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= Lactifluus piperatus =
Lactifluus piperatus ( synonym Lactarius piperatus ) , commonly known as the peppery milk @-@ cap , is a semi @-@ edible basidiomycete fungus of the genus Lactifluus . Despite being edible , it is not recommended because of its poor taste , though can be used as seasoning when dried . The fruiting body is a creamy @-@ white mushroom which is funnel @-@ shaped when mature , with exceptionally crowded gills . It bleeds a whitish peppery @-@ tasting milk when cut . Widely distributed across Europe and eastern North America , Lactifluus piperatus has been accidentally introduced to Australia . Mycorrhizal , it forms a symbiotic relationship with various species of deciduous tree , including beech , and hazel , and fruiting bodies are found on the forest floor in deciduous woodland .
= = Systematics and taxonomy = =
The species was one of the many species named by Linnaeus who officially described it in Volume Two of his Species Plantarum in 1753 as Agaricus piperatus , the specific epithet deriving from the Latin adjective piperatus meaning " peppery " . For many years , Tyrolian naturalist Giovanni Antonio Scopoli had been considered the author of the first description ; however , a recent revision of the International Code of Botanical Nomenclature in 1987 changed the rules regarding the starting date and primary work for names of fungi . Previously , the starting date had been set as January 1 , 1821 , the date of the works of the ' father of mycology ' , Swedish naturalist Elias Magnus Fries , but now names can be considered valid as far back as May 1 , 1753 , the date of publication of Linnaeus ' seminal work .
Lactifluus piperatus was the original type species of the genus Lactarius . However , after the finding that Lactarius actually represented more than one genus , the species Lactarius torminosus was conserved as type for that genus . Thus , L. piperatus is now the type species of Lactifluus , which was split from Lactarius and contains mainly tropical milk @-@ caps , but also some species of the north temperate zone . Phylogenetic research showed that L. glaucescens , sometimes considered only a variety of L. piperatus , is a distinct species in Europe . Furthermore , the existence of at least ten lineages worldwide , with no overlap among continents , was shown for the group around L. piperatus , suggesting that populations in North America might actually be distinct species .
It is commonly known as the peppery milk cap , pepper milkcap , peppery Lactarius , peppery milk mushroom , white peppery milk @-@ cap , or other similar names . Similarly , in German it is known as the Pfeffermilchling ( " pepper milk cap " ) .
= = Description = =
Lactifluus piperatus has a cap that varies from 6 – 16 cm ( 2 @.@ 5 – 6 @.@ 5 in ) across and is convex with a widely funnel @-@ shaped center . The cap is creamy @-@ white in colour , glabrous and not glossy ; its surface may become cracked in dry locales . The stipe is white in colour , smooth , 3 – 7 cm ( 1 – 3 in ) long by 2 – 3 cm ( 1 – 1 in ) thick and is cylindrical , sometimes tapering towards the base . There is a thick layer of firm white flesh , and the decurrent gills are particularly crowded and narrow , sharing the white colouration of the stem but becoming creamy with age . As with other species of Lactarius , there is abundant milk ( latex ) , which is white , and dries olive @-@ green . It has a white spore print with elongate , elliptic or amyloid spores which are ornamented , as with L. vellereus . The spores measure from 6 @.@ 5 – 9 @.@ 5 by 5 – 8 μm , and have tiny warts .
L. vellereus is larger with a thick stipe , woolly cap and less crowded gills , but is not as tall . Russula delica is similar in colour and shape , though has adnate blue @-@ green tinged gills and no milk . L. deceptivus is also similar , but is differentiated by its less crowded gills , firmer cap margin and less acrid milk . Close to L. piperatus is L. glaucescens , which is differentiated by its milk that dries with a greenish colour .
= = Distribution and habitat = =
Lactifluus piperatus in the wide sense , i.e. including probably several species , is found in Europe , the Black sea region in northeastern Turkey , and eastern and central North America east of Minnesota . It has been accidentally introduced into Australasia , where it is found under introduced and native trees . It is found on the floor in deciduous woodland , particularly under beech ( Betula ) , and can be found throughout summer and autumn and into early winter . It is relatively common , though not as common as the similar species L. vellereus . L. piperatus is found solitarily or in scattered groups . It is sometimes found growing together with Russula cyanoxantha .
= = Edibility = =
Despite being described by some mycologists as inedible or even poisonous , Lactifluus piperatus is generally considered edible . However , it is not recommended , because of its unpleasant taste . It is difficult to digest when eaten raw , but is used as a seasoning when dried , or sometimes is eaten fresh after parboiling , though its taste is still unappetising . Some recommend frying in butter with bacon and onion or pickling , or baking in a pie or pastry as other ways to prepare it . The milk has a very hot and acrid taste , which is removed if boiled . The mushroom used to be highly regarded in Russia , where it would be picked in dry seasons when other edible species were less available . The mushroom is also popular in Finland , where cooks boil it repeatedly , disposing of the water each time , and then store it in salt water and keep it refrigerated , after which it is pickled or served in salads . When eaten fresh and raw , the mushroom has been known to cause an irritant reaction on the lips and tongue , which subsides after an hour . The close L. glaucescens has been reported to be poisonous , but it has been speculated that the " poisonings " were caused by the extremely strong , peppery taste , rather than by the presence of actual poisons .
Lactifluus piperatus forms part of an unusual and highly regarded dish in North America , being one of several species parasitized by the lobster mushroom Hypomyces lactifluorum . Once colonized by the parasite , an orange @-@ red crust forms over the surface of the mushroom , and the taste becomes delicious as the parasite infiltrates its host 's tissues . It is also a common source of food among red squirrels .
= = Other uses = =
Because of the presence of auxins in Lactifluus piperatus metabolites , it can be applied as a rooting hormone to aid the growth of seedlings of various species of plants , including hazel , beech and oak . In the 19th century , it was used as a folk cure for tuberculosis , though it had no effect . In more recent times , it has been found that L. piperatus can be used as an antiviral agent , and the latex has been used against viral warts .
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= Johannes S. Andersen =
Johannes Sigfred Andersen ( 9 July 1898 – 29 July 1970 ) was a Norwegian resistance fighter during the Second World War , a member of the Norwegian Independent Company 1 ( NOR.I.C.1 ) . He was nicknamed " Gulosten " ; ' The Yellow Cheese ' . He also used the surname Ostein during the war . Andersen was a controversial character , because of his pre @-@ war life as a well @-@ known career criminal and a series of incidents that occurred during the war years . These incidents included Andersen working as an assassin during the war , and shortly after the war killing two German prisoners of war during a drinking binge . After the war , Andersen started a wood furniture business . He was supported financially by King Haakon VII of Norway , whose friendship he had gained during the war . Andersen was repeatedly accused of crimes after the war , and on one occasion convicted .
= = Early life = =
Andersen was born on 9 July 1898 in Kristiania ( now Oslo ) , and had a difficult childhood , the latter part of it in an orphanage . He was the son of construction worker Ole Andersen and Josefine Hansen . Soon after Johannes was born , Norway entered a period of economic difficulties , with little construction work available . This led to his father having to change jobs from mason to milkman . Johannes ' mother became obsessed with religion .
= = = Institutionalization = = =
At age 10 Johannes was declared a ward of court and sent to the school institution Toftes gave on the island Helgøya in the lake Mjøsa . While at the strict institution Johannes received parcels from home , with yellow cheese . The cheese was needed because of the meagre rations given the boys at Toftes gave . The parcels with yellow cheese led to Johannes being given the nickname " Gulosten " ( English : " The Yellow Cheese " ) by the other boys at the institution , a name that stuck with him for the rest of his life . After four years on Helgøya he was transferred to Bastøy school home for maladjusted boys , an equally harsh institution . When 29 boys rebelled at Bastøy in 1915 , police officers and the Norwegian Armed Forces were employed to crush the riot , and the leaders taken away in handcuffs . Physical punishment was common at Bastøy , including being locked away in a dark cellar , a punishment Johannes had to endure . When Johannes was 15 his mother died , and he was not informed until several days after her funeral . This led to him making suicide threats , and going amok at the warden 's office , for which he was punished with a stay in the dark cell .
= = = Leaving Helgøya = = =
Andersen went to sea at age 15 , and later found work as a mason 's assistant . On 7 November 1916 he married Lovise Kristine Klausen , who worked as a waitress at a restaurant frequented by Andersen . They soon got an apartment at Torshov and had a son . Andersen got a better @-@ paid job , laying the foundation for the headquarters of Oslo Lysverker , but when that job was done he had to seek day @-@ to @-@ day work at the harbour . When Norway 's financial situation again turned for the worse after the upturn of the First World War , no @-@ one would hire a man with an institutional background , and he was out of work . He made a last @-@ ditch attempt to make money ; he bought liquor in Tønsberg and sold it on the black market in Kristiania , but this was not enough for his wife , who left him to pursue a more financially secure future .
It has been written that the marriage did not end until 1931 . In the meantime , Andersen befriended a woman named Nancy . She helped hide him when he was wanted by the authorities , she lied during a police interrogation at Møllergata 19 to cover for him and she also helped him with practical things such as acquiring a passport . They agreed to part ways when Andersen was set to pursue a trapper career in Canada ; when going to visit her one last time he stumbled upon a police officer who recognized him and arrested him . Also , when frequenting Hamburg , Andersen spent time with two prostitutes . They were described as " not [ ... ] extraordinarily beautiful " , and Andersen helped them with buying food .
= = Criminal career = =
Norway 's prohibition from 1916 onwards opened up possibilities for a lucrative criminal career , and Andersen joined up in 1921 with old friends from his days at Toftes gave in grand @-@ scale smuggling operations . Using ingenious methods for hiding the spirits , they smuggled alcohol into Norway by sea . In his smuggling years Andersen cooperated with future award @-@ winning author Arthur Omre , serving as both crew and skipper on Omre 's boats before getting his own smuggling vessel . Eventually his cover was blown , and being a wanted man in Norway he had to flee to Germany . While in Germany he worked for one of the biggest suppliers of spirits for the illegal Norwegian market . In 1925 Norway requested that Germany extradite him , and he was arrested in the harbour of Hamburg . Prison life was harsh , but Andersen managed to get transferred to a hospital when faking syphilis by burning his member with a cigarette . He was then deported under police escort back to Norway on the steamship Kong Dag , but when the ship entered the Oslofjord , Andersen escaped by jumping overboard near Spro . For several months he was on the run before being recaptured . In the years that followed he was in and out of prison repeatedly . He gained considerable renown for his elegantly executed burglaries , being labelled by the media " gentleman @-@ forbryter i Grünerløkka @-@ utgave " ( English : gentleman criminal , Grünerløkka edition ) . He was also well known for his safe @-@ cracking skills . Andersen once more tried to evade justice when he fled a crowded court room in Drammen in 1929 , jumping out a window as the sentence was being proclaimed . He was then smuggled from Drammen inside a chest of drawers which was to undergo reparation in Oslo . He was recaptured shortly before intending to board a cargo ship bound for Canada .
His criminal escapades made Andersen a national celebrity in pre @-@ war Norway , and his nickname " Gulosten " a household name . Between 1919 and 1937 he was sentenced to prison terms nine times , spending a total of around seven years behind bars . During the mid @-@ 1930s Andersen attempted to end his criminal career , became engaged , and started a furniture repair business . He remarried on 18 March 1939 , wedding Ruth Johanne ( born 1905 ) , née Nilsen . They had one son . In 1935 Andersen attempted to get a children 's book published , but it was rejected because of its inclusion of a number of " brutal scenes , unsuited for youths " . The nature scenes in the book were , however , commended by the reviewer . After yet another spell in prison , Andersen was released on 9 April 1940 , the day Germany invaded Norway as a part of World War II .
= = Second World War = =
= = = Early resistance work = = =
The German invasion of Norway in 1940 led to Andersen 's life once more taking a turn into illegal activities . His furniture workshop was used as a weapons depot by the Norwegian resistance movement , and he took part in looting German military stores . He was first arrested by the Germans after he had responded to rumours that he was a Nazi by writing the Norwegian national socialist party Nasjonal Samling 's official publication Fritt Folk and stating that " although I have done many wrong things in my life , a Nazi I am not . Yours sincerely Johs . S. Andersen " . The letter was published unedited by the newspaper , although Andersen was later arrested by the occupying authorities and sentenced to one year in prison , after spending half a year in detention . Using techniques he had learned during his earlier criminal career , Andersen managed to be transferred to prison hospital during his time in detention . While there he acquired false x @-@ ray images and tuberculosis germs to fake illnesses in other captured resistance men who were on their way to interrogation . He also infected a German interrogator with malaria by contaminating his insulin . At night , he would sneak out of the hospital and operate in Oslo , amongst other activities breaking into Nasjonal Samling offices and stealing documents , copying them and having them shipped to the United Kingdom together with evidence of torture in Nazi @-@ run prisons . He served the last part of his sentence in Fuhlsbüttel near Hamburg , Germany . His wife was also active in resistance work , dealing with propaganda and espionage . Author Egil Ulateig doubts the veracity of Andersen 's prison exploits , which are based mostly on Andersen 's own testimony .
= = = Assassin , SOE agent and naval rating = = =
After his return to Norway in 1942 , Andersen carried out the assassination of well @-@ known informer Raymond Colberg and then made good his escape to Sweden . Colberg had been active in the Sandefjord area , uncovering an illegal radio transmitter . This led to the arrest of eight resistance members in March 1941 , three of whom were executed ( Øivind Ask , Andreas Bertnes and Johan Midttun were shot 4 December 1941 ) . Andersen carried out the assassination of the Abwehr agent together with his wife and two acquaintances , kidnapping him and killing him at the animal hospital Chevals kjeller . According to Ruth Andersen 's later interrogation records , the killing was carried out by crucifying him with four knives and crushing his bones with iron pipes , then dismembering the body , putting it in a container for animal carcasses and dumping it in the river Akerselva . The confession may have been made under torture , and included no reference to the bullet holes found on Colberg 's corpse when it was recovered . According to historian and leader of Norway 's Resistance Museum , Arnfinn Moland , the claims of Colberg having been tortured and mutilated are fabrications . Moland cites autopsy reports and German archives to back up his claims . Colberg 's body was discovered by a Norwegian civilian on 15 June 1942 with two 7 @,@ 62 mm calibre bullet holes in the head , and was identified through Colberg 's dental records . The killing was , according to Ulateig , also motivated by Andersen 's personal feelings towards Colberg , and Moland states that Andersen " may have had " such motives , a claim that is refuted by history professor Tore Pryser .
Andersen then fled to Sweden , and travelled on to the United Kingdom , where he was recruited by Professor Leif Tronstad for work with the British Special Operations Executive . In this context he used the surname Ostein during the war . In the United Kingdom , Andersen suggested a series of further assassinations in Oslo , naming targets and describing plans for how to carry out the killings . The British saw great potential as an agent in a man with Andersen 's background . Andersen and his group was parachuted from a Halifax bomber to Kjerkeberget near Sandungen in Nordmarka , Oslo . Received by Gunnar Sønsteby and Sverre Ellingsen , this was the first parachute drop received by the resistance group Milorg 's District 13 . The group spent a month training Milorg resistance people in weapons handling . They were originally intended to carry out assassinations of leading Norwegian Nazis and informers as part of Operation Bittern , first and foremost police minister and Germanske SS Norge leader Jonas Lie , but this was refused by the local resistance leaders because of fears of reprisals . Andersen had suggested killing the top @-@ ranking Nazi leader , and the SOE approved . According to a plan formulated by the SOE , Andersen was to don a light suit , enter Lie 's office in broad daylight , shoot the police minister in the head with a Colt pistol , change to a dark suit hidden underneath the light one , and disappear in the confusion . Andersen commented on the SOE plan : " Lie might survive this assassination attempt , but I won 't . " Andersen instead wanted to kill Lie on his way from the office to his home . The Bittern operation was severely criticized by the Norwegian Home Forces in a letter to the Norwegian exile government in London .
Andersen returned to the United Kingdom via Sweden , after episodes of unruly behaviour in Oslo . In the United Kingdom he had a personal audience with King Haakon VII of Norway . During the audience , Andersen and the King lunched at the Norwegian Club in London , and Andersen entertained the exiled monarch with stories . The King promised to take care of Andersen once the war was over . Andersen then joined the exiled Royal Norwegian Navy and served on a Motor Torpedo Boat ( MTB ) for the duration of the war . The MTB on which Andersen served repeatedly attacked shipping off the Norwegian coast .
Many resistance people in Norway had been shocked when they found out that Andersen had been allowed to serve in NOR.I.C.1. Leading saboteur Max Manus wrote shortly after the war in his book Det vil helst gå godt : " It was one hell of a risk to send a man with Gulosten 's reputation and history out on secret military missions . It would have been a great embarrassment if Fritt Folk had been able to publish that Gulosten made a career in King Håkon 's armed forces " . Andersen protested against Manus ' account when it was published .
= = Post @-@ war life = =
= = = Loss of wife and third marriage = = =
When Andersen returned to Norway after the German surrender in 1945 , he had hoped to reunite with his wife Ruth . Instead , he discovered that his wife had been arrested by the Germans on 9 May 1944 . She had been taken to Møllergata 19 , tortured during her captivity and executed at Grini detention camp by Sonderkommando Hans on 21 July 1944 together with five others . They were buried in a mass grave but her body was exhumed and identified on 25 May 1945 . Ruth 's sister together with Ruth 's friend Hertha Bergstrøm organized a proper funeral . Andersen and Bergstrøm later married .
= = = POW killing controversy = = =
On 3 July 1945 Andersen killed two German prisoners of war with his Thompson submachine gun . Andersen had broken into German barracks in Vadheim in Sogn during a drinking binge , killing the German soldiers Herbert Neumann and Hermann Beckmann . He later claimed to have acted in rage over his wife 's death . The Norwegian court system started working on Andersen 's case , eventually reaching judge advocate Ivar Follestad . Andersen was defended by Reidar Skau , who was made Supreme Court Justice in 1945 . Follestad deemed it necessary to prosecute Andersen , but wanted to pardon him after the verdict . After spending more than a year in the civilian and military court systems Andersen 's murder case reached the top levels of the Royal Norwegian Navy , and on 5 August 1946 it was decided to take the case to the Gulating Military Court of Appeal . Three months later Follestad made a decision of non @-@ indictment , despite there being evidence to convict Andersen . In January 1947 the general jurisdiction chief , Thore Horve , also declared for a decision of non @-@ indictment . Follestad and Horve were supported in this by Minister of Defence Jens Christian Hauge , and the decision was made final by royal resolution on 25 April 1947 . This led to protests from , amongst others , leading Norwegian psychiatrist Johan Scharffenberg .
= = = Later life = = =
With starting help from his new wife , Andersen started the wood product factory Apenes Trevarefabrikk in Horten , running it for fifteen years . King Haakon VII personally helped him with money and credit , remaining Andersen 's friend and patron the rest of the king 's life . One time , Andersen 's company was hired to perform maintenance work on the Bygdøy Royal Estate . He eventually had to retire because of health problems sustained during the war .
Andersen was accused of crimes on several occasions in the post @-@ war years , but was most often acquitted in court . Amongst the crimes of which he was charged but acquitted in court was the theft of building materials in 1954 . Another time he was tricked into lending his car to two people who broke into a goldsmith 's shop in Tønsberg . Strongly intoxicated at the time of the crime , he was charged but fully acquitted . In 1955 he was , however , convicted and sentenced to 36 days in prison for selling 30 bottles of denatured alcohol , alcohol that was supposed to have been used at his factory .
In his later years Andersen became involved in speaking about children 's rights and correctional institutions . He called the institutions for maladjusted youths " schools for criminals " , and said that the loss and suffering of institutionalization naturally lead youths to crime , using his own life as an example . To explain his views on incarceration and of society 's response to institutionalized children and ex @-@ convicts Andersen said : " You are to be punished for having been punished . " Johannes " The Yellow Cheese " Andersen died on 29 July 1970 , aged 72 . He was buried in Horten .
In late 1968 the book En mann kalt Gulosten was released , written by Bjørn Bjørnsen . Already before the book was released , film rights for the story were bought by the company Teamfilm . Teamfilm employee Knut Bohwim stated that the book contained enough material for three motion pictures , but that they would concentrate the story into one film at best .
= = Works = =
— — ( 1946 ) . Vi kommer oss . Av Gulostens memoarer . ( autobiography )
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= The Screaming Skull =
The Screaming Skull is a 1958 American horror film directed by Alex Nicol . The film stars John Hudson , Peggy Webber , Russ Conway , and Nicol . The film focuses on a neurotic woman who believes she is being haunted by the ghost of her new husband 's previous wife . The Screaming Skull marked Nicol 's directorial debut ; he decided to try it because he felt that he was not acting in the roles which he wanted .
The film was shot at the Huntington Hartford Estate in six weeks on a low budget , with each actor being paid $ 1 @,@ 000 . The film has received negative reception from critics and from Webber herself , though Nicol enjoyed the finished product . The film was later featured in a ninth season episode of Mystery Science Theater 3000 .
= = Plot = =
The film opens with a narrated disclaimer over footage of an opening coffin . The narrator explains that the film 's climax is so terrifying that it may kill the viewer , and reassures the audience that if they die of fright while watching the film , they will receive a free burial service , and it closes on the casket which has a card inside reading " Reserved for You . "
Newlyweds Jenni ( Peggy Webber ) and Eric ( John Hudson ) move into Eric 's palatial country home . Jenni is Eric 's second wife ; his first wife Marion died when she accidentally slipped and hit her head on the edge of a decorative pond on the estate . At the home they meet Eric 's friends , the Reverend Snow ( Russ Conway ) and his wife ( Toni Johnson ) , as well as Mickey ( Alex Nicol ) , the developmentally disabled gardener . Eric privately mentions to the Snows that Jenni spent time in an asylum following the sudden death of both her parents , and Mrs. Snow reveals that Jenni is very wealthy .
Jenni is disturbed both by Mickey 's belief that Marion 's ghost wanders the estate and by Marion 's self @-@ portrait inside the house , which Jenni believes resembles her mother . When she begins to hear unexplained screaming noises and see skulls around her house , she believes that Marion is haunting her . Though Eric speculates to Jenni that Mickey , who was a childhood friend of Marion and thus dislikes Jenni , may be behind the trickery , Jenni worries that she is going insane . Eric then suggests to remove Marion 's self @-@ portrait from the home . Eric and Jenni take the painting outside and burn it . While they clean up the remains of the painting , a skull emerges from the ashes . While Jenni panics at the sight of the skull , Eric denies that the skull is there . Jenni faints and Eric withdraws the skull and hides it , revealing that he was responsible for the trickery all along in an effort to get hold of her wealth .
Believing she has finally lost her sanity , Jenni resolves to be committed . She tells Eric that the entire property will be meticulously searched for the skull as a last resort . Before Eric can retrieve it , Mickey secretly steals the skull and brings it to the Reverend , revealing Eric 's plans . That night , Eric prepares to murder Jenni and stage it as a suicide . Jenni sees Marion 's ghost in Mickey 's greenhouse and flees back to the house . When she enters , Eric begins throttling her . The ghost then appears and chases Eric outside and about the property ; it finally corners and attacks him , drowning him in the decorative pond .
After Jenni regains consciousness , the Snows arrive . Mrs. Snow comforts a hysterical Jenni and the Reverend discovers Eric 's body in the pond . Some undisclosed time later , Jenni and the Snows depart from the house . Reverend Snow declares whether or not Marion 's death was an accident will remain a mystery .
= = Production = =
The Screaming Skull was directed by Alex Nicol , an actor who had roles on Broadway productions and often played supporting characters . He decided to try directing a film , as he felt that he had not been performing the roles that he desired . Nicol noted that " as an actor , you 're in perfect position , if you choose to do so , to watch the directors you 're working with setting up the shots , making decisions as to where to place the camera , and so I picked up a lot over the years . "
John Hudson stars as Eric , Jenni 's new husband . Jenni is played by Peggy Webber . In order to get Webber interested in starring in the film , Nicol told her that he was planning to do a remake of the Alfred Hitchcock film Rebecca and brought a copy of the screenplay to her house . Other cast members include Russ Conway as Reverend Snow and Toni Johnson as Snow 's wife . Nicol also stars as Mickey , the gardener .
The film 's cinematographer was Floyd Crosby , who had previously won an Academy Award for his work on Tabu . John Kneubuhl wrote the film 's screenplay ; he also produced the film alongside T. Frank Woods and John Coots . The music was composed by Ernest Gold , and the film was edited by Betty Jane Lane .
The film was shot over a period six weeks at the Huntington Hartford Estate , with a small budget . The film did not have a large crew , and according to Webber , the actors were paid around $ 1000 for their performances . During the production , Nicol promised the actors a cut of the film 's ultimate box office earnings , but due to an issue with the film 's distributor this never occurred . During filming , Webber discovered she was pregnant with a son , and so several scenes had to be re @-@ written like one where she was meant to fall down a staircase .
The Screaming Skull 's opening disclaimer that a free burial would be provided to anybody who died of fright while watching the film was inspired by a gimmick that had been used by William Castle in his film Macabre ( 1958 ) , in which he offered every viewer who bought a ticket life insurance in case they died watching the film . Unlike Castle , Nicol did not actually contact an insurance company .
= = Release and reception = =
Distribution of The Screaming Skull was handled by American International Pictures . The film was released in August 1958 , on a double bill with the thriller Terror from the Year 5000 . The Screaming Skull was never copyrighted , despite the presence of an onscreen copyright notice belonging to Madera Productions . As such , it has seen many DVD releases , by companies such as Alpha Video , Echo Bridge Home Entertainment , and Mill Creek Entertainment .
Erick Harper of DVD Verdict remarked that the film was " of questionable value " and opined it was a " truly awful example of drive @-@ in cinema . " He believed that the film was not " worth the time to watch " . Leonard Maltin gave the film one and half star , calling it " dreary " , but he believed that it became " reasonably eerie toward the end , with a twist that 's actually a surprise . " Authors Phil Hardy and Tom Milne wrote of the film , " Nicol , an actor here directing for the first time , lets the action spin out much too slackly , dissipating the grasp of moody tension he displayed in his unpretentiously excellent war movie , Three Came Back . "
Film historian Steven H. Scheuer graded the film with one star and a half , writing " Wife is terrorized by unexplainable happenings . Or is it inexplicable ? Both describe the film . " VideoHound 's Golden Movie Retriever by Jim Craddock also gave the film one and half stars , and TV Guide gave it two . Webber herself did not like the film , stating that " it didn 't impress me " and she " wanted to throw up " after watching it . However , Nicol took a more positive stance , saying : " I liked it ; it had some nice dolly shots , a good atmosphere . So I was happy with that ; it was a nice change from the films I 'd been doing . "
The Screaming Skull was featured in a ninth season episode of Mystery Science Theater 3000 , a comedy television series which features a human and his robot creations watching bad films while providing a running commentary which mocks it . It was featured alongside an episode of The Gumby Show entitled " Robot Rumpus " . Series writer Bill Corbett disliked the film , saying that " making someone watch this even once is specifically outlawed by the Geneva Convention " .
= = Legacy = =
Though it is never credited , the film is based on Francis Marion Crawford 's classic horror story of the same title , first published around 1906 . Crawford 's inspiration for the tale , in turn , came from the folklore surrounding the so @-@ called " screaming skull " that was kept on display at Bettiscomb Manor in Dorset , England . The actual skull that inspired both the story and the movie is said to be that of a black slave whose request for burial in his native country was denied following his death and was subsequently followed by strange occurrences and unexplainable shrieking noises that emanated from the wooden box in which the skull was kept . The death @-@ mask on Marian 's tombstone is a reproduction of the famous " l 'Inconnue de la Seine " , reputed to be the face of a young French suicide who , like the deceased wife in the film , died in the water .
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= Christianity in Medieval Scotland =
Christianity in Medieval Scotland includes all aspects of Christianity in the modern borders of Scotland in the Middle Ages . Christianity was probably introduced to what is now Lowland Scotland by Roman soldiers stationed in the north of the province of Britannia . After the collapse of Roman authority in the fifth century , Christianity is presumed to have survived among the British enclaves in the south of what is now Scotland , but retreated as the pagan Anglo @-@ Saxons advanced . Scotland was largely converted by Irish missions associated with figures such as St Columba , from the fifth to the seventh centuries . These missions founded monastic institutions and collegiate churches that served large areas . Scholars have identified a distinctive form of Celtic Christianity , in which abbots were more significant than bishops , attitudes to clerical celibacy were more relaxed and there were significant differences in practice with Roman Christianity , particularly the form of tonsure and the method of calculating Easter , although most of these issues had been resolved by the mid @-@ seventh century . After the reconversion of Scandinavian Scotland in the tenth century , Christianity under papal authority was the dominant religion of the kingdom .
In the Norman period , from the eleventh to the thirteenth centuries , the Scottish church underwent a series of reforms and transformations . With royal and lay patronage , a clearer parochial structure based around local churches was developed . Large numbers of new monastic foundations , which followed continental forms of reformed monasticism , began to predominate . The Scottish church also established its independence from England , developing a clear diocesan structure and becoming a " special daughter of the see of Rome " , but continued to lack Scottish leadership in the form of Archbishops .
In the late Middle Ages the problems of schism in the Catholic Church allowed the Scottish Crown to gain greater influence over senior appointments and two archbishoprics had been established by the end of the fifteenth century . Historians have discerned a decline in traditional monastic life in the late Middle Ages , but the mendicant orders of friars grew , particularly in the expanding burghs , emphasised preaching and ministering to the population . New saints and cults of devotion also proliferated . Despite problems over the number and quality of clergy after the Black Death in the fourteenth century , and evidence of heresy in the fifteenth century , the Church in Scotland remained stable before the Reformation in the sixteenth century .
= = Early Middle Ages = =
= = = Early Christianisation = = =
Before the Middle Ages , most of the population of what is now Scotland probably practised a form of Celtic polytheism . Evidence of Christian symbols and the destruction of the shrines of other religions , suggest that Roman occupation brought Christianity to the north of Britannia ( the name they gave to the province under their control in the southern part of the island ) . From there it may have spread to parts of what they called Caledonia ( roughly corresponding to what is now Scotland ) . After the collapse of Roman authority in the early fifth century , four major circles of influence emerged in Northern Britain . In the east were the Picts , whose kingdoms eventually stretched from the river Forth to Shetland . In the west were the Gaelic ( Goidelic ) -speaking people of Dál Riata , who had close links with Ireland , from where they brought with them the name Scots . In the south were the British ( Brythonic @-@ speaking ) descendants of the peoples of the Roman @-@ influenced kingdoms of " The Old North " , the most powerful and longest surviving of which was the Kingdom of Strathclyde . Finally , there were the English or " Angles " , Germanic invaders who had overrun much of southern Britain and held the Kingdom of Bernicia ( later the northern part of Northumbria ) , which reached into what are now the Borders of Scotland in the south @-@ east . While the Picts and Scots would have remained pagan , most scholars presume that Christianity would have survived after the departure of the Romans among the Brythonic enclaves , but retreated as the pagan Anglo @-@ Saxons advanced .
The Christianisation of Scotland was carried out by Irish @-@ Scots missionaries and to a lesser extent those from Rome and England . Richard Fletcher argued that motivations may have included the example of St. Patrick , the idea of Peregrinatio and a growing interest in evangelism . In the sixth century missionaries from Ireland were operating on the British mainland . This movement is traditionally associated with the figures of St Ninian , St Kentigern and St Columba . Ninian is now regarded as a later construct and may have been the result of scribal confusion with the Irish saint Finnian . There was a church dedicated to him at Whithorn in the sixth century and from there St Kentigern seems to have created a new centre of worship at Govan or Inchinnan , from where Christian influence extended across the Strathclyde region . St Columba was probably a disciple of Finnian . He left Ireland after being exiled , and founded the monastery at Iona off the west coast of Scotland in 563 . From there missions were carried out to western Argyll and the islands around Mull . Later the influence of Iona would extend to the Hebrides . In the seventh century , St. Aidan went from Iona to found a church at Lindisfarne off the east coast of Northumbria . The influence of Lindisfarne would spread through the kingdom of Northumbria into what is now south @-@ east Scotland . The result was a series of overlapping and informally organised churches . Iona emerged as the most important religious centre , partly as a result of the work of Adomnan , who was abbot there from 679 to 704 . Although it is unclear whether the historic Columba did conduct missions outside of a small part of Dál Riata , Adomnan 's Life of St. Columba elevated him to become the apostle of North Britain in general .
The means and speed by which the Picts converted to Christianity is uncertain . The process may have begun early . Evidence for this includes the fact that St. Patrick , active in the fifth century , referred in a letter to " apostate Picts " , indicating that they had previously been Christian , but had abandoned the faith . In addition the poem Y Gododdin , set in the early sixth century and probably written in what is now Scotland , does not remark on the Picts as pagans . Conversion of the Pictish élite seems likely to have run over a considerable period , beginning in the fifth century and not complete until the seventh and conversion of the general population may have stretched into the eighth century .
Among the key indicators of Christianisation are cemeteries containing long cists which are generally east @-@ west in orientation . These cemeteries are suspected , or known to be Christian , because of their proximity to a church , or because of Christian inscriptions found in them . They are found for between the end of the Roman era in the early fifth century and the twelfth century . They are concentrated strongly in eastern Scotland south of the River Tay , in the modern East and Borders of Scotland . Most scholars agree that the place @-@ name element eccles- , from the Brythonic word for church , represents evidence of the British church of the Roman and immediate post @-@ Roman period . Most of these in Scotland are located in the south of the country . From the fifth and sixth centuries , inscribed stones indicate Christianity through their dedications and are spread across southern Scotland . The earliest is the so @-@ called Latinus stone of Whithorn , dating to c . 450 . In the east and north , Class II Pictish stones began to show Christian symbolism from the early eighth century .
Early church buildings may originally have been wooden , like that excavated at Whithorn , but of those for which evidence survives from this era are basic masonry @-@ built churches , beginning on the west coast and islands and spreading south and east . Early chapels tended to have square ended converging walls , similar to Irish chapels of this period . Medieval parish church architecture in Scotland was typically much less elaborate than in England , with many churches remaining simple oblongs , without transepts and aisles , and often without towers . In the Highlands they were often even simpler , many built of rubble masonry and sometimes indistinguishable from the outside from houses or farm buildings .
= = = Celtic Christianity = = =
The Celtic Church is a term that has been used by scholars to describe a specific form of Christianity with its origins in the conversion of Ireland , traditionally associated with St. Patrick . This form of Christianity later spread to northern Britain through Iona . It is also used as a general description for the Christian establishment of northern Britain prior to the twelfth century , when new religious institutions and ideologies of primarily French origin began to take root in Scotland . The Celtic form of Christianity has been contrasted with that derived from missions from Rome , which reached southern England in 587 under the leadership of St. Augustine of Canterbury . Subsequent missions from Canterbury then helped convert the Anglo @-@ Saxon kingdoms , reaching Northumbria in the early eighth century , where Iona had already begun to have a presence . As a result , Christianity in Northumbria became a mix of Celtic and Roman influences .
While Roman and Celtic Christianity were very similar in doctrine and both accepted ultimate papal authority , there were differences in practice . The most contentious were the method of calculating Easter , and the form of head shaving for priests known as tonsure . Other differences were in the rites of ordination and baptism , and in the form of service of the liturgy . In addition scholars have identified significant characteristics of the organisation of Irish and Scottish Christianity as relaxed ideas of clerical celibacy , intense secularisation of ecclesiastical institutions , and the lack of a diocesan structure . This made abbots ( or coarbs ) , rather than bishops , the most important element the church hierarchy .
In the seventh century the Northumbrian church was increasingly influenced by the Roman form of Christianity . The careers of St. Wilfred ( active from the 660s until his death in 709 ) , abbot of the monastery at Ripon and Bishop of Northumbria , and Benedict Biscop ( c . 628 – 690 ) , founder of the monasteries of Jarrow and Wearmouth , intensified ties with Rome . Wilfred was the major spokesman for the Roman case at the Synod of Whitby in 664 , which was called by king Oswiu of Northumbria to decide which form of observance would be used in his kingdom , and where he decided in favour of the Roman form of tonsure and of calculating Easter . In this period the Kingdom of Northumbria was expanding into what is now Lowland Scotland . A bishopric established at Abercorn in the region of West Lothian , is presumed to have adopted Roman forms of Christianity after the Synod of Whitby . However , the Pictish victory at the Battle of Dunnichen in 685 , ended the Northumbrian dominance of the region and the Bishop and his followers were ejected . Nechtan mac Der @-@ Ilei , king of the Picts from 706 , seems to have attempted to establish links with the church in Northumbria . Before 714 he wrote to Ceolfrith , abbot of Wearmouth , asking for a formal refutation of the Irish position over the calculation of the date of Easter and for help in building a stone church " in the manner of the Romans " . A. A. M. Duncan has suggested that there was a " Romanising group " among Nechtan 's clergy , perhaps led by Bishop Curitan , who took the name Latin name Boniface . This is also suggested by the presence of a church at Rosemarkie in Ross and Cromarty , dedicated to St Peter , seen as the first Bishop of Rome , by the early eighth century , and subsequent similar dedications in Pictish territory .
By the mid @-@ eighth century , Iona and Ireland had accepted Roman practices . Iona 's place as the centre of Scottish Christianity was disrupted by the arrival of the Vikings , first as raiders , then as conquerors . Iona was sacked by Vikings 795 and 802 . In 806 68 monks were killed and the next year the abbot withdrew to Kells in Ireland , taking the relics of St. Columba with him . There were periodic returns of abbots and relics , often ending in more massacres . Orkney , Shetland , Western Isles and the Hebrides eventually fell to the Pagan Norsemen , curtailing the influence of the church in the Highlands and Islands . The threat posed by the Vikings may have forced a union between the kingdoms of Dál Riata and the Picts under Kenneth mac Alpin , traditionally dated to 843 . In 849 , according to the Annals of Ulster the abbot of Iona once again took Columba 's relics to Ireland , but the earliest version of the Chronicles of the Kings of Scots says that in the same year they were removed by Kenneth mac Alpin , to a church he had built , probably at Dunkeld , perhaps indicating that the relics were divided . The abbot of the new monastery at Dunkeld emerged as the Bishop of the new combined Kingdom of Alba , which would subsequently come to be known as the Kingdom of Scotland .
= = = Early monasticism = = =
While there were a series of reforms of monasticism in continental Europe and England , particularly those associated with Cluny in France from the tenth century , Scotland remained largely unaffected these until the late eleventh century . Physically Scottish monasteries differed significantly from those on the continent , and were often an isolated collection of wooden huts surrounded by a wall . The Irish architectural influence can be seen in surviving round towers at Brechin and Abernethy . Some early Scottish establishments had dynasties of abbots , who were often secular clergy with families , most famously at Dunkeld and Brechin ; but these also existed across Scotland north of the Forth , as at Portmahomack , Mortlach , and Abernethy . Perhaps in reaction to this secularisation , a reforming movement of monks called Céli Dé ( lit . " vassals of God " ) , anglicised as culdees , began in Ireland and spread to Scotland in the late eighth and early ninth centuries . Some Céli Dé took vows of chastity and poverty and while some lived individually as hermits , others lived beside or within existing monasteries . In most cases , even after the introduction of new forms of reformed monasticism from the eleventh century , these Céli Dé were not replaced and the tradition continued in parallel with the new foundations until the thirteenth century .
Scottish monasticism played a major part in the Hiberno @-@ Scottish mission , by which Scottish and Irish clergy undertook missions to the expanding Frankish Empire . They founded monasteries , often called Schottenklöster ( meaning Gaelic monasteries in German ) , most of which became Benedictine establishments in what is now Germany . Scottish monks , such as St Cathróe of Metz , became local saints in the region .
= = High Middle Ages = =
= = = Conversion of Scandinavian Scotland = = =
While the official conversion of Scandinavian Scotland took place at the end of the tenth century , there is evidence that Christianity had already made inroads into the Viking controlled Highland and Islands . There are a large number of isles called Pabbay or Papa in the Western and Northern Isles , which may indicate a " hermit 's " or " priest 's isle " from this period . Changes in patterns of grave goods and Viking place names using -kirk also suggest that the Christianity had begun to spread before the official conversion . According to the Orkneyinga Saga , not written down until around 1230 , the Northern Isles were Christianised by Olav Tryggvasson , king of Norway , in 995 when he stopped at South Walls on his way from Ireland to Norway . The King summoned the local jarl Sigurd the Stout and said " I order you and all your subjects to be baptised . If you refuse , I 'll have you killed on the spot and I swear I will ravage every island with fire and steel " . The story may be apocryphal , but the islands became officially Christian , receiving their own bishop in the early eleventh century . The bishopric appears to have been under the authority of the Archbishops of York and of Hamburg @-@ Bremen at different points before the twelfth century and from then until 1472 it was subordinate to the Archbishop of Nidaros ( today 's Trondheim ) . Elsewhere in Scandinavian Scotland the record is less clear . There was a Bishop of Iona until the late tenth century , followed by a gap of more than a century , possibly filled by the Bishops of Orkney , before the appointment of the first Bishop of Mann in 1079 . One of the major effects of the conversion of the Vikings was to bring an end to plundering raids on Christian sites , which may have allowed them to recover some of their status as cultural and intellectual centres . It also probably curbed the excesses of Viking violence and led to a more settled society in northern Scotland .
= = = Reformed monasticism = = =
The introduction of continental forms of monasticism to Scotland is associated with Saxon princess Queen Margaret ( c . 1045 – 93 ) , the second wife of Máel Coluim III ( r . 1058 – 93 ) , although her exact role is unclear . It is known that she was in communication with Lanfranc , Archbishop of Canterbury , and he provided a few monks for a new Benedictine abbey at Dunfermline ( c . 1070 ) . Subsequent foundations under Margaret 's sons , Edgar ( r . 1097 – 1107 ) , Alexander ( r . 1107 – 24 ) and particularly David I ( r . 1124 – 53 ) , tended to be of the reformed type that followed the lead set by Cluny Abbey in the Loire from the late tenth century . Most belonged to the new religious orders that originated in France in the eleventh and twelfth centuries . These stressed the original Benedictine virtues of poverty , chastity and obedience , but also contemplation and service of the Mass and were followed in various forms by reformed Benedictine , Augustinian and Cistercian houses . This period also saw the introduction of more sophisticated forms of church architecture that had become common on the Continent and in England , known collectively as Romanesque . These used rectangular ashlar blocks that allowed massive reinforced walls and round arches that could bear the weight of rounded barrel vault roofs and could incorporate refined architectural moulding and detailing .
The Augustinians , dedicated to the Order of Saint Augustine and originally founded in northern Italy in the eleventh century , established their first priory in Scotland at Scone , with the sponsorship by Alexander I in 1115 . By the early thirteenth century Augustinians had settled alongside , taken over or reformed Céli Dé establishments at St Andrews , St Serf 's Inch , Inchcolm , Inchmahome , Inchaffray , Restenneth and Iona , and had created numerous new establishments , such as Holyrood Abbey . The Cistercians , originating from the village of Cîteaux , near Dijon in eastern France , achieved two important Scottish foundations , at Melrose ( 1136 ) and Dundrennan ( 1142 ) , and the Tironensians , named after the location of the mother abbey Tiron Abbey near Chartres in France , achieved foundations at Selkirk , then Kelso , Arbroath , Lindores and Kilwinning . Cluniacs founded an abbey at Paisley , the Premonstratensians , originating at Prémontré near Laon in Picardy , had foundations at Whithorn and the Valliscaulians , named after their first monastery at Val @-@ des @-@ Choux in Burgundy , at Pluscarden . The military orders entered Scotland under David I , with the Knights Templer founding Balantrodoch in Midlothian and the Knights Hospitallers being given Torphichen , West Lothian .
= = = Cult of Saints = = =
Like every other Christian country , one of the main features of Medieval Scotland was the Cult of Saints . Saints of Irish origin who were particularly revered included various figures called St Faelan and St. Colman , and saints Findbar and Finan . Columba remained a major figure into the fourteenth century and a new foundation was endowed by William I ( r . 1165 – 1214 ) at Arbroath Abbey . His relics , contained in the Monymusk Reliquary , were handed over to the Abbot 's care . Regional saints remained important to local identities . In Strathclyde the most important saint was St Kentigern , whose cult ( under the pet name St. Mungo ) became focused in Glasgow . In Lothian it was St Cuthbert , whose relics were carried across Northumbria after Lindisfarne was sacked by the Vikings before being installed in Durham Cathedral . After his martyrdom around 1115 , a cult emerged in Orkney , Shetland and northern Scotland around Magnus Erlendsson , Earl of Orkney . One of the most important cults in Scotland , that of St Andrew , was established on the east coast at Kilrymont by the Pictish kings as early as the eighth century . The shrine , which from the twelfth century was said to have contained the relics of the saint brought to Scotland by Saint Regulus , began to attract pilgrims from across Scotland , but also from England and further away . By the twelfth century the site at Kilrymont had become known simply as St. Andrews and it became increasingly associated with Scottish national identity and the royal family . Its bishop would supplant that of Dunkeld as the most important in the kingdom and would begin to be referred to as Bishop of Alba . The site was renewed as a focus for devotion with the patronage of Queen Margaret , who also became important after her canonisation in 1250 and after the ceremonial transfer of her remains to Dunfermline Abbey , as one of the most revered national saints . In the late Middle Ages the " international " cults , particularity those centred on the Virgin Mary and Christ , but also St Joseph , St. Anne , the Three Kings and the Apostles , would become more significant in Scotland .
= = = Organisation = = =
Before the twelfth century , in contrast to England , there were few parish churches in Scotland . Churches had collegiate bodies of clergy who served over a wide area , often tied together by devotion to a particular missionary saint . From this period local lay landholders , perhaps following the example of David I , began to adopt the continental practice of building churches on their property for the local population and endowing them with land and a priest . The foundation of these churches began in the south , spreading to the north @-@ east and then the west , being almost universal by the first survey of the Scottish Church for papal taxation in 1274 . The administration of these parishes was often given over to local monastic institutions in a process known as appropriation . By the time of the Reformation in the mid @-@ sixteenth century 80 per cent of Scottish parishes were appropriated .
Before the Norman period , Scotland had little clear diocesan structure . There were bishoprics based on various ancient churches , but some are very obscure in the records and there appear to be long vacancies . From around 1070 , in the reign of Malcolm III , there was a " Bishop of Alba " resident at St. Andrews , but it is not clear what authority he had over the other bishops . After the Norman Conquest of England , the Archbishops of both Canterbury and York each claimed superiority over the Scottish church . When David I secured the appointment of John , a Tironensian monk , as Bishop of Glasgow around 1113 , Thurstan Archbishop of York demanded the new bishop 's submission . A long running dispute followed , with John travelling to Rome to unsuccessfully appeal his case before pope Calixtus II . John continued to withhold his submission despite papal pressure to do so . A new bishopric of Carlisle was created in what is now northern England , claimed as part of the Glasgow diocese and as territory by David I. In 1126 a new bishop was appointed to the southern Diocese of Galloway based at Whithorn , who offered his submission to York , a practice which would continue until the fifteenth century . David sent John to Rome to lobby for the Bishop of St. Andrew 's to be made an independent archbishop . At one point David and his bishops threatened to transfer their allegiance to the anti @-@ pope Anacletus II . When Bishop John died in 1147 David was able to appoint another Tironensian monk , Herbert abbot of Kelso , as his successor and submission to York continued to be withheld . The church in Scotland attained independent status after the Papal Bull of Celestine III ( Cum universi , 1192 ) by which all Scottish bishoprics except Galloway became formally independent of York and Canterbury . However , unlike Ireland which had been granted four Archbishoprics in the same century , Scotland received no Archbishop and the whole Ecclesia Scoticana , with individual Scottish bishoprics ( except Whithorn / Galloway ) , became the " special daughter of the see of Rome " . It was run by special councils made up of all the Scottish bishops , with the bishop of St Andrews emerging as the most important figure .
= = Late Middle Ages = =
= = = Church and politics = = =
Late Medieval religion had its political aspects . Robert I carried the brecbennoch ( or Monymusk reliquary ) , said to contain the remains of St. Columba , into battle at Bannockburn . In the Papal Schism ( 1378 – 1417 ) , the Scottish church and crown sided with the Avignon Popes , beginning with Clement VII , along with France and other countries , while nations including England and the Holy Roman Empire sided with the Roman popes beginning with Urban VI . In 1383 , Clement VII appointed Scotland 's first cardinal , Walter Wardlaw , Bishop of Glasgow . The withdrawal of France from support of Clement 's successor Benedict XIII created problems for Scottish clergy attending French universities and necessitated the creation of Scotland 's first university at St. Andrews from 1411 – 13 . Scotland was one of the last churches to abandon Benedict in favour of the compromise pope , Martin V , proposed by the Council of Constance ( 1414 – 28 ) . In the subsequent debates over Conciliarism and the authority of the pope , between those who backed the church council as the ultimate authority in the Church , and those that backed the papacy , divisions in loyalty mirrored political divisions in the country and Church . King James I and his chancellor John Cameron , Archbishop of Glasgow , became conciliarists and William Croyser , Archdeacon of Teviotdale , the leading opponent of Cameron , became a papalist . After his accession , James II backed the Pope , while the Douglases , who had dominated politics in the years after James I 's death , backed the conciliar movement .
As elsewhere in Europe , the collapse of papal authority in the Papal Schism allowed the Scottish Crown to gain effective control of major ecclesiastical appointments within the kingdom . This de facto authority over appointments was formally recognised by the Papacy in 1487 . This led to the placement of clients and relatives of the king in key positions , including James IV 's illegitimate son Alexander , who was nominated as Archbishop of St. Andrews at the age of 11 , intensifying royal influence and also opening the Church to accusations of venality and nepotism . James IV used his pilgrimages to Tain and Whithorn to help bring the respective regions of Ross and Galloway , which lay on the edges of the kingdom , under royal authority . Relationships between the Scottish Crown and the Papacy were generally good , with James IV receiving tokens of papal favour . In 1472 St Andrews became the first archbishopric in the Scottish church , to be followed by Glasgow in 1492 .
= = = Popular religion = = =
Traditional Protestant historiography tended to stress the corruption and unpopularity of the late Medieval Scottish church , but more recent research has indicated the ways in which it met the spiritual needs of different social groups . Historians have discerned a decline of monastic life in this period , with many religious houses keeping smaller numbers of monks , and those remaining often abandoning communal living for a more individual and secular lifestyle . The rate of new monastic endowments from the nobility also declined in the fifteenth century . In contrast , the burghs saw the flourishing of mendicant orders of friars in the later fifteenth century , who , unlike the older monastic orders , placed an emphasis on preaching and ministering to the population . The order of Observant Friars were organised as a Scottish province from 1467 and the older Franciscans and the Dominicans were recognised as separate provinces in the 1480s .
In most Scottish burghs , in contrast to English towns where churches and parishes tended to proliferate , there was usually only one parish church , but as the doctrine of Purgatory gained importance in the period , the number of chapelries , priests and masses for the dead within them , designed to speed the passage of souls to Heaven , grew rapidly . The number of altars dedicated to saints , who could intercede in this process , also grew dramatically , with St. Mary 's in Dundee having perhaps 48 and St Giles ' in Edinburgh over 50 . The number of saints celebrated in Scotland also proliferated , with about 90 being added to the missal used in St Nicholas church in Aberdeen . New cults of devotion connected with Jesus and the Virgin Mary began to reach Scotland in the fifteenth century , including the Five Wounds , the Holy Blood and the Holy Name of Jesus . There were also new religious feasts , including celebrations of the Presentation , the Visitation and Mary of the Snows .
In the early fourteenth century the Papacy managed to minimise the problem of clerical pluralism , by which clerics held two or more livings , which elsewhere resulted in parish churches being without priests , or serviced by poorly trained and paid vicars and clerks . However , the number of poor clerical livings and a general shortage of clergy in Scotland , particularly after the Black Death , meant that in the fifteenth century the problem intensified . As a result , parish clergy were largely drawn from the lower and less educated ranks of the profession , leading to frequent complaints about their standards of education or ability . Although there is little clear evidence that standards were declining , this would be one of the major grievances of the Reformation . Heresy , in the form of Lollardry , began to reach Scotland from England and Bohemia in the early fifteenth century . Lollards were followers of John Wycliffe ( c . 1330 – 84 ) and later Jan Hus ( c . 1369 – 1415 ) , who called for reform of the Church and rejected its doctrine on the Eucharist . Despite evidence of a number of burnings of heretics and limited popular support for its anti @-@ sacramental elements , it probably remained a small movement . There were also further attempts to differentiate Scottish liturgical practice from that in England , with a printing press established under royal patent in 1507 to replace the English Sarum Use for services .
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= Music of the Parasite Eve series =
The music of Parasite Eve , a 1998 role @-@ playing video game based on the novel of the same name by Hideaki Sena , was composed by Yoko Shimomura , and was one of her early popular successes . The music for its 2001 sequel Parasite Eve II was composed by Naoshi Mizuta and arranged by Hiroshi Nakajima . The 2010 spin @-@ off title The 3rd Birthday was composed for by Shimomura , Mitsuto Suzuki and Tsuyoshi Sekito . Shimomura 's work was described by herself as experimental , and incorporated multiple musical genres including opera music . The score for Parasite Eve was recorded at the Andora Studios in Los Angeles . For Parasite Eve II , Mizuta spent a year and a half on the project , using the game 's scenario and visuals as references and taking inspiration from multiple film genres . It was Mizuta 's first project after transferring from Capcom to Square Enix ( then Square ) . For The 3rd Birthday , Shimomura worked with Suzuki and Sekito to create a score reminiscent of Parasite Eve , while Japanese rock band Superfly provided the theme song " Eyes on Me " .
The original Parasite Eve Original Soundtrack album was released in May 1998 through DigiCube . Shimomura also produced an arrange album , Parasite Eve Remixes , which was released through DigiCube in July 1998 . The soundtrack album for the second game , Parasite Eve II Original Soundtrack , was released through DigiCube in December 1999 . It also released in North America through Tokyopop Soundtrax in September 2000 . The third game 's soundtrack album , The 3rd Birthday Original Soundtrack , released in December 2010 through Square Enix 's music label . The first two game 's original soundtracks were reissued through Square Enix in January 2010 due to popular demand , and a limited edition combined album titled Parasite Eve I & II Original Soundtrack Box was released alongside them . While some albums have received mixed responses from critics , the music of the Parasite Eve series has generally received positive reviews , with the score for the first game bringing Shimomura international acclaim .
= = Series overview = =
The Parasite Eve video game series is based on the 1995 science fiction novel of the same name by Japanese author Hideaki Sena . The role @-@ playing video game Parasite Eve , was released in 1998 for the PlayStation . Billed as a " cinematic RPG " , it was developed by a team of Japanese and North American staff with a western release in mind . Its 1999 sequel , the action role @-@ playing game Parasite Eve II , was designed to be similar to games from the Resident Evil survival horror series . While Parasite Eve II did not leave potential for a sequel , the series was brought back in the form of The 3rd Birthday , a 2010 spin @-@ off for the PlayStation Portable . Initially designed for mobile devices , it was shifted onto the PSP and designed as a disconnected game focusing on the series ' main protagonist Aya Brea . All three games were primarily developed by Square Enix .
= = Parasite Eve = =
= = = Parasite Eve Original Soundtrack = = =
The music for Parasite Eve was composed by Yoko Shimomura , who would later become a well @-@ established video game composer through her work on the Kingdom Hearts series . Additional arrangements were done by Shigeo Tamaru . Despite her previous work as lead composer on Super Mario RPG , Parasite Eve became Shimomura 's breakout project and garnered her international fame . During her work on Parasite Eve , Shimomura spent time in the United States , which was where much of the game 's staff came from . Because of this , Shimomura remembered the game as her most challenging project . She wanted the music to be experimental , not falling into ambient or techno classifications . One of her main goals was to create something " inorganic " and recognizable as a product of Square Enix ( then Square ) . Until Parasite Eve , Shimomura had written music in a straightforward manner that reflected her then @-@ current state of mind , but this time she restrained herself and took a more " emotionless " approach . She felt that this would best represent the game 's atmosphere and Aya 's stoic attitude . Ultimately , she felt that Parasite Eve was an experimental work in many ways . Due to its prevalence in the story , Shimomura used opera music , but as typical opera music did not translate well into battle themes , Shimomura added different rhythms : these rhythms were inspired when some of the game 's American staff took her to a nightclub and she heard the background music there . The music recording took place at the Andora Studios in Los Angeles .
Parasite Eve was the first of her projects to include a vocal theme , the ending theme " Somnia Memorias " . This was because the PlayStation system was the first to have sufficient processing power for this to be possible . For the vocalist , Shimomura avoided using someone well known . " Somnia Memorias " was sung by Shani Rigsbee , while the vocals for the orchestrated versions of " Influence of Deep " and " Se il Mio Amore Sta Vincino " were provided by Judith Siirila . " Somnia Memorias " was translated and adapted from Japanese into Latin by Raul Ferrando , while " Se il Mio Amore Sta Vincino " was translated by Daniella Spagnolo . The lyrics for all vocal pieces were written by Shimomura . The track " I Hear a Voice Asking Me to Awaken " was an arrangement of Wachet auf , ruft uns die Stimme , BWV 140 by Johann Sebastian Bach .
The two @-@ disc album Parasite Eve Original Soundtrack was released through DigiCube on May 21 , 1998 under the catalog number SSCX @-@ 10020 . Due to popular demand from fans , a reprint was issued through the Square Enix label on January 26 , 2011 under the catalog number SQEX @-@ 10222 / 3 . The music received generally positive reviews from music critics , and helped establish Shimomura as a popular composer with western video game fans .
= = = Parasite Eve Remixes = = =
Parasite Eve Remixes is a ten @-@ track album , featuring remixed versions of themes from Parasite Eve . The remixes were done by Shimomura , Tamaru , Hidenori Iwasaki and Keichi Takahashi . Multiple DJs also contributed , including Tomo , QUADRA , Dan K , Tribal Masters , Kay Nakayama , and Dummy Run . According to Shimomura , the album came about when someone suggested to her creating full remixes of themes rather than making simple rearrangements . Shimomura was in charge of extending and remixing " Aya 's Theme " , which was the main theme for Parasite Eve . The album was released through DigiCube on July 30 , 1998 under the catalog number SSCX @-@ 10023 . Reviews of the album were mixed , with critics saying that it would not appeal to many and finding some of the remixes odd , repetitive or overly chaotic .
= = Other albums = =
= = = Parasite Eve II Original Soundtrack = = =
The music of Parasite Eve II was written , arranged and produced by Naoshi Mizuta . Parasite Eve II was Mizuta 's first project as lead composer at Square after transferring from Capcom . He spent a year and a half working on the soundtrack , frequently referencing the game 's scenario and visuals . He was also influenced by multiple unspecified films from multiple genres including action films . He matched his music to the scenario , characters and environments , since he desired to stir the players emotions without distracting from the game . Many of his tracks were created on request , but he otherwise had a high amount of creative freedom . Multiple tracks were remixes and rearrangements of Shimomura 's original music for Parasite Eve : according to Mizuta , the arrangements were easy due to the original tracks ' strength . In a later interview , Mizuta called his work on Parasite Eve II very different from his later work on Final Fantasy XI and The 4 Heroes of Light . Guitar elements for the tracks " Forbidden Power " and " Douglas ' Blues " were performed by Tsuyoshi Sekito and Yuji Isogawa respectively . Arrangements for multiple tracks were done by Hiroshi Nakajima , who later felt that he intentionally " betrayed " Mizuta 's work while creating the arrangements . Additional mixing was done by Hiroshi Nakajima and Kenji Nagashima . Sound samples used in some tracks were taken from the Q Ups Art Sonic Images Library CD release .
Parasite Eve II Original Soundtrack was released through DigiCube on December 18 , 1999 under the catalog number SSCX @-@ 10038 . The soundtrack was released in North America through Tokyopop Soundtrax . This edition was released on September 12 , 2000 under the catalog number TPCD @-@ 0200 @-@ 2 . Due to popular demand from fans , a reprint was issued through the Square Enix label on January 26 , 2011 under the catalog number SQEX @-@ 10224 / 5 . Reception of the music was far less positive than for Parasite Eve , with reviewers generally citing Mizuta 's work as weaker than Shimomura 's .
= = = The 3rd Birthday Original Soundtrack = = =
The music for The 3rd Birthday was composed by Mitsuto Suzuki and Tsuyoshi Sekito , with additional work by Yoko Shimomura . Shimomura was involved from an early stage , when The 3rd Birthday was still a mobile game . When she was originally asked to compose for the title , she was involved with a number of other projects which made handling the entire score difficult . When asked whether she wanted to work with anyone on the composition , she suggested Suzuki and Sekito . The general instruction was to follow the pattern used by the music for Parasite Eve , with Suzuki and Sekito handling the majority of tracks , going so far as referring to the songs from the original Parasite Eve when handling remixes of old themes . In keeping with the game 's other development goals , Shimomura wanted to alter some of the established music , although she asked the team to include familiar themes from earlier games for fans . When she started out , she knew nothing about the game 's story , but became familiar with it later in development and also found the project less challenging than she initially anticipated . Suzuki was responsible for a large amount of track mixing . Sekito was mostly involved with choosing and helping with instrumentation , in particular whether to include symphonic music . The composers had a relatively high degree of freedom , but they also had problems when composing some tracks that did not fit into selected scenes .
Re @-@ orchestrations of two pieces of classical music , " Sleepers Wake " by Johann Sebastian Bach and popular Christmas song " Joy to the World " , were used by Suzuki and Shimomura respectively to represent key moments and motifs within the game . The order of songs in the game was created to reflect the situation in a level . These variations were emphasized during mixing , while they also needed to adjust the mixing and track length based on the game as a whole . For the game 's theme song , Square Enix collaborated with Japanese rock band Superfly . The resultant theme song " Eyes on Me " , described as a " standard love song " , was specially composed by the band for the game . It was the band 's first video game theme song .
The 3rd Birthday Original Soundtrack was released on December 22 , 2010 through Square Enix 's music label , under the catalog number SQEX @-@ 10217 ~ 19 . " Eyes on Me " was released as a separate single alongside another of Superfly 's songs . Upon release , it peaked at # 5 in the Oricon music charts , and remained in the charts for eleven weeks . The album received positive reviews from music journalists , with critics generally calling it a high quality album with strong music overall . Reviews of " Eyes on Me " were negative , with reviewers faulting both the quality of the song and its appropriateness within the game 's context .
= = = Parasite Eve I & II Original Soundtrack Box = = =
Parasite Eve I & II Original Soundtrack Box is a combined album featuring the re @-@ releases of the first two Parasite Eve soundtracks . It was released on January 26 , 2011 . Reviews of the boxset were mixed : while some considered both soundtracks to be good and contrast each other , others considered Parasite Eve II to be weaker and a detriment to the experience .
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= 1893 Alabama Crimson White football team =
The 1893 Alabama Crimson White football team represented the University of Alabama in the 1893 college football season . The team was led by head coach Eli Abbott and played their home games at Lakeview Park in Birmingham and The Quad in Tuscaloosa , Alabama . In what was the second season of Alabama football , the team finished with a record of zero wins and four losses ( 0 – 4 ) .
Although they finished their inaugural year with a .500 record , head coach E. B. Beaumont was fired and replaced with Abbott prior to the start of the season . The 1893 squad opened the season with a pair of losses against the Birmingham Athletic Club , first in Tuscaloosa and then again a month later at Birmingham . The Crimson White was then shutout by Sewanee in their first game against an out @-@ of @-@ state opponent , and then closed the season with a 40 – 16 loss in the Iron Bowl against Auburn at Montgomery . The winless season was the first of only three in the history of the Alabama program .
= = Background = =
In their inaugural season , Alabama was led by head coach E. B. Beaumont to an overall record of two wins and two losses ( 2 – 2 ) . During the season they defeated Birmingham High School , split a pair against the Birmingham Athletic Club and lost to Auburn in their final game of the season . After the completion of the season , Beaumont was fired as head coach and replaced with former player Eli Abbott for the 1893 campaign . The team was called the " Crimson White " from 1893 to 1906 , when their name changed to the currently used " Crimson Tide . "
= = Schedule = =
Source : Rolltide.com : 1893 Alabama football schedule
= = Game notes = =
= = = Birmingham Athletic Club ( October ) = = =
In the first ever game played in Tuscaloosa , the Birmingham Athletic Club ( B.A.C. ) defeated Alabama 4 – 0 at The Quad on the campus of the University of Alabama . In a game controlled by both defenses , the only points came on an Athletics touchdown in the second half . With the loss , this and later the 1895 and 1955 squads represented the only seasons Alabama failed to win a game at Tuscaloosa during a season that at least one game was played there .
= = = Birmingham Athletic Club ( November ) = = =
In a rematch against the B.A.C. a month later at Lakeview Park in Birmingham , Alabama lost their second game of the season by a final score of 10 – 8 . After they trailed 4 – 0 at the end of the first half , Alabama scored their first points of the season on a William Walker touchdown run early in the second half and tied the game 4 – 4 . The Athletics retook a 10 – 4 lead when they scored a touchdown and converted the extra point , but then Walker scored his second touchdown of the game that made the final score 10 – 8 after a missed extra point . The second loss against the B.A.C. marked the only time in Alabama football history the same team defeated the Crimson Tide twice in the same season .
= = = Sewanee = = =
Against their first @-@ ever opponent from outside the state of Alabama , Sewanee shut out the Crimson White 20 – 0 at Lakeview Park . The Tigers took a 4 – 0 lead in the 22nd minute of the first half when Wilson scored on a short touchdown run . Early in the second half , Sewanee extended their lead to 8 – 0 when Norman scored on a 25 @-@ yard touchdown run behind the flying wedge formation . Nelson then scored the final two Tiger touchdowns on runs of 45 and one @-@ yard for the 20 – 0 victory . Sewanee later became one of Alabama 's biggest rivals in the early decades of the football program .
= = = Auburn = = =
After playing their previous game at Birmingham 's Lakeview Park , the city of Montgomery gave Alabama and the Agricultural & Mechanical College of Alabama ( now known as Auburn University ) $ 500 to play each other at Riverside Park . In the second edition of what has since become known as the Iron Bowl , Auburn won 40 – 16 . Auburn scored first when Rufus Dorsey scored on a 10 @-@ yard touchdown run and kicked the extra point for a 6 – 0 lead . Alabama responded on their next possession when John Burgett scored on a 35 @-@ yard touchdown run . However G. H. Kyser missed the extra point and Auburn still held a 6 – 4 lead . Auburn then extended their lead to 18 – 4 at halftime after a pair of touchdown from J. C. Dunham .
Alabama opened the second half with their second touchdown of the game . William Walker scored on a six @-@ yard touchdown run and cut the Tigers ' lead to 18 – 10 . Auburn responded with touchdown runs by Snow Perkins , Arthur Redding and J. V. Brown that made the score 34 – 10 . After a David Grayson touchdown for Alabama , Auburn responded with their final points of the game on a one @-@ yard Dorsey run that made the final score 40 – 16 . Governor of Alabama Thomas G. Jones presented a trophy to Auburn 's captain Rufus Dorsey for their victory .
= = Players = =
The following players were members of the 1893 football team according to the roster published in the 1894 edition of The Corolla , the University of Alabama yearbook .
= = Aftermath = =
With their loss to Auburn , Alabama completed the first winless season in Alabama football history , and since then they have had only two other winless seasons in 1895 and 1955 . The losses of 1893 were attributed to the small stature of the Crimson players and not to the coaching and training of the team . As such , Abbott returned as head coach for the 1894 season and led Alabama to a winning season that included their first all @-@ time win over Auburn .
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= Georgette Heyer =
Georgette Heyer / ˈheɪ.ər / ( 16 August 1902 – 4 July 1974 ) was an English historical romance and detective fiction novelist . Her writing career began in 1921 , when she turned a story for her younger brother into the novel The Black Moth . In 1925 Heyer married George Ronald Rougier , a mining engineer . The couple spent several years living in Tanganyika Territory and Macedonia before returning to England in 1929 . After her novel These Old Shades became popular despite its release during the General Strike , Heyer determined that publicity was not necessary for good sales . For the rest of her life , she refused to grant interviews , telling a friend : " My private life concerns no one but myself and my family . "
Heyer essentially established the historical romance genre and its subgenre Regency romance . Her Regencies were inspired by Jane Austen , but unlike Austen , who wrote about and for the times in which she lived , Heyer was forced to include copious information about the period so that her readers would understand the setting . To ensure accuracy , Heyer collected reference works and kept detailed notes on all aspects of Regency life . While some critics thought the novels were too detailed , others considered the level of detail to be Heyer 's greatest asset . Her meticulous nature was also evident in her historical novels ; Heyer even recreated William the Conqueror 's crossing into England for her novel The Conqueror .
Beginning in 1932 , Heyer released one romance novel and one thriller each year . Her husband often provided basic outlines for the plots of her thrillers , leaving Heyer to develop character relationships and dialogue so as to bring the story to life . Although many critics describe Heyer 's detective novels as unoriginal , others such as Nancy Wingate praise them " for their wit and comedy as well as for their well @-@ woven plots " .
Her success was sometimes clouded by problems with tax inspectors and alleged plagiarists . Heyer chose not to file lawsuits against the suspected literary thieves , but tried multiple ways of minimizing her tax liability . Forced to put aside the works she called her " magnum opus " ( a trilogy covering the House of Lancaster ) to write more commercially successful works , Heyer eventually created a limited liability company to administer the rights to her novels . She was accused several times of providing an overly large salary for herself , and in 1966 she sold the company and the rights to seventeen of her novels to Booker @-@ McConnell . Heyer continued writing until her death in July 1974 . At that time , 48 of her novels were still in print ; her last book , My Lord John , was published posthumously .
= = Early years = =
Heyer was born in Wimbledon , London , in 1902 . She was named after her father , George Heyer . Her mother , Sylvia Watkins , studied both cello and piano and was one of the top three students in her class at the Royal College of Music . Heyer 's paternal grandfather had emigrated from Russia , while her maternal grandparents owned tugboats on the River Thames .
Heyer was the eldest of three children ; her brothers George Boris ( known as Boris ) and Frank were four and nine years younger than her . For part of her childhood , the family lived in Paris , France , but they returned to England shortly after World War I broke out in 1914 . Although the family 's surname had been pronounced " higher " , the advent of war led her father to switch to the pronunciation " hair " so they would not be mistaken for Germans . During the war , her father served as a requisitions officer for the British Army in France . After the war ended he was appointed a Member of the Order of the British Empire ( MBE ) . He left the army in 1920 with the rank of captain , taught at King 's College London and sometimes wrote for The Granta .
George Heyer strongly encouraged his children to read and never forbade any book . Georgette read widely and often met with her friends Joanna Cannan and Carola Oman to discuss books . Heyer and Oman later shared their works @-@ in @-@ progress with each other and offered criticism .
When she was 17 , Heyer began a serial story to amuse her brother Boris , who suffered from a form of haemophilia and was often weak . Her father enjoyed listening to her story and asked her to prepare it for publication . His agent found a publisher for her book , and The Black Moth , about the adventures of a young man who took responsibility for his brother 's card @-@ cheating , was released in 1921 . According to her biographer Jane Aiken Hodge , the novel contained many of the elements that would become standard for Heyer 's novels , the " saturnine male lead , the marriage in danger , the extravagant wife , and the group of idle , entertaining young men " . The following year one of her contemporary short stories , " A Proposal to Cicely " , was published in Happy Magazine .
= = Marriage = =
While holidaying with her family in December 1920 , Heyer met George Ronald Rougier , who was two years her senior . The two became regular dance partners while Rougier studied at the Royal School of Mines to become a mining engineer . In the spring of 1925 , shortly after the publication of her fifth novel , they became engaged . One month later , Heyer 's father died of a heart attack . He left no pension , and Heyer assumed financial responsibility for her brothers , aged 19 and 14 . Two months after her father 's death , on 18 August , Heyer and Rougier married in a simple ceremony .
In October 1925 Rougier was sent to work in the Caucasus Mountains , partly because he had learned Russian as a child . Heyer remained at home and continued to write . In 1926 , she released These Old Shades , in which the Duke of Avon courts his own ward . Unlike her first novel , These Old Shades focused more on personal relationships than on adventure . The book appeared in the midst of the 1926 United Kingdom general strike ; as a result , the novel received no newspaper coverage , reviews , or advertising . Nevertheless , the book sold 190 @,@ 000 copies . Because the lack of publicity had not harmed the novel 's sales , Heyer refused for the rest of her life to promote her books , even though her publishers often asked her to give interviews . She once wrote to a friend that " as for being photographed at Work or in my Old World Garden , that is the type of publicity which I find nauseating and quite unnecessary . My private life concerns no one but myself and my family . "
Rougier returned home in the summer of 1926 , but within months he was sent to the East African territory of Tanganyika . Heyer joined him there the following year . They lived in a hut made of elephant grass located in the bush ; Heyer was the first white woman her servants had ever seen . While in Tanganyika , Heyer wrote The Masqueraders ; set in 1745 , the book follows the romantic adventures of siblings who pretend to be of the opposite sex in order to protect their family , all former Jacobites . Although Heyer did not have access to all of her reference material , the book contained only one anachronism : she placed the opening of White 's a year too early . She also wrote an account of her adventures , titled " The Horned Beast of Africa " , which was published in 1929 in the newspaper The Sphere .
In 1928 , Heyer followed her husband to Macedonia , where she almost died after a dentist improperly administered an anaesthetic . She insisted they return to England before starting a family . The following year Rougier left his job , making Heyer the primary breadwinner . After a failed experiment running a gas , coke , and lighting company , Rougier purchased a sports shop in Horsham with money they borrowed from Heyer 's aunts . Heyer 's brother Boris lived above the shop and helped Rougier , while Heyer continued to provide the bulk of the family 's earnings with her writing .
= = Regency romances = =
Heyer 's earliest works were romance novels , most set before 1800 . In 1935 , she released Regency Buck , her first novel set in the Regency period . This bestselling novel essentially established the genre of Regency romance . Unlike other romance novels of the period , Heyer 's novels used the setting as a plot device . Many of her characters exhibited modern @-@ day sensibilities ; more conventional characters in the novels would point out the heroine 's eccentricities , such as wanting to marry for love . The books were set almost entirely in the world of the wealthy upper class and only occasionally mention poverty , religion , or politics .
Although the British Regency lasted only from 1811 to 1820 , Heyer 's romances were set between 1752 and 1825 . As noted by literary critic Kay Mussell , the books revolved around a " structured social ritual — the marriage market represented by the London season " where " all are in danger of ostracism for inappropriate behavior " . Her Regency romances were inspired by the writings of Jane Austen , whose novels were set in the same era . Austen 's works , however , were contemporary novels , describing the times in which she lived . According to Pamela Regis in her work A Natural History of the Romance Novel , because Heyer 's stories took place amidst events that had occurred over 100 years earlier , she had to include more detail on the period in order for her readers to understand it . While Austen could ignore the " minutiae of dress and decor " , Heyer included those details " to invest the novels ... with ' the tone of the time ' " . Later reviewers , such as Lillian Robinson , criticized Heyer 's " passion for the specific fact without concern for its significance " , and Marghanita Laski pointed out that " these aspects on which Heyer is so dependent for her creation of atmosphere are just those which Jane Austen ... referred to only when she wanted to show that a character was vulgar or ridiculous " . Others , including A. S. Byatt , believe that Heyer 's " awareness of this atmosphere — both of the minute details of the social pursuits of her leisured classes and of the emotional structure behind the fiction it produced — is her greatest asset " .
Determined to make her novels as accurate as possible , Heyer collected reference works and research materials to use while writing . At the time of her death she owned over 1 @,@ 000 historical reference books , including Debrett 's and an 1808 dictionary of the House of Lords . In addition to the standard historical works about the medieval and eighteenth @-@ century periods , her library included histories of snuff boxes , sign posts , and costumes . She often clipped illustrations from magazine articles and jotted down interesting vocabulary or facts onto note cards , but rarely recorded where she found the information . Her notes were sorted into categories , such as Beauty , Colours , Dress , Hats , Household , Prices , and Shops ; and even included details such as the cost of candles in a particular year . Other notebooks contained lists of phrases , covering such topics as " Food and Crockery " , " Endearments " , and " Forms of Address . " One of her publishers , Max Reinhardt , once attempted to offer editorial suggestions about the language in one of her books but was promptly informed by a member of his staff that no one in England knew more about Regency language than Heyer .
In the interests of accuracy , Heyer once purchased a letter written by the Duke of Wellington so that she could precisely employ his style of writing . She claimed that every word attributed to Wellington in An Infamous Army was actually spoken or written by him in real life . Her knowledge of the period was so extensive that Heyer rarely mentioned dates explicitly in her books ; instead , she situated the story by casually referring to major and minor events of the time .
= = Thrillers = =
In 1931 , Heyer released The Conqueror , her first novel of historical fiction to give a fictionalized account of real historical events . She researched the life of William the Conqueror thoroughly , even travelling the route that William took when crossing into England . The following year , Heyer 's writing took an even more drastic departure from her early historical romances when she released her first thriller , Footsteps in the Dark . The novel 's publication coincided with the birth of her only child , Richard George Rougier , whom she called her " most notable ( indeed peerless ) work " . Later in her life , Heyer requested that her publishers refrain from reprinting Footsteps in the Dark , saying " This work , published simultaneously with my son ... was the first of my thrillers and was perpetuated while I was , as any Regency character would have said , increasing . One husband and two ribald brothers all had fingers in it , and I do not claim it as a Major Work . "
For the next several years Heyer published one romance novel and one thriller each year . The romances were far more popular : they usually sold 115 @,@ 000 copies , while her thrillers sold 16 @,@ 000 copies . According to her son , Heyer " regarded the writing of mystery stories rather as we would regard tackling a crossword puzzle – an intellectual diversion before the harder tasks of life have to be faced " . Heyer 's husband was involved in much of her writing . He often read the proofs of her historical romances to catch any errors that she might have missed , and served as a collaborator for her thrillers . He provided the plots of the detective stories , describing the actions of characters " A " and " B " . Heyer would then create the characters and the relationships between them and bring the plot points to life . She found it difficult at times to rely on someone else 's plots ; on at least one occasion , before writing the last chapter of a book , she asked Rougier to explain once again how the murder was really committed .
Her detective stories , which , according to critic Earl F. Bargainnier , " specialize [ d ] in upper @-@ class family murders " , were known primarily for their comedy , melodrama , and romance . The comedy derived not from the action but from the personalities and dialogue of the characters . In most of these novels , all set in the time they were written , the focus relied primarily on the hero , with a lesser role for the heroine . Her early mystery novels often featured athletic heroes ; once Heyer 's husband began pursuing his lifelong dream of becoming a barrister , the novels began to feature solicitors and barristers in lead roles .
In 1935 , Heyer 's thrillers began following a pair of detectives named Superintendent Hannasyde and Sergeant ( later Inspector ) Hemingway . The two were never as popular as other contemporary fictional detectives such as Agatha Christie 's Hercule Poirot and Dorothy L. Sayers 's Lord Peter Wimsey . One of the books featuring Heyer 's characters , Death in the Stocks , was dramatized in New York City in 1937 as Merely Murder . The play focused on the comedy rather than the mystery , and it closed after three nights .
According to critic Nancy Wingate , Heyer 's detective novels , the last written in 1953 , often featured unoriginal methods , motives , and characters , with seven of them using inheritance as the motive . The novels were always set in London , a small village , or at a houseparty . Critic Erik Routley labelled many of her characters clichés , including the uneducated policeman , an exotic Spanish dancer , and a country vicar with a neurotic wife . In one of her novels , the characters ' surnames were even in alphabetical order according to the order they were introduced . According to Wingate , Heyer 's detective stories , like many of the others of the time , exhibited a distinct snobbery towards foreigners and the lower classes . Her middle @-@ class men were often crude and stupid , while the women were either incredibly practical or exhibited poor judgement , usually using poor grammar that could become vicious . Despite the stereotypes , however , Routley maintains that Heyer had " a quite remarkable gift for reproducing the brittle and ironic conversation of the upper middle class Englishwoman of that age ( immediately before 1940 ) " . Wingate further mentions that Heyer 's thrillers were known " for their wit and comedy as well as for their well @-@ woven plots " .
= = Financial problems = =
In 1939 , Rougier was called to the Bar , and the family moved first to Brighton , then to Hove , so that Rougier could easily commute to London . The following year , they sent their son to a preparatory school , creating an additional expense for Heyer . The Blitz bombing of 1940 – 41 disrupted train travel in Britain , prompting Heyer and her family to move to London in 1942 so that Rougier would be closer to his work .
After having lunch with a representative from Hodder & Stoughton , who published her detective stories , Heyer felt that her host had patronized her . The company had an option on her next book ; to make them break her contract , she wrote Penhallow , which the 1944 Book Review Digest described as " a murder story but not a mystery story " . Hodder & Stoughton turned the book down , thus ending their association with Heyer , and Heinemann agreed to publish it instead . Her publisher in the United States , Doubleday , also disliked the book and ended their relationship with Heyer after its publication .
During World War II , her brothers served in the armed forces , alleviating one of her monetary worries . Her husband , meanwhile , served in the Home Guard , besides continuing as a barrister . As he was new to his career , Rougier did not earn much money , and paper rationing during the war caused lower sales of Heyer 's books . To meet their expenses Heyer sold the Commonwealth rights for These Old Shades , Devil 's Cub , and Regency Buck to her publisher , Heinemann , for £ 750 . A contact at the publishing house , her close friend A.S. Frere , later offered to return the rights to her for the same amount of money she was paid . Heyer refused to accept the deal , explaining that she had given her word to transfer the rights . Heyer also reviewed books for Heinemann , earning 2 guineas for each review , and she allowed her novels to be serialized in Women 's Journal prior to their publication as hardcover books . The appearance of a Heyer novel usually caused the magazine to sell out completely , but she complained that they " always like [ d ] my worst work " .
To minimize her tax liability , Heyer formed a limited liability company called Heron Enterprises around 1950 . Royalties from new titles would be paid to the company , which would then furnish Heyer 's salary and pay directors ' fees to her family . She would continue to receive royalties from her previous titles , and foreign royalties – except for those from the United States – would go to her mother . Within several years , however , a tax inspector found that Heyer was withdrawing too much money from the company . The inspector considered the extra funds as undisclosed dividends , meaning that she owed an additional £ 3 @,@ 000 in taxes . To pay the tax bill , Heyer wrote two articles , " Books about the Brontës " and " How to be a Literary Writer " , that were published in the magazine Punch . She once wrote to a friend , " I 'm getting so tired of writing books for the benefit of the Treasury and I can 't tell you how utterly I resent the squandering of my money on such fatuous things as Education and Making Life Easy and Luxurious for So @-@ Called Workers . "
In 1950 , Heyer began working on what she called " the magnum opus of my latter years " , a medieval trilogy intended to cover the House of Lancaster between 1393 and 1435 . She estimated that she would need five years to complete the works . Her impatient readers continually clamored for new books ; to satisfy them and her tax liabilities , Heyer interrupted herself to write Regency romances . The manuscript of volume one of the series , My Lord John , was published posthumously .
The limited liability company continued to vex Heyer , and in 1966 , after tax inspectors found that she owed the company £ 20 @,@ 000 , she finally fired her accountants . She then asked that the rights to her newest book , Black Sheep , be issued to her personally . Unlike her other novels , Black Sheep did not focus on members of the aristocracy . Instead , it followed " the moneyed middle class " , with finance a dominant theme in the novel .
