . " The results were published in 1926 , but the scientists claimed that the experiments were done in 1924 . Also in 1926 , a group of scientists from the University of Illinois at Urbana @-@ Champaign , Smith Hopkins and Len Yntema published the discovery of element 61 . They named it " illinium , " after the university . Both of these reported discoveries were shown to be erroneous because the spectrum line that " corresponded " to element 61 was identical to that of didymium ; the lines thought to belong to element 61 turned out to belong to a few impurities ( barium , chromium , and platinum ) .
In 1934 , Josef Mattauch finally formulated the isobar rule . One of the indirect consequences of this rule was that element 61 was unable to form stable isotopes . In 1938 , a nuclear experiment was conducted by H. B. Law et al. at Ohio State University . The nuclides produced certainly were not radioisotopes of neodymium or samarium , and the name " cyclonium " was proposed , but there was a lack of chemical proof that element 61 was produced and the discovery not largely recognized .
= = = Discovery and synthesis of promethium metal = = =
Promethium was first produced and characterized at Oak Ridge National Laboratory ( Clinton Laboratories at that time ) in 1945 by Jacob A. Marinsky , Lawrence E. Glendenin and Charles D. Coryell by separation and analysis of the fission products of uranium fuel irradiated in the graphite reactor ; however , being too busy with military @-@ related research during World War II , they did not announce their discovery until 1947 . The original proposed name was " clintonium " , after the laboratory where the work was conducted ; however , the name " prometheum " was suggested by Grace Mary Coryell , the wife of one of the discoverers . It is derived from Prometheus , the Titan in Greek mythology who stole fire from Mount Olympus and brought it down to humans and symbolizes " both the daring and the possible misuse of the mankind intellect . " The spelling was then changed to " promethium , " as this was in closer in accordance with other metals .
In 1963 , promethium ( III ) fluoride was used to make promethium metal . Provisionally purified from impurities of samarium , neodymium , and americium , it was put into a tantalum crucible which was located in another tantalum crucible ; the outer crucible contained lithium metal ( 10 times excess compared to promethium ) . After creating a vacuum , the chemicals were mixed to produce promethium metal :
PmF3 + 3 Li → Pm + 3 LiF
The promethium sample produced was used to measure a few of the metal 's properties , such as its melting point .
In 1963 , ion @-@ exchange methods were used at ORNL to prepare about ten grams of promethium from nuclear reactor fuel processing wastes .
Today , promethium is still recovered from the byproducts of uranium fission ; it can also be produced by bombarding 146Nd with neutrons , turning it into 147Nd which decays into 147Pm through beta decay with a half @-@ life of 11 days .
= = Production = =
The production methods for different isotopes vary , and only that for promethium @-@ 147 is given because it is the only isotope with industrial applications . Promethium @-@ 147 is produced in large quantities ( compared to other isotopes ) by bombarding uranium @-@ 235 with thermal neutrons . The output is relatively high , at 2 @.@ 6 % of the total product . Another way to produce promethium @-@ 147 is via neodymium @-@ 147 , which decays to promethium @-@ 147 with a short half @-@ life . Neodymium @-@ 147 can be obtained either by bombarding enriched neodymium @-@ 146 with thermal neutrons or by bombarding a uranium carbide target with energetic protons in a particle accelerator . Another method is to bombard uranium @-@ 238 with fast neutrons to cause fast fission , which , among multiple reaction products , creates promethium @-@ 147 .
As early as the 1960s , Oak Ridge National Laboratory could produce 650 grams of promethium per year and was the world 's only large @-@ volume synthesis facility . Gram @-@ scale production of promethium has been discontinued in the U.S. in the early 1980s , but will possibly be resumed after 2010 at the High Flux Isotope Reactor . Currently , Russia is the only country producing promethium @-@ 147 on a relatively large scale .
= = Applications = =
Most promethium is used only for research purposes , except for promethium @-@ 147 , which can be found outside laboratories . It is obtained as the oxide or chloride , in milligram quantities . This isotope does not emit gamma rays , and its radiation has a relatively small penetration depth in matter and a relatively long half @-@ life .
Some signal lights use a luminous paint , containing a phosphor that absorbs the beta radiation emitted by promethium @-@ 147 and emits light . This isotope does not cause aging of the phosphor , as alpha emitters do , and therefore the light emission is stable for a few years . Originally , radium @-@ 226 was used for the purpose , but it was later replaced by promethium @-@ 147 and tritium ( hydrogen @-@ 3 ) . Promethium may be favored over tritium for safety reasons .
In atomic batteries , the beta particles emitted by promethium @-@ 147 are converted into electric current by sandwiching a small Pm source between two semiconductor plates . These batteries have a useful lifetime of about five years . The first promethium @-@ based battery was assembled in 1964 and generated " a few milliwatts of power from a volume of about 2 cubic inches , including shielding " .
Promethium is also used to measure the thickness of materials by evaluating the amount of radiation from a promethium source that passes through the sample . It has possible future uses in portable X @-@ ray sources , and as auxiliary heat or power sources for space probes and satellites ( although the alpha emitter plutonium @-@ 238 has become standard for most space @-@ exploration @-@ related uses ) .
= = Precautions = =
The element , like other lanthanides , has no biological role . Promethium @-@ 147 can emit X @-@ rays during its beta decay , which are dangerous for all lifeforms . Interactions with tiny quantities of promethium @-@ 147 are not hazardous if certain precautions are observed . In general , gloves , footwear covers , safety glasses , and an outer layer of easily removed protective clothing should be used .
It is not known what human organs are affected by interaction with promethium ; a possible candidate is the bone tissues . Sealed promethium @-@ 147 is not dangerous . However , if the packaging is damaged , then promethium becomes dangerous to the environment and humans . If radioactive contamination is found , the contaminated area should be washed with water and soap , but , even though promethium mainly affects the skin , the skin should not be abraded . If a promethium leak is found , the area should be identified as hazardous and evacuated , and emergency services must be contacted . No dangers from promethium aside from the radioactivity are known .
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= Zero ( Drakengard ) =
Zero ( ゼロ , Zero ) is the main protagonist and playable character of the 2013 action role @-@ playing game Drakengard 3 , the third main entry in the Drakengard series , developed by Access Games and published by Square Enix . She also appeared in the arcade game Lord of Vermilion III . Zero is an Intoner , one of a race of god @-@ like beings who control magic through their singing abilities . In trying to destroy the flower which gave birth to her powers and tried to use her to destroy humanity , she sets out to kill clones spawned by the flower to carry out its mission , referred to as her sisters .
Zero was created by Taro Yoko , the game 's director and co @-@ writer , and designed by Kimihiko Fujisaka . Yoko wanted an unusual type of protagonist that had not been featured very often in games . Fujisaka crafted her to emulate the dark tones of the series , although he also added features to create a feminine vibe , such as the flower in her eye . Despite being criticized for her characterization and personality , she has also been praised for her interactions with the other characters and for standing out among video game protagonists . Fans of the Drakengard series in Japan have also received her positively .
= = Creation and design = =
Zero was conceived by Taro Yoko , the director and co @-@ writer of Drakengard 3 . While conceiving her , Yoko thought it would be interesting to do a character who had worked in a brothel , as the concept had not been often explored and the Drakengard series offered an opportunity for such a protagonist to be created . This sexual aspect of the character was generally conveyed through dialogue rather than cutscenes . One of the earlier ideas for Zero 's role in the game was to have her as a schoolgirl with a cellphone in a contemporary setting , but this was quickly decided against . Eventually , Yoko decided to create more female characters for Zero to interact with : one of the reasons behind this was that all other possible choices for the game had been rejected . Her number @-@ based name , along with the names of all her sisters , were meant to make it easier for players to identify and distinguish them . Yoko helped write her dialogue to complement the game 's unusual situations , such as rude conversations between her and the disciples during moments of carnage . Multiple aspects of Zero 's character and worldview were incorporated into the game 's theme song " This Silence is Mine " by composers Keiichi Okabe and Onitsuka Chihiro . The choice of Zero 's voice actress was an important part of her design , as the team wanted to both have a good performance and surprise the audience : Maaya Uchida , normally known for gentler female roles in anime and video games , was chosen for the role .
Zero was designed by Kimihiko Fujisaka , a designer who had worked on each entry in the Drakengard series . His original design was meant to emulate her status as a god @-@ like being , and have a more elaborate and heroic appearance , but as the game 's atmosphere was finalized , Fujisaka redesigned her with some unaesthetic elements , taking direct influence from the game atmosphere : this was the main reason behind adding her prosthetic arm . The original creation of the arm was a pure accident on Fujisaka 's part . Her color palate was intended as a reverse of Caim , the protagonist of Drakengard . Other aspects of her design evoked the color and design for the Goddess of the Seal , a key character in the earlier Drakengard games . She went through two redesigns before Yoko was satisfied . Her final design , along with the flower in her eye , emphasized her sexuality . She originally had no flower in her design , but Fujisaka wanted to add an aspect of femininity to her appearance . The decision to place it in her eye was to add originality to the character : while the game 's producer Takamata Shiba originally feared it was too much of a risk in conjunction with her gender , Yoko approved of the design . After Zero was finalized , Yoko decided on more female characters , and told Fujisaka to " think Puella Magi Madoka Magica " while designing them . Elements of her design were incorporated into the other Intoners . Her design , along with the rest of the main characters , was inspired by modern clothing styles and fashion in contrast to the " medieval " inspiration of previous games .
= = Fictional biography = =
In Zero 's prequel novella , " A Rain to End and a Flower to Begin " , it is revealed that Zero was abused by her mother and sold into prostitution . Eventually escaping , she grew to live by killing and stealing , with the killing eventually becoming an unconscious instinct . Eventually , she was weakened by a deadly disease and was caught and imprisoned , dying from her illness there . Upon dying , she was revived and turned into an Intoner by a magical flower intent on destroying mankind . Learning the flower 's plans for her , Zero tried to kill herself , but the flower kept her alive , and spawned five clones as a safety measure : these clones were Zero 's " sisters " , who were modeled after five rebels Zero was imprisoned with . The sisters eventually took control of the land from the native warlords . Eventually , Zero decides to kill her sisters , then herself to rid the world of the flower . In the prequel manga Drag @-@ On Dragoon 3 : Utahime Five , told from the point of view of the other Intoners , it is revealed that she is directly responsible for the creation of the Disciples , used by her in an attempt to destroy the Intoners .
By the events of Drakengard 3 , Zero had forged a partnership with the dragon Michael : as dragons are the only beings that can destroy Intoners , Michael would help Zero kill her sisters , then kill her to finish off the flower . Their first attempt to take down all the Intoners ends in disaster , with Zero losing her arm and Michael being wounded and forced to reincarnate as the child dragon Mikhail . During their second attempt , they attack each one individually : after killing one , Zero takes on their disciple , a servant created to magnify the Intoners ' powers , who each help in battle and act as a personal harem . Before facing One , Zero reverts her disciples to their original bird forms , releasing them from their servitude . During the battle , both One and Mikhail are killed , then Zero is killed by a male clone of One created as a fail @-@ safe in the event of Zero 's victory .
Around this central timeline , various " branches " appear , caused by " singularities " , namely Zero , her sisters and the Disciples . During her progression through these branches , Zero is monitored by Accord , one of a race called Recorders charged with monitoring and recording history . In the second branch , while going to kill her sister Three , Zero witnesses the flower driving her sisters insane , with Three dying from poisons in the forest and One being murdered by an unhinged Two . In the ensuing battle , the disciples and Two are killed , then Mikhail is poisoned . Zero uses the flower to form a " pact " with Mikhail , resurrecting him . In the third branch , Mikhail is regressed by the Intoners to a childlike form incapable of properly defending Zero , and Zero 's disciples are killed when Two self @-@ destructs . When Mikhail is killed by One 's dragon , Zero and One do battle and One is killed . Mentally unbalanced by the event , Zero sets off to find another dragon , but it is hinted that she fails .
In the fourth branch , Zero manages to kill all of her sisters and absorb their powers , managing to take down One with help from Accord . After absorbing all their powers , she and Mikhail are transported to another world and Mikhail destroys the monster Zero transforms into . With this , the flower 's magic is sealed away , although Accord speculates that Zero might have survived and would reappear in some form . In the novel Drag @-@ On Dragoon 3 Story Side , a novel detailing the events leading into Drakengard , a combination of events from other branches occurs . During the final confrontation with One , Mikhail is poisoned and Zero forms a pact with Mikhail to save him . After killing One , One 's clone kills Zero .
= = Reception = =
Zero has received a mixed to positive reaction from western video game critics . GamesRadar 's Becky Cunningham praised Tara Platt 's performance in the role , and that her relationship with Mikhail helped humanize her . GameSpot 's Heidi Kemps found Zero entertaining despite her negative portrayal , enjoying the points where she breaks the fourth wall to critique the game 's puzzles and finding that she " related to [ Zero ] as the game progressed , which is not something I typically feel for antihero characters . " Eurogamer 's Chris Schilling found that Zero 's presence turned the game into " a jet @-@ black comedy " , comparing her favorably to Jordan Belfort : while both unlikable characters , there was " something magnetic about their horribleness " . Destructoid 's Chris Carter commended Drakengard 3 and Zero , saying " [ he ] was drawn into [ Drakengard 3 's ] world and its cast of characters , and I wanted to see Zero 's journey through from start to finish . " This view was shared by Will Borger of Gaming Bolt , who called story , characters , world , and in particular Zero , the reasons for playing the game . In addition , he felt that players would find themselves relating to her more as the story progressed .
Jim Sterling of The Escapist wrote that Zero 's portrayal , especially her sexual empowerment and the fact that she had dominance over the male characters , was " refreshing " . Capsule Computers ' Travis Bruno commented that Zero is " largely the villain of the series " , but that he felt the need to see her journey through to its end . Ron Duwell of Techno Buffalo , while commenting on the quality of the design of the characters , claimed that Zero was " the best looking of the bunch with her acrobatic kicks and sword slashes being pulled off without a hitch . " Geoff Thew of Hardcore Gamer complimented the character , calling her actions , attitudes and language " a nicely self @-@ contained example of how [ Drakengard 3 ] plays with juxtaposition . " Mike Splechta of GameZone agreed , stating " the character designs were fantastic . I loved Zero 's look in particular ; her white flowy dress only serves as a contrast to her violent behavior since it gets drenched in blood the more you tear enemies apart with her weapons . " RPGFan 's Derek Heemsbergen referred to Zero as " foul @-@ mouthed butcher " , although he was generally positive about her story and her interactions with Mikhail and the disciples , calling the latter " strange and often hilarious " . Andrew Barker , in an analysis of the game for RPGFan , referred to her as " violence personified " , noting how the game gradually justified her actions . She was also noted , alongside One , as being the only Intoner who had no real need for a disciple . In a final note , he said that he only felt comfortable with Zero during the game 's fourth branch , where her motives were revealed . Anime News Network 's Todd Ciolek described her as a conscious mockery of standard action @-@ game protagonists , referring to her as " murderous , foul @-@ mouthed , impulsive , abusive , and all but impossible to like . "
In contrast , Kimberley Wallace of Game Informer was not as enthusiastic , saying that while Zero had some good one @-@ liners , " the better efforts are buried in a lot of bad party banter . " RPGamer 's Michael Cunningham found Zero to be an " angry , vulgar woman [ ... ] impatient , aggressive , and easily irritated " , and that the lack of explanation behind Zero 's actions negatively affected the plot . IGN 's Meghan Sullivan was also fairly negative , saying that Zero 's character , interactions and motivation were badly let down by poor writing . USGamer 's Kat Bailey was generally unenthusiastic about Zero 's general attitude and portrayal , saying that she was " characterized in large part by her apparent love of killing and her aggressive bitchiness toward her companion dragon " . Roger Hargreaves for Metro agreed , finding Zero to be a " thoroughly unpleasant and unlikeable main character . " Crunchyroll 's Nate Ming was highly critical of Zero , calling her " a ruthless , backstabbing , front @-@ stabbing , cold @-@ hearted bitch " , and said that she would be the villain in any other game .
The character has been positively received by series fans in Japan . In a popularity contest for the characters of Drakengard 3 , Zero came in as the fourth most popular character of the game , with her dragon Mikhail taking first place . In the 2014 Dengeki PlayStation Awards , Zero was placed as the fourth best character of 2013 . Beyond the Drakengard universe , both Zero had her dragon Mikhail appeared in the second sequel to the arcade game Lord of Vermilion .
= = = Game quotes = = =
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= John McCain presidential campaign , 2000 =
John McCain , the United States Senator from Arizona , launched his first candidacy for the presidency of the United States in the 2000 presidential election .
Announcing his run for the Republican Party nomination in September 1999 , McCain was the main challenger to Texas Governor George W. Bush , who had the political and financial support of most of the party establishment . McCain staged an upset win in the February 2000 New Hampshire primary , capitalizing on a message of political reform and " straight talk " that appealed to moderate Republican and independent voters and to the press . McCain 's momentum was halted when Bush won the South Carolina primary later that month , in a contest that became famous for its bitter nature and an underground smear campaign run against McCain .
McCain won some subsequent primaries , but after the March 2000 Super Tuesday contests he was well behind in delegates and withdrew . He grudgingly endorsed Bush two months later and made occasional appearances for him during the general election .
= = Leading up to the announcement = =
McCain was mentioned as a possible candidate for the Republican nomination beginning in 1997 , but he took few steps to pursue it , instead concentrating on his 1998 senate re @-@ election . The decision of General Colin Powell not to run helped persuade McCain that there might be an opening for him . McCain later wrote that he had a " vague aspiration " of running for president for a long time . He would also be candid about his motivation : " I didn 't decide to run for president to start a national crusade for the political reforms I believed in or to run a campaign as if it were some grand act of patriotism . In truth , I wanted to be president because it had become my ambition to become president . I was sixty @-@ two years old when I made the decision , and I thought it was my one shot at the prize . "
Potential weaknesses of a McCain candidacy included his senatorial accomplishments skewing towards the maverick side rather than those that would appeal to the party core , a lack of funds and of fund @-@ raising prowess , and an unpredictability of personality and temperament . Potential assets included a lot of favorable treatment in the political media , and well as being featured on A & E 's Biography series , and support from veterans . National polls showed McCain with low name recognition , but once voters were asked about a hypothetical candidate with a similar military biography , the numbers improved dramatically .
= = Announcements and Kosovo = =
McCain had initially planned on announcing his candidacy and beginning active campaigning on April 6 , 1999 . There was to be a four @-@ day roadshow , whose first day would symbolically begin at the United States Naval Academy in Annapolis , Maryland , then see early primary states New Hampshire and South Carolina , before concluding in home Phoenix , Arizona with a big audience , marching bands , and thousands of balloons .
However , the Kosovo War intervened . On March 24 , the NATO bombing campaign against the Federal Republic of Yugoslavia began . McCain had voted the day before in favor of approval for the Clinton administration 's action , saying " Atrocities are the signature of the Serbian Army . They 've been carrying out atrocities since 1992 . We must not permit the genocide that Milosevic has in mind for Kosovo to continue . We are at a critical hour . " He was critical of past inaction by the Clinton administration in the matter , and within days was urging that the use of ground troops not be ruled out . McCain became a very frequent guest on television talk shows discussing the conflict , and his " We are in it , now we must win it " stance drew much attention . On March 31 , three American soldiers were captured by Yugoslavia ; the next day , McCain canceled his planned roadshow , stating " this is not an appropriate time to launch a political campaign . " He received media praise for his action and continued to be a highly visible spokesman for strong action regarding Kosovo ; CNN pundit Mark Shields said that , " In thirty @-@ five years in Washington , I have never seen a debate dominated by an individual in the minority party as I 've seen this one dominated by John McCain . "
On April 13 , McCain simply issued a statement without fanfare that he would be a candidate : " While now is not the time for the celebratory tour I had planned , I am a candidate for president and I will formally kick off my campaign at a more appropriate time . " McCain and his wife Cindy would make some campaign @-@ related appearances over the spring and summer .
McCain 's co @-@ authored , best @-@ selling family memoir , Faith of My Fathers , published in August 1999 , helped promote the new start of his campaign . The book garnered largely positive reviews , and McCain went on a 15 @-@ city book tour during September . The tour 's success and the book 's high sales led to the themes of the memoir , which included McCain talking more about his Vietnam prisoner @-@ of @-@ war experience than he had in the past , becoming a major part of McCain 's campaign messaging .