Heyer 's new accountants urged her to abandon Heron Enterprises ; after two years , she finally agreed to sell the company to Booker @-@ McConnell , which already owned the rights to the estates of novelists Ian Fleming and Agatha Christie . Booker @-@ McConnell paid her approximately £ 85 @,@ 000 for the rights to the 17 Heyer titles owned by the company . This amount was taxed at the lower capital transfer rate , rather than the higher income tax rate .
= = Imitators = =
As Heyer 's popularity increased , other authors began to imitate her style . In May 1950 , one of her readers notified her that Barbara Cartland had written several novels in a style similar to Heyer 's , reusing names , character traits and plot points and paraphrased descriptions from her books , particularly A Hazard of Hearts , which borrowed characters from Friday 's Child , and The Knave of Hearts which took off These Old Shades . Heyer completed a detailed analysis of the alleged plagiarisms for her solicitors , and while the case never came to court and no apology was received , the copying ceased . Her lawyers suggested that she leak the copying to the press . Heyer refused .
In 1961 , another reader wrote of similarities found in the works of Kathleen Lindsay , particularly the novel Winsome Lass . The novels borrowed plot points , characters , surnames , and plentiful Regency slang . After fans accused Heyer of " publishing shoddy stuff under a pseudonym " , Heyer wrote to the other publisher to complain . When the author took exception the accusations , Heyer made a thorough list of the borrowings and historical mistakes in the books . Among these were repeated use of the phrase " to make a cake of oneself " , which Heyer had discovered in a privately printed memoir unavailable to the public . In another case , the author referenced a historical incident that Heyer had invented in an earlier novel . Heyer 's lawyers recommended an injunction , but she ultimately decided not to sue .
= = Later years = =
In 1959 , Rougier became a Queen 's Counsel . The following year , their son Richard fell in love with the estranged wife of an acquaintance . Richard assisted the woman , Susanna Flint , in leaving her husband , and the couple married after her divorce was finalized . Heyer was shocked at the impropriety but soon came to love her daughter @-@ in @-@ law , later describing her as " the daughter we never had and thought we didn 't want " . Richard and his wife raised her two sons from her first marriage and provided Heyer with her only biological grandchild in 1966 , when their son Nicholas Rougier was born .
As Heyer aged she began to suffer more frequent health problems . In June 1964 , she underwent surgery to remove a kidney stone . Although the doctors initially predicted a six @-@ week recovery , after two months they predicted that it might be a year or longer before she felt completely well . The following year , she suffered a mosquito bite which turned septic , prompting the doctors to offer skin grafts . In July 1973 she suffered a slight stroke and spent three weeks in a nursing home . When her brother Boris died later that year , Heyer was too ill to travel to his funeral . She suffered another stroke in February 1974 . Three months later , she was diagnosed with lung cancer , which her biographer attributed to the 60 – 80 cork @-@ tipped cigarettes that Heyer smoked each day ( although she said she did not inhale ) . On 4 July 1974 , Heyer died . Her fans learned her married name for the first time from her obituaries .
= = Legacy = =
Besides her success in the United Kingdom , Heyer 's novels were very popular in the United States and Germany and achieved respectable sales in Czechoslovakia . A first printing of one of her novels in the Commonwealth often consisted of 65 @,@ 000 – 75 @,@ 000 copies , and her novels collectively sold over 100 @,@ 000 copies in hardback each year . Her paperbacks usually sold over 500 @,@ 000 copies each . At the time of her death 48 of her books were still in print , including her first novel , The Black Moth .
Her books were very popular during the Great Depression and World War II . Her novels , which journalist Lesley McDowell described as containing " derring @-@ do , dashing blades , and maids in peril " , allowed readers to escape from the mundane and difficult elements of their lives . In a letter describing her novel Friday 's Child , Heyer commented , " ' I think myself I ought to be shot for writing such nonsense . ... But it 's unquestionably good escapist literature and I think I should rather like it if I were sitting in an air @-@ raid shelter or recovering from flu . "
Heyer essentially invented the historical romance and created the subgenre of the Regency romance . When first released as mass market paperbacks in the United States in 1966 , her novels were described as being " in the tradition of Jane Austen " . As other novelists began to imitate her style and continue to develop the Regency romance , their novels have been described as " following in the romantic tradition of Georgette Heyer " . According to Kay Mussell , " virtually every Regency writer covets [ that ] accolade " .
Heyer has been criticised for anti @-@ semitism , in particular a scene in The Grand Sophy ( published in 1950 ) . Her biographers confirm she held bigoted opinions . This was not a regular theme of her writing however .
Despite her popularity and success , Heyer was ignored by critics . Although none of her novels was ever reviewed in a serious newspaper , according to Duff Hart @-@ Davis , " the absence of long or serious reviews never worried her . What mattered was the fact that her stories sold in ever @-@ increasing numbers " . Heyer was also overlooked by the Encyclopædia Britannica . The 1974 edition of the encyclopædia , published shortly after her death , included entries on popular writers Agatha Christie and Dorothy Sayers , but did not mention Heyer . Biographies of Heyer have been published by Jane Aiken Hodge in 1984 and by Jennifer Kloester in 2011 .
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= Morchella frustrata =
Morchella frustrata is a later synonym of Morchella tridentina , a species originally described by Giacomo Bresadola from north Italy in 1898 . It is a species of fungus in the family Morchellaceae referred to as the mountain blond or western blond morel in North America , but commonly found throughout the Mediterranean basin . It has conical , grey to buff fruit bodies that grow up to 20 cm ( 7 @.@ 9 in ) tall and 5 cm ( 2 @.@ 0 in ) wide . Recent molecular and morphological studies have also shown Morchella frustrata to be conspecific to M. quercus @-@ ilicis , M. elatoides , M. elatoides var. elegans and M. conica var. pseudoeximia . So far , this cosmopolitan species is known from California and Oregon in North America , from Argentina and Chile in South America , from Spain , France , Cyprus , Italy and Turkey in Europe , and has also been reported from Israel and India .
= = Taxonomy = =
Morchella frustrata was described as new to science in a 2012 publication by Michael Kuo and colleagues . The report resulted from the Morel Data Collection Project , which aimed to clarify aspects of the biology , taxonomy and distribution of North American Morchella , and described 14 new morel species . The type locality was in Placer County , California . The morel was previously referred to as phylogenetic species ( i.e. , defined by DNA sequence rather than morphological characteristics ) Mel @-@ 2 in a study the year before , and informally as the " mountain blond morel " . Despite its light color , M. frustrata belongs to the Elata clade along with other black morels , including M. tomentosa and M. angusticeps . The specific epithet frustrata refers to the " frustrating combination of black and yellow morel features that characterize the species . "
In two subsequent studies , however , Richard and colleagues ( 2014 ) and Loizides and colleagues ( 2015 ) used DNA analysis to determine that this species is identical to morels collected in southern Europe , matching the original description of Morchella tridentina by Bresadola . This name therefore takes precedence over M. frustrata .
= = Description = =
The fruit bodies are often rufescent and 9 – 20 cm ( 3 @.@ 5 – 7 @.@ 9 in ) high . The conical cap is 4 – 6 cm ( 1 @.@ 6 – 2 @.@ 4 in ) high and 2 @.@ 5 – 4 cm ( 1 @.@ 0 – 1 @.@ 6 in ) wide at the widest point . The cap surface features pits and ridges , which are formed from the intersection of 16 – 22 primary vertical ridges and few shorter , secondary vertical ridges , with frequent , sunken , horizontal ridges . The cap is attached to the stipe with a distinct sinus about 2 – 4 mm deep and 2 – 4 mm wide . The smooth , splitting ridges remain persistently pale throughout the maturity process , easily distinguishing this species from other species in section Elata , or black morels , which have ridges that typically darken with age . Pits are usually elongated vertically . They are smooth , dull grayish to pale yellowish or nearly whitish when young , later becoming pale tan to pale pinkish tan . The stipe is 2 – 6 cm ( 0 @.@ 8 – 2 @.@ 4 in ) high by 1 – 4 cm ( 0 @.@ 4 – 1 @.@ 6 in ) wide and is more or less equal in width throughout its length or sometimes thicker at the base . Its whitish surface is smooth or finely mealy with whitish granules . The flesh is whitish and measures 1 – 2 mm thick in the hollow cap . The sterile inner surface of the cap is whitish and pubescent ( having soft , short and erect " hairs " ) .
The ascospores are smooth , elliptical , and measure 20 – 26 by 13 – 18 µm . Asci ( spore @-@ bearing cells ) are cylindrical , eight @-@ spored , hyaline ( translucent ) when mounted in dilute ( 2 % ) potassium hydroxide ( KOH ) , and measure 225 – 330 by 15 – 25 µm . Paraphyses are cylindrical to capitate or moniliform , measuring 95 – 250 long by 10 – 25 µm wide , and are septate . Their tips are rounded to somewhat club @-@ shaped or infrequently somewhat fuse @-@ shaped . Elements on the sterile ridges are 50 – 175 by 12 @.@ 5 – 20 µm , and septate . The terminal cells are club @-@ shaped or nearly so .
Although the edibility of M. frustrata was not mentioned in the original description , Kuo has elsewhere written of the edibility of North American Morchella . In general , morels should not be eaten raw , as they can trigger allergic reactions in susceptible individuals . Their flavor is enhanced after they are fried , stuffed , or dried .
= = = Similar species = = =
This species is very similar to Morchella rufobrunnea , another rufescent , cosmopolitan species with pale colours , which is nonetheless found in urban and suburban areas . The latter is distinguished by an adnate cap lacking a sinus and a distinct dark pruinescence on the stem , more pronounced in young fruit bodies . Due to its similar light coloration , M. frustrata may also be confused with Morchella esculentoides ; as Kuo states , " it looks like a black morel with the colors of a yellow morel . " The vertically arranged pits and ridges , as well as the slight indentation where the cap meets the stem on M. frustrata , however , more closely resemble the black morels such as M. elata . M. snyderi is somewhat similar in appearance to young specimens of M. frustrata , but mature specimens of the former species can be distinguished by the brown to black ridges on the cap , and the ridged and pocketed stipe .
= = Habitat and distribution = =
Morchella frustrata fruit bodies grow solitary , scattered , or in small groups in spring , in mountainous forests and maquis . The exact trophic status of the fungus is not yet known with certainty , but it is suspected to be fucaltitive mycorrhizal or biotrophic . Tree species associated with the fungus include pacific madrone ( Arbutus menziesii ) , oaks ( Quercus spp . ) , Douglas fir ( Pseudotsuga menziesii ) , ponderosa pine ( Pinus ponderosa ) , sugar pine ( Pinus lambertiana ) , and white fir ( Abies concolor ) . In Europe it is often found with holm oak ( Quercus ilex ) , strawberry trees ( Arbutus andrachne ) , olive trees ( Olea europaea ) , Spanish fir ( Abies pinsapo ) , Silver fir ( Abies alba ) and Scot 's pine ( Pinus sylvestris ) . Although it was originally hypothesized that collections of M. frustrata from Turkey might have been recently introduced from North America , numerous collections reported since from remote and undisturbed areas in the Mediterranean and the Alps ( including Bresadola 's original collection from Trentino ) , suggest a long @-@ time and well @-@ established presence of this species in Europe . Kuo suggests that it might be also widely distributed in western North America , but so far has only been confirmed to be present in Oregon and California .
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= Papoose Peak Jumps =
Papoose Peak Jumps was a ski jumping hill located at Squaw Valley Ski Resort in the US state of California . The hill consisted of three jumps , with K @-@ points of 80 , 60 and 40 meters , respectively . Constructed upon the hill @-@ side of Little Papoose Peak , it was built for the 1960 Winter Olympics ; the 80 @-@ meter hill hosted the ski jumping event and the 60 @-@ meter hill the Nordic combined event . The jump was designed by Heini Klopfer and opened in 1958 . After the Olympics the venue saw little use ; it was renovated for the 1976 US National Ski Jumping Championships , but has since fallen into disrepair and demolished to make room for a ski lift .
= = History = =
As Squaw Valley was an undeveloped area when it was awarded the Olympics , the organizing committee was free to design a tailor @-@ made Olympic resort . Heini Klopfer from Oberstdorf , West Germany , was hired to design the ski jumping hills , which he finished in early 1957 . He chose to locate it on the hill @-@ side of Little Papoose Peak , opposite Blyth Arena . He described the location as " the type of hill one always seeks but seldom finds " . The construction contract was awarded to Diversified Builders , who constructed the jumps during the summer and fall of 1958 .
Papoose Peak Jumps was the first Olympic ski jump to have three in @-@ runs . Minor details were corrected in 1959 and 1960 . It was renovated ahead of the 1976 US National Championships . However , it fell out of use afterwards and instead the hill was converted to a speed skiing and snowboarding hill . Later the resort 's Far East Express chairlift was installed on the hill .
= = Facilities = =
The hill consisted of three jumps with a common out @-@ run , each with a construction point ( K @-@ point ) of 80 , 60 and 40 meters , respectively . It was located in the central area of the Olympic resort , next to the skating rinks and the Olympic Village . Tall trees on both sides of the hill gave good protection against the wind . The location was also ideal because of the sun was at the competitor 's backs . A judges ' tower was constructed on the side , which was both accessible by stairs from the bottom of the hill or from the chairlift which ran to the top of the in @-@ runs . The hill had an overall height of 140 meters ( 460 ft ) , the in @-@ run had a length of 113 meters ( 371 ft ) . The largest jump had a take @-@ off angle of 8 @.@ 5 degrees and a landing angle of 38 degrees .
= = Events = =
The first competitive use of the hills was the trial Olympics in February 1959 . During the 1960 Winter Olympics , the 80 @-@ meter hill was used for special jumping on 28 February , while the 60 @-@ meter hill was used for Nordic combined on 22 February . The special ski jumping event was won by Helmut Recknagel of Germany , who also set a hill record of 93 @.@ 5 meters ( 307 ft ) . He was followed up by Finland 's Niilo Halonen and Austria 's Otto Leodolter . In the ski jumping part of the Nordic combined event , Germany 's Georg Thoma received the highest points ahead of the Soviet Union 's Dmitriy Kochkin and Norway 's Tormod Knutsen . The cross @-@ country part of the event took place at McKinney Creek Stadium . While Thoma won the discipline overall , Knutsen finished second overall ahead of the Soviet Union 's Nikolai Gusakov . In 1976 , the US National Championships in Ski Jumping were held at the large hill , and was won by Jim Denney .
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= The God Complex =
" The God Complex " is the eleventh episode of the sixth series of the British television series Doctor Who , first broadcast on BBC One 17 September 2011 . It was written by Toby Whithouse and directed by Nick Hurran .
In the episode , alien time traveller the Doctor and his companions Amy Pond and her husband Rory find themselves trapped in what appears to be a 1980s hotel with constantly changing corridors . They meet Rita , Howie , Joe , and Gibbis , who have also appeared in the hotel , without any idea how they arrived . The Doctor learns that each hotel room contains the greatest fear of someone who has been in the hotel , and that a minotaur @-@ like creature is feeding off their fear .
Whithouse originally developed the concept of " The God Complex " for the previous series , but due to it being similar to episodes in that series , it was pushed back , with Whithouse contributing " The Vampires of Venice " instead . The episode ends with the departure of Amy and Rory , though this was not a permanent exit . " The God Complex " was filmed during the early months of 2011 , mainly on sets constructed for the hotel . The episode was seen by 6 @.@ 77 million viewers in the United Kingdom and received positive to mixed reviews from critics . While the performances in the episode , especially Smith 's , were praised , not all critics were impressed with the plot .
= = Plot = =
= = = Synopsis = = =
The TARDIS , while travelling to a new planet , arrives in what appears to be a 1980s Earth hotel , but the Doctor recognises it as an alien structure specifically designed to take that appearance . They soon meet a group of three individuals — humans Rita , Howie and the alien Gibbis — each of whom had previously been taken from their routine lives to find themselves in the hotel . They are also introduced to Joe , a human who has already succumbed to a madness that infects everyone who sets foot in the hotel , and so has been tied up for his own protection . The four explain that there is a beast in the hotel that consumes everyone who has been trapped here . It does this by enticing them to enter one of the many rooms in the hotel which contains their greatest fears , upon which they become brainwashed to " praise him " and allow themselves to be taken , their bodies left without any signs of life ; many others have experienced this , and photos of them and their fears cover many of the hotel 's walls . The hotel would seem inescapable — its doors and windows walled up — and its halls and rooms can change on a whim . The Doctor , Amy , and Rory soon find the TARDIS has also disappeared , and the Doctor warns them from opening any door they are drawn to , for fear of being possessed .
As the Doctor tries to ascertain the situation , the group is thrown into panic when they hear the beast coming for Joe , and hide in rooms where Rita and Gibbis face their fears . The Doctor spies the Minotaur @-@ like beast through a keyhole , just before Joe escapes from confinement and is killed . Howie soon becomes possessed after entering a room against the Doctor 's warnings . The remaining group set up a trap to lure the beast into the hotel 's hairdressing salon using Howie 's voice , upon which the Doctor questions the trapped creature and learns it is in agony wishing for its end . The Doctor realises the hotel is really a prison for the creature , and the " fears " in each room are harmless illusions . Howie also escapes from the group , allowing the beast to escape and chase him down , killing him before the Doctor can save him . While exploring more of the hotel , both Amy and the Doctor are separately lured to look into two specific rooms , facing their own fears . Rita also begins to praise the monster , and after thanking the Doctor for trying to save her , follows the fate of Joe and Howie .
The Doctor , Amy , Rory , and Gibbis regroup , and the Doctor surmises that the other three believed in some form of faith . The hotel and its rooms were , by design , meant to challenge their " faith " by fear to allow the beast to possess them . The Doctor identifies that Gibbis has survived due to the extreme cowardice of his species , while Rory lacks any such " faith " to be broken . However , the Doctor realises that it is Amy 's trust in him that is being challenged ; it is that faith that brought them to the hotel in the first place . Amy soon becomes possessed like the others . As the beast comes for Amy , the Doctor and the others grab her and take her to the room she opened previously . Inside , they find the illusion of young Amy , Amelia , still waiting for the return of her " raggedy Doctor " ( " The Eleventh Hour " ) . The Doctor asserts to Amy that he is " not a hero " but " just a mad man with a box " to break her blind trust in him ; once this is done , the beast outside the door collapses on the floor .
As they watch , the hotel is revealed to be part of a large simulation ; the Doctor identifies themselves aboard an automated prison spaceship , and the beast as a relative of the Nimon , a creature that feeds off the faith of others . The ship 's automated systems had provided it " food " by bringing aboard creatures who had a strong faith . The beast mutters that " death would be a gift " for the Doctor before it passes away . The Doctor finds his TARDIS nearby , Gibbis asks for a lift home and The Doctor then takes Amy and Rory to London , believing it best for the two to stop travelling with him before they end up getting killed . Giving them a new house and car , the Doctor sets off alone in the TARDIS .
= = = Continuity = = =
Several references to past Doctor Who species are displayed throughout the wall of photos of the past victims of the beast , including a Sontaran , a Judoon , a Catkind Sister of Plenitude and a Tritovore ( " Planet of the Dead " ) . The Doctor identifies the beast as being from a species that is distantly related to the Nimon , previously a foe in the serial The Horns of Nimon ; and the group witnesses two illusions of Weeping Angels , from the episodes " Blink " , " The Time of Angels " / " Flesh and Stone " . Though the audience is not shown the contents of the room ( numbered 11 ) that the Doctor is lured to open , the sound of the TARDIS ' cloister bell can be heard . Young Amelia is shown waiting for her " raggedy Doctor " to return from the episode " The Eleventh Hour . " The Doctor , being forced to break Amy 's faith in him , echoes a previous event in The Curse of Fenric where the Seventh Doctor is forced to break Ace 's faith in him . In a much later episode , the Eleventh Doctor 's swansong ( " The Time of the Doctor " ) , it is revealed that what the Doctor saw in Room 11 was the crack in reality that dominated his first series .
The episode also introduces the Tivolians , a race of cowardly aliens who survive by docilely allowing themselves to be conquered by other species on a regular basis . The season 9 episodes " Under the Lake " and " Before the Flood " feature another Tivolian named Prentis , portrayed by Paul Kaye .
= = Production = =
= = = Writing = = =
Showrunner Steven Moffat originally pitched the episode to Toby Whithouse for the previous series with the idea of a hotel with shifting rooms . However , as production continued , Moffat thought that there were too many instances in which the characters were running through corridors in that series , so Whithouse wrote " The Vampires of Venice " instead and " The God Complex " was pushed to the next series . The idea to have a Minotaur be the monster came from Whithouse 's love for Greek mythology . Whithouse was more pleased with " The God Complex " than " School Reunion " and " The Vampires of Venice " , his previous Doctor Who scripts , as the tone was darker which he was " more comfortable " writing .
The first line of dialogue Whithouse wrote was the Doctor 's translation of the Minotaur 's words : " An ancient creature , drenched in the blood of the innocent , drifting in space through an endless shifting maze . For such a creature , death would be a gift " . The Minotaur then tells the Doctor he was not talking about himself , but rather the Doctor . This is foreshadowing of the upcoming event of the Doctor 's death , the story arc of the series . Amy and Rory 's departure in the episode was only temporary ; they return for the series finale , " The Wedding of River Song " and appear briefly at the end of the 2011 Christmas Special . They permanently leave in the fifth episode of the seventh series .
= = = Filming and costumes = = =
The read @-@ through for " The God Complex " took place in February 2011 . It was then filmed mainly on hotel sets constructed in the studio . The Doctor , Amy , and Rory 's first encounter with a fear in the hotel is the ventriloquist dummies found in Joe 's room ; Whithouse wanted to include something " big and bold " and noted that there was " something macabre about ventriloquist dummies " . Many members of the crew were brought in to operate the dummies , most of them having to lie underneath them on the floor . The actor who portrayed the Minotaur , Spencer Wilding , was six foot seven inches tall . Wilding received a costume fitting in early 2011 , after which the suit was dressed up with paint and fur .
David Walliams was asked to guest @-@ star in the episode in an email and he agreed , having been a fan of the show . He had previously appeared in the Fifth Doctor audio drama Phantasmagoria where he played two separate characters . Matt Smith called his co @-@ star " hilarious " and found it hard to take him seriously , as when he was in his prosthetics for the part he resembled a giant mole . The prosthetics took about two hours to apply . Walliams felt the make @-@ up was not limiting to his acting , finding it " quite expressive " .
= = Outside references = =
The hotel and setting has been compared to Stanley Kubrick 's film The Shining , using similar composition such as long corridor shots and odd angles . Critics also observed that the episode drew inspiration from George Orwell 's novel Nineteen Eighty @-@ Four , particularly in the concept of rooms ( or , in Orwell 's case , Room 101 ) containing each person 's deepest fear . Joe also quotes the old English nursery rhyme " Oranges and Lemons " , singing " Here comes a candle to light you to bed , here comes a chopper to chop off your head ! " .
= = Broadcast and reception = =
" The God Complex " was first broadcast in the United Kingdom on BBC One on 17 September 2011 and on the same date in the United States on BBC America . Overnight ratings showed that 5 @.@ 2 million viewers watched the episode on BBC One , beaten by direct competitor All @-@ Star Family Fortunes on ITV1 . This made Doctor Who third for the night behind The X Factor and Family Fortunes . The episode was ranked number 1 on BBC 's iPlayer the day after it aired service and was also popular on social networking site Twitter , where the phrase " Amy and Rory " trended the night it aired . When the final consolidated figures were calculated , an additional 1 @.@ 57 million time @-@ shifted viewers were added , bringing the total up to 6 @.@ 77 million . With these figures it beat Family Fortunes , which achieved a consolidated rating of only 5 @.@ 39 million viewers . The episode also received attention on BBC 's online iPlayer , where it placed fourth for the month of September . It was given an Appreciation Index of 86 , considered " excellent " .
= = = Critical reception = = =
The episode received positive to mixed reviews from critics . Radio Times reviewer Patrick Mulkern called Whithouse 's script " clever and original " and Walliams " endearing " as Gibbis , believing it was another entry into the series ' " fabulous " stand @-@ alone episodes. io9 's Charlie Jane Anders was also positive , especially of the way the Doctor 's character was explored through his overconfidence making others believe in him instead of themselves and praising Smith 's performance . Keith Phipps of The A.V. Club gave the episode a B + , praising the guest stars and the way the Doctor 's character was explored . Neela Debnath , writing for The Independent , also gave a positive review , praising the creepiness , Karan and Leonidas ' performances , and the sadness in the ending . However , she was surprised that Amy accepted the Doctor would be leaving her despite her wanting to find her child as seen earlier in the series .
Dan Martin of The Guardian praised the exits of Amy and Rory and highlighted Gillan and Smith 's performance , noting how more of his dark side is shown . Of the plot , he stated that it was " funny and thoughtful " but felt " like a runaround bolted on to make way for the ending " . Martin later rated it the fifth best episode of the series , though the finale was not included in the list . Digital Spy 's Morgan Jeffery wrote that Hurran " excelled " in directing and that the episode worked " incredibly well " on an emotional level . However , he felt it did not succeed as well in terms of plot , citing the " thin explanation " for the happenings . Gavin Fuller of The Daily Telegraph awarded the episode three and a half out of five stars , stating that " the surreal tone to the episode ... helped camouflage the fact that the plot made very little sense " . However , he praised the cast 's " impressive performances " , especially Smith 's .
Dave Golder of SFX also gave " The God Complex " three and a half out of five stars , questioning some logical aspects but noting that it was " extremely witty , particularly when it comes to David Walliams 's cowardly moleman Gibbis " . He also did not believe Amy and Rory would be gone for long , especially as the Doctor had placed them in more perilous situations before . IGN 's Matt Risely rated the episode 7 out of 10 , calling it " a notably wonky episode , both in terms of tone and plot development " that came off as " a confused , slightly ill @-@ fitting hodgepodge of a tale " . While he praised Hurran 's directing and the performances of Walliams and Karan , he felt the characters were sidelined near the end . Risely noted that " things certainly chugged along with a witty , sparkling vibrancy at least early on " , but the tone " lost its way halfway through " culminating in a " hollow and rushed " final scene where he left Amy and Rory .
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= Jessica Gomes =
Jessica Gomes ( Chinese : 傑西卡戈麥斯 , born 25 September 1985 ) is an Australian model who has appeared in the Swimsuit Issue of the American Publication Sports Illustrated since 2008 . She works extensively in Australia and Asia . She has strong followings in Korea and in the East Coast hip hop community .
Gomes is the featured spokesperson for Australian corporations David Jones Limited . She has also been a spokesperson for Korean conglomerates LG Electronics and Hyundai . Gomes served as the face of the Estee Lauder / Sean John fragrance " Unforgivable " . She has been revealed as the voice of Rick Ross ' label Maybach Music Group . An early LG ad campaign is considered her breakout performance .
= = Modelling career = =
She is the daughter of a Portuguese father , Joe Gomes and a Chinese mother , Jenny . Although sources such as her Fashion Model Directory listing contain a Perth , Western Australia , birthplace , other sources state that Gomes was born in Sydney or nearby Wahroonga in New South Wales . Gomes says she was born in Sydney . She was raised in Perth . Ocean Drive writer Peter Cullum presents one of the more detailed biographical sketches of Gomes in which he claims she first lived in Sydney and then the family " opted out of Sydney for the semirural isolation of Western Australia " where she had " a semi @-@ rural tomboy childhood " . She is the youngest child in her family that includes two older sisters and an older brother . Gomes ' mother sent her to modelling classes at Linda @-@ Ann Model Academy in Perth suburb Midland at the age of 13 . There her acting led to a modeling contest and the start of her career . In 2004 , she signed with IMG Models after moving to New York City . She has avoided Paris and Milan and done extensive work in most of Asia 's major markets — including Tokyo , Seoul , Hong Kong , Beijing , and Shanghai — where she feels mixed heritage models are more successful . According to Diane Smith , senior editor of the Sports Illustrated Swimsuit Issue , she is regarded as a " nontraditional " beauty and in her Australian homeland she is regarded for her multiracial background .
= = = Campaigns = = =
Gomes has enjoyed much success through South Korean advertising campaigns . In 2007 she appeared in advertisements for Hyundai Sonata . The following year , she appeared in an advertisement for LG Cyon Bikini Phone , in which she promoted the split screen cellphone wearing a two @-@ piece bikini , under the tagline " Touch the Wonder . " This ad campaign is credited as having pushed Gomes to stardom in South Korea . Her popularity grew , and by 2013 between her spokesmanships and Korean television show appearances , she had reached celebrity status .
Beyond her Korean success , Gomes has appeared in Vogue , Teen Vogue , Glamour , American Glamour and Victoria 's Secret catalogue , has modeled for DKNY Jeans , Garnier , Levi 's , Motorola , Urban Outfitters and Victoria 's Secret , and appeared on the cover of Biba . She signed with Estee Lauder as the face of Sean John 's Unforgivable fragrance . She has been featured in ads for Jay @-@ Z Rocawear . In 2009 , she was in a Cass Beer ad campaign with Lee Min Ho . She was the Maxim Cover girl for November 2011 . On Friday 22 March 2013 , Gomes was announced as the fashion ambassador for Australian retail giant David Jones Limited , replacing Miranda Kerr and joining Megan Gale , Jason Dundas , Montana Cox , Gai Waterhouse and Emma Freedman . That July , she debuted for Jones on the runway . After Gomes became the face of Enprani Cosmetics , she launched a lip gloss named Gomes Pink . Gomes has also shot editorials for the Australian and Vietnamese editions of Harper 's Bazaar and graced the cover of Cleo .
= = = Sex symbol = = =
Gomes was listed at number 34 , 8 and 94 in the 2012 , 2013 and 2014 AskMen international poll of " world 's most desirable women " . She is listed at number 25 in the Maxim 's Top 25 Hottest Females of 2012 and number 8 in Maxim Australia 's Hot 100 of 2012 . In 2013 , she was listed at number 6 .
By 2015 she had appeared in eight Sports Illustrated Swimsuit Issues ( 2008 – 2015 ) . In 2008 , she was part of a record group of seven " rookie " Swimsuit Issue models , along with Quiana Grant , Melissa Haro , Yasmin Brunet , Melissa Baker , Jeisa Chiminazzo and Jarah Mariano . That year , she was featured in a bodypainting layout as a canvas for bodypaint artist Joanne Gair . By the time of her fifth consecutive Swimsuit issue , she had surpassed all models of Asian heritage .
= = = Television = = =
Before Gomes began modeling in Midland , she appeared as an extra at age 10 on the Australian miniseries Bush Patrol which led to a modeling . While she lived in New York City , she studied at the Stella Adler Studio of Acting . Her Chinese @-@ Portuguese heritage has contributed to her popularity in the Asian market , and in 2009 , her reality TV @-@ show My Name Is Jessica Gomes was launched on the English language Korean television network On Style owned by On @-@ Media . In the shows second season it chronicled her time in New York . She is regarded as a choreographer and made her dancing debut in the Korean version of Dancing with the Stars on June 10 , 2011 . She placed third that season .
= = = Other = = =
Gomes has a variety of East Coast Hip Hop connections . In January 2012 , Gomes was revealed as the voice behind saying the name of Rick Ross ' label Maybach Music Group at the beginning of certain tracks that the company produces . She is " name @-@ checked " in the Kanye West GOOD Fridays song " Christian Dior Denim Flow " . Gomes participated as a celebrity driver in a promotional celebrity challenge racing event by Mazda associated with the 2013 Australian Grand Prix . Gomes also starred in Z.Tao 's music video " Crown " .
= = Personal = =
Gomes was born in Perth , Australia , and has an older brother . She counts Australian Elle MacPherson and the multiracial model China Machado , the first non @-@ White model to appear on the cover of a US fashion magazine , as her role models . She dined with Perth native and friend Heath Ledger in New York the day before he died .
In 2005 , Gomes moved to New York City and was a roommate of Gemma Ward . She formerly attended La Salle College . She continued to live in New York at the time of her Swimsuit Issue debut in 2008 and as late as 2011 . Gomes ' mother was born in Hong Kong and grew up in Singapore and her father is from Portugal before spending time in Paris . Both emigrated to Australia in the 1970s .
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= Good Girl Gone Bad =
Good Girl Gone Bad is the third studio album by Barbadian singer Rihanna . It was released on May 31 , 2007 , by Def Jam Recordings and SRP Records . Rihanna worked with various producers on the album , including Christopher " Tricky " Stewart , Terius " Dream " Nash , Neo da Matrix , Timbaland , Carl Sturken , Evan Rogers and StarGate . Inspired by Brandy Norwood 's fourth studio album Afrodisiac ( 2004 ) , Good Girl Gone Bad is a pop , dance @-@ pop and R & B album with 1980s music influences . Described as a turning point in Rihanna 's career , it represents a departure from the Caribbean sound of her previous releases , Music of the Sun ( 2005 ) and A Girl like Me ( 2006 ) . Apart from the sound , she also endorsed a new image for the release going from an innocent girl to an edgier and more sexual look .
Critics gave generally positive reviews of the album , praising its composition and Rihanna 's new musical direction , though some criticized the record 's lyrics and inconsistency . The album received seven Grammy Award nominations and one win in the Best Rap / Sung Collaboration category for " Umbrella " at the 2008 ceremony . The album debuted at number two on the US Billboard 200 chart and sold 162 @,@ 000 copies in its first week . Certified quintuple platinum by the Recording Industry Association of America ( RIAA ) , it sold more than 2 @.@ 8 million copies in the United States . The album reached number one in Canada , Switzerland and the United Kingdom , and it has sold over 7 million copies worldwide .
Good Girl Gone Bad spawned five singles , including the international hits " Umbrella " and " Don 't Stop the Music " ; Rolling Stone placed the former at number 412 on the magazine 's 500 Greatest Songs of All Time list . In support of the album , Rihanna embarked on her first worldwide concert tour , the Good Girl Gone Bad Tour . The album was reissued as Good Girl Gone Bad : Reloaded in June 2008 with three new songs , including the Billboard Hot 100 number @-@ one hits " Take a Bow " and " Disturbia " . It was followed by Rihanna 's first remix album , Good Girl Gone Bad : The Remixes , in January 2009 , which featured remixes from Moto Blanco , Tony Moran , the Soul Seekerz and the Wideboys .
= = Background and title = =
Rihanna 's second studio album , A Girl like Me , was released in April 2006 . It is a pop @-@ oriented record with dancehall and R & B influences . It had a mixed critical reception : some critics praised Rihanna 's new musical direction , while others criticized some of the album 's songs . Around its time of release , many critics felt that Rihanna 's style , sound , and musical material were too similar to those of American singer Beyoncé . The album sold over 587 @,@ 308 copies in the United Kingdom and more than 1 @,@ 330 @,@ 000 copies in the United States .
In early 2007 , Rihanna began work on her third studio album . In an interview with MTV News , she announced that " the new music is going in a different direction . Not on purpose , but I just want to hear something fresh and mostly uptempo . I think that 's where I want to go on this one . You feel different every album , and [ at ] this stage I feel like I want to do a lot of uptempo [ songs ] . " The same year , Rihanna dismissed her innocent image for an edgier look with a new hairstyle , which was inspired by actress Charlize Theron 's bob cut in the 2005 science fiction thriller Æon Flux .
Rihanna explained that she wanted to keep the audience dancing and be soulful at the same time . She sought to make an album that people would listen to without skipping tracks . She cited Afrodisiac ( 2004 ) , the fourth studio album by American singer Brandy Norwood , as her main inspiration for the album . In May 2007 , Rihanna revealed that she called the album Good Girl Gone Bad because it represents her bolder and more independent image : " I 'm not the innocent Rihanna anymore . I 'm taking a lot more risks and chances . I felt when I cut my hair , it shows people I 'm not trying to look or be anybody else . The album is very edgy . "
= = Recording and production = =
Good Girl Gone Bad was recorded in Westlake Recording Studios and Conway Studios in Los Angeles , Battery Studios and Roc the Mic Studios in New York City , Chicago Recording Company and Pressure Studios in Chicago , Phase One Audio Group in Toronto , Lethal Studios in Bridgetown , Barbados , Espionage Studios in Oslo and Parr Street Studios in Liverpool . Rihanna spent the week of the 2007 Grammy Awards working with American R & B singer @-@ songwriter Ne @-@ Yo , who gave her vocal lessons . They wrote and sang " Hate That I Love You " , which was co @-@ written and produced by Norwegian duo StarGate . Ne @-@ Yo told Vibe magazine , " The best way to express an emotion like love is through storytelling . It makes it more ' I can relate to this character in this song , because I 've been through something similar . ' You hear that kind of storytelling in the song that I wrote for Rihanna called ' Hate That I Love You ' . "
American producers Tricky Stewart and Dream had written the track " Umbrella " in 2007 with pop singer Britney Spears in mind . Her label rejected the song before she could hear it , stating they had enough songs for her to record ; at the time , Spears was working on her fifth studio album Blackout . The producers then reached out to Mary J. Blige , who did not have time to consider the song for her next album . Finally , L.A. Reid , then @-@ CEO of Def Jam Recordings , bought the record and forwarded it to Rihanna . Initially , Stewart was unsure whether Rihanna was the right artist for the song , but after they had recorded the " ella , ella " catch phrase for the track , he felt optimistic . Rapper Jay Z added rap vocals . Stewart also co @-@ wrote and produced " Breakin ' Dishes " with Nash .
" Rehab " , " Sell Me Candy " , and " Lemme Get That " were composed and produced by Timbaland for the album . He was on the FutureSex / LoveShow concert tour with Justin Timberlake to promote Timberlake 's 2006 album FutureSex / LoveSounds . After a show in Chicago , they joined Rihanna in the studio , where Timberlake experimented with beats and melodies . Weeks later , the three met in New York City , where Timberlake had conceptualized a song for Rihanna . Timbaland , who penned a song for Rihanna under the title " Rehab " , was producing a beat , over which Timberlake improvised his lyrics . Hannon Lane also co @-@ wrote and co @-@ produced the song . Timberlake told Entertainment Weekly that he believed " Rehab " to be " the bridge for [ Rihanna ] to be accepted as an adult in the music industry " . Rihanna told Robert Copsey of Digital Spy that she enjoyed working with Timberlake , and learned much from the sessions .
= = Composition = =
A dance @-@ pop and pop / R & B album influenced by 1980s music , Good Girl Gone Bad is a departure from the Caribbean sound of Rihanna 's previous two records . Lyrically , the album is close to some teen pop records , " where sexual @-@ ism and consumerism supersede personal connection . "
The LP opens with the lead single " Umbrella " , an R & B song performed with drums and thundercloud synths . Dorian Lynskey of The Guardian compared the singer 's vocals to the voices of Ciara and Cassie . The second track , " Push Up On Me " , features echo electro claps and surging synths . " Don 't Stop the Music " is a dance @-@ pop and techno song that contains rhythmic devices used mainly in hip hop music . The song samples the line " Mama @-@ say , mama @-@ sa , ma @-@ ma @-@ ko @-@ ssa " from Michael Jackson 's 1983 single " Wanna Be Startin ' Somethin ' " . The fourth song is " Breakin ' Dishes " ; Peter Robinson of The Observer called it a " wronged @-@ woman bonanza , packed with hooks , chants and flashes of lyrical brilliance . " " Shut Up and Drive " is a new wave and pop rock song , influenced by 1970s and 1980s musical styles , sampling New Order 's 1983 single " Blue Monday " . The collaboration with Ne @-@ Yo , " Hate That I Love You " , is a folky R & B song ; Nick Levine of Digital Spy compared it to Ne @-@ Yo 's singles " Sexy Love " and " Because of You " .
The seventh track on the album , " Say It " , samples the 1990s song " Flex " by Mad Cobra ; it consists of silky and warm groove and features island @-@ oriented music characteristics . " Sell Me Candy " features jumbled and noisy production with chaotic beats . The ninth song , " Lemme Get That " , has boom @-@ bap beats and is produced by Timbaland . " Rehab " is an old @-@ styled R & B track with a groove that is built around tambourine shakes , acoustic guitar swirls and a subtle backbeat . Doug Rule of Metro Weekly noted similarities among the structures of " Rehab " and Timberlake 's 2002 single " Cry Me a River " . " Question Existing " is an " eerie , smoky , destitute , emotional , and a sonic sidestep . " Tom Breihan of Pitchfork Media described the opening lyrics of the song as inspired by " puerile psuedoporn " . The album concludes with the title track " Good Girl Gone Bad " , which is played with an acoustic guitar and click tracks .
= = Singles = =
Released as the lead single from Good Girl Gone Bad , " Umbrella " was sent to contemporary hit , rhythmic and urban radio in the US on April 24 , 2007 . The song received acclaim from music critics , who praised its production , vocals and the collaboration between Rihanna and Jay Z. " Umbrella " reached number one in more than seventeen countries worldwide , including on the UK Singles Chart and the US Billboard Hot 100 chart . In the United Kingdom , the song topped the singles chart for ten consecutive weeks , while in the United States , it was at the top for seven consecutive weeks . As of June 2013 , " Umbrella " has sold 4 @,@ 236 @,@ 000 digital copies there , making it Rihanna 's fifth @-@ best selling single in the country . Director Chris Applebaum shot the accompanying music video , which features scenes of Rihanna nude and covered in silver paint . The video earned the singer nominations at the 2007 MTV Video Music Awards for Best Direction , Video of the Year and Monster Single of the Year ; it won the latter two .
The second single from the album , " Shut Up and Drive " , was serviced to contemporary hit radio in the US on June 12 and rhythmic radio the following week . The song received mixed response from critics : some praised the composition , while others criticized the lyrics . It reached the top ten on more than twelve national charts , including number five on the UK Singles Chart and number 15 on the US Billboard Hot 100 . The music video for the song was shot by Anthony Mandler in Prague , the Czech Republic . The third single , " Hate That I Love You " , which features Ne @-@ Yo , was sent to contemporary hit , rhythmic and urban radio in the United States on August 21 . Critics gave the song positive reviews and praised the collaboration between the singers ; they compared it to the previous works written by Ne @-@ Yo , including the song " Irreplaceable " by Beyoncé . " Hate That I Love You " reached number seven on the US Billboard Hot 100 and number 15 on the UK Singles Chart .
" Don 't Stop the Music " was digitally released as an EP via the iTunes Store on September 7 . The song received positive reviews from music critics , who praised its production and the interpolation of the " Mama @-@ say , mama @-@ sa , ma @-@ ma @-@ ko @-@ ssa " hook . " Don 't Stop the Music " won Best International Song at the 2008 NRJ Music Awards . The single peaked atop of the singles charts in eight countries , reaching number three on the Hot 100 and number four on the UK Singles Chart . It is the seventh @-@ best selling single by Rihanna in the United States , with 3 @,@ 521 @,@ 000 digital copies sold as of June 2013 . Mandler shot the music video in a nightclub in Prague , the Czech Republic . " Rehab " was released as the fifth and final single from Good Girl Gone Bad ; it was sent to contemporary hit radio in the United States on October 6 , 2008 . Critics were divided on the song 's production and composition , and some compared its structure to that of Timberlake 's 2007 single " What Goes Around ... Comes Around " . It reached number 16 on the UK Singles Chart and number 18 on the US Billboard Hot 100 chart . Anthony Mandler directed the accompanying music video , which was shot in Vasquez Rocks Park , near Los Angeles . Timberlake also appears in the video .
= = Marketing = =
= = = Release = = =
Good Girl Gone Bad was first released by the Universal Music Group on CD in Portugal on May 31 , 2007 . It was released in the Netherlands and in Poland the following day . The album was launched in Finland and the United Kingdom on June 4 and in the United States the following day on CD and LP . Good Girl Gone Bad was released on CD in Germany on June 8 , on LP in Australia on June 12 and on CD in New Zealand on the same date . A deluxe edition of the album , featuring a bonus disc with dance remixes , was launched on June 27 in Japan .
In early 2008 , Rihanna unveiled a new song , " Take a Bow " , on the KIIS @-@ FM radio show On Air with Ryan Seacrest . MTV News reported that the track would serve as the lead single from Good Girl Gone Bad : Reloaded , a reissue of the original album to mark its first anniversary . Rihanna further announced that the expanded album would contain another two songs , " Disturbia " and the duet with American pop rock band Maroon 5 , titled " If I Never See Your Face Again " to supplement the original track listing . Among other achieved awards and nominations , " Disturbia " and " If I Never See Your Face Again " received nominations for Best Dance Recording and Pop Collaboration with Vocals respectively at the 2009 Grammy Awards .
Good Girl Gone Bad : The Remixes was released on January 27 , 2009 , and contains club remixes of tracks from the original album and the re @-@ issue . The songs were remixed by producers and disc jockeys such as Moto Blanco , Tony Moran , Soul Seekerz and Wideboys . Good Girl Gone Bad : The Remixes peaked at number 106 on the Billboard 200 and number four on the US Billboard Dance / Electronic Albums chart . As of July 2010 , it sold 49 @,@ 000 copies in the United States .
= = = Live performances = = =
Rihanna performed " Umbrella " with " Shut Up and Drive " and " Breakin ' Dishes " at BBC Radio 1 's Big Weekend on May 21 , 2007 . She performed " Umbrella " with Jay Z at the 2007 MTV Movie Awards at the Gibson Amphitheatre , Universal City , California , on June 3 . A reviewer of Rap @-@ Up wrote , " she looked hot and the production was on point " during the performance . She performed the song at the Tonight Show with Jay Leno on June 5 and on June 16 at The View . Rihanna performed " Shut Up and Drive " at the 2007 MTV Video Music Awards at The Palms in Las Vegas , and was joined by American rock band Fall Out Boy . In early October 2007 , Rihanna was the guest star at the Late Show with David Letterman , where she gave a performance of " Shut Up and Drive " . On November 18 , Rihanna performed a medley consisting of " Umbrella " and " Hate That I Love You " at the 2007 American Music Awards at the Nokia Theater in Los Angeles , California . Ne @-@ Yo accompanied her for the performance of " Hate That I Love You " .
Rihanna performed " Don 't Stop the Music " at the 2008 NRJ Music Awards in Cannes , France , on January 26 , 2008 . She also performed the song at the 50th Grammy Awards on February 10 in a medley with " Umbrella " . For the performance , she was joined by American funk band , The Time . On April 28 , 2008 , Rihanna performed at the Pepsi Center with Kanye West , N.E.R.D and Lupe Fiasco . She sang " Rehab " , " Hate That I Love You " , " Don 't Stop the Music " and " Umbrella " . On June 20 , she was a guest on NBC 's Today Concert Series in Rockefeller Center , New York City . She performed " Don 't Stop the Music " , " Umbrella " and " Take a Bow " . She also performed " Rehab " live on November 23 , 2008 , at the 2008 American Music Awards , where she won the awards for Favorite Pop / Rock Female Artist and Favorite Soul / R & B Female Artist . At the awards ceremony , she performed wearing an eye patch , which she removed after she was lowered to the main stage .
= = = Tour = = =
To further promote the album , Rihanna embarked on her first worldwide and second overall tour , the Good Girl Gone Bad Tour ( 2007 – 09 ) . She performed in Europe , North America , Oceania , Asia and Africa . During the concert shows she wore S & M @-@ inspired outfits and high boots . Mike Usinger of The Georgia Straight gave the show a mixed review ; he wrote that even though Rihanna 's vocals were improved , he felt she still struggled to keep the audience engaged . Jason MacNeil of Canadian Online Explorer gave a positive review of the concert after the show at Molson Amphitheatre , saying " the singer made a rather eye @-@ popping impression , opening with ' Pon de Replay ' and clad in a sexy , dominatrix @-@ like studded black leather ensemble . " During a show planned for February 13 in Malaysia , Malaysia 's conservative Islamic party recommended that Rihanna 's concert tour be banned from performing , citing her outfits . A video album , Good Girl Gone Bad Live , was filmed at the Manchester Arena show in Manchester , United Kingdom , on December 6 , 2007 . The Good Girl Gone Bad Live DVD was released on June 9 and 13 , 2008 , in the United Kingdom and Germany through Mercury Records and the Universal Music Group respectively .
= = Critical response = =
Good Girl Gone Bad received generally favorable reviews from music critics . At Metacritic , which assigns a normalized rating out of 100 to reviews from mainstream critics , the album received an average score of 72 based on 16 reviews . Uncut called it a " shiny , trans @-@ atlantic blend of Europop vim , R & B grit and Caribbean bounce . " Andy Kellman of AllMusic deemed it quintessential pop music and said each of its tracks was a potential hit . Quentin B. Huff of PopMatters praised the album , describing it as " more raw , perhaps edgier and more risqué " than Rihanna 's previous material . Kelefa Sanneh of The New York Times wrote that the album " sounds as if it were scientifically engineered to deliver hits " . Peter Robinson of The Observer commended her collaborators for " masking her own shortcomings " and commented that , " While Rihanna lacks her peers ' charisma , she 's a great vessel for exhilarating mainstream pop . " Pitchfork Media 's Tom Breihan found the album varied and satisfying . Neil Drumming of Entertainment Weekly felt that , although it " goes bad when Rihanna tries her hand at treacly ballads and glum sentiment " , at times Good Girl Gone Bad is a " thrilling throwback to more than a decade ago , when upstart producers haphazardly mashed R & B with hip @-@ hop to create chunky jeep anthems such as Mary J. Blige 's ' Real Love ' . "
In a mixed review , Rodney Dugue of The Village Voice felt that the album " never settles on a sound " and only cited its three Timbaland @-@ produced songs as highlights . Although he found the ballads to be improvements from Rihanna 's previous albums , Slant Magazine 's Sal Cinquemani criticized the lyrics , particularly those written by Justin Timberlake , as an " Achilles ' high heel for Rihanna " . Alex Macpherson of The Guardian found Rihanna to be " ill @-@ suited " for its dance @-@ pop songs and stated , " The gimmicky samples and pounding beats bury her personality , and the summery reggae of her first two albums is sorely missed . " Robert Christgau of MSN Music cited " Umbrella " as a " choice cut " , indicating " a good song on an album that isn 't worth your time or money " .
= = Commercial performance = =
In the United States , Good Girl Gone Bad debuted at number two on the Billboard 200 chart , selling 162 @,@ 000 copies in its first week . It became Rihanna 's then @-@ best start album entry . The next week , it fell to number seven with 81 @,@ 000 copies sold . The re @-@ issue sold 63 @,@ 000 copies in the first week and helped Good Girl Gone Bad jump from number 124 to number seven on the US Billboard 200 in its 55th week . It was certified quintuple platinum by the Recording Industry Association of America ( RIAA ) ; by November 2013 , both Good Girl Gone Bad and the reissue had sold 2 @,@ 800 @,@ 000 copies in the United States alone . To date , it is her best @-@ selling album in the former country . The album debuted atop of the Canadian Albums Chart and became Rihanna 's second number @-@ one album in the country . It was certified quintuple platinum by Music Canada , denoting shipments of more than 500 @,@ 000 copies .
Good Girl Gone Bad debuted at number one on the UK Albums Chart . It became her first album to top the chart , and stayed on the chart for 177 weeks . In 2011 , the album peaked at number 16 on the UK R & B Albums Chart . It was certified sextuple platinum by the British Phonographic Industry ( BPI ) and sold over 1 @,@ 850 @,@ 000 copies in the country . It ended at number 10 on the UK 2007 year @-@ end list and number six on the 2008 year @-@ end list . As of March 2015 , Good Girl Gone Bad is the 46th best @-@ selling album of the millennium in the United Kingdom . In Ireland , Good Girl Gone Bad debuted at number three on the Irish Singles Chart on June 7 , 2007 . After four weeks on the chart , it reached the top . The album peaked at number one on the Swiss Hitparade chart and stayed on the chart for 91 weeks . In Australia , it peaked at number two and was certified triple platinum by the Australian Recording Industry Association ( ARIA ) , denoting shipments of over 210 @,@ 000 copies . By November 2011 , Good Girl Gone Bad had sold over 11 million copies worldwide .
= = Impact = =
According to Biography.com , Good Girl Gone Bad inspired Rihanna to transform her image from a " teen pop princess " persona into a " fully fledged superstar and sex symbol " . People magazine noted that Rihanna follows the likes of recording artists Janet Jackson and Christina Aguilera " when she sheds her innocent image for an edgier look and sound " . Jay @-@ Z also spoke about " Umbrella " and stated that the song represents an artistic grow for Rihanna , " If you listen to the lyrics to that song , you know the depth and how far she 's come . " Regarding the commercial impact of the album , Entertainment Weekly 's Margeaux Watson wrote , " For a pop star who was once dismissed as being incapable of yielding more than one hit song per album , Rihanna 's newfound staying power is nothing short of remarkable – and proof that there 's room for more than one diva in this game . " Jason Birchmeier of AllMusic concluded that it was Good Girl Gone Bad that made Rihanna a " full @-@ fledged international pop star with a regular presence atop the charts " . Nick Levine of Digital Spy described the album , as the closest thing to a Thriller that 2007 / 08 is likely to produce .
At the 2008 Grammy Awards ceremony , Good Girl Gone Bad received seven Grammy Awards nominations , including Record of the Year and Song of the Year for " Umbrella " , Best Dance Recording for " Don 't Stop the Music " , Best R & B Performance by a Duo or Group with Vocals and Best R & B Song for " Hate That I Love You " . It won the accolade for Best Rap / Sung Collaboration for " Umbrella " . Additionally , magazine Rolling Stone placed " Umbrella " at number 412 on their 500 Greatest Songs of All Time list . The album also won the International Album of the Year award at the 2008 Juno Awards .
Before its physical release , " Umbrella " achieved the biggest debut in the six @-@ year history of the iTunes Store in the United States , breaking a record previously held by the 2006 single " Hips Don 't Lie " . Following its digital release , the song debuted atop the Hot Digital Songs chart , with first @-@ week sales of more than 277 @,@ 000 units . The single became the highest digital debut in the United States since Nielsen SoundScan began tracking downloads in 2003 , surpassing Timberlake 's " SexyBack " 250 @,@ 000 sales record in 2006 .
= = Track listings = =
Notes
^ a denotes a vocal producer
^ b denotes a co @-@ producer
^ c denotes a remixer and additional producer
" Push Up on Me " samples " Running with the Night " , as written by Lionel Richie and Cynthia Weil , and performed by Richie .
" Don 't Stop the Music " samples " Wanna Be Startin ' Somethin ' " , as written and performed by Michael Jackson , which itself samples " Soul Makossa " , as performed by Manu Dibango .
" Shut Up and Drive " samples " Blue Monday " , as written and performed by New Order ( Stephen Morris , Peter Hook , Bernard Sumner and Gillian Gilbert ) .
" Say It " samples " Flex " , as written by Ewart Brown , Clifton Dillon , Sly Dunbar and Brian Thompson , and performed by Mad Cobra .
= = Personnel = =
Credits for Good Girl Gone Bad adapted from AllMusic .
= = Charts = =
= = Certifications = =
= = Release history = =
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= Thomas Hutchinson ( governor ) =
Thomas Hutchinson ( 9 September 1711 – 3 June 1780 ) was a businessman , historian , and a prominent Loyalist politician of the Province of Massachusetts Bay in the years before the American Revolution . A successful merchant and politician , Hutchinson was active at high levels of the Massachusetts government for many years , serving as lieutenant governor and then governor from 1758 to 1774 . He was a politically polarising figure who , despite initial opposition to Parliamentary tax laws directed at the colonies , came to be identified by John Adams and Samuel Adams as a proponent of hated British taxes . He was blamed by Lord North ( the British Prime Minister at the time ) for being a significant contributor to the tensions that led the outbreak of the American Revolutionary War .
Hutchinson 's Boston mansion was ransacked in 1765 during protests against the Stamp Act , damaging his collection of materials on early Massachusetts history . As acting governor in 1770 he exposed himself to mob attack in the aftermath of the Boston massacre , after which he ordered the removal of troops from Boston to Castle William . Letters of his calling for abridgement of colonial rights were published in 1773 , further intensifying dislike of him in the colony . He was replaced as governor in May 1774 by General Thomas Gage , and went into exile in England , where he advised the government on how to deal with the Americans .
Hutchinson had a deep interest in colonial history , collecting a large number of historical documents . He wrote a three volume History of the Province of Massachusetts Bay , whose last volume , published posthumously , covered his own period in office . Historian Bernard Bailyn wrote of Hutchinson , " If there was one person in America whose actions might have altered the outcome [ of the protests and disputes preceding the American Revolutionary War ] , it was he . " Scholars use Hutchinson 's career to represent the tragic fate of the many Loyalists marginalized by their attachment to an outmoded imperial structure at a time when the modern nation @-@ state was emerging . Paralysed by his ideology and his dual loyalties to America and Britain , Hutchinson exemplifies the Loyalist @-@ as @-@ loser . He sacrificed his love for Massachusetts to his uncritical loyalty to Great Britain , where he spent his last years in unhappy exile .
= = Early life = =
Thomas Hutchinson was born on 9 September 1711 in the North End of Boston , the fourth of twelve children of Thomas and Sarah Foster Hutchinson . Descended from early New England settlers ( including Anne Hutchinson by her son , Edward Hutchinson ) , his parents were both from well @-@ to @-@ do merchant families . His father was involved in the family mercantile trade , but was also active in political , military , and charitable circles and served on the provincial council .
Young Thomas entered Harvard College at twelve , graduating in 1727 . His father introduced him to the business world early , and he displayed remarkable business acumen . According to his autobiographical sketch of his childhood , Hutchinson turned a modest gift of " five quintals of fish " from his father into between £ 400 and £ 500 by the time he was 21 . In 1732 he received some exposure to politics when he accompanied Governor Jonathan Belcher on a voyage to Casco Bay for negotiations with the Abenaki of Maine , then part of Massachusetts . The voyage was made in a vessel of which Hutchinson was part owner . In 1734 he married Margaret Sanford , a granddaughter of Rhode Island Governor Peleg Sanford . The Sanford and Hutchinson families had a long history of business and personal connections ; Margaret was in fact a distant relative . { Mrs. Hutchinson was also descended from Rhode Island governor William Coddington } The Marriage secured a political alliance between Hutchinson and Andrew and Peter Oliver which lasted long after Margaret 's death . Mary Sanford 's sister Mary { 1713 @-@ 1773 } was the second wife of Andrew Oliver . Likewise a daughter of Thomas Hutchinson married a son of Peter Oliver . The Oliver brothers were also related to Massachusetts governor Jonathan Belcher and to New Hampshire Lt govs . William Partridge and George Vaughan ( Harvard Class of 1696 ) . The couple had twelve children , only five of whom survived to adulthood , before Margaret died in 1754 from complications of childbirth .
= = Legislator and councillor = =
In 1737 Hutchinson entered politics , being elected as a Boston selectman , and later in the year , to a seat in the General Court ( the provincial assembly ) . He spoke out against the province 's practice of issuing bills of credit ( as a form of paper currency ) , whose inflationary drop in value wrought havoc in the economy . This position was unpopular with the populist party in the province , and Hutchinson was voted out in the 1739 election . He was sent to England as an agent to plead on behalf of property owners affected by King George II 's decision concerning the boundary line between Massachusetts and New Hampshire which significantly favored New Hampshire . Hutchinson 's embassy was unsuccessful , although he returned with a bequest to Harvard for the construction of a new chapel ; Holden Chapel , built with these funds , still stands today .
In 1742 Hutchinson was again elected to the General Court , where he served until 1749 , being the body 's speaker from 1746 to 1749 . His continued advocacy of currency reforms so annoyed the populist faction that the need to guard his properties in Boston and Milton from possible mob action was discussed . When the British government was convinced to refund the province 's expense for mounting the 1745 Louisbourg expedition , Hutchinson seized upon the idea of using the massive payment ( about £ 180 @,@ 000 in gold and silver ) to retire the province 's paper currency . Despite significant opposition , Hutchinson successfully navigated a bill implementing the idea through the assembly 's general court in 1749 ; it received the agreement of the Governor 's Council , and also the signature of Governor William Shirley . Many of the bill 's opponents were pleasantly surprised when the exchange of paper for specie did not cause any financial shocks , and Hutchinson 's popularity soared .
Despite the success , Hutchinson was voted out of the assembly in 1749 . He was , however , immediately appointed to the Governor 's Council . In 1749 he headed a commission to arrange a treaty with the Indians in the District of Maine , which was then part of Massachusetts , and he served on boundary commissions to settle disputes with Connecticut and Rhode Island . In 1752 he was appointed judge of probate and a justice of the Common Pleas . Following the outbreak of the French and Indian War in 1754 , he was a delegate to the Albany Convention . In that meeting he took a leading part in the discussions , working with Benjamin Franklin to draft a plan for colonial union . Hutchinson agreed with Franklin that the present disunity endangered the British colonies , and that decisive action must be taken to knit the too @-@ often @-@ competing colonies into a coherent whole . Most important , the report drafted by Hutchinson concluded that the colonies must be encouraged to establish " a Union of His Majesty 's several governments on the continent , that so their councils , treasure , and strength may be employed in due proportion against their common enemy " .
Hutchinson 's wife died quite suddenly in 1754 ; Hutchinson thereafter threw himself into his work . His work was not entirely of a political nature : in a humanitarian streak he supported Acadian refugees who had been expelled from their Nova Scotia homelands , even though this support of Roman Catholics did not gain him friends in Protestant Massachusetts . He was also sensitive to the needs of the military men involved in the war , often giving aid to needy families of veterans .
= = Lieutenant Governor of Massachusetts = =
When Governor Shirley 's political opponents engineered his recall in 1757 , Hutchinson sought and received the endorsement of the British military leader Lord Loudoun in an effort to succeed Shirley as governor . During this time Hutchinson was the leading politician in the province due to the age and infirmity of Lieutenant Governor Spencer Phips . Hutchinson 's application was unsuccessful , but he did receive an appointment as lieutenant governor in 1758 , serving under Thomas Pownall . Hutchinson 's relationship with Pownall was awkward , for Pownall was at the center of political activities that dislodged Governor Shirley , under whose patronage Hutchinson had risen in power and influence . Pownall cultivated relations with the populist factions in the state , and sought to remove the influence of Shirley supporters , sometimes asking Hutchinson to turn against people he ( Hutchinson ) had earlier supported . This Hutchinson refused to do , since he saw these actions as harming the province 's stability and taking place at " the caprice of the governor " . Pownall , whose mistrust of Hutchinson was reciprocated , requested to leave to return to England in late 1759 . The political opposition of Shirley supporters and the death of some of his leading populist supporters may have contributed to this decision . He departed the province on 3 June 1760 , leaving Hutchinson as acting governor . Several months later Pownall 's replacement , Francis Bernard , arrived to take the reins of power .
= = = Writs of assistance = = =
One of Bernard 's early acts was the appointment of Hutchinson instead of James Otis , Sr. , as Chief Justice of the Massachusetts Superior Court of Judicature . This action by itself turned the province 's populists , whose vocal leaders included Otis and his son James Jr . , against both Hutchinson and Bernard , with long term consequences to Hutchinson 's reputation . Hutchinson , with no legal training , had not sought the post , and some emerging legal thinkers , notably a rising young lawyer named John Adams , were also outraged .
In 1761 Hutchinson brought upon himself a storm of protest and criticism by issuing writs of assistance , documents that authorised essentially arbitrary searches by customs officials . Although some had been issued ( ironically over Hutchinson 's objections ) in earlier years , the writs he authorised were in some cases renewals of existing writs necessitated by the accession of King George III to the throne . Adams and the Otises seized on the issue to rail against his monopolisation of power ( since he was also a lieutenant governor and sat on the council ) and lack of legal qualifications for the post of chief justice .
= = = Taxes and the Stamp Act = = =
When the Sugar Act was being discussed in Parliament in 1763 , proposals were put forward to send Hutchinson to England to represent the colony 's opposition to the proposal . Governor Bernard , however , objected to sending the sitting lieutenant governor , and the bill was enacted . Much colonial protest followed , and Hutchinson was in agreement with vocal opponents like the Otises ( who around this time began using the phrase " no taxation without representation " ) that the law harmed the Massachusetts economy . In the ensuing debates , however , differences emerged between Hutchinson and others over Parliament 's supremacy and the feasibility of having formal colonial representation there , which were exacerbated by the personal animosity that had developed between Hutchinson and the Otises . Led by James Otis , Jr. and Oxenbridge Thacher , the anti @-@ Parliament faction seized on every minor dispute to rail against Hutchinson and his faction 's monopolisation of power . Hutchinson was at first dismissive of these ongoing political attacks , believing that his opponents were either misguided or misled . Biographer Andrew Walmsley observes that Hutchinson at this stage seriously underestimated the impact of these attacks in building a coherent opposition to crown control , and in the damage it was doing to his own reputation .
In debates leading up to the passage of the 1765 Stamp Act , both Hutchinson and Bernard quietly warned London not to proceed . Hutchinson in particular wrote that " It cannot be good to tax the Americans ... You will lose more than you gain . " When the assembly met to draft a petition to London on the matter in October 1764 , Hutchinson opposed the inclusion of the radicals ' language , and eventually pushed through a more moderate statement of opposition . However , the Massachusetts petition was seen as weak in comparison to those prepared by other colonies , and Hutchinson was claimed to be secretly seeking to promote the Stamp Act . He was also accused of " treachery " and " betraying his country " . News of the act 's passage propelled one of the most vocal opponents of Parliamentary supremacy , Samuel Adams , into a larger role in provincial politics . Hutchinson privately supported calls for its repeal , but his unwillingness to publicly oppose the act merely provided additional fuel for his opponents .
= = = Mob violence = = =
Hutchinson 's brother @-@ in @-@ law , colonial secretary Andrew Oliver , was given the job of " stamp master " , with responsibility for implementing the act in the province . Although Hutchinson apparently had no hand in this assignment , his opponents were quick to accuse him of further duplicity . His attempts to explain his position only fuelled the opposition , who recounted his early unpopular acts and questioned his motives in those deeds . On 13 August 1765 , mobs descended on Oliver 's home and office , ransacking both . The next night Hutchinson 's Boston mansion was surrounded , and the crowd demanded that he formally deny arguing in favour of the Stamp Act in his correspondence with London . He refused , and only the intervention of a moderate leader prevented any action that night .
Twelve days later , on the evening of 26 August , a mob again formed outside of his mansion , and this time they would not be denied . Described by one architectural historian as " the first developed example of provincial Palladianism in New England , " the house was broken into ( Hutchinson and his family narrowly escaping ) , and systematically ransacked . The house finishings ( wainscoting and other decorative woodwork ) were effectively destroyed , and even the building 's cupola was taken down in violence that lasted the entire night . The family silver , furniture , and other items were stolen or destroyed ( although some items were eventually returned ) , and Hutchinson 's collection of historically important manuscripts was scattered . Hutchinson was then working on the final volume of his three volume history of the Massachusetts Bay colony . Many pages of the work were lost that night and had to be recreated . Hutchinson 's detailed inventory ( reprinted by biographer James Kendall Hosmer ) valued the damage done at more than £ 2 @,@ 200 , and he eventually received over £ 3 @,@ 100 from the province for his troubles . Hutchinson and his family temporarily took refuge at Castle William , and thereafter took up primary residence at Hutchinson 's estate in Milton .
= = Governor of Massachusetts = =
Because of the controversy over the Stamp Act , the radical faction came to control both the assembly and the governor 's council in 1766 , and Hutchinson was denied a seat on the governor 's council . Amid increased furor after the passage of the 1767 Townshend Acts , Governor Bernard requested and received British Army troops to protect crown officials . Letters written by Bernard describing conditions in the province were acquired by the radical opposition and published , leading to his recall . Bernard left for England on 1 August 1769 , leaving Hutchinson as acting governor . Hutchinson was unsuccessful in his attempts to distance himself from the unpopular Bernard administration , and he continued to be attacked in the assembly and the local press . Despite this , he continued to lobby for a formal appointment as governor . He categorically refused to again serve as lieutenant governor under another governor , preferring instead a posting elsewhere , or to resign the lieutenant governorship .
Hutchinson was still acting governor when protests over the Townshend taxes erupted into the Boston Massacre on 5 March 1770 , when British soldiers fired into a crowd , killing five people . Hutchinson went to the scene in the aftermath of the shooting , and promised that justice would be applied fairly . He had all of the British soldiers involved in the incident arrested the next day , but ongoing unrest in the city compelled him to request the withdrawal of British troops from the city to Castle William . Hutchinson was able to postpone the trial for almost 6 months to allow anger to settle and for Adams to prepare a solid case . The soldiers were eventually tried , and two were convicted of manslaughter , although their sentences were reduced . The episode shook Hutchinson 's confidence in his ability to manage affairs in the province , and he penned a resignation letter .
Governor Bernard had , in the mean time , taken up Hutchinson 's cause in London . In March 1771 Hutchinson 's commission as governor arrived in Boston , having been approved by the king while his resignation letter was going the other way . ( Colonial secretary Lord Hillsborough rejected his resignation . ) The instructions sent with the commission were fairly strict , and left Hutchinson relatively little room to manoeuvre politically . Instructions that particularly galled Samuel Adams included one restricting the meetings of the governor 's council , and another limiting the appointment of colonial agents to individuals having the governor 's approval .
One of Hutchinson 's instructions was to relocate the provincial assembly from Boston to Cambridge , where it would be less under the influence of radical Boston politics . This modest demand , accomplished by executive order , resulted in howls of complaint of gubernatorial arbitrariness in the assembly , and an exchange of arguments , rebuttals , and counterarguments between Hutchinson and the assembly that ran for thousands of pages and lasted until 1772 . The nature of the affair furthered the radical cause , whose proponents painted Hutchinson 's action as a bold and devious attempt to further the executive prerogative . The radicals were further outraged when Hutchinson announced in 1772 that his salary , which had previously been subject to appropriation by the assembly , would be paid by the crown instead . This was seen by the radicals as a further usurpation of power that rightfully belonged in the province . Written debates with the assembly extended to the role of Parliament in governing the policies , and further deepened the divide between it and Hutchinson . They also raised flags elsewhere in the colonies and in England , where observers noted that Hutchinson 's arguments had effectively driven moderates in the province to join with the political hardliners .
= = = Letters affair and Tea Party = = =
The Massachusetts debate reached a pitch in 1772 when Hutchinson , in a speech to the assembly , argued that either the colony was wholly subject to Parliament , or that it was effectively independent . The assembly 's response , authored by John Adams , Samuel Adams , and Joseph Hawley , countered that the colonial charter granted autonomy . In England the colonial secretary , Lord Dartmouth , insisted to colonial agent Benjamin Franklin that the Massachusetts assembly retract its response . Franklin had acquired a packet of letters , written in the late 1760s by Hutchinson and other colonial officials , from which he concluded that Hutchinson and Oliver had mischaracterized the situation in the colonies , and thus misled Parliament . Believing that wider knowledge of these letters would focus colonial anger away from Parliament and at those who had written the misleading letters , Franklin sent the letters to Thomas Cushing , the speaker of the Massachusetts assembly , in December 1772 . He insisted to Cushing that they not be published or widely circulated , because he was not " at liberty to make the letters public . " The letters came into the hands of Samuel Adams , then serving as the clerk of the assembly , who engineered their publication in June 1773 . Franklin 's belief was only partially vindicated : the publication of the letters unleashed a torrent of vitriol against Hutchinson , but did nothing to lessen opposition to Parliamentary policy : instead the opposition saw the letters as confirmation of a conspiracy against their rights . The letters were reprinted throughout the colonies , and Hutchinson was burned in effigy in places as far away as Philadelphia during the uproar .
Hutchinson 's letters , written between 1767 and 1769 to Thomas Whately , a retired former leading member of the British government , included the observation that it was impossible for colonists to have the full rights they would have in the home country , essentially requiring an " abridgement of what are called English liberties " . He made no specific proposals on how the colonial government should be reformed , writing in a letter that was not among those published , " I can think of nothing but what will produce as great an evil as that which it may remove or will be of a very uncertain event . " Letters by Andrew Oliver , in contrast , specifically proposed that the governor 's council , whose members where then elected by the assembly with the governor 's consent , be changed to one whose members were appointed by the crown .
Although much of what Hutchinson wrote in the letters was not particularly new , Samuel Adams masterfully manipulated the contents and implications of some of the statements by Hutchinson and Oliver to suggest they were conspiring with officials in London to deprive the colonists of their rights . Hutchinson was defended in print by provincial attorney general Jonathan Sewall , who claimed that Hutchinson was not actually expressing desired changes in the state of affairs , but ruminating instead on possible consequences of present conditions .
The Massachusetts assembly drafted a petition to the Board of Trade demanding Hutchinson 's removal from office , and Hutchinson , concerned with the effect the letter publication and the assembly petition would have in London , requested permission to come to England to defend himself . The letter authorizing his return did not reach Boston until November 1773 , too late for him to depart that year ; his request and the assembly 's petition would not be heard until early 1774 .
In the meantime , Parliament had repealed most of the Townshend taxes ( keeping only the one on tea ) , and passed the Tea Act , which authorised the British East India Company to ship tea directly to the colonies , eliminating colonial merchants from its supply chain and undercutting the price of smuggled Dutch tea . This caused colonial merchants all over the North American colonies to organise opposition to the deliveries of the company 's tea . In Massachusetts the arrival of ships carrying tea in November 1773 brought about a crisis , since duties were to be paid on dutiable cargo within twenty days of a ship 's arrival . Hutchinson and his sons were among the businessmen to whom the company had consigned its tea , although Hutchinson disclaimed any official role in the choice of consignee . Other cargo was unloaded from the ships , but armed protestors patrolled the docks to ensure the tea was not landed . Hutchinson took a hard line , refusing to allow the tea ships to leave the harbour despite city @-@ wide protests that the tea be sent back to England , and insisting that the duty be paid and the tea landed . When the twenty @-@ day deadline arrived on 16 December , protestors ( some in Indian disguise ) boarded the ships that night and dumped the tea into the harbour .
Hutchinson justified the hardline stance that contributed to the crisis by claiming it was his duty as governor to uphold the revenue laws , while American opponents such as James Bowdoin observed that he could have just as easily refused to accept the tea when it was clear that popular sentiment would make it impossible to land the tea . British critics complained that he should have asked the British troops in Boston to intervene . After it became known that other tea ships sent to North America had turned back , Hutchinson continued to justify his actions in letters to England , anticipating hearings on the matter once he arrived there .
When the Board of Trade met to consider the assembly 's petition to recall Hutchinson , it also discussed the tea party . Franklin , as colonial agent , was forced to listen to a barrage of criticism , and was dismissed as colonial postmaster general . The assembly 's petition was dismissed as " groundless " and " vexatious " , but Hutchinson 's request for leave was granted . In May 1774 General Thomas Gage arrived in Boston to take over as governor , and to implement the " Coercive Acts " Parliament had passed as punishment for the tea party . Hutchinson , believing he would only be away from Massachusetts temporarily , sailed for England on 1 June 1774 .
= = Exile = =
Upon his arrival in London , Hutchinson was granted an audience with the king , who questioned him on affairs in North America , and he was well received by Rockingham , Dartmouth , and Lord North , the prime minister . In his interview with North he expressed dismay at the terms of the Massachusetts Government Act , and sought to establish a basis for the eventual repeal of the Boston Port Act , whose enactment by Governor Gage had a crippling effect on the province 's economy . One part of the Government Act , the appointment by the crown of the governor 's council , was something he had long opposed without formal hearings on the matter , but even colonial authorities sympathetic to his view believed events had by 1774 gone too far for the British political establishment to support alternatives . At the outbreak of the American Revolutionary War in April 1775 his Milton mansion was seized for use as an army barracks , and a trunk containing copies of much of his correspondence fell into rebel hands .
As the war progressed , Hutchinson was criticised by the Whigs in Parliament , which he answered in an unpublished manuscript . He continued to be treated favourably by the king , but was compelled to refuse the offer of a baronetcy because most of his fortune was lost due to his exile , and became marginalised from power as prosecution of the war took center stage . On 4 July 1776 , Hutchinson was awarded an honorary doctorate of law by Oxford University . His enemies in Massachusetts continued to attack his reputation , and his exile made it impossible to effectively dispute the charges they made . His properties , like those of other exiled Loyalists , were seized and sold off by the state ; his Milton home was eventually purchased by James and Mercy Otis Warren ( the latter being the sister of his long @-@ time enemy James Otis , Jr . )
Bitter and disillusioned about his forced exile , and grieving the loss of his daughter Peggy in 1777 , Hutchinson continued to work on his history of the colony which was the fruit of many decades of research . Two volumes were published in his lifetime : Volume 1 of the History of Massachusetts appeared in 1764 , and Volume 2 in 1767 . The third volume would be published posthumously , and included his own tenure as lieutenant governor and governor . At the same time he worked to complete a history of the Hutchinson family , in which he encapsulated details on political affairs not found elsewhere . He suffered a stroke and died at Brompton , a part of London , on 3 June 1780 , aged 68 , and was buried at Croydon .
= = Legacy and memory = =
Because of his central role as the main focal point for the opposition to royal rule , Hutchinson 's reputation in America was generally quite poor . He was often seen as a traitor to his native Massachusetts and to the cause of freedom . John Adams was characteristically harsh in his assessment of him , calling him " avaricious " and describing him as a " courtier " who manipulated those at higher levels of power to achieve his aims . He was also criticized by British political figures : Thomas Pownall continued to disagree with Hutchinson after the latter 's exile , Francis Bernard ( despite working on Hutchinson 's behalf ) disapproved of some of his actions , and Lord North believed the publication of his letters to be responsible for the outbreak of the war .
Biographers in the 20th century have , however , rehabilitated his reputation , seeking to explain how and why he came to be demonized in this way . In recent decades historians have typically portrayed Hutchinson as a tragic figure torn between his rulers in London and his people in Massachusetts . Barbara Tuchman , for example , portrays Hutchinson as an " ill @-@ fated " and " tragic figure . " British scholar David Kenneth Fieldhouse says his tragedy emerged because he was “ a victim of the clash of two ideologies , his own archaic and static , that of his opponents contemporary and dynamic . " Carl L. Becker , a prominent American historian wrote : " Nothing would have pleased him [ Hutchinson ] more than that New England should have shown its emancipation from provincialism by meriting the good will of the King . His irritation with America in general and Boston in particular was the irritation of a proud and possessive father with a beloved but wayward child who fails to do him credit in high places . " Bailyn has changed his own interpretation over the years . In the 1970s he saw Hutchinson as a bewildered pragmatist . By 2004 he portrayed Hutchinson as a premodern thinker locked in an old mindset at a time when Enlightenment ideas were taking hold thanks to thinkers such as Adam Smith and Tom Paine .
Remnants of Hutchinson 's country estate in Milton have been preserved . The main piece , a parcel of land known as Governor Hutchinson 's Field , is owned by The Trustees of the Reservations , and is listed on the National Register of Historic Places . It is open to the public , and a nearby property features a ha @-@ ha constructed for Hutchinson in 1771 . The ha @-@ ha is listed on the National Register of Historic Places , and both properties are part of the Milton Hill Historic District . Boston , which had landmarks named after the Hutchinson family , took pains upon his departure to rename them .
= = Publications = =
Hutchinson , Thomas ( 1764 ) . The History of the Colony of Massachusett 's Bay : From the First Settlement Thereof in 1628 , until its Incorporation with the Colony of Plimouth Province , Province of Main etc . , by the Charter of King William and Queen Mary in 1691 . Boston : Thomas and John Fleet . First volume of Hutchinson 's History
Hutchinson , Thomas ( 1767 ) . The History of the Province of Massachusetts @-@ Bay : From the Charter of King William and Queen Mary in 1691 , Until the Year 1750 . Boston : Thomas and John Fleet . Second volume of Hutchinson 's History
Hutchinson , Thomas ( 1828 ) . Hutchinson , John , ed . The History of the Province of Massachusetts Bay : From 1749 to 1774 , Comprising a Detailed Narrative of the Origin and Early Stages of the American Revolution . London : John Murray . Third volume of Hutchinson 's History , published posthumously
Hutchinson , Thomas ( 1776 ) . Strictures Upon the Declaration . London : self @-@ published . Commentary on the United States Declaration of Independence
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= Vígríðr =
In Norse mythology , Vígríðr or Óskópnir is a large field foretold to host a battle between the forces of the gods and the forces of Surtr as part of the events of Ragnarök . The field is attested in the Poetic Edda , compiled in the 13th century from earlier traditional material , and in the Prose Edda , written by Snorri Sturluson in the 13th century . The Poetic Edda briefly mentions the field as where the two forces will battle , whereas the Prose Edda features a fuller account , foretelling that it is the location of the future death of several deities ( and their enemies ) before the world is engulfed in flames and reborn .
= = Etymology = =
The Old Norse place name Vígríðr means " battle @-@ surge " or " place on which battle surges " . The name Vígríðr is sometimes modernly anglicized as Vigrid , Vigrith , or Wigrid . The etymology of the name Óskópnir is a matter of scholarly debate , but has been proposed as meaning " the ( not yet ) created " , " not made " or " mismade " .
= = Attestations = =
= = = Poetic Edda = = =
In the Poetic Edda poem Vafþrúðnismál , the god Odin , disguised as " Gagnráðr " faces off with the wise jötunn Vafþrúðnir in a battle of wits . Among numerous other questions , Vafþrúðnir asks Odin to tell him what the name of the plain is where the gods and Surtr will meet . Odin responds that the name of the plain is Vígríðr , and that the size of the field is 100 leagues in every direction :
In his translation notes for these stanzas , Henry Adams Bellows notes that " a hundred miles " is a " general phrase for a vast distance " .
In the Poetic Edda poem Fáfnismál , the dying wyrm Fáfnir is asked by the hero Sigurd what the name of the island is where Surtr and the gods will battle is called . Fáfnir replies that the island is called Óskópnir .
= = = Prose Edda = = =
In the Prose Edda book Gylfaginning , the enthroned figure of High foretells the events of Ragnarök . High says the Muspell 's forces will gather at the field Vígríðr , a field which he adds is " a hundred leagues in each direction " . Then the monstrous wolf Fenrir and the immense serpent Jörmungandr will arrive . By that time , the jötunn Hrym with all of the frost @-@ jötnar and Loki with " all Hel 's people " will have also arrived .
As these forces gather , the god Heimdallr will stand and blow into his horn , Gjallarhorn , which will awaken the gods . The gods will meet and hold a thing . Odin will ride to the well Mímisbrunnr and will consult Mímir on behalf of himself and his people . Yggdrasil , the cosmological tree , will shiver and all beings will be fearful . The gods and the einherjar will don their war gear and advance to Vígríðr . Odin , wearing a golden helmet , a coat of mail , and brandishing his spear Gungnir , will ride in the front .
Odin will make directly for Fenrir and the god Thor , by Odin 's side , will be unable to help him because he will be fighting Jörmungandr . The god Freyr will engage the fiery being Surtr and , since Freyr lacks the sword he gave his servant Skírnir , Freyr will fall after a rough struggle . The god Tyr will fight the hound Garmr and the two will kill one another . Thor will kill the serpent Jörmungandr but after nine steps will collapse to the ground , dead from Jörmungandr 's venom . Fenrir will eat Odin , but immediately after Odin 's son Víðarr will come forward and jet his foot on to the wolf 's lower jaw , and grasp its upper jaw , ripping its mouth apart , killing it . Loki and Heimdallr will kill one another and , after their death , Surtr will spray fire over the earth and burn the entire world .
Later in the same chapter , High quotes Odin 's response from the above @-@ mentioned chapter of Vafþrúðnismál .
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= History of San Diego State University =
The history of San Diego State University began in the late 19th century with the establishment of a normal school in San Diego , California . Founded on March 13 , 1897 , the school opened on November 1 , 1898 with a class of 135 students . By 1921 , the school had become San Diego State Teachers College , allowing it to grant certificates and degrees . Due to the increased student enrollment , the college was relocated to its current location at the east side of Mission Valley , with classes beginning in February 1931 . The government works programs during the Great Depression assisted in construction of numerous buildings on the new campus .
World War I and II both affected student enrollment , and led many students and faculty members to serve in the armed forces . By the end of the 1950s , the student population was at 10 @,@ 000 , and the renamed San Diego State College was now the fourth largest California state institution . In the 1960s and 1970s the campus saw increased enrollment , the accreditation of its professional schools , multiple incidents of student activism , and on January 1 , 1974 , a new name : San Diego State University ( SDSU ) . By 1987 , the university 's population peaked at nearly 36 @,@ 000 students and attained the status of the largest university in California and tenth in the nation .
Recently , the university has worked to improve its academic rankings , and faced adversities including a school shooting and a large drug bust . As the university continues to grant numerous degrees in various fields , it has developed several construction plans for replacement of some of its older buildings and infrastructure .
= = Establishment = =
In the late 1890s , San Diego officials believed that a normal school should be established to help the town grow and increase certification of teachers . The tuition and travel for out @-@ of @-@ town normal schools were large and San Diegans desired to have a closer school . San Diego had to compete with Fresno , Los Angeles , and several other cities for a school , and its first attempt to establish one in 1895 was vetoed by California governor James Budd . On March 13 , 1897 Governor Budd changed course and signed legislation appropriating $ 50 @,@ 000 to allow for the establishment of a state normal school in San Diego , to be located in University Heights . By 1905 , total funds appropriated to the school totaled $ 333 @,@ 300 .
The Board of Trustees for San Diego Normal School was established by Budd and first met on June 3 , 1897 . They appointed Samuel T. Black , who had previously served as the California Superintendent for Public Instruction , as president of the new school by unanimous decision on October 1 , 1898 . On January 21 , 1898 , the San Diego firm Hebbard and Gill was selected to design the new school building . The architect Irving Gill , who developed the building in a Beaux @-@ Arts style , was responsible for the design . The ground was broken for construction on August 1 , the cornerstone of the building was laid on December 10 , and the building was dedicated on May 1 , 1899 . During the building 's construction , the first classes were held at the Hill Block on the southwest corner of 6th and F street in downtown San Diego beginning on November 1 , 1898 . The classes moved to the Normal School in May 1899 , even as construction continued . 135 students ( 90 % of whom were women ) , were enrolled by the end of the first year ; enrollment grew to 400 by 1910 .
In the summer of 1899 , San Diego Normal School became the first California normal school to offer summer courses , and maintained this position until 1913 . On June 21 , 1900 , the first class was graduated : 23 women and three men . Later that year , the east wing of the initial building was finished , adding 18 rooms . In 1903 , $ 61 @,@ 000 was appropriated by the state for a west wing ; it included a gym , library , laboratories , lecture rooms , and a museum . The west wing was completed in September 1904 . In 1906 , the California legislature required that students have a high school diploma in order to be admitted to a normal school . This was the same requirement as for entry into the University of California .
In 1910 , Samuel Black resigned , and was replaced by Edward L. Hardy , who had previously served as the principal of San Diego High School . He increased the faculty size from 19 to 27 in 1912 to meet the demands of increased enrollment . The annual salary for the president increased to $ 4 @,@ 000 ( from $ 3 @,@ 400 ) in 1915 and salaries for the faculty and administration ranged from $ 600 – 2 @,@ 500 ( compared to the national average of $ 687 for all industries except for farm labor ) . Hardy argued for the pay increases , claiming increases would " give merited and much needed relief ... [ and ] will be entirely justified by the increased good of the service . " More buildings were added after appropriations of funds in 1907 and total expenditures for the campus reached $ 312 @,@ 000 . Even with the expansion , by 1910 space was limited , so the training school dropped the high school program , although it still taught the elementary and intermediate grades ( 7th and 8th grades ) . In 1914 , of the 136 new students for the school year , 17 were from California counties ( excluding San Diego ) , while 26 were from other states . This proportion would remain common throughout the school 's history as the majority of its students were from the San Diego area .
= = World War I = =
World War I had a large impact on the school . A newfound sense of patriotism had the administration require students to recite the Pledge of Allegiance as an entrance requirement to the school . The war also had an effect on enrollment as all of the male students gradually left the school to join the war efforts ; in 1916 there were 421 total students , 382 in 1917 , 172 in 1918 ( including only one male student ) , and in 1919 , 147 students . In addition to the students , some of the faculty members joined the military . Due to the decreased student enrollment , the remaining faculty had the opportunity to further their own training . On campus , both students and faculty worked with the Red Cross , organized bond drives , and sent packages to troops overseas .
During this period , Hardy pushed the notion of granting the school college status . In 1921 , the California legislature made the school a four @-@ year teacher 's school , which placed it under the management of the State Department of Education . On July 28 , 1921 , the San Diego Normal School became San Diego State Teachers College ( usually shortened to San Diego State College or SDS ) . With this ranking , the college could now grant certificates and degrees . Prior to the school 's conversion , it had graduated 1 @,@ 500 teachers , educated many of the San Diego children at its training school , and helped to expand the economic and cultural development of the city . Also in 1921 , the legislature moved San Diego Junior College , that was a part of San Diego High School , to the college campus due to crowding issues . Administrators moved the junior college believing it would only overlap the same material taught at the teacher 's school . The junior college remained with the school until 1947 , when it became independent .
On June 30 , 1923 the legislature allowed the college to begin granting Bachelor of Arts degrees , which included accountancy , agriculture , and industrial engineering . On July 1 , 1927 , the junior college courses became lower @-@ division courses and on July 12 , 1928 the State Board of Education granted the college the ability to offer credentials in secondary education with majors in English , history , chemistry , and the Romance languages .
= = Move to current location = =
The Normal School was initially built for a maximum capacity of 600 students . Hardy proposed in 1922 building on a new campus at a 125 @-@ acre ( 51 ha ) plot at Park Boulevard ( near Balboa Park ) , which was rejected by San Diego voters . However , the California legislature authorized a move to a new site in 1925 if San Diego was willing to buy the old school building and provide a new site . The following year the Citizen 's Advisory Committee , a 21 @-@ member committee led by Mayor John L. Bacon , initially recommended the northeast part of Balboa Park that would be located over 122 acres ( 49 ha ) , but the location was voted down by San Diego voters . In 1927 , another location was selected , this time in Encanto , but was also voted down . In total , ten locations would be proposed before the final location was chosen . By June 1928 , the Bell @-@ Lloyd Investment Company offered 125 acres ( 51 ha ) at Mission Palisades , $ 50 @,@ 000 , and a promise to build a road connecting the site to El Cajon Blvd . The site was located at the east side of Mission Valley , about 10 miles ( 16 km ) away from the old site . The group proposed the site in hopes of it being the center of a new retail and housing development . Before the new site could be built , San Diego voters had to approve of buying the old site , which it did overwhelmingly on May 15 , 1928 . After the move to the new campus , the old Normal School building was used for Horace Mann Junior High and administrative offices . In 1955 , it was demolished to make room for a new wing of an administrative building .
George B. McDougall was selected as the supervising architect and the State Department of Architecture for Public Buildings designed the new campus . The initial planned cost was $ 7 @,@ 500 @,@ 000 . On October 7 , 1929 classes were dismissed early so all current students could attend the groundbreaking held on that day . Pettifer & Hupt was selected as the construction firm , and it completed several buildings by September 1930 . The first classes made up of 1 @,@ 220 students were held at Montezuma Mesa in February 1931 .
The Great Depression , although negative to the local economy , also benefited the San Diego State Teachers College , as the federal government made money available for construction projects in an attempt to stimulate the economy . For the campus , some of these construction projects included new buildings ( such as a $ 500 @,@ 000 stadium completed in 1936 and a $ 200 @,@ 000 open air theater completed in 1941 ) , facilities , and art works . Several federal programs were also created to give jobs to students and to increase financial aid .
In June 1935 , President Hardy retired and was replaced by Walter R. Hepner . The bell tower on campus was named in honor of Hardy in 1976 . On September 15 , 1935 , as a result of the California legislature dropping " teachers " from the names of state colleges , San Diego State Teachers College became San Diego State College ( SDSC ) . In 1935 the college began offering engineering courses . During that period , the college acquired $ 18 @,@ 000 from the state for the purpose of purchasing an additional 94 acres ( 38 ha ) .
= = World War II = =
Just as World War I had a significant impact on the college , World War II was pivotal in the college 's history too . Within four days of the attack on Pearl Harbor , thirteen students withdrew from the college to join the military . The enrollment dropped from 2 @,@ 077 students in 1940 to a low of 860 students ( 21 % were men ) in spring 1943 . Faculty decreased to as low as 60 from 112 before the war had begun . Before the war was over , 3 @,@ 500 SDSC graduates , students , former students , and faculty entered the armed forces , with 135 losing their lives . Not surprisingly for a city dominated by a naval base , a large majority joined the Navy . Others joined the Air Corps , participating in the Doolittle Raid over Japan and battles over the Philippines and the East Indies .
In 1942 , the campus became a War Information Center , one of 140 in the nation . The center was established to boost civilian morale and practice air raid drills . Rationing on campus of sugar , gas , soft drinks , and paper became common throughout the war . Classes were cut back due to the limited staff and the courses were shifted to more scientific and technological emphasis . The majority of the sports were canceled during the war and various drives were held to increase supplies sent to troops .
As the war neared its end , enrollment increased , until it reached 2 @,@ 000 students in 1946 . Nearly half of these students were veterans from the war , and they received a monthly stipend to assist with housing and tuition costs . Sports and activities resumed to their prior levels and by the end of the 1940s , the faculty had expanded to 230 personnel and 40 part @-@ time staff .
In 1946 , Hepner grouped the various disciplines into seven divisions : Education , Fine Arts , Humanities , Social Sciences , Life Sciences , Physical Sciences , and Health , Physical Education , and Recreation . In 1950 , the college awarded its first Master ’ s degree , and by the end of the decade offered Master ’ s degrees in 38 areas . On May 23 , 1947 , Governor Earl Warren signed legislation making SDSC an official four @-@ year liberal arts institution .
= = Postwar changes and expansion = =
In 1952 President Hepner retired , and was replaced by Malcolm A. Love , who previously served as president of the University of Nevada ( since 1950 ) . At this point , the college had more than 4 @,@ 800 students , 222 faculty members , offered 27 majors , had a budget of $ 2 @,@ 010 @,@ 000 and contributed more than $ 14 @,@ 000 @,@ 000 to the local San Diego economy .
By the end of the 1950s , the student population was over 10 @,@ 000 , placing it as the fourth largest California state institution and larger than 96 % of the U.S. ’ s colleges and universities at the time . In 1957 , entering freshmen scores on examinations were ranked in the top 10 % of all universities in the U.S. In the following years , the college ’ s scores also surpassed most of the other California state colleges . In 1957 the college became the first to use an identification number for each student , which was necessary to simplify handling of records , grades , and other tasks of the large number of students . To keep up with student expansion , the square footage of the buildings and classrooms was increased from 255 @,@ 434 to 1 @,@ 243 @,@ 737 .
In 1959 , the school began offering classes at Central Union High School in El Centro as part of its Imperial Valley branch . The campus remained focused on teacher training until the mid @-@ 1970s . In 1960 , the school became the first California state college to have an educational radio station , KPBS @-@ FM .
Before World War II , less than 25 % of the faculty had doctorates , and in an attempt to reach university status for the school , the 1956 Statement of General Policy on Employment of Faculty stipulated that incoming faculty had to have their doctorates ( or soon receive one ) in order to be hired . By the end of the 1950s , 56 % of permanent faculty had doctorates . By the beginning of 1965 this had increased to 68 % .
During the Red Scare , psychology professor Harry C. Steinmetz was accused of being a Communist . San Diego representatives persuaded the California legislature along with Governor Earl Warren to attempt to remove him from his teaching position . After the State Board of Education was unable to get an answer from Steinmetz about whether or not he was a Communist , he was dismissed on February 5 , 1954 . He attempted to be reinstated but never was even after the legislation that had been developed during the Red Scare was later deemed unconstitutional .
On July 1 , 1961 as a result of the Donahue Act , SDSC became a part of the California State College system which included a new set of regulations for the school , along with a statewide board of trustees and a chancellor . The school continued to grow , with a population of 10 @,@ 700 in 1960 and 25 @,@ 500 in 1970 . The San Diego county administrator Fred Morey reflected on so many graduates being hired by the county : " We would find it difficult to keep the County running without the help of San Diego State . "
John F. Kennedy , then the U.S. President , gave the graduation commencement address at Aztec Bowl in front of 40 @,@ 000 people on June 6 , 1963 . Kennedy was given an honorary doctorate degree in law at the ceremony , making San Diego State the first in California to award an honorary doctorate degree . To commemorate his visit , the campus added his portrait to the campus library collection and a granite stone marker placed where his helicopter landed ( California Historical Landmark # 798 ) . In April 2008 , a plaque that commemorated his visit was stolen and has yet to be recovered . On May 29 , 1964 Martin Luther King Jr. spoke at the Open Air Theater about proposed legislation in improving rights for African Americans .
In 1965 , San Diego State began offering a doctorate in chemistry in a joint effort with University of California , San Diego . By 1991 , the campus had eight different doctorate programs . Research became a vital practice of the faculty during the 1960s . By 1965 , more than 200 books had been authored by SDSC faculty . Federal research grants increased from $ 398 @,@ 202 in 1961 to $ 1 @,@ 184 @,@ 387 in 1967 . Faculty research included medical and scientific research , teacher enhancement , Peace Corps training , and a review of nursing curricula .
In 1966 , the Carnegie Corporation named President Love one of the best college Presidents in the country . President Love changed the structure of the college , developing its divisions into professional schools , which would allow them to be accredited . The schools were developed into colleges , which increased the possibility of SDSC of becoming a university . He reflected on San Diego State ’ s progress in a Time magazine article : " Though we are called a college , we are in deed and in fact a university . "
Throughout the late 1960s and early 1970s there were numerous protests , sit @-@ ins , and radical changes in traditions among the students . Author Raymond Starr called this period " ... the liveliest , most colorful , and most challenging in State ’ s history . " Students mainly protested racism and the war in Vietnam . In March 1970 , 600 students held a week @-@ long sit @-@ in in protest of the decision of the campus leaders not to rehire four radical instructors . Protests expanded to the presence of Reserve Officer Training Corps ( ROTC ) , military recruiters , the Police Community Relations Training Institute , among others . Significant speakers visited the campus during the time including Cesar Chavez , Jane Fonda , Angela Davis , Donald Freed , Joan Baez , and Jerry Brown . On April 20 , 1972 , 75 demonstrators took ROTC students hostage while they were taking an examination in the Business Administration and Math building . Although there was some violence , the students were released peacefully . On May 3 , 1972 , 35 protesters ( later growing to 2 @,@ 000 ) smashed windows of the Administration building and burned copies of The Daily Aztec , the student newspaper . Protesters eventually entered the locked building and set fires on the first floor , and moved on to Aztec Center to set more fires and break windows . The mayhem resulted in six injuries and several thousand dollars in damages . On May 24 , 1972 a bomb exploded in Tarastec Hall , injuring Lawrence Jackson , an African American student . A group of African American students marched on campus to show support for Jackson .
The first women 's studies program in the United States was established in 1970 at the college , after a year of intense organizing of women 's consciousness raising groups , rallies , petition circulating , and operating unofficial or experimental classes and presentations before seven committees and assemblies .
In early 1971 , President Love retired . With the extraordinary growth of students , faculty and facilities , there were plans for new library to be named in honor of him , which was dedicated in May 1971 . After a brief unsuccessful nomination of Walter Waetjen to replace Dr. Love , and Academic Vice President Walker acting as president for 1971 – 72 , Brage Golding became the new president . He served from 1972 to 1977 , and although he did not implement any mainstream changes as prior presidents had , he was instrumental in bringing in qualified administrators who would improve the school during its upcoming years . He worked to establish the San Diego History Research Center for collecting materials on the city 's history and established the Educational Growth Opportunities program which offered classes for older people . At Golding 's leaving of the university , one person commented : " By the end of the five @-@ year administration , San Diego State University had grown into the institution implied by its name . This was the mark that Brage Golding left on San Diego State University . "
Golding left to lead Kent State , and with a brief intermission of Academic Vice President Trevor Colbourn serving as president , Thomas B. Day became the sixth president in 1978 . When Proposition 13 passed , the school faced budget issues and Day proposed abolishing some departments , combining others , and laying off approximately 80 faculty members . However , budget cuts were deemed not necessary , and on April 8 , 1980 , Day again proposed cutting 115 faculty members and four departments due to foreseeing upcoming budget cuts ; on May 16 , 1980 he recanted his comments .
President Love had fought hard throughout his tenure to increase SDSC 's ranking from a college to a university . In 1972 , the California legislature approved the renaming of the school to " California State University , San Diego " . San Diego State officials were still not happy with the name , and on January 1 , 1974 , it was renamed to " San Diego State University " ( SDSU ) , its current name .
= = Modern history = =
In 1987 , the school reached its peak attendance with 35 @,@ 945 students , resulting in SDSU being the largest university in California and 10th in the nation . Due to the overwhelming number of students and available facilities and majors , the California State University Board of Trustees decided to limit enrollment to 33 @,@ 000 . However , in 1993 , enrollment dropped to 26 @,@ 800 , the lowest attendance since 1973 as a result of the budget crisis of 1991 .
In 1984 , the California Higher Education Journal ranked SDSU as first among the CSU campuses and U.S. News and World Report ranked the school among the top five comprehensive universities in the west in 1983 , third in 1985 , and in the top fifteen in 1989 . In the 1980s , the College of Business ' School of Accountancy was the only accredited accountancy program in California . Throughout the decade students scored the highest score on the Certified Public Accountancy ( CPA ) exam three times , and by 1990 was second in the nation ( after the University of Texas ) for graduates passing the CPA exam .
In January 1987 , Playboy ranked SDSU as the 3rd best party school in the nation , which appalled some administrators , and amused students . The ranking was determined on a number of factors including the education offered at the university , social opportunities , the male – female ratio , and off @-@ campus activities located near the campus . Some students feared that the ranking would diminish the quality of their degree . In 2002 it dropped to tenth place , and in 2005 was included again without a specific rank , before jumping to fifth place in 2006 .
The Graduate School of Public Health was first offered to students in 1981 , and was one of only 24 accredited schools of public health in the nation and the only one in the CSU system in 1995 . President Day considered it the major achievement of his administration , and it provided training in hospitals , public health agencies , health maintenance organizations , ambulatory care , and mental health facilities .
In the 1990s , the College of Business was the fourth largest undergraduate program in the U.S. By 1989 – 90 SDSU was granting over 1 @,@ 100 Master ’ s degrees and 10 doctoral degrees a year .
As a result of the California state government proposed budget cuts to the CSU campuses , 1991 to 1994 at SDSU were marked by a long period of university budget stress , faculty unrest / layoffs , and student protests against SDSU fee increases and class cuts .
Spring of 1991 brought large fee increases and budget cuts by the governor and state legislature to the California State University ( CSU ) and University of California ( UC ) systems impacted SDSU in a unique way . While other schools in the systems chose an across the board approach on campus , the president of SDSU at the time , Thomas Day , chose to use a " deep and narrow " approach to program cuts . The result were largest student marches and protests since the Vietnam war .
Yet again in Spring 1992 , the CSU and UC systems were facing another round of severe budget cuts and dramatic student fee increases by the state government . Still a second time , SDSU President Thomas Day took the same deep and narrow approach for budget cuts for SDSU , but this time proposed elimination of not only full time faculty professors , but of entire majors such as Aerospace Engineering . In and attempt to alleviate fears of students in those majors , a large meeting by President Day was planned in the student center with hundreds of students and teachers . However , meeting quickly turned angry and chaotic with an overcapacity crowd pressing against the glass windows outside . Following the meeting , students feeling betrayed a 2nd time after 1991 , about a dozen students held a temporary occupation of President Day 's office . This occupation led to a 24 hour vigil in front of the Administration building , summer student bus trips to the state legislature in Sacramento , large campus student voter registration drive , and further student marches and protests in the Fall 1992 . Under heavy student , teacher , and public pressure , the conclusion of these events ended with CSU Chancellor Barry Munitz eventually reversing President Day 's deep and narrow approach , saving the majors and programs in Fall 1992 .
Central and parallel to the SDSU student protest movement was an 8 foot high wooden construction fence that encircled the a new campus building . Students quickly put up protest messages , paintings , and cartoons urging students to rally , vote , and challenge the school president . Citing a need to " clean up " the campus during graduation of 1991 , President Day attempted to paint over the now symbolic construction fence wall . The night before the attempted wall paint over by President Day , a large police force arrested eight students peacefully sitting in front of the wall . The next morning , word quickly gathered on campus about the arrests and dozens of student rushed to sit in front of the wall ultimately stopping the painters .
On May 1994 , the student government dedicated a permanent memorial to the wall in Pfiefer Lounge ( later a Starbucks and now the new Student Center ) a few yards from the wall 's edge . The student memorial to the protests included the wall painting of President Day 's head in a guillotine .
When President Day retired in July 1996 , SDSU 's incoming freshman had a 38 % success rate in graduating from the university within six years . Day was replaced by the university 's seventh president , Stephen Weber . Just one month later , on August 15 , in what is known as the San Diego State University shooting , a 36 @-@ year @-@ old graduate student pulled out a handgun while defending his thesis and killed three professors . The student pleaded guilty and is serving a life sentence prison term . On August 23 , 2003 , a memorial was dedicated to the three professors that included three trees along with a set of three tables and benches .
On July 10 , 2005 a new trolley station opened on the SDSU campus , after construction began in 1999 . The station connected students and faculty with other areas in San Diego county and helped to combat the low availability of parking around campus . The $ 103 million station was just one of the university 's several construction projects that occurred in the 2000s . Starting in the late 1990s , a $ 500 million College Community Redevelopment Project led to the development of the $ 8 @.@ 5 million Piedra del Sol Apartments , the $ 14 @.@ 3 million Fraternity Row , and future developments of a $ 15 million Sorority Row , a $ 150 million Paseo retail , office , and apartment project , as well as a $ 125 million research and office park . In 2003 , a pedestrian bridge opened , connecting several of the dorms to the main campus . In the same year , the campus 's most technologically advanced and largest classroom ( capable of holding 500 students ) was completed . Through 2008 and 2009 , the campus began work on constructing a new alumni center , expanding Aztec Center , and modifying Storm Hall and Nasitir Hall to add more office and classroom space .
In June 2007 , SDSU was deemed the number one small research university in the nation . The ranking was determined based on faculty productivity , honorary awards , publications in journals , and number of research grants received . At any point , the campus usually has around 800 studies in progress in various fields . A 2007 study revealed that the campus has an economic impact of $ 2 @.@ 4 billion on the San Diego region . Due to projections of current and future growth , the study indicated that the school 's economic impact is expected to increase to $ 4 @.@ 5 billion by 2025 .
On May 6 , 2008 , the Drug Enforcement Administration ( DEA ) announced the arrest of 96 individuals , of whom 75 were San Diego State University students , on a variety of drug charges in a multiple @-@ month narcotics sting called Operation Sudden Fall . Two kilograms of cocaine were seized , along with 50 pounds of marijuana , 350 Ecstasy pills , hash oil , methamphetamine , other drug paraphernalia , three guns , and $ 60 @,@ 000 in cash . Several months after the May 6 announcement , it was reported that the majority of the defendants had pleaded guilty to the felony charges . The defendants were then either placed on probation or were required to enter drug diversion programs . Other defendants only received citations or had their cases dismissed .
In 2010 , after 15 years as president , Weber announced his upcoming retirement for the following year . Weber was credited for improving the graduation rate ; in 2003 , 66 % of freshmen were graduating within six years . In May 2011 , University of Maryland Baltimore County senior vice president Elliot Hirshman was named by the CSU Board of Trustees to replace Weber . Hirshman assumed his appointed role as president in July .
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= Royal Wiltshire Yeomanry =
The Royal Wiltshire Yeomanry ( RWY ) was a Yeomanry regiment of the Kingdom of Great Britain and the United Kingdom established in 1794 . It was disbanded as an independent Territorial Army unit in 1967 , a time when the strength of the Territorial Army was greatly reduced . The regiment lives on in B ( RWY ) Squadron and Y ( RWY ) Squadron of the Royal Wessex Yeomanry .
The regiment took part in the Second Boer War as part of the Imperial Yeomanry . In the First World War it fought on the Western Front , but saw relatively little action as horsed cavalry . After conversion to infantry it fought in the trenches , notably during 3rd Ypres in 1917 and during the German Spring Offensive in 1918 .
In the Second World War , the regiment fought in the Middle East , seeing action in Syria against Vichy French forces , as well as operations in Iraq and Iran . It then joined 9th Armoured Brigade , seeing action in North Africa and Italy . With this formation it took part in the Second Battle of El Alamein , spearheading the break @-@ out of the 2nd New Zealand Division during Operation Supercharge on 2 November 1942 .
In 2003 , the Royal Yeomanry ( including A ( RWY ) Squadron ) contributed troops to the Joint NBC Regiment during the 2nd Gulf War , for which a battle honour was awarded to the unit .
The RWY cap badge is the Prince of Wales 's feathers on a red baize backing , and vehicles carry the New Zealand fern leaf emblem .
= = History = =
= = = Formation and early history = = =
On 4 June 1794 , a meeting of country gentlemen at the Bear Inn in Devizes decided to raise a body of ten independent troops of Yeomanry for the county of Wiltshire . The decision was implemented by the High Sheriff Richard Long . In 1797 , the independent troops were amalgamated into a unit called The Regiment of Wiltshire Yeomanry Cavalry , the first such unit to be embodied in Britain , although independent troops were raised earlier in other counties . Neither the Yeomanry , nor the Militia ( the infantry counterpart of the Yeomanry ) , were liable for service overseas and so the regiment took no part in the Napoleonic or later wars of the 19th century . However the Royal Wiltshire Yeomanry was called to deal with civil disorders , such as a mutiny by the county Militia in Devizes , the Swing Riots and the ' machine riots ' . In recognition of this service the Regiment was awarded the title ' Royal ' by King William IV in 1831 ; the first yeomanry regiment to be so honoured . Contrary to common belief , the Regiment was not involved in the restoration of order after the Bristol riots , which followed the rejection of the 1830 Reform Bill ( although they did mobilise for the duty before regular troops restored order ) .
In 1863 , it provided an escort to the Prince of Wales ( later King Edward VII ) through the Savernake Forest , in recognition of which it was the first regiment in the British Army to be awarded the title of ' Prince of Wales 's Own ' ( entitling it to wear the Prince of Wales 's feathers as a badge ) . In 1884 , it was placed at the head of the newly formed Yeomanry Order of Precedence by Queen Victoria .
= = = Second Boer War = = =
The Yeomanry was not intended to serve overseas , but due to the string of defeats during Black Week in December 1899 , the British government realized they were going to need more troops than just the regular army . A Royal Warrant was issued on 24 December 1899 to allow volunteer forces to serve in the Second Boer War . The Royal Warrant asked standing Yeomanry regiments to provide service companies of approximately 115 men each for the Imperial Yeomanry . The regiment provided :
1st ( Wiltshire ) Company , 1st Battalion in 1900
2nd ( Wiltshire ) Company , 1st Battalion in 1900
63rd ( Wiltshire ) Company , 16th Battalion in 1900 , transferred to 1st Battalion in 1902
In 1900 the regiment represented the Yeomanry cavalry at the inauguration of the Commonwealth of Australia .
On 17 April 1901 , the regiment was renamed as the Royal Wiltshire Imperial Yeomanry ( Prince of Wales 's Own Royal Regiment ) and reorganised in four squadrons and a machine gun section . On 1 April 1908 , the regiment was renamed as the Royal Wiltshire Yeomanry ( Prince of Wales 's Own Royal Regiment ) and transferred to the Territorial Force , trained and equipped as hussars . Its organisation was :
It was ranked 1st ( of 55 ) in the order of precedence of the Yeomanry Regiments in the Army List of 1914 .
= = = First World War = = =
In accordance with the Territorial and Reserve Forces Act 1907 ( 7 Edw . 7 , c.9 ) which brought the Territorial Force into being , the TF was intended to be a home defence force for service during wartime and members could not be compelled to serve outside the country . However , on the outbreak of war on 4 August 1914 , many members volunteered for Imperial Service . Therefore , TF units were split in August and September 1914 into 1st Line ( liable for overseas service ) and 2nd Line ( home service for those unable or unwilling to serve overseas ) units . Later , a 3rd Line was formed to act as a reserve , providing trained replacements for the 1st and 2nd Line regiments .
= = = = 1 / 1st Royal Wiltshire Yeomanry = = = =
The regiment was mobilised in August 1914 in the 1st South Western Mounted Brigade but did not proceed to France until December 1915 . In May 1916 , two squadrons joined the XV Corps cavalry unit , with two further squadrons joining IX Corps Cavalry regiment . During 1916 – 17 , duties mainly involved policing , traffic control , despatch riding and similar activities . In March 1917 , the regiment played its only part in the War as horsed cavalry , during the German retreat to the Hindenburg Line . Over an eleven @-@ day period , German forces retreated 20 – 25 miles to prepared positions . The RWY formed part of the advanced guard of the British Army , attempting to keep in touch with the German rearguards , but this was difficult owing to the broken nature of the ground behind the original German lines . Contact was made several times with Uhlans and a lance captured in one of these engagements is still in possession of the regiment .
In September 1917 , it was finally conceded that there was little place for horsed cavalry in the Western Front . The regiment was converted to infantry and joined the 6th Battalion , The Wiltshire Regiment ( 6th Wilts ) , fighting in the trenches at Ypres and Cambrai in 1917 . In March 1918 , the German army mounted its Spring Offensive and 6th Wilts at one point took the whole weight of the offensive at Bapaume . After a week of combat , 6th Wilts ( half of whom were ex @-@ RWY ) had taken over 500 casualties . In April , they received reinforcements but later that month took another 400 casualties on the Messines Ridge . Shortly after this , it was decided to disband 6th Wilts as they had effectively ceased to exist . The regiment won 13 battle honours for the First World War , most earned with 6th Wilts .
= = = = 2 / 1st Royal Wiltshire Yeomanry = = = =
The 2nd Line regiment was formed in 1914 . In May 1915 it was with 2 / 1st South Western Mounted Brigade in the Calne area and moved in September to Canterbury . On 31 March 1916 , the remaining Mounted Brigades were ordered to be numbered in a single sequence ; the brigade became the 15th Mounted Brigade and joined 4th Mounted Division at Colchester .
In July 1916 there was a major reorganization of 2nd Line yeomanry units in the United Kingdom . All but 12 regiments were converted to cyclists and as a consequence the regiment was dismounted and joined the 6th Cyclist Brigade ( and the division became 2nd Cyclist Division ) at Tolleshunt d 'Arcy near Tiptree . Further reorganization in November 1916 saw the 2nd Cyclist Division being broken up and the regiment was merged with the 2 / 1st North Somerset Yeomanry to form 10th ( Wiltshire and North Somerset ) Yeomanry Cyclist Regiment in 4th Cyclist Brigade at Ipswich . In March 1917 it resumed its identity as 2 / 1st Royal Wiltshire Yeomanry , still in 4th Cyclist Brigade at Ipswich . In July it was at Wivenhoe and later moved to Frinton and Clacton . Early in 1918 , the regiment moved to Ireland with 4th Cyclist Brigade and was stationed in Dublin ; there was no further change before the end of the war .
= = = = 3 / 1st Royal Wiltshire Yeomanry = = = =
The 3rd Line regiment was formed in 1915 and in the summer it was affiliated to a Reserve Cavalry Regiment at Tidworth . In the summer of 1916 it was affiliated to the 11th Reserve Cavalry Regiment , also at Tidworth . Early in 1917 it was absorbed in the 3rd Reserve Cavalry Regiment at Aldershot . By 1918 it had left the 3rd Reserve Cavalry Regiment as the 1st Line had been converted to infantry . It joined the 4th ( Reserve ) Battalion of the Wiltshire Regiment at Larkhill .
= = = Between the wars = = =
Post war , a commission was set up to consider the shape of the Territorial Force ( Territorial Army or TA from 1 October 1921 ) . The experience of the First World War made it clear that cavalry was surfeit . The commission decided that only the 14 most senior regiments were to be retained as cavalry ( though the Lovat Scouts and the Scottish Horse were also to remain mounted as " scouts " ) . Eight regiments were converted to Armoured Car Companies of the Royal Tank Corps ( RTC ) , one was reduced to a battery in another regiment , one was absorbed into a local infantry battalion , one became a signals regiment and two were disbanded . The remaining 25 regiments were converted to brigades of the Royal Field Artillery between 1920 and 1922 . As the most senior regiment in the order of precedence , the regiment was retained as horsed cavalry .
During the interwar period , it remained an important part of the social scene of the county having its officers drawn from the nobility , landowners , and larger farmers , while other ranks coming largely from their estates . Hunting , point @-@ to @-@ points , and social events seem to have been as important as military training . The chapter of the Regimental History relating to the period 1920 – 1939 is even entitled " The Long Weekend " .
This brought the regiment into contact for the first time with someone it would later meet more seriously , Brigadier Bernard Law Montgomery ( often referred to as " Monty " ) , then commanding the 9th Infantry Brigade in Portsmouth . In 1937 , the brigade was on an exercise in Wiltshire and RWY was attached to it for their two @-@ week annual camp . The brigade major wrote that " [ The Regiment ] was run like so much of the TA those days on rather feudal lines ... when they heard they were going to have those tremendous exercises – three nights out at a time – they jibbed violently .... Most of them had looked forward to exercises all day and then going out for a bit of jollity at night . " The upshot was that the regiment was banished to a distant part of the camp where their socialising would not be disturbed by the Regulars . However , apparently the Yeomanry were so intrigued by Monty 's exercises that their Commanding Officer ( CO ) approached him , asking to be included in the last brigade exercise .
= = = Second World War = = =
The regiment began to mobilise in August 1939 , a few days before the Second World War began . Initially , it was assigned as Divisional Cavalry to the 43rd ( Wessex ) Infantry Division , then to the 4th Cavalry Brigade commanded by Brigadier J. J. Kingstone , as part of the 1st Cavalry Division bound for Palestine . The regiment served there and in Syria , North Africa and Iraq . In North Africa , the unit served as a searchlight regiment in ports such as Tobruk and Benghazi . In January 1941 , after 150 years , its horses were finally replaced by motorised transport . In June , it was involved in the successful campaign against Vichy French forces in Syria , in spite of being desperately short of equipment and serviceable machine @-@ guns . In July 1941 , the 4th Cavalry Brigade became the 9th Armoured Brigade and participated in the expedition into Persia , with the regiment fighting as motorized infantry . In December , it received its first Honey tanks , finally becoming an armoured regiment .
In May 1942 , the regiment moved to Egypt with the brigade , which became an independent brigade placed under the operational control of Lieutenant @-@ General Bernard C. Freyberg 's 2nd New Zealand Division , part of the British Eighth Army , then under the command of General Claude Auchinleck , later replaced by Lieutenant @-@ General Bernard Montgomery . The brigade was in reserve during the Battle of Alam el Halfa in late August and in October began training for the Battle of El Alamein .
= = = = El Alamein – Lightfoot = = = =
The opening of the battle saw four divisions ( 9th Australian , 51st Highland , 2nd New Zealand and 1st South African ) in the assault on the north of the Axis positions . RWY was in support of the 5th New Zealand Brigade ( Brigadier Howard Kippenberger ) ; the aim was for infantry to secure the Miteiriya Ridge during darkness , with the armour to pass beyond them at first light to establish a screen . By now , the regiment was equipped with a mix of M4 Sherman , Crusader and Grant ( M3 Lee ) tanks . On the morning of 24 October 1942 , A and C squadrons were ahead of the infantry on the western slopes of the ridge . B squadron had been delayed in the devil 's gardens minefields and had lost numerous tanks . Throughout that day , A and C Squadrons engaged German panzers on the plain below , and were in turn hit by anti @-@ tank fire . Initially , the heavier Sherman tanks were not vulnerable to this , but , when the German 88mm anti @-@ tank guns joined in , they took severe casualties . By midday , the two squadrons were reduced to one Sherman and three Grants and the commanding officer had been badly wounded and evacuated . The 10th Armoured Division , under the command of Major @-@ General Alexander H. Gatehouse , was at this stage supposed to pass through and onwards to start the break @-@ out , but seemed to be reluctant to do so .
At 6 p.m. the regiment was ordered to withdraw . It had lost almost all of its tanks and taken 42 casualties killed or wounded . In reserve , the regiment was issued with new tanks , a hasty mix of Shermans , Grants , and Crusaders ( types II and III ) , mostly salvaged from the battlefield and rapidly repaired . Montgomery had been impressed with the performance of the 2nd New Zealand Division and wanted them to spearhead the next thrust , but Freyberg was unwilling to do so without reinforcements as his troops had suffered so many casualties . Montgomery therefore placed 151 ( from 50th Division ) and 152 Infantry ( from 51st Division ) brigades under Freyberg 's command for the next phase of the battle .
= = = = El Alamein – Supercharge = = = =
On the night of 1 / 2 November 1942 , the Eighth Army attacked again in the north , with 2nd New Zealand Division in the lead . Freyberg placed 151 Brigade on the right and 152 Brigade on the left . The aim was to attack directly westwards across the Rahman track , with the infantry leading the night assault and 9th Armoured Brigade ( now commanded by Brigadier John C. Currie ) again passing through to break the enemy gun line and allow X Corps to break out . The assault went to plan except that opposition on the left was heavier than expected which slowed the advance . As a result , the advancing tanks were highlighted against the dawn sky in the east and began to be picked off by Axis anti @-@ tank fire . The Regiment was in the centre of the 9th Armoured Brigade , and the CO lost touch with both his artillery support and close anti @-@ tank support . In the growing light , the B squadron commander ( Major M.StJ.V.Gibbs ) realised that he was in a ring of enemy anti @-@ tank guns , ahead and to both flanks . He gave the order to ' Charge ' and B Squadron overran the anti @-@ tank positions , losing some vehicles but destroying the enemy gun line . Meanwhile , the 21st Panzer Division was counter @-@ attacking A and C Squadrons and at 4pm the Regiment ( now down to four tanks ) was withdrawn . The 1st Armoured Division from X Corps were just behind the 9th Armoured Brigade but there were no liaison officers between the units and 1st Armoured did not take the opportunity to push on through the broken Axis gun @-@ line .
After the 9th Armoured Brigade 's action , Brigadier Gentry of the 6th New Zealand Brigade went ahead to survey the scene . On seeing Brigadier Currie asleep on a stretcher , he approached him saying , ' Sorry to wake you John , but I 'd like to know where your tanks are ? ' Currie waved his hand at a group of tanks around him , replying ' There they are . ' Gentry was puzzled . ' I don 't mean your headquarters tanks , I mean your armoured regiments . Where are they ? ' Currie waved his arm and again replied , ' There are my armoured regiments , Bill.'
Nevertheless , the assault of the 2nd New Zealand Division had drawn in both 15 and 21 Panzer Divisions , with the result that there was a wide gap in the Axis lines to the south west . Through this gap Montgomery pushed the remainder of his armour , breaking the Afrika Korps line and pushing westwards into its rear areas and supply lines . By 4 November , the battle was won and Montgomery was entertaining the captured Afrika Korps commander , von Thoma , to dinner in his caravan .
In an account of the battle published to mark its 25th anniversary , Montgomery wrote :
I must mention the magnificent fight put up by 9th Armoured Brigade — 3rd Hussars , Wiltshire Yeomanry , Warwickshire Yeomanry .... If the British armour owed any debt to the infantry of 8th army , the debt was paid on November 2nd by 9th Armoured Brigade in heroism and blood ....
= = = = Syria and Italy = = = =
Following El Alamein , the 9th Armoured Brigade was withdrawn first to Cairo and then to Syria for internal security duties , where it remained throughout 1942 and 1943 . In May 1944 , it reached the Italian Front and was placed under the command of Major @-@ General Charles F. Keightley 's 78th " Battleaxe " Division , then under Lieutenant @-@ General Sidney C. Kirkman 's XIII Corps . The RWY was to support the 36th Infantry Brigade , with one squadron in support of each of the brigade 's three infantry battalions . In May – June 1944 it took part in the advance on Rome , working its way up in close country between the central mountains and the sea to the west . At one point , the 78th Division withdrew but outlying elements of the regiment did not get the message and continued forwards . The Corps HQ diary for 23 June records ' RWY water truck reports Vaiano clear of enemy ' .
In July and August , the 9th Armoured Brigade worked in support of the 4th and 10th Indian Infantry Divisions in the central mountains south east of Florence , on the approach to the Gothic Line . In August , the order was received that all men with over 4 ½ years service overseas should be repatriated , and this reduced the regiment 's strength by half . This made it impossible to function as a fighting unit and it was withdrawn from the line of battle . In October 1944 , the regiment returned to England to train replacements for armoured regiments still fighting in Europe . It continued in this role until 1946 , although the pace slowed after victory in Europe in May 1945 .
During the Second World War , officers and soldiers serving with the regiment received three Distinguished Service Orders , four Military Crosses and ten Military Medals . The regiment lost 59 dead during the war , with the biggest single loss being 20 dead on or around 2 November 1941 during Operation Supercharge .
= = = Post war = = =
In 1947 , the regiment again ceased to exist , but the following year was re @-@ established as a heavy tank unit in support of 43rd ( Wessex ) Infantry Division , equipped with Cromwell and Charioteer tanks .
In 1958 , the regiment converted to a light reconnaissance role equipped with armoured cars , such as the Daimler , Humber , Saladin and Ferret . By 1964 , there were just three armoured regiments in the Territorial Army and , in 1967 , it was decided to reduce the TA even further and the regiment was disbanded as an independent unit . However , a new TA unit , the Royal Yeomanry , was formed from five different predecessor units and the Royal Wiltshire Yeomanry was reborn as A Squadron , The Royal Yeomanry . During the Cold War , its role in the event of war would have been as a medium reconnaissance unit for the British Army of the Rhine ( BAOR ) . During the 1970s , a second RWY @-@ based squadron was raised , as B squadron , Royal Wessex Yeomanry . This was initially a home defence unit trained as infantry , but later equipped with stripped down Land Rovers to perform reconnaissance duties .
The Royal Yeomanry 's role changed in the 1990s to providing both main battle tank crews and soldiers for the Joint Chemical , Biological , Radiation and Nuclear Regiment . In January 2003 , the Royal Yeomanry deployed two of its squadrons for the Iraq war as part of the Joint NBC Regiment . It was the first mobilisation of a Territorial Army unit as a formed body ( TA soldiers under TA command ) for combat operations since the Suez Crisis in 1956 . Overall , over 200 members of the regiment have deployed on operational tours to Iraq since 2003 . In recognition of its service in the liberation of Iraq , the Royal Yeomanry was presented with the battle honour ' Iraq 2003 ' on 11 November 2005 , the only battle honour presented to a TA unit since the Second World War . Since the Iraq war , the importance of the CBRN ( Chemical , Biological , Radiological and Nuclear ) role , as it is now called , has been acknowledged and in 2005 all five of the RY 's squadrons adopted it .
All of the squadrons adopted a single cap badge in 2006 , crossed A 's given by the regiments patron – Princess Alexandra .
The regiment has supported operations in Iraq and Afghanistan .
The Royal Wessex Yeomanry operates as the Armoured Reserve Regiment providing formed crews for three Regular Army regiments operating the Challenger 2 main battle tank . B ( Royal Wiltshire Yeomanry ) squadron retains its Prince of Wales feathers capbadge and ( with A squadron , Royal Yeomanry ) its place as the senior Yeomanry unit of the Territorial Army . B ( RWY ) Squadron RWxY is based in Old Sarum , Salisbury and A ( RWY ) Squadron RY is based in Swindon .
A ( RWY ) Squadron Changed command and name from the Royal Yeomanry on 1 July 2014 to become Y ( RWY ) Squadron Royal Wessex Yeomanry and like its fellow RWY Sqn has started to train on Challenger 2 . Both Squadrons now wear the new Royal Wessex Yeomanry capbadge .
= = Battle honours = =
The Royal Wiltshire Yeomanry was awarded the following battle honours ( honours in bold are emblazoned on the regimental colours ) :
The regiment 's battle honours are summarised and illustrated in the picture of the RWY guidon which forms the frontispiece of the regimental history .
= = Uniforms and insignia = =
During the 19th century , the regiment , in common with other Yeomanry and Militia units , sported a range of uniforms . Jackets were always dark blue . Between 1812 and 1873 , a leather shako was worn , replaced in 1873 by a fur Busby with a red cloth bag . Service dress during the First World War was a khaki tunic and breeches , with a red stripe down the seam and a red lanyard worn by all ranks round the left armpit . The chevrons of sergeants and corporals were surmounted by a regimental badge on a red baize backing , a practice that continued through the inter @-@ war years and beyond .
The regimental colours of green , red and yellow , which appear on the regimental tie and Stable belt , were decided on in the late 19th century . One officer ( who was also a Conservative MP ) suggested green with a red stripe , but this was objected to because it was similar to the Rifle Brigade . Another officer ( a Liberal MP ) suggested adding yellow , which was agreed . The joke was that red and yellow were Liberal colours , and the Liberal MP got away with this under his rival 's nose .
The cap badge of the RWY is the Prince of Wales 's feathers is a slightly different design to other regiments wearing the same symbol , such as the Royal Regiment of Wales . It is worn on the brown beret with a red baize and a black baize backing . During the First World War , men from the RWY carved their cap badge into the chalk hillside above the village of Fovant where it can still be seen today , alongside those of other units .
The New Zealand ' fern leaf ' emblem was painted on the regiment 's vehicles when it was under the command of 2nd New Zealand Division , a tradition which continues to this day . The brigade sign , worn during the Italian campaign but not subsequently , was a white horse on a green square background .
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= Ion Croitoru =
Ion ( John ) William Croitoru ( born December 7 , 1965 ) is a Canadian former professional wrestler . He was born and raised in Ontario , Canada . To wrestling fans , Croitoru is better known by his ring names , Johnny K @-@ 9 and Bruiser Bedlam . He competed in several Canadian wrestling promotions , including Stampede Wrestling , and later wrestled for New Japan Pro Wrestling , Smoky Mountain Wrestling , and the World Wrestling Federation ( WWF ) . He wrestled as a jobber in the WWF , but he was booked to win titles in several other promotions .
Croitoru is also famous for his history of legal problems . He was a member of Satan 's Choice , a biker gang , and has also been convicted of assault , trafficking cocaine and bombing a police station . In 2005 , Croitoru was arrested for the murder of lawyer Lynn Gilbank and her husband Fred . After a lengthy investigation , the charges were dropped in June 2006 because of insufficient evidence . He worked as a security guard in Vancouver , British Columbia until being arrested in May 2009 for conspiracy to commit murder . On January 24 , 2011 , Croitoru was charged with first degree murder in connection with the 2008 execution of Jonathan Barber in Burnaby , British Columbia .
= = Wrestling career = =
= = = Early years = = =
Croitoru trained with Nick DeCarlo and Vic Rossitini before debuting in Stampede Wrestling in 1984 . Bruce Hart gave Croitoru the ring name Orhan Turgedan , The Terrible Turk , a name Croitoru only wrestled under for a short time after leaving the promotion . He continued to wrestle in Canadian independent promotions , such as Grand Prix Wrestling in the Maritimes and Superstars of Wrestling in Windsor , Ontario .
In 1985 Croitoru wrestled for the American Wrestling Association ( AWA ) , where he received a push and was given a reign as AWA Southern Heavyweight champion . He defeated Jerry Lawler to win the belt on August 16 , but dropped it back to Lawler in a rematch on September 6 . The following month , Croitoru joined the World Wrestling Federation ( WWF ) as Johnny K @-@ 9 , where he competed until 1989 . Croitoru claims that he decided on this name while being arrested after a fight . He saw " K @-@ 9 " written on a paddywagon and decided on the ring name . He worked as a jobber to the stars , putting over such wrestlers as Pedro Morales , Tito Santana and Paul Orndorff . He wrestled in many tag team matches and formed a short @-@ lived team with Barry O in 1986 , but his biggest match in the WWF was a televised match against Hulk Hogan . After leaving the WWF , he wrestled on a tour of Japan for New Japan Pro Wrestling ; he later returned to Japan to compete for Frontier Martial @-@ Arts Wrestling and Wrestle Association R. In the late 1980s , Croitoru also worked as a promoter along with Mike Kelly and Bob Clarke , operating the short @-@ lived Canadian International Championship Wrestling in Hamilton , Ontario .
= = = Smoky Mountain Wrestling = = =
Croitoru joined Smoky Mountain Wrestling ( SMW ) in 1994 , where he was given the ring name Bruiser Bedlam . According to the storyline , he was brought in by manager Jim Cornette to help settle Cornette 's feud with Bob Armstrong . Bedlam and Cornette combined for a victory in a two @-@ on @-@ one handicap match over Armstrong at SMW 's Blue Grass Brawl II show on April 1 . That year , he wrestled many tag team and six @-@ man matches while teaming with Cornette .
Bedlam was booked for one title reign with the SMW Beat the Champ Television Championship during his stint in SMW . The kayfabe rules behind the title state that any wrestler winning five consecutive matches as champion would win $ 5 @,@ 000 but be forced to vacate the title . He won a match against Mike Furnas on April 4 , 1994 to win the title , and he defended it over the following month . Bedlam won his fifth match on May 2 with a victory over Anthony Michaels , and the storyline saw him forced to give up the title . He went on to feud with Tracy Smothers , and the two wrestled in a lengthy series of matches , including several Coalminer 's glove matches , in which a glove is available for the wrestlers to use as a weapon . Later that year , Bedlam wrestled several matches against " Dirty White Boy " Tony Anthony . The series consisted of several steel cage matches in which Bedlam put Anthony over .
= = = Later career = = =
In 1994 , Croitoru also began wrestling in Midwest Territorial Wrestling , an independent promotion based in Michigan . He took on the ring name Taras Bulba and proclaimed himself " King of Chain matches " . He competed in a tournament to determine the promotion 's first heavyweight champion , but Al Snow defeated him in the final round . Bulba was pushed for a run with the belt , however , defeating Mickey Doyle on January 21 , 1995 to win the vacant title . He held the championship for almost four months before dropping it to Marty Jannetty .
As Johnny K @-@ 9 , Croitoru returned to the WWF for one match where he defeated Gary Scott in a dark match on January 23 , 1995 . He then competed briefly in Cleveland All Pro Wrestling , where he wrestled against Cactus Jack in a booked loss on March 23 . Croitoru also wrestled in Border City Wrestling ( BCW ) and was pushed to win the BCW Can @-@ Am Heavyweight Championship by defeating Scott D 'Amore on May 21 , 1995 . He held the title for a little over a month before dropping it back to D 'Amore .
Once again using the ring name Bruiser Beldam , he wrestled for Insane Championship Wrestling ( ICW ) for a short time in 1996 . While there , he competed in a barbed wire baseball bat match against Ian Rotten ; Bedlam was booked for the victory in the match . He also wrestled New Jack at ICW 's Holiday Hell supercard in a match that ended in a double countout . He wrestled on World Championship Wrestling 's first annual Ilio DiPaolo tribute show , teaming with Cowboy Johnson in a loss to Tony Parisi and Dominic DeNucci . In the late 1990s , Croitoru wrestled in Cambridge , Ontario @-@ based International Championship Wrestling . He feuded with Greg Valentine , and the two wrestled in a series of matches . Bedlam won the ICW Heavyweight Championship from Valentine and used heel tactics such as brass knuckles to defend the belt .
Croitoru has also trained several wrestlers , including Pure Wrestling Association 's Eddie Osbourne and Melissa Maughn , who competes under the ring name 21st Century Fox .
= = Legal trouble = =
= = = Satan 's Choice motorcycle gang = = =
Croitoru has a history of run @-@ ins with the police . Many of his legals problems came while he was president of the Hamilton , Ontario chapter of the Satan 's Choice Outlaw motorcycle club . He was arrested for trafficking cocaine and served ten months in prison . Soon after , he was convicted of assault and was given a sentence of seven months . He encountered more problems on December 15 , 1996 when he and several friends from Satan 's Choice were kicked out of a strip club for wearing their gang 's colors . To get revenge , Croitoru and his friends planned to blow up the strip club . They changed their minds , however , and decided to bomb the local police station instead . The bomb caused $ 133 @,@ 000 in damages to the Sudbury , Ontario police station and a nearby bank and injured a police officer . Croitoru and two friends were arrested and charged , but the trial did not begin until almost two years later .
While Croitoru was awaiting trial for the bombing , the Hamilton branch of Satan 's Choice was shut down after an informant gave the police information about the gang 's involvement with drug dealing and extortion . The gang 's clubhouse was confiscated and the club 's national leadership decided to disband the Hamilton chapter . Croitoru got in a fight in Hamilton with another former Satan 's Choice member on January 13 , 1998 . A police officer saw Croitoru punch the other man in the face and arrested Croitoru for assault . In addition to the assault change , Croitoru was charged with extortion from an unrelated incident as well as carrying a concealed weapon and breaking the conditions of his release following the police station bombing . In September 1998 , Croitoru was brought to trial for his role in the bombing . He was convicted and sentenced to 33 months in prison .
Hitman Ken Murdock , who was himself jailed in 1999 , has claimed he was hired by the mafia to kill Croitoru but instead chose to spare his life .
= = = Murder accusations = = =
Croitoru 's most famous encounter with the law occurred on January 6 , 2005 when he was charged with the November 16 , 1998 murders of Lynn and Fred Gilbank . The couple was shot execution @-@ style with a shotgun . Police suspect that the murders were in response to Lynn Gilbank 's assistance in getting William and Angie Smith into a witness protection program after William Smith gave the police information about the Gravelle crime family . Croitoru , who had several contacts within the Gravelle family ( including a contract to kill police inspector Rick Wills , who was investigating the Gravelles ) , was a suspect in the investigation and had his phones tapped during the investigation .
After an investigation that lasted six years and cost $ 6 million , police laid charges against Croitoru and Andre Gravelle . Croitoru was charged with two counts of first degree murder and two counts of conspiracy to commit murder . After spending seven months in prison , Croitoru was released on $ 100 @,@ 000 bail . He was arrested on December 2 , 2005 for violating his bail terms , and police filed another extortion charge against him .
Evidence against Croitoru and Gravelle was presented over the course of eight weeks in 2006 , but the judge stated that the case against the two accused was not strong . Ontario Attorney General Michael Bryant withdrew the charges on June 12 , 2006 . Following this action by the attorney general , both Croitoru and Andre Gravelle announced plans to file lawsuits against people involved with the prosecution . Gravelle is suing for $ 25 million , and Croitoru is seeking $ 15 million for wrongful imprisonment and malicious prosecution . Hamilton Police Services was ordered to pay Gravelle $ 10 @,@ 000 for court costs . In June 2006 , Croitoru also pleaded guilty to the charges of extortion and violating the terms of his bail . As a result , he was forced to forfeit $ 10 @,@ 000 of the bail money .
= = = United Nations gang = = =
On May 15 , 2009 , Croitoru was arrested , along with seven other members of the United Nations gang . They were charged with conspiracy to commit murder for allegedly plotting to kill the Bacon Brothers and other members of the Red Scorpions gang . On January 24 , 2011 , Croitoru was charged with first degree murder in connection with the execution of Jonathan Barber and the attempted murder of Barber 's girlfriend Vicky King , then 17 , in Burnaby on 9 May 2008 . In July 2013 , he pleaded guilty to conspiracy to commit murder , and the murder charges were stayed . He was sentenced to 13 years in prison , which was reduced to four years and eight months after factoring in time served . In January 2015 , he applied for parole , stating that he had agreed to help with the murders to impress members of the United Nations gang , but that he did not intend to kill anyone . The application was denied .
= = Personal life = =
Before entering wrestling , Croitoru played junior hockey for the Kitchener Rangers in the Ontario Hockey League . He was not drafted to the National Hockey League , however , and he decided to pursue professional wrestling instead . Croitoru is an accomplished weightlifter , and he once bench pressed 625 pounds . While awaiting his murder trial , Croitoru ran a home renovation business until he was unable to secure a bank loan to cover business expenses . After closing the business , Croitoru supported himself by working as a used car salesman . Croitoru came from a large family from Dundas , Ontario .
Croitoru currently lives in Vancouver , British Columbia with his common @-@ law wife to Tracy Edwards and his daughter Tiandra He most recently worked as a bodyguard for Lion 's Gate Entertainment , providing protection for such actors as Jack Nicholson and Cyndi Lauper . Croitoru also had a brief acting career , appearing in a movie titled Oklahoma Smugglers , in which he portrayed a wrestler , and such television shows as Reaper .
= = In wrestling = =
Finishing moves
Stomach claw
Signature moves
Diving headbutt
Powerslam
Managers
Handsome Johnny Bradford
Jim Cornette
Pandora
= = Championships and accomplishments = =
American Wrestling Association
AWA Southern Heavyweight Championship ( 1 time )
Border City Wrestling
BCW Can @-@ Am Heavyweight Championship ( 1 time )
International Championship Wrestling ( Cambridge , Ontario )
ICW Heavyweight Championship ( 1 time )
Midwest Territorial Wrestling
MTW Heavyweight Championship ( 1 time )
Smoky Mountain Wrestling
SMW Beat the Champ Television Championship ( 1 time )
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= Calgary Hitmen =
The Calgary Hitmen are a major junior ice hockey team based in Calgary , Alberta , Canada . The Hitmen play in the Central Division of the Western Hockey League ( WHL ) . They play their home games at the Scotiabank Saddledome . Bret " The Hitman " Hart , a local @-@ born professional wrestler , was a founding owner as well as the inspiration for the team 's name . Established in 1994 , the team has been owned by the Calgary Flames hockey club since 1997 . They are the third WHL team to represent Calgary , preceded by the Centennials and Wranglers .
The Hitmen have finished with the best record in the WHL four times , and qualified for the playoffs for thirteen consecutive seasons between 1998 and 2010 . In 1999 , they became the first Calgary team to win the President 's Cup as league champions , and the first to represent the city in the Memorial Cup since the Calgary Canadians won the national junior title in 1926 . The Hitmen hold numerous WHL attendance records , and in 2004 – 05 became the first team in Canadian Hockey League history to average 10 @,@ 000 fans per game . Thirty @-@ nine former Hitmen players have gone on to play in the National Hockey League .
= = Franchise history = =
Graham James left his position as coach and general manager of the Swift Current Broncos to found the Hitmen in 1994 . He organized a group of eighteen investors in the club , including star National Hockey League players Theoren Fleury and Joe Sakic , along with Bret Hart , famous for his exploits in the World Wrestling Federation . The Calgary Flames , who had just assumed control of the then Saddledome and were looking to fill extra dates in the building , were receptive to the new team .
Calgary had been without a WHL team since the Wranglers moved south to become the Lethbridge Hurricanes in 1987 . The league 's expansion into Calgary was met with skepticism , as the league had previously failed in Western Canada 's largest markets of Vancouver , Edmonton , Calgary , and Winnipeg , when in competition with the NHL .
The Stampede Corral has served as a second home for the odd home game when the Saddledome is unavailable . They used the Corral for regular season home games in 1995 @-@ 1996 and playoff games in 1998 and 2016 .
= = = Controversial beginnings = = =
The club selected its name and logo as an homage to Bret " The Hitman " Hart . The team 's distinctive pink , grey and black jerseys were also modeled after Hart 's ring attire . The logo proved immensely popular and Hitmen merchandise sold well at many local retailers . However , the name and logo were also subject to heavy criticism from segments of the public and the business community , who panned both as negative stereotypes of violence within the sport . Among the chief critics of the new logo was the Flames organization . They had received calls from concerned business people over theme and shared that sentiment . Struggling to attract corporate sponsors , the Hitmen chose to scrap the " Jason Voorhees " -style logo in favour of an alternate " starburst " logo just two months after it was unveiled . The club went back to the original logo in 1996 .
The Hitmen entered their first season playing in the newly formed Central Division , and were predicted to finish as high as third in the five @-@ team division . Instead , they finished as the second @-@ worst regular season team in the league , posting an 18 – 51 – 3 record . The Hitmen lost CAD $ 250 @,@ 000 in their first season and saw their season ticket base halved to 700 for the 1996 – 97 season . The losses led to questions about the viability of the club .
Citing personal reasons , James stunned the organization when he resigned as coach and general manager on September 5 , 1996 . Two days later , the Calgary Police Service revealed that James was being investigated on allegations he sexually abused two former players while he was with the Swift Current Broncos . James was charged , and in January 1997 pleaded guilty to two counts of sexual assault . Upon James ' conviction , and sentencing to 3 ½ years in prison , the Hitmen attempted to distance themselves from their former coach . <
The Hitmen struggled on the ice as well , again missing the playoffs after falling to a record of 15 – 53 – 4 . The spectre of the Graham James scandal hurt the franchise . The original investors , many of whom played for or were otherwise associated with James , sold the team to the Flames for approximately $ 1 @.@ 5 million in June 1997 . It was widely speculated that the new owners would change the team name , possibly to the Junior Flames , however they chose to retain the name although they adopted a new colour scheme and updated the logo .
= = = First championship = = =
Dean Clark took over as head coach shortly after James ' resignation , and led the 1997 – 98 Hitmen to a remarkable turnaround . The team improved to a 40 – 28 – 4 record and first @-@ place finish in the Central Division , qualifying for the playoffs for the first time in franchise history . They defeated the Saskatoon Blades and Swift Current Broncos to reach the Eastern Conference final before falling to the Brandon Wheat Kings . Clark was awarded the Dunc McCallum Memorial Trophy as the WHL 's top coach , and also won the Canadian Hockey League 's Brian Kilrea Coach of the Year Award . Calgary improved to 51 – 13 – 8 in 1998 – 99 , finishing one point ahead of the Kamloops Blazers for the regular season title . Led by Brad Moran , Pavel Brendl and goaltender Alexandre Fomitchev , the Hitmen lost just five games in the playoffs en route to their first league championship . They won the title at home before a WHL playoff record crowd of 17 @,@ 139 . They became the first Calgary @-@ based team to qualify for the Memorial Cup since the Calgary Canadians won the 1926 title .
In the 1999 Memorial Cup , the Hitmen opened their tournament with a 5 – 3 victory over the Ontario Hockey League 's Belleville Bulls , followed by a 4 – 3 loss to the host Ottawa 67 's . They followed with a 3 – 1 win over the Acadie @-@ Bathurst Titan of the Quebec Major Junior Hockey League . Finishing atop the round robin standings , the Hitmen earned a bye into the championship game , and a rematch against the 67 's . The championship game was a back @-@ and @-@ forth affair . Ottawa held 4 – 1 and 6 – 5 leads , while Calgary led 5 – 4 at one point and tied the game late to send it to overtime . The Hitmen fell short of winning the title however , as Ottawa 's Matt Zultek scored the winning goal 1 : 58 into overtime . Brendl and Matt Kinch were named to the Memorial Cup All @-@ Star team .
The Hitmen entered the 1999 – 2000 season with a strong squad , along with expectations at making another run to the Memorial Cup . The club finished the regular season with a record of 58 – 12 – 2 – 2 , once again winning the regular season title . The team set franchise records for victories ( 58 ) and points ( 120 ) , which stood until the 2008 – 09 year . After sweeping the Moose Jaw Warriors and Saskatoon Blades , the Hitmen were upset by the Kootenay Ice in the Eastern Conference final , falling four games to one .
= = = 2000s = = =
The Hitmen went through a rebuilding period and finished third or fourth in the Central Division between 2001 and 2004 , winning only one playoff series during that time . The Hitmen acquired goaltender Justin Pogge from the Prince George Cougars during the 2004 – 05 season . Pogge 's goaltending , along with the offensive leadership of forward Andrew Ladd , saw the Hitmen win their first playoff series in four years . They could not follow up on their victory over the Lethbridge Hurricanes , however , losing their second round series against the Brandon Wheat Kings in seven games .
The Hitmen were heavily marketed by the Flames during the National Hockey League 's 2004 – 05 lockout . As a result , the Hitmen averaged 10 @,@ 062 fans per game and set a new league attendance record . The season total of 362 @,@ 227 fans smashed the old record by over 45 @,@ 000 . The Hitmen became the first Canadian Hockey League team to average over 10 @,@ 000 fans per game , having the highest average attendance of any hockey team — junior or professional — in North America that year .
The 2005 – 06 Hitmen battled the Medicine Hat Tigers for the top spot in the Western Hockey League for most of the season . Calgary finished with 101 points , their best total since 1999 – 2000 , however , finishing two points behind Medicine Hat for the best record in the league . The team again disappointed in the playoffs , falling to the Moose Jaw Warriors in the Eastern Conference semi @-@ final . Pogge 's performance during the season earned him honours as both the WHL player of the year and CHL goaltender of the year . Calgary fell to third in the Central Division in 2006 – 07 . In the playoffs , they upset the Kootenay Ice , who finished 19 @-@ points ahead of Calgary in the regular season . The Hitmen then defeated the East Division champion Brandon Wheat Kings to reach the Eastern Conference final for the fourth time in franchise history , where they were subsequently defeated by the Tigers .
The Hitmen entered the 2007 – 08 season with expectations of being strong contenders , voted the pre @-@ season pick to finish atop the Eastern Conference by the league 's coaches and general managers . The team lived up to expectations , winning the Central Division , and finishing with the best record in the East for the first time since 2000 . During a late season game , Calgary broke the league 's single @-@ game attendance record , as an announced crowd of 19 @,@ 305 watched Calgary defeat Kootenay by a score of 6 goals to 1 . In the playoffs , the Hitmen defeated the Moose Jaw Warriors and Swift Current Broncos in six games apiece , advancing to the Eastern Conference finals for the second consecutive season .
= = = Second championship = = =
Following the graduation of several players , including Karl Alzner , who was named both WHL player of the year and CHL defenceman of the year , the 2008 – 09 Hitmen were expected to enter a rebuilding period . Instead , they captured the franchise 's third Scotty Munro Memorial Trophy as the regular season champion , earning the top seed in the playoffs . The team tied or broke 21 franchise records during the regular season , including wins ( 59 ) , points ( 122 ) and goals for ( 334 ) . Joel Broda led the league with 53 goals , while Brandon Kozun and Brett Sonne finished second and third in league scoring with 108 and 100 points respectively ; it was only the second time in franchise history that two players topped the 100 @-@ point mark in the same season . In the playoffs , the Hitmen won 12 straight games , sweeping the Edmonton Oil Kings , Lethbridge Hurricanes and Brandon Wheat Kings to reach the WHL finals for the first time since 1999 . In the finals , they were stunned by the Kelowna Rockets , losing the first three games of the series before winning the next two to extend the series to a sixth game . The Hitmen lost game six in overtime , and the series 4 – 2 , to end their season . Sonne was named WHL Player of the Year , while General Manager Kelly Kisio was named Executive of the Year for the second time in recognition of the Hitmen 's season .
Calgary again finished with the best record in the regular season with 107 points on the strength of Kozun 's CHL leading 107 points and the goaltending of Martin Jones , who was named goaltender of the year in the WHL . The Hitmen 's playoffs nearly ended quickly as they lost three of the first four games in their opening round playoff series against the Warriors before winning three consecutive games to take the series in seven . They then beat the Tigers and Wheat Kings in six and five games respectively to reach the WHL championship series for the second consecutive year . Entering the final against the Tri @-@ City Americans , the 11 players who returned from the 2009 finals lost vowed not to suffer a repeat of their disappointing finish to the previous season . Named the playoff MVP , Jones allowed only seven goals against in the final as the Hitmen defeated the Americans in five games to win their second Ed Chynoweth Cup in franchise history . The victory , in front of a home crowd of over 15 @,@ 000 fans , earned the Hitmen a berth in the 2010 Memorial Cup tournament . At the tournament , Calgary posted a 2 – 1 record in the round robin , defeating the QMJHL 's Moncton Wildcats and the host Brandon Wheat Kings , but lost the semi @-@ final in overtime , also against Brandon .
Following the graduation of many of the team 's top scorers , the Hitmen fell to last place the WHL in 2010 – 11 , at one point tying a franchise record with 12 consecutive losses . As part of the 2011 Heritage Classic , the Hitmen hosted the Regina Pats in an outdoor game at McMahon Stadium on February 21 , 2011 . Regina won 3 – 2 before 20 @,@ 888 fans , setting new WHL and CHL attendance records , and proving the highest attended junior game of all @-@ time .
= = Community impact = =
The Hitmen are active within the community , supporting numerous programs and charities . They host an annual teddy bear toss each December . The 13th annual Petro Canada Teddy Bear Toss , held on December 2 , 2007 , saw what the Hitmen claim to be a world record 26 @,@ 919 bears tossed on to the ice by 17 @,@ 341 fans . The bears are donated to charities throughout the Calgary area . A few of the bears are personally delivered by the players to the Alberta Children 's Hospital , an event highly anticipated by patients attending the hospital .
The Hitmen are also partners with the Calgary Board of Education and their Read On ! Literacy for Life program . Author Sigmund Brouwer has released numerous young adult @-@ oriented mystery novels about the team and fictitious Hitmen players . The ninth book in the series , titled Hitmen Star , was published in 2008 . Copies of the books are distributed to sixth grade students throughout Calgary and southern Alberta schools ; with Hitmen and former National Hockey League players helping to encourage students to take an active interest in reading .
= = Current roster = =
Updated Feb @-@ 2 @-@ 16
= = Season @-@ by @-@ season record = =
Note : GP |
= Games played , W =
Wins , L |
= Losses , T =
Ties , OTL |
= Overtime losses , SOL =
Shootout losses , Pts |
= Points , GF =
Goals for , GA = Goals against
= = NHL alumni = =
Thirty @-@ eight players have been selected from the Hitmen roster at the National Hockey League 's entry drafts . Of those , nine players were selected in the first round . The highest drafted players in club history were Pavel Brendl ( 1999 ) and Andrew Ladd ( 2004 ) . Both players were selected fourth overall .
Forty @-@ one former Hitmen players have gone on to play in the National Hockey League . The first was Ryan Bast , who played two games with the Philadelphia Flyers in 1998 – 99 . Andrew Ladd has gone on to win two Stanley Cup championships since graduating : with the Carolina Hurricanes in 2006 and the Chicago Blackhawks in 2010 . His former Hitmen teammate , Ryan Getzlaf won the Cup with the Anaheim Ducks in 2007 .
= = Head coaches = =
Dean Clark has thus far been the most successful coach for the Calgary Hitmen . He led the team between 1996 and 2001 , and in that time won more WHL games than any other coach . He was named coach of the year in both the WHL and CHL in 1998 . Clark led the Hitmen to three division titles , two regular season titles , one league championship , and coached the Hitmen to their first Memorial Cup final . Kelly Kisio is the team 's former head coach from the 2004 – 05 season to the end of the 2007 – 08 season , a role he shared with Dean Evason in his first year at the helm of the Hitmen . Kisio stepped down as coach in 2008 , naming former assistant Dave Lowry , as head coach for the 2008 – 09 season . Lowry was promoted to an assistant with the Calgary Flames after leading the Hitmen to a 122 @-@ point season in his rookie year . He was replaced by Mike Williamson , who led the team to a WHL championship in 2010 but left the team in 2014 . The current head coach is Mark French .
= = Club records = =
Season
Individual
Most goals , 73 , Pavel Brendl , 1998 – 99
Most assists , 72 , Brad Moran , 1999 – 2000
Most points , 134 , Pavel Brendl , 1998 – 99
Most penalty minutes : 302 , Ryan Andres , 1997 – 98
Best goals against average , 1 @.@ 72 , Justin Pogge , 2005 – 06
Most shutouts , 11 , Justin Pogge , 2005 – 06
Most games played , goaltender : 60 , Alexandre Fomitchev , 1997 – 98
Most saves , goaltender : 1 @,@ 481 , Alexandre Fomitchev , 1997 – 98
Team
Most wins : 59 , 2008 – 09
Most points : 122 , 2008 – 09
Most goals for : 330 , 2008 – 09
Fewest goals against : 155 , 2005 – 06
Career
Most goals : 204 , Brad Moran , 1995 – 00
Most assists : 246 , Brad Moran , 1995 – 00
Most points : 450 , Brad Moran , 1995 – 00
Most penalty minutes : 704 , Mike Egener , 2000 – 04
Most games played , individual : 357 , Brad Moran , 1995 – 2000
Best goals against average : 1 @.@ 92 , Justin Pogge , 2004 – 06
Most shutouts : 16 , Martin Jones , 2006 – 10
Most games played , goaltender : 179 , Dan Spence , 2004 – 08
Most saves , goaltender : 3390 , Chris Driedger , 2011 – 14
= = Awards and honours = =
The Calgary Hitmen have captured numerous awards during the franchise 's tenure . Hitmen players have been named the WHL 's most outstanding player four times . Defenceman Karl Alzner won the Four Broncos Memorial Trophy in 2007 – 08 , also named the defenceman of the year , and Brett Sonne won the trophy in 2008 – 09 . Goaltender Martin Jones captured numerous awards in Calgary 's championship season of 2009 – 10 , including being named the top goaltender of the Memorial Cup , and Brandon Kozun led the entire Canadian Hockey League in scoring .
As a whole , the Hitmen have won the Central Division six times , and four times have been the regular season champions . Brad Moran , the franchise 's all @-@ time leading scorer , had his number 20 retired in 2005 , the only player to be so honoured . Following the lead of the Calgary Flames , the team introduced a new program in 2015 to honour former players . Called " Forever a Hitmen " , the team named Ryan Getzlaf the first inductee .
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= Uxbridge =
Uxbridge ( / ˈʌksbrɪdʒ / ) is a town in west London , England , and the administrative headquarters of the London Borough of Hillingdon . Fifteen miles ( 24 @.@ 1 km ) west @-@ northwest of Charing Cross , it is one of the major metropolitan centres identified in the London Plan . Uxbridge historically formed part of the parish of Hillingdon in the county of Middlesex , and was a significant local commercial centre from an early time . As part of the suburban growth of London in the 20th century it expanded and increased in population , becoming a municipal borough in 1955 , and has formed part of Greater London since 1965 . It is a significant retail and commercial centre , and is the location of Brunel University and the Uxbridge campus of Buckinghamshire New University . The town is close to the boundary with Buckinghamshire , which is locally the River Colne .
Several historical events have taken place in and around the town , including attempted negotiations between King Charles I and the Parliamentary Army during the English Civil War . The public house at the centre of those events , since renamed the Crown & Treaty , still stands . Uxbridge also houses the Battle of Britain Bunker , from where the air defence of the south @-@ east of England was coordinated during the Battle of Britain . Situated in RAF Uxbridge , the No. 11 Group Operations Room within the bunker played a crucial rule during the battle and was later used during the D @-@ Day landings .
The wards of Uxbridge North and Uxbridge South are used for the election of councillors to Hillingdon Council and for statistical purposes . The 2011 Census recorded population figures of 12 @,@ 048 for Uxbridge North and 13 @,@ 979 for Uxbridge South .
= = History = =
= = = Toponymy = = =
The name of the town is derived from " Wixan 's Bridge " , which was sited near the bottom of Oxford Road where a modern road bridge now stands , beside the Swan and Bottle public house . The Wixan were a 7th @-@ century Saxon tribe from Lincolnshire who also began to settle in what became Middlesex . Anglo @-@ Saxons began to settle and farm in the area of Uxbridge in the 5th century , clearing the dense woodland and remaining there for around 500 years . Two other places in Middlesex bore the name of the Wixan : Uxendon ( " Wixan 's Hill " ) , a name now preserved only in the street names of Uxendon Hill and Crescent in Harrow , and Waxlow ( " Wixan 's Wood " ) near Southall .
Archaeologists found Bronze Age remains ( before 700 BC ) and medieval remains during the construction of The Chimes shopping centre ; two miles ( 3 @.@ 2 km ) away at Denham , Upper Paleolithic remains have been found . Uxbridge is not mentioned in the Domesday Book of the 11th century , but a hundred years later the existing church , St Margaret 's , was built . The town appears in records from 1107 as " Woxbrigge " , and became part of the Elthorne Hundred with other settlements in the area .
= = = Early developments = = =
The Parliamentary Army garrisoned the town upon the outbreak of the English Civil War in 1642 and established their headquarters there in June 1647 on a line from Staines to Watford , although the king passed through Uxbridge in April 1646 , resting at the Red Lion public house for several hours . Charles I met with representatives of Parliament at the Crown Inn in Uxbridge in 1645 , but negotiations for the end of hostilities were unsuccessful due in part to the king 's stubborn attitude . The town had been chosen as it was located between the Royal headquarters at Oxford and the Parliamentary stronghold of London .
The covered market was built in 1788 , replacing a building constructed in 1561 . In the early 19th century , Uxbridge had an unsavoury reputation ; the jurist William Arabin said of its residents " They will steal the very teeth out of your mouth as you walk through the streets . I know it from experience . " For about 200 years most of London 's flour was produced in the Uxbridge area .
The Grand Junction Canal opened in 1794 , linking Uxbridge with Birmingham . By 1800 Uxbridge had become one of the most important market towns in Middlesex , helped by its status as the first stopping point for stagecoaches travelling from London to Oxford . The development of Uxbridge declined after the opening of the Great Western Railway in 1838 , which passed through West Drayton . A branch line to Uxbridge was not built until 1904 .
Harman 's Brewery was established in Uxbridge by George Harman in 1763 , and moved into its new headquarters in Uxbridge High Street in 1875 . The eventual owners of the brewery , Courage , closed the headquarters in 1964 . It was demolished and replaced by a Budgen 's supermarket , which in turn was demolished with the construction of The Chimes shopping centre . The brewery building in George Street remained in place until it was demolished in 1967 . The office building Harman House was built on the site in 1985 , named after the brewery .
= = = Urban development = = =
The enclosure of Hillingdon Parish in 1819 saw the reduction in size of Uxbridge Common , which at its largest had been 4 miles ( 6 @.@ 4 km ) in circumference . The common originally covered both sides of Park Road to the north of the town centre but now covers 15 acres ( 6 @.@ 1 ha ) .
In 1871 the town 's first purpose @-@ built police station was built in Windsor Street . The building included three cells and stables . The Metropolitan Police continued to use the building until 1988 , when operations moved to a new site in Harefield Road . The building subsequently became the Old Bill public house in 1996 , renamed the Fig Tree in 2006 .
In the early 1900s the Uxbridge and District Electricity Supply Company had been established in Waterloo Road , and much of the town was connected by 1902 , although some houses still had gas lighting in 1912 . A water tower on Uxbridge Common was built in 1906 , resembling a church tower , to improve the supply to the town .
Wood panelling from a room in the Crown & Treaty public house was sold in 1924 to an American businessman , who installed it in his office in the Empire State Building in New York . It was returned in 1953 as a gift to the newly crowned Queen Elizabeth II and returned to the house , although the monarch retained ownership .
On 31 August 1935 Uxbridge Lido , an outdoor swimming pool built in the " Moderne " or Art Deco style , was officially opened . Before the opening , many residents swam in a section of the Frays River near Harefield Road , and the Colne . The pool , pavilion building , entrance building and both fountains were designated Grade II listed buildings in 1998 . Despite the listing , the pool was closed to the public and the buildings became subject to heavy vandalism . Uxbridge open @-@ air pool was fully refurbished during 2009 and re @-@ opened in May 2010 . Added to the site , now named Hillingdon Sports and Leisure Complex , is a 50 m indoor competition pool , a leisure pool , a 100 @-@ station gym , a wide range of exercise classes , an athletics stadium and track , 3G floodlit pitches , a sports hall , a café and a crèche . The Grade II listed buildings are still standing .
During the Second World War Uxbridge adopted the Royal Navy destroyer HMS Intrepid in 1942 , to help towards the ship 's costs ; Intrepid was lost to enemy action the following year . The town and surrounding areas suffered bombing by the Luftwaffe . V1 flying bombs fell on the town between June 1944 and March 1945 . The first recorded bombing using a V1 was on 22 June 1944 at 07 : 00 , when the bomb passed over the top of a bus and hit four houses nearby . Seven people were killed and 25 injured , leaving 46 houses in the area uninhabitable .
In 1958 the 199 @-@ acre ( 81 ha ) Lowe & Shawyer plant nursery to the west of RAF Uxbridge entered voluntary liquidation . The nursery had stood in Kingston Lane since 1868 , and was the largest producer of cut flowers in the country . Demolition work began in 1962 , and the construction of Brunel University commenced . Chrysanthemums are included the coat of arms of the Borough of Uxbridge in memory of the nursery . The Uxbridge ( Vine Street ) railway branch line , which partly ran alongside the site , was closed in 1964 and in 1966 the university opened , purchasing the land where the railway had run from the local council for £ 65 @,@ 000 .
Uxbridge Cricket Club moved from Cricketfield Road in 1971 to make way for the new Civic Centre . The club had been at Cricketfield Road since 1858 , but moved to a new site on part of Uxbridge Common on Park Road . The Market Square shopping precinct in the town centre was built in the late 1970s , but its lack of shelter made it unpopular and it did not attract the expected levels of custom . Many buildings along the High Street and Windsor Street had been demolished to make way for the new precinct , which was eventually sold to the Prudential Assurance Company and redeveloped with a roof in the early 1980s to become the Pavilions Shopping Centre . The Peacock public house in one of the two main squares was demolished and replaced with a café named The Chequers , which remains . Rayner 's pharmacy shop was also demolished during the Market Square development , although the shopfront was saved by the Museum of London and is held in storage .
The Chimes shopping centre was built beside Uxbridge station in 2001 , incorporating many of the existing buildings into the new structure . The centre was originally to be named St George 's Centre in plans dating back to the early 1990s , though this name was eventually taken by another shopping centre in Harrow on the Hill . Instead , The Chimes was said to refer to the sound of the bells from the nearby market house on the High Street . An Odeon cinema opened as a major part of the centre , with the smaller cinema at the opposite end of the High Street closing . Some houses on Chippendale Way and the St George 's car park were demolished to allow for the construction of the new shopping centre car park . The offices of the local building company Fassnidge were also included in the new development ; built in the 19th century , they now house a Pizza Express restaurant . Preserved timber from earlier demolished buildings in Uxbridge was used in the construction of a new building beside the former offices of Fassnidge , designed to resemble a much older structure .
In 2002 the dry ski slope near Park Road and the Uxbridge Lido was closed and the remaining buildings and structures removed . The Hillingdon Ski Centre had been subject to several arson attacks during 2001 and the company operating it became insolvent . The slope , which had been built in 1977 , was left to return to nature .
Work began in 2008 to extensively refurbish and extend Uxbridge Lido , and it reopened to the public in February 2010 as the Hillingdon Sports and Leisure Complex . On 8 September 2010 the 75th anniversary of the first opening of the Lido was celebrated at the pool .