McCain finally formally announced his candidacy on September 27 , 1999 before a thousand people in Greeley Park in Nashua , New Hampshire , saying " It is because I owe America more than she has ever owed me that I am a candidate for president to the United States . " He further said he was staging " a fight to take our government back from the power brokers and special interests and return it to the people and the noble cause of freedom it was created to serve . " As originally planned , he began his announcement day with a visit to the Naval Academy .
= = Campaign staff and policy team = =
McCain 's campaign used many veteran Washington political insiders , including some who had an insurgency @-@ oriented or contrarian mindset . Rick Davis was the campaign manager for the McCain effort , while Mike Murphy was the overall strategist and John Weaver the chief political adviser . Greg Stevens was the media adviser and Mark Salter was the chief speechwriter ( and credited co @-@ author of McCain 's books ) . Howard Opinsky was the campaign 's press officer . Craig Turk was the general counsel .
After a while , a rivalry formed between Davis , at campaign headquarters , and Weaver and Murphy , who traveled on the campaign bus . Davis wanted a larger role in campaign strategy , and eventually differences between the two factions escalated to attacks made via the press .
= = Campaign developments 1999 = =
There was a crowded field of Republican candidates , but the big leader in terms of establishment party support and fundraising was Texas Governor and presidential son George W. Bush . Indeed , by the time of McCain 's formal announcement , top @-@ echelon Republican contenders such as Lamar Alexander , John Kasich , and Dan Quayle were already withdrawing from the race due to Bush 's strength . As McCain would later write , " No one thought I had much of a chance , including me . " Four of McCain 's fifty @-@ five fellow Republican senators endorsed his candidacy .
The day after McCain announced , Bush made a show of visiting Phoenix and displaying that he , not McCain , had the endorsement of Arizona Governor Jane Dee Hull and several other prominent local political figures . McCain did have the support of the rest of the Republican Arizona congressional delegation . Hull would continue to attack McCain during the campaign , and was featured in high @-@ profile Arizona Republic and New York Times stories about McCain 's reputation for having a bad temper , with the latter featuring on @-@ the @-@ record criticism from Governor of Michigan John Engler . By early November , stories about McCain 's temper problem were frequent enough that Washington Post media critic Howard Kurtz wrote a survey article about them . Some of McCain 's opponents , including those in or close to the Senate Republican leadership , intimated that McCain 's temper was a sign of mental instability . The notion that this was due to McCain 's POW days caused Admiral James Stockdale , a fellow former POW and 1992 vice @-@ presidential candidate for Ross Perot , to write an op @-@ ed piece for The New York Times , " John McCain in the Crucible " . In it , Stockdale said that the reverse was true : that the experience of resisting during the POW experience made former POWs more emotionally stable in later life , not less . In early December , McCain released some 1 @,@ 500 pages of his medical and psychiatric records , which showed several psychiatric evaluations over a number of years following his POW release that indicated no signs of lingering mental or emotional difficulty from that period .
Bush avoided most of the scheduled Republican Party debates during 1999 , including one held on November 21 at Arizona State University in McCain 's home state . There McCain debated second @-@ tier candidates Alan Keyes , Orrin Hatch , and Steve Forbes instead . Bush finally did participate in the December 6 debate from the Orpheum Theatre in Phoenix , by which time McCain was so busy campaigning in New Hampshire that he had to join via a video linkup . There McCain 's signature push for campaign finance reform led to one of the few lively exchanges in an otherwise placid event .
Following political consultant Mike Murphy 's advice , McCain decided to skip the initial event of the nomination season , the Iowa caucus , where his long opposition to ethanol subsidies would be unpopular and his late start and lack of base party support would hurt him in the grassroots organizing necessary for success in the state . ( He had earlier skipped the August 1999 Iowa Straw Poll , labeling it a sham . ) McCain focused on introducing his biographical story , especially his Vietnam and POW experiences ; a videocassette telling the story was sent to 50 @,@ 000 voters in the first two primary states , as well as to military veterans in other states .
= = Caucuses and primaries 2000 = =
= = = New Hampshire = = =
By skipping Iowa , McCain was able to focus instead on the New Hampshire primary , where his message held appeal to independents and where Bush 's father had never been very popular . At first , McCain attracted small crowds and little media attention . But by November 1999 , McCain had become competitive , measuring evenly with Bush in polls . Bush said he realized McCain was a strong candidate there : " If I had to guess why Senator McCain is doing well , it 's people respect him and so do I. He 's a good man . "
McCain traveled on a campaign bus called the Straight Talk Express , whose name capitalized on his reputation as a political maverick who would speak his mind . In visits to towns he gave a ten @-@ minute talk focused on campaign reform issues , then announced he would stay until he answered every question that everyone had . He pledged that " I will never tell you a lie . " He conducted 114 of these town hall meetings , speaking in every town in New Hampshire in an example of " retail politics " that overcame Bush 's familiar name . His growing number of supporters became known as " McCainiacs " .
McCain was famously accessible to the press , using free media to compensate for his lack of funds . As one reporter later recounted , " McCain talked all day long with reporters on his Straight Talk Express bus ; he talked so much that sometimes he said things that he shouldn 't have , and that 's why the media loved him . " Some McCain aides saw the senator as naturally preferring the company of reporters to other politicians .
McCain and Bush argued over their proposals for tax cuts ; McCain criticized Bush 's plan as too large and too beneficial to the wealthy . McCain preferred a smaller cut that would allocate more of the surplus towards the solvency of Social Security and Medicare . McCain pushed his signature issue of campaign finance reform , and was the only candidate to talk much about foreign policy and defense issues .
On February 1 , 2000 , McCain won the primary with 49 percent of the vote to Bush 's 30 percent , and suddenly was the celebrity of the hour . Other Republican candidates had dropped out or failed to gain traction , and McCain became Bush 's only serious opponent . Analysts predicted that a McCain victory in the crucial South Carolina primary might give his insurgency campaign unstoppable momentum ; a degree of fear and panic crept into not only the Bush campaign but also the Republican establishment and movement conservatism . Bush 's top campaign staff met and strategized what to do about McCain ; one advisor said , " We gotta hit him hard . "
= = = South Carolina = = =
The battle between Bush and McCain for South Carolina has entered American political lore as one of the nastiest , dirtiest , and most brutal ever . On the one hand , Bush switched his label for himself from " compassionate conservative " to " reformer with results " , as part of trying to co @-@ opt McCain 's popular message of reform . On the other hand , a variety of business and interest groups that McCain had challenged in the past now pounded him with negative ads .
The day that a new poll showed McCain five points ahead in the state , Bush allied himself on stage with a marginal and controversial veterans activist named J. Thomas Burch , who accused McCain of having " abandoned the veterans " on POW / MIA and Agent Orange issues : " He came home from Vietnam and forgot us . " Incensed , McCain ran ads accusing Bush of lying and comparing the governor to Bill Clinton , which Bush complained was " about as low a blow as you can give in a Republican primary . " An unidentified party began a semi @-@ underground smear campaign against McCain , delivered by push polls , faxes , e @-@ mails , flyers , audience plants , and the like . These claimed most famously that he had fathered a black child out of wedlock ( the McCains ' dark @-@ skinned daughter Bridget was adopted from Bangladesh ; this misrepresentation was thought to be an especially effective slur in a Deep South state where race was still central ) , but also that his wife Cindy was a drug addict , that he was a homosexual , and that he was a " Manchurian Candidate " traitor or mentally unstable from his North Vietnam POW days . The Bush campaign strongly denied any involvement with these attacks ; Bush said he would fire anyone who ran defamatory push polls . During a break in a debate , Bush put his hand on McCain 's arm and reiterated that he had no involvement in the attacks ; McCain replied , " Don 't give me that shit . And take your hands off me . "
Bush mobilized the state 's evangelical voters , and leading conservative broadcaster Rush Limbaugh entered the fray supporting Bush and going on at length about how McCain was a favorite of liberal Democrats . Polls swung in Bush 's favor ; by not accepting federal matching funds for his campaign , Bush was not limited in how much money he could spend on advertisements , while McCain was near his limit . With three days to go , McCain shut down his negative ads against Bush and tried to stress a positive image . But McCain 's stressing of campaign finance reform , and how Bush 's proposed tax cuts would benefit the wealthy , did not appeal to core Republicans in the state .
McCain lost South Carolina on February 19 , with 42 percent of the vote against Bush 's 53 percent , allowing Bush to regain the momentum .
= = = On to Super Tuesday = = =
McCain 's campaign never completely recovered from his defeat in South Carolina . He did rebound partially by winning in Arizona and Michigan on February 22 , mocking Governor Hull 's opposition in the former . In Michigan , which he won 50 percent to 43 percent in an upset , he captured many Democratic and independent votes , who combined made up over half of the primary electorate .
Still reeling from his South Carolina experience , McCain made a February 28 speech in Virginia Beach that criticized Christian leaders , including Pat Robertson and Jerry Falwell , as divisive ; McCain declared , " ... we embrace the fine members of the religious conservative community . But that does not mean that we will pander to their self @-@ appointed leaders . " He also made an off @-@ the @-@ cuff , unserious remark on the Straight Talk Express that referred to Robertson and Falwell as " forces of evil " , that came across as angry hostility to many Christian conservatives . McCain lost the Virginia primary on February 29 , as well as one in Washington .
McCain had stated in mid @-@ February that " I hate the gooks " , in reference to his captors during the Vietnam War . This use gained some media attention in California , which had a large Asian American population . After criticism from some in that community , McCain vowed to no longer use the term , saying , " I will continue to condemn those who unfairly mistreated us . But out of respect to a great number of people for whom I hold in very high regard , I will no longer use the term that has caused such discomfort . " Reaction among Vietnamese Americans to McCain 's use of this term was mixed although supportive of McCain himself , and exit polls in the primary in California showed that they strongly supported him . This was not the first or the last example of controversial remarks by McCain .
A week later on March 7 , 2000 , he lost nine of the thirteen primaries on Super Tuesday to Bush , including large states such as California , New York , Ohio , and Georgia ; McCain 's wins were confined to the New England states of Massachusetts , Rhode Island , Connecticut and Vermont . His overall loss on that day has been attributed to his going " off message " , ineffectively accusing Bush of being anti @-@ Catholic due to having visited Bob Jones University and getting into a verbal battle with leaders of the Religious Right . Throughout the campaign , McCain had achieved parity with Bush among self @-@ identified Republicans only in the northeastern states ; in most of the rest of the country , Bush ran way well ahead of McCain among Republicans , enough to overcome McCain 's strength among independents and Democrats . With little hope of overcoming Bush 's delegate lead after Super Tuesday , McCain withdrew from the race on March 9 , 2000 .
= = General election = =
Following the end of his campaign , McCain returned to the Senate , where he was welcomed with respect for the effort he had made , his openness in the campaign , and for the attacks he had undergone . Other Republicans sought out his endorsement in their general election races . In the Senate , McCain continued his push for campaign finance reform . The question of whether McCain would endorse Bush remained uncertain .
The events of South Carolina stayed with McCain . In an interview during this time , McCain would say of the rumor spreaders , " I believe that there is a special place in hell for people like those , " and in another interview he called the rumor spreaders " the ugly underside of politics . " McCain regretted some aspects of his own campaign there as well , in particular changing his stance on flying the Confederate flag at the state capitol from a " very offensive " " symbol of racism and slavery " to " a symbol of heritage " . He would later write , " I feared that if I answered honestly , I could not win the South Carolina primary . So I chose to compromise my principles . " He had done so woodenly , reading his revised statement from a piece of paper . According to one report , the South Carolina experience overall left McCain in a " very dark place . "
McCain finally did announce he would campaign for Bush , in a joint appearance with him on May 9 , but did not use the actual word " endorse " until reporters pressed him to do so . The Guardian characterized the endorsement as " tepid " and said that McCain " betrayed little outward enthusiasm " during the appearance , while The New York Times wrote that " there was a tight , grudging quality to the event , " and that McCain had been " looking a bit like a teenager forced to attend a classical music concert . " McCain also made it clear that he was not interested in a vice @-@ presidential nomination .
When the 2000 Republican National Convention began in Philadelphia at the end of July , McCain took his Straight Talk Express to meet with his delegates and supporters before formally releasing them to Bush . There were tears from McCain , his wife Cindy , and some of the campaign staff and delegates . Many of McCain 's supporters were vocally unhappy with his words of support for Bush , and the Times wrote that , " Politics as usual with its compromises , cruelties and emotional costs — caught up with Senator John McCain this weekend . " McCain made a point of having Cindy McCain head the Arizona delegation at the convention , not his antagonist Governor Hull . On August 1 , the second night of the convention , McCain delivered a speech in praise of Bush , in particular trying to solidify Bush 's national security and foreign policy credentials . In it , McCain connected his family to Bush 's , making reference to former President George H. W. Bush 's combat service as a naval aviator in the Pacific Theater of World War II under Admiral John S. McCain , Sr. , McCain 's grandfather . He said directly of the nominee , " I support him . I am grateful to him . And I am proud of him . " The Almanac of American Politics called it " a moving , elegiac speech that ended as if in a minor key . "
McCain 's plans to campaign for Bush in fall 2000 were delayed later in August by a recurrence of melanoma . This Stage IIa instance on his temple required extensive surgery that removed the lesion , surrounding lymph nodes , and part of the parotid gland . The final pathology tests showed that the melanoma had not spread , and his prognosis was good , but McCain was left with cosmetic aftereffects including a puffy cheek and a scar down his neck .
McCain did join Bush for a few days of appearances in late October , emphasizing , in the wake of the October 12 USS Cole bombing , his belief that Bush was a better choice than Democratic Party nominee Al Gore to deal with international security threats . Bush aide Scott McClellan later described the joint appearances by saying , " The tension was palpable . The two were cordial , but McCain would get that forced smile on his face whenever they were together . " McCain also campaigned for about forty Republican House of Representatives candidates , and was credited by National Republican Congressional Committee chair Tom Davis with keeping the House in Republican hands . McCain would state that he voted for Bush on November 7 ( although years later several witnesses would relate that McCain and his wife Cindy had both said at a dinner party that they had not ) . When the November presidential election continued on in indecision during the Florida election dispute , McCain stayed generally quiet in an atmosphere of extreme partisanship , though he did appear on CBS ' Face the Nation to say , " I think the nation is growing a little weary of this . We 're not in a constitutional crisis , but the American people are growing weary , and whoever wins is having a rapidly diminishing mandate , to say the least . " Once Bush was declared the winner and inaugurated in January 2001 , McCain 's battles with him would resume , with a significant amount of lingering bitterness between the two men and their staffs over what had transpired during the course of 2000 .
= = Aftermath = =
= = = South Carolina investigated and revisited = = =
While South Carolina was known for legendary hard @-@ knuckled political consultant Lee Atwater and rough elections , this had been more : Michael Graham , a native writer , radio host , and political operative , would say " I have worked on hundreds of campaigns in South Carolina , and I 've never seen anything as ugly as that campaign . " In subsequent years there would be persistent accounts trying to tie the anti @-@ McCain smears to high levels of the Bush campaign : the 2003 book Bush 's Brain would use it to build up their " evil genius " depiction of Bush chief strategist Karl Rove , while a 2008 PBS NOW program showed a local political consultant stating that Warren Tompkins , a Lee Atwater protégé and then Bush chief strategist for the state , was responsible . In contrast , in 2004 National Review 's Byron York would try to debunk many of the South Carolina smear reports as unfounded legend . McCain 's campaign manager said in 2004 they never found out where the smear attacks came from , while McCain himself never doubted their existence .
When McCain ran for president again in 2008 , South Carolina again proved crucial , in his battle with former Governors Mitt Romney and Mike Huckabee and former Senator Fred Thompson . This time , McCain had the support of much of the state Republican establishment , although Rush Limbaugh and other talk radio figures were still lambasting him , and aggressively moved to thwart any smear campaign before it got started . McCain won the primary on January 19 , 2008 ; in his victory remarks to supporters that evening , he said , " It took us awhile , but what 's eight years among friends ? " The New York Times described McCain 's win as " exorcising the ghosts of the attack @-@ filled primary here that derailed his presidential hopes eight years ago . "
= = Primary campaign results = =
Total popular votes in Republican 2000 primaries :
George W. Bush - 12 @,@ 034 @,@ 676 ( 62 @.@ 00 % )
John McCain - 6 @,@ 061 @,@ 332 ( 31 @.@ 23 % )
Alan Keyes - 985 @,@ 819 ( 5 @.@ 08 % )
Steve Forbes - 171 @,@ 860 ( 0 @.@ 89 % )
Unpledged - 61 @,@ 246 ( 0 @.@ 32 % )
Gary Bauer - 60 @,@ 709 ( 0 @.@ 31 % )
Orrin Hatch - 15 @,@ 958 ( 0 @.@ 08 % )
Al Gore ( write @-@ in ) - 1 @,@ 155 ( 0 @.@ 01 % )
Bill Bradley ( write @-@ in ) - 1 @,@ 025 ( 0 @.@ 01 % )
Key states :
Feb 1 New Hampshire primary : McCain 115 @,@ 606 ( 48 @.@ 53 % ) , Bush 72 @,@ 330 ( 30 @.@ 36 % ) , Forbes 30 @,@ 166 ( 12 @.@ 66 % ) , Keyes 15 @,@ 179 ( 6 @.@ 37 % )
Feb 19 South Carolina primary : Bush 305 @,@ 998 ( 53 @.@ 39 % ) , McCain 239 @,@ 964 ( 41 @.@ 87 % ) , Keyes 25 @,@ 996 ( 4 @.@ 54 % )
Feb 22 Arizona primary : McCain 193 @,@ 708 ( 60 @.@ 03 % ) , Bush 115 @,@ 115 ( 35 @.@ 68 % ) , Keyes 11 @,@ 500 ( 3 @.@ 56 % )
Feb 22 Michigan primary : McCain 650 @,@ 805 ( 50 @.@ 97 % ) , Bush 549 @,@ 665 ( 43 @.@ 05 % ) , Keyes 59 @,@ 032 ( 4 @.@ 62 % )
Feb 29 Virginia primary : Bush 350 @,@ 588 ( 52 @.@ 79 % ) , McCain 291 @,@ 488 ( 43 @.@ 89 % ) , Keyes 20 @,@ 356 ( 3 @.@ 07 % )
Feb 29 Washington primary : Bush 284 @,@ 053 ( 57 @.@ 84 % ) , McCain 191 @,@ 101 ( 38 @.@ 91 % ) , Keyes 11 @,@ 753 ( 2 @.@ 39 % )
Mar 7 California primary : Bush 1 @,@ 725 @,@ 162 ( 60 @.@ 58 % ) , McCain 988 @,@ 706 ( 34 @.@ 72 % ) , Keyes 112 @,@ 747 ( 3 @.@ 96 % )
Mar 7 New York primary : Bush 1 @,@ 102 @,@ 850 ( 51 @.@ 02 % ) , McCain 937 @,@ 655 ( 43 @.@ 38 % ) , Keyes 71 @,@ 196 ( 3 @.@ 29 % ) , Forbes 49 @,@ 817 ( 2 @.@ 31 % )
Mar 7 Ohio primary : Bush 810 @,@ 369 ( 57 @.@ 99 % ) , McCain 516 @,@ 790 ( 36 @.@ 98 % ) , Keyes 55 @,@ 266 ( 3 @.@ 96 % )
Mar 7 Georgia primary : Bush 430 @,@ 480 ( 66 @.@ 93 % ) , McCain 179 @,@ 046 ( 27 @.@ 84 % ) , Keyes 29 @,@ 640 ( 4 @.@ 61 % )
Mar 7 Missouri primary : Bush 275 @,@ 366 ( 57 @.@ 93 % ) , McCain 167 @,@ 831 ( 35 @.@ 31 % ) , Keyes 27 @,@ 282 ( 5 @.@ 74 % )
Mar 7 Maryland primary : Bush 211 @,@ 439 ( 56 @.@ 23 % ) , McCain 135 @,@ 981 ( 36 @.@ 16 % ) , Keyes 25 @,@ 020 ( 6 @.@ 65 % )
Mar 7 Maine primary : Bush 49 @,@ 308 ( 51 @.@ 03 % ) , McCain 42 @,@ 510 ( 44 @.@ 00 % ) , Keyes 2 @,@ 989 ( 3 @.@ 09 % ) , Uncommited 1 @,@ 038 ( 1 @.@ 07 % )
Mar 7 Massachusetts primary : McCain 325 @,@ 297 ( 64 @.@ 68 % ) , Bush 159 @,@ 826 ( 31 @.@ 78 % ) , Keyes 12 @,@ 656 ( 2 @.@ 52 % )
Mar 7 Vermont primary : McCain 49 @,@ 045 ( 60 @.@ 29 % ) , Bush 28 @,@ 741 ( 35 @.@ 33 % ) , Keyes 2 @,@ 164 ( 2 @.@ 66 % )
Mar 7 Rhode Island primary : McCain 21 @,@ 754 ( 60 @.@ 18 % ) , Bush 13 @,@ 170 ( 36 @.@ 43 % ) , Keyes 923 ( 2 @.@ 55 % )
Mar 7 Connecticut primary : McCain 87 @,@ 176 ( 48 @.@ 71 % ) , Bush 82 @,@ 881 ( 46 @.@ 31 % ) , Keyes 5 @,@ 913 ( 3 @.@ 30 % )
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= 104th Infantry Division ( United States ) =
The 104th Infantry Division was an infantry division of the United States Army . Today , it is known as the 104th Division ( Leader Training ) and based at Fort Lewis , Washington , as a training unit of the United States Army Reserve .