= = Government = =
Uxbridge originally formed a chapelry within the parish of Hillingdon . It was split off as a separate civil parish in 1866 , and became part of the Uxbridge Urban District under the Local Government Act 1894 . In 1955 the urban district council successfully petitioned for a charter of incorporation and became a municipal borough . This remained until 1965 , when the borough was incorporated into the new London Borough of Hillingdon . Within the borough , Uxbridge is split into two wards : Uxbridge North and Uxbridge South . Each is served by three Conservative Party councillors .
Uxbridge had its own parliamentary constituency until boundary changes at the 2010 general election meant it became part of the Uxbridge and South Ruislip constituency . Uxbridge and South Ruislip is represented by Boris Johnson MP , of the Conservative Party . He took over from John Randall in 2015 , who was first elected to represent Uxbridge in a 1997 by @-@ election after the sitting MP , Sir Michael Shersby , died shortly after the 1997 general election .
= = Geography = =
Uxbridge lies at a mean elevation of 130 feet ( 40 m ) above mean sea level . Like much of the rest of the UK its climate is generally temperate , with few extremes of temperature or weather .
The landscape upon which the settlement of Uxbridge was established is largely unchanged from the Mesolithic era . Much of it was covered by oak and elm trees , which were gradually cleared by early settlers . An archaeological excavation by the Museum of London in the 1990s found evidence of flint items shaped by Mesolithic hunters , as well as various animal bones and traces of charcoal from the remains of campfires .
The River Pinn runs through Uxbridge , passing through the former site of RAF Uxbridge and the grounds of Brunel University . It joins the Frays River , which branches off from the River Colne and acts as the boundary between Uxbridge and the neighbouring county of Buckinghamshire .
= = Demography = =
The approximate population figure for Uxbridge North was recorded in 2009 by the Office for National Statistics as 11 @,@ 812 , and 11 @,@ 887 in Uxbridge South . The majority of residents in Uxbridge North were white , with 85 % categorised , against 79 % for the entire borough of Hillingdon . Uxbridge South also had a majority of white residents , matching the borough figure . In both wards , the remaining percentage was made up of mixed @-@ race , Asian or Asian British , Black or Black British , and Chinese or other ethnic groups . Of the two wards , Uxbridge South had a higher percentage of black and Chinese residents , when compared with the borough .
By the 2011 Census , the population of Uxbridge had reached 12 @,@ 048 in Uxbridge North and 13 @,@ 979 in Uxbridge South . The most common ethnic group remained white in Uxbridge North , measured as 69 @.@ 8 % , followed by Asian or Asian British ( 19 @.@ 5 % ) and Black or Black British ( 4 @.@ 1 % ) . The remaining percentage was made up of mixed @-@ race and other unspecified ethnic groups . White was also the most common ethnic group in Uxbridge South , measured as 62 @.@ 1 % , followed by Asian or Asian British ( 22 @.@ 6 % ) , Black or Black British ( 7 @.@ 3 % ) and mixed @-@ race ( 4 @.@ 3 % ) . The remaining percentage was made up of other unspecified ethnic groups .
In terms of employment , Uxbridge North had a larger number of residents employed in managerial roles , when measured during the 2001 census . The majority of residents in Uxbridge South were categorised as " not classifieds " .
The life expectancy for men is 77 in Uxbridge North , compared with 74 in Uxbridge South . The figures for women are 83 in Uxbridge North and 81 in Uxbridge South .
= = Religion = =
In the 2011 census , 72 @.@ 8 % of residents in the Uxbridge North ward answered that they had a religion , compared with 19 @.@ 3 % who did not and 7 @.@ 9 % who did not answer . Of those who answered , 53 % identified as Christian , followed by 6 @.@ 7 % who identified as Muslim and 6 @.@ 2 % as Sikh . The percentage identifying as Hindu was 5 @.@ 4 % . Figures for residents identifying as either Jewish , Buddhist or other unspecified religions were each below 1 % .
Within the Uxbridge South ward , 69 @.@ 2 % of residents answered that they had a religion , compared with 23 @.@ 8 % who did not and 7 % who did not answer . As with Uxbridge North , the majority ( 46 @.@ 4 % ) identified as Christian , followed by 13 @.@ 4 % who identified as Muslim and 5 % as Hindu . The percentage identifying as Sikh was 2 @.@ 3 % and those identifying as Buddhist were 1 @.@ 2 % . Figures for residents identifying as either Jewish or other unspecified religions were each below 1 % .
= = = Churches = = =
= = = = St Margaret 's Church = = = =
This is the original parish church of Uxbridge , and one of the oldest buildings in the town . Located in Windsor Street , it is known to have existed since at least 1245 , when a series of hearings took place there in which the Abbot of Bec in Normandy brought an action against the rector of Great Wratting in Suffolk for non @-@ payment of tithes . On parchments kept at St. George 's Chapel , Windsor , in connection with this event , St. Margaret 's is mentioned by name , and there are several other references between 1245 and 1247 to the " chapel at Uxbridge " .
The oldest portion of the existing building is part of the north tower , which was built in the late 14th century . The north aisle , together with the nave and its arcades , dates from the early 15th century , while the south aisle , with its fine hammer @-@ beam roof , was added about 1450 . The carved stone font was placed in the church soon afterwards , dating from about 1480 .
For most of its history , St Margaret 's served as a chapel @-@ of @-@ ease to St John the Baptist 's Church in Hillingdon ; it was not until 1827 that it was given its own parish .
= = = = St Andrew 's Church = = = =
By the 1850s the population of both Hillingdon and Uxbridge was beginning to rise . With new housing being built between the two centres the then Vicar of Hillingdon , the Rev Richard Croft ( 1856 – 69 ) gained permission to build a new church in the area , sometimes referred to as Hillingdon West . He asked the well @-@ known architect Sir George Gilbert Scott :
" to draw up plans to build a church without unnecessary ornament but in handsome proportions suitable to its position at the entrance to Uxbridge Town ... "
Scott produced his plans and local Uxbridge builder William Fassnidge was employed to construct the church . On St Peter ’ s Day , 29 June 1864 , the foundation stone was laid at the south end of the chancel arch by the Lord Bishop of London , Archibald Campbell Tait . He returned less than a year later to consecrate and open the church on the feast of SS Philip and James , 1 May 1865 .
The spire was completed the following year . Together with the bells , vestry and organ and other embellishments , the cost of the building , located in Hillingdon Road , was some £ 12 @,@ 000 .
= = = = Church of Our Lady of Lourdes and St Michael = = = =
After St Margaret 's turned Protestant in the 16th century , there was no official Roman Catholic place of worship in Uxbridge until the late 19th century , following the passing of the Catholic Emancipation Act . In 1892 Father Michael Aloysius Wren bought a presbytery at 37 Lawn Road , next to which a temporary church was built of corrugated iron , dedicated to Our Lady of Lourdes and St Michael . St Mary ’ s School was also founded on Rockingham Road at this time . Fr Wren was helped by his nephew John , who acted as his assistant priest . They covered an extensive area , including the modern Catholic parishes of Ruislip and Hillingdon .
The mission grew from strength to strength and by 1907 the congregation numbered 150 , with school attendance at 60 . In time plans were made for a larger , more permanent church . This was the brainchild of Father Thomas Moloney , who bought the current presbytery and acquired the land that stood at the back so that a church could be built . The foundation stone was eventually laid on Low Sunday 1931 by Archbishop Alban Goodier , an English Jesuit who had been Archbishop of Bombay between 1919 and 1926 . The new church , in Oxford Road , was designed by the diocesan architect , T. H. B. Scott . It was built of brick in the Romanesque style , seating 350 . The church was built quickly and opened by Cardinal Bourne on 29th September 1931 . It was officially consecrated on 14 May 1936 , after its debts were cleared .
= = Economy = =
Uxbridge has two shopping centres , The Pavilions and Intu Uxbridge ( formerly The Chimes ) . Much of the town centre is pedestrianised . Just off the High Street is Windsor Street , a short road populated by older shops . A notable landmark on the road is Randalls , the Art Deco style former department store owned by the family of the former MP for Uxbridge and South Ruislip , John Randall . The present store was constructed in 1939 on the site of another that had been built in 1900 . It was awarded Grade II listed status in October 2008 . The store closed in January 2015 following a decline in trade .
The town centre consists of retail outlets and a number of office buildings , including the main European offices of international companies such as Canon , PricewaterhouseCoopers , Apple , WMS Gaming , Unisys , Kuehne + Nagel , PAREXEL , Xerox , Arri , Bristol @-@ Myers Squibb , Monster Energy , APL , Herbalife Europe and Anixter International . Other employers include NetApp , IBB Solicitors , F. Hinds , The Coca @-@ Cola Company , Coca @-@ Cola Enterprises , General Mills and Nexen . Cadbury plc moved its head office to Uxbridge from Mayfair in January 2008 . The company announced the plan in 2007 as part of efforts to cut costs .
Within the borough of Hillingdon , 55 @.@ 1 % of residents travel to the Uxbridge North and Uxbridge South wards to work , and only 8 % of residents working there also live within the wards . The 2001 census measured a total of 6 @,@ 007 ( 35 @.@ 9 % ) of residents leaving the North ward to go to work . Uxbridge South had a figure of 5 @,@ 666 ( 26 @.@ 5 % ) of residents leaving the ward to work elsewhere .
= = Education = =
Primary schools in Uxbridge include Hermitage Primary School , St Andrew 's Church of England Primary School , St Mary 's Catholic Primary School , Whitehall Infant School , and Whitehall Junior School . Uxbridge High School is a comprehensive secondary school in the town .
Uxbridge is also home to Brunel University and the Buckinghamshire New University 's nursing campus . The main campus of Uxbridge College is also in the town .
= = Transport = =
Uxbridge tube station is the western terminus for branches of the Metropolitan and Piccadilly lines of the London Underground . The station , built in 1933 , is fronted by a pedestrian high street and is connected to a bus terminus with connections to Hillingdon , Hayes , Ealing , Ruislip , and Slough .
There were once two railway stations : Uxbridge Vine Street ( originally just Uxbridge Station ) and Uxbridge High Street . Both were planned to be linked , hence High Street ending on a half @-@ built bridge . High Street closed to passengers as a war economy and never reopened . Despite having the most intensive service , the Vine Street line was one of the first Western Region urban branches to close under the Beeching axe . Uxbridge Belmont Road was the first underground station , built slightly outside the town centre to allow for a possible extension to High Wycombe . This was subsequently replaced by the current station .
The B483 road connects the centre of Uxbridge with the Swakeleys Roundabout junction of the A40 . Uxbridge is also connected by major roads to Slough , Denham , Ickenham , Cowley , Iver Heath , Hillingdon Heath and Hayes .
The Grand Union Canal , formerly the Grand Junction Canal , connects London with Birmingham and passes immediately to the west of Uxbridge , forming part of the borough boundary . The first stretch was built in the late 18th century from Brentford to Uxbridge . Further upstream is Uxbridge Lock , and nearby is a derelict flour mill formerly owned by Allied Mills . The mill was bought in the 19th century by William King , who named it " Kingsmill " . Kingsmill continues to be used as a brand of bread by Associated British Foods .
London Buses routes 222 , 331 , 427 , 607 , A10 , U1 , U2 , U3 , U4 , U5 , U7 , U9 , U10 and N207 serve the area , alongside five non @-@ Transport for London ( TfL ) routes : First Berkshire & The Thames Valley route 58 , Green Line route 724 and Carousel Buses routes 730 , A40 and 740 .
The proposed West London Tram was postponed indefinitely by TfL in August 2007 after it was announced that the Crossrail project would be going ahead . TfL cited " an effective bus @-@ based solution " as an alternative , delivered in conjunction with local councils . Since 2013 the route has been served by the 427 , 207 , and 607 bus services .
= = Landmarks = =
= = = Civic Centre = = =
The London Borough of Hillingdon 's Civic Centre was built in Uxbridge High Street in 1973 , as part of an effort to unite the services of the council , which had formed in 1965 with the merger of the Municipal Borough of Uxbridge , Ruislip @-@ Northwood Urban District , Hayes and Harlington Urban District and Yiewsley and West Drayton Urban District . Before the new building was completed , council services had been spread throughout Uxbridge and the rest of the borough and various buildings , as a result of the merging of the former district councils .
Part of the original Middlesex County Council office building that stood on site was incorporated into the new Civic Centre . The centre 's clock tower is the only visible section from the old building . The Uxbridge Cricket Club Ground and Uxbridge fire station were relocated as part of the new development , which became controversial owing to its size and cost . Areas of the building , particularly the council chambers , continue to suffer from poor acoustics .
= = = Uxbridge Magistrates ' Court = = =
The original Magistrates ' Court opened in 1907 in an Edwardian style . A new building with little exterior styling opened nearby in the 1990s and legal proceedings were transferred .
= = = RAF Uxbridge , Battle of Britain Bunker and Hillingdon House = = =
Uxbridge had a Royal Air Force station , known as RAF Uxbridge , until its closure on 31 March 2010 . The station was built within the grounds of Hillingdon House , a 19th @-@ century mansion bought by the British government in 1915 , and became most famous as the home of RAF Fighter Command 's No. 11 Group Operations Room during the Battle of Britain . Fighter squadrons at airfields in the south @-@ east of England were directed from the station , which was visited by Prime Minister Winston Churchill during the battle , and other foreign leaders throughout the rest of the war .
Following the station 's closure , the replica No. 33 Squadron Supermarine Spitfire gate guardian was removed from the main entrance for restoration work and moved to the entrance of the Operations Room ( now known as the Battle of Britain Bunker ) . The area around the bunker was retained as an enclave under the RAF Uxbridge name , under the care of RAF Northolt . An additional guardian , a Hawker Hurricane in the colours of No. 303 ( Polish ) Squadron , was added to the area in November 2010 .
= = Sport and leisure = =
Uxbridge has a Non @-@ League football team , Uxbridge F.C. , which plays at Honeycroft , West Drayton . Uxbridge Cricket Club is also based in Uxbridge and is a member of the Middlesex County Cricket League , a designated ECB Premier League . Hillingdon Sports and Leisure Complex has recently been refurbished and contains an indoor and outdoor swimming pool , an athletic track and large sports complex . The South Korean Olympic Team used the centre for training during the 2012 Olympic Games .
= = Notable people = =
A number of notable people have lived in Uxbridge .
Christine Keeler , the 1960s model who became involved in the 1963 Profumo Affair , was born here , as was the actor , writer and director Bernard Miles ( 1907 – 1991 ) , who attended Bishopshalt Grammar School . Also born here was the poet , novelist and illustrator Peggy Eileen Whistler ( 1909 – 1958 ) , who used the pseudonym Margiad Evans , and John Stears ( 1934 – 1999 ) , the Academy Award @-@ winning creator of James Bond 's Aston Martin DB5 and Star Wars robots .
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= Ernesto Pérez Balladares =
Ernesto Pérez Balladares González @-@ Revilla ( born June 29 , 1946 in Panama City ) , nicknamed El Toro ( " The Bull " ) , was the President of Panama between 1994 and 1999 .
= = Biography = =
Son of the renown doctor Ernesto Pérez Balladares and of María Enriqueta González Revilla Delgado . His education began in the province of Chiriquí in David where he attended school at San Vicente de Paúl . Upon his graduation , Pérez Balladares would then attend the prestigious institute of the University of Notre Dame the United States where he would receive a bachelor 's degree in Finance . Soon after , Pérez Balladares continued his studies and received a Master 's degree in Business Administration from the Wharton School of the University of Pennsylvania .
Upon his arrival back to Panamá , his experience and expertise would soon allow him to become the Director of City Bank for Panama and Central America from 1971 to 1975 .
= = Background = =
Pérez Balladares received master 's degrees in Economics the US at the University of Notre Dame and the Wharton School of the University of Pennsylvania . From 1971 to 1975 , he was the director of City Bank for Panama and Central America . He is married to Dora Boyd de Pérez Balladares .
= = Political career = =
In 1976 Perez Balladares was appointed by General Omar Torrijos to be Panama 's Minister of Estate and Treasury . Soon after in March , 1979 Perez Balladares would become a co @-@ founder of the Revolutionary Democratic Party also known as the PRD . He would then become the General Secretary in 1982 .
After distancing himself due to disputes with General Manuel Noriega , Perez Balladares returned to the PRD party in 1991 where he once again regained the position of General Secretary in order to form part of the PRD National Executive Committee .
In the Presidential election of May 8 , 1994 representing the PRD party , Perez Balladares won the presidencial race with the 33 @.@ 3 % of the votes , ousting opponents : Mireya Moscoso of the Partido Panameñista 29 @.@ 4 % , Ruben Blades of the Partido Papa Egoró 17 @.@ 1 % , Ruben Dario Carles of the MOLIRENA party 16 @.@ 1 % , Eduardo Vallarino of the Partido Demócrata Cristiano 2 @.@ 4 % , Samuel Lewis Galindo of the Partido Solidaridad 1 @.@ 7 % and Jose Salvador Muñoz of the Partido Panameñista Doctrinario with 0 @.@ 3 % .
Perez Balladares would succeed the late Guillermo Endara Galimani .
= = Presidency = =
Pérez Balladares 's government was characterized by pro @-@ free market policies which helped modernize the country and in 1997 Panama entered the World Trade Organization . During his time in office , Pérez Balladares modernized the country by corporatizing INTEL and turned both the elcetric and telephone companies into mixed enterprises by selling 49 % to England 's Cable & Wirless for 659 million dollars leaving 49 % for the government and 2 % for the employees . He also modernized the communications sector by bringing in the cell phone , internet and martime services which turned Panama into one of the most important multimodal centers in America .
In the same way , Pérez Balladares also corporatized the Institute of Hydraulic Resources and Electrification ( IRHE ) which provided a greater amount of income than when it was privatized under the hands of previous governments which operated under the notion of privatization , a guideline set forth by the World Bank in order to give loans to developing countries which in Panama was adopted by the government of Guillermo Endara under the Ford Plan . This plan set out to sell the entire entity of the companies : Cemento Bayano to Cemex , Cítricos de Chiriquí , El Matadero de Azuero , Proyecto de Palma Aceitera de Barú , the Hotel Washington of Colón and Hotel Taboga .
In addition , Pérez Balladares established the entry of new operators in the market to help end state monopoly in the electric sectors and others as well . He also created the The Commission of Free Competition and Consumer Affairs also known as ( CLICAC ) in Panama which would later become known as the Authority for Consumer Protection and Competition Issues ( ACODECO ) .
Pérez Balladares is also known for creating the Development Trust Fund also known as Fondo Fiduciario del Desarrollo ( FFD ) , where the funds obtained from the sale of the 49 % of state businesses and interoceanic region of the previous canal zone are deposited .
Moreover , Pérez Balladares created the Reverted Areas Authority of the Interoceanic Region , also known as ( ARI ) to administer the funds collected from the sales and tenders of the lands that were once part of the Canal Zone . In addition , this authority managed to consistently collect capital for the Panamanian Development Trust Fund , which would serve the future governments as a national trust fund to carry out their projects .
One of Pérez Balladares ' most notable achievements was his ability to carry out and complete the North and South corridors , a highway system that would provide the citizens of Panama a quicker and easier way to travel throughout the country . He also expanded the Interamerican highway to four lanes , reducing a problematic traffic flow , created the highway to Colón and made the railway system operational .
By the same token , Pérez Balladares had the vision to take the Airport of Paitilla and move it to Albrook , with this e modernized it and allowed it to receive the status of an international airport , where it still stands today .
Pérez Balladares forged closer ties with the US , agreeing with President Bill Clinton to take in 10 @,@ 000 Cuban boat people at US military bases that Endara had refused to accept , as well as providing exile to Haitian former military ruler Raoul Cédras as part of a negotiated settlement . Pérez Balladares also pledged to join the US anti @-@ drug effort and pass new laws to prevent money laundering .
= = Present Day = =
As of today , Pérez Balladares works on personal business matters while at the same staying in contact with the matters related to the Revolutionary Democratic Party ( PRD ) .
Since 2015 , Pérez Balladares has been activley becoming more involved in the political agenda and discussions of Panama as he seeks to become president of the Republic for a second time . Coupled with his path for president , Pérez Balladares continues with his strong support as his public appearances are followed with great enthusiasm by the public and elected officials from all over the country .
Apart from his aspiration to run for president , Pérez Balladares is also seeking to become the General Secretary of the PRD once again with the intention of solidifying the Revolutionary Democratic Party to bring forth a stronger and more unified party .
It has also been taken into account that Pérez Balladares , over the last 20 years has always kept his personal office open with the intention of staying in touch with public concerns and national topics . In fact , his office has become a meeting point for topics concerning the nation .
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= Matt Groening =
Matthew Abram " Matt " Groening ( / ˈɡreɪnɪŋ / GRAY @-@ ning ; born February 15 , 1954 ) is an American cartoonist , writer , producer , animator , and voice actor . He is the creator of the comic strip Life in Hell ( 1977 – 2012 ) and the television series The Simpsons ( 1989 – present ) and Futurama ( 1999 – 2003 , 2008 – 2013 ) . The Simpsons has gone on to become the longest running U.S. primetime television series in history , as well as the longest running animated series and sitcom .
Groening made his first professional cartoon sale of Life in Hell to the avant @-@ garde Wet magazine in 1978 . At its peak , the cartoon was carried in 250 weekly newspapers . Life in Hell caught the attention of James L. Brooks . In 1985 , Brooks contacted Groening with the proposition of working in animation for the Fox variety show The Tracey Ullman Show . Originally , Brooks wanted Groening to adapt his Life in Hell characters for the show . Fearing the loss of ownership rights , Groening decided to create something new and came up with a cartoon family , the Simpson family , and named the members after his own parents and sisters — while Bart was an anagram of the word brat . The shorts would be spun off into their own series The Simpsons , which has since aired 596 episodes . In 1997 , Groening and former Simpsons writer David X. Cohen developed Futurama , an animated series about life in the year 3000 , which premiered in 1999 , running for four years on Fox , then picked up by Comedy Central for additional seasons .
Groening has won 12 Primetime Emmy Awards , ten for The Simpsons and two for Futurama as well as a British Comedy Award for " outstanding contribution to comedy " in 2004 . In 2002 , he won the National Cartoonist Society Reuben Award for his work on Life in Hell . He received a star on the Hollywood Walk of Fame on February 14 , 2012 .
= = Early life = =
Groening was born on February 15 , 1954 in Portland , Oregon , the middle of five children ( older brother Mark and sister Patty were born in 1950 and 1952 , while the younger sisters Lisa and Maggie in 1956 and 1958 , respectively ) . His Norwegian @-@ American mother , Margaret Ruth ( née Wiggum ; March 23 , 1919 – April 22 , 2013 ) , was once a teacher , and his German American father , Homer Philip Groening ( December 30 , 1919 – March 15 , 1996 ) , was a filmmaker , advertiser , writer and cartoonist . Homer , born in Main Centre , Saskatchewan , Canada , grew up in a Mennonite , Plautdietsch @-@ speaking family .
Matt 's grandfather , Abram Groening , was a professor at Tabor College , a Mennonite Brethren liberal arts college in Hillsboro , Kansas before moving to Albany College ( now known as Lewis and Clark College ) in Oregon in 1930 .
Groening grew up in Portland , and attended Ainsworth Elementary School and Lincoln High School . From 1972 to 1977 , Groening attended The Evergreen State College in Olympia , Washington , a liberal arts school that he described as " a hippie college , with no grades or required classes , that drew every weirdo in the Northwest . " He served as the editor of the campus newspaper , The Cooper Point Journal , for which he also wrote articles and drew cartoons . He befriended fellow cartoonist Lynda Barry after discovering that she had written a fan letter to Joseph Heller , one of Groening 's favorite authors , and had received a reply . Groening has credited Barry with being " probably [ his ] biggest inspiration . " He first became interested in cartoons after watching the Disney animated film One Hundred and One Dalmatians , and he has also cited Peanuts and its creator Charles M. Schulz as inspirations .
= = Career = =
= = = Early career = = =
In 1977 , at the age of 23 , Groening moved to Los Angeles to become a writer . He went through what he described as " a series of lousy jobs , " including being an extra in the television movie When Every Day Was the Fourth of July , busing tables , washing dishes at a nursing home , clerking at the Hollywood Licorice Pizza record store , landscaping in a sewage treatment plant , and chauffeuring and ghostwriting for a retired Western director .
= = = Life in Hell = = =
Groening described life in Los Angeles to his friends in the form of the self @-@ published comic book Life in Hell , which was loosely inspired by the chapter " How to Go to Hell " in Walter Kaufmann 's book Critique of Religion and Philosophy . Groening distributed the comic book in the book corner of Licorice Pizza , a record store in which he worked . He made his first professional cartoon sale to the avant @-@ garde Wet magazine in 1978 . The strip , titled " Forbidden Words , " appeared in the September / October issue of that year .
Groening had gained employment at the Los Angeles Reader , a newly formed alternative newspaper , delivering papers , typesetting , editing and answering phones . He showed his cartoons to the editor , James Vowell , who was impressed and eventually gave him a spot in the paper . Life in Hell made its official debut as a comic strip in the Reader on April 25 , 1980 . Vowell also gave Groening his own weekly music column , " Sound Mix , " in 1982 . However , the column would rarely actually be about music , as he would often write about his " various enthusiasms , obsessions , pet peeves and problems " instead . In an effort to add more music to the column , he " just made stuff up , " concocting and reviewing fictional bands and non @-@ existent records . In the following week 's column , he would confess to fabricating everything in the previous column and swear that everything in the new column was true . Eventually , he was finally asked to give up the " music " column . Among the fans of the column was Harry Shearer , who would later become a voice on The Simpsons .
Life in Hell became popular almost immediately . In November 1984 , Deborah Caplan , Groening 's then @-@ girlfriend and co @-@ worker at the Reader , offered to publish " Love is Hell " , a series of relationship @-@ themed Life in Hell strips , in book form . Released a month later , the book was an underground success , selling 22 @,@ 000 copies in its first two printings . Work is Hell soon followed , also published by Caplan . Soon afterward , Caplan and Groening left and put together the Life in Hell Co . , which handled merchandising for Life in Hell . Groening also started Acme Features Syndicate , which syndicated Life in Hell , Lynda Barry and John Callahan , but now only syndicates Life in Hell . At the end of its run , Life in Hell was carried in 250 weekly newspapers and has been anthologized in a series of books , including School is Hell , Childhood is Hell , The Big Book of Hell , and The Huge Book of Hell . Although Groening has stated , " I 'll never give up the comic strip . It 's my foundation , " he announced that the June 16 , 2012 strip would mark Life in Hell 's conclusion . After Groening ended the strip , the Center for Cartoon Studies commissioned a poster that was presented to Groening in honor of his work . The poster contained tribute cartoons by 22 of Groening 's cartoonist friends who were influenced by Life in Hell .
= = = The Simpsons = = =
= = = = Creation = = = =
Life in Hell caught the eye of Hollywood writer @-@ producer and Gracie Films founder James L. Brooks , who had been shown the strip by fellow producer Polly Platt . In 1985 , Brooks contacted Groening with the proposition of working in animation on an undefined future project , which would turn out to be developing a series of short animated skits , called " bumpers , " for the Fox variety show The Tracey Ullman Show . Originally , Brooks wanted Groening to adapt his Life in Hell characters for the show . Groening feared that he would have to give up his ownership rights , and that the show would fail and would take down his comic strip with it . Groening conceived of the idea for The Simpsons in the lobby of James L. Brooks 's office and hurriedly sketched out his version of a dysfunctional family : Homer , the overweight father ; Marge , the slim mother ; Bart , the bratty oldest child ; Lisa , the intelligent middle child ; and Maggie , the baby . Groening famously named the main Simpson characters after members of his own family : his parents , Homer and Margaret ( Marge or Marjorie in full ) , and his younger sisters , Lisa and Margaret ( Maggie ) . Claiming that it was a bit too obvious to name a character after himself , he chose the name " Bart , " an anagram of brat . However , he stresses that aside from some of the sibling rivalry , his family is nothing like the Simpsons . Groening also has an older brother and sister , Mark and Patty , and in a 1995 interview Groening divulged that Mark " is the actual inspiration for Bart. "
Maggie Groening has co @-@ written a few Simpsons books featuring her cartoon namesake .
= = = = The Tracey Ullman Show = = = =
The family was crudely drawn , because Groening had submitted basic sketches to the animators , assuming they would clean them up ; instead , they just traced over his drawings . The entire Simpson family was designed so that they would be recognizable in silhouette . When Groening originally designed Homer , he put his own initials into the character 's hairline and ear : the hairline resembled an ' M ' , and the right ear resembled a ' G ' . Groening decided that this would be too distracting though , and redesigned the ear to look normal . He still draws the ear as a ' G ' when he draws pictures of Homer for fans . Marge 's distinct beehive hairstyle was inspired by Bride of Frankenstein and the style that Margaret Groening wore during the 1960s , although her hair was never blue . Bart 's original design , which appeared in the first shorts , had spikier hair , and the spikes were of different lengths . The number was later limited to nine spikes , all of the same size . At the time Groening was primarily drawing in black and " not thinking that [ Bart ] would eventually be drawn in color " gave him spikes that appear to be an extension of his head . Lisa 's physical features are generally not used in other characters ; for example , in the later seasons , no character other than Maggie shares her hairline . While designing Lisa , Groening " couldn 't be bothered to even think about girls ' hair styles " . When designing Lisa and Maggie , he " just gave them this kind of spiky starfish hair style , not thinking that they would eventually be drawn in color " . Groening storyboarded and scripted every short ( now known as The Simpsons shorts ) , which were then animated by a team including David Silverman and Wes Archer , both of whom would later become directors on the series .
The Simpsons shorts first appeared in The Tracey Ullman Show on April 19 , 1987 . Another family member , Grampa Simpson , was introduced in the later shorts . Years later , during the early seasons of The Simpsons , when it came time to give Grampa a first name , Groening says he refused to name him after his own grandfather , Abraham Groening , leaving it to other writers to choose a name . By coincidence , they chose Abraham , unaware that it was the name of Groening 's grandfather .
= = = = Half @-@ hour = = = =
Although The Tracey Ullman Show was not a big hit , the popularity of the shorts led to a half @-@ hour spin @-@ off in 1989 . A team of production companies adapted The Simpsons into a half @-@ hour series for the Fox Broadcasting Company . The team included what is now the Klasky Csupo animation house . James L. Brooks negotiated a provision in the contract with the Fox network that prevented Fox from interfering with the show 's content . Groening said his goal in creating the show was to offer the audience an alternative to what he called " the mainstream trash " that they were watching . The half @-@ hour series premiered on December 17 , 1989 with " Simpsons Roasting on an Open Fire " , a Christmas special . " Some Enchanted Evening " was the first full @-@ length episode produced , but it did not broadcast until May 1990 , as the last episode of the first season , because of animation problems .
The series quickly became a worldwide phenomenon , to the surprise of many . Groening said : " Nobody thought The Simpsons was going to be a big hit . It sneaked up on everybody . " The Simpsons was co @-@ developed by Groening , Brooks , and Sam Simon , a writer @-@ producer with whom Brooks had worked on previous projects . Groening and Simon , however , did not get along and were often in conflict over the show ; Groening once described their relationship as " very contentious . " Simon eventually left the show in 1993 over creative differences .
Like the main family members , several characters from the show have names that were inspired by people , locations or films . The name " Wiggum " for police chief Chief Wiggum is Groening 's mother 's maiden name . The names of a few other characters were taken from major street names in Groening 's hometown of Portland , Oregon , including Flanders , Lovejoy , Powell , Quimby and Kearney . Despite common fan belief that Sideshow Bob Terwilliger was named after SW Terwilliger Boulevard in Portland , he was actually named after the character Dr. Terwilliker from the film The 5 @,@ 000 Fingers of Dr. T.
Although Groening has pitched a number of spin @-@ offs from The Simpsons , those attempts have been unsuccessful . In 1994 , Groening and other Simpsons producers pitched a live @-@ action spin @-@ off about Krusty the Clown ( with Dan Castellaneta playing the lead role ) , but were unsuccessful in getting it off the ground . Groening has also pitched " Young Homer " and a spin @-@ off about the non @-@ Simpsons citizens of Springfield .
In 1995 , Groening got into a major disagreement with Brooks and other Simpsons producers over " A Star Is Burns " , a crossover episode with The Critic , an animated show also produced by Brooks and staffed with many former Simpsons crew members . Groening claimed that he feared viewers would " see it as nothing but a pathetic attempt to advertise The Critic at the expense of The Simpsons , " and was concerned about the possible implication that he had created or produced The Critic . He requested his name be taken off the episode .
Groening is credited with writing or co @-@ writing the episodes " Some Enchanted Evening " , " The Telltale Head " , " Colonel Homer " and " 22 Short Films About Springfield " , as well as The Simpsons Movie , released in 2007 . He has had several cameo appearances in the show , with a speaking role in the episode " My Big Fat Geek Wedding " . He currently serves at The Simpsons as an executive producer and creative consultant .
= = = Futurama = = =
After spending a few years researching science fiction , Groening got together with Simpsons writer / producer David X. Cohen ( still known as David S. Cohen at the time ) in 1997 and developed Futurama , an animated series about life in the year 3000 . By the time they pitched the series to Fox in April 1998 , Groening and Cohen had composed many characters and storylines ; Groening claimed they had gone " overboard " in their discussions . Groening described trying to get the show on the air as " by far the worst experience of [ his ] grown @-@ up life . " The show premiered on March 28 , 1999 . Groening 's writing credits for the show are for the premiere episode , " Space Pilot 3000 " ( co @-@ written with Cohen ) , " Rebirth " ( story ) and " In @-@ A @-@ Gadda @-@ Da @-@ Leela " ( story ) .
After four years on the air , the show was canceled by Fox . In a situation similar to Family Guy , however , strong DVD sales and very stable ratings on Adult Swim brought Futurama back to life . When Comedy Central began negotiating for the rights to air Futurama reruns , Fox suggested that there was a possibility of also creating new episodes . When Comedy Central committed to sixteen new episodes , it was decided that four straight @-@ to @-@ DVD films — Bender 's Big Score ( 2007 ) , The Beast with a Billion Backs ( 2008 ) , Bender 's Game ( 2008 ) and Into the Wild Green Yonder ( 2009 ) — would be produced .
Since no new Futurama projects were in production , the movie Into the Wild Green Yonder was designed to stand as the Futurama series finale . However , Groening had expressed a desire to continue the Futurama franchise in some form , including as a theatrical film . In an interview with CNN , Groening said that " we have a great relationship with Comedy Central and we would love to do more episodes for them , but I don 't know ... We 're having discussions and there is some enthusiasm but I can 't tell if it 's just me . " Comedy Central commissioned an additional 26 new episodes , and began airing them in 2010 . The show continued in to 2013 , before Comedy Central announced in April 2013 that they would not be renewing it beyond its seventh season . The final episode aired on September 4 , 2013 .
= = = Other pursuits = = =
In 1994 , Groening formed Bongo Comics ( named after the character Bongo from Life in Hell ) with Steve Vance , Cindy Vance and Bill Morrison , which publishes comic books based on The Simpsons and Futurama ( including Futurama Simpsons Infinitely Secret Crossover Crisis , a crossover between the two ) , as well as a few original titles . According to Groening , the goal with Bongo is to " [ try ] to bring humor into the fairly grim comic book market . " He also formed Zongo Comics in 1995 , an imprint of Bongo that published comics for more mature readers , which included three issues of Mary Fleener 's Fleener and seven issues of his close friend Gary Panter 's Jimbo comics .
Groening is known for his eclectic taste in music . His favorite band is Frank Zappa and The Mothers of Invention and his favorite album is Trout Mask Replica by Captain Beefheart ( which was produced by Zappa ) . He guest @-@ edited Da Capo Press 's Best Music Writing 2003 and curated a US All Tomorrow 's Parties music festival in 2003 . He illustrated the cover of Frank Zappa 's posthumous album Frank Zappa Plays the Music of Frank Zappa : A Memorial Tribute ( 1996 ) . In May 2010 , he curated another edition of All Tomorrow 's Parties in Minehead , England . He also plays the drums in the all @-@ author rock and roll band The Rock Bottom Remainders ( although he is listed as the cowbell player ) , whose other members include Dave Barry , Ridley Pearson , Scott Turow , Amy Tan , James McBride , Mitch Albom , Roy Blount Jr . , Stephen King , Kathi Kamen Goldmark , Sam Barry and Greg Iles . In July 2013 , Groening co @-@ authored Hard Listening ( 2013 ) with the rest of the Rock Bottom Remainders ( published by Coliloquy , LLC ) .
On January 15 , 2016 , it was announced that Groening is in talks with Netflix to develop a new animated series . Netflix is considering giving the series a two @-@ season order , totalling 20 episodes .
= = Personal life = =
Groening and Deborah Caplan married in 1986 and had two sons together , Homer ( who goes by Will ) and Abe , both of whom Groening occasionally portrays as rabbits in Life in Hell . The couple divorced in 1999 after thirteen years of marriage . In 2011 , Groening married Argentinian artist Agustina Picasso after a four @-@ year relationship , and became stepfather to her daughter Camille . In May 2013 , Picasso gave birth to Nathaniel Philip Picasso Groening , named after writer Nathanael West . She joked that " his godfather is SpongeBob 's creator Stephen Hillenburg " . Matt is the brother @-@ in @-@ law of Hey Arnold ! and Dinosaur Train creator , Craig Bartlett , who is married to Groening 's sister , Lisa . Arnold used to appear in Simpsons Illustrated .
Groening identifies himself as agnostic and a liberal and has often made campaign contributions to Democratic Party candidates . His first cousin , Laurie Monnes Anderson , is a member of the Oregon State Senate representing eastern Multnomah County .
= = Filmography = =
= = = Film = = =
= = = Television = = =
= = = Video games = = =
= = = Music video = = =
= = = As a crew member = = =
= = Awards = =
Groening has been nominated for 25 Emmy Awards and has won twelve : ten for The Simpsons and two for Futurama in the " Outstanding Animated Program ( for programming one hour or less ) " category . Groening received the 2002 National Cartoonist Society Reuben Award , and had been nominated for the same award in 2000 . He received a British Comedy Award for " outstanding contribution to comedy " in 2004 . In 2007 , he was ranked fourth ( and highest American by birth ) in a list of the " top 100 living geniuses " , published by British newspaper The Daily Telegraph .
He received the 2,459th star on the Hollywood Walk of Fame on February 14 , 2012 .
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= Ali Larter =
Alison Elizabeth " Ali " Larter ( born February 28 , 1976 ) is an American actress . She is best known for playing the dual roles of Niki Sanders and Tracy Strauss on the NBC science fiction drama Heroes as well as her guest roles on several television shows in the 1990s .
Larter 's screen debut came in the 1999 film Varsity Blues , followed by the horror films House on Haunted Hill as Sara Wolfe , and Final Destination and Final Destination 2 as Clear Rivers . Major supporting roles in the comedy Legally Blonde and the romantic comedy A Lot Like Love led her to lead roles as the title character in Marigold and in the 2009 thriller Obsessed . Larter achieved wider fame after her portrayal of video game heroine Claire Redfield in Resident Evil : Extinction and Resident Evil : Afterlife .
Larter 's presence in the media is reinforced by her appearances in lists compiled by Maxim , FHM and Stuff as well as People magazine 's " Best Dressed List " in 2007 . After a three @-@ year @-@ long relationship with actor Hayes MacArthur , the two married in August 2009 . They have a son , Theodore Hayes MacArthur ( born December 2010 ) and daughter Vivienne Margaret ( born in January 2015 ) .
= = Early life and modeling = =
Larter was born in Cherry Hill , New Jersey , Larter is the daughter of Margaret , a realtor , and Danforth Larter , a trucking executive . She attended Carusi Middle School and later graduated from Cherry Hill High School West during her time as a model , but she didn 't finish senior year of high school because of modeling . Her mom accompanied her everywhere until she turned 18 . Her parents have since moved to Allentown , Pennsylvania .
Larter said she was a tomboy until she turned 13 . Suddenly she sprouted six inches , gained weight and significant curves . The next year she was signed by the Ford modeling agency . Larter began her modeling career at the age of 14 when a modeling scout discovered her on the street and was asked to star in a Phillies commercial ; this led to a modeling contract with the prestigious Ford Modeling Agency in New York . Larter subsequently skipped her senior year to model in Australia , Italy , and Japan , the latter a country she would temporarily settle in at the age of seventeen .
While modeling in Italy , Larter met fellow model and aspiring actress Amy Smart and the two " became instant friends " , according to Larter . A modelling job later took her to Los Angeles , while there , she decided to take acting classes with Smart . The two then moved into an apartment together . In November 1996 , Larter portrayed fictional model Allegra Coleman in an Esquire magazine hoax . When speaking about the cover and her subsequent fame , Larter said , " When the door opens for you in Hollywood , you need to run with it . You know ? " Larter is currently signed to IMG Models .
= = Career = =
= = = First acting roles : 1997 – 2005 = = =
Larter landed her first professional acting roles in 1997 when she appeared in several television programs . She appeared in an episode of the Brooke Shields television series Suddenly Susan , and the short @-@ lived series Chicago Sons . These roles were followed by a number of other appearances on Dawson 's Creek , Chicago Hope , and Just Shoot Me !
In 1999 , Larter began her film career with an appearance in Varsity Blues , which re @-@ united her with Dawson 's Creek star James Van Der Beek and close friend Amy Smart . Smart had persuaded Larter to audition for the movie , in which she played Darcy Sears , a love interest for one of the main characters . Varsity Blues drew a domestic box office gross of $ 53 million . That year she made appearances in the teen comedies Giving It Up and Drive Me Crazy . Larter also starred in the horror remake House on Haunted Hill which was made for around $ 20 million . The movie was panned by critics , but grossed $ 15 million on its opening weekend and went on to earn over $ 40 million overall .
In 2000 , Larter starred as one of the main characters , Clear Rivers , in the teen supernatural horror film Final Destination . Also starring Devon Sawa and Kerr Smith , the movie 's premise followed several teenagers who survive a plane crash but are stalked and killed by death itself . Final Destination made $ 112 million by the end of its theatrical run . The following year , she appeared in the comedy Legally Blonde with Reese Witherspoon . She played Brooke Taylor Windham , a widow accused of her husband 's murder . The film earned the top spot with $ 20 million in its opening weekend and ended up grossing $ 141 million worldwide . With $ 96 million of it total gross deriving from domestic markets , Legally Blonde is Larter 's highest @-@ grossing film domestically .
Larter next appeared as Zerelda Mimms in the western comedy American Outlaws . Directed by Les Mayfield and co @-@ starring Colin Farrell and Scott Caan , the movie was poorly received by critics and at the box office making $ 13 million at the end of its theatrical run . She also starred in Kevin Smith 's Jay and Silent Bob Strike Back . That year , Larter appeared on the cover of Maxim magazine and performed in the stage play The Vagina Monologues in New York City . In Spring 2002 , Larter moved from Los Angeles to New York . " I was too young and impressionable to handle the pressures of L.A. " Larter recalled in an interview , " I 'm a woman now . I am no longer the little girl who could be easily influenced . "
Her first project there was to reprise her role as Clear Rivers in the sequel to Final Destination entitled Final Destination 2 . In an interview with IGN , Larter explained her return to the franchise : " When New Line asked me to come back , I thought it was great . They showed me the script and let me have some input , and it was really terrific . " The film opened at number 2 with $ 16 million to mixed critical reception . A year later , Larter served as an associate producer of and starred in the thriller Three Way . In 2005 , Larter appeared in the independent political thriller , Confess , and had a role in the romantic comedy A Lot Like Love alongside Amanda Peet and Ashton Kutcher .
= = = International recognition : 2006 – 2009 = = =
Larter moved back to Los Angeles in 2005 . Her first audition was for the NBC science fiction drama television series Heroes . Larter played the characters of Niki Sanders , who suffered from DID , and Tracy Strauss on the show created by Tim Kring . Larter 's initial character Niki Sanders , was a wife , mother , and a former internet stripper from Las Vegas who exhibits superhuman strength and alternate personalities who go by the names of Jessica and Niki . " Ali read for the part and just owned it from the second she walked in . " , Kring said to The Chicago Tribune , " It was a very impressive audition . " The series collected a number of accolades in its first season including a People 's Choice Award and nominations from the Primetime Emmy Awards and Golden Globes . As of the third season , Larter began to play a new character , Tracy Strauss , who possessed the ability to freeze objects ; and later , turn her body into water . Larter ultimately decided against starring in the sequel to House on Haunted Hill stating , " I feel so lucky with the things I am doing right now , and that 's so long ago for me . "
In 2007 , Larter starred in Marigold as the title character alongside Salman Khan . The movie , released in August 2007 , was about an American actress ( Larter ) who goes to India and gets caught up in the exotic world of Bollywood . Filming took place in North India and London , commencing in June 2004 . In an interview with the BBC , Larter explained how she came about the role of Marigold and expressed why she wanted to star in the film : " I was living in ( director ) Willard Carroll 's guesthouse when he gave me the script . He had written this really strong female character and for me , it was an opportunity to overcome my fear of singing and dancing because I have no professional training . Also , I would get to live in another country for couple of months . With Heroes I didn 't think of it as that huge sci @-@ fi series and it was the same for Marigold . I really focused on the character and loved this journey she went on and the experiences she had . " She was paid a seven @-@ figure salary for the role of Marigold .
It was this year that she was cast alongside Milla Jovovich in the film Resident Evil : Extinction , portraying the character of Claire Redfield . Her role sent her to Mexicali , Mexico for filming from May to late July , and required her hair to be dyed a light red . Larter explained her character Claire : " She became the leader of this convoy . She 's incredibly strong , patient . I think she serves a role for everyone within this convoy , let it be a mother to someone , a buddy , a best friend . " Larter also attended the 2007 Comic Con International , her second appearance at the event , to promote the movie . The movie was released in theaters on September 21 , 2007 and made a total of $ 147 million worldwide . She appeared with Hayes McArthur in the comedy Homo Erectus the same year . She also appeared as Evelyn Garland in the biographical film Crazy , based on guitarist Hank Garland .
In April 2009 , Larter starred opposite Beyoncé and Idris Elba in the Screen Gems @-@ produced thriller Obsessed . The film follows an office executive ( Elba ) whose marriage to Knowles ' character is threatened by the aggressive interests of a co @-@ worker , portrayed by Larter . In an interview with Glam , Larter said that she " was excited to get the chance to play a femme fatale . I love playing women that are dark and vulnerable and sort of filled with a little bit of crazy emotion . " Derek Malcolm of The London Evening Standard said the movie was a " dim reworking of Fatal Attraction " and noted , " Larter as the pathological minx is the best thing about it . " Obsessed suffered critically but eventually opened at # 1 in its opening weekend with $ 28 million and with a total domestic gross of $ 68 million , became Larter 's second highest @-@ grossing film in North @-@ America . It resulted in Larter 's third Teen Choice Award nomination and an MTV Movie Award for Best Fight with Beyonce .
= = = Recent and future roles : 2010 – present = = =
Larter reprised her role as Claire Redfield in Resident Evil : Afterlife , which was filmed in 3D and directed by Paul W.S. Anderson . She attended WonderCon and Comic Con to promote the movie . In an interview with JoBlo.com , Larter talked about her role in the film : " I guess people liked me as her ... I 'm excited that they brought me back . I love working with Milla , and it 's also very excited to have Paul back directing this . To work with the man who really created this world and this vision was what excited me about joining this next installment . " The movie was an international success , earning $ 296 million worldwide and becoming Larter 's highest grossing picture to date . As of July 2013 , Larter 's films have grossed a total of $ 552 million domestically and $ 1 @.@ 07 billion worldwide .
While at WonderCon in 2010 , Larter commented on Heroes ' possible fifth season . " I think that we 'll be back ... I think that there are still stories that need to be told . " NBC announced the show 's cancellation on May 14 , 2010 .
Larter portrayed the lead role in a pilot for a series written by Josh Friedman entitled , " The Asset " . The show , which was expected to air on Fox , was not picked up for a series commission . However , Larter gained a role in TNT 's drama Legends as Crystal Quest , the female lead alongside Sean Bean . Her character plays an operative with the FBI 's Deep Cover Operations who has a history with Bean 's character . On May 8 , 2013 , the series was picked up for 10 episodes to air in 2014 . In 2014 , Larter portrayed Madison in the supernatural thriller film The Diabolical . In August 2015 , Larter was announced to reprise her role as Claire in the sixth and final Resident Evil film Resident Evil : The Final Chapter .
= = Other projects = =
After serving as an associate producer for her 2004 film Three Way , Larter commented about future producing endeavors during an interview for Resident Evil : Extinction , " I definitely have many ideas and different avenues that I want to take as my career goes on . "
In 2010 , Larter appeared as the title character in a short film for Absolut Vodka entitled " Lemon Drop " . In June of the same year , Larter was one of thousands of delegates from 130 countries who participated in a United Nations conference , ' Women Deliver ' in Washington D.C ..
Larter , along with her husband Hayes MacArthur , hosted The Art of Elysium Gala in 2013 and are to be recipients of the Spirit of Elysium Award at the January 2014 ceremony .
In September 2013 , Larter released her first cookbook entitled Kitchen Revelry : A Year of Festive Menus from My Home to Yours . The book was published by St. Martin ’ s Press . Speaking at the Aspen Culinary Festival to The Hollywood Reporter , Larter said , “ It ’ s about having a good time and getting wild , ... it ’ s for people who want to entertain , whether it ’ s two people or a dinner party of 16 . ”
= = In the media = =
Larter first appeared in the media when she portrayed the fictional character of Allegra Coleman in the November 1996 issue of Esquire . The magazine , which billed Coleman as the movies ' next dream girl , told of Allegra 's relationship with David Schwimmer , how Quentin Tarantino broke up with Mira Sorvino to date her , and how Woody Allen overhauled a film to give her a starring role . When the magazine was published , Esquire received hundreds of phone calls about the non @-@ existent Coleman and various talent agencies sought to represent her , even after the hoax was revealed . Larter herself received a considerable amount of attention after the cover ; she received phone calls from morning TV shows and others for interviews . The Esquire cover led Larter to a role on Varsity Blues . One particular scene where Larter 's character , Darcy Sears , wears nothing but whipped cream to cover herself has become a media favorite . It has been referenced a number of times in the media including on MTV 's Jersey Shore where one character refers to it as the " Varsity Blues outfit " . The scene also made Maxim 's list of Earth @-@ Shattering Nude Scenes at # 9 .
In 2002 , Larter ranked # 40 in Stuff magazine 's " 102 Sexiest Women in the World " . She was listed as # 49 , # 19 and # 91 in FHM 's " 100 Sexiest Women in the World " in 2007 , 2008 and 2009 respectively . Maxim also ranked her # 6 in their Hot 100 for 2007 and # 92 in 2008 . In 2008 , AskMen.com featured her as # 92 on the " 100 Most Desirable Women in the World " . Also ranking # 2 on Maxim 's " Hottest Women of Horror Movies " list , Larter has been acknowledged as a Scream queen by MSN due to her appearances in horror / thriller films . After the success of Heroes , Larter appeared on People 's " Ten Best Dressed List " as " The Newcomer " in 2007 . Victoria 's Secret also acknowledged her in their list , naming her Sexiest Legs of 2008 . In 2009 , Larter was named Cosmopolitan magazine 's Fun Fearless Female of the year at a ceremony held in Beverly Hills .
Larter promotes natural beauty . At the 2007 Emmy Awards , Larter styled her own hair as opposed to using her hair @-@ styling team . This was part of the Dove Hair 's " Real Beauty " challenge which required her to use Dove 's new moisturizing shampoos , conditioners and treatments . She also states that she refuses to conform to the idea of the perfect Hollywood body . In an interview with Allure , Larter revealed she once was asked by producers , by faxes sent out to her agent and manager , to lose weight . " I just remember sitting in my trailer hysterically crying from the embarrassment I felt about myself , my body – and that no one could talk to me directly . "
Larter appeared in Glamour along with fellow actresses Rachel Bilson and Diane Lane in 2007 . When asked if she still wishes she had the same body she had at 20 she replied , " No . I actually think I look better now because I feel so much better about myself now . And that 's what 's so exciting . As you get older , you get better ... . Look at all these incredible women , like Vanessa Redgrave , who are still so beautiful . The reason is because they embrace who they are . " She has appeared on the covers of Shape , Cosmopolitan , Allure , Glamour , Lucky , InStyle , Maxim and Entertainment Weekly .
= = Personal life = =
During her time as a model , Larter moved to Los Angeles to pursue acting . In 2002 , she moved to New York for a period of three years . In an interview with Phillymag , Larter gave reason for the move : " I took some time off to define myself outside the pressures of the industry . Part of me really needed to know if this is what I wanted to do with the rest of my life . " In January 2005 , she moved to Los Angeles for a role in Heroes .
In December 2007 , Larter and her then longtime boyfriend , Hayes MacArthur , were engaged to marry . They had met on the set of National Lampoon 's Homo Erectus . In a 2007 interview with Cosmo , Larter said " I told my boyfriend after three weeks that I wanted to marry him and that we could do it tomorrow . " On August 1 , 2009 , Larter married MacArthur in an intimate outdoor ceremony which took place at MacArthur 's parent 's estate in Kennebunkport , Maine . During the ceremony , guests arrived via trolleys to the sounds of Irish music playing in honor of MacArthur 's heritage ; among the invited was Larter 's close friend Amy Smart . The couple later purchased a three @-@ story home in the Hollywood Hills for $ 2 @.@ 9 million . On July 20 , 2010 , Larter announced that she and MacArthur were expecting their first child and later , on the September 10 episode of Late Night with Jimmy Fallon , announced that she was expecting a boy . Larter admitted that she and MacArthur left the country for Europe in an effort to hide the news of the pregnancy . Larter gave birth to the couple 's son , Theodore Hayes MacArthur , on December 20 , 2010 . In August 2014 , Larter confirmed that she and MacArthur were expecting their second child that winter . She gave birth to her second child , a girl named Vivienne Margaret on January 15 , 2015 .
In an interview with Cosmopolitan , Larter " mused " on the state of her life , " I work on a TV show I love , I have the opportunity to do movies with actors I respect , and I 'm in love with the man I want to spend the rest of my life with , who pushes me and excites me ... There 's this fighter in me that kind of needs to be put to rest a little bit . I don 't need to be so tough to protect myself . " While speaking to Vanity Fair at the premiere of her film Obsessed , Larter spoke about her own obsessions , " I love to cook . I spend weekends reading cookbooks — it 's really my relaxation . " She has ranked Scarface , The Bourne Identity , Best in Show , Blue Sky and Grey Gardens as her favorite films .
Larter has openly revealed that she has a severe case of ADHD and has been taking Ritalin for it ever since she was in grade school .
Speaking to People in 2013 about her transition from actress to author , Larter explained , " After my son was born , I realized how much time I spend on set acting and how much I love that , but when I ’ m not on set , I ’ m usually throwing dinner parties or cooking and entertaining in some way , [ ... ] So I thought you know what , maybe I ’ ll try to put a book together , that sounds like kind of a fun thing to do in my off @-@ time . " Larter has two dogs , Jackpot and Ella .
= = Filmography = =
= = = Film = = =
= = = Television = = =
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= Motte @-@ and @-@ bailey castle =
A motte @-@ and @-@ bailey castle is a fortification with a wooden or stone keep situated on a raised earthwork called a motte , accompanied by an enclosed courtyard , or bailey , surrounded by a protective ditch and palisade . Relatively easy to build with unskilled , often forced , labour , but still militarily formidable , these castles were built across northern Europe from the 10th century onwards , spreading from Normandy and Anjou in France , into the Holy Roman Empire in the 11th century . The Normans introduced the design into England and Wales following their invasion in 1066 . Motte @-@ and @-@ bailey castles were adopted in Scotland , Ireland , the Low Countries and Denmark in the 12th and 13th centuries . By the end of the 13th century , the design was largely superseded by alternative forms of fortification , but the earthworks remain a prominent feature in many countries .
= = Architecture = =
= = = Structures = = =
A motte @-@ and @-@ bailey castle was made up of two structures , a motte , a type of mound – often artificial – topped with a wooden or stone structure known as a keep ; and at least one bailey , a fortified enclosure built next to the motte . The term " motte and bailey " is a relatively modern one , and is not medieval in origin . The word " motte " is the French version of the Latin mota , and in France the word motte was initially an early word for a turf ; it then became used to refer to a turf bank , and by the 12th century was used to refer to the castle design itself . The word " bailey " comes from the Norman @-@ French baille , or basse @-@ cour , referring to a low yard . In medieval sources , the Latin term castellum was used to describe the bailey complex within these castles .
One contemporary account of these structures comes from Jean de Colmieu around 1130 , describing the Calais region in northern France . De Colmieu described how the nobles would build " a mound of earth as high as they can and dig a ditch about it as wide and deep as possible . The space on top of the mound is enclosed by a palisade of very strong hewn logs , strengthened at intervals by as many towers as their means can provide . Inside the enclosure is a citadel , or keep , which commands the whole circuit of the defences . The entrance to the fortress is by means of a bridge , which , rising from the outer side of the moat and supported on posts as it ascends , reaches to the top of the mound . " At Durham Castle , contemporaries described how the motte @-@ and @-@ bailey superstructure arose from the " tumulus of rising earth " with a keep rising " into thin air , strong within and without " with a " stalwart house ... glittering with beauty in every part " .
Mottes were made out of earth and flattened on top , and it can be very hard to determine whether a mound is artificial or natural without excavation . Some were also built over older artificial structures , such as Bronze Age barrows . The size of mottes varied considerably , with these mounds being 3 metres to 30 metres in height ( 10 feet to 100 feet ) , and from 30 metres to 90 metres in diameter ( 100 feet to 300 feet ) . This minimum height of 3 metres ( 10 feet ) for mottes is usually intended to exclude smaller mounds which often had non @-@ military purposes . In England and Wales , only 7 % of mottes were taller than ten metres high ; 24 % were between ten and five metres , and 69 % were less than five metres tall . A motte was protected by a ditch around it , which would typically have also been a source of the earth and soil for constructing the mound itself .
A keep and a protective wall would usually be built on top of the motte . Some walls would be large enough to have a wall @-@ walk around them , and the outer walls of the motte and the wall @-@ walk could be strengthened by filling in the gap between the wooden walls with earth and stones , allowing it to carry more weight ; this was called a garillum . Smaller mottes could only support simple towers with room for a few soldiers , whilst larger mottes could be equipped with a much grander building . Many wooden keeps were designed with a bretasche , a square building that overhung from the upper floors of the building , enabling better defences and a more sturdy structural design . The early 12th @-@ century chronicler Lambert of Ardres described the wooden keep on top of the motte at the castle of Ardres , where the " first storey was on the surface of the ground , where were cellars and granaries , and great boxes , tuns , casks , and other domestic utensils . In the storey above were the dwelling and common living @-@ rooms of the residents in which were the larders , the rooms of the bakers and butlers , and the great chamber in which the lord and his wife slept ... In the upper storey of the house were garret rooms ... In this storey also the watchmen and the servants appointed to keep the house took their sleep " . Wooden structures on mottes could be protected by skins and hides to prevent them being easily set alight during a siege .
The bailey was an enclosed courtyard overlooked by the motte and surrounded by a wooden fence called a palisade and another ditch . The bailey was often kidney @-@ shaped to fit against a circular motte , but could be made in other shapes according to the terrain . The bailey would contain a wide number of buildings , including a hall , kitchens , a chapel , barracks , stores , stables , forges or workshops , and was the centre of the castle 's economic activity . The bailey was linked to the motte either by a flying bridge stretching between the two , or , more popularly in England , by steps cut into the motte . Typically the ditch of the motte and the bailey joined , forming a figure of eight around the castle . Wherever possible , nearby streams and rivers would be dammed or diverted , creating water @-@ filled moats , artificial lakes and other forms of water defences .
In practice , there was a wide number of variations to this common design . A castle could have more than one bailey : at Warkworth Castle an inner and an outer bailey was constructed , or alternatively , several baileys could flank the motte , as at Windsor Castle . Some baileys had two mottes , such as those at Lincoln . Some mottes could be square instead of round , such as at Cabal Trump . Instead of single ditches , occasionally double @-@ ditch defences were built , as seen at Berkhamsted . Local geography and the intent of the builder produced many unique designs .
= = = Construction and maintenance = = =
Various methods were used to build mottes . Where a natural hill could be used , scarping could produce a motte without the need to create an artificial mound , but more commonly much of the motte would have to be constructed by hand . Four methods existed for building a mound and a tower : the mound could either be built first , and a tower placed on top of it ; the tower could alternatively be built on the original ground surface and then buried within the mound ; the tower could potentially be built on the original ground surface and then partially buried within the mound , the buried part forming a cellar beneath ; or the tower could be built first , and the mound added later .
Regardless of the sequencing , artificial mottes had to be built by piling up earth ; this work was undertaken by hand , using wooden shovels and hand @-@ barrows , possibly with picks as well in the later periods . Larger mottes took disproportionately more effort to build than their smaller equivalents , because of the volumes of earth involved . The largest mottes in England , such as Thetford , are estimated to have required up to 24 @,@ 000 man @-@ days of work ; smaller ones required perhaps as little as 1 @,@ 000 . Contemporary accounts talk of some mottes being built in a matter of days , although these low figures have led to suggestions by historians that either these figures were an underestimate , or that they refer to the construction of a smaller design than that later seen on the sites concerned . Taking into account estimates of the likely available manpower during the period , historians estimate that the larger mottes might have taken between four and nine months to build . This contrasted favourably with stone keeps of the period , which typically took up to ten years to build . Very little skilled labour was required to build motte and bailey castles , which made them very attractive propositions if forced peasant labour was available , as was the case after the Norman invasion of England . Where the local workforce had to be paid - such as at Clones in Ireland , built in 1211 using imported labourers – the costs would rise quickly , in this case reaching £ 20 .
The type of soil would make a difference to the design of the motte , as clay soils could support a steeper motte , whilst sandier soils meant that a motte would need a more gentle incline . Where available , layers of different sorts of earth , such as clay , gravel and chalk , would be used alternatively to build in strength to the design . Layers of turf could also be added to stabilise the motte as it was built up , or a core of stones placed as the heart of the structure to provide strength . Similar issues applied to the defensive ditches , where designers found that the wider the ditch was dug , the deeper and steeper the sides of the scarp could be , making it more defensive . Although militarily a motte was , as Norman Pounds describes it , " almost indestructible " , they required frequent maintenance . Soil wash was a problem , particularly with steeper mounds , and mottes could be clad with wood or stone slabs to protect them . Over time , some mottes suffered from subsidence or damage from flooding , requiring repairs and stabilisation work .
Although motte @-@ and @-@ bailey castles are the best known castle design , they were not always the most numerous in any given area . A popular alternative was the ringwork castle , involving a palisade being built on top of a raised earth rampart , protected by a ditch . The choice of motte and bailey or ringwork was partially driven by terrain , as mottes were typically built on low ground , and on deeper clay and alluvial soils . Another factor may have been speed , as ringworks were faster to build than mottes . Some ringwork castles were later converted into motte @-@ and @-@ bailey designs , by filling in the centre of the ringwork to produce a flat @-@ topped motte . The reasons for why this decision was taken are unclear ; motte @-@ and @-@ bailey castles may have been felt to be more prestigious , or easier to defend ; another theory is that like the terpen in Netherlands , or Vorburg and Hauptburg in Lower Rhineland , raising the height of the castle was done to create a drier site .
= = History = =
= = = Emergence of the design = = =
The motte @-@ and @-@ bailey castle is a particularly northern European phenomenon , most numerous in Normandy and Britain , but also seen in Denmark , Germany , Southern Italy and occasionally beyond . European castles first emerged in the 9th and 10th centuries , after the fall of the Carolingian Empire resulted in its territory being divided among individual lords and princes and local territories became threatened by the Magyars and the Norse . Against this background , various explanations have been put forward to explain the origins and spread of the motte @-@ and @-@ bailey design across northern Europe ; there is often a tension among the academic community between explanations that stress military and social reasons for the rise of this design . One suggestion is that these castles were built particularly in order to protect against external attack – the Angevins , it is argued , began to build them to protect against the Viking raids , and the design spread to deal with the attacks along the Slav and Hungarian frontiers . Another argument is that , given the links between this style of castle and the Normans , who were of Viking descent , it was in fact originally a Viking design , transported to Normandy and Angers . The motte @-@ and @-@ bailey castle was certainly effective against assault , although as historian André Debord suggests , the historical and archaeological record of the military operation of motte @-@ and @-@ bailey castles remains relatively limited .
An alternative approach focuses on the links between this form of castle and what can be termed a feudal mode of society . The spread of motte @-@ and @-@ bailey castles was usually closely tied to the creation of local fiefdoms and feudal landowners , and areas without this method of governance rarely built these castles . Yet another theory suggests that the design emerged as a result of the pressures of space on ringworks , and that the earliest motte @-@ and @-@ baileys were converted ringworks . Finally , there may be a link between the local geography and the building of motte @-@ and @-@ bailey castles , which are usually built on low @-@ lying areas , in many cases subject to regular flooding . Regardless of the reasons behind the initial popularity of the motte @-@ and @-@ bailey design , however , there is widespread agreement that the castles were first widely adopted in Normandy and Angevin territory in the 10th and 11th centuries .
= = = Initial development , 10th and 11th centuries = = =
The earliest purely documentary evidence for motte @-@ and @-@ bailey castles in Normandy and Angers comes from between 1020 and 1040 , but a combination of documentary and archaeological evidence pushes the date for the first motte and bailey castle , at Vincy , back to 979 . The castles were built by the more powerful lords of Anjou in the late 10th and 11th centuries , in particular Fulk III and his son , Geoffrey II , who built a great number of them between 987 and 1060 . Many of these earliest castles would have appeared quite crude and rustic by later standards , belying the power and prestige of their builders . William the Conqueror , as the Duke of Normandy , is believed to have adopted the motte @-@ and @-@ bailey design from neighbouring Anjou . Duke William went on to prohibit the building of castles without his consent through the Consuetudines et Justicie , with his legal definition of castles centring on the classic motte @-@ and @-@ bailey features of ditching , banking and palisading .
By the 11th century , castles were built throughout the Holy Roman Empire , which then spanned central Europe . They now typically took the form of an enclosure on a hilltop , or , on lower ground , a tall , free @-@ standing tower ( German Bergfried . ) The largest castles , known in German as Hohenburgen , had well @-@ defined inner and outer courts , but no mottes . The motte @-@ and @-@ bailey design began to spread into Alsace and the northern Alps from France during the first half of the 11th century , spreading further into Bohemia and Austria in the subsequent years . This form of castle was closely associated with the colonisation of newly cultivated areas within the Empire , as new lords were granted lands by the emperor and built castles close to the local gród , or town . Motte @-@ and @-@ bailey castle building substantially enhanced the prestige of local nobles , and it has been suggested that their early adoption was because they were a cheaper way of imitating the still more prestigious hohenburgen , but this is usually regarded as unlikely . In many cases , bergfrieds were converted into motte and bailey designs by burying existing castle towers within the mounds .
In England , William invaded from Normandy in 1066 , resulting in three phases of castle building in England , around 80 % of which were in the motte @-@ and @-@ bailey pattern . The first of these was the establishment by the new king of royal castles in key strategic locations , including many towns . These urban castles could make use of the existing town 's walls and fortification , but typically required the demolition of local houses to make space for them . This could cause extensive damage : records suggest that in Lincoln 166 houses were destroyed , with 113 in Norwich and 27 in Cambridge . The second and third waves of castle building in the late @-@ 11th century were led by the major magnates and then the more junior knights on their new estates . Some regional patterns in castle building can be seen - relatively few castles were built in East Anglia compared to the west of England or the Marches , for example ; this was probably due to the relatively settled and prosperous nature of the east of England and reflected a shortage of unfree labour for constructing mottes . In Wales , the first wave of the Norman castles were again predominantly made of wood in a mixture of motte @-@ and @-@ bailey and ringwork designs . The Norman invaders spread up the valleys , using this form of castle to occupy their new territories . After the Norman conquest of England and Wales , the building of motte @-@ and @-@ bailey castles in Normandy accelerated as well , resulting in a broad swath of these castles across the Norman territories , around 741 motte @-@ and @-@ bailey castles in England and Wales alone .
= = = Further expansion , 12th and 13th centuries = = =
Having become well established in Normandy , Germany and Britain , motte @-@ and @-@ bailey castles began to be adopted elsewhere , mainly in northern Europe , during the 12th and 13th centuries . Conflict through the Low Countries encouraged castle building in a number of regions from the late 12th century to the 14th century . In Flanders , the first motte and bailey castles began relatively early at the end of the 11th century . The rural motte @-@ and @-@ bailey castles followed the traditional design , but the urban castles often lacked the traditional baileys , using parts of the town to fulfil this role instead . Motte @-@ and @-@ bailey castles in Flanders were particularly numerous in the south along the Lower Rhine , a fiercely contested border . Further along the coast in Friesland , the relatively decentralised , egalitarian society initially discouraged the building of motte and bailey castles , although terpen , raised " dwelling mounds " which lacked towers and were usually lower in height than a typical motte , were created instead . By the end of the medieval period , however , the terpen gave way to hege wieren , non @-@ residential defensive towers , often on motte @-@ like mounds , owned by the increasingly powerful nobles and landowners . On Zeeland the local lords had a high degree of independence during the 12th and 13th centuries , owing to the wider conflict for power between neighbouring Flanders and Friesland . The Zeeland lords had also built terpen mounds , but these gave way to larger werven constructions – effectively mottes – which were later termed bergen . Sometimes both terpen and werven are called vliedburg , or " refuge castles " . During the 12th and 13th centuries a number of terpen mounds were turned into werven mottes , and some new werven mottes were built from scratch . Around 323 known or probable motte and bailey castles of this design are believed to have built within the borders of the modern Netherlands .
In neighbouring Denmark , motte @-@ and @-@ bailey castles appeared somewhat later in the 12th and 13th centuries and in more limited numbers than elsewhere , due to the less feudal society . Except for a handful of mote and bailey castles in Norway , built in the first half of the 11th century and including the royal residence in Oslo , the design did not play a role further north in Scandinavia .
The Norman expansion into Wales slowed in the 12th century but remained an ongoing threat to the remaining native rulers . In response , the Welsh princes and lords began to build their own castles , frequently motte @-@ and @-@ bailey designs , usually in wood . There are indications that this may have begun from 1111 onwards under Prince Cadwgan ap Bleddyn , with the first documentary evidence of a native Welsh castle being at Cymmer in 1116 . These timber castles , including Tomen y Rhodywdd , Tomen y Faerdre , Gaer Penrhôs , were of equivalent quality to the equivalent Norman fortifications in the area , and it can prove difficult to distinguish the builders of some sites from the archaeological evidence alone .
Motte @-@ and @-@ bailey castles in Scotland emerged as a consequence of the centralising of royal authority in the 12th century . David I encouraged Norman and French nobles to settle in Scotland , introducing a feudal mode of landholding and the use of castles as a way of controlling the contested lowlands . The quasi @-@ independent polity of Galloway , which had resisted the rule of David and his predecessors , was a particular focus for this colonisation . The size of these Scottish castles , primarily wooden motte and bailey constructions , varied considerably , from larger designs such as the Bass of Inverurie to smaller castles like Balmaclellan .
Motte @-@ and @-@ bailey castles were introduced to Ireland following the Norman invasion of Ireland that began between 1166 and 1171 under first Richard de Clare and then Henry II of England , with the occupation of southern and eastern Ireland by a number of Anglo @-@ Norman barons . The rapid Norman success depended on key economic and military advantages ; their cavalry enabled Norman successes in battles , and castles enabled them to control the newly conquered territories . The new lords rapidly built castles to protect their possessions ; most of these were motte @-@ and @-@ bailey constructions , many of them strongly defended . Unlike Wales , the indigenous Irish lords do not appear to have constructed their own castles in any significant number during the period . Between 350 and 450 motte @-@ and @-@ bailey castles are believed to remain today , although the identification of these earthwork remains can be contentious .
A small number of motte @-@ and @-@ bailey castles were built outside of northern Europe . In the late @-@ 12th century , the Normans invaded southern Italy and Sicily ; although they had the technology to build more modern designs , in many cases wooden motte @-@ and @-@ bailey castles were built instead for reasons of speed . The Italians came to refer to a range of different castle types as motta , however , and there may not have been as many genuine motte @-@ and @-@ bailey castles in southern Italy as was once thought on the basis of the documentary evidence alone . In addition , there is evidence of the Norman crusaders building a motte and bailey using sand and wood in Egypt in 1221 during the Fifth Crusade .
= = = Conversion and decline , 13th – 14th centuries = = =
Motte and bailey castles became a less popular design in the mid @-@ medieval period . In France , motte @-@ and @-@ bailey castles were not built after the start of the 12th century , and mottes ceased to be built in most of England after around 1170 , although they continued to be erected in Wales and along the Marches . Many motte @-@ and @-@ bailey castles were occupied relatively briefly and in England many were being abandoned by the 12th century , and others neglected and allowed to lapse into disrepair . In the Low Countries and Germany , a similar transition occurred in the 13th and 14th centuries .
One factor was the introduction of stone into castle building . The earliest stone castles had emerged in the 10th century , with stone keeps being built on mottes along the Catalonia frontier and several , including Château de Langeais , in Angers . Although wood was a more powerful defensive material than was once thought , stone became increasingly popular for military and symbolic reasons . Some existing motte @-@ and @-@ bailey castles were converted to stone , with the keep and the gatehouse usually the first parts to be upgraded . Shell keeps were built on many mottes , circular stone shells running around the top of the motte , sometime protected by a further chemise , or low protective wall , around the base . By the 14th century , a number of motte and bailey castles had been converted into powerful stone fortresses .
Newer castle designs placed less emphasis on mottes . Square Norman keeps built in stone became popular following the first such construction in Langeais in 994 . Several were built in England and Wales after the conquest ; by 1216 there were around 100 in the country . These massive keeps could be either erected on top of settled , well established mottes , or could have mottes built around them – so @-@ called " buried " keeps . The ability of mottes , especially newly built mottes , to support the heavier stone structures , was limited , and many needed to be built on fresh ground . Concentric castles , relying on several lines of baileys and defensive walls , made increasingly little use of keeps or mottes at all .
Across Europe , motte @-@ and @-@ bailey construction came to an end . At the end of the 12th century the Welsh rulers began to build castles in stone , primarily in the principality of North Wales and usually along the higher peaks where mottes were unnecessary . In Flanders , decline came in the 13th century as feudal society changed . In the Netherlands , cheap brick started to be used in castles from the 13th century onwards in place of earthworks , and many mottes were levelled , to help develop the surrounding , low @-@ lying fields ; these " levelled mottes " are a particularly Dutch phenomenon . In Denmark , motte and baileys gave way in the 14th century to a castrum @-@ curia model , where the castle was built with a fortified bailey and a fortified mound , somewhat smaller than the typical motte . By the 12th century , the castles in Western Germany began to thin in number , due to changes in land ownership , and various mottes were abandoned . In Germany and Denmark , motte @-@ and @-@ bailey castles also provided the model for the later wasserburg , or " water castle " , a stronghold and bailey construction surrounded by water , and widely built in the late medieval period .
= = = Today = = =
In England , motte @-@ and @-@ bailey earthworks were put to various uses over later years ; in some cases , mottes were turned into garden features in the 18th century , or reused as military defences during the Second World War . Today , almost no mottes of motte @-@ and @-@ bailey castles remain in regular use in Europe , with one of the few exceptions being that at Windsor Castle , converted for the storage of royal documents . The landscape of northern Europe remains scattered with their earthworks , and many form popular tourist attractions as part of the European heritage industry .
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= Dead Putting Society =
" Dead Putting Society " is the sixth episode of The Simpsons ' second season . It originally aired on the Fox network in the United States on November 15 , 1990 . In the episode , Homer 's son , Bart , and Ned Flanders ' son , Todd , decide to enter a miniature golf tournament . Homer becomes confident that Bart will win and makes a bet with Ned that the father of the boy that does not win will have to mow their neighbors lawn in their wife 's Sunday dress . On the day of the tournament , Bart and Todd make the finals but decide to call it a draw , forcing both Homer and Ned to fulfill the requirements of their bet .
The episode , which was the first to prominently feature Ned and the rest of his family , was written by Jeff Martin and directed by Rich Moore . While animating " Dead Putting Society " , the animators went on a field trip to a local miniature golf course to study the mechanics of a golf club swing . Since airing , the episode has received positive reviews from television critics . It acquired a Nielsen rating of 14 @.@ 3 and was the highest @-@ rated show on the Fox network the week it aired .
= = Plot = =
When Homer is mowing his lawn with obvious frustration , his next @-@ door neighbor Ned Flanders invites him into his basement rumpus room for a beer . Upon seeing Ned 's house and observing his exaggeratedly perfect relationships with his wife and son , Homer erupts at Ned , accusing him of showing off . Ned angrily asks Homer to leave in response . Later , however , he feels guilty and writes a letter to Homer saying that he is really sorry and that he loves him as a brother . Homer is amused by Ned 's sentimentality and reads the letter to the family at the breakfast table . Marge is not happy with the family 's reaction , despite being unable to control her laughter , and chastises Homer for making light of Ned 's sincere apology . Afterwards , Homer takes Bart and Maggie to Sir Putt @-@ A @-@ Lot 's Merrie Olde Fun Centre for a round of miniature golf . They unexpectedly run into Ned and his son Todd , and end up going golfing together .
The game does not go well for Homer , who is obviously still jealous of Ned . Meanwhile , Bart and Todd find out about an upcoming children 's miniature golf tournament , with a first prize of $ 50 . They enter it , and although Todd is very good at miniature golf , Homer becomes confident that Bart will win . He tells Bart that it is not okay to lose and forces him to stare angrily at a picture of Todd for 15 minutes every day . Later , when Bart looks at his meager collection of trophies in his room , Lisa offers to help him practice . Utilizing spiritual books that calm Bart 's mind , they meditate . Meanwhile , Homer makes a bet with Ned on whose boy is a better golfer : the father of the boy who does not win the tournament will mow the other father 's lawn in his wife 's Sunday dress .
On the day of the tournament , Homer threatens Bart to win no matter what . In an extremely close match , Bart and Todd each do well , and tie by the time they reach the eighteenth hole . Bart and Todd agree that the competition is not worth the stress , that they are equally good and that they should call it a draw , splitting the award evenly . As a result , Ned and Homer are forced to wear their respective wives ' Sunday dresses and mow each other 's lawn . People around the neighborhood laugh at them and Ned actually enjoys it ( commenting that it reminds him of his fraternity days in college ) , much to Homer 's dismay .
= = Production = =
" Dead Putting Society " was written by Jeff Martin and directed by Rich Moore . Martin was an experienced miniature golfer and based much of the golf @-@ related scenes in the script on his own experiences . Parts of this episode are also based on the 1984 film The Karate Kid , including the way Bart practices for the miniature golf tournament by balancing on a trash can in a " crane position " . For " Dead Putting Society " , the animators went on a field trip to a local miniature golf course to study the mechanics of a golf club swing . Moore commented that the reason for this was that much of the humor on The Simpsons comes from making the scenery look lifelike ; " The realism of the background serves as the straight man for the absurd situations . "
This episode was the first to prominently feature Ned Flanders and the rest of the Flanders family , and contained the first appearances of Maude and Rod Flanders . Maggie Roswell was given the role of Maude , Ned 's loving wife , and became a regular cast member with this episode . She had previously played supporting parts in the show 's first season . Nancy Cartwright , the voice of Bart , commented on Roswell 's acting : " Maggie has been blessed with a skill in creating one of the hardest things to create : the ' normal sound , ' whatever that is . So she can easily slip into the gal next door [ ... ] . "
= = Reception = =
" Dead Putting Society " originally aired on the Fox network in the United States on November 15 , 1990 . In its original American broadcast , the episode finished 35th in the ratings for the week of November 12 – 18 , 1990 , with a Nielsen rating of 14 @.@ 3 , equivalent to approximately 13 @.@ 3 million viewing households . It was the highest @-@ rated show on the Fox network that week .
Since airing , the episode has received positive reviews from television critics . The Orlando Sentinel 's Gregory Hardy named it the ninth best episode of the show with a sports theme . Doug Pratt , a DVD reviewer and Rolling Stone contributor , praised the episode as one of the best from season two . He commented that the miniature golf challenges " are delightful , the denouncement is highly amusing [ ... ] , and the beauty of the whole episode is that it could just as easily be an episode in a live action TV sitcom , though the slight touches of fancy enabled by the animation enhance its comic impact . " Dusty Sanders of the Rocky Mountain News commented that the title of the episode is " funnier than the content of most TV sitcoms . " The reference to The Karate Kid was named the 21st greatest film reference in the history of the show by Total Film 's Nathan Ditum .
DVD Movie Guide 's Colin Jacobson commented that " considering what a prominent character Flanders became , it 's strange to realize that " Dead Putting Society " was the first show to feature him heavily . He 'd made some token appearances in the past — most notably in season one 's ' Call of the Simpsons ' — but ' Dead Putting Society ' much more clearly defined the Ned we 'd come to know and love . It also featured scads of good little bits and gags and seemed like a solid program . " The authors of the book I Can 't Believe It 's a Bigger and Better Updated Unofficial Simpsons Guide , Warren Martyn and Adrian Wood , commented that apart from " the memorable lawn mowing sequence at the end , this episode is notable for our first viewing of the gaudy , gadget @-@ filled , God @-@ fearing splendour that is the Flanderses ' home . "
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= Hydrus =
Hydrus / ˈhaɪdrəs / is a small constellation in the deep southern sky . It was first depicted on a celestial atlas by Johann Bayer in his 1603 Uranometria . The French explorer and astronomer Nicolas Louis de Lacaille charted the brighter stars and gave their Bayer designations in 1756 . Its name means " male water snake " , as opposed to Hydra , a much larger constellation that represents a female water snake . It remains below the horizon for most Northern Hemisphere observers .
The brightest star is the 2 @.@ 8 @-@ magnitude Beta Hydri , also the closest reasonably bright star to the south celestial pole . Pulsating between magnitude 3 @.@ 26 and 3 @.@ 33 , Gamma Hydri is a variable red giant some 60 times the diameter of our Sun . Lying near it is VW Hydri , one of the brightest dwarf novae in the heavens . Four star systems have been found to have exoplanets to date , most notably HD 10180 , which could bear up to nine planetary companions .
= = History = =
Hydrus was one of the twelve constellations established by the Dutch astronomer Petrus Plancius from the observations of the southern sky by the Dutch explorers Pieter Dirkszoon Keyser and Frederick de Houtman , who had sailed on the first Dutch trading expedition , known as the Eerste Schipvaart , to the East Indies . It first appeared on a 35 @-@ cm ( 14 in ) diameter celestial globe published in 1598 in Amsterdam by Plancius with Jodocus Hondius . The first depiction of this constellation in a celestial atlas was in the German cartographer Johann Bayer 's Uranometria of 1603 . De Houtman included it in his southern star catalogue the same year under the Dutch name De Waterslang , " The Water Snake " , it representing a type of snake encountered on the expedition rather than a mythical creature . The French explorer and astronomer Nicolas Louis de Lacaille called it l ’ Hydre Mâle on the 1756 version of his planisphere of the southern skies , distinguishing it from the feminine Hydra . The French name was retained by Jean Fortin in 1776 for his Atlas Céleste , while Lacaille Latinised the name to Hydrus for his revised Coelum Australe Stelliferum in 1763 .