Activated in 1921 , the division was created as an infantry unit with a focus on nighttime combat operations . Deployed during World War II , the division saw almost 200 days of fighting in northwestern Europe as it fought through France , Belgium , and western Germany , fighting back several fierce German counterattacks as it advanced through the theater throughout late 1944 and 1945 . This was the only combat duty that the 104th Infantry Division has served during its history . At the end of the fighting on 7 May 1945 ( V @-@ E Day ) , this division was in central Germany opposite the troops of its allies from the Soviet Army .
After World War II , this division was reorganized primarily as a training division for Reserve forces . After several decades , the division then expanded its role to conducting entry @-@ level training for soldiers of all branches of the Army in the northwestern United States . Its role and size have expanded over that time due to consolidation of other training commands , and the division subsequently took charge of a number of brigades specializing in various entry @-@ level training for soldiers of all types .
= = History = =
The 104th Infantry Division was first constituted on 24 June 1921 as the 104th Division , before being organized and activated in October of that year in Salt Lake City , Utah . Assigned to the division were the 207th and 208th Infantry Brigades , containing the 413th , 414th , 415th , and 416th Infantry Regiments . As a unit of the Organized Reserves , the division represented assets from the states of Montana , Wyoming , Idaho , Utah , and Nevada . In 1924 it received its shoulder sleeve insignia . The division would not see significant duty until World War II .
= = = World War II = = =
At the outbreak of World War II , the 104th Infantry Division began preparing to participate in the war in Europe . The division was ordered into active military service on 15 September 1942 and reorganized as the 104th Infantry Division at Camp Adair , Oregon . The 207th and 208th Brigades did not reactivate as part of an army @-@ wide elimination of brigade commands within its divisions . The division was instead centered on three infantry regiments ; the 413th Infantry Regiment , the 414th Infantry Regiment , and the 415th Infantry Regiment . Also assigned to the division were the 385th , 386th , 387th and 929th Field Artillery Battalions , as well as the 104th Signal Company , the 804th Ordnance Company , the 104th Quartermaster Company , the 104th Reconnaissance Troop , the 329th Engineer Battalion , the 329th Medical Battalion , and the 104th Counter Intelligence Detachment . From that point it began training as a division in preparation for deployment to Europe . The division trained in the northwestern United States during the next two years , earning its name " Timberwolf Division " from its time in the area . The division was the first army division to train specifically for fighting in nighttime conditions . After training at Camp Adair , the division participation in the Oregon Maneuver combat exercise in the fall of 1943 .
= = = = Europe = = = =
The 104th Infantry Division sailed for Europe on 27 August 1944 . It landed in France on 7 September 1944 . In early October , Major General Terry de la Mesa Allen , Sr. took command of the division . He would command the division during most of its time in combat . The division was assigned to III Corps of the Ninth United States Army , part of the Twelfth United States Army Group . The division then organized and assembled at Manche , France before heading into combat .
Joining the Battle of Hürtgen Forest , the division moved into defensive positions in the vicinity of Wuustwezel , Belgium on 23 October 1944 . The Timberwolves were then assigned to British Field Marshal Bernard Montgomery 's Anglo @-@ Canadian 21st Army Group under the British I Corps , along with the U.S. 7th Armored Division , in order to clear out the Scheldt Estuary and open the port of Antwerp . While the U.S. 7th Armored Division was assigned static duty holding the right flank of the gains made during the failed Market Garden operation , the 104th Infantry Division was to assist the First Canadian Army in the taking of the Scheldt . The Timberwolves traveled across France by train and debarked near the Belgian @-@ Dutch border and waited for word to attack , taking the place of the experienced British 49th Infantry Division on the left flank and the Polish 1st Armored Division on the right .
The Americans were given responsibility for taking 22 miles of wet , low country from the Belgian border to the Maas River . The width of their front was approximately 8 @,@ 000 yards . General Allen planned to employ all three of his regiments at the same time , shoulder to shoulder . The 104th began combat operations on 25 and 26 October , and began to attack the Germans , who offered varying levels of resistance . Along the division 's front , the Germans were spread thinly and did not have continuous lines of defense . However , they did possess deadly strong points , and endeavored to make the Timberwolves ' progress as time consuming and costly as possible , making heavy use of mines , booby traps , and roadblocks . Despite this , advance was steady , though paid for in the lives of the 104th Division soldiers . Conditions were rainy , chilly , wet and muddy . Moisture seemed to grip everything and everyone . Sleet beat down on the troops , who went for days soaked to the skin and slimy with mud . On 30 October , after five days of continuous operations the division had pushed about 15 miles to within sight of the Mark River and had liberated Zundert , gained control of the Breda @-@ Roosendaal Road , and overrun the Vaart Canal defenses . Leur and Etten fell as the division advanced to the Mark River , arriving there by 31 October . A coordinated attack over the Mark River at Standdaarbuiten on 2 November established a bridgehead and the rest of the division crossed the river . With the Allies firmly on the north side of the Mark River , German resistance collapsed . For the next two days , the Timberwolves pursued enemy remnants north to the Maas River . Zevenbergen was captured and the Maas River was reached on 5 November . That same day , General Allen received orders from the U.S. First Army , releasing it from British control . While the bulk of the division moved near Aachen , Germany , elements remained to secure Moerdijk until 7 November , when they were relieved . During this time , the division was reassigned to VII Corps of the U.S. 1st Army , also part of the Twelfth Army Group . By 7 November , the fighting in the Netherlands cost the Timberwolves 1 @,@ 426 casualties , including 313 killed and 103 missing . Montgomery and the Canadian commanders sent their congratulations , and General Allen disseminated copies of their letters to his regiments and wrote a personal letter of thanks to everyone in the division , concluding with his favorite motto , " Nothing in Hell must stop the Timberwolves ! " As a result of the actions of the 104th and their Allied counterparts , the Scheldt Estuary was cleared . The Royal Navy took three weeks to sweep the estuary waters clear of mines , and in early December 1944 , the port of Antwerp was open to Allied shipping .
While under American command on 16 November 1944 , the division went on another offensive , taking Stolberg and pushing on against heavy resistance . Eschweiler fell on 21 November and the enemy was cleared from the area west of the Inde River , including Inden by 2 December 1944 . Lucherberg was held against enemy counterattacks on 3 December , and all strongholds west of the Roer River were captured by the 23rd . It took temporary command of the 60th Infantry Regiment of the 9th Infantry Division . During the Battle of the Bulge , the 104th actively defended its sector near Duren and Merken from 15 December 1944 to 22 February 1945 . During that time , it was reassigned to XIX Corps of the Ninth United States Army . It then moved across the Roer taking Huchem @-@ Stammeln , Birkesdorf , and North Duren . On 5 March , after heavy fighting , it entered Köln . After defending the west bank of the Rhine River , the division crossed the river at Honnef on 22 March 1945 , and attacked to the east of the Remagen bridgehead . During this time , some of the division 's assets fell under command of the 1st Infantry Division and the 3rd Armored Division . After a period of mopping up and consolidation , it participated in the trap of enemy troops in the Ruhr pocket . The 104th repulsed heavy attacks near Medebach and captured Paderborn on 1 April 1945 . After regrouping , it advanced to the east and crossed the Weser River on 8 April , blocking enemy exits from the Harz Mountains . The division then crossed the Saale River and took Halle in a bitter five @-@ day struggle from 15 to 19 April . The sector to the Mulde River was cleared by 21 April , and after vigorous patrolling , contacted the Red Army at Pretzsch on 26 April . The division took temporary command of assets from the 69th Infantry Division in early May .
= = = = Demobilization = = = =
The division returned to the United States on 3 July 1945 . Upon return , it continued the process of demobilization until 20 December of that year , when it was inactivated . The division suffered 1 @,@ 294 killed in action , 5 @,@ 305 wounded in action , 385 missing in action , and 27 prisoners of war . The division suffered a further 6 @,@ 396 non @-@ battle casualties , for a total of 13 @,@ 407 casualties . The division took 51 @,@ 727 German prisoners during the war , most of whom surrendered following the armistice .
During World War II , soldiers of the division were awarded two Medals of Honor , 14 Distinguished Service Crosses , one Distinguished Service Medal , 642 Silver Star Medals , six Legion of Merit medals , 20 Soldier 's Medals , 2 @,@ 797 Bronze Star Medals , and 40 Air Medals . The division received 9 Distinguished Unit Citations and three campaign streamers during 200 days of combat .
= = = Training Division = = =
The division was reactivated on 1 December 1946 in the organized reserves in Portland , Oregon . It began taking on the responsibility of holding training programs for new soldiers of the US Army Reserve . In July 1948 , the division held its first session of summer training . By the end of the training , it had turned out 300 new reservists . By 1952 , the division was turning out 1 @,@ 500 new reservists per training camp . The division was reorganized specifically as a training division in 1959 . In 1961 , the division was relocated to Vancouver Barracks , Washington .
In 1967 , the division was reorganized . As part of an army wide initiative known as the Reorganization Objective Army Division plan , the division 's regiments were disbanded and replaced with larger and more versatile brigades . The 1st Brigade , 104th Division , activated at Vancouver Barracks , and the 2nd Brigade , 104th Division activated at Pasco , Washington . Meanwhile , the 3rd Brigade , 104th Division , as well as the 4th Brigade , 104th Division both activated at Fort Lawton , Washington . Each of these brigades carried the history of other historic units which fought under the 104th Infantry Division in World War II . The 104th Division was then assigned the mission of conducting One Station Unit Training , Basic Combat Training , Advanced Individual Training , and Combat Support training . 1st Brigade took on basic combat training , while 3rd Brigade undertook combat support training , 4th Brigade conducted combat service support training .
In 1996 , three more brigades were added to the division 's structure . The 5th Brigade , 104th Division was activated at Salt Lake City , Utah . The 6th Brigade , 104th Division was activated at Aurora , Colorado . The 7th Brigade , 104th Division activated at Vancouver , Washington . The 5th Brigade conducted health services training , 6th Brigade took charge of professional development training and 7th Brigade provided training support to the other brigades . These units were redesignated from other training commands and put under the command of the division .
Two additional provisional brigades were created under the 104th Division in 1999 ; the 8th Brigade , 104th Division was created at Fort Lewis as a unit for training Reserve Officers ' Training Corps cadets , and the 4690th US Army Reserve Forces School at Fort Shafter , Hawaii was redesignated as the 4690th Brigade , 104th Division , for service as a multifunctional training unit . In 2005 , the Base Realignment and Closure suggestions included the closure of the Vancouver Barracks , and the 104th Division was subsequently relocated to Fort Lewis , Washington . In 2005 , the current Distinctive Unit Insignia was designed under the direction of Major General Terrill K. ( TK ) Moffett . The 104th received its new distinctive unit insignia in 2006 .
In October 2007 , the division was renamed the 104th Division ( Leader Training ) . This change reflected a change in the division 's mission , specifically training officer and non @-@ commissioned officer candidates in their assigned fields .
= = Honors = =
= = = Unit decorations = = =
ASUA – Army Superior Unit Award 1 JAN 05 – 31 DEC 06 – Iraq , Campaigns : Iraqi Governance – 29 June 2004 to 15 December 2005 ; National Resolution – 16 December 2005 to a date to be determined
= = = Campaign Streamers = = =
= = Legacy = =
Several people who served with the 104th Infantry Division later went on to achieve notability for various reasons . Among these people are rabbi Gunther Plaut , paleontologist Charles Repenning , Governor of Iowa Leo Hoegh , New York City mayor Ed Koch , New York governor Hugh L. Carey , and generals John R. Deane , Jr. and Bryant Moore . In addition , actor James G. Snitzer was a member of the 104th and died in combat in 1945 . NFL Player Bob Shaw also served with the 104th and was awarded the Bronze Star during World War II .
In addition , two soldiers from this division were awarded the Medal of Honor for their service in combat . They are Willy F. James , Jr . , for scouting German positions while being pinned down by machine gun fire , and Cecil H. Bolton , who led a company of men on the attack despite wounds from a mortar shell .
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= Heraclius =
Heraclius ( Latin : Flavius Heraclius Augustus , Greek : Φλάβιος Ἡράκλειος , Armenian : Հերակլես Փլավիոս , c . 575 – February 11 , 641 ) was Byzantine Emperor from 610 to 641 .
He was responsible for introducing Greek as the Eastern Empire 's official language . His rise to power began in 608 , when he and his father , Heraclius the Elder , the exarch of Africa , led a revolt against the unpopular usurper Phocas .
Heraclius 's reign was marked by several military campaigns . The year Heraclius came to power , the empire was threatened on multiple frontiers . Heraclius immediately took charge of the Byzantine – Sassanid War of 602 – 628 . The first battles of the campaign ended in defeat for the Byzantines ; the Persian army fought their way to the Bosphorus but Constantinople was protected by impenetrable walls and a strong navy and Heraclius was able to avoid total defeat . Soon after , he initiated reforms to rebuild and strengthen the military . Heraclius drove the Persians out of Asia Minor and pushed deep into their territory , defeating them decisively in 627 at the Battle of Nineveh . The Persian king Khosrau II was overthrown and executed by his son Kavadh II , who soon sued for a peace treaty , agreeing to withdraw from all occupied territory . This way peaceful relations were restored to the two deeply strained empires .
Heraclius soon experienced a new event , the Muslim conquests . Emerging from the Arabian Peninsula , the Muslims quickly conquered the Sassanid empire . In 634 the Muslims marched into Roman Syria , defeating Heraclius ' brother Theodore . Within a short period of time , the Arabs conquered Mesopotamia , Armenia and Egypt .
Heraclius entered diplomatic relations with the Croats and Serbs in the Balkans . He tried to repair the schism in the Christian church in regard to the Monophysites , by promoting a compromise doctrine called Monothelitism . The Church of the East ( commonly called Nestorian ) was also involved in the process . Eventually , however , this project of unity was rejected by all sides of the dispute .
= = Early life = =
= = = Origins = = =
Heraclius was the eldest son of Heraclius the Elder and Epiphania , of an Armenian family from Cappadocia , probably of Arsacid descent . Beyond that , there is little specific information known about his ancestry . His father was a key general during Emperor Maurice 's war with Bahrām Chobin , usurper of the Sassanid Empire , during 590 . After the war , Maurice appointed Heraclius the Elder to the position of Exarch of Africa .
= = = Revolt against Phocas and accession = = =
In 608 , Heraclius the Elder renounced his loyalty to the Emperor Phocas , who had overthrown Maurice six years earlier . The rebels issued coins showing both Heraclii dressed as consuls , though neither of them explicitly claimed the imperial title at this time . Heraclius ' younger cousin Nicetas launched an overland invasion of Egypt ; by 609 , he had defeated Phocas ' general Bonosus and secured the province . Meanwhile , the younger Heraclius sailed eastward with another force via Sicily and Cyprus .
As he approached Constantinople , he made contact with prominent leaders and planned an attack to overthrow aristocrats in the city , and soon arranged a ceremony where he was crowned and acclaimed as Emperor . When he reached the capital , the Excubitors , an elite Imperial Guard unit led by Phocas ' son @-@ in @-@ law Priscus , deserted to Heraclius , and he entered the city without serious resistance . When Heraclius captured Phocas , he asked him , " Is this how you have ruled , wretch ? " Phocas said in reply , " And will you rule better ? " With that , Heraclius became so enraged that he beheaded Phocas on the spot . He later had the genitalia removed from the body because Phocas had raped the wife of Photius , a powerful politician in the city .
On October 5 , 610 , Heraclius was crowned for a second time , this time in the Chapel of St. Stephen within the Great Palace ; at the same time he married Fabia , who took the name Eudokia . After her death in 612 , he married his niece Martina in 613 ; this second marriage was considered incestuous and was very unpopular . In the reign of Heraclius ' two sons , the divisive Martina was to become the center of power and political intrigue . Despite widespread hatred for Martina in Constantinople , Heraclius took her on campaigns with him and refused attempts by Patriarch Sergius to prevent and later dissolve the marriage .
= = Byzantine @-@ Sassanid War of 602 – 628 = =
= = = Initial Persian advantage = = =
During his Balkan Campaigns , Emperor Maurice and his family were murdered by Phocas in November 602 after a mutiny . Khosrau II ( Chosroes ) of the Sassanid Empire had been restored to his throne by Maurice , and they had remained allies . Thus , the Persian King Khosrau II seized the pretext to attack the Byzantine Empire and reconquer the Byzantine province of Mesopotamia . Khosrau had at his court a man who claimed to be Maurice 's son Theodosius , and Khosrau demanded that the Byzantines accept this Theodosius as Emperor .
The war initially went the Persians ' way , partly because of Phocas ' brutal repression and the succession crisis that ensued as the general Heraclius sent his nephew Nicetas to attack Egypt , enabling his son Heraclius the younger to claim the throne in 610 . Phocas , an unpopular ruler who is invariably described in historical sources as a " tyrant " ( in its original meaning of the word , i.e. illegitimate king by the rules of succession ) , was eventually deposed by Heraclius , who sailed to Constantinople from Carthage with an icon affixed to the prow of his ship .
By this time , the Persians had conquered Mesopotamia and the Caucasus , and in 611 they overran Syria and entered Anatolia . A major counter @-@ attack led by Heraclius two years later was decisively defeated outside Antioch by Shahrbaraz and Shahin , and the Roman position collapsed ; the Persians devastated parts of Asia Minor and captured Chalcedon across from Constantinople on the Bosporus . Over the following decade the Persians were able to conquer Palestine and Egypt ( by mid @-@ 621 the whole province was in their hands ) and to devastate Anatolia , while the Avars and Slavs took advantage of the situation to overrun the Balkans , bringing the Empire to the brink of destruction . In 613 , the Persian army took Damascus with the help of the Jews , seized Jerusalem in 614 , damaging the Church of the Holy Sepulchre and capturing the True Cross , and afterwards capturing Egypt in 617 or 618 .
With the Persians at the very gate of Constantinople , Heraclius thought of abandoning the city and moving the capital to Carthage , but the powerful church figure Patriarch Sergius convinced him to stay . Safe behind the walls of Constantinople , Heraclius was able to sue for peace in exchange for an annual tribute of a thousand talents of gold , a thousand talents of silver , a thousand silk robes , a thousand horses , and a thousand virgins to the Persian King . The peace allowed him to rebuild the Empire 's army by slashing non @-@ military expenditure , devaluing the currency , and melting down , with the backing of Patriarch Sergius , Church treasures to raise the necessary funds to continue the war .
= = = Byzantine counter @-@ offensive and resurgence = = =
On April 5 , 622 , Heraclius left Constantinople , entrusting the city to Sergius and general Bonus as regents of his son . He assembled his forces in Asia Minor , probably in Bithynia , and , after he revived their broken morale , he launched a new counter @-@ offensive , which took on the character of a holy war ; an acheiropoietos image of Christ was carried as a military standard .
The Roman army proceeded to Armenia , inflicted a defeat on an army led by a Persian @-@ allied Arab chief , and then won a victory over the Persians under Shahrbaraz . Heraclius would stay on campaign for several years . On March 25 , 624 he again left Constantinople with his wife , Martina , and his two children ; after he celebrated Easter in Nicomedia on April 15 , he campaigned in the Caucasus , winning a series of victories in Armenia against Khosrau and his generals Shahrbaraz , Shahin , and Shahraplakan . However , in the same year the Visigoths succeeded in recapturing Cartagena , capital of the western Byzantine province of Spania , resulting in the loss of one of the few minor provinces that had been conquered by the armies of Justinian I. In 626 the Avars and Slavs supported by a Persian army commanded by Shahrbaraz , besieged Constantinople , but the siege ended in failure ( the victory was attributed to the icons of the Virgin which were led in procession by Sergius about the walls of the city ) , while a second Persian army under Shahin suffered another crushing defeat at the hands of Heraclius ' brother Theodore .
With the Persian war effort disintegrating , Heraclius was able to bring the Gokturks of the Western Turkic Khaganate , Ziebel , who invaded Persian Transcaucasia . Heraclius exploited divisions within the Persian Empire , keeping the Persian general Shahrbaraz neutral by convincing him that Khosrau had grown jealous of him and had ordered his execution . Late in 627 he launched a winter offensive into Mesopotamia , where , despite the desertion of his Turkish allies , he defeated the Persians under Rhahzadh at the Battle of Nineveh . Continuing south along the Tigris he sacked Khosrau 's great palace at Dastagird and was only prevented from attacking Ctesiphon by the destruction of the bridges on the Nahrawan Canal . Discredited by this series of disasters , Khosrau was overthrown and killed in a coup led by his son Kavadh II , who at once sued for peace , agreeing to withdraw from all occupied territories . In 629 Heraclius restored the True Cross to Jerusalem in a majestic ceremony .
Heraclius took for himself the ancient Persian title of " King of Kings " after his victory over Persia . Later on , starting in 629 , he styled himself as Basileus , the Greek word for " sovereign " , and that title was used by the Roman Emperors for the next 800 years . The reason Heraclius chose this title over previous Roman terms such as Augustus has been attributed by some scholars as relating to his Armenian origins .
Heraclius ' defeat of the Persians ended a war that had been going on intermittently for almost 400 years and led to instability in the Persian Empire . Kavadh II died only months after assuming the throne , plunging Persia into several years of dynastic turmoil and civil war . Ardashir III , Heraclius ' ally Shahrbaraz , and Khosrau 's daughters Purandokht and Azarmidokht all succeeded to the throne within months of each other . Only when Yazdgerd III , a grandson of Khosrau II , succeeded to the throne in 632 was there stability . But by then the Sasanid Empire was severely disorganised and had been severely weakened by years of war and civil strife over the succession to the throne .
However , the Byzantine victory was ultimately a pyrrhic one , as the devastating impact of the war left the Byzantines in much weakened state . Within a few years both empires were overwhelmed by the onslaught of the Arabs who had become newly united by Islam , ultimately leading to the Muslim conquest of Persia in 644 and the fall of the Sassanid dynasty in 651 .
= = War against the Arabs = =
In 629 , the Islamic Prophet Muhammad had recently succeeded in unifying all of the nomadic tribes of the Arabian Peninsula . Those tribes had previously been too divided to pose a serious military challenge to the Byzantines or the Persians . Now unified and animated by their new conversion to Islam , they comprised one of the most powerful states in the region . The first conflict between the Byzantines and Muslims was the Battle of Mu 'tah in September 629 . A small Muslim skirmishing force attacked the province of Arabia in response to their ambassador 's murder at the hands of the Ghassanid Roman governor , but were repulsed . Because the engagement was a Byzantine victory , there was no apparent reason to make changes to the military configuration of the region . Also , the Byzantines had little preceding battlefield experience with the Arabs , and even less with zealous soldiers united by a prophet . Even the Strategicon of Maurice , a manual of war praised for the variety of enemies it covers , does not mention warfare against Arabs at any length .
The following year the Muslims launched an offensive into the Arabah south of Lake Tiberias , taking Al Karak . Other raids penetrated into the Negev reaching as far as Gaza . The Battle of Yarmouk in 636 resulted in a crushing defeat for the larger Byzantine army ; within three years , the Levant had been lost again . By the time of Heraclius ' death in Constantinople , on February 11 , 641 , most of Egypt had fallen as well .
= = Legacy = =
Looking back at the reign of Heraclius , scholars have credited him with many accomplishments . He enlarged the Empire , and his reorganization of the government and military were great successes . His attempts at religious harmony failed , but he succeeded in returning the True Cross , one of the holiest Christian relics , to Jerusalem .
= = = Accomplishments = = =
Although the territorial gains produced by his defeat of the Persians were lost to the advance of the Muslims , Heraclius still ranks among the great Roman Emperors . His reforms of the government reduced the corruption which had taken hold in Phocas ' reign , and he reorganized the military with great success . Ultimately , the reformed Imperial army halted the Muslims in Asia Minor and held on to Carthage for another 60 years , saving a core from which the empire 's strength could be rebuilt .
The recovery of the eastern areas of the Roman Empire from the Persians once again raised the problem of religious unity centering on the understanding of the true nature of Christ . Most of the inhabitants of these provinces were Monophysites who rejected the Council of Chalcedon . Heraclius tried to promote a compromise doctrine called Monothelitism ; however , this philosophy was rejected as heretical by both sides of the dispute . For this reason , Heraclius was viewed as a heretic and bad ruler by some later religious writers . After the Monophysite provinces were finally lost to the Muslims , Monotheletism rather lost its raison d 'être and was eventually abandoned .
One of the most important legacies of Heraclius was changing the official language of the Empire from Latin to Greek in 620 . The Croats and Serbs of Byzantine Dalmatia initiated diplomatic relations and dependencies with Heraclius . The Serbs , who briefly lived in Macedonia , became foederati and were baptized at the request of Heraclius ( before 626 ) . At his request , Pope John IV ( 640 – 642 ) sent Christian teachers and missionaries to Duke Porga and his Croats , who practiced Slavic paganism . He also created the office of sakellarios , a comptroller of the treasury .
Up to the 20th century he was credited with establishing the Thematic system but modern scholarship now points more to the 660s , under Constans II .
Edward Gibbon in his work The History of the Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire wrote :
Of the characters conspicuous in history , that of Heraclius is one of the most extraordinary and inconsistent . In the first and last years of a long reign , the emperor appears to be the slave of sloth , of pleasure , or of superstition , the careless and impotent spectator of the public calamities . But the languid mists of the morning and evening are separated by the brightness of the meridian sun ; the Arcadius of the palace arose the Caesar of the camp ; and the honor of Rome and Heraclius was gloriously retrieved by the exploits and trophies of six adventurous campaigns . [ ... ] Since the days of Scipio and Hannibal , no bolder enterprise has been attempted than that which Heraclius achieved for the deliverance of the empire .
= = = Recovery of the True Cross = = =
Heraclius was long remembered favourably in the Western church for his reputed feat in recovering the True Cross , which had been captured by the Persians . As Heraclius approached the capital , Khosrau fled from his favourite residence , Dastagird near Baghdad , without offering resistance . Meanwhile , some of the Persian grandees freed his eldest son Kavadh II , whom Khosrau II had imprisoned , and proclaimed him King on the night of 23 – 24 February , 628 . Kavadh however was mortally ill and was anxious that Heraclius should protect his infant son Ardeshir . So , as a goodwill gesture , he sent the True Cross with a peace negotiator to sue for peace in 628 .
After a tour of the Empire Heraclius returned the cross on March 21 , 629 or 630 . For Christians of the Western Medieval Europe , Heraclius was the " first crusader " . The iconography of the emperor appeared in the sanctuary at Mont Saint @-@ Michel ( ca . 1060 ) , and then it became popular especially in France , Italian Peninsula and Holy Roman Empire . The story was included in the Golden Legend , the famous 13th century compendium of hagiography , and he is sometimes shown in art , as in The History of the True Cross sequence of frescoes painted by Piero della Francesca in Arezzo , and a similar sequence on a small altarpiece by Adam Elsheimer ( Städel , Frankfurt ) . Both of these show scenes of Heraclius and Constantine I 's mother Saint Helena , traditionally responsible for the excavation of the cross . The scene usually shown is Heraclius carrying the cross ; according to the Golden Legend he insisted on doing this as he entered Jerusalem , against the advice of the Patriarch . At first , when he was on horseback ( shown above ) , the burden was too heavy , but after he dismounted and removed his crown it became miraculously light , and the barred city gate opened of its own accord .
Probably because he was one of the few Eastern Roman Emperors widely known in the West , the Late Antique Colossus of Barletta was considered to depict Heraclius .
= = = = Opposing view : returned relic a fake = = = =
Some scholars disagree with this narrative , Professor Constantin Zuckerman going as far as to suggest that the True Cross was actually lost , and that the wood contained in the allegedly still sealed reliquary brought to Jerusalem by Heraclius in 629 was a fake . In his analysis , the hoax was designed to serve the political purposes of both Heraclius and his former foe , recently turned ally and co @-@ father @-@ in @-@ law , Persian general and soon @-@ to @-@ become king , Shahrvaraz .
= = = Islamic view of Heraclius = = =
In Surah 30 , the Qur 'an refers to the Roman @-@ Sassanid wars as follows :
30 : 2 The Romans have been defeated 3 In the nearest land . But they , after their defeat , will overcome . 4 Within several years . To Allah belongs the command before and after . And that day the believers will rejoice 5 In the victory of Allah . He gives victory to whom He wills , and He is the Exalted in Might , the Merciful .
In Islamic and Arab histories Heraclius is the only Roman Emperor who is discussed at any length . Owing to his role as the Roman Emperor at the time Islam emerged , he was remembered in Arabic literature , such as the Islamic hadith and sira .
The Swahili Utendi wa Tambuka , an epic poem composed in 1728 at Pate Island ( off the shore of present @-@ day Kenya ) and depicting the wars between the Muslims and Byzantines from the former 's point of view , is also known as Kyuo kya Hereḳali ( " The book of Heraclius " ) . In that work , Heraclius is portrayed as declining the Prophet 's command to renounce his false belief in Christianity ; he is therefore defeated by the Muslim forces .
In Muslim tradition he is seen as a just ruler of great piety , who had direct contact with the emerging Islamic forces . The 14th century scholar Ibn Kathir ( d . 1373 ) went even further stating that " Heraclius was one of the wisest men and among the most resolute , shrewd , deep and opinionated of kings . He ruled the Romans with great leadership and splendor . " Historians such as Nadia Maria El @-@ Cheikh and Lawrence Conrad note that Islamic histories even go so far as claiming that Heraclius recognized Islam as the true faith and Muhammad as its prophet , by comparing Islam to Christianity .
Islamic historians often cite a letter that they claim Heraclius wrote to Muhammad : " I have received your letter with your ambassador and I testify that you are the messenger of God found in our New Testament . Jesus , son of Mary , announced you . " According to the Muslim sources reported by El @-@ Cheikh , he tried to convert the ruling class of the Empire , but they resisted so strongly that he reversed his course and claimed that he was just testing their faith in Christianity . El @-@ Cheikh notes that these accounts of Heraclius add " little to our historical knowledge " of the emperor ; rather , they are an important part of " Islamic kerygma , " attempting to legitimate Muhammad 's status as a prophet .
However , most scholarly historians view such traditions as " profoundly kerygmatic " and that " enormous difficulties " exist in using these sources for actual history . Furthermore , any messengers sent by Muhammad to Heraclius would not have received an imperial audience or recognition . Outside of Islamic sources there is no evidence to suggest Heraclius ever heard of Islam , and it is possible that he and his advisors actually viewed the Muslims as some special sect of Jews .
= = Family = =
Heraclius was married twice : first to Fabia Eudokia , a daughter of Rogatus , and then to his niece Martina . He had two children with Fabia and at least nine with Martina , most of whom were sickly children . Of Martina 's children at least two were disabled , which was seen as punishment for the illegality of the marriage : Fabius ( Flavius ) had a paralyzed neck and Theodosios , who was a deaf @-@ mute , married Nike , daughter of Persian general Shahrbaraz or daughter of Niketas , cousin of Heraclius .
Two of Heraclius ' children would become Emperor : Heraclius Constantine ( Constantine III ) , his son from Eudokia , from 613 – 641 , and Martina 's son Constantine Heraclius ( Heraklonas ) , from 638 – 641 .
Heraclius had at least one illegitimate son , John Athalarichos , who conspired a plot against Heraclius with his cousin , the magister Theodorus , and the Armenian noble David Saharuni . When Heraclius discovered the plot , he had Athalarichos ' nose and hands cut off , and he was exiled to Prinkipo , one of the Princes ' Islands . Theodorus had the same treatment but was sent to Gaudomelete ( possibly modern day Gozo Island ) with additional instructions to cut off one leg .
During the last years of Heraclius ' life , it became evident that a struggle was taking place between Heraclius Constantine and Martina , who was trying to position her son Heraklonas in line for the throne . When Heraclius died , he willed the empire to both Heraclius Constantine and Heraklonas to rule jointly with Martina as Empress .
= = = Family tree = = =
= = Annotations = =
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= New Slang =
" New Slang " is a song by American rock band The Shins , released on February 19 , 2001 as the lead single from the group 's debut studio album , Oh , Inverted World ( 2001 ) . Written by guitarist and vocalist James Mercer , it concerns his hometown of Albuquerque , New Mexico and his experiences there in his late twenties . The lyrics are fueled with " angst and confusion , " as Mercer was finding himself constantly depressed and disconnected from his friends and scene . The song attracted attention from Sub Pop Records , who issued the song as a single in February 2001 . The buzz created by the song led to positive press for the group 's debut album , Oh , Inverted World .
The song began to be licensed in a variety of media beginning in 2002 , including various television programs and a McDonald 's advert that aired during the 2002 Winter Olympics . Although the song never charted on any international charts , it became a sensation following its appearance in the film Garden State ( 2004 ) , where a character referred to it as a song that " will change your life . " The band saw increased record sales and notoriety as a result . Critics were very positive in their assessments of " New Slang " , with many calling it one of the best songs from Oh , Inverted World .
The song 's music video was directed by Lance Bangs , and features shots filmed in Albuquerque and Portland , Oregon .
= = Background = =
The Shins were not truly a band when James Mercer composed the song , and the idea of making music his career seemed uncertain . The song 's creation was partially a reaction to the music scene in Albuquerque , New Mexico , the band 's hometown , which Mercer described as " macho , really heavy , and aggressive . " He characterized it as a punk rock @-@ esque move akin to giving the finger to the entire town . The song was born out of frustration regarding his personal life and future . " It 's definitely a moment in my life , that sort of angst and confusion about what my future was going to be , " he remarked . He described it as a " Saturn return " period of his life , in which he felt he could not relate to anyone in his hometown and his life there had become depressing . He had become a " hermit " working on the band 's debut album , Oh , Inverted World , and had lost interest in partying with friends . The line " Gold teeth and a curse for this town " refers to his songwriting talent and his feelings on Albuquerque .
Friends of the band , including Zeke Howard from Love As Laughter and Isaac Brock from Modest Mouse sent record labels cassette demos of the band 's songs , including " New Slang " . Mercer sent a demo to Sub Pop Records in Seattle , Washington , and label co @-@ founder Jonathan Poneman caught a concert in San Francisco while the band was on tour with Modest Mouse . He offered the band a one @-@ off single deal , and the label included it in their Single @-@ of @-@ the @-@ Month series , issuing a 7 " single to fan club members in February 2001 . Positive press for " New Slang " made the group 's debut , Oh , Inverted World , one of the most anticipated indie rock albums of 2001 , and Sub Pop signed the band in full .
= = Reception = =
= = = Critical reception = = =
" New Slang " received positive critical reception . Stewart Mason of the Weekly Alibi in the band 's hometown of Albuquerque called it " the most immediately appealing song on the album , " praising it as " simply brilliant , [ ... ] mostly acoustic ballad with the absolute finest melody the band has yet concocted and Mercer 's typically oblique but evocative lyrics . "
AllMusic called the song a " mid @-@ tempo , strummy folk tune with a real catch @-@ on falsetto melody , " giving its 7 " single a four @-@ star review , summarizing that the release " could be a lost single from a brilliant , obscure ' 60s psych @-@ folk band while still sounding far ahead of its time . " Rolling Stone ranked it the " most affecting " song from Oh , Inverted World , describing it as " a shuffling folk ballad with a spaghetti @-@ western feel and a somber melody that could have come off an Elliott Smith album . " Pitchfork Media panned the song , deeming it an imitation of Simon & Garfunkel . The New York Times also covered the song , noting that " It has an odd , slightly serpentine vocal melody ( it sounds a bit like an adapted madrigal ) , and the lyrics are absurd and somehow touching . "
The A.V. Club called " New Slang " one of the year 's " loveliest ballads . " Will Hermes , in a piece on NPR 's All Things Considered , called the song a " masterpiece , " as well as " ridiculously melodic and structurally flawless . " Pitchfork Media later included the song at number 62 on its list of " The Top 500 Tracks of the 2000s , " calling it " An agoraphobic bedroom @-@ pop gem that shuffled its way onto a stage larger than anyone imagined possible . " New Slang " paved the way for Norah , Nick , Juno , and the many lovely , odd , and grating mainstream / indie pairings to come . "
= = = Accolades = = =
* denotes an unordered list
= = Music video = =
The song 's music video was filmed in various locations in Albuquerque and Portland . Among the areas filmed included the Rio Grande , junkyards , and near Mercer 's home . The clip was directed by Lance Bangs , an associate of Spike Jonze . It features the band re @-@ enacting the cover art of other bands ' albums , including Zen Arcade and New Day Rising by Hüsker Dü , Let It Be by The Replacements , Moon Pix by Cat Power , Double Nickels on the Dime by The Minutemen , Squirrel Bait 's first EP , Sonic Youth 's Sister and Slint 's Spiderland . Shooting in just two cities created logistical problems for album covers originally photographed in cities such as Los Angeles , Minneapolis , and Louisville . For the homage to Double Nickels on the Dime , the band had to track down the exact model of the car featured on the album cover ( a Volkswagen Beetle ) , and Albuquerque happened to have a San Pedro Street , which is featured on a freeway sign on the original cover .
The video was in rotation on M2 , Much Music , and on the program 120 Minutes . The clip was also available for download from Sub Pop 's website in 2002 .
= = Commercial performance and usage = =
The song proved to be a " stealth hit , " helping Oh , Inverted World move over 100 @,@ 000 copies within two years , considered remarkable for an independent label ; Sub Pop had hoped the record would sell 10 @,@ 000 copies . The song was also used on an episode of Scrubs , The O.C. , The Sopranos , Buffy the Vampire Slayer , and the MTV reality series Newlyweds : Nick and Jessica . Mercer was positive in licensing the song to a variety of media , confirming to The New York Times that he received more money from touring and licensing than record sales .
The song was featured in a McDonald 's advert that aired during the 2002 Winter Olympics . Mercer elaborated on the song 's in an interview : " That whole thing was just an ad agency that McDonald ’ s hired to do a “ hip commercial , ” or whatever . So the kid who offered the whole thing up to us was a Shins fan . " Online message boards ( many on Pitchfork.com ) and fans of the Shins criticized the move as excessively commercialist . The band 's hometown alt weekly ran an editorial titled " McShins , New Corporate Suck @-@ ass " in reaction . The ad 's aesthetics were criticized for straying from the company 's typical upbeat themes , and fans of the band found its inclusion subversive , considering a set of the song 's lyrics , which at times refer to " the dirt in your fries . " The royalties Mercer earned from the commercial allowed him to purchase a home . In addition , the band used the money to finance a tour and relocate to Portland , Oregon , where they built a basement studio and recorded their second album , Chutes Too Narrow ( 2003 ) . Mercer nevertheless " recognized the detrimental capacity of linking music with advertising , " remarking , " Imagine us playing " New Slang , " and everyone in the audience going , ' That 's the song from the McDonald 's commercial — I 'm loving it . ' "
" New Slang " achieved a new level of cultural significance when it was prominently featured in the film Garden State ( 2004 ) . In a scene from the film , Sam ( portrayed by Natalie Portman ) tells Andrew Largeman ( played by director Zach Braff ) that the song " will change your life . " The song " changed everything " for the group , leading their first two albums to sell more than twice what they had prior to the film 's debut . " Almost overnight , the Shins became indie @-@ rock icons , " wrote Robert Levine of Spin . The band extended their tour in support of the song and its popularity . " We saw a change in our audience . By the time we were done touring for Chutes Too Narrow , there was this new interest , " said Mercer . " We toured again almost as the soundtrack to that movie , and colleges were all of a sudden interested in us playing on their campuses . We wanted to consummate the new relationship by touring and having a relationship with them . I mean , it just kept growing ! " This additional exposure helped Oh , Inverted World move 500 @,@ 000 units in the United States .