= = Characteristics = =
Irregular in shape , Hydrus is bordered by Mensa to the southeast , Eridanus to the east , Horologium and Reticulum to the northeast , Phoenix to the north , Tucana to the northwest and west , and Octans to the south ; Lacaille had shortened Hydrus ' tail to make space for this last constellation he had drawn up . Covering 243 square degrees and 0 @.@ 589 % of the night sky , it ranks 61st of the 88 constellations in size . The three @-@ letter abbreviation for the constellation , as adopted by the International Astronomical Union in 1922 , is ' Hyi ' . The official constellation boundaries , as set by Eugène Delporte in 1930 , are defined by a polygon of 12 segments . In the equatorial coordinate system , the right ascension coordinates of these borders lie between 00h 06.1m and 04h 35.1m , while the declination coordinates are between − 57 @.@ 85 ° and − 82 @.@ 06 ° . As one of the deep southern constellations , it remains below the horizon at latitudes north of the 30th parallel in the Northern Hemisphere , and is circumpolar at latitudes south of the 50th parallel in the Southern Hemisphere . Indeed , Herman Melville mentions it and Argo Navis in Moby Dick " beneath effulgent Antarctic Skies " , highlighting his knowledge of the southern constellations from whaling voyages . A line drawn between the long axis of the Southern Cross to Beta Hydri and then extended 4 @.@ 5 times will mark a point due south . Hydrus culminates at midnight around the 26th of October .
= = Notable features = =
= = = Stars = = =
Keyzer and de Houtman assigned 15 stars to the constellation in their Malay and Madagascan vocabulary , with a star that would be later designated as Alpha Hydri marking the head , Gamma the chest and a number of stars that were later allocated to Tucana , Reticulum , Mensa and Horologium marking the body and tail . Lacaille charted and designated 20 stars with the Bayer designations Alpha through to Tau in 1756 . Of these , he used the designations Eta , Pi and Tau twice each , for three sets of two stars close together , and omitted Omicron and Xi . He assigned Rho to a star that subsequent astronomers were unable to find .
Beta Hydri , the brightest star in Hydrus , is a yellow star of apparent magnitude 2 @.@ 8 , lying 24 light @-@ years from Earth . It has about 104 % of the mass of the Sun and 181 % of the Sun 's radius , with more than three times the Sun 's luminosity . The spectrum of this star matches a stellar classification of G2 IV , with the luminosity class of ' IV ' indicating this is a subgiant star . As such , it is a slightly more evolved star than the Sun , with the supply of hydrogen fuel at its core becoming exhausted . It is the nearest subgiant star to the Sun and one of the oldest stars in the solar neighbourhood . Thought to be between 6 @.@ 4 and 7 @.@ 1 billion years old , this star bears some resemblance to what the Sun may look like in the far distant future , making it an object of interest to astronomers . It is also the closest bright star to the south celestial pole .
Located at the northern edge of the constellation and just southwest of Achernar is Alpha Hydri , a white sub @-@ giant star of magnitude 2 @.@ 9 , situated 72 light @-@ years from Earth . Of spectral type F0IV , it is beginning to cool and enlarge as it uses up its supply of hydrogen . It is twice as massive and 3 @.@ 3 times as wide as our sun and 26 times more luminous . A line drawn between Alpha Hydri and Beta Centauri is bisected by the south celestial pole .
In the southeastern corner of the constellation is Gamma Hydri , a red giant of spectral type M2III located 214 light @-@ years from Earth . It is a semi @-@ regular variable star , pulsating between magnitudes 3 @.@ 26 and 3 @.@ 33 . Observations over five years were not able to establish its periodicity . An ageing star , it is around 1 @.@ 5 to 2 times as massive as our Sun , yet has expanded to have about 60 times the Sun 's diameter . It shines with about 655 times the luminosity of our Sun . Located 3 ° northeast of Gamma is the VW Hydri , a dwarf nova of the SU Ursae Majoris type . It is a close binary system that consists of a white dwarf and other star , the former drawing off matter from the latter into a bright accretion disk . These systems are characterised by frequent eruptions and less frequent supereruptions . The former are smooth , while the latter exhibit short " superhumps " of heightened activity . One of the brightest dwarf novae in the sky , it has a baseline magnitude of 14 @.@ 4 and can brighten to magnitude 8 @.@ 4 during peak activity . BL Hydri is another close binary system composed of a low mass star and a strongly magnetic white dwarf . Known as a polar or AM Herculis variable , these produce polarized optical and infrared emissions and intense soft and hard X @-@ ray emissions to the frequency of the white dwarf 's rotation period — in this case 113 @.@ 6 minutes .
There are two notable optical double stars in Hydrus . Pi Hydri , composed of Pi1 Hydri and Pi2 Hydri , is divisible in binoculars . Around 476 light @-@ years distant , Pi1 is a red giant of spectral type M1III that varies between magnitudes 5 @.@ 52 and 5 @.@ 58 . Pi2 is an orange giant of spectral type K2III and shining with a magnitude of 5 @.@ 7 , around 488 light @-@ years from Earth .
Eta Hydri is the other optical double , composed of Eta1 and Eta2 . Eta1 is a blue @-@ white main sequence star of spectral type B9V that was suspected of being variable , and is located just over 700 light @-@ years away . Eta2 has a magnitude of 4 @.@ 7 and is a yellow giant star of spectral type G8.5III around 218 light @-@ years distant , which has evolved off the main sequence and is expanding and cooling on its way to becoming a red giant . Calculations of its mass indicate it was most likely a white A @-@ type main sequence star for most of its existence , around twice the mass of our Sun . A planet , Eta2 Hydri b , greater than 6 @.@ 5 times the mass of Jupiter was discovered in 2005 , orbiting around Eta2 every 711 days at a distance of 1 @.@ 93 astronomical units ( AU ) .
Three other systems have been found to have planets , most notably the Sun @-@ like star HD 10180 , which has seven planets , plus possibly an additional two for a total of nine — as of 2012 more than any other system to date , including the Solar System . Lying around 127 light @-@ years ( 39 parsecs ) from the Earth , it has an apparent magnitude of 7 @.@ 33 .
GJ 3021 is a solar twin — a star very like our own Sun — around 57 light @-@ years distant with a spectral type G8V and magnitude of 6 @.@ 7 . It has a Jovian planet companion ( GJ 3021 b ) . Orbiting about 0 @.@ 5 AU from its sun , it has a minimum mass 3 @.@ 37 times that of Jupiter and a period of around 133 days . The system is a complex one as the faint star GJ 3021B orbits at a distance of 68 AU ; it is a red dwarf of spectral type M4V .
HD 20003 is a star of magnitude 8 @.@ 37 . It is a yellow main sequence star of spectral type G8V a little cooler and smaller than our Sun around 143 light @-@ years away . It has two planets that are around 12 and 13 @.@ 5 times as massive as the Earth with periods of just under 12 and 34 days respectively .
= = = Deep @-@ sky objects = = =
Hydrus contains only faint deep @-@ sky objects . IC 1717 was a deep @-@ sky object discovered by the Danish astronomer John Louis Emil Dreyer in the late 19th century . However , the object at the coordinate Dreyer observed is no longer there , and is now a mystery . It was very likely to have been a faint comet . Known as the white rose galaxy , PGC 6240 is a giant spiral galaxy surrounded by shells resembling rose petals , located around 345 million light years from the Solar System . Unusually , it has cohorts of globular clusters of three distinct ages suggesting bouts of post @-@ starburst formation following a merger with another galaxy . The constellation also contains a spiral galaxy NGC 1511 that lies edge on to observers on Earth and is readily viewed in amateur telescopes .
Located mostly in Dorado , the Large Magellanic Cloud extends into Hydrus . The globular cluster NGC 1466 is an outlying component of the galaxy , and contains many RR Lyrae @-@ type variable stars . It has a magnitude of 11 @.@ 59 and is thought to be over 12 billion years old . Two stars , HD 24188 of magnitude 6 @.@ 3 and HD 24115 of magnitude 9 @.@ 0 , lie nearby in its foreground . NGC 602 is composed of an emission nebula and a young , bright open cluster of stars that is an outlying component on the eastern edge of the Small Magellanic Cloud , a satellite galaxy to the Milky Way . Most of the cloud is located in the neighbouring constellation Tucana .
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= Veðrfölnir and eagle =
In Norse mythology , Veðrfölnir ( Old Norse " storm pale , " " wind bleached " , or " wind @-@ witherer " ) is a hawk sitting between the eyes of an unnamed eagle that is perched on top of the world tree Yggdrasil . Veðrfölnir is sometimes modernly anglicized as Vedrfolnir or Vethrfolnir .
The unnamed eagle is attested in both the Poetic Edda , compiled in the 13th century from earlier traditional sources , and the Prose Edda , written in the 13th century by Snorri Sturluson , while Veðrfölnir is solely attested in the Prose Edda . In both the Poetic Edda and the Prose Edda , the squirrel Ratatoskr carries messages between the unnamed eagle and Nidhöggr , the wyrm that resides below the world tree . Scholars have proposed theories about the implications of the birds .
= = Attestations = =
In the Poetic Edda poem Grímnismál , the god Odin ( disguised as Grimnir ) says that :
The eagle is again attested in chapter 16 of the Prose Edda book Gylfaginning , yet here with the company of Veðrfölnir . In the chapter , Gangleri ( described as king Gylfi in disguise ) asks the enthroned figure of High what other notable facts there are to know about Yggdrasil . High responds ( Veðrfölnir is here anglicized as Vedrfolnir ) :
'There is much to be told . An eagle sits at the top of the ash , and it has knowledge of many things . Between its eyes sits the hawk called Vedrfolnir [ ... ] . The squirrel called Ratatosk runs up and down the ash . He tells slanderous gossip , provoking the eagle and Nidhogg.'
= = Theories = =
John Lindow points out that Snorri does not say why a hawk should be sitting between the eyes of an eagle or what role it may play . Lindow theorizes that " presumably the hawk is associated with the wisdom of the eagle " and that " perhaps , like Odin 's ravens , it flies off acquiring and bringing back knowledge " .
Hilda Ellis Davidson says that the notion of an eagle atop a tree and the World Serpent coiled around the roots of the tree has parallels in other cosmologies from Asia , and that Norse cosmology may have been influenced by these Asiatic cosmologies from a northern route . On the other hand , Davidson adds , the Germanic peoples are attested as worshipping their deities in open forest clearings , and that a sky god was particularly connected with the oak tree , and therefore " a central tree was a natural symbol for them also " .
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= Torf @-@ Einarr =
Einarr Rognvaldarson often referred to by his byname Torf @-@ Einarr ( sometimes anglicised as Turf @-@ Einarr ) , ( fl. early 890s – c . 910 ) was one of the Norse Earls of Orkney . The son of the Norse jarl , Rognvald Eysteinsson and a concubine , his rise to power is related in sagas which apparently draw on verses of Einarr 's own composition for inspiration . After battling for control of the Northern Isles of Scotland and a struggle with Norwegian royals , Einarr founded a dynasty which retained control of the islands for centuries after his death .
He is portrayed as a successful warrior and has various characteristics in common with the Norse God Odin but his historicity is not in doubt . The reasons for his nickname of " Turf " are not certain .
= = Family background = =
Einarr was the youngest son of Rognvald Eysteinsson , Earl of Møre , Norway , by a concubine . According to the sagas and the Historia Norvegiae Rognvald 's family conquered the Orkney and Shetland islands in the late ninth century . Rognvald 's brother , Sigurd Eysteinsson , was made Earl of Orkney and after his death on campaign he was succeeded by his son , Guthorm , who died shortly afterward . Rognvald then sent one of his own sons , Hallad , to govern the islands .
The Orkneyinga saga provides Einarr with five brothers including Hallad . Ivar 's death on an earlier campaign with King Harald Finehair resulted in the Norðreyar being gifted to his family as compensation . Hrólfr " was so big that no horse could carry him " , hence his byname of " Göngu @-@ Hrólf " ( " Hrólf the Walker " ) , and he is identified by the saga writers with Rollo , ancestor of the Dukes of Normandy . In addition to Ivar and Hrólfr , Thorir the Silent was Rognvald 's third son by his marriage to Ragnhild . Hallad , Einarr and Hrollaug were natural sons , all three being " grown men when their brothers born in marriage were still children " .
Ari Þorgilsson quotes a short section from the lost Torf @-@ Einarr ’ s Saga in the Landnámabók . It begins :
Earl Turf @-@ Einarr ( of Orkney ) had a daughter in his youth , she was called Thordis . Earl Rognvald brought her up and gave her in marriage to Thorgeir Klaufi , their son was Einar , he went to Orkney to see his kinsmen ; they would not own him for a kinsman ; then Einar bought a ship in partnership with two brothers , Vestman and Vemund , and they went to Iceland .
and goes on to make brief reference to young Einar 's travels there . It also lists his two sons , Eyjolf and Ljot , and some details about them and their descendents . The sagas describe Einarr as tall , ugly and blind in one eye , but sharp @-@ sighted nonetheless .
= = Rise to power = =
Einarr 's brother Hallad was unable to maintain control in Orkney due to the predations of Danish pirates . He resigned his earldom and returned to Norway as a common landholder , which " everyone thought was a huge joke . " Hallad 's failure led to Rognvald flying into a rage and summoning his sons Thorir and Hrolluag . He asked which of them wanted the islands but Thorir said the decision was up to the earl himself . Rognvald predicted that Thorir 's path would keep him in Norway and that Hrolluag was destined seek his fortune in Iceland . Einarr , the youngest of the natural sons , then came forward and offered to go to the islands . Rognvald said : " Considering the kind of mother you have , slave @-@ born on each side of her family , you are not likely to make much of a ruler . But I agree , the sooner you leave and the later you return the happier I 'll be . "
Rognvald agreed to provide Einarr with a ship and crew in the hope that he would sail away and never return . Despite his father 's misgivings , on arrival in the Scottish islands , Einarr fought and defeated two Danish warlords , Þórir Tréskegg ( Thorir Treebeard ) and Kálf Skurfa ( Kalf the Scurvy ) , who had taken residence there . Einarr then established himself as earl of a territory that comprised the two archipelagoes of Orkney and Shetland .
= = Relations with Norway = =
After Einarr had settled in Orkney two of Harald Finehair 's unruly sons , Halvdan Hålegg ( English : Hálfdan Longlegs ) and Gudrød Ljome ( English : Gudrod the Gleaming ) , killed Einarr 's father Rognvald by trapping him in his house and setting it alight . Gudrød took possession of Rognvald 's lands while Hálfdan sailed westwards to Orkney and then displaced Einarr . The sagas say that King Harald , apparently appalled by his sons ' actions , overthrew Gudrød and restored Rognvald 's lands to his son , Thorir . From a base in Caithness on the Scottish mainland Einarr resisted Hálfdan 's occupation of the islands . After winning a battle at sea , and a ruthless campaign on land , Einarr spied Hálfdan hiding on North Ronaldsay . The sagas claim that Hálfdan was captured , and sacrificed to Odin as a blood eagle .
While the killing of Hálfdan by the Orkney islanders is recorded independently in the Historia Norvegiæ , the manner of his death is unspecified . The blood eagle sacrifice may be a misunderstanding or an invention of the sagawriters as it does not feature directly in the earlier skaldic verses , which instead indicate that Hálfdan was killed by a volley of spears . The verses do mention the eagle as a carrion bird , and this may have influenced the saga writers to introduce the blood eagle element . The sagas then relate that Harald sought vengeance for his son 's ignoble death , and set out on campaign against Einarr , but was unable to dislodge him . Eventually , Harald agreed to end the fight in exchange for a fine of 60 gold marks levied on Einarr and the allodial owners of the islands . Einarr offered to pay the whole fine if the allodial landowners passed their lands to him , to which they agreed . Einarr 's assumption of control over the islands appears well @-@ attested and was considered by later commentators to be the moment at which the Earls of Orkney came to own the entire island group in fee to the King of Norway . Others have interpreted the payment of 60 gold marks as wergild or blood money .
The sagas incorrectly claim that the Earl of Orkney was called " Turf @-@ Einarr " because he introduced the practice of burning turf or peat to the islands since wood was so scarce . This practice long pre @-@ dates the Norse and the real reason for the nickname is unknown . The Orkneyinga saga has him organising peat cutting at Tarbat Ness far to the south of the Orkney heartland . While depletion of woodland could have caused a cultural shift from burning timber to peat , potentially the name arose because the sequestration of the common or allodial rights of the islanders by Einarr forced them away from coppicing towards cutting turves .
= = Legacy = =
The remainder of Einarr 's long reign was apparently unchallenged , and he died in his bed of a sickness , leaving three sons , Arnkel , Erlend and Thorfinn who became jarls of Orkney after him . Despite his apparent physical shortcomings , as well as his low @-@ born mother , Einarr established a dynasty which ruled the Orkney islands until 1470 .
At this early period , many of the dates relating to the Orkney earldom are uncertain . Einarr 's death is stated as being circa 910 in several sources . Crawford ( 2004 ) suggests he lived until the 930s and Ashley ( 1998 ) states that " allowing for the ages of his sons to succeed him he must have ruled to at least the year 920 or later . "
There are five verses recorded in the Landnámabók attributed to Einarr that describe a feud between the families of Rognvald Eysteinsson and that of Harald Finehair . Apart from these verses , no other examples of Torf @-@ Einarr 's poetry are known to survive , though they appear to be part of a larger body of work . A couplet that commemorates Einarr 's defeat of the two pirate Vikings , Thorir Treebeard and Kalf the Scurvy , has a matching metre and alliterative similarities to the attributed verses .
Hann gaf Tréskegg trollum ,
Torf @-@ Einarr drap Skurfu .
He gave Treebeard to the trolls ,
Torf @-@ Einarr slew Scurvy .
Einarr must have had some fame as a poet , as his name is used in the Háttatal , an examination of Old Norse poetry written in the thirteenth @-@ century , to refer to a specific type of metre , Torf @-@ Einarsháttr .
= = Interpretations = =
Much of Einarr 's story in the sagas appears to be derived from the five skaldic verses attributed to Einarr himself and it is not certain that this account Einarr 's conquest is historically accurate . Though the Historia Norvegiæ , written at the same time as the sagas but from a different source , confirms that Rognvald 's family conquered the islands , it gives few details . The scene in the sagas where Einarr 's father scorns him is a literary device which often figures in Old Norse literature . After Hallad 's failure in Orkney the dialogue between the father and his sons has been interpreted as being about Rognvald 's desire to cement his own position as Earl of Møre and an allusion to the early history of Iceland , where the sagas were written . Thorir is a compliant son who Rognvald is happy to keep at home . Hrolluag is portrayed as a man of peace who will go to Iceland . Einarr is aggressive and a threat to his father 's position so can be spared for the dangers of Orkney . In the Landnámabók version the equally aggressive Hrolfr is also present , and his destiny is anticipated to be in conveniently far @-@ away Normandy .
The writer of the Orkneyinga saga established Einarr 's status in two contradictory ways . Although in the Historia Rognvald 's family are described as " pirates " the saga provides them with a legally established earldom instated by the king . Einarr 's success is however largely down to his own efforts and he negotiates with King Harald rather than offers blind obedience . The author is thus able to emphasise both the legitimacy and independence of his house .
Einarr is also provided with various characteristics associated with Odin . Both have but one eye and Halfdan 's hideous death at Einarr 's hands is offered to the god — an act that contains a hint of Odin 's own sacrifice to himself in the Hávamál . Einarr is a man of action who is self @-@ made , and he is a successful warrior who ( unlike his brothers ) avenges his father 's death . He leads a dramatic and memomorable life and emerges as " ancient , powerful and mysterious — but as a literary figure rather than a real person " . He is also a heathen whose appearance at the commencement of the saga contrasts with the later martyrdom of his descendent St Magnus which marks a " moral high @-@ point " of the story .
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= John Hadley ( philosopher ) =
John Hadley ( born 27 September 1966 ) is an Australian philosopher whose research concerns moral and political philosophy , including animal ethics , environmental ethics and metaethics . He is currently a senior lecturer in philosophy in the School of Humanities and Communication Arts at Western Sydney University . He has previously taught at Charles Sturt University and the University of Sydney , where he studied as an undergraduate and doctoral candidate . In addition to a variety of articles in peer @-@ reviewed journals and edited collections , he is the author of the 2015 monograph Animal Property Rights ( Lexington Books ) and the co @-@ editor , with Elisa Aaltola , of the 2015 collection Animal Ethics and Philosophy ( Rowman & Littlefield International ) .
Hadley is known for his account of animal property rights theory . He proposes that wild animals be offered property rights over their territories , and that guardians be appointed to represent their interests in decision @-@ making procedures . He suggests that this account could be justified directly , on the basis of the interests of the animals concerned , or indirectly , so that natural environments are protected . The theory has received discussion in popular and academic contexts , with critical responses from farming groups and mixed responses from moral and political theorists . Hadley has also conducted research on normative issues related to animal rights extremism , the aiding of others and utilitarianism .
= = Career = =
Hadley read for a bachelor of arts and doctorate in philosophy at the University of Sydney ( USYD ) . His doctoral thesis was supervised by Caroline West , in USYD 's Department of Philosophy , and was submitted in 2006 under the title of Animal Property : Reconciling Ecological Communitarianism and Species @-@ egalitarian Liberalism . During his doctoral research , the " basic elements " of his animal property rights theory were " first assembled " , leading to the publication of " Nonhuman Animal Property : Reconciling Environmentalism and Animal Rights " in the Journal of Social Philosophy . During this time , he also published in the Journal of Value Inquiry , Philosophy in the Contemporary World , and the Journal of Applied Philosophy , as well as working as a lecturer in the USYD philosophy department and a guest lecturer for the USYD Laboratory Animal Services .
After his PhD , Hadley worked as a lecturer in communication ethics in the Charles Sturt University ( CSU ) School of Communication and a lecturer in philosophy at the CSU School of Humanities and Social Sciences . He then joined the University of Western Sydney School of Humanities and Communication Arts , first as a lecturer in philosophy , and then as a senior lecturer in philosophy . Animal Ethics and Philosophy : Questioning the Orthodoxy , a collection edited by Hadley with the Finnish philosopher Elisa Aaltola , was published in 2015 by Rowman & Littlefield International . The book aimed to move debate in animal ethics beyond developing extentionist accounts and to examine the metaphilosophical and metaethical problems with extentionist accounts . Hadley 's own contribution drew attention to a perceived inconsistent triad in animal rights philosophy : the idea that moral status is determined by psychological factors ( like sentience ) , and not species ; that human and nonhuman animals are of the same kind ; and that genomic plasticity offers the best explanation for change in natural selection . In the same year , Hadley published a monograph with Lexington Books entitled Animal Property Rights : A Theory of Territory Rights for Wild Animals . The book , partially building upon his doctoral research , presents a large amount of new material on Hadley 's animal property rights theory .
= = Research = =
= = = Animal property rights = = =
Hadley is known for his theory of animal property rights , according to which animals should be afforded property rights over their territory . Hadley has developed his theory of animal property rights through his doctoral research , his 2015 monograph , and other academic works . In addition , he has authored popular articles on the subject for The Conversation and The Ethics Centre . He also discussed the topic on Knowing Animals , a podcast series produced by Siobhan O 'Sullivan . His proposal has received attention in the popular press , with strong criticism from farmers ' groups and journalists writing on rural affairs .
The practical side of Hadley 's proposal rests on two key principles : a guardianship system , according to which knowledgeable guardians would be appointed to represent animal property holders in land management decision @-@ making , and the use of animals ' territory @-@ marking behaviour to determine the limits of their property . Hadley rejects first occupancy and labour @-@ mixing accounts of appropriation , and instead suggests that there are two ways that his account might fruitfully be justified . First , it might be justified directly , with reference to the interests of animals . This relies upon the fact that wild animals require their territory in order to satisfy their basic needs and the claim that this results in an interest in territory strong enough to ground a right . If animals have a right to use their territory , Hadley claims , then they necessarily have a property right in that territory . Second , it might be justified indirectly , as animals ( of some species , at least ) might be given property rights as a means of protecting natural environments . Hadley presents his proposal against the backdrop of an explicit pragmatism , and holds that animal property rights theory has the potential to reconcile animal and environmental ethics .
Hadley 's proposal has been placed in the context of the " political turn " in animal ethics ; the emergence of animal ethics literature focused on justice . Another academic who has proposed that wild animals be afforded property rights over their habitats is the British philosopher Steve Cooke . Like Hadley , he utilises an interest @-@ based account of animal rights , but , unlike Hadley , he suggests that sovereignty would be an appropriate tool to protect animals ' interest in their habitat if property fails . Other theorists exploring the normative aspects of human relationships with wild animals explicitly deny that they are extending property rights to animals . The US @-@ based ethicist Clare Palmer , for instance , argues for a duty to respect wild animals ' space , but claims that arguing for a property right for these animals would be " difficult " , and instead bases her account on the fact that human actions can make animals " painful , miserable and vulnerable " .
The Canadian theorists Sue Donaldson and Will Kymlicka are critical of Hadley 's proposal to extend property rights to animals , claiming that property rights are insufficient to protect animals ' interests . Instead , they argue that animals should be considered sovereign over their territories . They write that
It is one thing to say that a bird has a property right in its nest , or that a wolf has a property right in its den – specific bits of territory used exclusively by one animal family . But the habitat that animals need to survive extends far beyond such specific and exclusive bits of territory – animals often need to fly or roam over vast territories shared by many other animals . Protecting a bird ’ s nest is of little help if the nearby watering holes are polluted , or if tall buildings block its flight path . It ’ s not clear how ideas of property rights can help here .
They also compare the possibility of extending property rights to animals to the approach of European colonists , who were prepared to extend property , but not sovereignty , rights to native peoples , resulting in oppression . Hadley , however , is himself critical of Donaldson and Kymlicka 's sovereignty proposal , though the British philosopher Josh Milburn suggests that the proposals may not be as far apart as the authors indicate .
The British political theorist Alasdair Cochrane also questions the extension of property rights to animals . Though describing Hadley 's proposal as " ingenious " , he criticises it on two grounds . First , he questions Hadley 's claim of a relationship between property and basic needs , and , second , denies that animal property rights would appease environmentalists , given that they would allow the destruction of environments which do not contain sentient animals . In a book review , Milburn stresses the significance of Hadley 's theory , but questions the extent to which the implementation of animal property rights would be desirable without the achievement of other animal rights and the extent to which Hadley 's account is genuinely about property rights .
= = = Other research = = =
Hadley has considered the ethics of humans ' relationships with wild animals and environments beyond his property rights theory . He argues that there is a duty to aid wild animals in need , and that these duties are essentially no different to humans ' duties to aid distant strangers who are severely cognitively impaired . He argues that libertarian property rights , consistent with Robert Nozick 's interpretation of the Lockean proviso , should limit the right to destroy human @-@ owned natural environments .
Hadley has conducted research on animal rights extremism , concluding that the phenomenon is a complex one , and that a full understanding of individual extremists ' intentions and targets are necessary to understand the ethical acceptability of extremist acts and whether such acts are appropriately classified as terrorism . He holds that while direct action should be tolerated in liberal democracies , this toleration should not extend to certain campaigning tactics used by extremists , such as threat @-@ making .
With O 'Sullivan , Hadley has conducted research on utilitarianism and the relationship between obligations to animals and obligations to needy humans . The scholars argue that there is a conflict in Singer 's philosophy between the obligation to aid needy humans and to protect animals , and that Westerners who own pets should , rather than spending large amounts of money extending the lives of their companions , euthanise severely ill animals and instead donate money to aiding those in the developing world .
Hadley has been critical of the metaethical and metaphilosophical stances of mainstream animal ethicists , as well as the views of Tibor Machan and J. Baird Callicott . He has also written on J. M. Coetzee , the ethics of " disenhancing " animals , the ethics of animal testing , and the relationship of self @-@ defence theory to abortion and animal ethics .
= = Publications = =
= = = Books = = =
Hadley , John ( 2015a ) . Animal Property Rights . London , United Kingdom : Lexington Books .
Aaltola , Elisa , and John Hadley ( eds ) ( 2015 ) . Animal Ethics and Philosophy . London , United Kingdom : Rowman & Littlefield International .
= = = Selected articles = = =
Hadley , John ( 2015 ) . " A Metalevel Problem for Animal Rights Theory " . In Elisa Aaltola and John Hadley . Animal Ethics and Philosophy . London , United Kingdom : Rowman & Littlefield International. pp. 15 – 30 .
Hadley , John ( 2015 ) . " Animal Rights Advocacy and Legitimate Public Deliberation " . Political Studies 63 ( 3 ) : 696 – 712 @.@ doi : 10 @.@ 1111 / 1467 @-@ 9248 @.@ 12105 .
Hadley , John ( 2013 ) . " Liberty and valuing sentient life " . Ethics and the Environment 18 ( 1 ) : 87 – 103 @.@ doi : 10 @.@ 2979 / ethicsenviro.18.1.87.
Hadley , John ( 2012 ) . " Telling it like it is : A proposal to improve transparency in biomedical research " . Between the Species 15 ( 1 ) : 103 – 26 @.@ doi : 10 @.@ 15368 / bts.2012v15n1.3.
Hadley , John ( 2012 ) . " Confining ' Disenhanced ' Animals " . Nanoethics 6 ( 1 ) : 41 – 46 @.@ doi : 10 @.@ 1007 / s11569 @-@ 012 @-@ 0142 @-@ 6 .
Hadley , John ( 2010 ) . " Paying their way : dissident opinion , advertising and access to the public sphere " . Australian Journal of Professional and Applied Ethics 10 ( 1 – 2 ) : 54 – 61 .
O 'Sullivan , Siobhan ; John Hadley ( 2009 ) . " Conflict in Peter Singer 's Philosophy – Animal Protection versus an Obligation to Give " . In Raymond Aaron Younis . On the Ethical Life : The Philosophy of Peter Singer . Newscastle @-@ upon @-@ Tyne : Cambridge Scholars Publishing. pp. 43 – 56 .
Hadley , John ( 2009 ) . " Animal Rights and Self @-@ Defense Theory " . Journal of Value Inquiry 43 ( 2 ) : 165 – 77 @.@ doi : 10 @.@ 1007 / s10790 @-@ 009 @-@ 9149 @-@ 9 .
Hadley , John ; Siobhan O 'Sullivan ( 2009 ) . " World Poverty , Animal Minds and the Ethics of Veterinary Expenditure " . Environmental Values 18 ( 3 ) : 361 – 78 @.@ doi : 10 @.@ 3197 / 096327109X12474739376578 .
Hadley , John ( 2009 ) . " We Cannot Experience Abstractions : Moral Responsibility for ' Eternal Treblinka ' " . Southerly 69 ( 1 ) : 213 – 22 .
Hadley , John ( 2009 ) . " Animal Rights Extremism and the Terrorism Question " . Journal of Social Philosophy 40 ( 3 ) : 363 – 78 @.@ doi : 10 @.@ 1111 / j.1467 @-@ 9833.2009.01457.x.
O 'Sullivan , Siobhan ; John Hadley ( 2008 ) . " Utilitarianism for the Dog that has everything " . In Steven D. Hales . What Philosophy Can Tell You About Your Dog . Chicago , Illinois : Open Court Publishing. pp. 285 – 94 .
Hadley , John ( 2007 ) . " Critique of Callicott 's Biosocial Moral Theory " . Ethics and the Environment 12 ( 1 ) : 67 – 78 . JSTOR 40339132 .
Hadley , John ( 2006 ) . " The Duty to Aid Nonhuman Animals in Dire Need " . Journal of Applied Philosophy 23 ( 4 ) : 445 – 51 @.@ doi : 10 @.@ 1111 / j.1468 @-@ 5930.2006.00358.x.
Hadley , John ( 2005b ) . " Excluding Destruction : Towards an Environmentally Sustainable Libertarian Property Rights Regime " . Philosophy in the Contemporary World 12 ( 2 ) : 22 – 9 @.@ doi : 10 @.@ 5840 / pcw200512217 .
Hadley , John ( 2005 ) . " Nonhuman Animal Property : Reconciling Environmentalism and Animal Rights " . Journal of Social Philosophy 36 ( 3 ) : 305 – 15 @.@ doi : 10 @.@ 1111 / j.1467 @-@ 9833.2005.00277.x.
Hadley , John ( 2004 ) . " Using and abusing others : A reply to Machan " . Journal of Value Inquiry 38 ( 3 ) : 411 – 4 @.@ doi : 10 @.@ 1007 / s10790 @-@ 005 @-@ 5319 @-@ 6 .
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= Mughal @-@ e @-@ Azam =
Mughal @-@ e @-@ Azam ( The Emperor of the Mughals ) is a 1960 Indian epic historical drama film directed by K. Asif and produced by Shapoorji Pallonji . Starring Prithviraj Kapoor , Dilip Kumar , Madhubala , and Durga Khote , it follows the love affair between Mughal Prince Salim ( who went on to become Emperor Jahangir ) and Anarkali , a court dancer . Salim 's father , Emperor Akbar , disapproves of the relationship , which leads to a war between father and son .
The development of Mughal @-@ e @-@ Azam began in 1944 , when Asif read a play set in the reign of Emperor Akbar ( 1556 – 1605 ) . Production was plagued by delays and financial uncertainty . Before its principal photography began in the early 1950s the project had lost a financier and undergone a complete change of cast . Mughal @-@ e @-@ Azam cost more to produce than any previous Indian motion picture ; the budget for a single song sequence exceeded that typical for an entire film of the period . The soundtrack , inspired by Indian classical and folk music , comprises 12 songs voiced by playback singers including Lata Mangeshkar and classical singer Bade Ghulam Ali Khan . It is often cited as one of the finest soundtracks in Bollywood cinematic history .
Mughal @-@ e @-@ Azam had the widest release of any Indian film up to that time and patrons often queued all day for tickets . Released on 5 August 1960 it broke box office records in India , and became the highest @-@ grossing Bollywood film of all time , a distinction it held for 15 years . The accolades awarded to the film include one National Film Award and three Filmfare Awards . Mughal @-@ e @-@ Azam was the first black @-@ and @-@ white Hindi film to be digitally coloured , and the first in any language to be given a theatrical re @-@ release . The colour version , released in November 2004 , was a commercial success .
The film is widely considered a milestone of its genre , earning praise from critics for its grandeur and attention to detail . Film scholars have welcomed its portrayal of enduring themes , but question its historical accuracy .
= = Plot = =
Emperor Akbar ( Prithviraj Kapoor ) , who does not have a male heir , undertakes a pilgrimage to a shrine to pray that his wife Jodhabai ( Durga Khote ) give birth to a son . Later , a maid brings the emperor news of his son 's birth . Overjoyed at his prayers being answered Akbar gives the maid his ring , and promises to grant her anything she desires .
The son , Prince Salim , grows up to be spoiled , flippant , and self @-@ indulgent . His father sends him off to war , to teach him courage and discipline . Fourteen years later Salim returns as a distinguished soldier ( Dilip Kumar ) and falls in love with court @-@ dancer Nadira , whom the emperor has renamed Anarkali ( Madhubala ) , meaning pomegranate blossom . The relationship is discovered by the jealous Bahar ( Nigar Sultana ) , a dancer of a higher rank , who wants the prince to love her so that she may one day become queen . Unsuccessful in winning Salim 's love , she exposes his forbidden relationship with Anarkali . Salim pleads to marry Anarkali , but his father refuses , and imprisons her . Despite her treatment , Anarkali refuses to reject Salim , as Akbar demands .
Salim rebels and amasses an army to confront Akbar and rescue Anarkali . Defeated in battle , Salim is sentenced to death by his father , but is told that the sentence will be revoked if Anarkali , now in hiding , is handed over to die in his place . Anarkali gives herself up to save the prince 's life , and is condemned to death by being entombed alive . Before her sentence is carried out , she begs to have a few hours with Salim as his make @-@ believe wife . Her request is granted , as she has agreed to drug Salim so that he cannot interfere with her entombment . As Anarkali is being walled up , Akbar is reminded that he still owes her mother a favour , as it was she who brought him news of Salim 's birth . Anarkali 's mother pleads for her daughter 's life . The emperor has a change of opinion , but although he wants to release Anarkali he cannot , because of his duty to his country . He therefore arranges for her secret escape into exile with her mother , but demands that the pair are to live in obscurity , and that Salim is never to know that Anarkali is still alive .
= = Cast = =
Prithviraj Kapoor as Emperor Akbar
Dilip Kumar as Salim
Madhubala as Nadira ( Anarkali )
Durga Khote as Jodhabai , Salim 's mother
Nigar Sultana as Bahar , a court dancer
Ajit as Durjan Singh
Murad as Raja Man Singh
M. Kumar as Sangtarash , the royal sculptor
Sheila Dalaya as Suraiyya , Anarkali 's sister
Jillo Bai as Anarkali 's mother
= = Production = =
= = = Development = = =
The Urdu dramatist Imtiaz Ali Taj wrote a play about the love story of Salim and Anarkali in 1922 , based more on a 16th @-@ century legend than on fact . A stage version was soon produced , and screen versions followed . Ardeshir Irani made a silent film , Anarkali , in 1928 , and remade it with sound in 1935 . In the early 1940s , the tale of Anarkali inspired producer Shiraz Ali Hakeem and young director K. Asif ( Karimuddin Asif ) to make another film adaptation which they would title Mughal @-@ e @-@ Azam . They recruited four Urdu writers to develop the screenplay and dialogue : Aman ( Zeenat Aman 's father , also known as Amanullah Khan ) , Wajahat Mirza , Kamaal Amrohi , and Ehsan Rizvi . It is not known how the writers collaborated or shared out their work , but in 2010 The Times of India said that their " mastery over Urdu 's poetic idiom and expression is present in every line , giving the film , with its rich plots and intricate characters , the overtones of a Shakespearean drama . " As the script neared completion , Asif cast Chandra Mohan , D.K. Sapru , and Nargis for the roles of Akbar , Salim , and Anarkali , respectively . Shooting started in 1946 in Bombay Talkies studio .
The project faced multiple hurdles , which forced its temporary abandonment . The political tensions and communal rioting surrounding India 's 1947 partition and independence stalled production . Shortly after partition , Shiraz Ali migrated to Pakistan , leaving Asif without a financier . The actor Chandra Mohan suffered a heart attack and died in 1949 . Shiraz Ali had previously suggested that business tycoon Shapoorji Pallonji could finance the film . Although Pallonji knew nothing about film production , in 1950 he agreed to produce the film because of his interest in the history of Akbar . Production was then restarted with a new cast .
Believing that the film had been cancelled , Kamal Amrohi , one of the scriptwriters who was also a director , planned to make a film on the same subject himself . When confronted by Asif , he agreed to shelve the project . Another unrelated film production based on the same stage play was Nandlal Jaswantlal 's Anarkali , starring Bina Rai and Pradeep Kumar , which became the highest grossing Bollywood film of 1953 .
= = = Casting = = =
Asif had initially rejected Dilip Kumar for the part of Prince Salim . Kumar was reluctant to act in a period film , but accepted the role upon the insistence of the film 's producer . According to Kumar , " Asif trusted me enough to leave the delineation of Salim completely to me . " Kumar faced difficulty while filming in Rajasthan owing to the heat and the body armour he wore . The part of Anarkali had first been offered to Suraiya but later went to Madhubala , who had been longing for a significant role . Madhubala suffered from congenital heart disease , which was one of the reasons why at times she fainted on set ; she also endured skin abrasions while filming the prison sequences , but was determined to finish the film .
To become the character of Emperor Akbar , Prithviraj Kapoor was reported to have " relied completely on the script and director " . Prior to make @-@ up , Kapoor would declare , " Prithviraj Kapoor ab jaa rahaa hai " ( " Prithviraj Kapoor is now going " ) ; after make @-@ up , he would announce , " Akbar ab aa rahaa hai " ( " Akbar is now coming " ) . Kapoor faced difficulty with his heavy costumes and suffered blisters on his feet after walking barefoot in the desert for a sequence . Lance Dane , a photographer who was on set during the filming , recalled that Kapoor struggled to remember his lines in some scenes ; he mentioned one scene in particular that Kapoor required 19 takes to get right . At the time of filming , Kapoor who was on a diet , was told by Asif to regain the lost weight for his portrayal of Akbar . Zakir Hussain , who later became a tabla maestro , had initially been considered for the part of the young Prince Salim , but it became the debut role of Jalal Agha , who later performed in the song " Mehbooba Mehbooba " from Sholay ( 1975 ) .
= = = Design = = =
The production design of the film , led by art director M. K. Syed , was extravagant , and some sets took six weeks to erect . The film , mostly shot in studio sets designed to represent the interior of a Mughal palace , featured opulent furnishings and water features such as fountains and pools , generating the feel of a Hollywood historical epic of the period . The song " Pyar Kiya To Darna Kya " was filmed in Mohan Studios on a set built as a replica of the Sheesh Mahal in the Lahore Fort . The set was noted for its size , measuring 150 feet ( 46 m ) in length , 80 feet ( 24 m ) in breadth and 35 feet ( 11 m ) in height . A much @-@ discussed aspect was the presence of numerous small mirrors made of Belgian glass , which were crafted and designed by workers from Firozabad . The set took two years to build and cost more than ₹ 1 @.@ 5 million ( valued at about US $ 314 @,@ 000 in 1960 ) , more than the budget of an entire Bollywood film at the time . The film 's financiers feared bankruptcy as a result of the high cost of production .
Artisans from across India were recruited to craft the props . The costumes were designed by Makhanlal and Company , and Delhi @-@ based tailors skilled in zardozi embroidery stitched the Mughal costume . The footwear was ordered from Agra , the jewellery was made by goldsmiths in Hyderabad , the crowns were designed in Kolhapur , and blacksmiths from Rajasthan manufactured the armoury ( which included shields , swords , spears , daggers , and armour ) . The zardozi on costumes were also stitched by designers from Surat . A statue of Lord Krishna , to which Jodhabai prayed , was made of gold . In the scenes involving an imprisoned Anarkali , real chains were placed on Madhubala . The battle sequence between Akbar and Salim reportedly featured 2 @,@ 000 camels , 400 horses , and 8 @,@ 000 troops , mainly from the Indian Army 's Jaipur cavalry , 56th Regiment . Dilip Kumar has spoken of the intense heat during filming of the sequence in the desert of Rajasthan , wearing full armour .
= = = Principal photography = = =
Principal photography for Mughal @-@ e @-@ Azam began in the early 1950s . Each sequence was reportedly filmed three times , as the film was being produced in Hindi / Urdu , Tamil , and English . The film was eventually dubbed in Tamil and released as Akbar , but that version 's commercial failure resulted in the abandonment of the planned English dubbing , for which British actors were considered . Asif was accompanied by an extensive crew , which included his assistant directors S. T. Zaidi , Khalid Akhtar , Surinder Kapoor ( assisting primarily for the English version ) , and five others . Additional crew members included cinematographer R. D. Mathur , choreographer Lachhu Maharaj , production manager Aslam Noori , editor Dharamavir , makeup artists P. G. Joshi and Abdul Hamid , and sound director Akram Shaikh .
Some film sequences were shot with up to 14 cameras , significantly more than the norm at that time . There were many difficulties with the film 's lighting . Cinematographer Mathur reportedly took eight hours to light a single shot . In total , 500 days of shooting were needed , compared to a normal schedule of 60 to 125 shooting days at the time . Owing to the very large size of the Sheesh Mahal set , the lighting was provided by the headlights of 500 trucks and about 100 reflectors . The presence of the mirrors on the set caused problems , as they sparkled under the lights . Consultants from Hollywood , including David Lean , told Asif to forget the idea since they felt that it was impossible to film the scene under the intense glare . Asif confined himself to the set with the lighting crew , and subsequently overcame the problem by covering all the mirrors with a thin layer of wax , thereby subduing their reflectivity . Mathur also used strategically placed strips of cloth to implement " bounce lighting " , which reduced the glare .
A number of problems and production delays were encountered during filming , to the extent that at one point Asif considered abandoning the project . Kumar defended the long duration of filming , invoking the massive logistics of the film and explaining that the entire cast and crew were " acutely conscious of the hard work [ they ] would have to put in , as well as the responsibility [ they ] would have to shoulder . "
The production also suffered from financial problems , and Asif exceeded the budget on a number of occasions . The final budget of the film is a subject of debate . Some sources state that Mughal @-@ e @-@ Azam cost ₹ 10 @.@ 5 million to produce , about US $ 2 million at the time , while others claim it cost ₹ 15 million , about $ 3 million . This made Mughal @-@ e @-@ Azam the most expensive Indian film of the period . A number of estimates put the film 's inflation @-@ adjusted budget at ₹ 500 million to ₹ 2 billion . The budget situation strained the relationship between Asif and Pallonji , while the production also faced troubled relationships among other crew members ; differences crept up between Asif and Kumar when the former married the latter 's sister . Another source of trouble was the romantic relationship and ultimate break @-@ up of Kumar and Madhubala , who had been dating for nine years .
= = = Post @-@ production = = =
Sohrab Modi 's Jhansi Ki Rani ( 1953 ) was the first Indian film to be shot in colour , and by 1957 , colour production had become increasingly common . Asif filmed one reel of Mughal @-@ e @-@ Azam that included the song " Pyar Kiya To Darna Kya " in Technicolor . Impressed by the result , he filmed three more reels in Technicolor , near the story 's climax . After seeing them , he sought a complete re @-@ shoot in Technicolor , angering impatient distributors who were unwilling to accept further delays . Asif subsequently released Mughal @-@ e @-@ Azam partially coloured , although he still hoped to see the full film in colour .
By the end of filming , more than a million feet of negative had been used , necessitating significant editing . A number of songs were edited out owing to the running time , which in the end was 197 minutes . Almost half of the songs recorded for the film were left out of the final version .
= = Themes = =
Mughal @-@ e @-@ Azam is a family history highlighting the differences between father and son , duty to the public over family , and the trials and tribulations of women , particularly of courtesans . According to Rachel Dwyer , author of the book Filming the Gods : Religion and Indian Cinema , the film highlights religious tolerance between Hindus and Muslims . Examples include the scenes of Hindu Queen Jodahabai 's presence in the court of the Muslim Akbar , the singing of a Hindu devotional song by Anarkali , and Akbar 's participation in the Janmashtami celebrations , during which Akbar is shown pulling a string to rock a swing with an idol of Krishna on it . Film critic Mukul Kesavan has remarked that he was unable to recall a single other film about Hindu @-@ Muslim love in which the woman ( Jodhabai ) is Hindu . Scholars Bhaskar and Allen described the film as a tableau vivant of " Islamicate culture " , evidenced in its ornate sets , musical sequences such as the qawwali scene , and chaste Urdu dialogues . Throughout the film there is a distinct depiction of Muslims as the ruling class who not only dressed differently but also spoke in complex Persianised dialogue . They are made to appear " distinct and separate from the mainstream . "
Film scholar Stephen Teo posits that Mughal @-@ e @-@ Azam is a " national allegory " , a stylistic way of appropriating history and heritage to emphasise the national identity . He believes the arrogance of Bahar represents the power of the state and that Anarkali 's emotion , which is highly personal , represents the private individual . Teo states that the theme of romantic love defeating social class difference and power hierarchy , as well as the grandeur of the filming , contribute to the film 's attractiveness . Author Ashis Nandy has commented on the poetic quality of the dialogue , saying that " the characters of Mughal @-@ e @-@ Azam do not just speak – they refine communication , they distil it , they crystallize it into many faceted glittering gems , they make poetry of ordinary language . " Gowri Ramnarayan of The Hindu has also emphasised the power of the dialogues in the film in that they " create not only the ambiance of this period drama , but also etch character and situation . Every syllable breathes power and emotion . "
Philip Lutgendorf , a scholar at the University of Iowa , has stated that while the theme of the conflict between passionate individual love and family duty may be very common in Hindi film making , with endless cinematic permutations , K. Asif 's " excessive elaboration of the theme remains in a class by itself . " Further , Emperor Akbar struggles between his personal desires and his duties to the nation . Ashis Nandy noted that apart from the conflict between Akbar and his son , there is also an " unwritten alliance " between Akbar and Bahar that compounds the problems of Anarkali . He also thought it highlighted the " idea of justice and the notion of unconditional love " to uphold tradition . The song " Pyar Kiya To Darna Kya " sung by Anarkali was an indication of her defiance of societal norms . A major difference from the original story is that while the earlier Anarakali films based on Imtiaz Ali Taj 's story ended as tragedies , K. Asif created a relatively happy ending in that Akbar gives amnesty to Anarkali by allowing her to escape through a secret route of tunnels below a false bottom of her prison wall , although his son is made to suffer in believing her to have perished .
= = Historical inaccuracies = =
The film is based on a legend , but it is given credence by at least two texts that assert Anarkali 's existence during the historical period of the greatest monarch of the Mughal Empire , Emperor Akbar ( 1556 – 1605 ) . One of the books states that in 1615 a marble tomb was built on Anarkali 's grave in Lahore by Salim , when he had become Emperor Jehangir . On the tomb is a Persian inscription that reads : " Ta Kiyamat shukr geom kardgate khwesh ra , Aah garman bez benaam roo @-@ e yare khwesh ra " , meaning in English : " Ah ! could I behold the face of my love once more , I would give thanks to my God until the day of resurrection . " The author of the stage play on which the film is based , Imtiaz Ali Taj , believed that the legend had no historical base , but historians have suggested that Anarkali may have been a painter , a dancer , or a courtesan , or one of Akbar 's wives and the mother of Salim 's half @-@ brother Prince Daniyal . While an earlier film version of the story , Anarkali ( 1952 ) contained a disclaimer stating that the story had no foundation in history , Mughal @-@ e @-@ Azam made no such claim .
Mughal @-@ e @-@ Azam takes numerous liberties with historical fact . Historian Alex von Tunzelmann says that although the real Salim was a heavy consumer of alcohol and opium from the age of 18 , he was not necessarily a mischievous boy , as depicted in the film . When the film 's Salim returns from his time in the military he is depicted as a gentle and romantic hero , in contrast to the real Salim , who was documented as a brutal drunk who would often beat people to death . The real Salim did lead a rebellion against his father , tried to replace him as emperor , and had Akbar 's friend Abu al @-@ Fazl murdered in 1602 , but the film ascribes these actions to his desire to marry Anarkali , which is historically inaccurate . Further , there were also discrepancies in sets , costumes , and music of the film . The Sheesh Mahal , actually the royal bath of the queen , was depicted in the film as a dancing hall , and much larger . Music and dancing styles from the 19th century were shown , although the story takes place in the 16th century . For example , thumri , a semi @-@ classical music form developed in the 19th century , is adopted in a dance sequence in Kathak style , which is a 16th @-@ century dance form .
= = Music = =
The soundtrack was composed by music director Naushad , and the lyrics were written by Shakeel Badayuni . After conceiving the idea of the film , Asif visited Naushad and handed him a briefcase containing money , telling him to make " memorable music " for Mughal @-@ e @-@ Azam . Offended by the explicit notion of money as a means of gaining quality , Naushad threw the notes out of the window , to the surprise of his wife . She subsequently made peace between the two men , and Asif apologised . With this , Naushad accepted the offer to direct the film 's soundtrack .
As with most of Naushad 's soundtracks , the songs of Mughal @-@ e @-@ Azam were heavily inspired by Indian classical music and folk music , particularly ragas such as Darbari , Durga , used in the composition of " Pyar Kiya To Darna Kya " , and Kedar , used in " Bekas Pe Karam Keejeye " . He also made extensive use of symphony orchestras and choruses to add grandeur to the music . The soundtrack contained a total of 12 songs , which were rendered by playback singers and classical music artists . These songs account for nearly one third of the film 's running time . The album 's cover image depicts a scene from the film in which Salim strokes Anarkali with an ostrich feather .
= = = Background = = =
A total of 20 songs were composed for the film , at an average cost of ₹ 3 @,@ 000 ( valued at about US $ 629 in 1960 ) per song , though many were left out of the final cut owing to the film 's length . Both Asif and Naushad approached Hindustani classical vocalist Bade Ghulam Ali Khan inviting him to participate in the film 's soundtrack , but he refused , explaining that he disliked working in films . Asif , adamant about the presence of Khan , asked him to name his fee . Khan quoted a fee of ₹ 25 @,@ 000 per song , at a time when Lata Mangeshkar and Mohammed Rafi ( the best paid playback singers of the time ) charged ₹ 300 – 400 per song , thinking that Asif would send him away . Instead , Asif agreed , and even gave Khan a 50 per cent advance . Surprised and left with no excuse to turn down the offer , he finally accepted . Khan sang two songs , " Prem Jogan Ban Ke " and " Shubh Din Aayo " ; both were included in the final version of the film and demonstrated the artist 's vocal virtuosity .
The composition of " Pyar Kiya To Darna Kya " was especially time @-@ consuming – on the day of the song 's scheduled recording , Naushad rejected two sets of lyrics by Badayuni . Subsequently , a " brainstorming session " was held on Naushad 's terrace , beginning in early evening and lasting until next day . Late in the night , Naushad remembered a folk song from eastern Uttar Pradesh with the lyrics " Prem kiya , kya chori kari hai ... " ( " I have loved , does it mean that I have stolen ? " ) . The song was converted into a ghazal and subsequently recorded . At that time , since there was no technology to provide for the reverberation of sound heard in the song , Naushad had Mangeshkar sing the song in a studio bathroom . Some sources state that a chorus of a hundred singers supported singer Mohammed Rafi for the song " Ae Mohabbat Zindabad " , though other sources place the number at a thousand .
The song " Mohe Panghat Pe " was objected to by veteran director Vijay Bhatt . Although he was not directly involved with the project , he thought that it would " ruin the film " , since it showed the Mughal emperor celebrating the Hindu festival Janmashtami . Though Naushad argued that the presence of Jodhabai made the situation logical , he met with the film 's screenwriters and subsequently added dialogue that explained the sequence .
When the film was colourised for re @-@ release , the soundtrack was also reworked , with original composer Naushad receiving help from Uttam Singh . The score remained the same , but the sound was touched up and converted to Dolby Digital . The orchestral part was re @-@ recorded with live musicians , but the original solo vocals were retained . The cost was reported to be between ₹ 2 @.@ 6 million ( US $ 39 @,@ 000 ) and ₹ 6 @.@ 5 million ( US $ 97 @,@ 000 ) .
= = = Critical response = = =
The soundtrack of Mughal @-@ e @-@ Azam received universal acclaim from critics in India . It is often cited as one of the best soundtracks in Bollywood history , and was one of the best @-@ selling Bollywood albums of the 1960s . Shahid Khan , writing for Planet Bollywood , gave the soundtrack ten out of ten stars and called the music the " soul of the film " . In 2004 , Subhash K. Jha reviewed the re @-@ mastered release of the soundtrack , praising the technical quality of the re @-@ release and the original vocals of Lata Mangeshkar . In 2013 , Baldev S Chauhan of Sun Post called the songs " some of the greatest songs of Hindi cinema . "
= = = Track listing = = =
All lyrics written by Shakeel Badayuni , all music composed by Naushad .
= = Release = =
At the time of the release of Mughal @-@ e @-@ Azam , a typical Bollywood film would garner a distribution fee of ₹ 300 @,@ 000 – 400 @,@ 000 ( about US $ 63 @,@ 000 – 84 @,@ 000 in 1960 ) per territory . Asif insisted that he would sell his film to the distributors at no less than ₹ 700 @,@ 000 per territory . Subsequently , the film was actually sold at a price of ₹ 1 @.@ 7 million ( US $ 356 @,@ 000 ) per territory , surprising Asif and the producers . Thus , it set the record for the highest distribution fee received by any Bollywood film at that time .
The premiere of Mughal @-@ e @-@ Azam was held at the then new , 1 @,@ 100 @-@ capacity Maratha Mandir cinema in Mumbai . Mirroring the nature of the film , the cinema 's foyer had been decorated to resemble a Mughal palace , and a 40 @-@ foot ( 12 m ) cut @-@ out of Prithviraj Kapoor was erected outside it . The Sheesh Mahal set was transported from the studio to the cinema , where ticket holders could go inside and experience its grandeur . Invitations to the premiere were sent as " royal invites " shaped like scrolls , which were written in Urdu and made to look like the Akbarnama , the official chronicle of the reign of Akbar . The premiere was held amidst great fanfare , with large crowds and an extensive media presence , in addition to hosting much of the film industry , although Dilip Kumar did not attend the event owing to his dispute with Asif . The film 's reels arrived at the premiere cinema atop a decorated elephant , accompanied by the music of bugles and shehnai .
= = Reception = =
= = = Box office = = =
The day before bookings for the film opened , a reported crowd of 100 @,@ 000 gathered outside the Maratha Mandir to buy tickets . The tickets , the most expensive for a Bollywood film at that time , were dockets containing text , photographs and trivia about the film , and are now considered collector 's items . They sold for ₹ 100 ( valued at about US $ 21 in 1960 ) , compared to the usual price of ₹ 1 @.@ 5 ( US $ 0 @.@ 31 ) . Bookings experienced major chaos , to the extent that police intervention was required . It was reported that people would wait in queues for four to five days , and would be supplied food from home through their family members . Subsequently , the Maratha Mandir closed bookings for three weeks .
Mughal @-@ e @-@ Azam was released on 5 August 1960 in 150 cinemas across the country , establishing a record for the widest release for a Bollywood film . It became a major commercial success , earning ₹ 4 million ( US $ 839 @,@ 000 ) in the first week , eventually earning a net revenue of ₹ 55 million ( US $ 11 @,@ 530 @,@ 000 ) , and generating a profit of ₹ 30 million for the producers . Mughal @-@ e @-@ Azam also experienced a long theatrical run , screening to full capacity at the Maratha Mandir for three years . The film thus became the highest @-@ grossing Bollywood film of all time by surpassing Mother India ( 1957 ) , and retained this record until Sholay ( 1975 ) surpassed its net revenue .
The Hindu stated in 2009 that Mughal @-@ e @-@ Azam was the highest @-@ grossing Bollywood film of all time if adjusted for inflation . According to the online box office website Box Office India , the film 's adjusted net revenue would amount to ₹ 1327 million , ranking it as an " All @-@ Time Blockbuster " . The trade magazine Box Office implemented a formula for adjusting box office collections in 2011 . Using the base price of gold and growth of multiplexes as factors , they calculated that Mughal @-@ e @-@ Azam was the highest @-@ grossing Bollywood film of all time .
= = = Critical reception = = =
Mughal @-@ e @-@ Azam received almost universal acclaim from Indian critics ; every aspect of the film was praised . A review from the 1960s in Filmfare called it a " history @-@ making film ... the work of a team of creative artists drawn from different spheres of the art world " . It was also described as " a tribute to imagination , hard work and lavishness of its maker , Mr. Asif . For its grandeur , its beauty , and then performances of the artists it should be a landmark in Indian films . "
Since 2000 , reviewers have described the film as a " classic " , " benchmark " , or " milestone " in the history of Indian cinema . In 2011 , Anupama Chopra called the film " the best Hindi film ever made " and " the apotheosis of the Hindi film form " , noting specifically the performances , father @-@ son drama and song sequences . Taran Adarsh of Bollywood Hungama praised many aspects of the film : the musical score , the battle scenes , the acting , emotions , and romance , the father @-@ son confrontation scenes , and the overall look of the film . Dinesh Raheja of Rediff called the film a must @-@ see classic , saying " a work of art is the only phrase to describe this historical whose grand palaces @-@ and @-@ fountains look has an epic sweep and whose heart @-@ wrenching core of romance has the tenderness of a feather 's touch . " Sujata Gupta of Planet Bollywood gave the film nine out of ten stars , calling it a " must see " that " has captured interest of people over generations " .
K. K. Rai , in his review for Stardust stated , " it can be said that the grandeur and vintage character of Mughal @-@ e @-@ Azam cannot be repeated , and it will remembered as one of the most significant films made in this country . " Ziya Us Salam of The Hindu described Mughal @-@ e @-@ Azam as a film people will want to watch over and over again . Raja Sen of Rediff compared the film to Spartacus ( 1960 ) and said , " Mughal @-@ e @-@ Azam is awesomely , stunningly overwhelming , a magnificent spectacle entirely free of CGI and nonlinear gimmickry , a gargantuan feat of ... of ... well , of Mughal proportions ! " Laura Bushell of the BBC rated the film four out of five stars , considering it to be a " benchmark film for both Indian cinema and cinema grandeur in general " , and remarking that Mughal @-@ E @-@ Azam was an epic film in every way . Naman Ramachandran , reviewing the film for the British Film Institute , noted the depiction of religious tolerance and said the film had a tender heart .
Nasreen Munni Kabir , author of The Immortal Dialogue of K. Asif 's Mughal @-@ e @-@ Azam , compared the film to the Koh @-@ i @-@ Noor diamond for its enduring worth to Indian cinema . Outlook , in 2008 , and Hindustan Times , in 2011 , both declared that the scene in which Salim brushes Anarkali with an ostrich feather was the most erotic and sensuous scene in the history of Indian cinema .
= = = Accolades = = =
At the 1961 National Film Awards , Mughal @-@ e @-@ Azam won the National Film Award for Best Feature Film in Hindi . In the 1961 Filmfare Awards , Mughal @-@ e @-@ Azam was nominated in seven categories : Best Film , Best Director ( Asif ) , Best Actress ( Madhubala ) , Best Playback Singer ( Mangeshkar ) , Best Music ( Naushad ) , Best Cinematography ( Mathur ) , and Best Dialogue ( Aman , Wajahat Mirza , Kamaal Amrohi , and Ehsan Rizvi ) , winning the awards for Best Film , Best Cinematography , and Best Dialogue .
= = Colourisation = =
Mughal @-@ e @-@ Azam was the first black @-@ and @-@ white Hindi film to be digitally coloured and the first to be given a theatrical re @-@ release . The Sterling Investment Corporation , the negative rights owner and an arm of the Shapoorji Pallonji Group , undertook restoration and coloruisation of Mughal @-@ e @-@ Azam and assigned Deepesh Salgia as Project Designer and Director . They initially approached Hollywood executives for help , but found the sales quotations , ranging from $ 12 – 15 million , too high . In 2002 , Umar Siddiqui , managing director of the Indian Academy of Arts and Animation ( IAAA ) proposed to enhance it digitally at a fraction of the cost . To convince the Shapoorji Pallonji Group , one of India 's wealthiest companies , of the commercial viability of the project , the IAAA colourised a four @-@ minute clip and showed it to them . They approved and gave the project the go @-@ ahead . Shapoorji Mistry , grandson of producer Shapoorji Pallonji Mistry , thought it a fitting tribute to complete his grandfather 's unfinished dream of colourising the entire film .
The first step towards colourisation was the restoration of the original negatives , which were in poor condition owing to extensive printing of the negative during the original theatrical release . Costly and labour @-@ intensive restoration was essential before colourisation could be carried out . The negative was cleaned of fungal growth , damaged portions were restored , and missing parts of frames were re @-@ instated . After cleaning , each of the 300 @,@ 000 frames of the negative was scanned into a 10 megabytes @-@ sized file and then was digitally restored . The entire restoration work was undertaken by Acris Lab , Chennai . The dialogues in the original soundtrack were also in a bad state of preservation , which necessitated having the sound cleaned in Chace Studio , United States . The background score and the entire musical track was recreated by Naushad and Uttam Singh . For the songs , the original voices of the singers like Bade Ghulam Ali Khan , Mohammed Rafi and Lata Mangeshkar were extracted from the original mixed track and the same were recreated with re @-@ recorded score in 6 @.@ 1 surround sound .
The process of colourisation was preceded by extensive research . The art departments visited museums and studied the literature for background on the typical colours of clothing worn at that time . Siddiqui studied the technology used for the colourisation of black @-@ and @-@ white Hollywood classics . The team also approached a number of experts for guidance and suggestions , including Dilip Kumar , production designer Nitin Chandrakant Desai , and a historian from the Jawaharlal Nehru University in Delhi . To undertake the colourisation , Siddiqui brought together a team of around 100 individuals , including computer engineers and software professionals , and organised a number of art departments . The entire project was co @-@ ordinated by Deepesh Salgia , who partnered with companies including Iris Interactive and Rajtaru Studios to execute the colourisation . The task was controlled and supervised by the producers , who received daily updates and progress reports .
The colourisation team spent 18 months developing software for colouring the frames , called " Effects Plus " , which was designed to accept only those colours whose hue would match the shade of grey present in the original film . This ensured that the colours added were as close to the real colour as possible ; the authenticity of the colouring was later verified when a costume used in the film was retrieved from a warehouse , and its colours were found to closely match those in the film . Every shot was finally hand @-@ corrected to perfect the look . The actual colourisation process took a further 10 months to complete . Siddiqui said that it had " been a painstaking process with men working round the clock to complete the project . " The exact cost of the colourisation is disputed , with a wide variety of estimates ranging from ₹ 20 million ( US $ 300 @,@ 000 ) to ₹ 50 million , or ₹ 100 million .
= = Re @-@ releases = =
The film 's colour version was released theatrically on 12 November 2004 , in 150 prints across India , 65 of which were in Maharashtra . The new release premiered at the Eros Cinema in Mumbai . Dilip Kumar , who had not attended the original premiere , was in attendance . The colour version was edited to a running time of 177 minutes , as compared to the original version 's 197 minutes . The new release also included a digital reworked soundtrack , produced with the assistance of Naushad , the original composer . The release on the festive Diwali weekend came with three other major releases : Veer @-@ Zaara , Aitraaz , and Naach . It became the 19th highest grossing Bollywood film of the year , behind Aitraaz and Veer @-@ Zaara ( the top grosser ) , but ahead of Naach .
Mughal @-@ e @-@ Azam became the first full @-@ length feature film colourised for a theatrical re @-@ release ; although some Hollywood films had been colourised earlier they were only available for home media . It was subsequently selected for seven international film festivals . Upon release , the film drew crowds to the cinemas , with an overall occupancy of 90 per cent . Subsequently , it completed a 25 @-@ week run . While some critics complained that the colours were " psychedelic " or " unnatural " , others hailed the effort as a technological achievement . Film critic Kevin Thomas of the Los Angeles Times remarked that while colourising was not a good idea for most black @-@ and @-@ white classics , it was perfect in this particular instance . He compared it to films by Cecil B. DeMille and to Gone With the Wind ( 1939 ) for its larger @-@ than @-@ life storytelling . The Guardian said that although the new version was an improvement , " the fake colours tend to look flat and brash , detracting from cinematographer RD Mathur 's elegantly composed shots . " The BBC 's Jaspreet Pandohar , observing that the film was " restored in appealing candy @-@ colours and high quality sound " , considered it a " cross between Gone With the Wind and Ben @-@ Hur " . Other critics have said that they prefer the black and white version .
In 2006 , Mughal @-@ e @-@ Azam became only the fourth Indian film certified for showing in Pakistan since the 1965 ban on Indian cinema , and was released with a premiere in Lahore . It was distributed by Nadeem Mandviwala Entertainment , at the request of Asif 's son , Akbar Asif . A 3D version of the film was reported to have been planned in 2009 , but was never released .
= = Legacy = =
Mughal @-@ e @-@ Azam is one of only two films directed by Asif ; one of his unfinished projects was released posthumously as a tribute . Over time the title has become part of Bollywood vernacular , used to describe a project that is taking too long to complete . Art director Omung Kumar , who has designed sets for major Indian films such as Black ( 2005 ) and Saawariya ( 2007 ) , said that he and others in his field look to Mughal @-@ e @-@ Azam as a source of inspiration for art direction . It has also been used as a model for the perfect love story , requiring directors to ensure lovers overcome obstacles . Following her success in the film , Madhubala could have gone on to land further major roles , but she was advised not to overwork owing to her fragile heart condition , and had to withdraw from some productions that were already underway .
The Guardian in 2013 cited Mughal @-@ e @-@ Azam as a " landmark of cinema " despite its historical inaccuracies , and the BBC stated in 2005 that it is " widely considered one of Bollywood 's most iconic films " . Imtiaz Ali of The Times of India in 2010 called it the " most proto @-@ typical , high involvement , expensive , passionate piece of work that Hindi cinema has ever produced " , one that " set the standard for everything that will ever come after it " . It continues to be regarded by critics as the Indian equivalent of Gone with the Wind . Filmmaker Subhash Ghai was quoted in 2010 as saying that a film like this could never be repeated : " Mughal @-@ e @-@ Azam is an all @-@ time classic and has been the ultimate love story in Hindi cinema at all levels . So it will always remain alive for generations to come . " To commemorate the film 's anniversary , Asif 's friend the actor and producer Shah Rukh Khan had his company Red Chillies Entertainment produce a documentary video titled Mughal @-@ E @-@ Azam – A Tribute by a son to his father . Hosted by Khan , it includes interviews with Asif 's family and Bollywood stars . Artist M. F. Husain created a series of paintings for the video , in which he re @-@ imagined some memorable scenes . Interested in preserving the film for future generations , Khan noted that his father was originally cast in the film but did not complete it . When asked if Mughal @-@ e @-@ Azam should be remade , he retorted : " It is the mother of all films ; mothers cannot be remade " . No sequels have been made , but Maan Gaye Mughal @-@ e @-@ Azam ( 2008 ) paid tribute with its title and by including in its plot part of the original stage play ; it received very poor ratings from critics .
Mughal @-@ e @-@ Azam ranks on the lists of top Indian films , including the 2002 British Film Institute poll of Top 10 Indian Films , and Anupama Chopra 's 2009 list , The Best Bollywood Films . It is also included in CNN @-@ IBN 's 2013 list of the " 100 greatest Indian films of all time " . Rotten Tomatoes has sampled six reviewers and judged them all to be positive , with an average rating of 8 @.@ 5 out of 10 . It is second on Box Office India 's list of Biggest Blockbusters Ever in Hindi Cinema , and was named the greatest Bollywood film of all time by a poll celebrating 100 years of Indian cinema by British Asian weekly newspaper Eastern Eye in July 2013 . It belongs to a small collection of films including Kismet ( 1943 ) , Mother India ( 1957 ) , Sholay ( 1975 ) , and Hum Aapke Hain Koun .. ! ( 1994 ) , that are watched repeatedly throughout India and are viewed as definitive Hindi films of cultural significance . Books and documentaries made about the film include Shakil Warsi 's Mughal @-@ E @-@ Azam – An Epic of Eternal Love , published by Rupa in 2009 . The name Mughal @-@ e @-@ Azam has been adopted by businesses , including a restaurant in Goregaon .
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= Great tit =
The great tit ( Parus major ) is a passerine bird in the tit family Paridae . It is a widespread and common species throughout Europe , the Middle East , Central and Northern Asia , and parts of North Africa where it is generally resident in any sort of woodland ; most great tits do not migrate except in extremely harsh winters . Until 2005 this species was lumped with numerous other subspecies . DNA studies have shown these other subspecies to be distinctive from the great tit and these have now been separated as two distinct species , the cinereous tit of southern Asia , and the Japanese tit of East Asia . The great tit remains the most widespread species in the genus Parus .
The great tit is a distinctive bird with a black head and neck , prominent white cheeks , olive upperparts and yellow underparts , with some variation amongst the numerous subspecies . It is predominantly insectivorous in the summer , but will consume a wider range of food items in the winter months , including small hibernating bats . Like all tits it is a cavity nester , usually nesting in a hole in a tree . The female lays around 12 eggs and incubates them alone , although both parents raise the chicks . In most years the pair will raise two broods . The nests may be raided by woodpeckers , squirrels and weasels and infested with fleas , and adults may be hunted by sparrowhawks . The great tit has adapted well to human changes in the environment and is a common and familiar bird in urban parks and gardens . The great tit is also an important study species in ornithology .
= = Taxonomy = =
The great tit was originally described under its current binomial name by Linnaeus in his 18th century work , Systema Naturae . Its scientific name is derived from the Latin parus " tit " and maior " larger " .
The great tit was formerly treated as ranging from Britain to Japan and south to the islands of Indonesia , with 36 described subspecies ascribed to four main species groups . The major group had 13 subspecies across Europe , temperate Asia and north Africa , the minor group 's nine subspecies occurred from southeast Russia and Japan into northern southeast Asia and the 11 subspecies in the cinereus group were found from Iran across south Asia to Indonesia . The three bokharensis subspecies were often treated as a separate species , Parus bokharensis , the Turkestan tit . This form was once thought to form a ring species around the Tibetan Plateau , with gene flow throughout the subspecies , but this theory was abandoned when sequences of mitochondrial DNA were examined , finding that the four groups were distinct ( monophyletic ) and that the hybridisation zones between the groups were the result of secondary contact after a temporary period of isolation .
A study published in 2005 confirmed that the major group was distinct from the cinereus and minor groups and that along with P.m. bokharensis it diverged from these two groups around 1 @.@ 5 million years ago . The divergence between the bokharensis and major groups was estimated to have been about half a million years ago . The study also examined hybrids between representatives of the major and minor groups in the Amur Valley where the two meet . Hybrids were rare , suggesting that there were some reproductive barriers between the two groups . The study recommended that the two eastern groups be split out as new species , the cinereous tit ( Parus cinereus ) , and the Japanese tit ( Parus minor ) , but that the Turkestan tit be lumped in with the great tit . This taxonomy has been followed by some authorities , for example the IOC World Bird List . The Handbook of the Birds of the World volume treating the Parus species went for the more traditional classification , treating the Turkestan tit as a separate species but retaining the Japanese and cinereous tits with the great tit , a move that has not been without criticism .
The nominate subspecies of the great tit is the most widespread , its range stretching from the Iberian Peninsula to the Amur Valley and from Scandinavia to the Middle East . The other subspecies have much more restricted distributions , four being restricted to islands and the remainder of the P. m. major subspecies representing former glacial refuge populations . The dominance of a single , morphologically uniform subspecies over such a large area suggests that the nominate race rapidly recolonised a large area after the last glacial epoch . This hypothesis is supported by genetic studies which suggest a geologically recent genetic bottleneck followed by a rapid population expansion .
The genus Parus once held most of the species of tit in the family Paridae , but morphological and genetic studies led to the splitting of that large genus in 1998 . The great tit was retained in Parus , which , along with Cyanistes comprise a lineage of tits known as the " non @-@ hoarders " , with reference to the hoarding behaviour of members of the other clade . The genus Parus is still the largest in the family , but may be split again . Other than those species formerly considered to be subspecies , the great tit 's closest relatives are the white @-@ naped and green @-@ backed tits of southern Asia . Hybrids with tits outside the Parus genus are very rare , but have been recorded with blue tit , coal tit , and probably marsh tit .
= = = Subspecies = = =
There are currently 15 recognised subspecies of great tit :
P. m. newtoni , described by Pražák in 1894 , is found across the British Isles .
P. m. major , described by Linnaeus in 1758 , is found throughout much of Europe , Asia Minor , northern and eastern Kazakhstan , southern Siberia and northern Mongolia , as far as the mid @-@ Amur Valley .
P. m. excelsus , described by Buvry in 1857 , is found in northwestern Africa .
P. m. corsus , described by Kleinschmidt in 1903 , is found in Portugal , southern Spain , and Corsica .
P. m. mallorcae , described by von Jordans in 1913 , is found in the Balearic Islands .
P. m. ecki , described by von Jordans in 1970 , is found on Sardinia .
P. m. niethammeri , described by von Jordans in 1970 , is found on Crete .
P. m. aphrodite , described by Madarász in 1901 , is found in southern Italy , southern Greece , Cyprus and the Aegean Islands .
P. m. terrasanctae was described by Hartert in 1910 . It is found in Lebanon , Israel , Jordan and Syria .
P. m. karelini , described by Zarudny in 1910 , is found in southeastern Azerbaijan and northwestern Iran .
P. m. blandfordi was described by Pražák in 1894 . It is found in north central and southwestern Iran .
P. m. bokharensis was described by Lichtenstein in 1823 . It is found in southern Kazakhstan , Uzbekistan , Turkmenistan and far north of Iran and Afghanistan . Was , along with following two subspecies , once treated as separate species .
P. m. turkestanicus , was described by Zarudny & Loudon in 1905 , and ranges from east Kazakhstan to extreme north west China and west Mongolia .
P. m. ferghanensis , was described by Buturlin in 1912 , and is found in Tajikistan and Kyrgyzstan .
P. m. kapustini , was described by Portenko in 1954 , and is found in north west China ( north west Xinjiang ) to Mongolia and e Siberia .
= = Description = =
The great tit is large for a tit at 12 @.@ 5 to 14 @.@ 0 cm ( 4 @.@ 9 – 5 @.@ 5 in ) in length , and has a distinctive appearance that makes it easy to recognise . The nominate race P. major major has a bluish @-@ black crown , black neck , throat , bib and head , and white cheeks and ear coverts . The breast is bright lemon @-@ yellow and there is a broad black mid @-@ line stripe running from the bib to vent . There is a dull white spot on the neck turning to greenish yellow on the upper nape . The rest of the nape and back are green tinged with olive . The wing @-@ coverts are green , the rest of the wing is bluish @-@ grey with a white @-@ wing @-@ bar . The tail is bluish grey with white outer tips . The plumage of the female is similar to that of the male except that the colours are overall duller ; the bib is less intensely black , as is the line running down the belly , which is also narrower and sometimes broken . Young birds are like the female , except that they have dull olive @-@ brown napes and necks , greyish rumps , and greyer tails , with less defined white tips .
There is some variation in the subspecies . P. m. newtoni is like the nominate race but has a slightly longer bill , the mantle is slightly deeper green , there is less white on the tail tips , and the ventral mid @-@ line stripe is broader on the belly . P. m. corsus also resembles the nominate form but has duller upperparts , less white in the tail and less yellow in the nape . P. m. mallorcae is like the nominate subspecies , but has a larger bill , greyer @-@ blue upperparts and slightly paler underparts . P. m. ecki is like P. m. mallorcae except with bluer upperparts and paler underparts . P. m. excelsus is similar to the nominate race but has much brighter green upperparts , bright yellow underparts and no ( or very little ) white on the tail . P. m. aphrodite has darker , more olive @-@ grey upperparts , and the underparts are more yellow to pale cream . P. m. niethammeri is similar to P. m. aphrodite but the upperparts are duller and less green , and the underparts are pale yellow . P. m. terrasanctae resembles the previous two subspecies but has slightly paler upperparts . P. m. blandfordi is like the nominate but with a greyer mantle and scapulars and pale yellow underparts , and P. m. karelini is intermediate between the nominate and P. m. blandfordi , and lacks white on the tail . The plumage of P. m. bokharensis is much greyer , pale creamy white to washed out grey underparts , a larger white cheep patch , a grey tail , wings , back and nape . It is also slightly smaller , with a smaller bill but longer tail . The situation is similar for the two related subspecies in the Turkestan tit group . P. m. turkestanicus is like P. m. bokharensis but with a larger bill and darker upperparts . P. m. ferghanensis is like P. m. bokharensis but with a smaller bill , darker grey on the flanks and a more yellow wash on the juvenile birds .
The colour of the male bird 's breast has been shown to correlate with stronger sperm , and is one way that the male demonstrates his reproductive superiority to females . Higher levels of carotenoid increase the intensity of the yellow of the breast its colour , and also enable the sperm to better withstand the onslaught of free radicals . Carotenoids cannot be synthesized by the bird and have to be obtained from food , so a bright colour in a male demonstrates his ability to obtain good nutrition . The width of the male 's ventral stripe , which varies with individual , is selected for by females , with higher quality females apparently selecting males with wider stripes .
= = = Voice = = =
The great tit is , like other tits , a vocal bird , and has up to 40 types of calls and songs . The calls are generally the same between the sexes , but the male is much more vocal and the female rarely calls . Soft single notes such as " pit " , " spick " , or " chit " are used as contact calls . A loud " tink " is used by adult males as an alarm or in territorial disputes . One of the most familiar is a " teacher , teacher " , often likened to a squeaky wheelbarrow wheel , which is used in proclaiming ownership of a territory . In former times , English folk considered the " saw @-@ sharpening " call to be a foretelling of rain . There is little geographic variation in calls , but tits from the two south Asian groups recently split from the great tit do not recognise or react to the calls of the temperate great tits .
One explanation for the great tit 's wide repertoire is the Beau Geste theory . The eponymous hero of the novel propped dead soldiers against the battlements to give the impression that his fort was better defended than was really the case . Similarly , the multiplicity of calls gives the impression that the tit 's territory is more densely occupied than it actually is . Whether the theory is correct or not , those birds with large vocabularies are socially dominant and breed more successfully .
= = Distribution , movements and habitat = =
The great tit has a wide distribution across much of Eurasia . It is found across all of Europe except for Iceland and northern Scandinavia , including numerous Mediterranean islands . In North Africa it is found in Morocco , Algeria and Tunisia . It also occurs across the Middle East , and parts of central Asia from northern Iran and Afghanistan to Mongolia , as well as across northern Asia from the Urals as far east as northern China and the Amur Valley .
The great tit occupies a range of habitats . It is most commonly found in open deciduous woodland , mixed forests and forest edges . In dense forests , including conifer forests it is usually found in forest clearings . In northern Siberia it is found in boreal taiga . In North Africa it prefers oak forests as well as stands of Atlas cedar and even palm groves . In the east of its range in Siberia , Mongolia and China it favours riverine willow and birch forest . Riverine woodlands of willows , poplars are among the habitats of the Turkestan group in central Asia , as well as low scrubland , oases ; at higher altitudes it occupies habitats ranging from dense deciduous and coniferous forests to open areas with scattered trees .
The great tit is generally not migratory . Pairs will usually remain near or in their territory year round , even in northern parts of their range . Young birds will disperse from their parents ' territory , but usually not far . Populations may become irruptive in poor or harsh winters , meaning that groups of up to a thousand birds may unpredictably move from northern Europe to the Baltic , the Netherlands , Britain and even as far as the southern Balkans .
The great tit was unsuccessfully introduced into the United States ; birds were set free near Cincinnati , Ohio between 1872 and 1874 but failed to become established . Suggestions that they were an excellent control measure for codling moths nearly led to their introduction to some new areas particularly in the United States of America , however this plan was not implemented . Birds were later introduced to the Almaty Province in what is now Kazakhstan in 1960 – 61 and became established , although their present status is unclear .
= = Behaviour = =
= = = Diet and feeding = = =
Great tits are primarily insectivorous in the summer , feeding on insects and spiders which they capture by foliage gleaning . Invertebrate prey that are taken include cockroaches , grasshoppers and crickets , lacewings , earwigs , bugs ( Hemiptera ) , ants , flies ( Diptera ) , caddis flies , beetles , scorpion flies , harvestmen , bees and wasps , snails and woodlice . During the breeding season , the tits prefer to feed protein @-@ rich caterpillars to their young . A study published in 2007 found that great tits helped to reduce caterpillar damage in apple orchards by as much as 50 % . Nestlings also undergo a period in their early development where they are fed a number of spiders , possibly for nutritional reasons . In autumn and winter , when insect prey becomes scarcer , great tits add berries and seeds to their diet . Seeds and fruit usually come from deciduous trees and shrubs , and include the seeds of beech and hazel . Where it is available they will readily take table scraps , peanuts and sunflower seeds from bird tables . In particularly severe winters they may consume 44 % of their body weight in sunflower seeds . They often forage on the ground , particularly in years with high beech mast production . Great tits , along with other tits , will join winter mixed @-@ species foraging flocks .