The band performed the song on their debut appearance at Saturday Night Live in 2007 . Mercer was disappointed the show 's producers requested he perform a song at that point six years old , but obliged after hearing stories of artists that argued their setlist and were not invited back .
= = Formats and track listing = =
7 " ( 2001 )
" New Slang " – 3 : 51
" Sphagnum Esplanade " - 4 : 01
CD Promo ( 2004 )
" New Slang " – 3 : 51
|
= Trey Burke =
Alfonso Clark " Trey " Burke III ( born November 12 , 1992 ) is an American professional basketball player for the Washington Wizards of the National Basketball Association ( NBA ) . He was drafted by the Minnesota Timberwolves with the 9th overall pick in the 2013 NBA Draft and immediately traded to the Jazz . He played college basketball for the Michigan Wolverines of the National Collegiate Athletic Association ( NCAA ) . As a sophomore during the 2012 – 13 season , he earned National Player of the Year and led his team to the championship game of the 2013 NCAA Men 's Division I Basketball Tournament . Shortly after the tournament he declared his eligibility for the draft .
After being traded to the Jazz , Burke suffered a broken finger late in the preseason . He missed almost a month of the regular season before making his debut . He became a starter in his third game with the team . As a rookie he won the NBA All @-@ Star Weekend Skills Challenge and went on to finish third in the NBA Rookie of the Year Award balloting .
As a freshman at Michigan , he earned the 2011 – 12 Big Ten Co @-@ Freshman of the Year award and was named to the 2011 – 12 All @-@ Big Ten 2nd team . He was selected as a 2012 NCAA Men 's Basketball All @-@ American by CBSSports.com ( second team ) and the Associated Press — sometimes AP — ( honorable mention ) . He led the 2011 – 12 team in points , assists , steals and blocked shots . As a sophomore , Burke was a consensus first team 2013 NCAA Men 's Basketball All @-@ American . He also earned Big Ten Conference Men 's Basketball Player of the Year in 2013 and was a unanimous 2012 – 13 All @-@ Big Ten 1st team selection . He also earned almost all the possible National Player of the Year awards ( Wooden , AP , NABC , Naismith , Robertson and Sports Illustrated ) as well as the Bob Cousy Award . As a sophomore , he led the Big Ten in assists and set the Michigan single @-@ season assists record .
As a high school basketball player , he was 2011 Ohio Mr. Basketball and a second @-@ team Parade All @-@ American . Additionally , he was a member of the 2009 Ohio High School Athletic Association ( OHSAA ) Division I State Championship team and the 2011 OHSAA Division I State Runner @-@ up as well as an Amateur Athletic Union ( AAU ) U16 National Championship team in 2009 and a runner @-@ up in the 2008 AAU U15 National tournament .
= = Early life = =
Burke is the only son of Ronda and Alfonso Clark " Benji " Burke ll . He has an older sister Amber and a younger sister Amani . His parents met while Benji attended Northwest Missouri State University , where he played Division II basketball after spending time at Northeastern Oklahoma A & M College . His mother had just completed her tenure at Ruskin High School .
By the age of five , Burke 's local youth basketball league had to change its rules so that he would not keep stealing the ball from the other team . As a result of his prowess , he was not allowed over half court when the other team had the ball . He became Jared Sullinger 's best friend in fourth grade , but when his mother was transferred to Atlanta in sixth grade they were separated . The reassignment only lasted one year , however . At the age of nine , Burke 's father made him do everything with his left hand , including brushing his teeth and eating dinner , in order to develop his ambidexterity .
= = High school career = =
Satch Sullinger , father of current Boston Celtics forward Jared Sullinger , was the coach at Northland High School , while Burke 's father was an assistant coach at Eastmoor Academy . Burke chose Northland because he felt he had a better chance to succeed due to their personnel . Burke gave a verbal commitment to Penn State in 2009 after receiving his first Big Ten Conference offer , but later changed his mind to Michigan .
Burke made the high school varsity team as a freshman , but did not play much . Between his freshman and sophomore years , his summer league team was defeated when Darian Cartharn scored 35 points against them . Cartharn had been trained by Anthony Rhodman , so Burke sought his tutelage . Burke became a regular client of Rhodman 's despite his hectic scholastic , training and competition schedules . He trained regularly with Cartharn twice a day . Because he was a year younger , he was unable to compete with Sullinger in AAU competition , and Sullinger became an AAU teammate of point guard Aaron Craft . By the end of the summer Burke got his first scholarship offer , from Akron . The AAU duo of Sullinger and Craft eventually committed along with two other AAU teammates to Thad Matta 's Ohio State Buckeyes men 's basketball team , who also signed point guard Shannon Scott .
As a sophomore , Burke made 5 of 6 free throws in overtime to help his team defeat Dublin Scioto High School by a 54 – 53 margin in a 2009 OHSAA Division I regional final . In the state championship game , he made one of two free throws to give Northland a 58 – 56 lead with 27 @.@ 6 seconds left in what became a 60 – 58 win over Princeton High School . He also made the pass to set up the final game @-@ winning points , although they were scored from the foul line by Sullinger . During the championship season , Burke averaged 10 @.@ 7 points and 9 @.@ 1 assists , and made only 1 @.@ 7 turnovers per game .
In his junior season , Burke , Sulllinger and another player , J. D. Weatherspoon , were dominant . That season they defeated both of the top two 2008 – 09 year @-@ end teams ( Oak Hill Academy and Findlay Prep ) . Northland was undefeated and ranked # 1 in the nation by ESPN HS before they fell in the 2010 OHSAA regional finals to Lincoln High School . They had also been ranked # 1 by USA Today for several weeks , but they fell out of the top 10 with the season @-@ ending loss . Before his senior season , Burke signed his National Letter of Intent with Michigan in the November signing period . Coming off a 23 – 1 season , after losing Sullinger and Weatherspoon to Ohio State , Northland entered Burke 's senior season ranked # 44 in the nation according to ESPN HS . Following a 26 – 2 season , the team finished # 45 in the ESPN HS poll .
During Burke 's career , Northland was 97 – 5 , including 57 – 0 in City League games . Burke was a 2009 OHSAA Division I State Champion , a Parade All @-@ American ( 2011 , second team ) and 2011 Associated Press Ohio Mr. Basketball . He was ranked as the 15th , 20th and 26th best high school point guard in the class of 2011 by ESPN.com , Scout.com and Rivals.com , respectively .
Most elite level high school basketball players participate in the summer Amateur Athletic Union circuit as a complement to scholastic competition . Burke played in the Amateur Athletic Union ( AAU ) national competitions with All @-@ Ohio Red , coached by Benji Burke , his father . The team won the AAU U16 National Title in 2009 and finished as runner @-@ up in the 2008 AAU U15 National tournament .
= = College career = =
The 2010 – 11 Michigan Wolverines team lost 2010 – 11 Big Ten Conference men 's basketball season assist leader , point guard Darius Morris , to the Los Angeles Lakers in the 2011 NBA Draft . This left Michigan with a vacant starting point guard position . Burke enrolled at Michigan weighing 172 pounds ( 78 @.@ 0 kg ) .
= = = Freshman year = = =
Burke debuted in the season opener for the 2011 – 12 Wolverines against Ferris State on November 11 with 3 points in 18 minutes , but did not start until the second game against Towson on November 14 when he tallied 13 points , 2 rebounds , 2 assists and 2 steals . In the 3 @-@ game November 21 – 23 2011 Maui Invitational Tournament , the team defeated the # 8 Memphis Tigers 73 – 61 , lost to the # 6 Duke Blue Devils 82 – 75 , and defeated the 2011 – 12 Pac @-@ 12 season favorite UCLA Bruins 79 – 63 , which helped the team finish in third place . Burke 's 9 assists against Duke would hold as a season high . Burke was named Big Ten Freshman of the Week for his 36 points and 18 assists during the tournament on November 28 . On December 10 , 2011 , Michigan defeated Oakland by a 90 – 80 margin . It was the highest point production by Michigan since beating Northern Michigan 97 – 50 on November 14 , 2009 , and it was Michigan 's first game with three 20 @-@ point scorers ( Tim Hardaway , Jr . , Burke and Evan Smotrycz ) since December 11 , 2002 , when they played Bowling Green . For his season @-@ high 20 points and season @-@ high 9 assists , Burke earned his second Freshman of the Week honor on December 12 . On December 29 , against Penn State he posted 13 points , seven assists without a turnover and five rebounds , while on January 1 , 2012 , he added a career @-@ high 27 points on 8 @-@ for @-@ 11 shooting with three rebounds and three assists against Minnesota to earn the conference recognition the following day . On January 2 , Burke earned his first Big Ten Conference Player of the Week honor and his third Freshman of the Week recognition for his 40 @-@ point week in Michigan 's two conference openers . He earned his fourth Freshman of the Week recognition on January 23 for his performances against Michigan State and Arkansas . On February 20 , he earned his fifth Big Ten Freshman of the Week award for leading the team to its third victory over a top 10 team with 17 points and 5 assists against Ohio State . A week later , he earned his sixth Freshman of the Week award for his performances against Northwestern and Purdue . On March 1 , Michigan won at Illinois for the first time since 1995 . During the game ( Michigan 's 30th of the season ) , Burke broke Gary Grant 's school freshman assists record set over the course of 30 games for the 1984 – 85 Michigan Wolverines men 's basketball team by pushing his total to 143 on that night . On March 5 he earned his third consecutive and seventh overall Freshman of the Week honor when he averaged 20 points , 3 rebounds and 3 assists in road wins against Illinois and Penn State that clinched a share of the 2011 – 12 Big Ten Conference regular season championship .
Burke led all Big Ten freshman in scoring ( edging Cody Zeller by a 15 @.@ 8 – 15 @.@ 5 margin or 5 points over the 18 @-@ game conference season ) and assists per conference game . He concluded the season as the team leader in points , assists , blocks ( not blocks per game ) and steals . His three consecutive Big Ten Player of the Week awards to conclude the season coincided with the team winning 6 of its final 7 regular season games . His efforts lead the team to a share of its first Big Ten Conference Championship since the 1985 – 86 team and the best Big Ten record ( 13 – 5 ) since the 1993 – 94 team .
= = = = Watchlists and honors = = = =
In December 2011 , he was named one of nearly 60 candidates for the Bob Cousy Award , which recognizes the Collegiate Point Guard of the Year . On January 4 , Burke was named as one of the twenty Cousy Award Finalists along with fellow Big Ten point guards Aaron Craft and Jordan Taylor .
He earned the 2011 – 12 Big Ten Freshman of the Year award from the Big Ten media ( Cody Zeller earned the Big Ten coaches ' award ) and was named to the 2011 – 12 All @-@ Big Ten 2nd team by the coaches and media as well as named unanimously to the 2011 – 12 Big Ten All @-@ Freshman team . Burke and Zeller were named Co @-@ Big Ten Freshmen of the Year by the Sporting News . He was selected by the U.S. Basketball Writers Association to its 10 @-@ man 2011 – 12 Men 's All @-@ District V ( OH , IN , IL , MI , MN , WI ) Team . Burke was a second team selection to the National Association of Basketball Coaches Division I All ‐ District 7 team on March 14 . CBSSports.com used a modified selection process that resulted in Burke being named a second team All @-@ American and a first team Freshman All @-@ American . The process derided the traditional basketball All @-@ American process of nameing the best players and was modelled on the All @-@ Pro or NHL All @-@ Star Team formula of choosing the best players by position . Burke was named an honorable mention Associated Press All @-@ American . Burke became Michigan 's first Associated Press All @-@ American honoree since Robert Traylor and Louis Bullock in 1998 . He became the eighth Michigan freshman to earn team MVP .
= = = = Post season = = = =
In the first game of the 2012 Big Ten Conference Men 's Basketball Tournament against Minnesota , Burke set a new career high with 30 points , which established a school record for the Big Ten Conference Men 's Basketball Tournament . The overtime game marked Burke 's third 45 @-@ minute appearance . Burke finished with 156 assists , and his single @-@ season total of 1 @,@ 227 minutes ranked second in school history . Burke 's freshman season came to an end when the Wolverine lost to Ohio in their first game in the 2012 NCAA Basketball Tournament .
= = = = 2012 NBA Draft = = = =
Immediately after the season ended , Burke said he was uninterested in declaring for the 2012 NBA Draft . After the season , Burke was recognized as one of the best point guards in the nation by CBSSports.com. He was named a second @-@ team All @-@ American by the website based on the premise that every team needed a " dribbler " . A few days later , however , the realization that the pool of point guards in the 2012 draft was shallow and Burke 's stock was high led to some deliberation for him and his family : " When you have a season as a freshman like he did , the NBA , they like them young , " Trey 's father , Benji Burke said . " They think their ceiling is higher when they 're young . Trey had ... a solid season for a freshman . It 's going to be one of the weaker point guard drafts in years . " On March 21 , Burke submitted himself for evaluation by the NBA Draft Advisory Council , which had encouraged Michigan 's DeShawn Sims and Manny Harris to return to school in 2009 but advised Harris in 2010 and Darius Morris in 2011 to declare for the draft . The deadline for entering the NBA draft was April 29 , but the deadline for withdrawing a declaration and retaining NCAA eligibility was April 10 . The deadline for submitting information to the NBA Advisory Committee for a 72 @-@ hour response was April 3 . As Burke weighed his decision , he became involved in a controversy when the Michigan State Spartans athletic director Mark Hollis communicated with him directly via Twitter . Experts doubted his readiness for the draft , noting that notable NBA draft successes who were between 5 @-@ foot @-@ 10 @-@ inch ( 1 @.@ 78 m ) and 5 @-@ foot @-@ 11 @-@ inch ( 1 @.@ 80 m ) over the past 30 years ( Terrell Brandon , Dana Barros , Brevin Knight , Damon Stoudamire , Mark Price and Michael Adams ) waited past their freshman years to enter the draft . Nonetheless , CBS Sports reported on April 4 that Burke would declare for the draft . Burke 's early departure for the NBA would have been the third in a row for a Michigan guard after Manny Harris in 2010 and Darius Morris in 2011 . It would also have been the sixth scholarship @-@ player departure from the team after two players graduated and three transferred . On April 9 , Burke announced he would return to Michigan for his sophomore season instead of staying in the NBA draft . He decided to wait in hopes of becoming a more likely first round selection . During the summer , he spent 5 – 6 hour days with his trainer in Ohio .
= = = Sophomore year = = =
One year after enrolling , Burke had improved his vertical jump 4 inches ( 10 @.@ 2 cm ) . Entering his sophomore season , he was selected as a third team preseason All @-@ American by Sporting News . CBS Sports listed him as a second team preseason All @-@ American and the 9th best player in its preseason top 100 . CBS also named him the third best point guard ( behind Isaiah Canaan and Phil Pressey ) . ESPN and Sports Illustrated also named him to their preseason All @-@ American second teams . 16 of the 65 Associated Press selectors named Burke to their first team preseason All @-@ American team , which tied him for the fifth spot on the 6 @-@ man AP preseason All @-@ American team . The Big Ten conference media selected him as a preseason All @-@ Big Ten selection . Burke was both a preseason John R. Wooden Award top 50 selection and a preseason Naismith Award top 50 selection . Burke was suspended for the exhibition opener for " violation of team standards . "
In his second game of the season , Burke tied his career @-@ high with 9 assists in a November 12 91 – 54 victory against the IUPUI Jaguars . Burke earned the NIT Season Tip @-@ Off tournament team recognition with 27 points and 10 assists total in the November 21 semifinal and November 23 final against Pittsburgh and Kansas State , respectively . On November 27 , Burke posted a career @-@ high 11 assists , no turnovers and his first career double @-@ double with 18 points in a 79 – 72 victory against number 18 NC State in the ACC – Big Ten Challenge . For averaging 23 @.@ 0 points , 6 @.@ 5 assists , 4 @.@ 5 rebounds and 2 @.@ 0 steals with only 1 turnover in the games against Binghamton on December 11 and West Virginia on December 15 , Burke earned Big Ten Player of the Week on December 17 . On December 29 against Central Michigan , Burke posted his second career double @-@ double with 22 points and a career @-@ high tying 11 assists with only 1 turnover . In the subsequent game on January 3 , he posted a game @-@ high 23 points and a career high 4 steals in a 94 – 66 victory in the 2012 – 13 Big Ten Conference men 's basketball season opener against Northwestern . On January 6 , Burke posted 19 points and a new career high 12 assists against Iowa , to earn his third career double @-@ double . On January 7 , Burke was again recognized as Big Ten Conference Player of the Week . The following day , he earned the Oscar Robertson National Players of the Week from the United States Basketball Writers Association . On January 13 , the team lost to Ohio State ( # 15 AP / # 14 Coaches ) snapping their winning streak . Burke missed a three @-@ point shot with 17 seconds remaining that would have given Michigan a one @-@ point lead . Michigan had been the only remaining unbeaten team and was expected to be ranked # 1 if they had won .
On January 28 , Michigan was ranked number one in the AP Poll with 51 of the 65 first place votes . It marked the first time Michigan ranked atop the AP Poll since the Fab Five 1992 – 93 team did so on December 5 , 1992 . Burke ended January as the only Big Ten player to have scored 15 points in each conference game . On February 12 in the rivalry game against ( # 8 AP / # 8 Coaches ) Michigan State , Burke 's 18 points , 4 assists and 3 steals were one of Michigan 's few bright spots in a 23 @-@ point loss . On February 17 against Penn State , Burke posted a season @-@ high 29 points along with 5 assists , 3 rebounds and two steals . As a result of his efforts , Burke won his third player of the week award on February 18 . On February 24 , Michigan defeated Illinois 71 – 58 behind 26 points and 8 assists from Burke . In the game , Burke became the seventh Wolverine sophomore to reach 1000 career points . On March 3 , in the Ann Arbor version of the Michigan – Michigan State rivalry game , Burke had a career @-@ high five steals , including 2 in the final 30 seconds of play , to go along with 21 points and 8 assists to key a 58 – 57 victory . On the March 10 regular season finale against # 2 ranked Indiana with a share of the Big Ten regular season title at stake , Burke missed a last second shot at the rim , that was contested by Cody Zeller . Burke finished the 18 @-@ game 2012 – 13 Big Ten Conference men 's basketball season schedule as the conference games leader in both scoring average and assist average and finished second in steals per game . He was Michigan 's first conference games scoring leader since Glen Rice in 1989 and Michigan 's first conference games assist leader since Gary Grant in 1988 . Burke was the only player to score 15 points in all 18 conference games .
Prior to the 2013 NCAA Men 's Division I Basketball Tournament , Jeff Goodman of CBSSports.com named Michigan with Burke first among tournament teams in terms of having the most future NBA talent on its roster ( in the absence of Kentucky who was relegated to the 2013 National Invitation Tournament ) . On March 23 , in the team 's second game of the 2013 Tournament , in a 78 – 53 victory against VCU Burke tallied 7 assists , giving him a single @-@ season total of 236 and surpassing Darius Morris as the school 's single season record holder .