Large food items , such as large seeds or prey , are dealt with by " hold @-@ hammering " , where the item is held with one or both feet and then struck with the bill until it is ready to eat . Using this method , a great tit can get into a hazelnut in about twenty minutes . When feeding young , adults will hammer off the heads off large insects to make them easier to consume , and remove the gut from caterpillars so that the tannins in the gut will not retard the chick 's growth .
Great tits combine dietary versatility with a considerable amount of intelligence and the ability to solve problems with insight learning , that is to solve a problem through insight rather than trial and error . In England , great tits learned to break the foil caps of milk bottles delivered at the doorstep of homes to obtain the cream at the top . This behaviour , first noted in 1921 , spread rapidly in the next two decades . In 2009 , great tits were reported killing and eating pipistrelle bats . This is the first time a songbird has been seen to hunt bats . The tits only do this during winter when the bats are hibernating and other food is scarce . They have also been recorded using tools , using a conifer needle in the bill to extract larvae from a hole in a tree . In 2013 , some individual great tits were noted to attack , kill and to some extent eat other small birds at wintertime feeding spots in Finland .
= = = Breeding = = =
Great tits are monogamous breeders and establish breeding territories . These territories are established in late January and defence begins in late winter or early spring . Territories are usually reoccupied in successive years , even if one of the pair dies , so long as the brood is raised successfully . Females are likely to disperse to new territories if their nest is predated the previous year . If the pair divorces for some reason then the birds will disperse , with females travelling further than males to establish new territories . Although the great tit is socially monogamous , extra @-@ pair copulations are frequent . One study in Germany found that 40 % of nests contained some offspring fathered by parents other than the breeding male and that 8 @.@ 5 % of all chicks were the result of cuckoldry .
Great tits are seasonal breeders . The exact timing of breeding varies by a number of factors , most importantly location . Most breeding occurs between January and September ; in Europe the breeding season usually begins after March . In Israel there are exceptional records of breeding during the months of October to December . The amount of sunlight and daytime temperatures will also affect breeding timing . One study found a strong correlation between the timing of laying and the peak abundance of caterpillar prey , which is in turn correlated to temperature . On an individual level , younger females tend to start laying later than older females .
Great tits are cavity nesters , breeding in a hole that is usually inside a tree , although occasionally in a wall or rock face , and they will readily take to nest boxes . The nest inside the cavity is built by the female , and is made of plant fibres , grasses , moss , hair , wool and feathers . The number in the clutch is often very large , as many as 18 , but five to twelve is more common . Clutch size is smaller when birds start laying later , and is also lower when the density of competitors is higher . Second broods tend to have smaller clutches . Insularity also affects clutch size , with great tits on offshore islands laying smaller clutches with larger eggs than mainland birds . The eggs are white with red spots . The female undertakes all incubation duties , and is fed by the male during incubation . The bird is a close sitter , hissing when disturbed . The timing of hatching , which is best synchronised with peak availability of prey , can be manipulated when environmental conditions change after the laying of the first egg by delaying the beginning of incubation , laying more eggs or pausing during incubation . The incubation period is between 12 and 15 days .
The chicks , like those of all tits , are hatched unfeathered and blind . Once feathers begin to erupt , the nestlings are unusual for altricial birds in having plumage coloured with carotenoids similar to their parents ( in most species it is dun @-@ coloured to avoid predation ) . The nape is yellow and attracts the attention of the parents by its ultraviolet reflectance . This may be to make them easier to find in low light , or be a signal of fitness to win the parents ' attention . This patch turns white after the first moult at age two months , and diminishes in size as the bird grows .
Chicks are fed by both parents , usually receiving 6 to 7 g ( 0 @.@ 21 – 0 @.@ 25 oz ) of food a day . Both parents provision the chicks with food and aid in nest sanitation by removing faecal packets , with no difference in the feeding effort between the sexes . The nestling period is between 16 and 22 days , with chicks being independent of the parents eight days after fledging . Feeding of the fledgeling may continue after independence , lasting up to 25 days in chicks from the first brood , but as long as 50 days in the second brood . Nestlings from second broods have weaker immune systems and body condition than those from first broods , and hence have a lower juvenile survival rate .
Inbreeding depression occurs when the offspring produced as a result of a mating between close relatives show reduced fitness . The reduced fitness is generally considered to be a consequence of the increased expression of deleterious recessive alleles in these offspring . In natural populations of P. major , inbreeding is avoided by dispersal of individuals from their birthplace , which reduces the chance of mating with a close relative .
= = = Ecology = = =
The Eurasian sparrowhawk is a predator of great tits , with the young from second broods being at higher risk partly because of the hawk 's greater need for food for its own developing young . The nests of great tits are raided by great spotted woodpeckers , particularly when nesting in certain types of nest boxes . Other nest predators include introduced grey squirrels ( in Britain ) and least weasels , which are able to take nesting adults as well . A species of biting louse ( Mallophaga ) described as Rostrinirmus hudeci was isolated and described in 1981 from great tits in central Europe . The hen flea Ceratophyllus gallinae is exceedingly common in the nests of blue and great tits . It was originally a specialist tit flea , but the dry , crowded conditions of chicken runs enabled it to flourish with its new host . This flea is preferentially predated by the clown beetle Gnathoncus punctulatus , The rove beetle Microglotta pulla also feeds on fleas and their larvae . Although these beetles often remain in deserted nests , they can only breed in the elevated temperatures produced by brooding birds , tits being the preferred hosts .
= = Relationship with humans = =
The great tit is a popular garden bird due to its acrobatic performances when feeding on nuts or seed . Its willingness to move into nest boxes has made it a valuable study subject in ornithology ; it has been particularly useful as a model for the study of the evolution of various life @-@ history traits , particularly clutch size . A study of a literature database search found 1 @,@ 349 articles relating to Parus major for the period between 1969 and 2002 .
The great tit has generally adjusted to human modifications of the environment . It is more common and has better breeding success in areas with undisturbed forest cover , but it has adapted to human modified habitats . It can be very common in urban areas . For example , the breeding population in the city of Sheffield ( a city of half a million people ) has been estimated at 17 @,@ 164 individuals . In adapting to human environments its song has been observed to change in noise @-@ polluted urban environments . In areas with low frequency background noise pollution , the song has a higher frequency than in quieter areas . This tit has expanded its range , moving northwards into Scandinavia and Scotland , and south into Israel and Egypt . The total population is estimated at between 300 – 1 @,@ 100 million birds in a range of 32 @.@ 4 million km2 ( 12 @.@ 5 million sq mi ) . While there have been some localised declines in population in areas with poorer quality habitats , its large range and high numbers mean that the great tit is not considered to be threatened , and it is classed as least concern on the IUCN Red List .
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= Washington State Route 530 =
State Route 530 ( SR 530 ) is a Washington state highway in Snohomish and Skagit counties . The 50 @.@ 52 @-@ mile ( 81 @.@ 30 km ) long route runs northeast from an interchange with Interstate 5 ( I @-@ 5 ) southwest of Arlington past SR 9 in Arlington and Darrington to end at SR 20 in Rockport . Serving the communities of Arlington , Arlington Heights , Oso , Darrington and Rockport , the roadway travels parallel to a fork of the Stillaguamish River from Arlington to Darrington , the Sauk River from Darrington to Rockport and a BNSF Railway route that extends from Arlington to Cicero , located west of Oso .
The first segment of SR 530 to appear on a map was a road extending from Arlington to Oso in 1899 . The first segment to be state @-@ maintained was Secondary State Highway 1E ( SSH 1E ) , which ran from Conway to Arlington . SSH 1E was extended to Darrington in 1957 and later renumbered to SR 530 in 1964 ; the road was extended to Rockport in 1983 and later the route from Conway to I @-@ 5 was removed from the system in 1991 . Since 1991 , minor construction projects arranged by the Washington State Department of Transportation ( WSDOT ) have improved the roadway and WSDOT plans to realign the highway near the Sauk River .
= = Route description = =
State Route 530 ( SR 530 ) begins at a diamond interchange with Interstate 5 ( I @-@ 5 ) southwest of Arlington , 0 @.@ 78 miles ( 1 @.@ 26 km ) south of where I @-@ 5 crosses the Stillaguamish River . After the interchange , the highway had a daily average of 22 @,@ 000 motorists in 2007 , which is significantly higher than in 1970 when 5 @,@ 400 motorists used the stretch of road . From the interchange , the highway is named Jackson Road and travels east to intersect Smokey Point Boulevard , which travels south to Smokey Point and was once U.S. Route 99 , a major north – south road . After passing the intersection , the roadway continues east through a primarily rural area until it curves north and later east to enter Arlington city limits . Within Arlington , SR 530 intersects SR 9 , another north – south highway that the road has a brief concurrency with . After the concurrency , the highway is named Burke Avenue and intersects West Avenue , which was SR 9 before it was realigned to the current western alignment . The roadway becomes the Arlington – Darrington Road after bridging the Stillaguamish River and passing the Twin Rivers County Park , the road turns northeast into Arlington Heights .
In Trafton , which is located in Arlington Heights , SR 530 passes a residential area and a road that leads to the Jim Creek Naval Radio Station , a United States Navy facility . After leaving Trafton , the road crosses a railroad track used by the BNSF Railway before crossing the North Fork of the Stillaguamish River in Cicero . The highway crosses the tracks and the Stillaguamish River fork near Oso to continue east past several communities . The roadway turns southeast and passes the Darrington Municipal Airport to enter Darrington town limits . Once in Darrington , SR 530 becomes Seeman Street and goes east to an intersection with Seeman Street and Emmens Street . Emmens Street is also named the Mountain Loop Highway , which travels southwest to connect National Forest Route 20 and SR 92 in Granite Falls . At the intersection , the road turns north and leaves Darrington to follow the Sauk River . Outside of Darrington , the roadway travels north , briefly entering the boundaries of the Mount Baker National Forest and leaves Snohomish County . After entering Skagit County , SR 530 crosses the Sauk River and heads north to cross the Skagit River and end at an intersection with SR 20 in Rockport .
= = = Former route ( 1964 – 1991 ) = = =
From 1964 until 1991 , SR 530 began at an interchange with I @-@ 5 in Conway and traveled southeast to I @-@ 5 again at the current western terminus and then followed the current route . The former routing , now called the Pioneer Highway , followed the Seattle – Vancouver , BC route of the Great Northern Railway served by the International from Conway to Silvana . The former route began at a diamond interchange with I @-@ 5 in Conway , which was also the western terminus of SR 534 . From the interchange , the roadway traveled west to Fir Island Road , which travels west across the South Fork of the Skagit River to Fir Island . The road then turned south to parallel railroad tracks owned by the Great Northern Railway and also parallel the South Fork of the Skagit River . At Milltown , SR 530 intersected Milltown Road , which would later interchange with I @-@ 5 to the east . South of Milltown and west of Lake Ketchum , the route crossed into Snohomish County . After crossing into Snohomish County and passing Lake Ketchum , SR 530 traveled south to a junction with the Old Pacific Highway and turned southeast into North Stanwood . The highway exited North Stanwood to enter Stanwood , where it intersected SR 532 . The roadway curved southeast and passed Sunday Lake , some residential areas and Norman before entering Silvana . After Silvana , the road continued southeast and later eastward to interchange with I @-@ 5 .
= = History = =
The current route of SR 530 first appeared on a map around 1899 , when a road following the North Fork of the Stillaguamish River ended east of Oso . A map published in 1911 showed a road traveling from Conway southeast past Stanwood and Arlington towards Oso and Darrington . The first state @-@ maintained highway that used a section of the current roadway was Secondary State Highway 1E ( SSH 1E ) , which was established in 1937 during the creation of the Primary and secondary highways ; SSH 1E ran from an intersection with Primary State Highway 1 ( PSH 1 ) in Conway south to what would become SSH 1Y in 1945 in Stanwood ( then called East Stanwood ) and east past PSH 1 again to SSH 1A in Arlington . SSH 1E was later extended in 1957 past SSH 1A in Arlington to the Mountain Loop Highway in Darrington , which had been finished by late 1941 .
During the 1964 highway renumbering , SSH 1E became SR 530 , SSH 1A became SR 9 and SSH 1Y became SR 532 ; from 1964 until 1983 , SR 530 was 49 @.@ 07 miles ( 78 @.@ 97 km ) long . On December 26 , 1980 , SR 530 was closed between Stanwood and Silvana due to a flood that caused the Stillaguamish River to overflow from its banks , which the highway parallels . The roadway was extended 18 @.@ 64 miles ( 30 @.@ 00 km ) north from Darrington to SR 20 in Rockport , making the highway a total of 68 @.@ 34 miles ( 109 @.@ 98 km ) and both termini being in Skagit County . SR 530 was later shortened 16 @.@ 98 miles ( 27 @.@ 33 km ) , moving the western terminus to an interchange with I @-@ 5 southwest of Arlington .
Since being shortened , five minor construction projects , arranged by the Washington State Department of Transportation ( WSDOT ) , have occurred . The confluence of the Sauk and Suiattle rivers have eroded the riverbank that supports the road north of Darrington . Wilder Construction Inc. of Bellingham was hired by WSDOT to stabilize the riverbank to prevent the highway collapsing into the river . The project was completed in December 2007 and took place between Darrington and Rockport . A temporary rock wall was also constructed to protect SR 530 and will be removed once WSDOT realigns the highway north of Darrington , which is expected to be completed after 2011 .
On March 22 , 2014 , a three @-@ mile section of SR 530 in northern Snohomish County , roughly midway between Darrington and Arlington , was completely blocked by the Oso landslide . The highway was cleared enough by May 31 to open one lane of escorted traffic . Because the highway was badly damaged , and because the topography of the area had been altered by the landslide , WSDOT decided to elevate that section of the highway when it was rebuilt . As of July 27 , 2014 , the first of four stages in rebuilding the highway had been completed . The new roadway was opened September 22 , and the project is expected to be finished in early October 2014 .
= = Major intersections = =
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= Philippines =
The Philippines ( / ˈfɪlᵻpiːnz / ; Filipino : Pilipinas [ ˌpɪlɪˈpinɐs ] ) , officially the Republic of the Philippines ( Filipino : Republika ng Pilipinas ) , is a sovereign island country in Southeast Asia situated in the western Pacific Ocean . It consists of about 7 @,@ 641 islands that are categorized broadly under three main geographical divisions from north to south : Luzon , Visayas , and Mindanao . The capital city of the Philippines is Manila and the most populous city is Quezon City , both part of Metro Manila .
The Philippines ' location on the Pacific Ring of Fire and close to the equator makes the Philippines prone to earthquakes and typhoons , but also endows it with abundant natural resources and some of the world 's greatest biodiversity . The Philippines has an area of approximately 300 @,@ 000 square kilometers ( 115 @,@ 831 sq mi ) , and a population of more than 100 million with faster growth than any other east Asian country . It is the seventh @-@ most populated country in Asia and the 12th most populated country in the world . An additional 12 million Filipinos live overseas , comprising one of the world 's largest diasporas . Multiple ethnicities and cultures are found throughout the islands . In prehistoric times , Negritos were some of the archipelago 's earliest inhabitants . They were followed by successive waves of Austronesian peoples . Exchanges with Chinese , Malay , Indian , and Islamic states occurred . Then , various nations were established under the rule of Datus , Rajahs , Sultans or Lakans .
The arrival of Ferdinand Magellan in Homonhon , Eastern Samar in 1521 marked the beginning of Hispanic colonization . In 1543 , Spanish explorer Ruy López de Villalobos named the archipelago Las Islas Filipinas in honor of Philip II of Spain . With the arrival of Miguel López de Legazpi from Mexico City , in 1565 , the first Hispanic settlement in the archipelago was established . The Philippines became part of the Spanish Empire for more than 300 years . This resulted in Roman Catholicism becoming the dominant religion . During this time , Manila became the western hub of the trans @-@ Pacific trade connecting Asia with Acapulco in the Americas using Manila galleons .
As the 19th century gave way to the 20th , there followed in quick succession the Philippine Revolution , which spawned the short @-@ lived First Philippine Republic , followed by the bloody Philippine – American War of conquest by US military force . Aside from the period of Japanese occupation , the United States retained sovereignty over the islands until after World War II , when the Philippines was recognized as an independent nation . Since then , the Philippines has often had a tumultuous experience with democracy , which included the overthrow of a dictatorship by a non @-@ violent revolution .
The nation 's large population and economic potential have led it to be classified as a middle power . It is a founding member of the United Nations , World Trade Organization , Association of Southeast Asian Nations , the Asia @-@ Pacific Economic Cooperation forum , and the East Asia Summit . It also hosts the headquarters of the Asian Development Bank . The Philippines is considered to be an emerging market and a newly industrialized country , which has an economy transitioning from being one based on agriculture to one based more on services and manufacturing .
= = Etymology = =
The Philippines was named in honor of King Philip II of Spain . Spanish explorer Ruy López de Villalobos during his expedition in 1542 named the islands of Leyte and Samar Felipinas after the then Prince of Asturias . Eventually the name Las Islas Filipinas would be used to cover all the islands of the archipelago . Before that became commonplace , other names such as Islas del Poniente ( Islands of the West ) and Magellan 's name for the islands San Lázaro were also used by the Spanish to refer to the islands .
The official name of the Philippines has changed several times in the course of its history . During the Philippine Revolution , the Malolos Congress proclaimed the establishment of the República Filipina or the Philippine Republic . From the period of the Spanish – American War ( 1898 ) and the Philippine – American War ( 1899 – 1902 ) until the Commonwealth period ( 1935 – 46 ) , American colonial authorities referred to the country as the Philippine Islands , a translation of the Spanish name . From the 1898 Treaty of Paris , the name Philippines began to appear and it has since become the country 's common name . Since the end of World War II , the official name of the country has been the Republic of the Philippines .
= = History = =
= = = Prehistory = = =
The metatarsal of the Callao Man , reliably dated by uranium @-@ series dating to 67 @,@ 000 years ago is the oldest human remnant found in the archipelago to date . This distinction previously belonged to the Tabon Man of Palawan , carbon @-@ dated to around 26 @,@ 500 years ago . Negritos were also among the archipelago 's earliest inhabitants , but their first settlement in the Philippines has not been reliably dated .
There are several opposing theories regarding the origins of ancient Filipinos . F. Landa Jocano theorizes that the ancestors of the Filipinos evolved locally . Wilhelm Solheim 's Island Origin Theory postulates that the peopling of the archipelago transpired via trade networks originating in the Sundaland area around 48 @,@ 000 to 5000 BC rather than by wide @-@ scale migration . The Austronesian Expansion Theory postulates that Malayo @-@ Polynesians coming from Taiwan began migrating to the Philippines around 4000 BC , displacing earlier arrivals .
The most widely accepted theory , based on linguistic and archeological evidence , is the " Out @-@ of @-@ Taiwan " model , which hypothesizes that Austronesians from Taiwan , who were themselves descended from the neolithic civilizations of the Yangtze river such as the Liangzhu culture , began migrating to the Philippines around 4000 BC , displacing earlier arrivals . During the neolithic period , a " jade culture " is said to have existed as evidenced by tens of thousands of exquisitely crafted jade artifacts found in the Philippines dated to 2000 BC .
The jade is said to have originated nearby in Taiwan and is also found in many other areas in insular and mainland Southeast Asia . These artifacts are said to be evidence of long range communication between prehistoric Southeast Asian societies . By 1000 BC the inhabitants of the archipelago had developed into four kinds of social groups : hunter @-@ gatherer tribes , warrior societies , highland plutocracies , and port principalities .
= = = Precolonial epoch = = =
Some of the societies scattered in the islands of what would later become the Philippines remained isolated but many evolved into states that developed substantial trade and contacts with the peoples of eastern , southern and southeastern Asia ; including those from Brunei , China , India , Indonesia , Malaysia and Japan as well as other Austronesian islands .
The first millennium saw the rise of the port principalities and their growth into maritime states composed of autonomous barangays independent of or allied with larger nations which were either Malay thalassocracies led by Datus , tributary states to China ruled by Huangs or Indianized kingdoms governed by Rajahs .
The Kedatuan of Madja @-@ as was founded following a civil war in collapsing Srivijaya , wherein loyalists of the Malay datus of Srivijaya defied the invading Chola Dynasty and its puppet @-@ Rajah , called Makatunao , and set up a guerrilla @-@ state in the islands of the Visayas . Its founding datu , Puti , had purchased land for his new realms from the aboriginal Ati hero , Marikudo .
Madja @-@ as was founded on Panay island ( named after the destroyed state of Pannai allied under Srivijaya which was located in Sumatra ) . Afterwards , the people of Madja @-@ as often raided the port cities of southern China and warred with the Chinese navy .
The Rajahnate of Cebu was a neighbor of Madja @-@ as in the Visayas led by Rajamuda Sri Lumay , a monarch with partial Tamil descent . This state grew wealthy by making use of the inter @-@ island shipping routes within the archipelago .
Meanwhile , the Rajahnate of Butuan in northeastern Mindanao attained prominence under the rule of Rajah Sri Bata Shaja , who was from a Buddhist ruling @-@ class governing a Hindu nation . This state became powerful due to the local goldsmith industry and also maintained commercial ties and a diplomatic rivalry with the Champa civilization . Both the Rajahnates of Butuan and Cebu maintained contact and traded with Kutai , a Hindu country in south Borneo established by Indian traders .
The Huangdom of Ma @-@ i centered in Mindoro , ruled by Huang Gat @-@ sa @-@ Lihan , was noted for its trust @-@ worthiness in trade .
In northern Luzon , the Huangdom of Pangasinan under Huang Taymey , exported horses and silver to China , the Kingdom of Ryukyu and Japan .
In central Luzon , the Kingdom of Tondo was ruled over by the Lakandula dynasty and the kingdom grew wealthy via the exclusive trading @-@ rights of Chinese goods which they marketed in southeast Asia . This was granted to them by the Ming Dynasty .
The 1300s saw the arrival and eventual spread of Islam in the Philippine archipelago . In 1380 , Karim ul ' Makdum and Shari 'ful Hashem Syed Abu Bakr , an Arab trader born in Johore , arrived in Sulu from Malacca and established the Sultanate of Sulu by converting Sulu 's rajah , Rajah Baguinda Ali and marrying his daughter . At the end of the 15th century , Shariff Mohammed Kabungsuwan of Johor introduced Islam in the island of Mindanao and established the Sultanate of Maguindanao . The sultanate form of government extended further into Lanao .
Around this time , the people of Luzon were collectively called Lucoes and they rose to prominence by participating in trading ventures and military campaigns in Myanmar , Malacca and East Timor where they were employed as traders and mercenaries .
Islam then started to spread out of Mindanao in the south and went into Luzon in the north . Manila in Luzon was Islamized during the reign of Sultan Bolkiah in 1485 to 1521 . This was accomplished because the Bruneian Empire subjugated the Kingdom of Tondo by defeating Datu Gambang and installing the Muslim Rajah , Rajah Sulaiman I to the throne and by establishing the Bruneian puppet @-@ state of the Kingdom of Maynila . Sultan Bolkiah also married Laila Mecana , the daughter of Sulu Sultan Amir Ul @-@ Ombra to expand Brunei 's influence in both Luzon and Mindanao .
Nevertheless , states like the animist Igorot , Malay Madja @-@ as , Sinified Ma @-@ i , and Indianized Butuan still maintained their cultures . The rivalries between the datus , rajahs , huangs , sultans , and lakans eventually eased Spanish colonization . Furthermore , the islands were sparsely populated due to consistent natural disasters and inter @-@ kingdom conflicts . Therefore , colonization was made easy and the small states of the archipelago quickly became incorporated into the Spanish Empire and were Hispanicized and Christianized .
= = = Colonial era = = =
In 1521 , Portuguese explorer Ferdinand Magellan 's expedition arrived in the Philippines , claimed the islands for Spain and was then killed at the Battle of Mactan . Colonization began when Spanish explorer Miguel López de Legazpi arrived from Mexico in 1565 and formed the first Hispanic settlements in Cebu . After relocating to Panay island and consolidating a coalition of native Visayan allies and Hispanic soldiers , the Spaniards then captured Islamic Manila , therein they put down the Tondo Conspiracy and exiled the conspirators to Guam and Guerrero . Under Spanish rule , they established Manila as the capital of the Spanish East Indies ( 1571 ) .
They also defeated the Chinese @-@ warlord Limahong . In response to the Islamic invasion of the Philippines , the Castilian War was waged against the Sultanate of Brunei and war was also waged against the Sultanate of Ternate and Tidore ( in response to Ternatan slaving and piracy against the Butuan Rajahnate and Bohol ) . Fortifications were also set up in Taiwan and the Maluku islands . These were abandoned and the soldiers withdrew back to the Philippines in order to re @-@ concentrate their military forces because of a threatened invasion by the Japan @-@ born Ming @-@ dynasty loyalist , Koxinga , ruler of the stronghold of Tungning . However , the invasion was aborted . Meanwhile , settlers were sent to the Pacific islands of Palau and the Marianas .
Spanish rule eventually contributed significantly to bringing political unity to the fragmented states of the archipelago . From 1565 to 1821 , the Philippines was governed as a territory of the Viceroyalty of New Spain and then was administered directly from Madrid after the Mexican War of Independence . The Manila galleons , the largest wooden ships ever built , were constructed in Bicol and Cavite . The Manila galleons were accompanied with a large naval escort as it traveled to and fro Manila and Acapulco . The galleons sailed once or twice a year , between the 16th and 19th centuries .
Trade introduced foodstuff such as maize , tomatoes , potatoes , chili peppers , chocolate and pineapples from Mexico and Peru . Within the Philippines , the Marquisate of Buglas was established and rule of it was awarded to Sebastian Elcano and his crew , the survivors of the first circumnavigation of the world , as well as his descendants . New towns were also created and Roman Catholic missionaries converted most of the lowland inhabitants to Christianity . They also founded schools , a university , hospitals and churches which were built along the Earthquake Baroque architectural style . The Spanish also decreed the introduction of free public schooling in 1863 . As a result of these policies the Philippine population increased exponentially .
During its rule , the Spanish quelled various indigenous revolts . There were several external military challenges from Chinese and Japanese pirates , the Dutch , the English and the Portuguese . Those challengers were fought @-@ off despite the hostile forces having encircled the Philippine archipelago in a crescent formed from Japan to Indonesia . British forces occupied Manila from 1762 to 1764 in an extension of the fighting of the Seven Years ' War . Spanish rule was restored following the 1763 Treaty of Paris . The Spanish – Moro conflict lasted for several hundred years . In the last quarter of the 19th century Spain conquered portions of Mindanao and Moro Muslims in the Sulu Sultanate on Sulu formally recognised Spanish sovereignty .
In the 19th century , Philippine ports opened to world trade and shifts started occurring within Philippine society . Many Spaniards born in the Philippines ( criollos ) and those of mixed ancestry ( mestizos ) became wealthy and an influx of Latin American settlers opened up government positions traditionally held by Spaniards born in the Iberian Peninsula ( peninsulares ) . The ideals of revolution also began to spread through the islands . Criollo dissatisfaction resulted in the 1872 Cavite Mutiny that was a precursor to the Philippine Revolution .
Revolutionary sentiments were stoked in 1872 after three priests — Mariano Gómez , José Burgos , and Jacinto Zamora ( collectively known as Gomburza ) — were accused of sedition by colonial authorities and executed . This would inspire a propaganda movement in Spain , organized by Marcelo H. del Pilar , José Rizal , and Mariano Ponce , lobbying for political reforms in the Philippines . Rizal was eventually executed on December 30 , 1896 , on charges of rebellion . As attempts at reform met with resistance , Andrés Bonifacio in 1892 established the secret society called the Katipunan , who sought independence from Spain through armed revolt .
Bonifacio and the Katipunan started the Philippine Revolution in 1896 . A faction of the Katipunan , the Magdalo of Cavite province , eventually came to challenge Bonifacio 's position as the leader of the revolution and Emilio Aguinaldo took over . In 1898 , the Spanish – American War began in Cuba and reached the Philippines . Aguinaldo declared Philippine independence from Spain in Kawit , Cavite on June 12 , 1898 , and the First Philippine Republic was established in the Barasoain Church in the following year .
The islands were ceded by Spain to the United States as a result of the latter 's victory in the Spanish – American War . A compensation of 20 million US dollars was paid to Spain according to the terms of the 1898 Treaty of Paris . As it became increasingly clear the United States would not recognize the nascent First Philippine Republic , the Philippine – American War broke out , the First Republic was defeated , and the archipelago was administered under an Insular Government . The war resulted in the deaths of tens of thousands of combatants as well as a couple of hundred thousand civilians , mostly from a cholera epidemic .
The Americans then suppressed other rebellious sub @-@ states : mainly , the waning Sultanate of Sulu , as well as the insurgent Tagalog Republic , the Cantonal Republic of Negros in the Visayas , and the Republic of Zamboanga in Mindanao . During this era , a renaissance in Philippine culture occurred , with the expansion of Philippine cinema and literature . In 1935 , the Philippines was granted Commonwealth status with Manuel Quezon as president . He designated a national language and introduced women 's suffrage and land reform . Plans for independence over the next decade were interrupted by World War II when the Japanese Empire invaded and the Second Philippine Republic of José P. Laurel was established as a collaborator state .
Many atrocities and war crimes were committed during the war such as the Bataan Death March and the Manila massacre that culminated during the Battle of Manila . In 1944 , Quezon died in exile in the United States and Sergio Osmeña succeeded him . The Allied Forces then employed a strategy of island hopping towards the Philippine Archipelago , in the process , retaking territory conquered by Imperial Japan .
From mid @-@ 1942 through mid @-@ 1944 , the Filipino guerrilla resistance had been supplied and encouraged by U.S. Navy submarines and a few parachute drops , so that the guerrillas could harass the Japanese Army and take control of the rural jungle and mountainous areas – amounting to about half of the Philippine archipelago . While remaining loyal to the United States , many Filipinos hoped and believed that liberation from the Japanese would bring them freedom and their already @-@ promised independence .
Eventually , the largest naval battle in history , according to gross tonnage , the Battle of Leyte Gulf , occurred when the Allied Forces started the liberation of the Philippines from the Japanese Empire . Allied troops defeated the Japanese in 1945 . By the end of the war it is estimated that over a million Filipinos had died .
= = = Postcolonial period = = =
On October 24 , 1945 , the Philippines became one of the founding members of the United Nations and the following year , on July 4 , 1946 , it became recognized by the United States as independent , during the presidency of Manuel Roxas . Disgruntled remnants of the communist Hukbalahap continued to roam the countryside but were put down by President Elpidio Quirino 's successor Ramon Magsaysay . Magsaysay 's successor , Carlos P. Garcia initiated the Filipino First Policy , which was continued by Diosdado Macapagal , with celebration of Independence Day moved from July 4 to June 12 , the date of Emilio Aguinaldo 's declaration , while furthering the claim on the eastern part of North Borneo .
In 1965 , Macapagal lost the presidential election to Ferdinand Marcos . Early in his presidency he initiated numerous infrastructure projects but was accused of massive corruption and embezzling billions of dollars in public funds . Nearing the end of his term , Marcos declared Martial Law on September 21 , 1972 . This period of his rule was characterized by political repression , censorship , and human rights violations but the US were steadfast in their support . His wife Imelda continued to live a lavish lifestyle as the majority of Filipinos remained in poverty .
On August 21 , 1983 , Marcos ' chief rival , opposition leader Benigno Aquino , Jr . , was assassinated on the tarmac at Manila International Airport . Marcos eventually called snap presidential elections in 1986 . Marcos was proclaimed the winner , but the results were widely regarded as fraudulent , leading to the People Power Revolution . Marcos and his allies fled to Hawaii and Aquino 's widow , Corazon Aquino was recognized as president .
= = = Contemporary history = = =
The return of democracy and government reforms beginning in 1986 were hampered by national debt , government corruption , coup attempts , disasters , a persistent communist insurgency , and a military conflict with Moro separatists . During Corazon Aquino 's administration , U.S. forces withdrew from the Philippines , due the rejection of the U.S. Bases Extension Treaty , and leading to the official transfer of Clark Air Base in November 1991 and Subic Bay to the government in December 1992 . The administration also faced a series of natural disasters , including the eruption of Mount Pinatubo in June 1991 . After introducing a constitution that limited presidents to a single term , Aquino did not stand for re @-@ election .
Aquino was succeeded by Fidel V. Ramos , who won the Philippine presidential election held in May 1992 . During this period , the economy was known as the " Tiger Economy in Asia " , with an average of 6 % GDP growth rate . However , the political stability and economic improvements , such as the peace agreement with the Moro National Liberation Front in 1996 , were overshadowed by the onset of the 1997 Asian financial crisis . On his Presidency the death penalty was revived in the light of the Rape @-@ slay case of Eileen Sarmienta and Allan Gomez in 1993 and the first person to be executed is Leo Echegaray in 1999 .
Ramos ' successor , Joseph Estrada assumed office in June 1998 and managed to regain the economy from − 0 @.@ 6 % growth to 3 @.@ 4 % by 1999 amidst the 1997 Asian financial crisis . The government had announced a war against the Moro Islamic Liberation Front in March 2000 and neutralized the camps including the headquarters of the insurgents . In the middle of ongoing conflict with the Abu Sayyaf , accusations of alleged corruption , and a stalled impeachment process , Estrada 's administration was overthrown by the 2001 EDSA Revolution and succeeded by his Vice President , Gloria Macapagal @-@ Arroyo on January 20 , 2001 .
In Arroyo 's 9 @-@ year administration , The economy experienced GDP growth from 4 % in 2002 to 7 % growth in 2007 with the completion of infrastructure projects like the LRT Line 2 in 2004 and managed to avoid the Great Recession . Nevertheless , it was tied with graft and political scandals like the Hello Garci scandal pertaining to the alleged manipulation of votes in the 2004 presidential elections . On November 23 , 2009 , the Maguindanao massacre led to the murder of 34 journalists .
Benigno Aquino III won the 2010 national elections and served as the 15th President of the Philippines . He was the third youngest person to be elected president and the first to be a bachelor . , beginning with the 2010 Manila hostage crisis that caused deeply strained relations between Manila and Hong Kong for a time . During the previous years , The Framework Agreement on the Bangsamoro was signed on October 15 , 2012 , as the first step of the creation of an autonomous political entity named Bangsamoro . However , territorial disputes in eastern Sabah and the South China Sea have escalated . The economy performed well at 7 @.@ 2 % GDP growth , the second fastest in Asia . Aquino signed the Enhanced Basic Education Act of 2013 , commonly known as K – 12 program in May 15 , 2013 aiming to enhance the educational system in the country . On November 8 , 2013 , Typhoon Yolanda ( Haiyan ) struck and heavily devastated the country , especially in the Visayas . On April 28 , 2014 , when United States President Barack Obama visited the Philippines , the Enhanced Defense Cooperation Agreement , was signed . From January 15 to 19 , 2015 , January 15 to 19 , 2015 , Pope Francis stayed in the Philippines for a series of publicity tours and paid visits to the victims of Typhoon Haiyan ( Yolanda ) . On January 25 , 2015 , 44 members of the Philippine National Police @-@ Special Action Force were killed after a clash took place in Mamasapano , Maguindanao putting efforts to pass the Bangsamoro Basic Law into law in an impasse . On December 20 , 2015 , Pia Wurtzbach won the Miss Universe 2015 , making her the third Filipino to win the Miss Universe title following Gloria Diaz in 1969 and Margarita Moran in 1973 . On January 12 , 2016 , the Philippine Supreme Court upheld the Enhanced Defense Cooperation Agreement paving the way for the return of United States Armed Forces bases into the country . On March 23 , 2016 , Diwata @-@ 1 was launched to the International Space Station ( ISS ) , becoming the country 's first micro @-@ satellite and the first satellite to be built and designed by Filipinos .
Davao City mayor Rodrigo Duterte of PDP – Laban won the 2016 presidential election becoming the first president from Mindanao . Camarines Sur representative Leni Robredo won the vice presidency . On July 12 , 2016 , the Permanent Court of Arbitration ruled in favor of the Philippines in its case against China 's claims in the South China Sea .
= = Politics = =
The Philippines has a democratic government in the form of a constitutional republic with a presidential system . It is governed as a unitary state with the exception of the Autonomous Region in Muslim Mindanao ( ARMM ) which is largely free from the national government . There have been attempts to change the government to a federal , unicameral , or parliamentary government since the Ramos administration .
The President functions as both head of state and head of government and is the commander @-@ in @-@ chief of the armed forces . The president is elected by popular vote for a single six @-@ year term , during which he or she appoints and presides over the cabinet . The bicameral Congress is composed of the Senate , serving as the upper house , with members elected to a six @-@ year term , and the House of Representatives , serving as the lower house , with members elected to a three @-@ year term .
Senators are elected at large while the representatives are elected from both legislative districts and through sectoral representation . The judicial power is vested in the Supreme Court , composed of a Chief Justice as its presiding officer and fourteen associate justices , all of whom are appointed by the President from nominations submitted by the Judicial and Bar Council .
= = = Foreign relations = = =
The Philippines ' international relations are based on trade with other nations and the well @-@ being of the 11 million overseas Filipinos living outside the country . As a founding and active member of the United Nations , the Philippines has been elected several times into the Security Council . Carlos P. Romulo was a former President of the United Nations General Assembly . The country is an active participant in the Human Rights Council as well as in peacekeeping missions , particularly in East Timor .
In addition to membership in the United Nations , the Philippines is also a founding and active member of ASEAN ( Association of Southeast Asian Nations ) , an organization designed to strengthen relations and promote economic and cultural growth among states in the Southeast Asian region . It has hosted several summits and is an active contributor to the direction and policies of the bloc .
The Philippines values its relations with the United States . It supported the United States during the Cold War and the War on Terror and is a major non @-@ NATO ally . Despite this history of goodwill , controversies related to the presence of the now former U.S. military bases in Subic Bay and Clark and the current Visiting Forces Agreement have flared up from time to time . Japan , the biggest contributor of official development assistance to the country , is thought of as a friend . Although historical tensions still exist on issues such as the plight of comfort women , much of the animosity inspired by memories of World War II has faded .
Relations with other nations are generally positive . Shared democratic values ease relations with Western and European countries while similar economic concerns help in relations with other developing countries . Historical ties and cultural similarities also serve as a bridge in relations with Spain . Despite issues such as domestic abuse and war affecting overseas Filipino workers , relations with Middle Eastern countries are friendly as seen in the continuous employment of more than two million overseas Filipinos living there .
With communism no longer the threat it once was , once hostile relations in the 1950s between the Philippines and China have improved greatly . Issues involving Taiwan , the Spratly Islands , and concerns of expanding Chinese influence , however , still encourage a degree of caution . Recent foreign policy has been mostly about economic relations with its Southeast Asian and Asia @-@ Pacific neighbors .
The Philippines is an active member of the East Asia Summit ( EAS ) , the Asia @-@ Pacific Economic Cooperation ( APEC ) , the Latin Union , the Group of 24 , and the Non @-@ Aligned Movement . It is also seeking to strengthen relations with Islamic countries by campaigning for observer status in the Organisation of Islamic Cooperation .
= = = Military = = =
The Armed Forces of the Philippines ( AFP ) are responsible for national security and consist of three branches : the Philippine Air Force , the Philippine Army , and the Philippine Navy ( includes the Marine Corps ) . The Armed Forces of the Philippines are a volunteer force . Civilian security is handled by the Philippine National Police under the Department of the Interior and Local Government ( DILG ) .
In the Autonomous Region in Muslim Mindanao , the largest separatist organization , the Moro National Liberation Front , is now engaging the government politically . Other more militant groups like the Moro Islamic Liberation Front , the communist New People 's Army , and the Abu Sayyaf have previously kidnapped foreigners for ransom , particularly on the southern island of Mindanao . Their presence has decreased in recent years due to successful security provided by the Philippine government . At 1 @.@ 1 percent of GDP , the Philippines spent less on its military forces than the regional average . As of 2014 Malaysia and Thailand were estimated to spend 1 @.@ 5 % , China 2 @.@ 1 % , Vietnam 2 @.@ 2 % and South Korea 2 @.@ 6 % .
The Philippines has been an ally of the United States since World War II . A mutual defense treaty between the two countries was signed in 1951 . The Philippines supported American policies during the Cold War and participated in the Korean and Vietnam wars . It was a member of the now dissolved SEATO , a group that was intended to serve a role similar to NATO and that included Australia , France , New Zealand , Pakistan , Thailand , the United Kingdom , and the United States . After the start of the War on Terror , the Philippines was part of the coalition that gave support to the United States in Iraq .
= = = Administrative divisions = = =
The Philippines are divided into three island groups : Luzon , Visayas , and Mindanao . These are divided into 18 regions , 81 provinces , 145 cities , 1 @,@ 489 municipalities , and 42 @,@ 029 barangays . In addition , Section 2 of Republic Act No. 5446 asserts that the definition of the territorial sea around the Philippine archipelago does not affect the claim over the eastern part of Sabah .
= = Geography = =
The Philippines is an archipelago composed of about 7 @,@ 500 islands with a total land area , including inland bodies of water , of approximately 300 @,@ 000 square kilometers ( 115 @,@ 831 sq mi ) . Its 36 @,@ 289 kilometers ( 22 @,@ 549 mi ) of coastline makes it the country with the 5th longest coastline in the world . It is located between 116 ° 40 ' , and 126 ° 34 ' E longitude and 4 ° 40 ' and 21 ° 10 ' N latitude and is bordered by the Philippine Sea to the east , the South China Sea to the west , and the Celebes Sea to the south . The island of Borneo is located a few hundred kilometers southwest and Taiwan is located directly to the north . The Moluccas and Sulawesi are located to the south @-@ southwest and Palau is located to the east of the islands .
Most of the mountainous islands are covered in tropical rainforest and volcanic in origin . The highest mountain is Mount Apo . It measures up to 2 @,@ 954 meters ( 9 @,@ 692 ft ) above sea level and is located on the island of Mindanao . The Galathea Depth in the Philippine Trench is the deepest point in the country and the third deepest in the world . The trench is located in the Philippine Sea .
The longest river is the Cagayan River in northern Luzon . Manila Bay , upon the shore of which the capital city of Manila lies , is connected to Laguna de Bay , the largest lake in the Philippines , by the Pasig River . Subic Bay , the Davao Gulf , and the Moro Gulf are other important bays . The San Juanico Strait separates the islands of Samar and Leyte but it is traversed by the San Juanico Bridge .
Situated on the western fringes of the Pacific Ring of Fire , the Philippines experiences frequent seismic and volcanic activity . The Benham Plateau to the east in the Philippine Sea is an undersea region active in tectonic subduction . Around 20 earthquakes are registered daily , though most are too weak to be felt . The last major earthquake was the 1990 Luzon earthquake .
There are many active volcanoes such as the Mayon Volcano , Mount Pinatubo , and Taal Volcano . The eruption of Mount Pinatubo in June 1991 produced the second largest terrestrial eruption of the 20th century . Not all notable geographic features are so violent or destructive . A more serene legacy of the geological disturbances is the Puerto Princesa Subterranean River , the area represents a habitat for biodiversity conservation , the site also contains a full mountain @-@ to @-@ the @-@ sea ecosystem and has some of the most important forests in Asia .
Due to the volcanic nature of the islands , mineral deposits are abundant . The country is estimated to have the second @-@ largest gold deposits after South Africa and one of the largest copper deposits in the world . It is also rich in nickel , chromite , and zinc . Despite this , poor management , high population density , and environmental consciousness have resulted in these mineral resources remaining largely untapped . Geothermal energy is a product of volcanic activity that the Philippines has harnessed more successfully . The Philippines is the world 's second @-@ biggest geothermal producer behind the United States , with 18 % of the country 's electricity needs being met by geothermal power .
= = = Wildlife = = =
The Philippines ' rainforests and its extensive coastlines make it home to a diverse range of birds , plants , animals , and sea creatures . It is one of the ten most biologically megadiverse countries . Around 1 @,@ 100 land vertebrate species can be found in the Philippines including over 100 mammal species and 170 bird species not thought to exist elsewhere . The Philippines has among the highest rates of discovery in the world with sixteen new species of mammals discovered in the last ten years . Because of this , the rate of endemism for the Philippines has risen and likely will continue to rise .
The Philippines lacks large predators , with the exception of snakes , such as pythons and cobras , saltwater crocodiles and birds of prey , such as the national bird , known as the Philippine eagle , which scientists suggest as the largest eagle in the world . The largest crocodile in captivity , known locally as Lolong , was captured in the southern island of Mindanao .
Other native animals include the palm civet cat , the dugong , the cloud rat and the Philippine tarsier associated with Bohol . With an estimated 13 @,@ 500 plant species in the country , 3 @,@ 200 of which are unique to the islands , Philippine rainforests boast an array of flora , including many rare types of orchids and rafflesia .
Philippine maritime waters encompass as much as 2 @,@ 200 @,@ 000 square kilometers ( 849 @,@ 425 sq mi ) producing unique and diverse marine life , an important part of the Coral Triangle . The total number of corals and marine fish species was estimated at 500 and 2 @,@ 400 respectively . New records and species discoveries continuously increase these numbers underlining the uniqueness of the marine resources in the Philippines . The Tubbataha Reef in the Sulu Sea was declared a World Heritage Site in 1993 . Philippine waters also sustain the cultivation of pearls , crabs , and seaweeds .
Deforestation , often the result of illegal logging , is an acute problem in the Philippines . Forest cover declined from 70 % of the Philippines 's total land area in 1900 to about 18 @.@ 3 % in 1999 . Many species are endangered and scientists say that Southeast Asia , which the Philippines is part of , faces a catastrophic extinction rate of 20 % by the end of the 21st century . According to Conservation International , " the country is one of the few nations that is , in its entirety , both a hotspot and a megadiversity country , placing it among the top priority hotspots for global conservation . "
= = = Climate = = =
The Philippines has a tropical maritime climate that is usually hot and humid . There are three seasons : tag @-@ init or tag @-@ araw , the hot dry season or summer from March to May ; tag @-@ ulan , the rainy season from June to November ; and tag @-@ lamig , the cool dry season from December to February . The southwest monsoon ( from May to October ) is known as the Habagat , and the dry winds of the northeast monsoon ( from November to April ) , the Amihan . Temperatures usually range from 21 ° C ( 70 ° F ) to 32 ° C ( 90 ° F ) although it can get cooler or hotter depending on the season . The coolest month is January ; the warmest is May .
The average yearly temperature is around 26 @.@ 6 ° C ( 79 @.@ 9 ° F ) . In considering temperature , location in terms of latitude and longitude is not a significant factor . Whether in the extreme north , south , east , or west of the country , temperatures at sea level tend to be in the same range . Altitude usually has more of an impact . The average annual temperature of Baguio at an elevation of 1 @,@ 500 meters ( 4 @,@ 900 ft ) above sea level is 18 @.@ 3 ° C ( 64 @.@ 9 ° F ) , making it a popular destination during hot summers .
Sitting astride the typhoon belt , most of the islands experience annual torrential rains and thunderstorms from July to October , with around nineteen typhoons entering the Philippine area of responsibility in a typical year and eight or nine making landfall . Annual rainfall measures as much as 5 @,@ 000 millimeters ( 200 in ) in the mountainous east coast section but less than 1 @,@ 000 millimeters ( 39 in ) in some of the sheltered valleys . The wettest known tropical cyclone to impact the archipelago was the July 1911 cyclone , which dropped over 1 @,@ 168 millimeters ( 46 @.@ 0 in ) of rainfall within a 24 @-@ hour period in Baguio . Bagyo is the local term for a tropical cyclone in the Philippines .
= = Economy = =
The Philippine economy is the 39th largest in the world , with an estimated 2016 gross domestic product ( nominal ) of $ 369 @.@ 188 billion . Primary exports include semiconductors and electronic products , transport equipment , garments , copper products , petroleum products , coconut oil , and fruits . Major trading partners include the United States , Japan , China , Singapore , South Korea , the Netherlands , Hong Kong , Germany , Taiwan , and Thailand . Its unit of currency is the Philippine peso ( ₱ or PHP ) .
A newly industrialized country , the Philippine economy has been transitioning from one based upon agriculture to an economy with more emphasis upon services and manufacturing . Of the country 's total labor force of around 40 @.@ 813 Million , the agricultural sector employs 30 % of the labor force , and accounts for 14 % of GDP . The industrial sector employs around 14 % of the workforce and accounts for 30 % of GDP . Meanwhile , the 47 % of workers involved in the services sector are responsible for 56 % of GDP .
The unemployment rate as of 14 December 2014 , stands at 6 @.@ 0 % . Meanwhile , due to lower charges in basic necessities , the inflation rate eases to 3 @.@ 7 % in November . Gross international reserves as of October 2013 are $ 83 @.@ 201 billion . The Debt @-@ to @-@ GDP ratio continues to decline to 38 @.@ 1 % as of March 2014 from a record high of 78 % in 2004 . The country is a net importer but it is also a creditor nation .
After World War II , the Philippines was for a time regarded as the second wealthiest in East Asia , next only to Japan . In the 1960s its economic performance started being overtaken . The economy stagnated under the dictatorship of President Ferdinand Marcos as the regime spawned economic mismanagement and political volatility . The country suffered from slow economic growth and bouts of economic recession . Only in the 1990s with a program of economic liberalization did the economy begin to recover .
The 1997 Asian Financial Crisis affected the economy , resulting in a lingering decline of the value of the peso and falls in the stock market . The extent it was affected initially was not as severe as that of some of its Asian neighbors . This was largely due to the fiscal conservatism of the government , partly as a result of decades of monitoring and fiscal supervision from the International Monetary Fund ( IMF ) , in comparison to the massive spending of its neighbors on the rapid acceleration of economic growth . There have been signs of progress since . In 2004 , the economy experienced 6 @.@ 4 % GDP growth and 7 @.@ 1 % in 2007 , its fastest pace of growth in three decades . Average annual GDP growth per capita for the period 1966 – 2007 still stands at 1 @.@ 45 % in comparison to an average of 5 @.@ 96 % for the East Asia and the Pacific region as a whole . The daily income for 45 % of the population of the Philippines remains less than $ 2 .
The economy is heavily reliant upon remittances from overseas filipinos , which surpass foreign direct investment as a source of foreign currency . Remittances peaked in 2010 at 10 @.@ 4 % of the national GDP , and were 8 @.@ 6 % in 2012 and in 2014 , Philippines total worth of foreign exchange remittances was US $ 28 billion . Regional development is uneven , with Luzon – Metro Manila in particular – gaining most of the new economic growth at the expense of the other regions , although the government has taken steps to distribute economic growth by promoting investment in other areas of the country . Despite constraints , service industries such as tourism and business process outsourcing have been identified as areas with some of the best opportunities for growth for the country .
Goldman Sachs includes the country in its list of the " Next Eleven " economies but China and India have emerged as major economic competitors . Goldman Sachs estimates that by the year 2050 , it will be the 20th largest economy in the world . HSBC also projects the Philippine economy to become the 16th largest economy in the world , 5th largest economy in Asia and the largest economy in the South East Asian region by 2050 . The Philippines is a member of the World Bank , the International Monetary Fund , the World Trade Organization ( WTO ) , the Asian Development Bank which is headquartered in Mandaluyong , the Colombo Plan , the G @-@ 77 and the G @-@ 24 among other groups and institutions .
= = = Transportation = = =
The transportation infrastructure in the Philippines is relatively underdeveloped . This is partly due to the mountainous terrain and the scattered geography of the islands , but also the result of consistently low investment in infrastructure by successive governments . In 2013 , about 3 % of national GDP went towards infrastructure development - much lower than many of its neighbors . There are 213 @,@ 151 kilometers ( 132 @,@ 446 mi ) of roads in the Philippines , with only 25 @.@ 56 % of roads paved .
Under President Benigno Aquino III 's administration , various projects were initiated in an attempt to improve the country 's infrastructure and transportation systems . Buses , jeepneys , taxis , and motorized tricycles are commonly available in major cities and towns . In 2007 , there were about 5 @.@ 53 million registered motor vehicles with registrations increasing at an average annual rate of 4 @.@ 55 % .
The Civil Aviation Authority of the Philippines manages airports and implementation of policies regarding safe air travel with 85 public airports currently operational . Ninoy Aquino International Airport ( NAIA ) serves the Greater Manila Area together with Clark International Airport . Philippine Airlines , Asia 's oldest commercial airline still operating under its original name , and Cebu Pacific , the leading low @-@ cost airline , are the major airlines serving most domestic and international destinations .
Expressways and highways are mostly located on the island of Luzon including the Pan @-@ Philippine Highway , connecting the islands of Luzon , Samar , Leyte , and Mindanao , the North Luzon Expressway , South Luzon Expressway , and the Subic – Clark – Tarlac Expressway .
Rail transport in the Philippines only plays a role in transporting passengers within Metro Manila . This area is served by three rapid transit lines : LRT @-@ 1 , and LRT @-@ 2 and MRT @-@ 3 . In the past , railways served major parts of Luzon , and railroad services were available on the islands of Cebu and Negros . Railways were also used for agricultural purposes , especially in tobacco and sugar cane production . Rail freight transportation is currently almost non @-@ existent . A few transportation systems are currently under development : DOST @-@ MIRDC and UP are implementing pre @-@ feasibility studies on Automated Guideway Transit . A so @-@ called Hybrid Electric Road Train which is a long bi @-@ articulated bus , was also being tested as of 2015 .
As an archipelago , inter @-@ island travel using watercraft is often necessary . The busiest seaports are Manila , Batangas , Subic , Cebu , Iloilo , Davao , Cagayan de Oro , and Zamboanga . 2GO Travel and Sulpicio Lines serve Manila , with links to various cities and towns through passenger vessels . The 919 @-@ kilometer ( 571 mi ) Strong Republic Nautical Highway ( SRNH ) , an integrated set of highway segments and ferry routes covering 17 cities was established in 2003 . The Pasig River Ferry Service serves the major rivers in Metro Manila , including the Pasig River and Marikina River having numerous stops in Manila , Makati , Mandaluyong , Pasig and Marikina .
= = = Science and technology = = =
The Philippines has pursued efforts to improve the field of science and technology . The Department of Science and Technology is the governing agency responsible for the development of coordination of science- and technology @-@ related projects in the Philippines . The National Scientist of the Philippines award is given to individuals that have contributed to different field of science in the country . Notable Filipino scientists include Maria Orosa , a food technologist famous for her formulated food products like calamansi nip , soyalac and the banana ketchup ,
Fe del Mundo , a pediatrician whose pioneering work in pediatrics as an active medical practice spanned 8 decades , Paulo Campos , a physician who was dubbed as " The Father of Nuclear Medicine in the Philippines " for his contributions in the field of nuclear medicine , Ramon Barba , an inventor and horticulturist known for his method to induce more flowers in mango trees .
Research organizations include the International Rice Research Institute , an international independent research and training organization established in 1960 with headquarters in Los Baños , Laguna , focusing on the development of new rice varieties and rice crop management techniques to help farmers in the country improve their lives . The Philippines bought its first satellite in 1996 . In 2016 , the Philippines first micro @-@ satellite , Diwata @-@ 1 was launched aboard the US Cygnus spacecraft .
= = = Communications = = =
The Philippines has a sophisticated cellular phone industry and a high concentration of users . Text messaging is a popular form of communication and , in 2007 , the nation sent an average of one billion SMS messages per day . Over five million mobile phone users also use their phones as virtual wallets , making it a leader among developing nations in providing financial transactions over cellular networks . The Philippine Long Distance Telephone Company commonly known as PLDT is the leading telecommunications provider . It is also the largest company in the country .
The National Telecommunications Commission is the agency responsible for the supervision , adjudication and control over all telecommunications services throughout the country . There are approximately 383 AM and 659 FM radio stations and 297 television and 873 cable television stations . On March 29 , 1994 , the country went live on the Internet via a 64 kbit / s connection from a router serviced by PLDT to a Sprint router in California . Estimates for Internet penetration in the Philippines vary widely ranging from a low of 2 @.@ 5 million to a high of 24 million people . Social networking and watching videos are among the most frequent Internet activities .
= = = Tourism = = =
The travel and tourism sector is a major contributor to the economy , contributing 7 @.@ 1 % to the Philippine GDP in 2013 and providing 1 @,@ 226 @,@ 500 jobs or 3 @.@ 2 percent of total employment . 2 @,@ 433 @,@ 428 international visitors arrived from January to June 2014 up by 2 @.@ 22 % in the same period in 2013 . South Korea , China , and Japan accounted for 58 @.@ 78 % while Americas accounted for 19 @.@ 28 % and Europe 10 @.@ 64 % . The Department of Tourism has responsibility for the management and promotion of the tourism sector .
The country 's rich biodiversity is one of the main tourist attractions with its beaches , mountains , rainforests , islands and diving spots among the most popular tourist destinations . As an archipelago consisting of about 7 @,@ 500 islands , the Philippines has numerous beaches , caves and other rock formations . Boracay has glaring white sand beaches and was named as the best island in the world by Travel + Leisure in 2012 . The Banaue Rice Terraces in Ifugao , the historic town of Vigan , the Chocolate Hills in Bohol , Magellan 's Cross in Cebu and the Tubbataha Reef in Visayas are other highlights .
= = = Hydrology = = =
Among the achievements of the government in the Philippines are a high access to an improved water source of 92 % in 2010 ; the creation of financially sustainable water service providers ( " Water Districts " ) in small and medium towns with the continuous long @-@ term support of a national agency ( the " Local Water Utilities Administration " LWUA ) ; and the improvement of access , service quality and efficiency in Manila through two high @-@ profle water concessions awarded in 1997 .
The challenges include limited access to sanitation services , high pollution of water resources , often poor drinking water quality and poor service quality , a fragmentation of executive functions at the national level among numerous agencies , and a fragmentation of service provision at the local level into many small service providers .
In 2015 it was reported by the Joint Monitoring Programme for Water Supply and Sanitation by WHO and UNICEF that 74 % of the population had access to improved sanitation and that " good progress " had been made . The access to improved sanitation was reported to be similar for the urban and rural population .
= = Demographics = =
The population of the Philippines increased from 1990 to 2008 by approximately 28 million , a 45 % growth in that time frame . The first official census in the Philippines was carried out in 1877 and recorded a population of 5 @,@ 567 @,@ 685 .
It is estimated that half of the population resides on the island of Luzon . The 3 @.@ 21 % population growth rate between 1995 and 2000 decreased to an estimated 1 @.@ 95 % for the 2005 – 2010 period , but remains a contentious issue . The population 's median age is 22 @.@ 7 years with 60 @.@ 9 % aged from 15 to 64 years old . Life expectancy at birth is 71 @.@ 94 years , 75 @.@ 03 years for females and 68 @.@ 99 years for males .
Since the liberalization of United States immigration laws in 1965 , the number of people in the United States having Filipino ancestry has grown substantially . In 2007 there were an estimated 12 million Filipinos living overseas .
According to the official count the population of the Philippines hit 100 million at the time of midnight on July 27 , 2014 , making it the 12th country to reach this number .
= = = Cities = = =
Metro Manila is the most populous of the 12 defined metropolitan areas in the Philippines and the 11th most populous in the world. as of 2007 , census data showed it had a population of 11 @,@ 553 @,@ 427 , comprising 13 % of the national population . Including suburbs in the adjacent provinces ( Bulacan , Cavite , Laguna , and Rizal ) of Greater Manila , the population is around 21 million .
Metro Manila 's gross regional product was estimated as of 2009 to be ₱ 468 @.@ 4 billion ( at constant 1985 prices ) and accounts for 33 % of the nation 's GDP . In 2011 Manila ranked as the 28th wealthiest urban agglomeration in the world and the 2nd in Southeast Asia .
= = = Ethnic groups = = =
According to the 2000 census , 28 @.@ 1 % of Filipinos are Tagalog , 13 @.@ 1 % Cebuano , 9 % Ilocano , 7 @.@ 6 % Bisaya / Visayans , 7 @.@ 5 % Hiligaynon , 6 % Bikol , 3 @.@ 4 % Waray , and 25 @.@ 3 % as " others " , which can be broken down further to yield more distinct non @-@ tribal groups like the Moro , the Kapampangan , the Pangasinense , the Ibanag , and the Ivatan . There are also indigenous peoples like the Igorot , the Lumad , the Mangyan , the Bajau , and the tribes of Palawan .
Filipinos generally belong to several Asian ethnic groups classified linguistically as part of the Austronesian or Malayo @-@ Polynesian speaking people . It is believed that thousands of years ago Austronesian @-@ speaking Taiwanese aborigines migrated to the Philippines from Taiwan , bringing with them knowledge of agriculture and ocean @-@ sailing , eventually displacing the earlier Negrito groups of the islands . Negritos , such as the Aeta and the Ati , are considered among the earliest inhabitants of the islands .
Being at the crossroads of the West and East , the Philippines is also home to migrants from places as diverse as China , Spain , Mexico , United States , India , South Korea , and Japan . Two important non @-@ indigenous minorities are the Chinese and the Spaniards .
The Chinese , mostly descendants of immigrants from Fujian , China after 1898 , number 2 million , although there are an estimated 18 to 27 million Filipinos who have partial Chinese ancestry , stemming from precolonial and colonial Chinese migrants . Intermarriage between the groups is evident in the major cities and urban areas .
At least one @-@ third of the population of Luzon as well as a few old settlements in the Visayas and Zamboanga City at Mindanao , have partial Hispanic ancestry ( from varying points of origin and ranging from Latin America to Spain ) . Recent genetic studies confirm this partial European and Latin @-@ American ancestry .
Other important non @-@ indigenous minorities include Indians , Anglo @-@ Americans , Britons , and Japanese people . Descendants of mixed couples are known as mestizos .
= = = Languages = = =
Ethnologue lists 186 individual languages in the Philippines , 182 of which are living languages , while 4 no longer have any known speakers . Most native languages are part of the Philippine branch of the Malayo @-@ Polynesian languages , which is itself a branch of the Austronesian language family . The only language not classified as an Austronesian language is Chavacano which is a creole language of Mexican Spanish and is classified as a Romance language .
Filipino and English are the official languages of the country . Filipino is a standardized version of Tagalog , spoken mainly in Metro Manila and other urban regions . Both Filipino and English are used in government , education , print , broadcast media , and business . However , most people outside cities do not speak much English . In most towns , the local indigenous language is spoken . The Philippine constitution provides for the promotion of Spanish and Arabic on a voluntary and optional basis , although neither are used on as wide a scale as in the past . Spanish , which was widely used as a lingua franca in the late nineteenth century , has since declined greatly in use , but is experiencing revival due to government promotions , while Arabic is mainly used in Islamic schools in Mindanao . However , Spanish loanwords are still present today in many of the indigenous Philippine languages .
Nineteen regional languages act as auxiliary official languages used as mediums of instruction : Aklanon , Bikol , Cebuano , Chavacano , Hiligaynon , Ibanag , Ilocano , Ivatan , Kapampangan , Kinaray @-@ a , Maguindanao , Maranao , Pangasinan , Sambal , Surigaonon , Tagalog , Tausug , Waray , and Yakan . Other indigenous languages such as , Cuyonon , Ifugao , Itbayat , Kalinga , Kamayo , Kankanaey , Masbateño , Romblomanon , Malay , and several Visayan languages are prevalent in their respective provinces .
Languages not indigenous to the islands are also taught in select schools . Mandarin is used in Chinese schools catering to the Chinese Filipino community . Islamic schools in Mindanao teach Modern Standard Arabic in their curriculum . French , German , Japanese , Korean , Spanish are taught with the help of foreign linguistic institutions . The Department of Education began teaching the Malay languages of Indonesian and Malaysian in 2013 .
= = = Religion = = =
The Philippines is an officially secular state , although Christianity is the dominant faith . Catholic Church data from 2015 found that about 82 @.@ 9 % of the population professed Catholicism . Around 37 % regularly attend Mass and 29 % identify as very religious . Protestants are 1 @.@ 8 % of the total population . The Philippine Independent Church is a notable independent Catholic denomination . Iglesia ni Cristo is a notable Restorationist denomination in the country .
Islam is the second largest religion . The Muslim population of the Philippines was reported as about 5 % of the total population according to census returns in 2000 and as of 2011 , and as 11 % in a 2012 report by the National Commission on Muslim Filipinos . The majority of Muslims live in the Bangsamoro region . Most practice Sunni Islam under the Shafi 'i school .
An unknown number of Filipinos are irreligious but may form as much as 10 % of the population . Catholicism 's historic dominance is steadily declining , with about 9 % of adherents considering leaving their church .
An estimated 2 % of the total population practice Philippine traditional religions , whose practices and folk beliefs are often syncretized with Christianity and Islam . Buddhism is practiced by around 2 % of the population , and is concentrated among Filipinos of Chinese descent . The remaining population is divided between a number of religious groups , including Hindus , Jews , and Baha 'is .
= = Health = =
There are an increasing number of private health providers and , as of 2009 , 67 @.@ 1 % of healthcare came from private expenditures while 32 @.@ 9 % was from government . In 2013 , total expenditures on the health sector was 3 @.@ 8 % of GDP , below the WHO target of 5 % . Health expenditure represented about 6 @.@ 1 % of total government spending . Per capita total expenditure at average exchange rate was USD52 . The budget allocation for Healthcare in 2010 was ₱ 28 billion ( about USD597 million ) or ₱ 310 ( $ 7 ) per person but had an increase in budget in 2014 with a record high in the collection of taxes from the House Bill 5727 ( commonly known as Sin tax Bill ) .
There are an estimated 90 @,@ 370 physicians or 1 per every 833 people , 480 @,@ 910 nurses , 43 @,@ 220 dentists , and 1 hospital bed per every 769 people . Retention of skilled practitioners is a problem . 70 % of nursing graduates go overseas to work . The Philippines is the biggest supplier of nurses for export .
In 2001 there were about 1 @,@ 700 hospitals , of which about 40 % were government @-@ run and 60 % private . Cardiovascular diseases account for more than 25 % of all deaths . According to official estimates , 1 @,@ 965 cases of human immunodeficiency virus ( HIV ) were reported in 2003 , of which 636 had developed acquired immune deficiency syndrome ( AIDS ) . Despite the increase of HIV / AIDS cases from 12 @,@ 000 in 2005 to 17 @,@ 450 as of April 2014 with 5 @,@ 965 people that were under anti @-@ retroviral therapy , the country is still a low @-@ HIV @-@ prevalence country with less than 0 @.@ 1 % of the adult population estimated to be HIV @-@ positive .
= = Education = =
The Philippines has a simple literacy rate of 95 @.@ 6 % , with 95 @.@ 1 % for males and 96 @.@ 1 % for females . The Philippines has a functional literacy rate of 86 @.@ 45 % , with 84 @.@ 2 % for males and 88 @.@ 7 % for females in 2008 . Literacy in females is greater than in males . Education spending accounts for 16 @.@ 11 % in the proposed 2015 national budget .
The Commission on Higher Education ( CHED ) lists 2 @,@ 180 higher education institutions , 607 of which are public and 1 @,@ 573 private . Classes start in June and end in March . The majority of colleges and universities follow a semester calendar from June to October and November to March . There are a number of foreign schools with study programs . A 6 @-@ year elementary and 4 @-@ year high school education is mandatory with an additional two years being added in 2013 .
Several government agencies are involved with education . The Department of Education covers elementary , secondary , and nonformal education . The Technical Education and Skills Development Authority ( TESDA ) administers the post @-@ secondary middle @-@ level education training and development . The Commission on Higher Education ( CHED ) supervises the college and graduate academic programs and degrees as well as regulate standards in higher education .
In 2004 , madaris were mainstreamed in 16 regions nationwide , mainly in Muslim areas in Mindanao under the auspices and program of the Department of Education . Public universities are all non @-@ sectarian entities , and are further classified as State Universities and Colleges ( SUC ) or Local Colleges and Universities ( LCU ) . The University of the Philippines is the national university of the Philippines .
= = Culture = =
Philippine culture is a combination of Eastern and Western cultures . The Philippines exhibits aspects found in other Asian countries with a Malay heritage , yet its culture also displays a significant number of Spanish and American influences .
Traditional festivities known as barrio fiestas ( district festivals ) to commemorate the feast days of patron saints are common . These community celebrations are times for feasting , music , and dancing and the Moriones and Sinulog festivals are a couple of the most well @-@ known .
Some traditions , however , are changing or gradually being forgotten due to modernization . The Bayanihan Philippine National Folk Dance Company has been lauded for preserving many of the various traditional folk dances found throughout the Philippines . They are famed for their iconic performances of Philippine dances such as the tinikling and singkil that both feature clashing bamboo poles .
= = = Cosmopolitanism = = =
Vigan in Ilocos Sur is also known for the many Hispanic @-@ style houses and buildings preserved there .
One of the most visible Hispanic legacies is the prevalence of Spanish names and surnames among Filipinos ; a Spanish name and surname , however , does not necessarily denote Spanish ancestry . This peculiarity , unique among the people of Asia , came as a result of a colonial edict by Governor @-@ General Narciso Clavería y Zaldua , which ordered the systematic distribution of family names and implementation of Hispanic nomenclature on the population . The names of many streets , towns , and provinces are also in Spanish . Spanish architecture has left an imprint in the Philippines in the way many towns were designed around a central square or plaza mayor , but many of the buildings bearing its influence were demolished during World War II . Some examples remain , mainly among the country 's churches , government buildings , and universities . Four Philippine baroque churches are included in the list of UNESCO World Heritage Sites : the San Agustín Church in Manila , the Paoay Church in Ilocos Norte , the Nuestra Señora de la Asunción ( Santa María ) Church in Ilocos Sur , and the Santo Tomás de Villanueva Church in Iloilo .
In Iloilo , a lot of the colonial edifices constructed during the American occupation in the country can still be seen . Commercial buildings , houses and churches in that era are abundant in the city and especially in Calle Real .
However , certain areas of the country like Batanes have slight differences as both Spanish and Filipino ways of life assimilated differently due to the climate there and limestone and coral were used as building materials . Idjangs or Ivatan castles were the primary shelter of the people prior to the Spanish conquest of the whole Philippines .
The common use of the English language is an example of the American impact on Philippine society . It has contributed to the ready acceptance and influence of American pop cultural trends . This affinity is seen in Filipinos ' love of fast food and American film and music . Fast food outlets are found on many street corners . American global fast food chain stalwarts have entered the market , but local fast food chains like Goldilocks and most notably Jollibee , the leading fast food chain in the country , have emerged and compete successfully against their foreign rivals .
= = = Music = = =
Philippine music has evolved rapidly due to the different influences stemming from colonialism under other countries . Before the Spanish conquest of the islands , most music was reminiscent of , or heavily influenced by , nature . Some examples of this tribal music is Koyu No Tebulul of the T 'boli and Ambo Hato of the Ifugao . This genre is often accompanied by gong music and one well known instrument is the Kulintang .
During the Spanish era Rondalya music , where traditional string orchestra mandolin type instruments were used , was widespread . In the Philippines , Rondalya refers to any group of stringed instruments that are played using a plectrum or pick . Filipino instruments are made from indigenous Philippine wood ; plectrums , or picks , are made from tortoise @-@ shell . Other stringed instruments composing the standard Filipino rondalla are the 14 @-@ string bandurria found only in the Philippines , the laúd , the octavina , the Twelve @-@ string guitar , the Ukulele , the bajo de uñas or double bass , the Guitarrón mexicano , and other Filipino @-@ made instruments modeled and developed after the guitar . Harana and Kundiman are prevalent during this time wherein these songs are often used in courtship rituals .
Marcelo Adonay ( organist ) , Simplicio Solis ( organist ) , Diego C. Perez ( pianist ) , Jose Conseco ( pianist ) and Doña Dolores Paterno ( composer ) were some of the recognized musicians in this era . Nowadays , American pop culture has a heavy hold on the Filipinos that evolved from the Spanish times when the American occupation happened . Along with Korean pop , these two are dominating the recent music scene in media . However , the revival of Spanish @-@ influence folk music has been done due to the different choir groups in and out of the country like the Philippine Madrigal Singers .
= = = Visual art = = =
Pottery and weaving are among the very first art forms showcasing Filipino artistic design and are evident from cave dwellings all over the country . Among these are mostly anthropomorphic earthenware jars dating from c . 5 BC to 225 AD . Weaving was mostly done by women , using fibers from abaca , pineapple , cotton , and bark to make clothes , rugs and hats . Baskets were mostly utilized to carry grain and other foods .
Early Philippine sculpture is characterized by frontal nudity . One of the earliest forms are the bulols by the Ifugao peoples which serve as an assurance for bountiful harvests . The original function of these sculptures are related to the ceremonies and beliefs of the tribes who created them . Arab and Russian missionaries also brought beveled type of carvings in the form of Okkil . The beginnings of this sculpture type started with the Islamization of Sulu . The Spanish colonization of the country did not hinder Filipinos creating sculptures for objects of adoration . During this time , sculptures of deities and saints were used to teach Filipinos Christian doctrines . During the American colonialism , worshippers of faith were not discouraged to sculpt in order to adorn churches .
Filipinos ' first exposure to painting happened when Spain conquered the Philippines and these were used as religious propaganda often displayed in churches . However , as education progressed and wealth increased , more and more artists started to shift from the traditional religious motifs to a more secular pattern of imagery .
Paintings of early modernist painters such as Damián Domingo often still had a religious association but the art of Juan Luna and Félix Hidalgo showed a trend towards political statement . The first Philippine national artist Fernando Amorsolo used post @-@ modernism to produce paintings that illustrated aspects of Philippine culture , while other artists such as Fernando Zóbel used both realistic and abstract techniques .
In the modern period , the integration of architecture in the Art Deco style happened . Many of these examples can be seen in statues all over the country especially in public parks and spaces .
= = = Values = = =
As a general description , the distinct value system of Filipinos is rooted primarily in personal alliance systems , especially those based in kinship , obligation , friendship , religion ( particularly Christianity ) , and commercial relationships .
Filipino values are , for the most part , centered around maintaining social harmony , motivated primarily by the desire to be accepted within a group . The main sanction against diverging from these values are the concepts of " Hiya " , roughly translated as ' a sense of shame ' , and " Amor propio " or ' self @-@ esteem ' . Social approval , acceptance by a group , and belonging to a group are major concerns . Caring about what others will think , say or do , are strong influences on social behavior among Filipinos .
Other elements of the Filipino value system are optimism about the future , pessimism about present situations and events , concern and care for other people , the existence of friendship and friendliness , the habit of being hospitable , religious nature , respectfulness to self and others , respect for the female members of society , the fear of God , and abhorrence of acts of cheating and thievery .
While in most of the world the popularity of formal female beauty contests has diminished , they remain both popular and widespread in the Philippines . Binibining Pilipinas is a closely followed event throughout the country along with other major national pageants such as Miss Philippines Earth and Miss World Philippines . Filipinas have garnered one Miss World , three Miss Universe , five Miss International , three Miss Earth , and one Miss Supranational titles .
= = = Dance = = =
Just like the evolution of Philippine music , dance as well has been in constant change . Prior to colonial rule , the Philippines has a wide array of ethnic dances from different tribal groups . This is due mainly to the fact that Philippines is an island thus the different varieties of dance developed . Both Luzon and Visayas , at first , were more akin to tribal movements until the Spanish came . Mindanao represents more of an array of Muslim inspired dances and Spanish influence was minimal in the region of Zamboanga .
Universal dances in the Philippines are found at societal functions such as rituals , mimicry , life cycle and parties . During the Spanish era , most dances are accompanied by Rondalya music usually with 14 @-@ string bandurrias that the Filipinos invented or by other type of stringed instruments that locally evolved in to the culture as well .
One famous dance that is well known is called the Tinikling , where a band of Rondalya musicians play along with the percussive beat of the two bamboo poles . It usually starts with men and women acting a scene about " How rural townsfolk mingle " . The dancers then graze thru the clashing of the bamboo poles held on opposite sides . The end displays the paired bamboo poles crossing each other . The Muslim version of this where bamboo poles are also used is called the Singkil . Nowadays , in the Modern and Post @-@ Modern time periods , dances vary from the delicate ballet up to the more street @-@ oriented styles of breakdancing to name a few .
= = = Cuisine = = =
Philippine cuisine has evolved over several centuries from its Malayo @-@ Polynesian origins to become a mixed cuisine with many Hispanic , Chinese , American , and other Asian influences that have been adapted to local ingredients and the Filipino palate to create distinctively Filipino dishes . Dishes range from the very simple , like a meal of fried salted fish and rice , to the elaborate , such as the paellas and cocidos created for fiestas .
Popular dishes include lechón , adobo , sinigang , kare @-@ kare , tapa , crispy pata , pancit , lumpia , and halo @-@ halo . Some common local ingredients used in cooking are calamondins , coconuts , saba ( a kind of short wide plantain ) , mangoes , milkfish , and fish sauce . Filipino taste buds tend to favor robust flavors , but the cuisine is not as spicy as those of its neighbors .
Unlike many of their Asian counterparts , Filipinos do not eat with chopsticks ; they use Western cutlery . However , possibly due to rice being the primary staple food and the popularity of a large number of stews and main dishes with broth in Philippine cuisine , the main pairing of utensils seen at the Filipino dining table is that of spoon and fork , not knife and fork .
The traditional way of eating with the hands known as kamayan ( using the washed right hand for bringing food to the mouth ) was previously more often seen in the less urbanized areas . However , due to the various Filipino restaurants that introduced Filipino food to people of other nationalities as well as to Filipino urbanites , kamayan fast became popular . This recent trend also sometimes incorporates the " Boodle Fight " concept ( as popularized and coined by the Philippine Army ) , wherein banana leaves are used as giant plates on top of which rice portions and Filipino viands are placed all together for a filial , friendly and / or communal kamayan feasting .
= = = Literature = = =
Philippine mythology has been handed down primarily through the traditional oral folk literature of the Filipino people . While each unique ethnic group has its own stories and myths to tell , Hindu and Spanish influences can nonetheless be detected in many cases . Philippine mythology mostly consists of creation stories or stories about supernatural creatures , such as the aswang , the manananggal , the diwata / engkanto , and nature . Some popular figures from Philippine mythologies are Maria Makiling , Lam @-@ Ang , and the Sarimanok .
Philippine literature comprises works usually written in Filipino , Spanish , or English . Some of the most known were created from the 17th to 19th century . Adarna , for example , is a famous epic about an eponymous magical bird allegedly written by José de la Cruz or " Huseng Sisiw " . Francisco Balagtas the poet and playwright who wrote Florante at Laura is recognized as a preeminent writer in the Filipino language . José Rizal wrote the novels Noli Me Tángere ( Touch Me Not ) and El Filibusterismo ( The Filibustering , also known as The Reign of Greed ) . He is considered a national hero . His depiction of the injustices of Spanish rule , and his death by firing squad , inspired other Philippine revolutionaries to seek independence . Several Filipino writers were awarded National Artist of the Philippines such as N. V. M. Gonzalez , Amado V. Hernandez , Francisco Arcellana , Nick Joaquín , F. Sionil José and many more .
= = = Media = = =
Philippine media uses mainly Filipino and English . Other Philippine languages , including various Visayan languages are also used , especially in radio due to its ability to reach remote rural locations that might otherwise not be serviced by other kinds of media . The dominant television networks ABS @-@ CBN , GMA and TV5 also have extensive radio presence .
The entertainment industry is vibrant and feeds broadsheets and tabloids with an unending supply of details about celebrities and sensationalist daily scandals . Drama and fantasy shows are anticipated as are Latin telenovelas , Asianovelas , and anime . Daytime television is dominated by game shows , variety shows , and talk shows such as Eat Bulaga and It 's Showtime . Philippine cinema has a long history and is popular domestically , but has faced increasing competition from American , Asian and European films . Critically acclaimed directors and actors include Lino Brocka and Nora Aunor for films like Maynila : Sa mga Kuko ng Liwanag ( Manila : In the Claws of Light ) and Himala ( Miracle ) . In recent years it has become common to see celebrities flitting between television and movies and then moving into politics provoking concerns .
= = = Sports = = =
Various sports and pastimes are popular in the Philippines including basketball , boxing , cockfighting , volleyball , football ( soccer ) , American football , both codes of Rugby football , badminton , karate , taekwondo , billiards , ten @-@ pin bowling , chess , and sipa . Motocross , cycling , and mountaineering are also becoming popular . Basketball is played at both amateur and professional levels and is considered to be the most popular sport in the Philippines . In 2010 , Manny Pacquiao was named " Fighter of the Decade " for the 2000s ( decade ) by the Boxing Writers Association of America ( BWAA ) , World Boxing Council ( WBC ) , and World Boxing Organization ( WBO ) . The national martial art and sport of the country is Arnis , Eskrima or Kali in some regions
The Philippines has participated in the Summer Olympic Games since 1924 and was the first country in Southeast Asia to compete and win a medal . The country had competed in every Summer Olympic Games since then , except when they participated in the American @-@ led boycott of the 1980 Summer Olympics . The Philippines is also the first tropical nation to compete at the Winter Olympic Games debuting in the 1972 edition .
Internationally , Philippines has been well documented for its successes in beauty pageants . Binibining Pilipinas is a closely followed event throughout the country , and Philippines has received 1 Miss World , 3 Miss Universe , 5 Miss International , 3 Miss Earth , and 1 Miss Supranational titles making it the first country to complete all five major titles .
= = = Games = = =
Traditional Philippine games such as luksung baka , patintero , piko , and tumbang preso are still played primarily as children 's games among the youth . Sungka is a traditional native Philippine board game . Card games are popular during festivities , with some , including pusoy and tong @-@ its , being used as a form of illegal gambling . Mahjong is played in some Philippine communities .
Sabong or cockfighting is another popular entertainment especially among Filipino men , and existed prior to the arrival of the Spanish . Antonio Pigafetta , Magellan 's chronicler , first documented this pastime in the kingdom of Taytay . The yo @-@ yo , a popular toy in the Philippines , was introduced in its modern form by Pedro Flores with its name coming from the Ilokano language .
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= Vera Katz ( sculpture ) =
Vera Katz , also known as Mayor , Vera Katz , is an outdoor bronze sculpture depicting Vera Katz created by American artist Bill Bane . Unveiled in 2006 , it is located along the Eastbank Esplanade in Portland , Oregon . Katz , a former mayor of the city between 1993 and 2005 , supported arts and culture during her tenure and established Oregon 's Percent for Art program . She was also instrumental in developing the Eastbank Esplanade , which is named after her . The sculpture has received a mostly positive reception and has inspired people to adorn it with clothing , flowers and makeup .
= = Description and history = =
The statue was financed by a " group of generous Portlanders " and its commission was managed by the Regional Arts & Culture Council ( RACC ) with assistance from members of Katz 's former staff . It was unveiled on June 2 , 2006 , on the plaza at the south end of the Esplanade , just north of the Hawthorne Bridge and Main Street marker . It measures 53 inches ( 130 cm ) x 18 inches ( 46 cm ) x 18 inches ( 46 cm ) and rests on an orange triangular base . Portland State University 's Daily Vanguard described Katz as : " leaning close to a small body with legs crossed and hands in , squeezed together in her lap as if she 's cold , too . The teeth are also bared and unusually straight , creating the impression that Katz might snap at passers @-@ by . But overall , the face is open and the hair is particularly lifelike . " She is depicted wearing a Portland rose on her lapel . According to The Oregonian , the sculpture provides a lap on which children can pose and sometimes frightens passersby at night . It is part of the collection of the Regional Arts & Culture Council . The organization has said : " it seems fitting that [ Katz 's ] political leadership and love for the arts should come together in a public tribute to her " .