On March 29 against Kansas , Burke recorded his fourth career double @-@ double , with 23 points and 10 assists . He scored all 23 points in the second half and overtime , including a game @-@ tying deep three @-@ pointer with 4 @.@ 2 seconds remaining . Burke describes the 28 @-@ foot ( 8 @.@ 5 m ) shot as " ... probably the biggest shot I ever made and definitely a shot I 'll always remember . " He also scored a layup with his team trailing by 5 points with 21 seconds remaining . Burke scored eight points in the final 1 : 15 of regulation time , as Michigan posted a 14 – 4 run in the final 2 : 52 to force overtime . He also gave the team its first lead since very early in the game in overtime with a three @-@ point shot . It marked the first time that a player had 20 or more points and 10 or more assists in a Sweet Sixteen game since Billy Donovan did so in the 1986 tournament for Rick Pitino 's Providence Friars . In the regional finals on March 31 against the Donovan @-@ coached Florida Gators , Burke contributed 15 points , 7 assists , 3 steals and a career @-@ high 8 rebounds . Burke was named South Regional Tournament Most Outstanding Player . He was joined on the 5 @-@ man South All @-@ Regional team by teammates Mitch McGary and Nik Stauskas . Burke also earned ESPN.com Player of the Week recognition . Although Burke admits that the team he led , with three starting freshman and no seniors , was young , he said that was no excuse pointing at the 2012 tournament champions , Kentucky , saying " You saw what Kentucky did last year . We felt that being young isn ’ t an excuse for not going far in the tournament . " Burke scored 24 points in the April 8 championship game against Louisville and made the 7 @-@ man All @-@ Tournament team ( which was revised multiple times ) along with teammates McGary and Albrecht . The turning point of the game was described as a missed call by the referees when as Michigan trailed 67 – 64 with 5 minutes left , Burke pinned Peyton Siva 's dunk attempt with a clean all @-@ ball block , but was called for a foul resulting in two made free throws by Siva . Michigan never got closer than 4 points the rest of the game . Burke finished his sophomore season with 1 @,@ 231 points , surpassing the former school record for sophomore season career point total of 1 @,@ 218 by Chris Webber . His final total of 260 assists established the Michigan career record , and his average of 6 @.@ 7 assists per game led the Big Ten .
= = = = Watchlists = = = =
Burke was one of 85 2013 Cousy Award watch list candidates on December 20 , 2012 . On January 9 , he was one of 4 Big Ten points guards among the 20 Cousy Award finalists . On January 10 , the Wooden Award midseason top 25 list , which included Burke , was announced . On January 31 , Burke was named to the Oscar Robertson Trophy midseason top 12 list . On February 26 , Burke was one of six Big Ten players named among the top 30 finalists for the Naismith Award . Burke was among four Big Ten Players on the March 4 14 @-@ man Robertson watchlist . On March 9 , Burke was among four Big Ten Players named as top 15 Wooden Award finalists . On March 11 , Burke was named one of five finalists for the Cousy Award . On March 24 , Burke was named one of four finalists for the Naismith Award .
In addition to official watchlists , the press ranked Burke atop several midseason National Player of the Year tabulations . For example , in mid @-@ January , The Sporting News called him the Player of the half @-@ year . On both February 7 , February 21 and March 7 , ESPN.com posted straw polls of people who are an " actual voter for at least one of the Wooden , Naismith , Associated Press or Robertson awards " that had Burke in first place . Since the NCAA Tournament had gone to a seeded format in 1985 , no point guard had won any of the four major player of the year awards without leading his team to a # 1 seed . However , neither Jay Williams ( 2002 , Sweet 16 ) nor Jameer Nelson ( 2004 , Elite 8 ) reached the championships as national player of the year and only a few players at any position had done so in the previous 20 years : Ed O 'Bannon ( UCLA , 1995 ) , Shane Battier ( Duke , 2001 ) and Anthony Davis ( Kentucky 2012 ) .
During the season , Burke and Hardaway were constantly referred to as the best backcourt in college basketball . The praise came from a variety of leading media outlets such as FOX Sports , ESPN color commentator Dick Vitale , ESPN journalists such as Miles Simon , Bleacher Report columnist Zach Dirlam ( who included backcourt depth provided by Nik Stauskas ) , as well as lots of local press . Following the schoolyear , Burke was one of 10 finalist for the Sports Illustrated College Athlete of the Year .
= = = = Awards and honors = = = =
Burke was named a first @-@ team All @-@ American by Sporting News on March 11 . On the same day , he also earned Big Ten Conference Men 's Basketball Player of the Year in 2013 and was a unanimous 2012 – 13 All @-@ Big Ten 1st team selection . On March 12 , the U.S. Basketball Writers Association named Burke as District V Player of the Year on its 2012 – 13 Men 's All @-@ District V ( OH , IN , IL , MI , MN , WI ) Team , based upon voting from its national membership . On March 18 , the USBWA named Burke to its All @-@ American first team . On March 19 , Sports Illustrated named Burke to its All @-@ American first team and as its National Player of the Year . On March 20 Burke was named to the CBSSports.com All @-@ American first team . He was named to the National Association of Basketball Coaches Division I All ‐ District 7 first team on March 26 , as selected and voted on by member coaches of the NABC , making him eligible for the State Farm Coaches ’ Division I All @-@ America team . On that same day , he was selected to the 21 @-@ man 2013 Lute Olson All @-@ America Team . On March 28 , he was named first team All @-@ American by the NABC . On April 1 , Burke was named first team All @-@ American by the Associated Press , tying with Otto Porter for the most first @-@ place votes and most total points . On that same day , he was one of four Big Ten players named to the 10 @-@ man Wooden All @-@ American team of finalists for the Wooden Award . Burke became the fifth Consensus All @-@ American ( Cazzie Russell , Rickey Green , Gary Grant and Chris Webber ) in school history . On April 4 , Burke won the Bob Cousy Award and was named Associated Press College Basketball Player of the Year . On April 5 , Burke won the Oscar Robertson Trophy from the USBWA as well as the John R. Wooden Award . On April 7 , he won the NABC Player of the Year and Naismith College Player of the Year awards , giving him a sweep of the four major player of the year awards . Burke was named team MVP .
= = Professional career = =
= = = 2013 NBA Draft = = =
Burke stated on March 27 that he would almost certainly enter the draft if Michigan won the national title . On April 9 before boarding the airplane to return from the NCAA Final Four , head coach Beilein met with Burke , Hardaway , Robinson and McGary to direct them to seek the advice of the NBA advisory committee . The draft board had until April 15 to develop each individual report and the players have until April 28 to enter the draft . On April 13 , reports surfaced that Burke would announce that he would enter the NBA Draft at a press conference the following day . On April 14 , he entered the 2013 NBA Draft .
Within days of entering the draft , some draft analysts , such as ESPN 's David Thorpe , said that Burke should be the first overall selection in the draft : " Burke might not have the prototypical physical attributes of an NBA superstar , but if the team that lands the No. 1 overall pick in this year 's NBA draft does not have its long @-@ term point guard already in place , it should select Burke without hesitation . " He was expected to be the first point guard taken , especially since Marcus Smart opted out of the draft . By early May , several NBA general managers acknowledged the possibility of Burke going # 1 overall .
Burke 's father became his agent . Burke was one of 60 players invited to the NBA Draft Combine . Before the draft , Burke was expected to post better NBA combine numbers than Chris Paul . At the combine , Burke strengthened his case for the number one overall draft selection with his physical measurements and his athletic results . Burke was invited to sit in the " green room " during the 2013 NBA Draft . Most mock drafts , including Draft Express , NBA Draft.net , The Times @-@ Picayune , Yahoo ! Sports , and Bleacher Report , predicted that Burke would be selected by the New Orleans Pelicans with the 6th overall selection . He was in contact with Orlando who had rights to the second overall draft pick and Phoenix , New Orleans , Sacramento and Detroit , who owned the fifth through eighth selections .
On June 27 , 2013 , Burke was selected 9th in the 2013 NBA Draft by the Minnesota Timberwolves and then traded to the Utah Jazz for the 14th and 21st picks , which were used to select Shabazz Muhammad and Gorgui Dieng . Burke and Hardaway Jr. became the first Michigan duo selected in the first round since Juwan Howard and Jalen Rose in the 1994 NBA Draft . Burke also became the first Wolverine selection in the top 10 of the first round since Jamal Crawford in the 2000 NBA Draft . In addition , Burke joined Indiana University players Victor Oladipo ( 2nd ) and Cody Zeller ( 4th ) to give the Big Ten its first top ten first round trio since the 1990 NBA Draft .
= = = Utah Jazz ( 2013 – 2016 ) = = =
= = = = 2013 – 14 season = = = =
On July 6 , Burke signed a maximum rookie contract — 120 percent of the preset salary scale of $ 2 @,@ 032 @,@ 300 — with the Jazz , resulting in a contract worth in $ 4 @,@ 987 @,@ 320 guaranteed salary for his first two seasons , while the Jazz have team option rights for the third and fourth years . This cleared the way for Burke to participate in the July 7 – 12 Orlando Summer League . At point guard , the Jazz had traded Randy Foye and were negotiating with Mo Williams . In the NBA Summer League , Trey Burke shot at 24 percent from the field , including 1 – 19 on three @-@ point shots , while trying to adjust to the pace of the NBA game . He was even benched for a game . Following Burke 's Summer League performance , the Jazz signed John Lucas III .
On October 12 , Burke broke his right index finger below the middle knuckle . He had been a favorite for NBA Rookie of the Year , but was listed as out indefinitely . On October 14 , an October 15 surgery to insert surgical pins was announced . The 2013 – 14 Jazz were scheduled to begin the 2013 – 14 NBA season on October 30 . Although early reports suggested an 8 – 12 week hiatus , ESPN The Magazine 's Chris Broussard reported only a 6 @-@ week absence was expected . On November 11 , Burke 's finger was reevaluated . Without Burke , the Jazz began the season 0 – 8 with Lucas and Jamaal Tinsley playing point guard . On November 12 , the Jazz announced that Burke had only been cleared to begin individual drills , that he would be reevaluated November 25 and that Tinsley had been waived . Jazz head coach Tyrone Corbin reported that by November 13 Burke was dribbling a basketball painfree . On November 20 , Burke announced he would make his career debut against the New Orleans Pelicans for the 1 – 11 Jazz , but he was not expected to start .
Burke debuted for the Jazz on November 20 with 11 points on 5 – 8 shooting in 12 minutes of play . His first basket was a left @-@ handed finish on a drive down the lane and his first assist was a pick and roll with Derrick Favors . Ironically , Burke 's second game was against the 2013 NBA draft 18th overall selection Shane Larkin and the Dallas Mavericks . Point guard Larkin returned to action two days before Burke did after injuring his ankle prior to summer league . In his second game , Burke posted 5 rebounds and 3 assists , but struggled with only 5 points on 8 shots during 20 minutes of play .
Burke started in his third game . He again played for 20 minutes , but only tallied four points and four assists . Burke experienced his first NBA win in his fourth game and second start on November 25 against a Chicago Bulls team that lost former NBA Most Valuable Player Award Derrick Rose for the season due to an injury in their prior game . Burke had 3 assists and established career highs with 14 points and 6 rebounds in 34 minutes of play . On November 30 , he had his first 20 @-@ point scoring performance , leading the Jazz to their first road victory of the season against the Phoenix Suns . With career highs of 21 points and 6 assists , Burke helped the Jazz record their first back @-@ to @-@ back wins of the season on December 2 against the Houston Rockets . Burke then tallied 9 assists on December 4 against the Indiana Pacers . Although Burke had 7 assists on December 7 against Sacramento , he nonetheless posted his first professional double double with a game @-@ high 10 rebounds and 19 points . On December 13 against the Denver Nuggets Burke had 10 points and 10 assists while posting just 1 turnover to log his first assists @-@ points double @-@ double . On December 18 against the Orlando Magic , Burke not only scored a career @-@ high 30 points while posting 8 assists and 7 rebounds , but he also became the first rookie to score 30 points during the 2013 – 14 NBA season . Burke was the first rookie to post at least a 30 @-@ point , 7 @-@ rebound , and 8 @-@ assist game since Blake Griffin on April 13 , 2011 ( 31 / 10 / 10 ) and the first to do so in his first 20 career games since Alvan Adams on November 14 , 1975 ( 35 / 12 / 8 ) . Burke was named Western Conference NBA Rookie of the Month for December , becoming the first Rookie of the Month honoree for the Jazz franchise since Karl Malone in December 1985 . On January 15 , Burke had 11 assists and 17 points against the San Antonio Spurs . On January 17 against Detroit , Burke had 20 points , a career @-@ high 12 assists , 3 rebounds , 2 steals and a block , giving him consecutive point @-@ assist double @-@ doubles . On January 29 , he was named a Rising Stars Challenge participant as part of the 2014 NBA All @-@ Star Game weekend . Burke led all rookies by averaging 6 @.@ 8 assists in January , to earn Western Conference Rookie of the Month . On February 15 , Burke won the NBA All @-@ Star Weekend Skills Challenge with partner Damian Lillard . Burke was one of three finalists for February Western Conference Rookie of the Month , but he lost to Nick Calathes . He was again a Western Conference Rookie of the Month finalist in March . On April 6 , he scored 24 points and posted a career @-@ high 15 assists against the Golden State Warriors . On April 16 , he ended the season with a career @-@ high 32 points against the Minnesota Timberwolves . Two days later , he was named Western Conference Rookie of the Month , earning his third such award . Burke finished third in the NBA Rookie of the Year Award balloting behind Carter @-@ Williams and Oladipo . As a result of his third @-@ place finish in the separate NBA All @-@ Rookie Team voting he was a first team NBA All @-@ Rookie selection .
= = = = 2014 – 15 season = = = =
Burke committed to represent the Jazz in 2014 NBA Summer League . On July 18 , he was named to practice with the USA Basketball National Select Team from July 28 – 31 . On October 24 , 2014 , the Jazz exercised their third @-@ year team option on his rookie scale contract , extending the contract through the 2015 – 16 season . On November 14 , Burke made a buzzer beater to give Utah a 102 – 100 victory over the New York Knicks . On January 2 , he tied Antoine Walker 's NBA record for worst single @-@ game three point shooting performance , 0 @-@ for @-@ 11 . Burke scored a season @-@ high 28 points on January 3 against the Minnesota Timberwolves who had traded the 9th overall selection of the 2013 NBA draft to the Utah Jazz that they used to select Burke . On January 22 , the Jazz announced that Burke would not start despite being healthy , making way for Dante Exum 's first start at point guard . This gave Burke the role of scorer and leader of the reserves . With the shakeup , the 14 – 28 Jazz won their next two games against the Milwaukee Bucks and Brooklyn Nets . It was the first time in Burke 's basketball career that he had not been a starter .
= = = = 2015 – 16 season = = = =
During the 2015 offseason , Burke was named as a participant in the first @-@ ever NBA Africa Game . On October 17 , 2015 , the Jazz exercised their fourth @-@ year team option on his rookie scale contract , extending the contract through the 2016 – 17 season . After Exum endured a torn ACL during the off @-@ season , ruling him out of the 2015 – 16 season , Burke was expected to resume his role as a starter . However , Jazz coach Quin Snyder announced that Raul Neto would be starting over Burke to begin the season . According to NBC Sports ' Kurt Helin , Neto , like Exum , was a better fit to start due to his pass first nature . On November 7 , 2015 , Burke scored 24 points with a career @-@ high six three @-@ pointers off the bench in an 89 – 79 win over the Memphis Grizzlies . On December 31 , he scored a season @-@ high 27 points in a 109 – 96 win over the Portland Trail Blazers .
= = = Washington Wizards ( 2016 – present ) = = =
On July 7 , 2016 , Burke was traded to the Washington Wizards in exchange for a 2021 second @-@ round pick .
= = NBA career statistics = =
= = = Regular season = = =
= = Personal life = =
Burke 's grandfather starred at East High School in Columbus in the 1950s and his father starred at Eastmoor Academy in the 1980s before going on to set records at Northwest Missouri State University . Three former Northland teammates are current or former Big Ten competitors : Sullinger ( Ohio State ) , J. D. Weatherspoon ( Ohio State ) and Javon Cornley ( Indiana , football ) .
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= Economy of the Han dynasty =
The Han dynasty ( 206 BC – 220 AD ) of ancient China experienced contrasting periods of economic prosperity and decline . It is normally divided into three periods : Northern Han ( 206 BC – 9 AD ) , the Xin dynasty ( 9 – 23 AD ) , and Eastern Han ( 25 – 220 AD ) . The Xin regime , established by the former regent Wang Mang , formed a brief interregnum between lengthy periods of Han rule . Following the fall of Wang Mang , the Han capital was moved eastward from Chang 'an to Luoyang . In consequence , historians have named the succeeding eras Western Han and Eastern Han respectively .
The Han economy was defined by significant population growth , increasing urbanization , unprecedented growth of industry and trade , and government experimentation with nationalization . In this era , the levels of minting and circulation of coin currency grew significantly , forming the foundation of a stable monetary system . The Silk Road facilitated the establishment of trade and tributary exchanges with foreign countries across Eurasia , many of which were previously unknown to the people of ancient China . The imperial capitals of both Western Han ( Chang 'an ) and Eastern Han ( Luoyang ) were among the largest cities in the world at the time , in both population and area . Here , government workshops manufactured furnishings for the palaces of the emperor and produced goods for the common people . The government oversaw the construction of roads and bridges , which facilitated official government business and encouraged commercial growth . Under Han rule , industrialists , wholesalers , and merchants — from minor shopkeepers to wealthy businessmen — could engage in a wide range of enterprises and trade in the domestic , public , and even military spheres .
In the early Han period , rural peasant farmers were largely self @-@ sufficient , but they began to rely heavily upon commercial exchanges with the wealthy landowners of large agricultural estates . Many peasants fell into debt and were forced to become either hired laborers or rent @-@ paying tenants of the land @-@ owning classes . The Han government continually strove to provide economic aid to poor farmers , who had to compete with powerful and influential nobles , landowners , and merchants . The government tried to limit the power of these wealthy groups through heavy taxation and bureaucratic regulation . Emperor Wu 's ( r . 141 – 87 BC ) government even nationalized the iron and salt industries ; however , these government monopolies were repealed during Eastern Han . Increasing government intervention in the private economy during the late 2nd century BC severely weakened the commercial merchant class . This allowed wealthy landowners to increase their power and to ensure the continuation of an agrarian @-@ dominated economy . The wealthy landlords eventually dominated commercial activities as well , maintaining control over the rural peasants — upon whom the government relied for tax revenues — military manpower , and public works labor . By the 180s AD , economic and political crises had caused the Han government to become heavily decentralized , while the great landowners became increasingly independent and powerful in their communities .
= = Monetary system and urbanization = =
= = = Urbanization and population = = =
During the Warring States period ( 403 – 221 BC ) , the development of private commerce , new trade routes , handicraft industries , and a money economy led to the growth of new urban centers . These centers were markedly different from the older cities , which had merely served as power bases for the nobility . The use of a standardized , nationwide currency during the Qin dynasty ( 221 – 206 BC ) facilitated long @-@ distance trade between cities . Many Han cities grew large : the Western Han capital , Chang 'an , had approximately 250 @,@ 000 inhabitants , while the Eastern Han capital , Luoyang , had approximately 500 @,@ 000 inhabitants . The population of the Han Empire , recorded in the tax census of 2 AD , was 57 @.@ 6 million people in 12 @,@ 366 @,@ 470 households . The majority of commoners who populated the cities lived in extended urban and suburban areas outside the city walls and gatehouses . The total urban area of Western @-@ Han Chang 'an — including the extensions outside the walls — was 36 km2 ( 14 sq mi ) . The total urban area of Eastern @-@ Han Luoyang — including the extensions outside the walls — was 24 @.@ 5 km2 ( 9 @.@ 5 sq mi ) . Both Chang 'an and Luoyang had two prominent marketplaces ; each market had a two @-@ story government office demarcated by a flag and drum at the top . Market officials were charged with maintaining order , collecting commercial taxes , setting standard commodity prices on a monthly basis , and authorizing contracts between merchants and customers .