Katz attended the statue 's surprise unveiling during an event organized by the Regional Arts & Culture Council and funded by friends . Also in attendance were Mayor Tom Potter , three city commissioners , Bill Bane , friends , and former staff members . Wearing a lei brought by her son , Katz said the statue looked " far more beautiful than [ her ] " and encouraged city officials to continue expanding the Eastbank Esplanade south .
The statue went missing temporarily in October 2013 , prompting an investigation by then Mayor Sam Adams . In 2013 , RACC 's public art collections manager said the work has received mostly " positive attention " and has been outfitted with hats , flowers and " yarn @-@ bombed " sweaters . It has also attracted books , hats , lipstick , paint and even a " mohawk of cake frosting " .
Bane 's study for the sculpture , called Vera , is a bronze bust measuring 18 inches ( 46 cm ) x 11 inches ( 28 cm ) . The bust is part of a private collection .
= = Reception = =
In 2006 , Willamette Week included the sculpture in its annual " Best of Portland " list , under the category " Best Mayoral Monument " . According to the paper :
... Bane managed to capture much of the ex @-@ mayor 's character : Her eyes are friendly and her hair as wild as ever . But Katz 's signature grin is a little stiff , a little too aggressive . Leaning forward , she looks as if she might take a bite out of the next passerby . Which by the way , seems appropriate when you look back on her days behind the mayoral desk . Maybe monochromatic bronze just isn 't the right medium for a woman as colorful as ol ' Vera . Where 's the red blazer ? Our suggestion : Get this lady some accessories ! The right hat or scarf could make that brown pantsuit really work .
Daily Vanguard 's Celina Monte called the sculpture " fabulously strange " and said it illustrated the " straightforward , tactile and symmetrical properties " of some of Bane 's other work . The work has been included in at least one published walking tour of Portland , which noted its function as a meeting location for bicyclists and pedestrians .
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= Kitefin shark =
The kitefin shark or seal shark ( Dalatias licha ) is a species of dogfish shark in the family Dalatiidae , and the only species in its genus . It is found sporadically around the world , usually close to the sea floor at depths of 200 – 600 m ( 660 – 1 @,@ 970 ft ) . With a sizable oil @-@ filled liver to maintain neutral buoyancy , this shark is able to cruise slowly through the water while expending little energy . The kitefin shark has a slender body with a very short , blunt snout , large eyes , and thick lips . Its teeth are highly differentiated between the upper and lower jaws , with the upper teeth small and narrow and the lower teeth large , triangular , and serrated . Its typical length is 1 @.@ 0 – 1 @.@ 4 m ( 3 @.@ 3 – 4 @.@ 6 ft ) .
Armed with large teeth and a strong bite , the kitefin shark is a powerful , solitary predator that takes many different types of prey , ranging from bony fishes , sharks and rays , to cephalopods , crustaceans , polychaete worms , siphonophores , and possibly carrion . It also takes bites out of animals larger than itself , similar to its smaller relative , the cookiecutter shark ( Isistius brasiliensis ) . This shark is aplacental viviparous and gives birth to 10 – 14 young . The kitefin shark is fished commercially for its meat , skin , and liver oil , primarily by Portugal and Japan . A fishery targeting this species existed off the Azores from the 1970s to the 1990s , but collapsed due to overfishing and falling liver oil prices ; the rapid depletion of the Azores stock is often cited as an example of the susceptibility of deep @-@ sea sharks to human exploitation . The low reproductive rate of this species renders it susceptible to overfishing and , coupled with known population declines , has led it to be assessed as Near Threatened by the International Union for Conservation of Nature ( IUCN ) .
= = Taxonomy = =
The kitefin shark was originally described as Squalus licha by French naturalist Pierre Joseph Bonnaterre , in his 1788 Tableau encyclopédique et méthodique des trois regnes de la nature ; the type specimen from " Le cap Breton " has since been lost . This species was later placed in its own genus , Dalatias , which came from the synonymy of Constantine Rafinesque 's 1810 Dalatias sparophagus with S. licha . However , some authorities dispute this on the grounds that D. sparophagus is a nomen dubium , and prefer to use the next available genus name Scymnorhinus . The genus name Dalatias is derived from the Greek dalos or dalou , meaning " torch " . The specific epithet licha comes from la liche , the French name for this shark . Additional common names used for the kitefin shark include black shark and darkie Charlie .
= = Phylogeny and evolution = =
Cladistic studies have consistently found that the closest relatives of the kitefin shark are the cookiecutter sharks ( Isistius ) , with which they share several dentitional , skeletal , and muscular similarities . Dalatias and Isistius are believed to have evolutionarily diverged shortly after the transition between the Cretaceous and Tertiary periods ( 65 @.@ 5 Ma ) , as part of a larger adaptive radiation of dogfish sharks from the deep sea into relatively shallower habitats .
The oldest fossil teeth that definitively belong to the kitefin shark date to the Middle Eocene epoch , such as those recovered from Bortonian @-@ stage deposits ( 43 @.@ 0 – 37 @.@ 0 Ma ) in New Zealand . Dalatias fossil teeth dating to various ages have also been discovered in Europe , the former USSR , Japan , and western India . The fossil material now recognized as belonging to this species were historically described under a multitude of different names .
= = Description = =
The kitefin shark has a moderately elongated body with a very short , rounded snout . The eyes and spiracles are large . The lips are thick with pleats or fringes , though are not modified to be suctorial . There are 16 – 21 tooth rows in the upper jaw and 17 – 20 tooth rows in the lower jaw . The upper teeth are small and spike @-@ shaped , curving slightly towards the corners of the mouth . The lower teeth are very large , knife @-@ shaped , and serrated , with their bases interlocking to form a continuous cutting surface .
The first dorsal fin is slightly smaller and shorter @-@ based than the second , and neither has spines . The first dorsal fin originates behind the free rear tip of the pectoral fins , while the second originates above the middle of the pelvic fin bases . The pectoral fins are short and rounded . The caudal fin has a prominent upper lobe with a well @-@ developed notch near the tip , and a barely present lower lobe . The form and arrangement of the fins is similar to the Portuguese dogfish ( Centroscymnus coelolepis ) , from which this species can be distinguished by the lack of fin spines . The dermal denticles are small and flat , with a single horizontal ridge ending in a point .
The coloration is a uniform dark brown or gray , sometimes with faint black spots on the back . The fins have white or translucent trailing edges , and the tip of the caudal fin is black . An 90 cm ( 3 @.@ 0 ft ) long kitefin shark with partial albinism , lacking pigment on 59 % of its body , was caught in the Gulf of Genoa in 2003 . Unlike in a previous case of an albino Portuguese dogfish , the abnormal coloration of this individual had not diminished its ability to capture prey . Most kitefin sharks are 1 @.@ 0 – 1 @.@ 4 m ( 3 @.@ 3 – 4 @.@ 6 ft ) long and weigh 8 kg ( 18 lb ) ; the maximum reported length is 1 @.@ 6 m ( 5 @.@ 2 ft ) , possibly 1 @.@ 8 m ( 5 @.@ 9 ft ) .
= = Distribution and habitat = =
The kitefin shark has an almost circumglobal range in tropical and warm @-@ temperature waters , consisting of a number of widely separated populations with likely little interchange between them . This shark has not been reported from the eastern Pacific and northern Indian Oceans . In the northern Atlantic , it occurs in the Georges Bank and the northern Gulf of Mexico , and from the North Sea to Cameroon , including around the British Isles , in the western and central Mediterranean Sea , and off Madeira and the Azores . In the Indian Ocean , it is found off South Africa and Mozambique . In the Pacific , it occurs off Japan , Java , Australia and New Zealand , and the Hawaiian Islands . There is a single record of this species in the southern Atlantic , from off southern Brazil .
An offshore , deepwater species , the kitefin shark is most common at a depth of 200 – 600 m ( 660 – 1 @,@ 970 ft ) , but has been captured from the surface to as deep as 1 @,@ 800 m ( 5 @,@ 900 ft ) . Off the Azores this shark segregates by sex , with females most common around a depth of 230 m ( 750 ft ) and males most common around 412 – 448 m ( 1 @,@ 352 – 1 @,@ 470 ft ) . The kitefin shark inhabits the outer continental shelves and upper continental slopes , and is also found around oceanic islands and seamounts . It is the only member of its family that tends to be found close to the sea floor as opposed to in the middle of the water column , though on occasion it has been captured well above the bottom .
= = Biology and ecology = =
Relatively common where it occurs , kitefin sharks are usually solitary in nature but may form small groups . It is a slow swimmer with a large liver filled with squalene , a lipid less dense than water , allowing it to maintain neutral buoyancy and hover above the bottom with little effort . Studies off the coast of North Africa and in the Gulf of Genoa have found males outnumbering females by 2 : 1 and 5 : 1 respectively ; this imbalanced sex ratio has not been observed off South Africa and may reflect sampling bias . The kitefin shark is preyed upon by larger fishes and sharks , as well as by sperm whales ( Physeter macrocephalus ) . Parasite data on this species is limited ; an examination of two sharks caught off Ireland found three nematodes in the stomach lumen . One could be identified as Anisakis simplex L3 , while another may have been a larval Raphidascaris .
A powerful and versatile deepwater predator , the short , robust jaws of the kitefin shark give it an enormously strong bite . It feeds mainly on bony fishes ( including deepwater smelts , viperfishes , scaly dragonfishes , barracudinas , greeneyes , lanternfishes , bristlemouths , cod and other gadids , grenadiers , deepwater scorpionfishes , bonito , snake mackerels , deepwater cardinalfishes , and sea toads ) , but also takes a wide variety of other animals , including skates , smaller sharks ( Galeus , Squalus , Etmopterus and Centrophorus ) , squid and octopus , crustaceans ( amphipods , isopods , shrimp and lobsters ) , polychaete worms , and siphonophores . Like the related cookiecutter shark , the kitefin shark is also capable of excising chunks of flesh from animals larger than itself , including other sharks and whales . The presence of fast @-@ swimming fishes in its diet suggests the kitefin shark may scavenge , or have some other means of capturing faster prey . In the Mediterranean , bony fishes are the most important food year @-@ round , with the second @-@ most important prey being sharks in the winter and spring , crustaceans in the summer , and cephalopods in the fall . Captured males are more likely to have full stomachs than females for unknown reasons .
Reproduction in the kitefin shark is aplacental viviparous , with the embryos hatching inside the uterus and being sustained to term by yolk . Adult females have two functional ovaries and two functional uteruses ; the uterus is not divided into compartments . In the Mediterranean , breeding occurs throughout the year with peaks in spring and fall ; females may have a year of rest in between pregnancies . The litter size is 10 – 16 , increasing with female size . The young are born at a length of 30 – 45 cm ( 12 – 18 in ) , varying by geographic location , after a possible gestation period of two years . The males mature sexually at a length of 77 – 121 cm ( 2 @.@ 53 – 3 @.@ 97 ft ) , and the females at a length of 117 – 159 cm ( 3 @.@ 84 – 5 @.@ 22 ft ) . There is no relationship between an individual 's size at birth , size at maturity , and maximum size .
= = Human interactions = =
The kitefin shark inhabits depths too great for it to be a danger to humans . Its upper teeth have been found lodged in underwater fiberoptic cables . This species has a long history of human exploitation : the meat is consumed in the eastern Atlantic and Japan , and the offal processed into fishmeal . The liver oil is utilized in Portugal , Japan , and South Africa . The skin is made into a type of shagreen useful in the making of furniture and jewelry , and is also favored for the manufacture of " boroso " , a Spanish polished leather . This shark has no commercial value in the western Atlantic .
The continuing expansion of commercial fisheries into the deep sea has raised concerns about the vulnerability of this and other deepwater shark species to overfishing , as these sharks have slow growth and reproductive rates . This is exemplified by the rapid stock depletion and collapse of the Azores kitefin shark fishery . This targeted fishery began in the early 1970s for the production of liver oil . In the early 1980s , the fishing fleet was enlarged with the addition of industrial vessels equipped with demersal gillnets , resulting in a fishery peak in 1984 of 937 tons landed . After 1991 , kitefin shark catches declined precipitously to under 15 tons annually which , along with a drop in the global price of liver oil , led to the fishery becoming unprofitable by the end of the decade . A population assessment has suggested that the northeastern Atlantic stock had fallen to 50 % of the pre @-@ exploitation biomass .
Fisheries operating off Portugal and Japan are responsible for most commercial landings of the kitefin shark , generally as bycatch in bottom trawls and on hook @-@ and @-@ line . Portugal reported a kitefin shark bycatch of 282 tons in 2000 and 119 tons in 2003 . In other areas of the northeastern Atlantic this shark is rare and reported catches are likely confounded by misidentifications of other species ; some are caught by mixed @-@ species gillnet fisheries operating in deep water west of the British Isles , where surveys suggest that kitefin shark numbers may have declined by 94 % since the 1970s . In the Mediterranean , this shark is caught incidentally by bottom trawl and gillnet fisheries . Although it is generally discarded alive , many are unable to return to deep water and do not survive . In the Southern Hemisphere , catches by the Australian South East Trawl Fishery are increasing following the relaxation of regulations regarding seafood mercury content ; this species is not included under Australian fishery quotas . New Zealand kitefin shark catches peaked from 1986 to 1997 . The International Union for Conservation of Nature ( IUCN ) has assessed the kitefin shark as Near Threatened worldwide , and as Vulnerable in the northeastern Atlantic in light of documented population declines .
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= Tiananmen Square self @-@ immolation incident =
The Tiananmen Square self @-@ immolation incident took place in Tiananmen Square in central Beijing , on the eve of Chinese New Year on 23 January 2001 . The incident is disputed : Chinese government sources say that five members of Falun Gong , a spiritual practice that is persecuted in mainland China , set themselves on fire in the square . Falun Gong sources disputed the accuracy of these portrayals , noting that their teachings explicitly forbid violence or suicide . Several Western journalists and scholars also noted inconsistencies in the government 's account of event , suggesting the self @-@ immolations were staged by the government to discredit Falun Gong .
According to Chinese state media , a group of seven people had travelled to Beijing from Henan province , and five set themselves on fire on Tiananmen Square . One of them , Liu Chunling , died at Tiananmen under disputed circumstances , and another , 12 @-@ year @-@ old Liu Siying , reportedly died in hospital several weeks later ; three survived . The incident received international news coverage , and video footage was broadcast a week later in the People 's Republic of China by China Central Television ( CCTV ) . In the Chinese press , the event was used as proof of the " dangers " of Falun Gong , and was used to legitimise the government 's campaign against the group .
The official account of events soon came under scrutiny , however . Two weeks after the self @-@ immolation event , The Washington Post published an investigation into the identity of the two self @-@ immolation victims who were killed , and found that " no one ever saw [ them ] practice Falun Gong " . Other evidence surfaced by journalists and international observers suggests that Chinese authorities had advanced knowledge of the self @-@ immolation .
Human Rights Watch ( HRW ) wrote that " the incident was among one [ sic ] of the most difficult stories for reporters in Beijing at the time to report on " because of a lack of independent information available . The self @-@ immolation victims were accessible only to reporters from China 's state @-@ run press ; international media , and even the victims ' family members , were barred from contacting them . A wide variety of opinions and interpretations of what may have happened then emerged : the event may have been set up by the government to frame Falun Gong ; it may have been an authentic protest ; the self @-@ immolators could have been " new or unschooled " Falun Gong practitioners ; and other views .
The campaign of state propaganda that followed the event eroded public sympathy for Falun Gong . Time magazine noted that many Chinese had previously felt that Falun Gong posed no real threat , and that the state 's crackdown against it had gone too far . After the self @-@ immolation , however , the media campaign against the group gained significant traction . Posters , leaflets and videos were produced detailing the supposed detrimental effects of Falun Gong practice , and regular anti @-@ Falun Gong classes were scheduled in schools . CNN compared the government 's propaganda initiative to past political movements such as the Korean War and the Cultural Revolution . Later , as public opinion turned against the group , the Chinese authorities began sanctioning the " systematic use of violence " to eliminate Falun Gong . In the year following the incident , the imprisonment , torture , and deaths of Falun Gong practitioners in custody increased significantly .
= = Background = =
Falun Gong , also known as Falun Dafa , is a form of spiritual qigong practice that involves meditative exercises , and a philosophy drawing on Buddhist and Taoist tradition introduced by Li Hongzhi in Northeast China in the spring of 1992 . By the late 1990s , it had attracted tens of millions of followers . Falun Gong initially enjoyed official recognition support during the early years of its development . By the mid @-@ 1990s , however , Chinese authorities sought to rein in the growth of qigong practices , enacting more stringent requirements on the country 's various qigong denominations . In 1996 , Falun Gong came under increasing criticism and surveillance from the country 's security apparatus .
On 25 April 1999 , more than ten thousand practitioners congregated outside Communist Party of China headquarters in Zhongnanhai to request legal recognition . That evening , then @-@ Communist Party leader Jiang Zemin issued a decision to eradicate Falun Gong . At Jiang 's direction , on 7 June 1999 a special leading group was established within the party 's Central Committee to manage the persecution . The resulting organisation , called the 6 @-@ 10 Office , assumed the role of coordinating the anti @-@ Falun Gong media coverage in the state @-@ run press , as well influencing other party and state entities such as the courts and security agencies . On 19 July , the Central Committee of the Communist Party issued a document effectively banning the practice of Falun Gong . The following day , hundreds of practitioners were detained by security forces .
The persecution that followed was characterised by a " massive propaganda campaign " intended to justify the persecution by portraying Falun Gong as superstitious , dangerous , and incompatible with the official ideology . Tens of thousands of Falun Gong practitioners were imprisoned , and by the end of 1999 , reports began to emerge of torture in custody . According to Ian Johnson , authorities were given broad mandates to eliminate Falun Gong and pursue the coercive conversion of practitioners , but were not scrutinised for the methods they used . This resulted in the widespread use of torture , sometimes resulting in death .
Tiananmen Square was one of the main venues where Falun Gong practitioners gathered to protest the persecution , usually by raising banners in defence of the group , or stage peaceful meditation sit @-@ ins . Ian Johnson of the Wall Street Journal estimated that by 25 April 2000 , more than 30 @,@ 000 practitioners had been arrested for attempting to demonstrate in Beijing , most of them in or on the way to Tiananmen Square . Seven hundred Falun Gong followers were arrested during a demonstration in the Square on 1 January 2001 .
Chinese authorities struggled throughout the early years of the persecution to turn public opinion against Falun Gong . Instead , the campaign garnered criticisms from across a wide spectrum of Chinese society , with some commentators drawing comparisons to the Cultural Revolution and Nazi Germany 's treatment of the Jews . According to Human Rights Watch , " the leadership 's frustration with the failure of its efforts to quickly and thoroughly dismantle Falungong was also evident in its media campaign . " The state @-@ run press admitted in late 2000 that Falun Gong was continuing to stage protests in defiance of the ban , and proclaimed that " the ' broad masses ' had to be made to understand the ' duration , complexity and ferocity of our battle with Falun Gong . ' " In January 2001 , Chinese authorities launched a new wave of propaganda to discredit Falun Gong in which they urged state @-@ run media organizations to vilify the group .
= = The incident = =
On 23 January 2001 , the eve of Chinese New Year , five people on Tiananmen Square poured gasoline over their clothes and set themselves on fire .
A CNN film crew , who were there on a routine check for a possible Falun Gong protest , observed a man sitting down on the pavement northeast of the Monument to the People 's Heroes at the centre of the square . He proceeded to pour gasoline over himself and set himself ablaze . Police officers quickly congregated on the scene and extinguished the flames . Shortly afterwards , another four people on the square set themselves alight . One of the four , a man , was detained and driven away in a police van .
CNN reported that at least two men and altogether five persons set themselves on fire after pouring gasoline over themselves . They did not see a child among the self @-@ immolators . The CNN crew began filming the events from a distance , but were quickly intercepted by military police , who detained the journalists and confiscated their equipment . The authorities then put out the flames consuming the other four people 's clothing . A police van came to collect the badly burnt man , and two ambulances arrived almost 25 minutes later to collect the other four . The square was completely closed , and security was tight the next day , the most important of the traditional Chinese holidays . Police monitored public access to the square for the New Year celebrations , had fire extinguishers ready , and prevented Falun Gong practitioners from opening banners .
Xinhua named seven individuals as having been involved : Wang Jindong ( 王進東 ) , Liu Chunling ( 劉春玲 ) , Liu Siying ( 劉思影 ) , Chen Guo ( 陳果 ) , Hao Huijun ( 郝惠君 ) ; Liu Baorong ( 劉葆榮 ) , Liu Yunfang ( 劉雲芳 ) had not set themselves on fire . Liu Chunling reportedly died on the scene . A few months later , state media announced the death of her daughter Liu Siying , who , according to state @-@ news , had been hospitalised with severe burns following the incident . The other three were reported to have been " severely disfigured " . Beijing denied requests from western journalists to interview the survivors , and only China Central Television and the official New China News Agency were permitted to speak to their relatives or their colleagues .
= = Chinese media reports = =
Xinhua released details of the incident to foreign media 2 hours after the self @-@ immolation occurred . Xinhua then distributed a fuller press release seven days later on Tuesday , 30 January , in response to other media reports on the incident . On 31 January , a 30 @-@ minute special edition of the current affairs programme Forum told the state 's version of the events to the Chinese public . China Central Television aired footage , said to be taken by nearby surveillance cameras , of five people in flames .
The Chinese authorities stated that the seven people who had come to Tiananmen Square with the intention of self @-@ immolating were all from the city of Kaifeng in Henan province . The state @-@ run Xinhua News Agency asserted that the self @-@ immolators were " avid practitioners " of Falun Gong who had taken up the practice between 1994 and 1997 , and that they fantasised during the preceding week about " how wonderful it would be to enter heaven " . Six of them reportedly took the train on 16 January , meeting Chen Guo , the daughter of one of them , upon their arrival in Beijing . The seven agreed to light themselves in different parts of the Square at 2 : 30 pm on the designated day with gasoline smuggled there in plastic soda bottles ; each had been armed with two lighters in case one would fail . According to the government @-@ run China Association For Cultic Studies website , Wang Jindong stated afterwards that the group arrived in Tiananmen Square by two taxis , and were dropped off at the south of the Great Hall of the People , from where they walked to the spot where they would ignite themselves . Wang said he was approached by police as he was splitting open the soda bottles , and ignited himself hurriedly without assuming the lotus position . A press release from the Chinese government says that Liu Yunfang felt that the police were able to stop him burning himself because he had not attained the " required spiritual level . "
Articles in the Yangcheng Evening News and the Southern Daily reported that police had evidence that a few foreign reporters had advance knowledge of the incident , and suggested that such reporters could be charged with " instigating and abetting a suicide . " State media claimed surveillance video showed six or seven reporters from CNN , the Associated Press and Agence France @-@ Presse arriving just 10 minutes before the self @-@ immolations took place ; however , all three agencies denied advance knowledge of the incident — AP and AFP said they had no reporters in the square at the time , while CNN 's chief news executive , Eason Jordan , said the CNN crew were there on a routine check for a possible Falun Gong protest .
= = Falun Gong response = =
Immediately following the self @-@ immolation , the Falun Dafa Information Center denied that the self @-@ immolators could have been Falun Gong practitioners , emphatically pointing out that Falun Gong 's teachings do not sanction any form of violence , and that suicide is considered a sin .
Falun Gong sources overseas questioned the official Chinese government account of the event , and apparent inconsistencies in government 's official narrative led to a hypothesis that the self @-@ immolation was staged by the government to justify the persecution against Falun Gong by portraying its practitioners as irrational and suicidal . According to this hypothesis , the self @-@ immolation participants were paid actors , and were presumably assured that the flames would be extinguished before doing real harm .
Falun Gong @-@ affiliated New Tang Dynasty Television produced a programme called False Fire , which analyses the inconsistencies in the accounts of the event in the official Chinese media .
Based on a review of CCTV footage , the programme purports to demonstrate that the self @-@ immolators donned fire @-@ proof clothing and masks , and raises the question of why the participants ' hair and the apparently gasoline @-@ filled bottles they carried did not catch fire . Falun Gong sources also noted that the self @-@ immolators ' behaviour , the slogans they shouted , and their meditation postures were not consistent with the teachings or practices of Falun Gong . Furthermore , the program 's frame @-@ by @-@ frame analysis of the CCTV footage purportedly shows that Liu was actually killed by a deadly blow to the head from a man in a military overcoat . The False Fire documentary described the death of 12 @-@ year @-@ old Liu Siying as being under " unusual circumstances " , saying that she was apparently recovering well before dying suddenly on 17 March . Some Falun Gong sources argue that she may have been killed by the government as a way of guaranteeing her silence .
The program suggests that the reaction time of state @-@ run television crews and police on Tiananmen Square demonstrates they had advance knowledge of the event . They observed that officers arrived almost immediately on the scene equipped with numerous fire extinguishers . Fire extinguishers are not standard equipment for police on Tiananmen Square ; the nearest building that would house them was several minutes away from the scene .
The World Organization to Investigate the Persecution of Falun Gong further called attention to portrayals of Wang Jindong on state @-@ run television , claiming that the man who self @-@ immolated on the square was not the same person who appeared in subsequent interviews with CCTV . It pointed to a voice analysis conducted by the Speech Processing Laboratory at National Taiwan University , which concluded that the voices did not match , and also noted that the hairline and facial proportions appeared to be different . These observations were used to advance the theory that the self @-@ immolators were actors .
= = Third @-@ party findings = =
The identities of some of the self @-@ immolators , and their relationship to Falun Gong , was called into question by Philip Pan of the Washington Post . While state @-@ run Xinhua News Agency had reported that Liu Chunling 's adoptive mother speaking of Liu 's " obsession with Falun Gong " , her " worshipping of Li Hongzhi " , and that Liu would teach her daughter Falun Gong , Pan found most residents in Kaifeng felt disgraced by what Liu had done ( i.e. the self @-@ immolation ) , but none of Liu 's neighbours had ever observed her practising Falun Gong . They remarked there were problems between Liu and her mother , and the reporter learned that Liu " worked in a nightclub , took money to keep men company " . According to David Ownby , a University of Montreal historian and expert on Falun Gong , Pan 's portrayal of Liu Chunlin is highly inconsistent with the typical profile of a Falun Gong practitioner .
The identities of participants on Tiananmen Square was also called into question by a CNN producer on the scene . While the Chinese government claimed that a 12 @-@ year @-@ old Liu Siying had set herself on fire at the urging of her mother , the CNN producer said that she did not see any children among the self @-@ immolators .
Several observers have noted that foreign journalists were not allowed to interview the self @-@ immolation victims recovering in hospitals . Even the victims ' relatives were not permitted to speak with them , according to David Ownby . Pan wrote that " Beijing denied requests to interview Liu Siying and the three other survivors , who are all hospitalized ... A Kaifeng official said only China Central Television and the official New China News Agency were permitted to speak to their relatives or their colleagues . A man who answered the door at the Liu home referred questions to the government . " The survivors were interviewed by the state @-@ run press , however . In one such interview , CCTV interviewed the 12 @-@ year @-@ old Liu Siying . Government sources reported Liu Siying had undergone a tracheotomy shortly before the interview . Speaking through approved media outlets , she said that her own mother told her to set herself on fire to reach the " heavenly golden kingdom " ; journalist Danny Schechter doubted that the child would have been able to speak to the Chinese media so soon after a tracheotomy , yet Liu Siying appeared to be speaking clearly and singing in the interview .
According to Schechter , Xinhua had unusually released a statement on the self @-@ immolation to foreign media only hours after the event occurred , saying that this was unusual because sensitive subjects in the Chinese press are almost never reported on a timely basis . The usual protocol is approval by several party officials before publication . Ian Johnson similarly observed the state media " reported [ the victim 's ] death with unusual alacrity , implying that either the death took place earlier than reported or the usually cautious media had top @-@ level approval to rush out electronic reports and a televised dispatch . "
Questions were also raised over where the footage of the event came from , and the speed with which camera crews appeared on scene . Chinese government media reported that the close @-@ up shots in its video footage came from confiscated CNN tapes . CNN representatives argued that this was impossible , however , as their reporters were detained shortly after the event began . Pan was also suspicious of the positioning of the cameras , and the fact that the close @-@ up shots shown on Chinese television were taken without police interference . " In some , the camera is clearly behind police barricades " , the Washington Post article says . In addition , overhead surveillance camera footage seemed to show a man filming the scene using a small hand @-@ held camera , rather than a large camera of the type used for TV news reporting .
The Age commented that the " ready availability of fire @-@ extinguishers and official TV teams and the lack of verification about the victims " raised questions about whether authorities had advanced knowledge of the self @-@ immolation . Police were on the scene of the self @-@ immolation within 90 seconds carrying numerous pieces of firefighting equipment . A European journalist was quoted as saying " I have never seen policemen patrolling on Tiananmen Square carrying fire extinguishers . How come they all showed up today ? The location of the incident is at least 20 minutes roundtrip from the nearest building – the People 's Great Hall . " John Gittings of The Guardian stated , however , that it was common practice in many countries for police camera operators to be on hand when a public disturbance is anticipated ; the police used small @-@ scale fire @-@ extinguishers of the type carried in public vehicles , many of which are routinely on the square .
= = Dispute = =
Following the incident , the details of why the individuals were involved has been and remains the subject of dispute between representatives of Falun Gong , the Chinese government , and other observers .
A significant challenge to arriving at a definitive assessment of the event is that independent corroboration of the government 's claims has not been possible . According to Human Rights Watch ( HRW ) , the lack of independent information made the incident one of the most difficult stories for reporters in Beijing to report . The New York Times stated that conflicting claims were difficult to assess " [ w ] ith propaganda streaming in from seemingly opposite ends of the universe ... especially since the remaining Falun Gong practitioners have been driven underground . "
Philip Pan 's investigation , and other inconsistencies highlighted by Falun Gong organisations , led some journalists and other observers to entertain the possibility that the self @-@ immolation was not as straightforward as the Chinese official media accounts suggested . In the National Review , Ann Noonan of the Laogai Research Foundation suggested that it was " hardly a far @-@ fetched hypothesis " that the government staged the incident or allowed it to proceed to discredit Falun Gong , as the government vowed to crush the practice before the eightieth anniversary celebrations of the Communist Party in July . Clive Ansley , a Vancouver @-@ based rights lawyer who lived in China during the self @-@ immolation , suggested that a dramatic response by Falun Gong would have been understandable , but ultimately concluded that the event was staged : " You 've got Falun Gong people in this country , they 've been oppressed over and over again , they are not allowed to speak , they are not allowed to assert any of their rights as citizens , the level of frustration must be terribly , terribly high .. I can understand people doing that .. but ironically , we ultimately found out that it was staged anyway , it was not real. it was completely staged by the government . "
In his 2001 book on Falun Gong , journalist Danny Schechter drew on evidence from Falun Gong sources , from Philip Pan , and interviews with other journalists to conclude that the self @-@ immolation was orchestrated by the Chinese government . Citing Schechter 's research , anthropologist Noah Porter wrote that " convincing evidence has been provided that the events described by the Chinese media are at least deceptive , if not a complete hoax , " also stating " even if there were people who lit themselves on fire and considered themselves Falun Gong practitioners , they would not be representative of Falun Gong practitioners . " Beatrice Turpin , a China correspondent with Associated Press Television , said of the self @-@ immolation that " There was a big brouhaha with Falun Gong protests and footage of police beating practitioners last Chinese New Year and it would certainly fit in with typical China strategy to stage an event this year [ 2001 ] and make the show their own . "
Reviewing the divergent narratives on the identity of the self @-@ immolation victims , historian David Ownby concluded that " although the arguments of Falun Gong practitioners seem cogent , it is very difficult to arrive at a final judgment about the self @-@ immolation . ... there are desperate people in China ( and elsewhere ) who will do anything for money ( which would go to their families in this case , one supposes , unless the authorities had promised to rescue them before the flames could do harm ) . Or the entire event could have been staged . But it seems just as possible that those who set themselves on fire might have been new or unschooled Falun Gong practitioners , had discovered and practised Falun Gong on their own ( and badly ) in the post @-@ suppression period , and , for whatever reason , decided to make the ultimate sacrifice . "
Other human rights activists speculated that the five who set themselves on fire did so to protest the government 's crackdown on Falun Gong . Barend ter Haar was open to the idea that the self @-@ immolators were Falun Gong practitioners , and postulated that former Buddhists may have brought with them the " respectable Buddhist tradition of self @-@ immolation as a sacrifice to the Buddha " . He sought to account for the inconsistencies by suggesting that the government may have fabricated a video of their own when they realised the mediatic potential of the suicides .
Francesco Sisci , Asia editor of La Stampa , supported the possibility that the self @-@ immolators were Falun Gong practitioners , writing in the Asia Times that " no one believed that the government could have paid a mother to torch herself and her daughter , or that she was so loyal to the Communist Party that she pretended to be a Falungong member and kill herself and her only daughter , even if Falungong master Li Hongzhi forbade suicide ... " In Sisci 's view , Chinese officials made a mistake by arresting foreign journalists on Tiananmen — " independently filmed news footage of the proceedings could have been the best proof of Falungong madness . Instead , when the government reported the episode , it looked like propaganda . "
Time noted some of the confusion surrounding the conflicting views on the self @-@ immolation ; one Beijing Falun Gong practitioner interviewed appeared to accept that the self @-@ immolators were practitioners engaged in protest , while Falun Gong organisations overseas denied any involvement . Time also speculated that the " lack of solidarity " in Falun Gong was contributing to the sense of desperation of Mainland Chinese practitioners who may feel out of touch with the exiled leadership . Guardian reporter John Gittings reported that some observers believed it was possible that the self @-@ immolators acted in desperation and confusion .
Some observers have speculated that if the participants were Falun Gong practitioners , they may have resorted to self @-@ immolation in response to the publication of a new scripture by Li Hongzhi released on 1 January 2001 , " Beyond the Limits of Forbearance . " An article authored by a collection of Mainland Chinese Falun Gong practitioners and published on the main Chinese @-@ language Falun Gong website noted that the scripture had caused confusion both among Falun Gong practitioners and " in society , " and that some people wondered whether Falun Gong would resort to violence to resist persecution . The authors wrote that this would not occur , as violence would be both counterproductive and contrary to the teachings of the practice . A Falun Gong spokesperson clarified that the new scripture simply meant it was time to " bring truth to light " about human rights abuses committed by the Chinese government . Nonetheless , Gittings posited that the scripture may have confused Falun Gong followers , particularly in Mainland China . Matthew Forney wrote in Time magazine that Li 's message had spread into China via the internet and informal networks of followers , and speculated that it may have galvanised more radical practitioners there . David Ownby wrote that he found the brief message to be " difficult to interpret " : on its surface , the scripture resembled a " call to arms " against what Li described as " evil beings who no longer have any human nature or righteous thoughts . " Yet Ownby said no practitioners he talked to had seen the scripture as a " green light " for violent action . Instead , practitioners had interpreted it to mean that they could resist suppression without guilt ; they could stop " simply surrendering to the police at the first moment of a confrontation . They could run away , they could organize , they were , in a word , free of whatever constraints the necessity to " forbear " had previously placed upon them . " In an interview with the Washington Post , Ownby noted that Li does not endorse suicide in any of his recent statements , " But a practitioner at the end of his or her rope in China could certainly see [ the statements ] as an endorsement for martyrdom , and perhaps choose his or her own means to achieve that . "
= = Aftermath = =
= = = Media campaign and public opinion = = =
The state media coverage of the event resulted in increased support for the Party 's persecution efforts against Falun Gong , and eroded public sympathy for the group . Time reported that prior to the self @-@ immolation incident , many Chinese had felt that Falun Gong posed no real threat , and that the state 's persecution had gone too far . After the event , however , China 's media campaign against Falun Gong gained significant traction . The World Organization to Investigate the Persecution of Falun Gong reported that hostility toward Falun Gong from the general public escalated , the government had stepped up its campaign , and charged that " hate crimes " targeting Falun Gong increased . One western diplomat commented that the public changed from sympathising with Falun Gong to siding with the Government , popular consensus seemingly shifted by human @-@ interest stories and accounts of rehabilitation efforts of former practitioners . Østergaard believes that , in retrospect , the New Year scripture was Li 's greatest gift to the state , as the self @-@ immolations marked a turning point which ended domestic support for the movement .
The self @-@ immolation incident was given prominent coverage in the official Chinese media , which analysts say took a propagandistic line . According to Philip Pan , the Communist Party " launched an all @-@ out campaign to use the incident to prove its claim that Falun Gong is a dangerous cult , and to turn public opinion in China and abroad against the group ... Every morning and night , the state @-@ controlled media carry fresh attacks against Falun Gong and its U.S.-based leader , Li Hongzhi . " Posters , leaflets and videos were produced , detailing the supposed detrimental effects of Falun Gong practice . The New York Times reported that the public was " bombarded with graphic images of the act on television and in newspapers . " In China 's schools , regular anti @-@ Falun Gong classes were scheduled . Eight million students joined the " Anti @-@ Cult Action by the Youth Civilized Communities Across the Nation " . Twelve million children were made to submit writings disapproving of the practice .
Within a month of the Tiananmen Square incident , authorities issued a document entitled The whole story of the self @-@ immolation incident created by Falun Gong addicts in Tiananmen Square , containing colour photographs of charred bodies . The State Council 's " Office for the Prevention and Handling of Evil Cults " declared after the event that it was now ready to form a united front with the global anti @-@ cult struggle . Meetings took place in factories , offices , universities and schools , and approved religious leaders across the country had delivered denunciations of Falun Gong . In Kaifeng , the post office issued an anti @-@ Falun Gong postmark , and 10 @,@ 000 people signed a petition denouncing the group .
= = = Violence and re @-@ education = = =
The Washington Post reported that Chinese authorities benefited from the turn in public opinion against Falun Gong that followed the self @-@ immolation , seizing on the opportunity to sanction " the systematic use of violence against the group . " According to the Post , authorities " established a network of brainwashing classes and embarked on a painstaking effort to weed out followers neighbourhood by neighbourhood and workplace by workplace . " The " reeducation " tactics employed included beatings , shocks with electric truncheons , and intensive anti @-@ Falun Gong study classes .
According to a report published in the Wall Street Journal , in February 2001 the 6 @-@ 10 Office " stepped up pressure on local governments " to implement the anti @-@ Falun Gong campaign . In particular , it issued new , detailed instructions requiring that all who continued to actively practice Falun Gong were to be sent to prison or labour camps , and individuals who refused to renounce the practice were to be socially isolated and monitored by their families and workplaces . This was a shift from the past , when local officials sometimes tolerated Falun Gong on the condition that it was practised privately . According to Freedom House , In the year following the incident , the scale of imprisonment , torture , and deaths of Falun Gong practitioners in custody increased significantly . According to Freedom House , " months of relentless propaganda succeeded in turning public opinion against the group . Over the next year , the scale of imprisonment , torture , and even deaths of Falun Gong practitioners from abuse in custody increased dramatically . "
= = = Impact on Falun Gong 's resistance = = =
The self @-@ immolation necessitated a change in tactics for Falun Gong . Tiananmen Square had been " permanently contaminated " as a venue for protest , according to journalist Ethan Gutmann , and Falun Gong 's daily demonstrations in Beijing nearly ceased altogether . According to Human Rights Watch , practitioners may have concluded " the protests had outlived their usefulness for demonstrating Chinese abuses or for informing an overseas audience of Falungong 's harmlessness . " Diaspora practitioners living overseas focused their attentions on getting the word out about the treatment of practitioners by the Chinese government , issuing reports to the United Nations and human rights organisations , staging public marches and hunger strikes outside of China , and documenting human rights abuses on websites . Within China , practitioners used mass mailings and handed out literature to " spread the truth " and counter the government 's allegations against them . In an August 2001 press release , the US @-@ based Falun Dafa Information Center noted this shift in strategy , and said that Chinese practitioners " sometimes also manage to post large posters and banners in major thoroughfares . They even set up loudspeakers on rooftops or trees around labour camps and in densely populated areas to broadcast news about the human rights abuses . "
In 2002 , Falun Gong practitioners in Changchun successfully broadcast the False Fire video on Chinese television , interrupting the station 's scheduled programming for 50 minutes . Liu Chengjun , a Falun Gong practitioner who hacked into the satellite feed , was arrested and sentenced to prison , where he died 21 months later , allegedly tortured to death . The remaining five individuals behind the television hijacking were also imprisoned , and all have reportedly died or been tortured to death in custody .
= = = Fate of the self @-@ immolators = = =
Five of the people involved in the incident were sentenced in mid @-@ 2001 . Although the official Xinhua news agency had described the proceedings as a " public trial , " only the final day in the month @-@ long trial was public , and consisted mainly of the reading of verdicts . The Guardian reported that on the last day of the one @-@ month trial , Xinhua had , by mid @-@ morning , issued a full report of the verdicts ; the People 's Daily had produced its own editorial by the afternoon .
Liu Yunfang , named as the mastermind , was given a life sentence ; Wang Jindong was given 15 years . Two other accomplices – a 49 @-@ year @-@ old man named Xue Hongjun , and a 34 @-@ year @-@ old Beijing woman named Liu Xiuqin who apparently provided the group with lodging and helped in the preparation of the incident – were sentenced to 10 and 7 years in prison respectively . Liu Baorong , who had " acknowledged her crime " , escaped punishment because her role in planning the event was minor .
After having long denied foreign media access to the self @-@ immolation victims , in April 2002 the Government arranged for foreign press to interview the purported survivors of the self @-@ immolation in the presence of state officials . The interviewees refuted claims that the self @-@ immolation was staged , showing their burn injuries as evidence , and denounced Falun Gong while expressing support for the authorities ' handling of the group . When asked why they set themselves on fire , Hao Huijun replied that she had realised the futility of writing letters and demonstrating by waving banners , " so finally , we decided ... to make a big event to show our will to the world . ... We wanted to show the government that Falun Gong was good . " At the time of the interview , Chen Guo and her mother were said to still be in the hospital , both having lost their hands , ears and noses . Both her mother 's eyes were covered with skin grafts . Wang Jindong , showing burns to his face , said he felt " humiliated because of my stupidity and fanatical ideas . "
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= East to West ( song ) =
" East to West " is a song recorded by contemporary Christian band Casting Crowns . Written by Mark Hall and Bernie Berms and produced by Mark A Miller , it was released as the lead single from the band 's 2007 album The Altar and the Door . Lyrically , the song deals with the concept of forgiveness . The song met with a positive to mixed reception from music critics and won two awards at the 39th GMA Dove Awards : Song of the Year and Pop / Contemporary Recorded Song of the Year . It was also nominated for the Grammy Award for Best Gospel Performance at the 51st Grammy Awards .
" East to West " received 78 adds in its first week , a record at Christian radio . The song peaked atop five chart formats , as well as at number twenty @-@ five on the Billboard Bubbling Under Hot 100 Singles chart . It ranked at number six on the decade @-@ end Billboard Hot Christian Songs chart and at number seven on the decade @-@ end Billboard Hot Christian AC chart . Additionally , it ranked inside the top fifteen on both the 2007 and 2008 year @-@ end Hot Christian Songs and Hot Christian AC charts .
= = Recording and composition = =
In the liner notes for The Altar and the Door , Casting Crowns lists Psalm 51 , Ephesians 2 : 1 – 10 , 1 John 1 : 9 , Psalm 103 , Romans 8 , Colossians 2 : 9 – 15 , Isaiah 38 : 17 , Psalm 32 , Lamentations 3 : 22 – 24 , Romans 6 and Romans 3 : 5 – 8 as inspirations for writing " East to West " . It was written by Mark Hall and Bernie Herms and produced by Mark A. Miller . It was recorded and mixed by Sam Hewitt at Zoo Studio in Franklin , Tennessee and at My Refuge Studio in McDonough , Georgia . Additional recording was handled by Michael Hewitt and Dale Oliver at Zoo Studio , while the song was mastered by Richard Dodd . The string section was arranged by Herms and recorded by Bill Whittington and Steve Breers at The Sound Kitchen in Franklin , Tennessee .
" East to West " is a contemporary Christian song lasting four minutes and twenty @-@ six seconds . It was written in common time in the key of F ♯ minor at a tempo of 73 beats per minute . The vocal range in the song ranges from the low note of D4 to the high note of F ♯ 5 . Lyrically , " East to West " deals with the concept of forgiveness , and the doubt that God forgives and forgets all sin . Casting Crowns ' lead vocalist Mark Hall explained that : " We have a hard time with the concept of forgiveness . We cut ourselves and it heals , but the scar remains . Sometimes we think God treats sin like we would if we were God , and that he handles forgiveness like we would . We know he forgives , but we can 't accept that God chooses to forget and relinquishes his right to avenge . That 's what we 're singing about in ' East To West ' " . In a separate interview , Hall elaborated on that theme , commenting that : " I see forgiveness as God giving away His right to revenge in my life . He loved me so much that He ’ s choosing to remember that against me no more , all because of Jesus " .
= = Critical reception and awards = =
Upon the release of The Altar and the Door , " East to West " met with positive to mixed critical reception . Kevin McNeese of New Release Tuesday regarded the song as a " powerful song and moment " , while Steve Morley of United Methodist Communications commented that the song " offers grace for the journey " and " emphasizes the sin @-@ crushing power of Jesus ’ death and resurrection " . Andree Farias of Christianity Today was more negative , opining that the song took too long to reach its climax .
At the 39th GMA Dove Awards , " East to West " won the awards for Song of the Year and Pop / Contemporary Recorded Song of the Year . It was also nominated for the Grammy Award for Best Gospel Performance at the 51st Grammy Awards .
= = Chart performance = =
" East to West " received 78 radio adds in its first week , a record at Christian radio . It debuted at number fifteen on the Billboard Hot Christian Songs chart and advanced to number one in its seventh week on the chart. in total , " East to West " spent forty @-@ three weeks atop the chart The song spent a total of nineteen weeks at the top spot , tied with Brandon Heath 's " Give Me Your Eyes " for the second most weeks at number one in the history of the Hot Christian Songs chart . " East to West " also topped the Billboard Hot Christian AC chart and the Radio & Records INSPO chart . It spent thirteen weeks atop the Radio & Records Christian AC Monitored chart and a record fourteen weeks atop the Radio & Records Christian AC Indicator chart . " East to West " also peaked at number twenty @-@ five on the Billboard Bubbling Under Hot 100 Singles chart . In 2012 , " East to West " was certified Gold by the RIAA , signifying sales of over 500 @,@ 000 digital downloads .
" East to West " was ranked at number eight on the 2007 year @-@ end Hot Christian Songs chart and at number nine on the 2007 year @-@ end Hot Christian AC chart , as well as at number twelve on the 2008 year @-@ end Hot Christian Songs chart and at number fourteen on the 2008 year @-@ end Hot Christian AC chart . It ranked at number six on the decade @-@ end Hot Christian Songs chart and at number seven on the decade @-@ end Hot Christian AC chart , Casting Crowns highest @-@ ranking song on both decade @-@ end charts .
= = Live performances = =
Casting Crowns has performed " East to West " in concert and at events since its release as a single . At the 39th GMA Dove Awards , they performed a " stirring rendition " of the song . At a concert on February 28 , 2010 in Hershey , Pennsylvania , Casting Crowns performed the song as part of their set list . They performed the song at a concert at the Sprint Center in Kansas City , Missouri as the fourth @-@ to @-@ last song of their set list .
= = Charts = =
= = Release history = =
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= St Anne 's Pier =
St Anne 's Pier is a Victorian era pleasure pier in the English seaside resort of St Anne 's @-@ on @-@ the @-@ Sea , Lancashire . It lies on the estuary of the River Ribble . The pier , designed by A. Dowson , was completed in 1885 and was one of the earliest public buildings in St Anne 's , a 19th @-@ century planned town . The pier was originally intended to be a sedate promenading venue for the resort 's visitors , but attractions were later added . Changes made to the estuary channels to improve access to Preston Dock left the pier on dry land and ended its steamer services to Blackpool and Liverpool .
A Tudor @-@ style entrance was built in 1899 . Early 20th @-@ century additions included a Moorish @-@ style pavilion in 1904 and the Floral Hall in 1910 . The Moorish Pavilion was destroyed by fire in 1974 , shortly after the town 's centenary ; the Floral Hall burned down in 1982 . Originally 914 feet ( 279 m ) long , the pier was reduced to 600 feet ( 180 m ) by the demolition of the seaward end . English Heritage has designated the pier a Grade II listed building .
= = Background = =
St Anne 's @-@ on @-@ the @-@ Sea is a planned seaside resort on the Fylde coast , at the mouth of the River Ribble , in Lancashire . It was developed in the 19th century , largely by the St Anne 's Land & Building Company . The company was formed in 1874 and leased land for the new town from the estate of the local Clifton family . Towards the end of the 19th century , pleasure piers became a common feature of English seaside resorts , and by the 1870s there were already two piers in nearby Blackpool , one in Southport and one 3 @.@ 5 miles ( 5 @.@ 6 km ) away in Lytham . The wording of the land company 's original lease indicates that a pier was probably planned for St Anne 's from its beginning . A subsidiary , the St Anne 's @-@ on @-@ the @-@ Sea Pier and Improvements Company was formed in 1877 . The company directors believed that a pier at St Anne 's would offer visitors better conditions for fishing and boating than those at neighbouring resorts .
= = Construction = =
There was some delay in building the new pier because of an economic downturn . Engineers inspected the site in 1879 , and construction began in 1880 . The architect was A. Dowson . The pier is constructed of cast iron columns and lattice girders with wooden decking and intricate decorative iron @-@ work on the deck . The columns were sunk to a depth of 50 feet ( 15 m ) . The original structure was 914 feet ( 279 m ) long and 19 feet ( 5 @.@ 8 m ) wide . It included a band kiosk built of glass and iron . Construction cost £ 18 @,@ 000 and took more than five years . The pier was opened by Frederick Stanley on 15 June 1885 , in a ceremony attended by local dignitaries , school children , the Preston Militia band , and the Order of Mechanics . The opening featured the launch of a lifeboat named the Laura Janet , whose crew was lost the following year in the Southport and St Anne 's lifeboats disaster .
In 1891 a wooden landing jetty at the end of the pier was extended , in an L shape , by engineering and architecture firm Garlick and Sykes . The new iron extension was three storeys high and measured 120 feet ( 37 m ) long by 90 feet ( 27 m ) wide . After its addition , the pier was 945 feet ( 288 m ) in length . The jetty was used for steamer services from Blackpool and Liverpool . The passing of the Ribble Navigation and Preston Dock Act of 1883 led to dredging of the river channels to improve access to Preston Dock . These changes to the estuary meant that the pier was eventually left on dry land , ruining the resort 's steamer trade .
A new entrance building was constructed in 1899 to a design by J. D. Harker . This was built in the Mock Tudor style of red brick with imitation timber framing . In 1901 work began to enlarge the pier and add a Moorish @-@ style pavilion . It had a seating capacity of 920 and measured 84 feet ( 26 m ) by 56 feet ( 17 m ) . The width of the pier was increased to 34 feet ( 10 m ) . These additions were also undertaken by Garlick and Sykes and opened on 2 April 1904 .
In 1910 , further additions included the Floral Hall , adjacent to the Moorish Pavilion at the seaward end . The hall — a winter garden and concert hall — had a seating capacity of 850 ; it was built of steel and plate glass to a design by Arnold England .
= = Attractions = =
In the late 19th and early 20th centuries , the developers of St Anne 's were keen to attract a more refined market than Blackpool 's working @-@ class excursionists . The pier was originally intended to provide little more than a sedate promenading facility for the resort 's visitors ; initially the only other attractions were a band kiosk and a sweet shop .
The pier 's Floral Hall hosted concerts and music hall acts . Its first resident orchestra was Miss Kate Erl and Her Ladies Orchestra . Subsequent conductors of the pier 's orchestra were Clarice Dunnington , William Rees , Lionel Johns and Norman George . Artists who have performed on the pier include Gracie Fields , Leslie Henson , Russ Conway and George Formby .
In 1954 , an amusement arcade was added to the pier ; this now occupies three quarters of the length of the structure . Alterations later that decade included the addition of a restaurant and replacement of the decking . By the 1970s the pier 's amusements included crazy golf , a miniature zoo and live theatre performances .
= = Damage and recent history = =
In 1962 the holdings of the St Anne 's Land & Building Company ( including the pier ) were bought by the Amalgamated Investment Company , based in London . Some alterations to the pier were made by the new owners , including the addition of an aviary and a reptile house . The Floral Hall was refurbished and turned into a Tyrolean @-@ style beer garden .
A centenary concert for the town by violinist Yehudi Menuhin was held on 7 June 1974 and attended by Anne , Princess Royal . On the night of 20 July , the Moorish Pavilion ( known from 1970 as the Sultan 's Palace ) was destroyed in a fire .
On 6 December 1976 , following the liquidation of the Amalgamated Investment Company , the pier was bought by the Webb family for £ 30 @,@ 000 . They initially planned to repair the fire damage . The Floral Hall , which had been adjacent to the Moorish Pavilion , was destroyed by fire on 23 July 1982 ; the pavilions were deemed irreparable and the seaward end of the pier was demolished . Following protests against the demolition by campaigners , the local council decided that the final 150 feet ( 46 m ) should be retained to protect the character of the pier , so the remains of the ruined landing jetty still exist . The pier , most of which is enclosed , now ends with an uncovered stretch of deck that opens out into two hexagonal platforms with small pavilions and shelters . The length of the remaining intact structure is 600 feet ( 180 m ) . The pier 's 21st @-@ century attractions include the amusement arcade , cafés and shops ; the seaward end is usually closed to visitors .
English Heritage designated St Anne 's Pier a Grade II listed building on 21 September 1973 . It is listed as part of a group of promenade structures that includes a bandstand , a lifeboat monument , a pavilion and two shelters . Lynn F. Pearson ( 1991 ) writes that the pier 's Moorish Pavilion and Floral Hall were " two of the best [ pier pavilions ] in design terms " . According to Chris Mawson and Richard Riding ( 2008 ) , the pier is " well regarded " for its wrought iron work .
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= Battle of San Marino =
The Battle of San Marino was an engagement on 17 – 20 September 1944 during the Italian Campaign of the Second World War , in which German Army forces occupied the neutral Republic of San Marino , and were then attacked by Allied forces . It is also sometimes known as the Battle of Monte Pulito .
San Marino had declared its neutrality earlier in the war , and had remained broadly unaffected by events in Europe until 1944 , when Allied forces had advanced a sizable distance up the Italian Peninsula . A major German defensive position , the Gothic Line , ran across the peninsula a short distance south of the Sammarinese border , and in late June , the country was bombed by the Royal Air Force , killing 35 people , in the belief that the German army had taken up positions on its territory . In Operation Olive , launched in late August , a strong Allied force attacked at the very eastern end of the line , aiming to pass through Rimini — just east of San Marino — and break out onto the plains north of the city . Whilst San Marino was southwest of Rimini , the plan was for it to be bypassed entirely . In response to the Allied movements , the Germans sent a small force into San Marino to guard their lines of communication and act as artillery observers .
After a few days , the main thrust of the offensive was halted south of Rimini by strong resistance and severe weather , and the British and Indian flanking forces began to push westwards , taking the frontline towards San Marino . On 17 September the 4th Indian Infantry Division attacked forces of the 278 . Infanterie @-@ Division holding two hills just across the Sammarinese border ; after heavy fighting to gain control of the hills , the situation stabilised on the 19th , and Allied forces began to push into the city of San Marino itself . The city was captured by the afternoon of 20 September , and the 4th Indian Division left the country on the 21st , leaving it under the control of the local defence forces .
= = Background = =
The microstate of San Marino , in the northern Italian peninsula and fully surrounded by Italy , had played little role throughout the Second World War . It had a fascist government , closely aligned with Benito Mussolini 's regime , but remained neutral . It was reported to have declared war against the United Kingdom in September 1940 , though the Sammarinese government later transmitted a message to the British government stating that it had not . In early 1942 , the Sammarinese government reiterated it was not at war with the United States , a position that was confirmed by the US State Department . The British Foreign Office noted more equivocally in 1944 that Britain had never declared war , but also had never formally recognised San Marino 's neutrality , and that it felt that military action on Sammarinese territory would be justified if it were being used by Axis forces .
The country was bombed by the Allies on 27 June 1944 , killing at least 35 . The Sammarinese government declared the same day that no military installations or equipment were located on its territory , and that no belligerent forces had been allowed to enter . In early July , it announced that prominent signs had been put up at the border crossings by the German command , to instruct German units not to enter the territory , and again reiterated its complete neutrality .
= = Prelude = =
= = = Assault on the Gothic Line = = =
By the late summer of 1944 , German forces in Italy had withdrawn toward the Gothic Line , a chain of defended positions stretching across the Italian peninsula . The Allies formulated a plan to break through the defences , pushing north toward Rimini and the plains of Northern Italy . This would involve a strong thrust up the eastern seaboard by the British Eighth Army , codenamed Operation Olive ; 11 divisions would attack along a narrow front , converging on the " Rimini Gap " , an 8 mi ( 13 km ) stretch of plain along the coast around the city , and then moving northward . Once through the Gap , the force would deploy outward onto the Romagna Plain , and move westward toward Bologna . Meanwhile , the American Fifth Army would push north along the centre of the peninsula , hopefully converging on Bologna and trapping a large German force in a pincer movement .
The main Allied assault began on 25 August , reaching the Foglia valley — the Gothic Line proper — on 29 August . It was quickly breached , and the German command attempted to assemble a second defensive line on the Coriano ridge , a hilly spur to the north of the Conca river , and the last major geographic obstacle south of Rimini . The Allied offensive reached the river on 3 September , but ground to a halt due to mechanical difficulties with its tanks , strengthening German resistance , and heavy rain . The Allied forces halted , and brought up reinforcements whilst waiting for a chance to resume the offensive along the coast . On the left flank of the assault , the attack had been halted in the Battle of Gemmano , to the south of the Conca river .
At this point , the forces on the Allied left wing were strung out in a line running due south from the Coriano ridge , facing westward toward San Marino , a few miles distant . The 56th ( London ) Infantry Division was opposite Croce , with the 46th Infantry Division opposite the heavily defended position at Gemmano . The 4th Indian Infantry Division was to the south of the 46th , forming the very left wing of the offensive . When the assault on Coriano was resumed on the 12th , led by two armoured divisions with heavy artillery support , these forces pushed westwards ; their goal was to pass through towards the town of Montescudo , about two miles from the Sammarinese border . The main assault successfully pushed onto the ridge , and the 56th Division advanced about 1 mi ( 1 @.@ 6 km ) past Croce , before digging in on the evening of the 13th ; that night , the 4th Indian Division gained a foothold south of Gemmano . It was finally captured by the 46th and 4th Indian Divisions on the morning of the 15th , and the British forces prepared to move toward Montescudo and exploit the German confusion .
= = Battle = =
= = = Entry into San Marino = = =
The 46th Division took Montescudo on the 15th , and on the next day the 56th Division entered the town of Mulazzano , directly north of Montescudo and equally close to the border . The fighting pressed westward from here , with the 56th Division on the northern flank and the 46th on the south ; both were held back by strong German resistance .
In early September , the German Army had sent a strong force into San Marino to defend it against the Allies ; this would also give them control of one of the major roads in the area , and allow artillery observers to occupy the mountain peaks . The defending force was drawn from the 278 . Infanterie @-@ Division , whilst the 4th Indian Division was assigned to attack it on the 17th .
The leading elements of the division — the 3rd / 10th Baluch Regiment — crossed the Marano River on the eastern border on the night of the 17th , with the 1st / 9th Gurkha Rifles moving through them to attack Points 343 and 366 near Faetano . These small hills — just behind the river — were held by two battalions of the 993rd Grenadier Regiment . The first — Point 343 — was taken at 05 : 00 , but the force occupying Point 366 had to fall back after running low on ammunition . Rifleman Sher Bahadur Thapa was posthumously awarded the Victoria Cross for holding the crest of the hill single @-@ handed for two hours , allowing two companies to withdraw in safety , before being killed whilst trying to rescue another wounded Gurkha .
Point 343 was held through the 18th , however , though with the loss of 63 men ; by the evening , a force of tanks had managed to come up and stabilise the position with the aid of artillery support . The 4th / 11th Sikh Regiment moved around the Gurkhas to the north , covering the northern flank of the San Marino heights , and the division 's 11th Brigade passed through them to help encircle the city . On the evening of the 19th , the 2nd Battalion , Queen 's Own Cameron Highlanders of 11th Indian Infantry Brigade began to push into the outskirts of the city from the north , but early on the morning of the 20th were held back by defensive positions in the north @-@ west of the city , where the road to the upper part of the city , situated higher on the mountain , began . Tanks moved into the suburbs , whilst a company of the Camerons moved uphill toward the summit in heavy rain . The city was secured by the early afternoon , with only 24 casualties among the attackers , and 54 prisoners taken .
On the 21st , the local defence forces were enlisted to help mop up straggling German troops , and the 4th Indian Division pressed onward through a heavy gale and passed out of the country .
= = Aftermath = =
Allied forces remained in occupation of San Marino for a short period following the German surrender . In October 1945 , after the end of the war , the Sammarinese government submitted a claim for 732 million lira to the British government for wartime compensation , of which 500 million lira were given as the related costs of the fighting in September and 20 million lira as the costs of the occupation . The British government rejected this claim , arguing that as Germany had breached the Sammarinese neutrality before Allied troops had entered the country , it was not liable ; it did , however , offer an ex gratia payment of £ 26 @,@ 000 in regard to the June bombing , later increased to £ 80 @,@ 000 .
The battle honour " San Marino " was awarded to three British Army units — the Royal Lincolnshire Regiment , the York and Lancaster Regiment , and the Queen 's Own Cameron Highlanders — and two Indian Army units , the 1st / 9th Gurkha Rifles and the 4th / 11th Sikh Regiment . The latter three of these had fought as part of 4th Indian Division in the main attack , whilst the first two had had battalions in the 138th Infantry Brigade of 46th Division .
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= John Troglita =
John Troglita ( Latin : Ioannes Troglita , Greek : Ἰωάννης Τρωγλίτης ) was a 6th @-@ century Byzantine general . He participated in the Vandalic War and served in North Africa as a regional military governor during the years 533 – 538 , before being sent east to the wars with the Sassanid Persians . As dux Mesopotamiae , Troglita distinguished himself in several battles , and was noticed by agents of the Byzantine emperor , Justinian I ( r . 527 – 565 ) . In summer 546 , Justinian chose John Troglita to assume overall command of Byzantine forces in Africa , where a succession of revolts by the indigenous Moorish tribes and within the imperial army itself had seriously reduced the Byzantine position . Troglita quickly secured an initial victory in the winter of 546 / 547 against the Moors of Byzacena , but was defeated in summer 547 by the tribes of Tripolitania , and Africa was once again laid open to destructive raids . Troglita reorganized his army and secured the assistance of some tribal leaders , and confronted and decisively defeated the tribal coalition at the Fields of Cato in summer 548 . This victory spelled the end of the Moorish revolt , and heralded an era of peace for Africa . Troglita was also involved in the Gothic War , twice sending some of his troops to Italy to assist against the Ostrogoths .
John Troglita 's exploits , especially against the Moors in Africa , are the subject of the last Latin epic poem of Antiquity , the Iohannis , seu de Bellis Libycis ( " Tale of John , or On the Libyan War " ) of Flavius Cresconius Corippus , which is the main source on his life .
= = Origins and early career in Africa and the East = =
The exact origins of John Troglita are unclear . He may have been born in Thrace , but his peculiar surname might indicate provenance from Trogilos ( Greek : Τρώγιλος ) in Macedonia . According to information provided by the 6th @-@ century historian Procopius of Caesarea and Troglita 's panegyrist Flavius Cresconius Corippus , he was the son of a certain Evanthes , and had at least one brother named Pappus . Troglita himself married a " daughter of a king " , probably a barbarian chieftain , and had a son , Peter .
John Troglita is first mentioned as having participated in the Vandalic War ( 533 – 534 ) under Belisarius , and may be identifiable with another John , who commanded a unit of foederati in the battles of Ad Decimum and Tricamarum . Troglita remained in the province of Africa after Belisarius 's departure in 534 , and participated in the expeditions of Solomon against the Moors in 534 – 535 . At the time , he was probably the local military governor ( dux ) in either Byzacena or , more probably , Tripolitania , for he is mentioned as leading successful expeditions against the Leuathae tribe . Troglita also fought against the mutinous army under the renegade Stotzas , participating in the first victory under Belisarius at Membresa in 536 , and then , under Solomon 's successor Germanus , in the decisive battle at Scalas Veteres in spring 537 . In this battle , he was one of the commanders of the cavalry on the Byzantine army 's right wing , which according to the historian Procopius was defeated and driven off by Stotzas 's men , losing its standards in the process . Nevertheless , the battle resulted in an imperial victory . In 538 , Troglita distinguished himself in the Battle of Autenti , probably in the Byzacena .
At some point after 538 , Troglita was sent to the Eastern frontier , where by 541 he was appointed dux Mesopotamiae , one of the most important military commands of the region . From this position , he arrested a member of the embassy sent by the Ostrogothic king Witiges to the Persians to incite them to attack Byzantium . When war broke out , according to Corippus John scored a number of successes against the Persian army : he defeated the general Nabedes near Nisibis , led his army in a successful night attack against the Persian force besieging Theodosiopolis , and then defeated another Persian army besieging Dara , capturing its general , Mihr @-@ Mihroe . Procopius , however , gives a different account of the first battle , indicating that Troglita had to be saved from a sudden Persian attack by Belisarius , and does not mention the other two incidents at all . Nevertheless , Corippus maintains that John was congratulated for his performance by Urbicius , one of Emperor Justinian 's advisors who had been sent to supervise the war .
= = High command in Africa = =
During Troglita 's absence from Africa , the situation had been turbulent . Germanus had remained in the province until 539 , and succeeded in restoring discipline in the army and pacifying the core territories of Africa Proconsularis and Byzacena . He was succeeded by Solomon , who began his second tenure with great success , defeating the Moors of the Aurès Mountains and establishing control over Numidia and Mauretania Sitifensis . However , the Moorish revolt flared up again in 543 and Solomon was killed in the Battle of Cillium in 544 . His successor , his nephew Sergius , was incompetent . He was defeated by the Moors , recalled and replaced with the senator Areobindus , who was murdered in spring 546 in another military revolt led by the general Guntharic . The latter intended to declare himself independent of Constantinople , but was soon murdered by the Armenian Artabanes . The need for a new and capable leader in Africa was apparent to Constantinople . After a truce was signed with Persia in 546 , Emperor Justinian , perhaps , as Corippus implies , acting on Urbicius 's advice , recalled Troglita from the East . After having him report on the situation there in Constantinople , the Emperor placed him at the head of a new army and sent him to Africa as the new magister militum per Africam in late summer 546 .
= = = Suppression of the Moorish revolt = = =
In late 546 , when John Troglita reached Carthage , the situation was dire : the imperial troops , under Marcentius the dux of Byzacena and Gregory the Armenian in Carthage , were few in number and demoralized . They held out in the coastal cities , blockaded by the Moors of Byzacena under their chieftain Antalas , while the Leuathae and Austurae tribes from Tripolitania were raiding Byzacena with impunity . Diplomatic efforts , however , secured the allegiance of the Moorish leaders Cutzinas and Ifisdaias , who joined the imperial army with several thousands of their men . In addition , the tribesmen of the Aurès Mountains under Iaudas withdrew to Numidia on learning of Troglita 's arrival and pursued a course of armed neutrality .
Upon his arrival in Carthage , Troglita reorganized his troops , bolstering the local forces with the veterans he had brought with him – mostly horse archers and cataphracts – and marched out to meet the rebels . At Antonia Castra , emissaries from Antalas presented themselves , but Troglita rejected their terms and imprisoned them . The Byzantine army marched into Byzacena , relieved the beleaguered cities and joined up with Marcentius . The Moors , taken by surprise by the imperial army 's swift advance , withdrew again to the mountainous and wooded interior , where they gathered their forces under the leadership of Ierna of the Leuathae and Antalas . Corippus suggests that they hoped that Troglita would not maintain his pursuit in the midst of winter , and that they would have the advantage over the imperial army in this terrain . Troglita encamped near the Moorish positions and dispatched an envoy , Amantius , to bring Antalas his terms : the general offered amnesty in exchange for submitting to imperial authority again .
Corippus narrates the subsequent battle at length , but his imitation of Virgilian verse provides little concrete detail : it is clear that it was a long , indecisive , and bloody conflict , which probably took place to the south or east of Sbeitla in late 546 or early 547 . Eventually , the Byzantines prevailed and drove back the Moors , breaking through their defences and storming their camp . According to Corippus , Ierna , who was the chief priest of the god Gurzil , was killed while trying to protect an image of the god . Many other tribal leaders fell , and the remainder scattered . The remains of the Tripolitanian tribes abandoned Byzacena , and Antalas was forced to lay down arms . In addition , many prisoners were released from the Moorish camp , and among the treasures captured there were the military standards lost by Solomon at Cillium in 544 . These were dispatched to Constantinople , while Troglita held a triumphal entry into Carthage .
= = = = Battle of Marta = = = =
With this victory , the war seemed won , and peace re @-@ established in Africa . A few months later , however , the tribes of Tripolitania reassembled and formed a coalition under the king of the Ifuraces , Carcasan . After raiding Tripolitania , they turned west to raid Byzacena again . Notified of this by Rufinus , the dux of Tripolitania , Troglita marched out to meet them . The Byzantine army had been weakened in the meantime by the need to reinforce Belisarius against the Goths in Italy : of the nine regiments Troglita had brought with him from Constantinople , three were dispatched to Italy . The Moors under Antalas remained hostile but did not immediately join the conflict for the moment , but the Byzantines were deprived of the services of Ifisdaias , who refused to commit his men . Despite the hot summer , Troglita marched his men quickly to the southern limit of Byzacena , along the edge of the desert , hoping to meet the Moors there and prevent the long @-@ suffering province from being ravaged again . The Moors initially withdrew into the arid interior , hoping to shake him off , but Troglita 's army , accompanied by a caravan with water and provisions , followed them into the desert . Both armies suffered from thirst and hunger , and discontent spread among the Byzantine soldiers . Finally , a near mutiny erupted when an epidemic killed off a large part of the army 's horses , forcing Troglita to turn again north towards the coast .
There , Troglita positioned himself between the Matmata plateau and the coast , and awaited the Moors . He also sent for ships to bring supplies , but adverse winds made this impossible . When the Moorish army appeared nearby it was likewise exhausted from hunger and made for some sources of water , which Troglita set out to reach first . The Byzantines camped at Marta in the district of Gallica , where battle was joined . It was a disastrous defeat for the Byzantines , whose army broke and fled . Corippus , possibly in an attempt to exculpate his hero Troglita , attributes the defeat to the indiscipline of some soldiers , who attacked the enemy before the army was ready , leading to a disorganized piecemeal engagement . According to Corippus 's account , the Moorish allies of the Byzantines panicked first and retreated , causing the entire army to disintegrate , despite the personal intervention of Troglita and the other Byzantine leaders .
Following this defeat , Troglita fled to Iunci ( modern Bordj Younga , 9 km south of Mahares ) , where he began regrouping the survivors . The losses were so high and the army 's morale so low , however , that he was soon forced to withdraw further north to the fortress of Laribus ( the modern village of Lorbeus , near Le Kef ) , where he started mustering his army . Learning of the battle , Antalas immediately rose up again and joined the Tripolitanian tribes , while the Byzantines ' allies , Cutzinas and Isfidaias , were quarreling among themselves . Throughout the remainder of 547 , the Moors were free to raid across Africa , even reaching the vicinity of Carthage itself .
= = = = Battle of the Fields of Cato = = = =
Troglita did not remain inactive : from Carthage , the praetorian prefect Athanasius and Troglita 's young son organized reinforcements and supplies for the camp at Laribus , while Troglita himself succeeded not only in reconciling Cutzinas and Isfidaias , but also in gaining the allegiance of King Iaudas and his tribe . In the spring of 548 , Troglita , having regrouped his forces , met with his Moorish allies at the plain of Arsuris on the northern limits of Byzacena . Corippus gives extraordinary numbers for the native contingents provided by each chief : 30 @,@ 000 for Cutzinas , 100 @,@ 000 for Isfidaias , and 12 @,@ 000 under Iaudas 's brother . Whatever the real numbers , it seems clear that Troglita 's regular troops formed the lesser portion of the imperial army .
The tribes , under the leadership of Carcasan and Antalas , had encamped in central Byzacena , in the plain of Mamma or Mammes . Carcasan , confident after his victory the previous year , wanted to confront the imperial army immediately , but as it happened he gave way to Antalas , who advocated the more cautious and well @-@ tried Moorish tactic of withdrawing and drawing the Byzantines into the interior , forcing them to march far from their supply bases and through a devastated country , thus exhausting and demoralizing them . The rebels thus retreated south and east , reaching Iunci after ten days . Troglita 's army pursued them at some distance , only exchanging a few blows with the tribes ' rearguard . Once the Byzantine army reached the plain before Iunci and laid camp , however , the Moors again withdrew into the mountainous interior . Having been informed by a spy of his enemy 's strategy , Troglita refused to follow , and remained encamped near the port of Lariscus , from where he could be easily resupplied . Nevertheless , discontent grew among the soldiers , who did not understand their leader 's reluctance to fight : the army mutinied and attacked the tent of Troglita , who was barely able to escape . Thanks to the allied Moorish contingents , who remained steadfast , Troglita was able to reimpose control over his men .
Troglita now moved his army to confront the enemy , who were encamped at a plain called the Fields of Cato . The Moorish camp had been heavily fortified , and Troglita was reluctant to launch a direct assault . He therefore blockaded it , hoping that hunger would force the Moors to fight him in open battle . To further encourage them , he restrained his men , feigning a reluctance to fight . Troglita 's plan worked : encouraged by sacrifices to their gods and hoping to catch the imperial army unprepared , the Moors attacked the Byzantine camp on a Sunday . The battle hung long in the balance , with many dead on both sides , but eventually the Byzantines gained the upper hand . At this point , Carcasan rallied his forces and launched a fierce counterattack , but was killed by Troglita himself . Seeing their leader fall , the Moors broke and fled . The battle was a resounding success for the Byzantines : seventeen of the Moors ' principal leaders were dead , the Tripolitanian tribes were decimated and withdrew to the desert , and Antalas and his followers submitted to Troglita . Byzacena , Numidia , and Tripolitania were finally secured , and a period of peace was inaugurated that lasted for the next fourteen years , until 562 .
= = = Later activities = = =
At about this time , Troglita seems to have been promoted to the honorific court rank of patricius , as attested by the 6th @-@ century historian Jordanes ( Romana 385 ) . He remained in command in Africa for at least another four years , beginning the difficult work of reconstruction . Troglita re @-@ established the civil administrative apparatus as originally envisaged by Emperor Justinian in 533 , sharing his authority with the prefect Athanasius . The provincial fortifications built by Solomon were restored , and the subdued Moorish tribes carefully returned to a status of vassalage as imperial foederati . According to the scholar John B. Bury , Troglita 's record in re @-@ establishing order and tranquility in the troubled province make him , along with Belisarius and Solomon , " the third hero of the Imperial reoccupation of Africa " .
Troglita 's success in restoring peace to Africa can be seen from the fact that in late 551 , when Totila , king of the Ostrogoths , captured Sardinia and Corsica , Troglita was able to spare enough forces and send a fleet to reclaim them , albeit without success . The exact date of Troglita 's death is unknown , but it is most likely that he died in 552 or soon after .
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= Mount Baker =
Mount Baker ( Lummi : Qwú ’ mə Kwəlshéːn ; Nooksack : Kw ’ eq Smaenit or Kwelshán ) , also known as Koma Kulshan or simply Kulshan , is an active glaciated andesitic stratovolcano in the Cascade Volcanic Arc and the North Cascades of Washington in the United States . Mount Baker has the second @-@ most thermally active crater in the Cascade Range after Mount Saint Helens . About 31 miles ( 50 km ) due east of the city of Bellingham , Whatcom County , Mount Baker is the youngest volcano in the Mount Baker volcanic field . While volcanism has persisted here for some 1 @.@ 5 million years , the current glaciated cone is likely no more than 140 @,@ 000 years old , and possibly no older than 80 @-@ 90 @,@ 000 years . Older volcanic edifices have mostly eroded away due to glaciation .
After Mount Rainier , Mount Baker is the most heavily glaciated of the Cascade Range volcanoes ; the volume of snow and ice on Mount Baker , 0 @.@ 43 cu mi ( 1 @.@ 79 km3 ) is greater than that of all the other Cascades volcanoes ( except Rainier ) combined . It is also one of the snowiest places in the world ; in 1999 , Mount Baker Ski Area , located 14 km ( 8 @.@ 7 mi ) to the northeast , set the world record for recorded snowfall in a single season — 1 @,@ 140 in ( 2 @,@ 900 cm ) .
At 10 @,@ 781 ft ( 3 @,@ 286 m ) , it is the third @-@ highest mountain in Washington State and the fifth @-@ highest in the Cascade Range , if Little Tahoma Peak , a subpeak of Mount Rainier , and Shastina , a subpeak of Mount Shasta , are not counted . Located in the Mount Baker Wilderness , it is visible from much of Greater Victoria , Nanaimo , British Columbia , Greater Vancouver , and , to the south , from Seattle ( and on clear days Tacoma ) in Washington .
Indigenous natives have known the mountain for thousands of years , but the first written record of the mountain is from the Spanish . Spanish explorer Gonzalo Lopez de Haro mapped it in 1790 as the Gran Montaña del Carmelo , " Great Mount Carmel " . The explorer George Vancouver renamed the mountain for 3rd Lieutenant Joseph Baker of HMS Discovery , who saw it on April 30 , 1792 .
= = History = =
Mount Baker was well @-@ known to indigenous people of the Pacific Northwest . Indigenous names for the mountain include Koma Kulshan or Kulshan ( Lummi , qwú ’ mə , " white sentinel " , i.e. " mountain " , and kwəlshé : n , " puncture wound " , i.e. " crater " ) ; Quck Sam @-@ ik ( Nooksack : kw ’ eq sámit , " white mountain " ) ; Kobah ( Skagit : qwúbə ’ , " white sentinel " , i.e. " mountain " ) ; and Tukullum or Nahcullum ( in the language of the unidentified " Koma tribe " ) .
In 1790 , Manuel Quimper of the Spanish Navy set sail from Nootka , a temporary settlement on Vancouver Island , with orders to explore the newly discovered Strait of Juan de Fuca . Accompanying Quimper was first @-@ pilot Gonzalo Lopez de Haro , who drew detailed charts during the six @-@ week expedition . Although Quimper 's journal of the voyage does not refer to the mountain , one of Haro 's manuscript charts includes a sketch of Mount Baker . The Spanish named the snowy volcano " La Gran Montana del Carmelo " , as it reminded them of the white @-@ clad monks of the Carmelite Monastery .
The British explorer George Vancouver left England a year later . His mission was to survey the northwest coast of America . Vancouver and his crew reached the Pacific Northwest coast in 1792 . While anchored in Dungeness Bay on the south shore of the Strait of Juan de Fuca , third lieutenant Joseph Baker made an observation of Mount Baker , which Vancouver recorded in his journal :
About this time a very high conspicuous craggy mountain ... presented itself , towering above the clouds : as low down as they allowed it to be visible it was covered with snow ; and south of it , was a long ridge of very rugged snowy mountains , much less elevated , which seemed to stretch to a considerable distance ... the high distant land formed , as already observed , like detached islands , amongst which the lofty mountain , discovered in the afternoon by the third lieutenant , and in compliment to him called by me Mount Baker , rose a very conspicuous object ... apparently at a very remote distance .
Six years later , the official narrative of this voyage was published , including the first printed reference to the mountain . By the mid @-@ 1850s , Mount Baker was a well @-@ known feature on the horizon to the explorers and fur traders who traveled in the Puget Sound region . Isaac I. Stevens , the first governor of Washington Territory , wrote about Mount Baker in 1853 :
Mount Baker ... is one of the loftiest and most conspicuous peaks of the northern Cascade range ; it is nearly as high as Mount Rainier , and like that mountain , its snow @-@ covered pyramid has the form of a sugar @-@ loaf . It is visible from all the water and islands ... [ in Puget Sound ] and from the whole southeastern part of the Gulf of Georgia , and likewise from the eastern division of the Strait of Juan de Fuca . It is for this region a natural and important landmark .
= = Climbing history = =
= = = First ascent = = =
Edmund Thomas Coleman , an Englishman who resided in Victoria , British Columbia , Canada and a veteran of the Alps , made the first attempt to ascend the mountain in 1866 . He chose a route via the Skagit River , but was forced to turn back when local Native Americans refused him passage .
Later that same year , Coleman recruited Whatcom County settlers Edward Eldridge , John Bennett and John Tennant to aid him in his second attempt to scale the mountain . After approaching via the North Fork of the Nooksack River , the party navigated through what is now known as Coleman Glacier and ascended to within several hundred feet of the summit before turning back in the face of an " overhanging cornice of ice " and threatening weather . Coleman later returned to the mountain after two years . At 4 : 00 p.m. on August 17 , 1868 , Coleman , Eldridge , Tennant and two new companions ( David Ogilvy and Thomas Stratton ) scaled the summit via the Middle Fork Nooksack River , Marmot Ridge , Coleman Glacier , and the north margin of the Roman Wall .
= = = Notable ascents = = =
1948 North Ridge ( AD , AI 2 @-@ 3 , 3700 feet ) Fred Beckey , Ralph and Dick Widrig ( August 1948 )
= = Geology = =
The present @-@ day cone of Mount Baker is relatively young ; it is perhaps less than 100 @,@ 000 years old . The volcano sits atop a similar older volcanic cone called Black Buttes , which was active between 500 @,@ 000 and 300 @,@ 000 years ago . Much of Mount Baker 's earlier geological record eroded away during the last ice age ( which culminated 15 @,@ 000 – 20 @,@ 000 years ago ) , by thick ice sheets that filled the valleys and surrounded the volcano . In the last 14 @,@ 000 years , the area around the mountain has been largely ice @-@ free , but the mountain itself remains heavily covered with snow and ice .
Isolated ridges of lava and hydrothermally altered rock , especially in the area of Sherman Crater , are exposed between glaciers on the upper flanks of the volcano ; the lower flanks are steep and heavily vegetated . Volcanic rocks of Mount Baker and Black Buttes rest on a foundation of non @-@ volcanic rocks .
Deposits recording the last 14 @,@ 000 years at Mount Baker indicate that Mount Baker has not had highly explosive eruptions like those of other volcanoes in the Cascade Volcanic Arc , such as Mount St. Helens , Mount Meager or Glacier Peak , nor has it erupted frequently . During this period , four episodes of magmatic eruptive activity have been recently recognized .
Magmatic eruptions have produced tephra , pyroclastic flows , and lava flows from summit vents and the Schriebers Meadow cinder cone . The most destructive and most frequent events at Mount Baker have been lahars or debris flows and debris avalanches ; many , if not most , of these were not related to magmatic eruptions but may have been induced by magma intrusion , steam eruptions , earthquakes , gravitational instability , or possibly even heavy rainfall .