= = = Variations in currency = = =
During the early Western Han period , founding Emperor Gaozu of Han ( r . 202 – 195 BC ) closed government mints in favor of coin currency produced by the private sector . Gaozu 's widow Empress Lü Zhi , as grand empress dowager , abolished private minting in 186 BC . She first issued a government @-@ minted bronze coin weighing 5 @.@ 7 g ( 0 @.@ 20 oz ) , but issued another , weighing 1 @.@ 5 g ( 0 @.@ 053 oz ) , in 182 BC . The change to the lighter coin caused widespread inflation , so in 175 BC Emperor Wen of Han ( r . 180 – 157 BC ) lifted the ban on private minting ; private mints were required to mint coins weighing exactly 2 @.@ 6 g ( 0 @.@ 092 oz ) . Private minting was again abolished in 144 BC during the end of Emperor Jing of Han 's ( r . 157 – 141 BC ) reign . Despite this , the 2 @.@ 6 g ( 0 @.@ 092 oz ) bronze coin was issued by both central and local commandery governments until 120 BC , when for one year it was replaced with a coin weighing 1 @.@ 9 g ( 0 @.@ 067 oz ) . Other currencies were introduced around this time . Token money notes made of embroidered white deerskin , with a face value of 400 @,@ 000 coins , were used to collect government revenues . Emperor Wu also introduced three tin @-@ silver alloy coins worth 3 @,@ 000 , 500 , and 300 bronze coins , respectively ; all of these weighed less than 120 g ( 4 @.@ 2 oz ) .
In 119 BC , the government issued the bronze wushu ( 五銖 ) coin weighing 3 @.@ 2 g ( 0 @.@ 11 oz ) ; the coin remained the standard currency in China until the Tang dynasty ( 618 – 907 AD ) . During the brief interruptive Xin dynasty ( 9 – 23 AD ) of Wang Mang ( 45 BC – 23 AD ) , the government introduced several new denominations in 7 , 9 , 10 , and 14 AD . These new units ( including bronze knife money , gold , silver , tortoise , and cowry shell currencies ) often had a market price unequal to their weight and debased the value of coin currency . Once the widespread civil wars following Wang 's overthrow abated , the wushu coin was reintroduced by Emperor Guangwu of Han ( r . 25 – 57 AD ) in 40 AD at the instigation of Ma Yuan ( 14 BC – 49 AD ) . Since commandery @-@ issued coins were often of inferior quality and lighter weight , the central government closed all commandery mints in 113 BC and granted the central government 's Superintendent of Waterways and Parks the exclusive right to mint coins . Although the issue of central government coinage was transferred to the office of the Minister of Finance ( one of Nine Ministers of the central government ) by the beginning of Eastern Han , the central government 's monopoly over the issue of coinage persisted .
Gary Lee Todd ( Ph.D. in History from University of Illinois at Urbana @-@ Champaign and Professor of History at Sias International University in Xinzheng , Henan , China ) provides the following images of coins issued during the Western Han and Xin periods on his website :
= = = Circulation and salaries = = =
Merchants and peasant farmers paid property and poll taxes in coin cash and land taxes with a portion of their crop yield . Peasants obtained coinage by working as hired laborers for rich landowners , in businesses like breweries or by selling agricultural goods and homemade wares at urban markets . The Han government may have found collecting taxes in coin the easiest method because the transportation of taxed goods would have been unnecessary .
From 118 BC to 5 AD , the government minted over 28 @,@ 000 @,@ 000 @,@ 000 coins , with an annual average of 220 @,@ 000 @,@ 000 coins minted ( or 220 @,@ 000 strings of 1 @,@ 000 coins ) . In comparison , the Tianbao period ( 天寶 ) ( 742 – 755 AD ) of the Tang dynasty produced 327 @,@ 000 @,@ 000 coins every year while 3 @,@ 000 @,@ 000 @,@ 000 coins in 1045 AD and 5 @,@ 860 @,@ 000 @,@ 000 coins in 1080 AD were made in the Song dynasty ( 960 – 1279 AD ) . Coin cash became the common measure of wealth during Eastern Han , as many wages were paid solely in cash . Diwu Lun ( 第五倫 ) ( fl . 40 – 85 AD ) , Governor of Shu Province ( modern Sichuan ) , described his subordinate officials ' wealth not in terms of landholdings , but in the form of aggregate properties worth approximately 10 @,@ 000 @,@ 000 coin cash . Commercial transactions involving hundreds of thousands of coins were commonplace .
Angus Maddison estimates that the country 's gross domestic product was equivalent to $ 450 per head in 1990 United States dollars — a sum that was above subsistence level , and which did not significantly change until the beginning of the Song dynasty in the late 10th century . Sinologist Joseph Needham has disputed this and claimed that China 's GDP per capita exceeded Europe by substantial margins from the 5th century BCE onwards , holding that Han China was much wealthier than the contemporary Roman Empire . The widespread circulation of coin cash enriched many merchants , who invested their money in land and became wealthy landowners . The government 's efforts to circulate cash had empowered the very social class which it actively tried to suppress through heavy taxes , fines , confiscations , and price regulation schemes .
= = Taxation , property , and social class = =
= = = Landowners and peasants = = =
After Shang Yang ( d . 338 BC ) of the State of Qin abolished the communal and aristocratic well @-@ field system in an effort to curb the power of nobles , land in China could be bought and sold . Historical scholars of the Han dynasty like Dong Zhongshu ( 179 – 104 BC ) attributed the rise of the wealthy landowning class to this reform . The Han Feizi describes these landowners ' use of hired labor in agriculture , a practice dating back to the 3rd century BC , possibly earlier . Some landowners owned small numbers of slaves , but many relied on peasant tenant farmers who paid rent with a portion of their agricultural produce . More numerous than tenants , small landowner @-@ cultivators lived and worked independently , but often fell into debt and sold their land to the wealthy . The court official Chao Cuo ( d . 154 BC ) argued that if the average independent landowning family of five could cultivate no more than 4 @.@ 57 hectares ( 11 @.@ 3 acres ) of land and produce no more than 2 @,@ 000 litres ( 530 US gal ) of grain annually , then natural disasters and high taxation rates would force many into debt , to sell their land , homes , and even children , and to become dependent upon work as tenant farmers for the wealthy .
Officials at the court of Emperor Ai of Han ( r . 7 – 1 BC ) attempted to implement reforms limiting the amount of land nobles and wealthy landowners could own legally , but were unsuccessful . When Wang Mang took control of the government in 9 AD , he abolished the purchase and sale of land in a system called King 's Fields ( 王田 ) . This was a variation of the well @-@ field system , where the government owned the land and assured every peasant an equal share to cultivate . Within three years , complaints from wealthy landowners and nobles forced Wang Mang to repeal the reform . After Gengshi ( r . 23 – 25 AD ) and Guangwu ( r . 25 – 57 AD ) restored the Han dynasty , they relied on the service of great landholding families to secure their position in society . Many of their government officials also became wealthy landowners .
By the late Eastern Han period , the peasantry had become largely landless and served wealthy landowners . This cost the government significant tax revenue . Although the central government under Emperor He of Han ( r . 88 – 105 AD ) reduced taxes in times of natural disaster and distress without much effect upon the treasury , successive rulers became less able to cope with major crises . The government soon relied upon local administrations to conduct relief efforts . After the central government failed to provide local governments with provisions during both a locust swarm and the flooding of the Yellow River in 153 AD , many landless peasants became retainers of large landowners in exchange for aid . Patricia Ebrey writes that the Eastern Han was the " transitional period " between the Western Han — when small independent farmers were the vast majority — and the Three Kingdoms ( 220 – 265 AD ) and later Sixteen Kingdoms ( 304 – 439 AD ) , when large family estates used unfree labor .
The Yellow Turban Rebellion of 184 AD , the slaughter of the eunuchs in 189 AD , and the campaign against Dong Zhuo in 190 AD destabilized the central government , and Luoyang was burnt to the ground . At this point , " ... private and local power came to replace public authority . "
The Han Chancellor and King of Wei Cao Cao ( 155 – 220 AD ) made the final significant attempt to limit the power of wealthy landowners . Cao Cao established government @-@ managed agricultural colonies for landless commoners ; in exchange for land and cheap equipment , the farmers paid a portion of their crop yield . In the 120s BC , Emperor Wu had attempted to establish agricultural colonies in the northwestern frontier of the newly conquered Hexi Corridor ( in modern Gansu ) . 600 @,@ 000 new settlers farmed on these state lands using seeds , draft animals and equipment loaned by the government . An imperial edict in 85 AD ordered the local governments of commanderies and subordinate kingdoms to resettle landless peasants onto state @-@ owned lands , where they would be paid wages , provided with crop seeds , loaned farming tools and exempted from rent payments for five years and poll taxes for three years . The edict also allowed peasants to return to their native counties at any time . Subsequent governments of the Three Kingdoms established agricultural colonies on these models .
= = = Tax reforms = = =
Because small landowning families represented the mainstay of the Han tax base , the Han government attempted to aid and protect small landowners and to limit the power of wealthy landlords and merchants . The government reduced taxes in times of poor harvest and provided relief after disasters . Tax remissions and crop seed loans encouraged displaced peasants to return to their land . An edict in 94 AD excused displaced peasants from paying land and labor service taxes for a year upon returning to their own farms . The land tax on agricultural production was reduced in 168 BC from a rate of one @-@ fifteenth of crop yield to one @-@ thirtieth , and abolished in 167 BC . However , the tax was reinstated in 156 BC at a rate of one @-@ thirtieth . At the beginning of the Eastern Han , the land tax rate was one @-@ tenth of the crop yield , but following the stabilization following Wang Mang 's death , the rate was reduced to the original one @-@ thirtieth in 30 AD .
Towards the end of the Han dynasty , the land tax rate was reduced to one @-@ hundredth , with lost revenue recouped by increasing the poll and property tax rates . The poll tax for most adults was 120 coins annually , 240 coins for merchants , and 20 coins for minors aged between three and fourteen years . The lower taxable threshold age for minors increased to seven years during the reign of Emperor Yuan of Han ( r . 48 – 33 BC ) and onwards . Historian Charles Hucker writes that underreporting of the population by local authorities was deliberate and widespread , since this reduced their tax and labor service obligations rendered to the central government .
Though requiring additional revenue to fund the Han – Xiongnu War , the government during Emperor Wu of Han 's reign ( 141 – 87 BC ) sought to avoid heavy taxation of small landowners . To increase revenue , the government imposed heavier taxes on merchants , confiscated land from nobles , sold offices and titles , and established government monopolies over the minting of coins , iron manufacture and salt mining . New taxes were imposed on the ownership of boats , carts , carriages , wheelbarrows , shops and other properties . The overall property tax for merchants was raised in 119 BC from 120 coins for every 10 @,@ 000 coins @-@ worth of property owned to 120 coins for every 2 @,@ 000 coins @-@ worth of property owned . Tax rates for almost all commodities are unknown , except for that of liquor . After the government monopoly on liquor was abolished in 81 BC , a property tax of 2 coins for every 0 @.@ 2 litres ( 0 @.@ 05 US gal ) was levied on liquor merchants .
The sale of certain offices and titles was reintroduced in Eastern Han by Empress Dowager Deng Sui — who reigned as regent from 105 – 121 AD — to raise government revenues in times of severe natural disasters and the widespread rebellion of the Qiang people in western China . The sale of offices became extremely corrupt under the eunuch @-@ dominated government of Emperor Ling of Han ( r . 168 – 189 AD ) , when many top official posts were sold at the highest bidder instead of being filled by vetted candidates who had taken Imperial examinations or attended the Imperial University .
= = = Conscription = = =
Two forms of mass conscription existed during the Han period . These were civilian conscription ( gengzu 更卒 ) and military conscription ( zhengzu 正卒 ) . In addition to paying their monetary and crop taxes , all peasants of the Western Han period aged between fifteen and fifty @-@ six were required to undertake mandatory conscription duties for one month of each year . These duties were usually fulfilled by work on construction projects .
At the age of twenty @-@ three years male peasants were drafted to serve in the military , where they were assigned to infantry , cavalry , or navy service . After one year of training , they went on to perform a year of actual military service in frontier garrisons or as guards in the capital city . They remained liable to perform this year of service until the age of fifty @-@ six . This was also the age when they were dismissed from their local militias , which they could join once they had finished their year of conscripted service . These non @-@ professional conscripted soldiers comprised the Southern Army ( Nanjun 南軍 ) , while the Northern Army ( Beijun 北軍 ) was a standing army composed of paid career soldiers .
During the Eastern Han , peasants could avoid the month of annual conscripted labor by paying a tax in commutation ( gengfu 更賦 ) . This development went hand in hand with the increasing use of hired labor by the government . In a similar manner , because the Eastern @-@ Han government favored the military recruitment of volunteers , the mandatory military draft for peasants aged twenty @-@ three could be avoided by paying a tax in substitution .
= = = Merchants = = =
There were two categories of Han merchants : those who sold goods at shops in urban markets , and the larger @-@ scale itinerant traders who traveled between cities and to foreign countries . The small @-@ scale urban shopkeepers were enrolled on an official register and had to pay heavy commercial taxes . Although these registered merchants were taxed , an edict of 94 AD ordered that landless peasants who had to resort to peddling were to be exempted from taxation .
Itinerant merchants were often wealthy and did not have to register . These itinerant merchants often participated in large @-@ scale trade with powerful families and officials . Nishijima writes that most of the biographies of " wealthy men " in the Records of the Grand Historian and Book of Han were those of itinerant merchants .
In contrast , registered marketplace merchants had a very low social status and were often subject to additional restrictions . Emperor Gaozu passed laws levying higher taxes , forbidding merchants from wearing silk , and barring their descendants from holding public office . These laws were difficult to enforce . Emperor Wu targeted both the registered and unregistered merchants with higher taxes . While registered merchants were not allowed to own land , if they broke this law their land and slaves would be confiscated . However , wealthy unregistered merchants owned large tracts of land . Emperor Wu significantly reduced the economic influence of great merchants by openly competing with them in the marketplace , where he set up government @-@ managed shops that sold commodities collected from the merchants as property taxes .
= = Crafts , industries , and government employment = =
= = = Private manufacture and government monopolies = = =
= = = = Iron and salt = = = =
At the beginning of the Han dynasty , China 's salt and iron enterprises were privately owned by a number of wealthy merchants and subordinate regional kings . The profits of these industries rivaled the funds of the imperial court . A successful iron or salt industrialist might have employed over a thousand peasants , causing a severe loss of agricultural tax revenue to the central government . To restrict the power of the industrialists , Emperor Wu had nationalized the salt and iron industries by 117 BC .
The government also instituted a liquor monopoly in 98 BC . However , this was repealed in 81 BC in an effort to reduce government intervention in the private economy .
The Reformist Party supported privatization , opposing the Modernist Party , which had dominated politics during the reign of Emperor Wu and the subsequent regency of Huo Guang ( d . 68 BC ) . The Modernists argued that state monopolies provided abundant raw materials , good working conditions , and high quality iron ; the Reformists countered that state @-@ owned ironworks produced large and impractical implements designed to meet quotas rather than to be of practical use , were of inferior quality , and were too expensive for commoners to purchase . In 44 BC , the Reformists had both the salt and iron monopolies abolished , but the monopolies were reinstated in 41 BC after their abrupt closure resulted in significant losses of revenue for the government and disruption of the private economy .
Wang Mang preserved these central government monopolies . When Eastern Han began , they were once again repealed , the industries given to local commandery governments and private entrepreneurs . Emperor Zhang of Han ( r . 75 – 88 AD ) briefly reintroduced the central government monopolies on salt and iron from 85 to 88 AD , but abolished them in the last year of his reign . After Emperor Zhang , the Han never returned the salt and iron industries to government ownership .
= = = = Grain = = = =
The grain trade was a profitable private enterprise during the early Western Han , yet Emperor Wu 's government intervened in the grain trade when it established the equable marketing system ( also known as the ever @-@ normal granary system ) in 110 BC . The government purchased grain when it was plentiful and inexpensive , shipping it to granaries for storage or to areas where grain was scarce . The system was intended to eliminate grain speculation , to create a standard price and to increase government revenue . The system was designed by civil servant Sang Hongyang ( d . 80 BC ) — who was previously a merchant . Sang Hongyang was criticized by merchants for placing government officials in market stalls . This supply system was discontinued in Eastern Han , although it was briefly revived by Emperor Ming of Han ( r . 57 – 75 ) . Emperor Ming also abolished the system in 68 AD , when he believed that the government 's storage of grain increased prices and made wealthy landowners richer .
Ebrey argues that although most of Emperor Wu 's fiscal policies were repealed during Eastern Han , their damage to the merchant class and the subsequent laissez @-@ faire policies of Eastern Han allowed the wealthiest landowners to dominate society , ensuring that China 's economy would remain firmly agrarian @-@ based for centuries . The Eastern Han central government lost an important source of revenue by relinquishing its salt and iron industries and purchasing its armies ' swords and shields from private manufacturers . However , this loss of revenue was often compensated by higher taxes levied on the merchants .
= = = Government workshops = = =
Han government workshops produced common , luxury , and even artistic funerary items , such as the ceramic figurines and tomb tiles which adorned the walls of underground tombs . Imperial workshops were operated by the Minister Steward , whose ministry controlled the treasury and the emperor 's private finances .
The Office of Arts and Crafts , subordinate to the Minister Steward , produced weapons , bronze mirrors , vessel wares , and other goods . The Office of Manufactures , also subordinate to the Minister Steward , made the cheaper weapons , utensils , and armor . Textiles and clothing worn by the emperor and royal family were made in the Weaving House of the West and Weaving House of the East ; the latter was abolished in 28 BC , and the Weaving House of the West was renamed the Weaving House .
Workshops located in the commanderies made silks and embroidered fabrics , silver and gold luxury items , and weapons . One workshop , in modern Anhui province , had a shipyard where battle ships were built . Although the government used the labor of state @-@ owned slaves , corvée laborers , and convicts in its workshops , they also hired skilled craftsmen who were well @-@ paid .
Han lacquerwares were privately made as well as being manufactured in government workshops . Hundreds of laborers could be employed to work on a single luxury item , such as a lacquered cup or screen . Some lacquerwares were inscribed simply with the clan name of the family who owned them . Others were inscribed with the titles of the owner , the specific type of the vessels , their capacities , the precise day , month , and year of manufacture ( according to Chinese era names and their lunisolar calendar ) , the names of the floor managers who oversaw the items ' production and the names of the workers who made them . Even some iron implements made during the age of the monopoly bore inscriptions of the date they were made and the name of the workshop . Bronze calipers from the Xin dynasty , used for minute measurements , had an inscription stating that it was " made on a gui @-@ you day at new moon of the first month of the first year of the Shijian guo period . " The calipers date from 9 AD . Han lacquerwares bearing the imperial mark of the emperor have been found far beyond the Han capital regions by modern archaeologists , in places such as Qingzhen ( in Guizhou ) , Pyongyang ( in North Korea ) , and Noin Ula ( in Mongolia ) .
= = = Public construction projects = = =
The Court Architect was charged by central government with overseeing all imperial construction and public works projects , including the building of palaces and tombs .
During the Western Han period , conscripted peasants were organized into work teams consisting of over a hundred thousand laborers . About 150 @,@ 000 conscripted workers , serving in consecutive periods of thirty days each over a total of five years , worked on the massive defensive walls of Chang 'an , which were completed in 190 BC . Conscript laborers were commissioned to build and maintain shrines dedicated to various deities and the spirits of the emperor 's ancestors . Conscripts also maintained canal systems used for agricultural transport and irrigation . Some of the larger Han canal renovation projects included repairs to the Dujiangyan Irrigation System and Zhengguo Canal , built by the previous State of Qin and Qin dynasty ( 221 – 206 BC ) , respectively .
Nineteen stone inscriptions survive commemorating the building of new roads and bridges by the Eastern Han government . Archaeological excavations at Chang 'an show that wooden bridges were built over the defensive moat and led to the gatehouses . Roadways also needed periodic repairs ; in 63 AD the route leading from the Qilian Mountains , through Hanzhong ( modern southern Shanxi ) , and towards the capital Luoyang underwent major repairs . For this project , 623 trestle bridges , five large bridges , 107 km ( 66 mi ) of new roadways , and 64 buildings — including rest houses , post stations , and relay stations — were built . Those commissioned with military authority also built bridges . For example , during his campaign against the Xiongnu in the Ordos Desert in 127 BC , the general Wei Qing ( d . 106 BC ) had a new bridge built over the Wujia River ( a former tributary of the Yellow River ) in today 's Inner Mongolia . He used this bridge to move troops and supplies for an attack on the Xiongnu , northwest of modern Wuyuan County ( 五原县 ) . Ebrey writes :
There were , of course , numerous reasons for maintaining roads . A unified political system could be maintained only as long as the government had the means of quickly dispatching officials , troops , or messengers as needed . Such a system of transportation , once established , facilitated commerce . At the local level , road and bridge projects seem to have been initiated as much for the sake of traveling merchants as for officials .
= = Domestic trade = =
= = = Traded goods and commodities = = =
Han @-@ era historians like Sima Qian ( 145 – 86 BC ) and Ban Gu ( 32 – 92 AD ) , as well as the later historian Fan Ye ( 398 – 445 AD ) , recorded details of the business transactions and products traded by Han merchants . Evidence of these products has also emerged from archaeological investigations .
The main agricultural staple foods during the Han dynasty were foxtail millet , proso millet , rice ( including glutinous rice ) , wheat , beans , and barley . Other food items included sorghum , taro , mallow , mustard plant , jujube , pear , plum ( including Prunus salicina and Prunus mume ) , peach , apricot , and myrica . Chicken , duck , goose , beef , pork , rabbit , sika deer , turtle dove , owl , Chinese bamboo partridge , magpie , common pheasant , crane , and various types of fish were commonly consumed meats .
The production of silk through sericulture was profitable for both small @-@ time farmers and large @-@ scale producers . Silk clothing was too expensive for the poor , who wore clothes most commonly made of hemp . The rural women usually wove all the family 's clothes .
Common bronze items included domestic wares like oil lamps , incense burners , tables , irons , stoves , and dripping jars . Iron goods were often used for construction and farmwork , such as plowshares , pickaxes , spades , shovels , hoes , sickles , axes , adze , hammers , chisels , knives , saws , scratch awls , and nails . Iron was also used to make swords , halberds , arrowheads and scale armor for the military .
Other common goods included : consumables ( liquor , pickles and sauces , sheep and pigs , grain , yeast for fermentation , bean relish , dried fish and abalone , dates , chestnuts , fruits and vegetables ) , raw materials ( cattle hide , boat timber , bamboo poles , dyes , horns , cinnabar , raw lacquer , jade , amber ) , clothing and clothing materials ( silk fabrics , fine and coarse cloth , sable and foxskin garments , felt and mats , deerskin slippers ) , eating utensils ( bronze utensils and chopsticks , silver , wood and iron vessels , ceramic wares ) , art objects ( lacquerware , ceramics ) , elegant coffins ( made of catalpa , locust , juniper , and lacquered wood ) , vehicles such as light two @-@ wheeled carts and heavy oxcarts , and horses .
In addition to general commodities , Han historians list the goods of specific regions . Common trade items from the region of modern Shanxi included bamboo , timber , grain , and gemstones ; Shandong had fish , salt , liquor , and silk ; Jiangnan had camphor , catalpa , ginger , cinnamon , gold , tin , lead , cinnabar , rhinoceros horn , tortoise shell , pearls , ivory , and leather . Ebrey lists items found in a 2nd @-@ century AD tomb in Wuwei , Gansu ( along the Hexi Corridor fortified by the Great Wall of China ) , evidence that luxury items could be obtained even in remote frontiers .
... fourteen pieces of pottery ; wooden objects such as a horse , pig , ox , chicken , chicken coop , and a single @-@ horned animal ; seventy copper cash ; a crossbow mechanism made of bronze ; a writing brush ; a lacquer @-@ encased inkstone ; a lacquer tray and bowl ; a wooden comb ; a jade ornament ; a pair of hemp shoes ; a straw bag ; the remains of an inscribed banner ; a bamboo hairpin ; two straw satchels ; and a stone lamp .
= = = Estate management and trade = = =
In the early Eastern Han , Emperor Ming passed laws which prohibited those involved in agriculture from simultaneously engaging in mercantile trade . These laws were largely ineffective , since wealthy landowners and landlords made significant profits from the trading of goods produced on their estates . Cui Shi ( 催寔 ) ( d . 170 AD ) , a local commandery administrator who later served as an official in the central government 's secretariat , started a winery business in his home to pay for his father 's funeral . His fellow gentry criticized him , claiming the practice was immoral , but not illegal .
Cui Shi 's book Simin yueling ( 四民月令 ) is the only significant surviving work on agriculture from the Eastern Han period , though about 3 @,@ 000 written characters of the Fan Shengzhi shu ( 氾勝之書 ) , dated to the reign of Emperor Cheng of Han ( 33 – 7 BC ) , still survive . Cui Shi 's book provides descriptions of rituals for ancestor worship , festival and religious holiday celebrations , conduct for family and kinship relations , farmwork , and the schooling season for boys . Cui Shi 's book also provides detailed instructions on which months were the most profitable times to buy and sell certain types of farm @-@ produced goods .
The following table is modelled on Ebrey 's " Estate and Family Management in the Later Han as Seen in the Monthly Instructions for the Four Classes of People " ( 1974 ) . Ebrey writes : " ... the same item was often bought and sold at different times of the year . The rationale for this is very clearly financial : items were bought when the price was low and sold when it was high . " The specific amounts for each commodity traded are not listed , yet the timing of sale and purchase during the year is the most valuable information for historians . Missing from Cui Shi 's list are important items which his family certainly bought and sold at specific times of the year , such as salt , iron farm tools and kitchen utensils , paper and ink ( the papermaking process was invented by Cai Lun in 105 AD ) , as well as luxury items of silk and exotic foods .
There was mass unemployment among landless peasants during the Eastern Han period . However , archaeological and literary evidence shows that those managing wealthy agricultural estates enjoyed great prosperity and lived comfortably . In addition to Cui 's work , the inventor , mathematician , and court astronomer Zhang Heng ( 78 – 139 AD ) wrote a rhapsody describing the rich countryside of Nanyang and its irrigated rice paddies . He mentions grain fields , ponds filled with fish , and estate gardens and orchards filled with bamboo shoots , autumn leeks , winter rape @-@ turnips , perilla , evodia , and purple ginger .
Bricks lining the walls of the tombs of wealthy Han were adorned with carved or molded reliefs and painted murals ; these often showed scenes of the tomb occupant 's estate , halls , wells , carriage sheds , pens for cattle , sheep , chickens , and pigs , stables for horses , and employed workers picking mulberry leaves , plowing crop fields , and hoeing vegetable patches .
Small and medium @-@ sized estates were managed by single families . The father acted as the head manager , the sons as field workers . Wives and daughters worked with female servants to weave cloth and produce silk . Very wealthy landowners who had a large peasant following often used a sharecropping system to similar to the government 's system for state @-@ owned lands . Under this system , peasants would receive land , tools , oxen , and a house in exchange for a third or a half of their crop yield .
= = Foreign trade and tributary exchange = =
Prior to the Han dynasty , markets close to China 's northern border engaged in trade with the nomadic tribes of the eastern Eurasian Steppe . The heqin agreement between the Han and nomadic Xiongnu stipulated the transfer of tributary goods from China . The exact amount of annual tribute sent to the Xiongnu in the 2nd century BC is unknown . In 89 BC , when Hulugu Chanyu ( 狐鹿姑 ) ( r . 95 – 85 BC ) requested a renewal of the heqin agreement , he demanded an annual tribute of 400 @,@ 000 litres ( 11 @,@ 000 US bu ) or 10 @,@ 000 dan of wine , 100 @,@ 000 litres ( 2 @,@ 800 US bu ) or 5 @,@ 000 hu of grain , and 10 @,@ 000 bales of silk . These amounts of wine , grain , and silk were considered to be a significant increase from earlier amounts of tribute , which must have been much less . Besides these arrangements , the most common commercial exchanges between the Xiongnu and Han merchants consisted of the trading of Xiongnu horses and furs for Han agricultural foodstuffs and luxury items , most notably silk . By means of the black market , the Xiongnu were also able to smuggle Han iron weapons across the border .
The Han established a diplomatic presence in the Tarim Basin of Central Asia during Emperor Wu of Han 's reign ( 141 – 87 BC ) . Han envoys brought gifts of sheep , gold , and silk to the urban oasis city @-@ states . The Chinese sometimes used gold as currency ; however , silk was favored as a means to pay for food and lodging . Once the Han had subjugated the Tarim Basin and established a Protectorate there , Han envoys in these states were given free food and lodging . These envoys were required to send tributary items of furs , precious stones , and delicacies such as Central Asian raisins to the Han court . The Arsacid court sent exotic animals including lions and ostriches to the Han court , and a king ruling in what is now Burma sent elephants and rhinoceroses . Han diplomatic missions to royal courts across Asia were usually accompanied by trade caravans which earned substantial profits .
The Han court received tributary submission from the Xiongnu leader Huhanye ( 呼韓邪 ) ( r . 58 – 31 BC ) , an important rival to Zhizhi Chanyu ( r . 56 – 36 BC , died at the Battle of Zhizhi ) . Huhanye 's tribute , exchange of hostages , and presence at Chang 'an in the New Year of 51 BC were rewarded with the following gifts from the emperor : 5 kg ( 160 ozt ) of gold , 200 @,@ 000 coins , 77 suits of clothes , 8 @,@ 000 bales of silk fabric , 1 @,@ 500 kg ( 3 @,@ 300 lb ) of silk floss , 15 horses , and 680 @,@ 000 l ( 19 @,@ 000 US bu ) of grain . However , this is the only occurrence of rewarded gifts that present materials other than fabric . As shown in the table below , based upon Yü Ying @-@ shih 's " Han Foreign Relations " ( 1986 ) , the gifts consisted only silk after 51 BC , and the Xiongnu leader 's political submission was guaranteed only for as long as the Han could provide him with ever greater amounts of imperial largesse of silk with each succeeding visit to the Chinese court .
The establishment of the Silk Road occurred during Wu 's reign , owing to the efforts of the diplomat Zhang Qian . The increased demand for silk from the Roman Empire stimulated commercial traffic in both Central Asia and across the Indian Ocean . Roman merchants sailed to Barbarikon near present @-@ day Karachi , Pakistan , and Barygaza in present @-@ day Gujarat , India to purchase Chinese silks ( see Roman trade with India ) . When Emperor Wu conquered Nanyue — in what is now Southwest China and northern Vietnam — in 111 BC , overseas trade was extended to Southeast Asia and the Indian Ocean , as maritime merchants traded Han gold and silk for pearls , jade , lapis lazuli , and glasswares .
The Book of Later Han states that Roman envoys sent by Emperor Marcus Aurelius ( r . 161 – 180 AD ) , following a southern route , brought gifts to the court of Emperor Huan of Han ( r . 146 – 168 AD ) in 166 AD . This Roman mission followed an unsuccessful attempt by the Han diplomat Gan Ying to reach Rome in 97 . Gan Ying was delayed at the Persian Gulf , by Arsacid authorities , and could only make a report on Rome based on oral accounts . Historians Charles Hucker and Rafe de Crespigny both speculate that the Roman mission of 166 AD involved enterprising Roman merchants instead of actual diplomats ; Hucker writes :
Tributary missions from vassal states were commonly allowed to include traders , who thus gained opportunities to do business in the capital markets . No doubt a large proportion of what the Chinese court chose to call tributary missions were in fact shrewdly organized commercial ventures by foreign merchants with no diplomatic status at all . This was unquestionably the case , most notably , with a group of traders who appeared on the south coast in 166 AD claiming to be envoys from the Roman emperor Marcus Aurelius Antoninus .
The main trade route leading into Han China passed first through Kashgar , yet Hellenized Bactria further west was the central node of international trade . By the 1st century AD , Bactria and much of Central Asia and North India were controlled by the Kushan Empire . Silk was the main export item from China to India . Indian merchants brought various goods to China , including tortoise shell , gold , silver , copper , iron , lead , tin , fine cloth , woolen textiles , perfume and incense , crystal sugar , pepper , ginger , salt , coral , pearls , glass items , and Roman wares . Indian merchants brought Roman styrax and frankincense to China , while the Chinese knew bdellium as a fragrant item from Persia , although it was native to West India . The tall Ferghana horses imported from Fergana were highly prized in Han China . The newly introduced exotic Central Asian grapes ( i.e. vitis vinifera ) were used to make grape wine , although the Chinese had rice wine before this . Glass luxury items from ancient Mesopotamia have been found in Chinese tombs and dated to the late Spring and Autumn Period ( 771 – 476 BC ) . Roman glasswares have been found in Chinese tombs dating to the early 1st century BC , with the earliest specimen found at the southern Chinese seaport of Guangzhou . Silverwares from Roman- and Arsacid territories have also been found at Han tomb sites .
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= The Cincinnati Kid =
The Cincinnati Kid is a 1965 American drama film . It tells the story of Eric " The Kid " Stoner , a young Depression @-@ era poker player , as he seeks to establish his reputation as the best . This quest leads him to challenge Lancey " The Man " Howard , an older player widely considered to be the best , culminating in a climactic final poker hand between the two .
The script , adapted from Richard Jessup 's novel , was written by Ring Lardner Jr. and Terry Southern ; it was Lardner 's first major studio work since his 1947 blacklisting as one of The Hollywood Ten . The film was directed by Norman Jewison and stars Steve McQueen in the title role and Edward G. Robinson as Howard . Jewison , who replaced original director Sam Peckinpah shortly after filming began , describes The Cincinnati Kid as his " ugly duckling " film . He considers it the film that allowed him to transition from the lighter comedic films he had previously been making and take on more serious films and subjects .
The film garnered mixed reviews from critics on its initial release ; supporting actors Robinson and Joan Blondell earned award nominations for their performances .
= = Plot = =
Eric Stoner , nicknamed " The Kid , " is an up @-@ and @-@ coming poker player in New Orleans . He hears that Lancey Howard , a longtime master of the game nicknamed " The Man , " is in town , and sees it as his chance to finally become the Man himself . The Kid 's friend Shooter cautions him , reminding the Kid how he thought he was the best five @-@ card stud player in the world , until Howard " gutted " him when they played .
Howard arranges a game with wealthy William Jefferson Slade , who secures Shooter 's services as dealer . Howard wins $ 6 @,@ 000 ( over $ 90 @,@ 000 in 2015 dollars ) from Slade over a 30 @-@ hour game , angering Slade and wounding his pride . That night at Slade 's home , he tries to bribe Shooter into cheating in the Kid 's favor when the two players meet . Shooter declines , but Slade calls in Shooter 's markers worth $ 12 @,@ 000 ( over $ 200 @,@ 000 in 2015 dollars ) , and blackmails him by threatening to reveal damaging information about Shooter 's wild wife , Melba . Shooter agonizes over his decision , having spent the last 25 years building a reputation for integrity .
With the Kid 's girl Christian visiting her parents , Melba tries to seduce him , even though she and Christian are close friends . Out of respect for Shooter , he rebuffs her , and spends the day before the game with Christian at her family 's farm .
The big game starts with six players , including Howard and the Kid , with Shooter playing as he deals and Lady Fingers relieving him whenever Shooter needs a break . In the first big confrontation between the Kid and Howard , the Kid is short $ 2 @,@ 000 ( $ 35 @,@ 000 in 2015 dollars ) and Slade steps in to stake him . Several hours later , Howard busts a player called Pig , perhaps with a bluff , and the remaining players take a break . Following the break , Lady Fingers , who has been delighting in needling Howard all evening , takes over as dealer and continues to needle him .
As the game wears on , Shooter only deals , and then after another hand when Howard outplays them , two more players , Yeller and Sokal , drop out . That leaves just Howard and the Kid . After a few unlikely wins , the Kid calls for a break and confronts Shooter , who admits to being forced into cheating by Slade . The Kid insists he can win on his own and tells Shooter to deal straight or he will blow the whistle , destroying Shooter 's reputation . Before the game resumes , Melba succeeds in seducing the Kid . Christian makes a surprise visit to the room , catches them after the fact and walks out on The Kid .
Slade tells the Kid that Shooter will continue to cheat for him and confronts him with a menacing thug , but the Kid flatly refuses . Back at the game , The Kid maneuvers to have Shooter replaced by Lady Fingers , lying that Shooter is ill . He then wins several major pots from Howard , who is visibly losing confidence .
= = = Alternate ending = = =
In some cuts , the film ends with a freeze @-@ frame on Steve McQueen 's face following his penny @-@ pitching loss . Turner Classic Movies and the DVD feature the ending with Christian . Jewison wanted to end the film with the freeze @-@ frame but was overruled by the producer .
The cockfight scene was cut by British censors .
= = Cast = =
= = Production = =
The Cincinnati Kid was filmed on location in New Orleans , Louisiana , a change from the original St. Louis , Missouri , setting of the novel . Spencer Tracy was originally cast as Lancey Howard , but ill health forced him to withdraw from the film . Sam Peckinpah was originally hired to direct ; producer Martin Ransohoff fired him shortly after filming began for " vulgarizing the picture . " Peckinpah 's version was to be shot in black @-@ and @-@ white to give the film a 1930s period feel . Jewison scrapped the black @-@ and @-@ white footage , feeling it was a mistake to shoot a film with the red and black of playing cards in greyscale . He did mute the colors throughout , both to evoke the period and to help pop the card colors when they appeared . Strother Martin claimed he was cast in the film but got fired after Jewison replaced Peckinpah .
The film features a theme song performed by Ray Charles and a brief appearance during the film by The Preservation Hall Jazz Band , with Emma Barrett as vocalist and pianist .
= = Soundtrack = =
= = Reception = =
Upon its 1965 release , The Cincinnati Kid was favorably reviewed by Variety which wrote " Martin Ransohoff has constructed a taut , well @-@ turned @-@ out production . In Steve McQueen he has the near @-@ perfect delineator of the title role . Edward G. Robinson is at his best in some years as the aging , ruthless Lancey Howard .... " Howard Thompson of The New York Times called the film a " respectably packaged drama " that is " strictly for those who relish — or at least play — stud poker " and notes that the " film pales beside The Hustler , to which it bears a striking similarity of theme and characterization . " Time magazine also noted the similarities to The Hustler , saying " nearly everything about Cincinnati Kid is reminiscent " of that film , but falls short in the comparison , in part because of the subject matter :
Director Jewison can put his cards on the table , let his camera cut suspensefully to the players ' intent faces , but a pool shark sinking a tricky shot into a side pocket undoubtedly offers more range . Kid also has a less compelling subplot . Away from the table , McQueen gambles on a blonde ( Tuesday Weld ) and on the integrity of his dealer pal , Karl Malden . Pressure comes from a conventionally vicious Southern gentleman ( Rip Torn ) , whose pleasures include a Negro mistress , a pistol range adjacent to his parlor , and fixed card games . As Malden 's wife , Ann @-@ Margret spells trouble of another kind , though her naive impersonation of a wicked , wicked woman recalls the era when the femme fatale wore breastplates lashed together with spider web . By the time all the bets are in , Cincinnati Kid appears to hold a losing hand .
A retrospective review published by the New York State Writers Institute of the University at Albany also noted the similarities the film had to The Hustler , but in contrast said The Cincinnati Kid 's " stylized realism , dreamlike color , and detailed subplots give [ the film ] a dramatic complexity and self @-@ awareness that The Hustler lacks .
Blondell was singled out for her performance as Lady Fingers with an award from the National Board of Review of Motion Pictures and a Golden Globe nomination for Best Supporting Actress . Motion Picture Exhibitor magazine nominated Robinson for its Best Supporting Actor Laurel Award .
= = Home media = =
The Cincinnati Kid was released on Region 1 DVD on May 31 , 2005 . The DVD features a commentary track by director Norman Jewison , commentary on selected scenes from Celebrity Poker Showdown hosts Phil Gordon and Dave Foley and The Cincinnati Kid Plays According to Hoyle , a promotional short featuring magician Jay Ose . A Blu @-@ Ray DVD was released on June 14 , 2011 .
With the release of the film on DVD , one modern reviewer said the film " is as hip now as when it was released in 1965 " and another cited McQueen as " effortlessly watchable as the Kid , providing a masterclass in the power of natural screen presence over dialogue " and Robinson " simply fantastic . " Poker author Michael Wiesenberg calls The Cincinnati Kid " [ o ] ne of the greatest poker movies of all time . "
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