= = = Eruptive history = = =
= = = = Early history = = = =
Research beginning in the late 1990s shows that Mount Baker is the youngest of several volcanic centers in the area and one of the youngest volcanoes in the Cascade Range . The Pliocene Hannegan caldera is preserved 16 miles ( 25 km ) northeast of Mount Baker Volcanic activity in the Mount Baker volcanic field began more than one million years ago , but many of the earliest lava and tephra deposits have been removed by glacial erosion . The pale @-@ colored rocks northeast of the modern volcano mark the site of the ancient ( 1 @.@ 15 million years old ) Kulshan caldera that collapsed after an enormous ash eruption one million years ago . Subsequently , eruptions in the Mount Baker area have produced cones and lava flows of andesite , the rock that constitutes much of other Cascade Range volcanoes such as Rainier , Adams , and Hood . From about 900 @,@ 000 years ago to the present , numerous andesitic volcanic centers in the area have come and disappeared through glacial erosion . The largest of these cones is the Black Buttes edifice , active between 500 @,@ 000 and 300 @,@ 000 years ago and formerly bigger than today 's Mount Baker .
= = = = Modern craters and cone = = = =
Mount Baker was built from stacks of lava and volcanic breccia prior to the end of the last glacial period , which ended about 15 @,@ 000 years ago . There are two craters on the mountain . Ice @-@ filled Carmelo Crater is under the summit ice dome . This crater is the source for the last cone @-@ building eruptions The highest point of Mount Baker , Grant Peak , is on the exposed southeast rim of Carmelo Crater , which is a small pile of andesitic scoria lying on top of a stack of lava flows just below . Carmelo Crater is deeply dissected on its south side by the younger Sherman Crater . This crater is south of the summit , and its ice @-@ covered floor is 1 @,@ 000 ft ( 300 m ) below the summit ice dome . This crater is the site of all Holocene eruptive activity . Hundreds of fumaroles vent gases , primarily H
2O , CO
2 , and H
2S .
Lava flows from the summit vent erupted between 30 @,@ 000 and 10 @,@ 000 years ago and , during the final stages of edifice construction , blocky pyroclastic flows entered the volcano 's southeastern drainages . An eruption from Sherman Crater 6 @,@ 600 years ago erupted a blanket of ash that extended more than 40 mi ( 64 km ) to the east . Today , sulfurous gases reach the surface via two fumarole pathways : Dorr Fumarole , northeast of the summit ; and Sherman Crater , south of the summit . Both are sites of hydrothermal alteration , converting lavas to weak , white @-@ to @-@ yellow clays ; sulfur is a common mineral around these fumaroles . At Sherman Crater , collapses of this weakened rock generated lahars in the 1840s .
= = = = Mazama Park eruptive period : 6 @,@ 600 years ago = = = =
Approximately 6 @,@ 600 years ago , a series of discrete events culminated in the largest tephra @-@ producing eruption in post @-@ glacial time at Mount Baker . This is the last episode of undoubted magmatic activity preserved in the geologic record . First , the largest collapse in the history of the volcano occurred from the Roman Wall and transformed into a lahar that was over 300 feet ( 91 m ) deep in the upper reaches of the Middle Fork of the Nooksack River . It was at least 25 ft ( 7 @.@ 6 m ) deep 30 mi ( 48 km ) downstream from the volcano . At that time the Nooksack River is believed to have drained north into the Fraser River ; it is therefore unlikely that this lahar reached Bellingham Bay . Next , a small hydrovolcanic eruption occurred at Sherman Crater , triggering a second collapse of the flank just east of the Roman Wall . That collapse also became a lahar that mainly followed the course of the first lahar for at least 20 mi ( 32 km ) , and also spilled into tributaries of the Baker River . Finally , an eruption cloud deposited ash as far as 40 mi ( 64 km ) downwind to the northeast and east .
= = = = Historical activity = = = =
Several eruptions occurred from Sherman Crater during the 19th century ; they were witnessed from the Bellingham area . A possible eruption was seen in June 1792 during the Spanish expedition of Dionisio Alcalá Galiano and Cayetano Valdés . Their report read , in part :
During the night [ while anchored in Bellingham Bay ] we constantly saw light to the south and east of the mountain of Carmelo [ Baker ] and even at times some bursts of flame , signs which left no doubt that there are volcanoes with strong eruptions in those mountains .
In 1843 , explorers reported a widespread layer of newly fallen rock fragments " like a snowfall " and that the forest was " on fire for miles around " . It is highly unlikely that these fires were caused by ashfall , however , as charred material is not found with deposits of this fine @-@ grained volcanic ash , which was almost certainly cooled in the atmosphere before falling . Rivers south of the volcano were reportedly clogged with ash , and Native Americans reported that many salmon perished . Reports of flooding on the Skagit River from the eruption are , however , probably greatly exaggerated . A short time later , two collapses of the east side of Sherman Crater produced two lahars , the first and larger of which flowed into the natural Baker Lake , increasing its level by at least 10 feet ( 3 @.@ 0 m ) . The location of the 19th @-@ century lake is now covered by waters of the modern dam @-@ impounded Baker Lake . Similar but lower level hydrovolcanic activity at Sherman Crater continued intermittently for several decades afterward . On 26 November 1860 , passengers who were traveling by steamer from New Westminster to Victoria reported that Mount Baker was " puffing out large volumes of smoke , which upon breaking , rolled down the snow @-@ covered sides of the mountain , forming a pleasing effect of light and shade . " In 1891 , about 15 km3 ( 3 @.@ 6 cu mi ) of rock fell producing a lahar that traveled more than 6 mi ( 9 @.@ 7 km ) and covered 1 sq mi ( 2 @.@ 6 km2 ) .
Activity in the 20th century decreased from the 19th century . Numerous small debris avalanches fell from Sherman Peak and descended the Boulder Glacier ; a large one occurred on July 27 , 2007 .
In early March 1975 , a dramatic increase in fumarolic activity and snow melt in the Sherman Crater area raised concern that an eruption might be imminent . Heat flow increased more than tenfold . Additional monitoring equipment was installed and several geophysical surveys were conducted to try to detect the movement of magma . The increased thermal activity prompted public officials and Puget Power to temporarily close public access to the popular Baker Lake recreation area and to lower the reservoir 's water level by 33 feet ( 10 m ) . If those actions had not been taken , significant avalanches of debris from the Sherman Crater area could have swept directly into the reservoir , triggering a disastrous wave that could have caused human fatalities and damage to the reservoir . Other than the increased heat flow , few anomalies were recorded during the geophysical surveys , nor were any other precursory activities observed that would indicate that magma was moving up into the volcano . Several small lahars formed from material ejected onto the surrounding glaciers and acidic water was discharged into Baker Lake for many months .
Activity gradually declined over the next two years but stabilized at a higher level than before 1975 . The increased level of fumarolic activity has continued at Mount Baker since 1975 , but no other changes suggest that magma movement is involved .
= = = = Current research at Mount Baker = = = =
A considerable amount of research has been done at Mount Baker over the past decade , and it is now among the most @-@ studied of the Cascade volcanoes . Recent and ongoing projects include gravimetric and GPS @-@ based geodetic monitoring , fumarole gas sampling , tephra distribution mapping , new interpretations of the Schriebers Meadow lava flow , and hazards analyses . Mapping of Carmelo and Sherman craters , and interpretations of the eruptive history , continues , as well . The Mount Baker Volcano Research Center maintains an online archive of abstracts of this work , and an extensive references list , as well as photos .
= = = Glaciers and hydrology = = =
There are ten main glaciers on the mountain . The Coleman Glacier is the largest ; it has a surface area of 5 @.@ 2 square kilometres ( 1 @,@ 280 acres ) . The other large glaciers — which have areas greater than 2 @.@ 5 square kilometres ( 620 acres ) — are Roosevelt Glacier , Mazama Glacier , Park Glacier , Boulder Glacier , Easton Glacier and Deming Glacier . All retreated during the first half of the century , advanced from 1950 – 1975 and have been retreating increasingly rapidly since 1980 .
Mount Baker is drained on the north by streams that flow into the North Fork Nooksack River , on the west by the Middle Fork Nooksack River , and on the southeast and east by tributaries of the Baker River . Lake Shannon and Baker Lake are the largest nearby bodies of water , formed by two dams on the Baker River .
= = U.S. Navy = =
Two ammunition ships of the United States Navy ( traditionally named for volcanoes ) have been named after the mountain . The first was USS Mount Baker ( AE @-@ 4 ) , which was commissioned from 1941 to 1947 and from 1951 to 1969 . In 1972 , the Navy commissioned USS Mount Baker ( AE @-@ 34 ) . It was decommissioned in 1996 and placed in service with the Military Sealift Command as USNS Mount Baker ( T @-@ AE @-@ 34 ) . She was scrapped in 2012 .
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= Pilophorus acicularis =
Pilophorus acicularis , commonly known as the nail lichen or the devil 's matchstick , is a species of lichen in the Cladoniaceae family .
P. aciculare has both crustose ( crust @-@ like ) and fruticose thallus ( shrub @-@ like ) body parts . The lichen starts out as a granular crust on the rock surface , and develops fruticose stalks , or pseudopodetia , up to 3 cm ( 1 @.@ 2 in ) tall and about 1 mm thick that have rounded black apothecia at the tips . The stalks are erect and curved so as to appear combed . It grows directly on silicate rocks in dense clusters . It is found on the west coast of North America up to Alaska , and in eastern Eurasia . In addition to green algae , the lichen contains cyanobacteria that help contribute to soil fertility by supplying fixed nitrogen .
It was originally described in 1803 , and transferred to the genus Pilophorus in 1857 .
= = History , taxonomy and phylogeny = =
The species was first described in 1803 as Baeomyces acicularis by the Swedish botanist and " father of lichenology " Erik Acharius . The taxon was transferred to several different genera in the next few decades resulting in several synonyms , including Cenomyces acicularis ( by Acharius in 1810 ) , Cladonia acicularis ( Elias Magnus Fries in 1831 ) , and Stereocaulon aciculare ( Edward Tuckerman in 1845 ) . Elias Fries 's son Thore Magnus transferred the species to his then newly created genus Pilophorus in 1857 . William Nylander also published the combination Pilophorus acicularis in 1857 , but later analysis suggested that Fries 's combination was published first , and under the Principle of Priority , the correct citation of the species is Pilophorus acicularis ( Ach . ) Th.Fr. ( 1857 ) .
The genus Pilophorus was until recently considered to be a member of the Stereocaulaceae family by some authors . Analysis of small subunit ribosomal DNA sequences showed P. acicularis to be more closely related to the Cladoniaceae , rather than the Stereocaulaceae .
The specific epithet aciculare is derived from the Latin acicularis , meaning " needle @-@ like " . The lichen is commonly known as the " devil 's matchstick " ; the common name for the genus — " nail lichen " — is also used .
= = Description = =
The thallus is the vegetative body of a lichen that contains the lichen mycobiont ( fungus ) and the photobiont ( algae and / or cyanobacteria ) . In P. acicularis , the primary thallus ( thallus horizontalis ) is spread out like a granular crust on the surface of its substrate . It is light green when young , but becomes gray in age or when dry . The pseudopodetia ( upright stalk @-@ like extensions of the thallus made of vegetative tissue ) range from 0 @.@ 5 to 3 cm ( 0 @.@ 2 to 1 @.@ 2 in ) high , and are about 1 mm thick ; they grow in dense clusters . Most pseudopodetia are either unbranched or forked into two branches , with the stalks curved so as to appear as if combed ; less frequently , they are erect like pins , and up to 1 cm ( 0 @.@ 4 in ) tall . Some specimens are highly branched in the upper part of the pseudopodetia , causing them to bear some resemblance to P. robustus , although this morphology is uncommon . Internally , the pseudopodetia are solid when young , becoming hollow with age , and are composed of long , thin , highly gelatinized hyphae with narrow cavities about 0 @.@ 5 μm wide . The lower part of older pseudopodetia becomes blackened internally . The algal layer is not continuous — contrasting with lichen species that have thalli that stratify into discrete tissue types , including a photobiont layer — and occurs with the mycobiont in the form of granules . These granules may be absent from some parts of the thallus surface . Pycnidia ( flask @-@ like structures , resembling perithecia , in which conidia are produced ) occur in the tips of small sterile pseudopodetia or in the tips of small lateral branches of older pseudopodetia .
The conidiophores of P. acicularis are 30 μm long , and unbranched . They have terminal sickle @-@ shaped conidia that measure 6 by 1 μm . The apothecia ( reproductive structures covered with the spore @-@ producing asci ) are abundant , usually with one or several on the tips of the pseudopodetia . They are black , hemispherical or roughly triangular , and measure up to 1 @.@ 5 mm in diameter . The hymenium ( the fertile spore @-@ bearing layer of cells containing the asci ) is up to 240 μm thick , and about two @-@ thirds of it is pigmented ; the lower part of the hymenium is sterile , consisting of only paraphyses . The asci are eight @-@ spored . The ascospores are rounded when young , becoming spindle @-@ shaped when mature , with dimensions of 21 @.@ 0 – 29 @.@ 5 by 4 @.@ 5 – 5 @.@ 5 μm . The generative tissue ( hyphae that eventually forms the thallus ) is closely interwoven with short , broad cells that have large cavities . The generative tissue is pigmented black @-@ brown , with the color being most intense below the paraphyses , becoming less so towards the stalk region .
Pilophorus acicularis is a tripartite lichen — containing a fungus , a green alga , and a cyanobacterium . Cephalodia ( lichenized aggregations of nitrogen @-@ fixing cyanobacteria ) are present on the primary thallus ; smaller cephalodia are also on the pseudopodetia . Hemispherical to irregularly shaped , and light to dark brown in color , they contain species from the genus Nostoc . The green algal photosynthetic symbiont ( photobiont ) associated with P. acicularis is Asterochloris magna ( formerly Trebouxia magna ) .
= = = Similar species = = =
Pilophorus acicularis can be separated from similar species by its tall pseudopodetia . It may be confused with P. robustus , especially in material from Alaska where both species occur together . Usually , the different branching ( umbellate in P. robustus versus dichotomous in P. acicularis ) and the lack of a columella ( an internal , column @-@ shaped structure ) in longitudinal sections of the pseudopodetia of P. acicularis make it relatively easy to distinguish between the two .
Pilophyllus clavatus , a species found in Western North America , Japan , Taiwan and South Korea , resembles P. acicularis , but it has much shorter pseudopodetia — up to 1 @.@ 5 cm ( 0 @.@ 6 in ) long .
= = Habitat and distribution = =
The lichen typically grows on silicate stone , rarely on decaying wood . It is usually in partial shade in openings in low to mid @-@ elevation moist forests , and is also frequently found in rocky roadcuts . Lichens with cephalodia are capable of fixing nitrogen , and contribute nitrogen to the ecosystem .
P. acicularis is probably the most abundant species of the genus . Most specimens have been found on the west coast of North America as far North as Alaska , but it has been reported most frequently from British Columbia and Washington . The species is found in China , Japan , Korea , and Taiwan , and has also been reported from the Russian arctic . In general , P. acicularis seems to prefer an oceanic climate without extremely low temperatures , at least in comparison with other species of the genus . This assumption is supported by the fact that P. acicularis is found more southerly ( 34 findings in California ) than all other species and is less frequently found in northern Alaska where , for example , P. robustus and P. vegae are more common . P. acicularis is rare east of the Rocky Mountains .
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= Japanese battleship Fusō =
Fusō ( 扶桑 , a classical name for Japan ) was the lead ship of the two Fusō @-@ class dreadnought battleships built for the Imperial Japanese Navy . Launched in 1914 and commissioned in 1915 , she initially patrolled off the coast of China , playing no part in World War I. In 1923 , she assisted survivors of the Great Kantō earthquake .
Fusō was modernized in 1930 – 35 and again in 1937 – 41 , with improvements to her armor and machinery and a rebuilt superstructure in the pagoda mast style . With only 14 @-@ inch guns , she was outclassed by other Japanese battleships at the beginning of World War II , and played auxiliary roles for most of the war .
Fusō was part of Vice @-@ Admiral Shōji Nishimura 's Southern Force at the Battle of Leyte Gulf . She was sunk in the early hours of 25 October 1944 by torpedoes and naval gunfire during the Battle of Surigao Strait . Some reports claimed that Fusō broke in half , and that both halves remained afloat and burning for an hour , but according to survivors ' accounts , the ship sank after 40 minutes of flooding . Of the few dozen crewmen who escaped , only 10 survived to return to Japan .
= = Description = =
The ship had a length of 192 @.@ 024 meters ( 630 ft ) between perpendiculars and 202 @.@ 7 meters ( 665 ft ) overall . She had a beam of 28 @.@ 7 meters ( 94 ft 2 in ) and a draft of 8 @.@ 7 meters ( 29 ft ) . Fusō displaced 29 @,@ 326 long tons ( 29 @,@ 797 t ) at standard load and 35 @,@ 900 long tons ( 36 @,@ 500 t ) at full load . Her crew consisted of 1 @,@ 198 officers and enlisted men in 1915 and 1 @,@ 396 in 1935 . During World War II , the crew probably totalled around 1 @,@ 800 – 1 @,@ 900 men .
During the ship 's first modernization during 1930 – 33 , her forward superstructure was enlarged with multiple platforms added to her tripod foremast . Her rear superstructure was rebuilt to accommodate mounts for 127 @-@ millimeter ( 5 @.@ 0 in ) anti @-@ aircraft ( AA ) guns and additional fire @-@ control directors . Fusō was also given torpedo bulges to improve her underwater protection and to compensate for the weight of the additional armor and equipment . During the second phase of her first reconstruction in 1934 – 35 , Fusō 's torpedo bulge was enlarged and her stern was lengthened by 7 @.@ 62 meters ( 25 @.@ 0 ft ) . These changes increased her overall length to 212 @.@ 75 m ( 698 @.@ 0 ft ) , her beam to 33 @.@ 1 m ( 108 ft 7 in ) and her draft to 9 @.@ 69 meters ( 31 ft 9 in ) . Her displacement increased by nearly 4 @,@ 000 long tons ( 4 @,@ 100 t ) to 39 @,@ 154 long tons ( 39 @,@ 782 t ) at deep load .
= = = Propulsion = = =
The ship had two sets of Brown @-@ Curtis direct @-@ drive steam turbines , each of which drove two propeller shafts . The turbines were designed to produce a total of 40 @,@ 000 shaft horsepower ( 30 @,@ 000 kW ) , using steam provided by 24 Miyahara @-@ type water @-@ tube boilers , each of which consumed a mixture of coal and oil . Fusō had a stowage capacity of 4 @,@ 000 long tons ( 4 @,@ 100 t ) of coal and 1 @,@ 000 long tons ( 1 @,@ 000 t ) of fuel oil , giving her a range of 8 @,@ 000 nautical miles ( 15 @,@ 000 km ; 9 @,@ 200 mi ) at a speed of 14 knots ( 26 km / h ; 16 mph ) . The ship exceeded her design speed of 22 @.@ 5 knots ( 41 @.@ 7 km / h ; 25 @.@ 9 mph ) during her sea trials , reaching 23 knots ( 43 km / h ; 26 mph ) at 46 @,@ 500 shp ( 34 @,@ 700 kW ) .
During her first modernization , the Miyahara boilers were replaced by six new Kanpon oil @-@ fired boilers fitted in the former aft boiler room , and the forward funnel was removed . The Brown @-@ Curtis turbines were replaced by four geared Kanpon turbines with a designed output of 75 @,@ 000 shp ( 56 @,@ 000 kW ) . During her 1933 trials , Fusō reached a top speed of 24 @.@ 7 knots ( 45 @.@ 7 km / h ; 28 @.@ 4 mph ) from 76 @,@ 889 shp ( 57 @,@ 336 kW ) . The fuel storage of the ship was increased to a total of 5 @,@ 100 long tons ( 5 @,@ 200 t ) of fuel oil that gave her a range of 11 @,@ 800 nautical miles ( 21 @,@ 900 km ; 13 @,@ 600 mi ) at a speed of 16 knots ( 30 km / h ; 18 mph ) .
= = = Armament = = =
The twelve 45 @-@ caliber 14 @-@ inch guns of Fusō were mounted in six twin @-@ gun turrets , numbered one through six from front to rear , each with an elevation range of − 5 to + 30 degrees . The turrets were arranged in an uncommon 2 @-@ 1 @-@ 1 @-@ 2 style with superfiring pairs of turrets fore and aft ; the middle turrets were not superfiring , and had a funnel between them . The main guns and their turrets were modernized during the ship 's 1930 reconstruction ; the elevation of the main guns was increased to + 43 degrees , increasing their maximum range from 27 @,@ 800 to 35 @,@ 450 yards ( 25 @,@ 420 to 32 @,@ 420 m ) . Initially , the guns could fire at a rate of 1 @.@ 5 rounds per minute , and this was also improved during her first modernization . The orientation of Turret No. 3 was reversed during the modernization ; it now faced forward .
Originally , Fusō was fitted with a secondary armament of sixteen 50 @-@ caliber six @-@ inch guns mounted in casemates on the upper sides of the hull . The gun had a maximum range of 22 @,@ 970 yards ( 21 @,@ 000 m ) and fired at a rate of up to six shots per minute . She was fitted with five 40 @-@ caliber three @-@ inch AA guns in 1918 . The high @-@ angle guns were in single mounts on both sides of the forward superstructure and both sides of the second funnel , as well as on the port side of the aft superstructure . These guns had a maximum elevation of + 75 degrees , and could fire a 5 @.@ 99 @-@ kilogram ( 13 @.@ 2 lb ) shell at a rate of 13 to 20 rounds per minute to a maximum height of 7 @,@ 200 meters ( 23 @,@ 600 ft ) . The ship was also fitted with six submerged 533 @-@ millimeter ( 21 @.@ 0 in ) torpedo tubes , three on each broadside .
During the first phase of Fusō 's modernization of the early 1930s , all five three @-@ inch guns were removed and replaced with eight 40 @-@ caliber 127 @-@ millimeter dual @-@ purpose guns , fitted on both sides of the fore and aft superstructures in four twin @-@ gun mounts . When firing at surface targets , the guns had a range of 14 @,@ 700 meters ( 16 @,@ 100 yd ) ; they had a maximum ceiling of 9 @,@ 440 meters ( 30 @,@ 970 ft ) at their maximum elevation of + 90 degrees . Their maximum rate of fire was 14 rounds a minute , but their sustained rate of fire was around eight rounds per minute . At this time , the ship was also provided with four quadruple mounts for the license @-@ built Type 93 13 @.@ 2 mm machine guns , two on the pagoda mast and one on each side of the funnel . The maximum range of these guns was 6 @,@ 500 meters ( 7 @,@ 100 yd ) , but the effective range against aircraft was only 1 @,@ 000 meters ( 1 @,@ 100 yd ) . The cyclic rate was adjustable between 425 and 475 rounds per minute , but the need to change 30 @-@ round magazines reduced the effective rate to 250 rounds per minute .
The improvements made during the first reconstruction increased Fusō 's draft by 1 meter ( 3 ft 3 in ) , soaking the two foremost six @-@ inch guns , so they were removed during the first phase of the ship 's second modernization in 1937 and 1938 . During this same phase , the Type 93 13 @.@ 2 @-@ millimeter ( 0 @.@ 52 in ) machine guns were replaced by eight 25 mm Type 96 light AA guns in twin @-@ gun mounts . Four of these mounts were fitted on the forward superstructure , one on each side of the funnel and two on the rear superstructure . This was the standard Japanese light AA gun during World War II , but it suffered from severe design shortcomings that rendered it a largely ineffective weapon . According to historian Mark Stille , the twin and triple mounts " lacked sufficient speed in train or elevation ; the gun sights were unable to handle fast targets ; the gun exhibited excessive vibration ; the magazine was too small , and , finally , the gun produced excessive muzzle blast " . The configuration of the AA guns varied significantly ; in July 1943 , 17 single and two twin @-@ mounts were added for a total of 37 . In July 1944 , the ship was fitted with additional AA guns : 23 single , six twin and eight triple @-@ mounts , for a total of 95 in her final configuration . These 25 @-@ millimeter ( 0 @.@ 98 in ) guns had an effective range of 1 @,@ 500 – 3 @,@ 000 meters ( 1 @,@ 600 – 3 @,@ 300 yd ) , and an effective ceiling of 5 @,@ 500 meters ( 18 @,@ 000 ft ) at an elevation of + 85 degrees . The maximum effective rate of fire was only between 110 and 120 rounds per minute because of the frequent need to change the fifteen @-@ round magazines .
= = = Armor = = =
The ship 's waterline armor belt was 305 to 229 millimeters ( 12 to 9 in ) thick ; below it was a strake of 102 mm ( 4 in ) armor . The deck armor ranged in thickness from 32 to 51 mm ( 1 @.@ 3 to 2 @.@ 0 in ) . The turrets were protected with an armor thickness of 279 @.@ 4 mm ( 11 @.@ 0 in ) on the face , 228 @.@ 6 mm ( 9 @.@ 0 in ) on the sides , and 114 @.@ 5 mm ( 4 @.@ 51 in ) on the roof . The barbettes of the turrets were protected by armor 305 mm thick , while the casemates of the 152 mm guns were protected by 152 mm armor plates . The sides of the conning tower were 351 millimeters ( 13 @.@ 8 in ) thick . The vessel contained 737 watertight compartments ( 574 underneath the armor deck , 163 above ) to preserve buoyancy in the event of battle damage .
During her first reconstruction Fusō 's armor was substantially upgraded . The deck armor was increased to a maximum thickness of 114 mm ( 4 @.@ 5 in ) . A longitudinal bulkhead of 76 mm ( 3 @.@ 0 in ) of high @-@ tensile steel was added to improve underwater protection .
= = = Aircraft = = =
Fusō was briefly fitted with an aircraft flying @-@ off platform on Turret No. 2 in 1924 . During the first phase of her first modernization , a catapult was fitted on the roof of Turret No. 3 and the ship was equipped to operate three floatplanes , although no hangar was provided . The initial Nakajima E4N2 biplanes were replaced by Nakajima E8N2 biplanes in 1938 . Fusō 's ability to operate her aircraft was greatly improved during the second phase of her second modernization in 1940 – 41 when the aircraft handling equipment was moved to the stern and a new catapult was installed . Mitsubishi F1M biplanes replaced the E8Ns from 1942 on .
= = = Fire control and sensors = = =
When completed in 1915 , Fusō had two 3 @.@ 5 @-@ meter ( 11 ft 6 in ) and two 1 @.@ 5 @-@ meter ( 4 ft 11 in ) rangefinders in her forward superstructure , a 4 @.@ 5 @-@ meter ( 14 ft 9 in ) rangefinder on the roof of Turret No. 2 , and 4 @.@ 5 @-@ meter rangefinders in Turrets 3 , 4 , and 5 . In late 1917 a fire @-@ control director was installed on a platform on the foremast . The 4 @.@ 5 @-@ meter rangefinders were replaced by 8 @-@ meter ( 26 ft 3 in ) instruments in 1923 . During the ship 's first modernization , four directors for the 12 @.@ 7 mm AA guns were added , one each on each side of the fore and aft superstructures , and an eight @-@ meter rangefinder was installed at the top of the pagoda mast . This was replaced by a 10 @-@ meter ( 32 ft 10 in ) rangefinder during 1938 . At this same time , the two 3 @.@ 5 @-@ meter rangefinders on the forward superstructure were replaced by directors for the 25 mm AA guns . Additional 25 mm directors were installed on platforms on each side of the funnel .
While in drydock in July 1943 , Type 21 air search radar was installed on the roof of the 10 @-@ meter rangefinder at the top of the pagoda mast . In August 1944 , two Type 22 surface search radar units were installed on the pagoda mast and two Type 13 early warning radar units were fitted on the funnel . Fusō was the only Japanese battleship to mount radar on her funnel .
= = Construction and service = =
Given a classical name for Japan , Fusō was laid down at the Kure Naval Arsenal on 11 March 1912 and launched on 28 March 1914 . She was commissioned on 8 November 1915 and assigned to the 1st Division , of the 1st Fleet on 13 December. under the command of Captain Kōzō Satō . The ship did not take part in any combat during World War I , as there were no longer any forces of the Central Powers in Asia by the time she was completed ; she patrolled off the coast of China during that time . The ship served as the flagship of the 1st Division during 1917 and 1918 . During the ship 's period in reserve in 1918 , five 76 @.@ 2 mm anti @-@ aircraft guns were installed . She aided survivors of the Great Kantō earthquake between 9 and 22 September 1923 . Captain Mitsumasa Yonai assumed command on 1 July 1924 and was relieved on 1 November by Captain Sankichi Takahashi In the 1920s , Fusō conducted training off the coast of China and was often placed in reserve .
The first phase of the ship 's first modernization began on 12 April 1930 at the Yokosuka Naval Arsenal ; machinery was replaced , armor was reinforced , and torpedo bulges were fitted . Fusō arrived on 26 September 1932 at Kure Naval Arsenal , where her armament was upgraded and her torpedo tubes were removed . Her sea trials began on 12 May 1933 , and the second phase of her modernization began less than a year later . The ship 's stern was lengthened and work was completed in March 1935 . Captain Jinichi Kusaka was assigned command from November 1935 to December 1936 . After sporadic use for training for the next two years , Fusō was assigned as a training ship in 1936 and 1937 .
Fusō began the first phase of her second modernization on 26 February 1937 , and Captain Hiroaki Abe assumed command on 1 December . He was relieved by Captain Ruitaro Fujita on 1 April 1938 , the day after this phase of her modernization was completed . The ship was again assigned to the 1st Division of the 1st Fleet on 15 November . She briefly operated in Chinese waters in early 1939 before the second phase of her second modernization began on 12 December 1940 . This was completed on 10 April 1941 , and Fusō was assigned to the 2nd Division of the 1st Fleet . Captain Mitsuo Kinoshita assumed command on 15 September , when the division consisted of the two Fusō @-@ class and the two Ise @-@ class battleships .
= = = World War II = = =
On 10 April 1941 , Fusō was attached to the 2nd Division of the 1st Fleet . When the war started for Japan on 8 December , the division , reinforced by the battleships Nagato and Mutsu and the light carrier Hōshō , sortied from Hashirajima to the Bonin Islands as distant support for the 1st Air Fleet attacking Pearl Harbor , and returned six days later . On 21 February 1942 , the ship returned to the shipyard at Kure to replace her gun barrels , departing on 25 February . Together with the rest of the 2nd Battleship Division , she pursued but did not catch the American carrier force that had launched the Doolittle Raid on 18 April 1942 .
Fusō and the rest of the 2nd Battleship Division set sail on 28 May 1942 with the Aleutian Support Group at the same time that most of the Imperial Fleet began an attack on Midway Island ( Operation MI ) . Commanded by Vice @-@ Admiral Shirō Takasu , the division was composed of Japan 's four oldest battleships , including Fusō , accompanied by two light cruisers , 12 destroyers , and two oilers . Official records do not show the division as part of the larger Midway operation , known as Operation AL ; they were to accompany the fleet under Admiral Isoroku Yamamoto , but were only to provide support to the Aleutian task force if needed .
On 14 June , Fusō returned to Yokosuka and arrived back at Hashirajima on 24 June . In an effort to replace the aircraft carriers lost at the Battle of Midway , the navy made plans to convert the two Fusō @-@ class ships to hybrid battleship @-@ carriers , but the two Ise @-@ class battleships were chosen instead . The ship was assigned to the Imperial Japanese Naval Academy at Etajima , Hiroshima , for use as a training ship between 15 November 1942 and 15 January 1943 . Captain Keizō Komura assumed command on 5 December , and was relieved by Captain Nobumichi Tsuruoka on 1 June the next year . Seven days later , Fusō rescued 353 survivors from Mutsu when that ship exploded at Hashirajima .
Between 18 and 24 July 1943 , the ship was at the Kure drydock for fitting of radar and additional 25 mm AA guns . Fusō sailed from the Inland Sea on 18 August for Truk Naval Base , carrying supplies , and arrived five days later . The Japanese had intercepted American radio traffic that suggested an attack on Wake Island , and on 17 October , Fusō and the bulk of the 1st Fleet sailed for Eniwetok to be in a position to intercept any such attack . The fleet arrived on the 19th , departed four days later , and arrived back at Truk on 26 October .
On 1 February 1944 , Fusō departed Truk with Nagato to avoid an American air raid , and arrived at Palau on 4 February . They left on 16 February to escape another air raid . The ships arrived on 21 February at Lingga Island , and Fusō was employed there as a training ship . A week later , Captain Masami Ban relieved Tsuruoka . The ship was refitted at Singapore between 13 and 27 April , and returned to Lingga . She was transferred to Tawi @-@ Tawi on 11 May and provided cover for the convoy that failed to reinforce Biak Island at the end of the month . Fusō transferred to Tarakan Island off Borneo to refuel in early July before returning to Japan and escaping an attack by the submarine Pomfret . In early August at Kure , she was refitted with additional radars and light AA guns . Fusō and her sister ship were transferred to Battleship Division 2 of the 2nd Fleet on 10 September , and Fusō became the flagship of the division under the command of Vice @-@ Admiral Shōji Nishimura on 23 September . They departed Kure on 23 September for Lingga , escaping an attack by the submarine Plaice the next day , and arrived on 4 October , where Nishimura transferred his flag to Yamashiro . The ships then transferred to Brunei to refuel in preparation for Operation Shō @-@ Gō , the attempt to destroy the American fleet conducting the invasion of Luzon .
= = = = Battle of Surigao Strait = = = =
Commanded by Rear Admiral Masami Ban , Fusō left Brunei at 15 : 30 on 22 October 1944 as part of Nishimura 's Southern Force , heading east into the Sulu Sea and then northeast into the Mindanao Sea . Intending to join Vice @-@ Admiral Takeo Kurita 's force in Leyte Gulf , the force passed west of Mindanao Island into Surigao Strait , where it met a large force of battleships and cruisers lying in wait . The Battle of Surigao Strait became the southernmost action in the Battle of Leyte Gulf .
At 09 : 08 on 24 October , Fusō , Yamashiro , and the heavy cruiser Mogami spotted a group of 27 planes , including Grumman TBF Avenger torpedo bombers and Curtiss SB2C Helldiver dive bombers escorted by Grumman F6F Hellcat fighters from the carrier Enterprise . A bomb from one of them destroyed the catapult and both floatplanes . Another bomb hit the ship near Turret No. 2 and penetrated the decks , killing everyone in No. 1 secondary battery ; the ship began to list 2 degrees to starboard . Early the next morning , Fusō opened fire around 01 : 05 after a shape was spotted off the port bow ; it turned out to be Mogami ; Fusō 's fire killed three sailors in that ship 's sick bay .
One or two torpedoes , possibly fired by the destroyer Melvin , hit Fusō amidships on the starboard side at 03 : 09 on the 25th ; she listed to starboard , slowed down , and fell out of formation . Some Japanese and American eyewitnesses later claimed that Fusō broke in half , and that both halves remained afloat and burning for an hour , but they specifically mentioned only the size of the fire on the water , and not any details of the ship . Historian John Toland agreed in 1970 that Fusō had broken in two , but according to historian Anthony Tully in 2009 :
[ Survivors ' accounts ] and the USS Hutchins report are describing a sinking and event at odds with the conventional record — one that seems far removed from the spectacle of the invariably alleged huge magazine explosion and blossom of light at 0338 that supposedly blew the battleship in half ! ... Fuso was torpedoed , and as a result of progressive flooding , upended and capsized within forty minutes .
Fusō sank between 03 : 38 and 03 : 50 ; only a few dozen men survived the rapid foundering and oil fire . There is evidence that some of these were rescued by the destroyer Asagumo , which was itself sunk a short time later ; it is also possible that some who escaped the sinking reached Leyte only to be killed by Filipinos , as is known to have happened to survivors from other Japanese warships sunk in the Battle of Surigao Strait . Ten crew members are known to have survived , all of whom returned to Japan . Fusō was removed from the navy list on 31 August 1945 .
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= Typhoon Francisco ( 2013 ) =
Typhoon Francisco , known in the Philippines as Typhoon Urduja , was a powerful typhoon that strengthened to the equivalent of a Category 5 on the Saffir @-@ Simpson scale , according to the Joint Typhoon Warning Center . The 25th named storm and the 10th typhoon of the 2013 Pacific typhoon season , Francisco formed on October 16 east of Guam from a pre @-@ existing area of convection . With favorable conditions , it quickly intensified into a tropical storm before passing south of Guam . After stalling to the southwest of the island , Francisco turned to the northwest into an environment of warm waters and low wind shear , becoming a typhoon . The JTWC upgraded it to super typhoon status on October 18 , while the Japan Meteorological Agency ( JMA ) estimated peak 10 ‑ minute sustained winds of 195 km / h ( 120 mph ) . Gradual weakening ensued , and after the typhoon turned to the northeast , Francisco deteriorated into a tropical storm on October 24 . Passing southeast of Okinawa and mainland Japan , the storm accelerated and became extratropical on October 26 , dissipating later that day .
On Guam and in the Northern Marianas Islands , Francisco produced tropical storm force wind gusts , strong enough to knock over some trees and cause $ 150 @,@ 000 ( 2013 USD ) in damage . The typhoon also dropped heavy rainfall on Guam , peaking at 201 mm ( 7 @.@ 90 in ) at Inarajan . Later , Francisco brought gusty winds and some rainfall to Okinawa . In Kagoshima Prefecture , 3 @,@ 800 homes lost power , while an island @-@ wide evacuation advisory was issued for Izu Ōshima after Typhoon Wipha spawned a deadly mudslide a week prior . Rains in Japan peaked at 600 mm ( 24 in ) in Niyodogawa , Kōchi on Shikoku .
= = Meteorological history = =
Early on October 15 , an area of convection persisted about 750 km ( 465 mi ) east @-@ northeast of Guam . Initially the system was located within an area of moderate wind shear , although conditions gradually became more favorable for tropical cyclogenesis . At 12 : 00 UTC on October 15 , the Japan Meteorological Agency ( JMA ) estimated that a tropical depression developed about 450 km ( 280 mi ) east of Guam . A few hours later , the Joint Typhoon Warning Center ( JTWC ) issued a tropical cyclone formation alert before initiating advisories on Tropical Depression 26W early on October 16 . At that time , the depression was passing about 100 km ( 65 mi ) southeast of Guam . After formation , the system moved west @-@ southwestward under a ridge to the north . Its circulation consolidated as the thunderstorm activity organized , aided by warm sea surface temperatures and decreasing wind shear . At 06 : 00 UTC on October 16 , the JMA upgraded the depression to Tropical Storm Francisco ( 1327 ) .
As a quickly organizing tropical cyclone , Francisco developed an eye feature late on October 16 in the center of the convection , as outflow improved and an anticyclone formed aloft . Based on the improved structure , the JMA upgraded Francisco to a severe tropical storm at 18 : 00 UTC on October 16 , followed by upgrading it to typhoon status at 06 : 00 UTC the next day . Francisco slowed its forward motion as steering currents weakened , with a north @-@ northwest drift beginning on October 17 due to an extension of the subtropical ridge . By later that day , the typhoon had a well @-@ defined eye 28 km ( 17 mi ) across and surrounded by deep convection , while passing west of Guam and the Northern Marianas Islands . The track accelerated more to the northwest , steered by the strengthening ridge . With the eyewall convection become more distinct , Francisco continued to intensify , and the JTWC upgraded it to a super typhoon on October 18 . At 18 : 00 UTC , the JMA estimated the typhoon attained peak 10 ‑ minute sustained winds of 195 km / h ( 120 mph ) . On October 19 , the JTWC upgraded Francisco to peak 1 ‑ minute winds of 260 km / h ( 160 mph ) , the equivalent of a Category 5 on the Saffir @-@ Simpson scale ; by that time , the eyewall contracted to just 19 km ( 12 mi ) in diameter .
After maintaining its peak intensity for about 36 hours , Francisco began weakening , after the eye lost definition due to building wind shear . By October 21 , the eye became ragged and cloud @-@ filled while the overall satellite presentation of the storm became elongated . That day , the typhoon entered the area of responsibility of the Philippine Atmospheric , Geophysical and Astronomical Services Administration ( PAGASA ) , which gave Francisco the local name Urduja ; the agency would cease issuing advisories on October 23 . Conditions generally remained favorable , allowing the eye to remain distinct despite a great reduction in the sustained winds . Dry air began affecting the tropical cyclone late on October 22 , cutting off the flow of moist air , and water temperatures cooled along the storm 's track . As a result , the eye dissipated and the convection weakened . An approaching trough from the Korean peninsula weakened the ridge to the north , slowing the typhoon and allowing it to turn north and northeast on October 24 . Francisco weakened below typhoon status after passing 210 km ( 130 mi ) southeast of Okinawa . The storm began interacting with the approaching cold front while it passed south of Japan , moving around the subtropical ridge . With increasing wind shear , the circulation became exposed from the convection , and the JTWC discontinued advisories on October 25 , declaring that Francisco was becoming extratropical . On the next day , Francisco completed its extratropical transition , but dissipated later on October 26 , to the southeast of Japan .
= = Preparations and impact = =
While Francisco was developing near Guam , the local National Weather Service office issued a tropical storm watch for Guam , Rota , Tinian , and Saipan . On Guam , 1 @,@ 223 people evacuated to nine schools serving as emergency shelters . A cross country invitational was delayed by one day due to the storm . As a developing system , Francisco passed south of Guam and the Northern Marianas Islands . Gusts on Guam reached 84 km / h ( 52 mph ) at Andersen Air Force Base , while Saipan and Rota reported winds of 63 km / h ( 39 mph ) and 61 km / h ( 38 mph ) , respectively . Wind gusts were not as strong when the typhoon approached the islands for a second time . The typhoon also dropped heavy rainfall on Guam , peaking at 201 mm ( 7 @.@ 90 in ) at Inarajan . Damage in the region totaled $ 150 @,@ 000 ( 2013 USD ) , and was largely limited to fallen trees . There was a power outage on Guam during the storm , but the Guam Power Authority was able to quickly restore service ; this was due to the first usage of newly installed meters that showed exactly where the cuts had occurred .
Later , while passing near Okinawa , Francisco brought gusty winds and some rainfall . The threat of the storm prompted organizers to cancel a tennis tournament in Kantō . The looming storm also forced the Japanese refiner company Nansei Sekiyu KK to suspend some marine operations at its facility on Okinawa . After the storm , about 100 United States military on the island helped clear debris and sand from the road . Unsettled weather from the typhoon caused an Oita Heat Devils basketball game to be canceled . Francisco 's gusty winds left about 3 @,@ 800 homes without power in Kagoshima Prefecture . Heavy rainfall occurred across Shikoku , including a 48 ‑ hour total of about 600 mm ( 24 in ) at Niyodogawa , Kōchi . On Izu Ōshima , officials advised all 8 @,@ 365 residents to evacuate , the first such advisory in 27 years . About 1 @,@ 300 people were under mandatory evacuation orders . This was after Typhoon Wipha spawned a deadly mudslide a week prior . Rainfall at Izu Ōshima totaled around 150 mm ( 6 in ) . Evacuees were allowed to return after the storm exited the area .
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= Boston =
Boston ( pronounced / ˈbɒstən / BOSS @-@ tin ) is the capital and largest city of the Commonwealth of Massachusetts in the United States . Boston also served as the county seat of Suffolk County until Massachusetts disbanded county government in 1999 . The city proper covers 48 square miles ( 124 km2 ) with an estimated population of 667 @,@ 137 in 2015 , making it the largest city in New England and the 24th largest city in the United States . The city is the economic and cultural anchor of a substantially larger metropolitan area called Greater Boston , home to 4 @.@ 7 million people and the tenth @-@ largest metropolitan statistical area in the country . Greater Boston as a commuting region is home to 8 @.@ 1 million people , making it the sixth @-@ largest combined statistical area in the United States .
One of the oldest cities in the United States , Boston was founded on the Shawmut Peninsula in 1630 by Puritan settlers from England . It was the scene of several key events of the American Revolution , such as the Boston Massacre , the Boston Tea Party , the Battle of Bunker Hill , and the Siege of Boston . Upon U.S. independence from Great Britain , the city continued to be an important port and manufacturing hub , as well as a center for education and culture . Through land reclamation and municipal annexation , Boston has expanded beyond the original peninsula . Its rich history attracts many tourists , with Faneuil Hall alone drawing over 20 million visitors per year . Boston 's many firsts include the United States ' first public school , Boston Latin School ( 1635 ) , first subway system ( 1897 ) , and first public park ( 1634 ) .
The area 's many colleges and universities make Boston an international center of higher education , including law , medicine , engineering , and business , and the city is considered to be a world leader in innovation and entrepreneurship . Boston 's economic base also includes finance , professional and business services , biotechnology , information technology , and government activities . Households in the city claim the highest average rate of philanthropy in the United States ; businesses and institutions rank among the top in the country for environmental sustainability and investment . The city has one of the highest costs of living in the United States , though it remains high on world livability rankings .
= = History = =
Boston 's early European settlers had first called the area Trimountaine ( after its " three mountains " — only traces of which remain today ) but later renamed it Boston after Boston , Lincolnshire , England , the origin of several prominent colonists . The renaming , on September 7 , 1630 ( Old Style ) , was by Puritan colonists from England , who had moved over from Charlestown earlier that year in quest of fresh water . Their settlement was initially limited to the Shawmut Peninsula , at that time surrounded by the Massachusetts Bay and Charles River and connected to the mainland by a narrow isthmus . The peninsula is known to have been inhabited as early as 5000 BC .
In 1629 , the Massachusetts Bay Colony 's first governor , John Winthrop , led the signing of the Cambridge Agreement , a key founding document of the city . Puritan ethics and their focus on education influenced its early history ; America 's first public school was founded in Boston in 1635 . Over the next 130 years , the city participated in four French and Indian Wars , until the British defeated the French and their native allies in North America . Boston was the largest town in British North America until Philadelphia grew larger in the mid 18th century .
Many of the crucial events of the American Revolution — the Boston Massacre , the Boston Tea Party , Paul Revere 's midnight ride , the battles of Lexington and Concord and Bunker Hill , the Siege of Boston , and many others — occurred in or near Boston . After the Revolution , Boston 's long seafaring tradition helped make it one of the world 's wealthiest international ports , with the slave trade , rum , fish , salt , and tobacco being particularly important .
The Embargo Act of 1807 , adopted during the Napoleonic Wars , and the War of 1812 significantly curtailed Boston 's harbor activity . Although foreign trade returned after these hostilities , Boston 's merchants had found alternatives for their capital investments in the interim . Manufacturing became an important component of the city 's economy , and by the mid @-@ 19th century , the city 's industrial manufacturing overtook international trade in economic importance . Until the early 20th century , Boston remained one of the nation 's largest manufacturing centers and was notable for its garment production and leather @-@ goods industries . A network of small rivers bordering the city and connecting it to the surrounding region facilitated shipment of goods and led to a proliferation of mills and factories . Later , a dense network of railroads furthered the region 's industry and commerce .
During this period , Boston flourished culturally as well , admired for its rarefied literary life and generous artistic patronage , with members of old Boston families — eventually dubbed Boston Brahmins — coming to be regarded as the nation 's social and cultural elites .
Boston was an early port of the Atlantic triangular slave trade in the New England colonies , but was soon overtaken by Salem , Massachusetts and Newport , Rhode Island . Eventually Boston became a center of the abolitionist movement . The city reacted strongly to the Fugitive Slave Law of 1850 , contributing to President Franklin Pierce 's attempt to make an example of Boston after the Anthony Burns Fugitive Slave Case .
In 1822 , the citizens of Boston voted to change the official name from the " Town of Boston " to the " City of Boston " , and on March 4 , 1822 , the people of Boston accepted the charter incorporating the City . At the time Boston was chartered as a city , the population was about 46 @,@ 226 , while the area of the city was only 4 @.@ 7 square miles ( 12 km2 ) .
In the 1820s , Boston 's population grew rapidly , and the city 's ethnic composition changed dramatically with the first wave of European immigrants . Irish immigrants dominated the first wave of newcomers during this period , especially following the Irish Potato Famine ; by 1850 , about 35 @,@ 000 Irish lived in Boston . In the latter half of the 19th century , the city saw increasing numbers of Irish , Germans , Lebanese , Syrians , French Canadians , and Russian and Polish Jews settled in the city . By the end of the 19th century , Boston 's core neighborhoods had become enclaves of ethnically distinct immigrants — Italians inhabited the North End , Irish dominated South Boston and Charlestown , and Russian Jews lived in the West End . Irish and Italian immigrants brought with them Roman Catholicism . Currently , Catholics make up Boston 's largest religious community , and since the early 20th century , the Irish have played a major role in Boston politics — prominent figures include the Kennedys , Tip O 'Neill , and John F. Fitzgerald .
Between 1631 and 1890 , the city tripled its area through land reclamation by filling in marshes , mud flats , and gaps between wharves along the waterfront . The largest reclamation efforts took place during the 19th century ; beginning in 1807 , the crown of Beacon Hill was used to fill in a 50 @-@ acre ( 20 ha ) mill pond that later became the Haymarket Square area . The present @-@ day State House sits atop this lowered Beacon Hill . Reclamation projects in the middle of the century created significant parts of the South End , the West End , the Financial District , and Chinatown .
After The Great Boston Fire of 1872 , workers used building rubble as landfill along the downtown waterfront . During the mid @-@ to @-@ late 19th century , workers filled almost 600 acres ( 2 @.@ 4 km2 ) of brackish Charles River marshlands west of Boston Common with gravel brought by rail from the hills of Needham Heights . The city annexed the adjacent towns of South Boston ( 1804 ) , East Boston ( 1836 ) , Roxbury ( 1868 ) , Dorchester ( including present day Mattapan and a portion of South Boston ) ( 1870 ) , Brighton ( including present day Allston ) ( 1874 ) , West Roxbury ( including present day Jamaica Plain and Roslindale ) ( 1874 ) , Charlestown ( 1874 ) , and Hyde Park ( 1912 ) . Other proposals , for the annexation of Brookline , Cambridge , and Chelsea , were unsuccessful .
By the early and mid @-@ 20th century , the city was in decline as factories became old and obsolete , and businesses moved out of the region for cheaper labor elsewhere . Boston responded by initiating various urban renewal projects under the direction of the Boston Redevelopment Authority ( BRA ) , which was established in 1957 . In 1958 , BRA initiated a project to improve the historic West End neighborhood . Extensive demolition was met with strong public opposition .
The BRA subsequently reevaluated its approach to urban renewal in its future projects , including the construction of Government Center . In 1965 , the first Community Health Center in the United States opened , the Columbia Point Health Center , in the Dorchester neighborhood . It mostly served the massive Columbia Point public housing complex adjoining it , which was built in 1953 . The health center is still in operation and was rededicated in 1990 as the Geiger @-@ Gibson Community Health Center . The Columbia Point complex itself was redeveloped and revitalized into a mixed @-@ income community called Harbor Point Apartments from 1984 to 1990 .
By the 1970s , the city 's economy had recovered after 30 years of economic downturn . A large number of high rises were constructed in the Financial District and in Boston 's Back Bay during this time period . This boom continued into the mid @-@ 1980s and resumed after a few pauses . Hospitals such as Massachusetts General Hospital , Beth Israel Deaconess Medical Center , and Brigham and Women 's Hospital lead the nation in medical innovation and patient care . Schools such as Boston College , Boston University , the Harvard Medical School , Northeastern University , Wentworth Institute of Technology , Berklee College of Music and Boston Conservatory attract students to the area . Nevertheless , the city experienced conflict starting in 1974 over desegregation busing , which resulted in unrest and violence around public schools throughout the mid @-@ 1970s .
Boston is an intellectual , technological , and political center but has lost some important regional institutions , including the loss to mergers and acquisitions of local financial institutions such as FleetBoston Financial , which was acquired by Charlotte @-@ based Bank of America in 2004 . Boston @-@ based department stores Jordan Marsh and Filene 's have both been merged into the Cincinnati – based Macy 's . The 1993 acquisition of The Boston Globe by The New York Times was reversed in 2013 when it was re @-@ sold to Boston businessman John W. Henry . In 2016 , it was announced that General Electric would be moving its corporate headquarters from Connecticut to the Innovation District in South Boston , joining many other companies in this rapidly developing neighborhood .
Boston has experienced gentrification in the latter half of the 20th century , with housing prices increasing sharply since the 1990s . Living expenses have risen , and Boston has one of the highest costs of living in the United States , and was ranked the 129th most expensive major city in the world in a 2011 survey of 214 cities . Despite cost of living issues , Boston ranks high on livability ratings , ranking 36th worldwide in quality of living in 2011 in a survey of 221 major cities .
On April 15 , 2013 , two Chechen Islamist brothers detonated a pair of bombs near the finish line of the Boston Marathon , killing three people and injuring roughly 264 .
= = Geography = =
Boston has an area of 89 @.@ 6 square miles ( 232 @.@ 1 km2 ) — 48 @.@ 4 square miles ( 125 @.@ 4 km2 ) ( 54 @.@ 0 % ) of land and 41 @.@ 2 square miles ( 106 @.@ 7 km2 ) ( 46 @.@ 0 % ) of water . The city 's official elevation , as measured at Logan International Airport , is 19 ft ( 5 @.@ 8 m ) above sea level . The highest point in Boston is Bellevue Hill at 330 feet ( 100 m ) above sea level , and the lowest point is at sea level . Situated onshore of the Atlantic Ocean , Boston is the only state capital in the contiguous United States with an oceanic coastline .
The geographical center of Boston is in Roxbury . Due north of the center we find the South End . This is not to be confused with South Boston which lies directly east from the South End . North of the South End is East Boston and southwest of East Boston is the North End .
Boston is surrounded by the " Greater Boston " region and is contiguously bordered by the cities and towns of Winthrop , Revere , Chelsea , Everett , Somerville , Cambridge , Newton , Brookline , Needham , Dedham , Canton , Milton , and Quincy . The Charles River separates Boston from Watertown and the majority of Cambridge , and the mass of Boston from its own Charlestown neighborhood . To the east lie Boston Harbor and the Boston Harbor Islands National Recreation Area ( which includes part of the city 's territory , specifically Calf Island , Gallops Island , Great Brewster Island , Green Island , Little Brewster Island , Little Calf Island , Long Island , Lovells Island , Middle Brewster Island , Nixes Mate , Outer Brewster Island , Rainsford Island , Shag Rocks , Spectacle Island , The Graves , and Thompson Island ) . The Neponset River forms the boundary between Boston 's southern neighborhoods and the city of Quincy and the town of Milton . The Mystic River separates Charlestown from Chelsea and Everett , and Chelsea Creek and Boston Harbor separate East Boston from Boston proper .
= = = Cityscapes = = =
= = = Neighborhoods = = =
Boston is sometimes called a " city of neighborhoods " because of the profusion of diverse subsections ; the city government 's Office of Neighborhood Services has officially designated 23 neighborhoods . More than two @-@ thirds of inner Boston 's modern land area did not exist when the city was founded , but was created via the gradual filling in of the surrounding tidal areas over the centuries , notably with earth from the leveling or lowering of Boston 's three original hills ( the " Trimountain " , after which Tremont Street is named ) , and with gravel brought by train from Needham to fill the Back Bay .
Downtown and its immediate surroundings consist largely of low @-@ rise ( often Federal style and Greek Revival ) masonry buildings , interspersed with modern highrises , notably in the Financial District , Government Center , and South Boston . Back Bay includes many prominent landmarks , such as the Boston Public Library , Christian Science Center , Copley Square , Newbury Street , and New England 's two tallest buildings — the John Hancock Tower and the Prudential Center . Near the John Hancock Tower is the old John Hancock Building with its prominent illuminated beacon , the color of which forecasts the weather . Smaller commercial areas are interspersed among areas of single @-@ family homes and wooden / brick multi @-@ family row houses . The South End Historic District is the largest surviving contiguous Victorian @-@ era neighborhood in the US . The geography of downtown and South Boston was particularly impacted by the Central Artery / Tunnel Project ( known unofficially as the " Big Dig " ) , which allowed for the removal of the unsightly elevated Central Artery and the incorporation of new green spaces and open areas .
= = = Climate = = =
Under the Köppen climate classification , Boston has a humid continental climate ( Köppen Dfa ) with some maritime influence . Despite its climate , the city lies at the transition between USDA plant hardiness zones 6b ( most of the city ) and 7a ( Downtown , South Boston , and East Boston neighborhoods ) . Summers are typically warm to hot , rainy , and humid , while winters oscillate between periods of cold rain and snow , with cold temperatures . Spring and fall are usually mild , with varying conditions dependent on wind direction and jet stream positioning . Prevailing wind patterns that blow offshore minimize the influence of the Atlantic Ocean .
The hottest month is July , with a mean temperature of 73 @.@ 4 ° F ( 23 @.@ 0 ° C ) . The coldest month is January , with a mean of 29 @.@ 0 ° F ( − 1 @.@ 7 ° C ) . Periods exceeding 90 ° F ( 32 ° C ) in summer and below freezing in winter are not uncommon but rarely extended , with about 13 and 25 days per year seeing each , respectively . The most recent sub @-@ 0 ° F ( − 18 ° C ) reading occurred on February 14 , 2016 , when the temperature dipped down to − 9 ° F ( − 23 ° C ) , the coldest reading since 1957 . In addition , several decades may pass between 100 ° F ( 38 ° C ) readings , with the most recent such occurrence on July 22 , 2011 , when the temperature reached 103 ° F ( 39 ° C ) . The city 's average window for freezing temperatures is November 9 through April 5 . Official temperature records have ranged from − 18 ° F ( − 28 ° C ) on February 9 , 1934 , up to 104 ° F ( 40 ° C ) on July 4 , 1911 ; the record cold daily maximum is 2 ° F ( − 17 ° C ) on December 30 , 1917 , while , conversely , the record warm daily minimum is 83 ° F ( 28 ° C ) on August 2 , 1975 .
Boston 's coastal location on the North Atlantic moderates its temperature , but makes the city very prone to Nor 'easter weather systems that can produce much snow and rain . The city averages 43 @.@ 8 inches ( 1 @,@ 110 mm ) of precipitation a year , with 43 @.@ 8 inches ( 111 cm ) of snowfall per season . Snowfall increases dramatically as one goes inland away from the city ( especially north and west of the city ) — away from the moderating influence of the ocean . Most snowfall occurs from December through March , as most years see no measurable snow in April and November , and snow is rare in May and October . There is also high year @-@ to @-@ year variability in snowfall ; for instance , the winter of 2011 – 12 saw only 9 @.@ 3 in ( 23 @.@ 6 cm ) of accumulating snow , but the previous winter , the corresponding figure was 81 @.@ 0 in ( 2 @.@ 06 m ) .
Fog is fairly common , particularly in spring and early summer , and the occasional tropical storm or hurricane can threaten the region , especially in late summer and early autumn . Due to its situation along the North Atlantic , the city often receives sea breezes , especially in the late spring , when water temperatures are still quite cold and temperatures at the coast can be more than 20 ° F ( 11 ° C ) colder than a few miles inland , sometimes dropping by that amount near midday . Thunderstorms occur from May to September , that are occasionally severe with large hail , damaging winds and heavy downpours . Although downtown Boston has never been struck by a violent tornado , the city itself has experienced many tornado warnings . Damaging storms are more common to areas north , west , and northwest of the city . Boston has a relatively sunny climate for a coastal city at its latitude , averaging over 2 @,@ 600 hours of sunshine per annum .
= = Demographics = =
In 2016 , Boston was estimated to have 667 @,@ 137 residents ( a density of 13 @,@ 841 persons / sq mile , or 5 @,@ 344 / km2 ) living in 272 @,@ 481 housing units — an 8 % population increase over 2010 . The city is the third most densely populated large U.S. city of over half a million residents . Some 1 @.@ 2 million persons may be within Boston 's boundaries during work hours , and as many as 2 million during special events . This fluctuation of people is caused by hundreds of thousands of suburban residents who travel to the city for work , education , health care , and special events .
In the city , the population was spread out with 21 @.@ 9 % at age 19 and under , 14 @.@ 3 % from 20 to 24 , 33 @.@ 2 % from 25 to 44 , 20 @.@ 4 % from 45 to 64 , and 10 @.@ 1 % who were 65 years of age or older . The median age was 30 @.@ 8 years . For every 100 females , there were 92 @.@ 0 males . For every 100 females age 18 and over , there were 89 @.@ 9 males . There were 252 @,@ 699 households , of which 20 @.@ 4 % had children under the age of 18 living in them , 25 @.@ 5 % were married couples living together , 16 @.@ 3 % had a female householder with no husband present , and 54 @.@ 0 % were non @-@ families . 37 @.@ 1 % of all households were made up of individuals and 9 @.@ 0 % had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older . The average household size was 2 @.@ 26 and the average family size was 3 @.@ 08 .
The median household income in Boston was $ 51 @,@ 739 , while the median income for a family was $ 61 @,@ 035 . Full @-@ time year @-@ round male workers had a median income of $ 52 @,@ 544 versus $ 46 @,@ 540 for full @-@ time year @-@ round female workers . The per capita income for the city was $ 33 @,@ 158 . 21 @.@ 4 % of the population and 16 @.@ 0 % of families are below the poverty line . Of the total population , 28 @.@ 8 % of those under the age of 18 and 20 @.@ 4 % of those 65 and older were living below the poverty line .
In 1950 , Whites represented 94 @.@ 7 % of Boston 's population . From the 1950s to the end of the 20th century , the proportion of non @-@ Hispanic whites in the city declined ; in 2000 , non @-@ Hispanic whites made up 49 @.@ 5 % of the city 's population , making the city majority @-@ minority for the first time . However , in the 21st century , the city has experienced significant gentrification , in which affluent whites have moved into formerly non @-@ white areas . In 2006 , the US Census Bureau estimated that non @-@ Hispanic whites again formed a slight majority . But as of 2010 , in part due to the housing crash , as well as increased efforts to make more affordable housing more available , the non @-@ white population has rebounded . This may also have to do with increased Latin American and Asian populations and more clarity surrounding US Census statistics , which indicate a non @-@ Hispanic white population of 47 percent ( some reports give slightly lower figures ) .
People of Irish descent form the largest single ethnic group in the city , making up 15 @.@ 8 % of the population , followed by Italians , accounting for 8 @.@ 3 % of the population . People of West Indian and Caribbean ancestry are another sizable group , at 6 @.@ 0 % , about half of whom are of Haitian ancestry . Over 27 @,@ 000 Chinese Americans made their home in Boston city proper in 2013 , and the city hosts a growing Chinatown accommodating heavily traveled Chinese @-@ owned bus lines to and from Chinatown , Manhattan in New York City . Some neighborhoods , such as Dorchester , have received an influx of people of Vietnamese ancestry in recent decades . Neighborhoods such as Jamaica Plain and Roslindale have experienced a growing number of Dominican Americans . The city and greater area also has a growing immigrant population of South Asians , including the tenth @-@ largest Indian community in the country . Boston 's South End and Jamaica Plain are both gay villages , as is nearby Provincetown , Massachusetts on Cape Cod .
The city , especially the East Boston neighborhood , has a significant Hispanic community . In 2010 , Hispanics in Boston were mostly of Puerto Rican ( 30 @,@ 506 or 4 @.@ 9 % of total city population ) , Dominican ( 25 @,@ 648 or 4 @.@ 2 % of total city population ) , Salvadoran ( 10 @,@ 850 or 1 @.@ 8 % of city population ) , Colombian ( 6 @,@ 649 or 1 @.@ 1 % of total city population ) , Mexican ( 5 @,@ 961 or 1 @.@ 0 % of total city population ) , and Guatemalan ( 4 @,@ 451 or 0 @.@ 7 % of total city population ) ethnic origin . Hispanics of all national origins totaled 107 @,@ 917 in 2010 . In Greater Boston , these numbers grew significantly , with Puerto Ricans numbering 175 @,@ 000 + , Dominicans 95 @,@ 000 + , Salvadorans 40 @,@ 000 + , Guatemalans 31 @,@ 000 + , Mexicans 25 @,@ 000 + , and Colombians numbering 22 @,@ 000 + .
= = = Demographic breakdown by zip code = = =
= = = = Income = = = =
Data is from the 2008 – 2012 American Community Survey 5 @-@ Year Estimates .
= = = Religion = = =
According to a 2014 study by the Pew Research Center , 57 % of the population of the city identified themselves as Christians , with 25 % professing attendance at a variety of churches that could be considered Protestant , and 29 % professing Roman Catholic beliefs. while 33 % claim no religious affiliation . The same study says that other religions ( including Judaism , Buddhism , Islam , and Hinduism ) collectively make up about 10 % of the population .
As of 2010 the Catholic Church had the highest number of adherents as a single denomination in the Boston @-@ Cambridge @-@ Newton Metro area , with more than two million members and 339 churches , followed by the Episcopal Church with 58 @,@ 000 adherents in 160 churches . The United Church of Christ had 55 @,@ 000 members and 213 churches . The UCC is the successor of the city 's Puritan religious traditions . Old South Church in Boston is one of the oldest congregations in the United States . It was organized in 1669 by dissenters from the First Church in Boston ( 1630 ) . Notable past members include Samuel Adams , William Dawes , Benjamin Franklin , Samuel Sewall , and Phillis Wheatley . In 1773 , Adams gave the signals from the Old South Meeting House that started the Boston Tea Party .
The city has a sizable Jewish population with an estimated 25 @,@ 000 Jews within the city and 227 @,@ 000 within the Boston metro area ; the number of congregations in Boston is estimated at 22 . The adjacent communities of Brookline and Newton are both approximately one @-@ third Jewish .
= = Economy = =
A global city , Boston is placed among the top 30 most economically powerful cities in the world . Encompassing $ 363 billion , the Greater Boston metropolitan area has the sixth @-@ largest economy in the country and 12th @-@ largest in the world .
Boston 's colleges and universities exert a significant impact on the regional economy . Boston attracts more than 350 @,@ 000 college students from around the world , who contribute more than $ 4 @.@ 8 billion annually to the city 's economy . The area 's schools are major employers and attract industries to the city and surrounding region . The city is home to a number of technology companies and is a hub for biotechnology , with the Milken Institute rating Boston as the top life sciences cluster in the country . Boston receives the highest absolute amount of annual funding from the National Institutes of Health of all cities in the United States .
The city is considered highly innovative for a variety of reasons , including the presence of academia , access to venture capital , and the presence of many high @-@ tech companies . The Route 128 corridor and Greater Boston continue to be a major center for venture capital investment , and high technology remains an important sector .
Tourism also composes a large part of Boston 's economy , with 21 @.@ 2 million domestic and international visitors spending $ 8 @.@ 3 billion in 2011 ; excluding visitors from Canada and Mexico , over 1 @.@ 4 million international tourists visited Boston in 2014 , with those from China and the United Kingdom leading the list . Boston 's status as a state capital as well as the regional home of federal agencies has rendered law and government to be another major component of the city 's economy . The city is a major seaport along the United States ' East Coast and the oldest continuously operated industrial and fishing port in the Western Hemisphere .
Other important industries are financial services , especially mutual funds and insurance . Boston @-@ based Fidelity Investments helped popularize the mutual fund in the 1980s and has made Boston one of the top financial cities in the United States . The city is home to the headquarters of Santander Bank , and Boston is a center for venture capital firms . State Street Corporation , which specializes in asset management and custody services , is based in the city . Boston is a printing and publishing center — Houghton Mifflin Harcourt is headquartered within the city , along with Bedford @-@ St. Martin 's Press and Beacon Press . Pearson PLC publishing units also employ several hundred people in Boston . The city is home to three major convention centers — the Hynes Convention Center in the Back Bay , and the Seaport World Trade Center and Boston Convention and Exhibition Center on the South Boston waterfront . The General Electric Corporation announced in January 2016 its decision to move the company 's global headquarters to the Seaport District in Boston , from Fairfield , Connecticut , citing factors including Boston 's preeminence in the realm of higher education .
= = Education = =
= = = Primary and secondary education = = =
The Boston Public Schools enrolls 57 @,@ 000 students attending 145 schools , including the renowned Boston Latin Academy , John D. O 'Bryant School of Math & Science , and Boston Latin School . The Boston Latin School , established 1635 , is the oldest public high school in the US ; Boston also operates the United States ' second oldest public high school , and its oldest public elementary school . The system 's students are 40 % Hispanic or Latino , 35 % Black or African American , 13 % White , and 9 % Asian . There are private , parochial , and charter schools as well , and approximately 3 @,@ 300 minority students attend participating suburban schools through the Metropolitan Educational Opportunity Council .
= = = Higher education = = =
Some of the most renowned and highly ranked universities in the world are located in the Boston area . Three universities with a major presence in the city are located just outside of Boston in the Cambridge / Somerville area known as the Brainpower Triangle . Harvard University , the nation 's oldest institute of higher education , is centered across the Charles River in Cambridge but has the majority of its land holdings and a substantial amount of its educational activities in Boston . Its business , medical , dental , and public health schools are located in Boston 's Allston and Longwood neighborhoods . Harvard has plans for additional expansion into Allston . The Massachusetts Institute of Technology ( MIT ) , which originated in Boston and was long known as " Boston Tech " , moved across the river to Cambridge in 1916 . Tufts University , whose main campus is north of the city in Somerville and Medford , locates its medical and dental school in Boston 's Chinatown at Tufts Medical Center , a 451 @-@ bed academic medical institution that is home to both a full @-@ service hospital for adults and the Floating Hospital for Children .
Four members of the Association of American Universities are in Greater Boston ( more than any other metropolitan area ) : Harvard University , the Massachusetts Institute of Technology , Boston University , and Brandeis University . Hospitals , universities , and research institutions in Greater Boston received more than $ 1 @.@ 77 billion in National Institutes of Health grants in 2013 , more money than any other American metropolitan area . Greater Boston has more than 100 colleges and universities , with 250 @,@ 000 students enrolled in Boston and Cambridge alone . Its largest private universities include Boston University ( the city 's fourth @-@ largest employer ) , with its main campus along Commonwealth Avenue and a medical campus in the South End ; Northeastern University in the Fenway area ; Suffolk University near Beacon Hill , which includes law school and business school ; and Boston College , which straddles the Boston ( Brighton ) – Newton border . Boston 's only public university is the University of Massachusetts Boston , on Columbia Point in Dorchester . Roxbury Community College and Bunker Hill Community College are the city 's two public community colleges . Altogether , Boston 's colleges and universities employ over 42 @,@ 600 people , accounting for nearly 7 percent of the city 's workforce .
Smaller private schools include Babson College , Bentley University , Boston Architectural College , Emmanuel College , Fisher College , MGH Institute of Health Professions , Massachusetts College of Pharmacy and Health Sciences , Simmons College , Wellesley College , Wheelock College , Wentworth Institute of Technology , New England School of Law ( originally established as America 's first all female law school ) , and Emerson College .
Metropolitan Boston is home to several conservatories and art schools , including Lesley University College of Art and Design , Massachusetts College of Art , the School of the Museum of Fine Arts , New England Institute of Art , New England School of Art and Design ( Suffolk University ) , Longy School of Music of Bard College , and the New England Conservatory ( the oldest independent conservatory in the United States ) . Other conservatories include the Boston Conservatory and Berklee College of Music , which has made Boston an important city for jazz music .
= = Public safety = =
Like many major American cities , Boston has seen a great reduction in violent crime since the early 1990s . Boston 's low crime rate since the 1990s has been credited to the Boston Police Department 's collaboration with neighborhood groups and church parishes to prevent youths from joining gangs , as well as involvement from the United States Attorney and District Attorney 's offices . This helped lead in part to what has been touted as the " Boston Miracle " . Murders in the city dropped from 152 in 1990 ( for a murder rate of 26 @.@ 5 per 100 @,@ 000 people ) to just 31 — not one of them a juvenile — in 1999 ( for a murder rate of 5 @.@ 26 per 100 @,@ 000 ) .
In 2008 , there were 62 reported homicides . Through December 20 each of 2014 and 2015 , the Boston Police Department reported 52 and 39 homicides , respectively .
= = Culture = =
Boston shares many cultural roots with greater New England , including a dialect of the non @-@ rhotic Eastern New England accent known as Boston English , and a regional cuisine with a large emphasis on seafood , salt , and dairy products . Boston also has its own collection of neologisms known as Boston slang .
Boston has been called the " Athens of America " for its literary culture , earning a reputation as " the intellectual capital of the United States . " In the nineteenth century , Ralph Waldo Emerson , Henry David Thoreau , Nathaniel Hawthorne , Margaret Fuller , James Russell Lowell , and Henry Wadsworth Longfellow wrote in Boston . Some consider the Old Corner Bookstore , where these writers met and where The Atlantic Monthly was first published , to be " cradle of American literature . In 1852 , the Boston Public Library was founded as the first free library in the United States . Boston 's literary culture continues today thanks to the city 's many universities and the Boston Book Festival .
Music is afforded a high degree of civic support in Boston . The Boston Symphony Orchestra is one of the " Big Five , " a group of the greatest American orchestras , and the classical music magazine Gramophone called it one of the " world 's best " orchestras . Symphony Hall ( located west of Back Bay ) is home to the Boston Symphony Orchestra , ( and the related Boston Youth Symphony Orchestra , which is the largest youth orchestra in the nation ) and the Boston Pops Orchestra . The British newspaper The Guardian called Boston Symphony Hall " one of the top venues for classical music in the world , " adding that " Symphony Hall in Boston was where science became an essential part of concert hall design . " Other concerts are held at the New England Conservatory 's Jordan Hall . The Boston Ballet performs at the Boston Opera House . Other performing @-@ arts organizations located in the city include the Boston Lyric Opera Company , Opera Boston , Boston Baroque ( the first permanent Baroque orchestra in the US ) , and the Handel and Haydn Society ( one of the oldest choral companies in the United States ) . The city is a center for contemporary classical music with a number of performing groups , several of which are associated with the city 's conservatories and universities . These include the Boston Modern Orchestra Project and Boston Musica Viva . Several theaters are located in or near the Theater District south of Boston Common , including the Cutler Majestic Theatre , Citi Performing Arts Center , the Colonial Theater , and the Orpheum Theatre .
There are several major annual events such as First Night , which occurs on New Year 's Eve , the Boston Early Music Festival , the annual Boston Arts Festival at Christopher Columbus Waterfront Park , and Italian summer feasts in the North End honoring Catholic saints . The city is the site of several events during the Fourth of July period . They include the week @-@ long Harborfest festivities and a Boston Pops concert accompanied by fireworks on the banks of the Charles River .
Because of the city 's prominent role in the American Revolution , several historic sites relating to that period are preserved as part of the Boston National Historical Park . Many are found along the Freedom Trail , which is marked by a red line of bricks embedded in the ground . The city is also home to several art museums , including the Museum of Fine Arts and the Isabella Stewart Gardner Museum . The Institute of Contemporary Art is housed in a contemporary building designed by Diller Scofidio + Renfro in the Seaport District . Columbia Point is the location of the University of Massachusetts Boston , the Edward M. Kennedy Institute for the United States Senate , the John F. Kennedy Presidential Library and Museum , and the Massachusetts Archives and Commonwealth Museum . The Boston Athenæum ( one of the oldest independent libraries in the United States ) , Boston Children 's Museum , Bull & Finch Pub ( whose building is known from the television show Cheers ) , Museum of Science , and the New England Aquarium are within the city .
Boston has been a noted religious center from its earliest days . The Roman Catholic Archdiocese of Boston serves nearly 300 parishes and is based in the Cathedral of the Holy Cross ( 1875 ) in the South End , while the Episcopal Diocese of Massachusetts , with the Cathedral Church of St. Paul ( 1819 ) as its episcopal seat , serves just under 200 congregations . Unitarian Universalism has its headquarters on Beacon Hill . The Christian Scientists are headquartered in Back Bay at the Mother Church ( 1894 ) . The oldest church in Boston is First Church in Boston , founded in 1630 . King 's Chapel , the city 's first Anglican church , was founded in 1686 and converted to Unitarianism in 1785 . Other churches include Christ Church ( better known as Old North Church , 1723 ) , the oldest church building in the city , Trinity Church ( 1733 ) , Park Street Church ( 1809 ) , Old South Church ( 1874 ) , Jubilee Christian Church and Basilica and Shrine of Our Lady of Perpetual Help on Mission Hill ( 1878 ) .
= = Environment = =
= = = Pollution control = = =
Air quality in Boston is generally very good : during the ten @-@ year period 2004 – 2013 , there were only 4 days in which the air was unhealthy for the general public , according to the EPA .
Some of the cleaner energy facilities in Boston include the Allston green district , with three ecologically compatible housing facilities . Boston is also breaking ground on multiple green affordable housing facilities to help reduce the carbon footprint of the city while simultaneously making these initiatives financially available to a greater population . Boston 's climate plan is updated every three years and was most recently modified in 2013 . This legislature includes the Building Energy Reporting and Disclosure Ordinance , which requires the city 's larger buildings to disclose their yearly energy and water use statistics and partake in an energy assessment every five years . These statistics are made public by the city , thereby increasing incentives for buildings to be more environmentally conscious .
Another initiative , presented by the late Mayor Thomas Menino , is the Renew Boston Whole Building Incentive , which reduces the cost of living in buildings that are deemed energy efficient . This , much like the green housing developments , gives people of low socioeconomic status an opportunity to find housing in communities that support the environment . The ultimate goal of this initiative is to enlist 500 Bostonians to participate in a free , in @-@ home energy assessment .
= = = Water purity and availability = = =
Many older buildings in certain areas of Boston are supported by wooden piles driven into the area 's fill ; these piles remain sound if submerged in water , but are subject to dry rot if exposed to air for long periods . Groundwater levels have been dropping , to varying degrees , in many areas of the city , due in part to an increase in the amount of rainwater discharged directly into sewers rather than absorbed by the ground . A city agency , the Boston Groundwater Trust , coordinates monitoring of groundwater levels throughout the city via a network of public and private monitoring wells . However , Boston 's drinking water supply , from the Quabbin and Wachusett Reservoirs to the west , is one of the very few in the country so pure as to satisfy federal water quality standards without filtration .
= = Sports = =
Boston has teams in the four major North American professional sports leagues plus Major League Soccer , and has won 36 championships in these leagues , As of 2014 . It is one of six cities ( along with Chicago , Detroit , Los Angeles , New York and Philadelphia ) to have won championships in all four major sports . It has been suggested that Boston is the new " TitleTown , USA " , as the city 's professional sports teams have won nine championships since 2001 : Patriots ( 2001 , 2003 , 2004 , and 2014 ) , Red Sox ( 2004 , 2007 , and 2013 ) , Celtics ( 2008 ) , and Bruins ( 2011 ) . This love of sports has made Boston the United States Olympic Committee 's choice to bid to hold the 2024 Summer Olympic Games , but the city cited financial concerns when it withdrew its bid on July 27 , 2015 .
The Boston Red Sox , a founding member of the American League of Major League Baseball in 1901 , play their home games at Fenway Park , near Kenmore Square in the city 's Fenway section . Built in 1912 , it is the oldest sports arena or stadium in active use in the United States among the four major professional American sports leagues , Major League Baseball , the National Football League , National Basketball Association , and the National Hockey League . Boston was the site of the first game of the first modern World Series , in 1903 . The series was played between the AL Champion Boston Americans and the NL champion Pittsburgh Pirates . Persistent reports that the team was known in 1903 as the " Boston Pilgrims " appear to be unfounded . Boston 's first professional baseball team was the Red Stockings , one of the charter members of the National Association in 1871 , and of the National League in 1876 . The team played under that name until 1883 , under the name Beaneaters until 1911 , and under the name Braves from 1912 until they moved to Milwaukee after the 1952 season . Since 1966 they have played in Atlanta as the Atlanta Braves .
The TD Garden , formerly called the FleetCenter and built to replace the old , since @-@ demolished Boston Garden , is adjoined to North Station and is the home of two major league teams : the Boston Bruins of the National Hockey League and the Boston Celtics of the National Basketball Association . The arena seats 18 @,@ 624 for basketball games and 17 @,@ 565 for ice hockey games . The Bruins were the first American member of the National Hockey League and an Original Six franchise . The Boston Celtics were founding members of the Basketball Association of America , one of the two leagues that merged to form the NBA . The Celtics have the distinction of having won more championships than any other NBA team , with seventeen .
While they have played in suburban Foxborough since 1971 , the New England Patriots of the National Football League were founded in 1960 as the Boston Patriots , changing their name after relocating . The team won the Super Bowl after the 2001 , 2003 , 2004 , and 2014 seasons . They share Gillette Stadium with the New England Revolution of Major League Soccer . The Boston Breakers of Women 's Professional Soccer , which formed in 2009 , play their home games at Dilboy Stadium in Somerville . The Boston Storm of the United Women 's Lacrosse League was formed in 2015 .
The area 's many colleges and universities are active in college athletics . Four NCAA Division I members play in the city — Boston College , Boston University , Harvard University , and Northeastern University . Of the four , only Boston College participates in college football at the highest level , the Football Bowl Subdivision . Harvard participates in the second @-@ highest level , the Football Championship Subdivision .
One of the best known sporting events in the city is the Boston Marathon , the 26 @.@ 2 @-@ mile ( 42 @.@ 2 km ) race which is the world 's oldest annual marathon , run on Patriots ' Day in April . On April 15 , 2013 , two explosions killed three people and injured hundreds at the marathon . Another major annual event is the Head of the Charles Regatta , held in October .
= = Parks and recreation = =
Boston Common , located near the Financial District and Beacon Hill , is the oldest public park in the United States . Along with the adjacent Boston Public Garden , it is part of the Emerald Necklace , a string of parks designed by Frederick Law Olmsted to encircle the city . The Emerald Necklace includes Jamaica Pond , Boston 's largest body of freshwater , and Franklin Park , the city 's largest park and home of the Franklin Park Zoo . Another major park is the Esplanade , located along the banks of the Charles River . The Hatch Shell , an outdoor concert venue , is located adjacent to the Charles River Esplanade . Other parks are scattered throughout the city , with the major parks and beaches located near Castle Island ; in Charlestown ; and along the Dorchester , South Boston , and East Boston shorelines .
Boston 's park system is well @-@ reputed nationally . In its 2013 ParkScore ranking , The Trust for Public Land reported that Boston was tied with Sacramento and San Francisco for having the third @-@ best park system among the 50 most populous US cities . ParkScore ranks city park systems by a formula that analyzes the city 's median park size , park acres as percent of city area , the percent of residents within a half @-@ mile of a park , spending of park services per resident , and the number of playgrounds per 10 @,@ 000 residents .
= = Government and politics = =
Boston has a strong mayor – council government system in which the mayor ( elected every fourth year ) has extensive executive power . Marty Walsh became Mayor in January 2014 , his predecessor Thomas Menino 's twenty @-@ year tenure having been the longest in the city 's history . The Boston City Council is elected every two years ; there are nine district seats , and four citywide " at @-@ large " seats . The School Committee , which oversees the Boston Public Schools , is appointed by the mayor .
In addition to city government , numerous commissions and state authorities — including the Massachusetts Department of Conservation and Recreation , the Boston Public Health Commission , the Massachusetts Water Resources Authority ( MWRA ) , and the Massachusetts Port Authority ( Massport ) — play a role in the life of Bostonians . As the capital of Massachusetts , Boston plays a major role in state politics .
The city has several federal facilities , including the John F. Kennedy Federal Office Building , the Thomas P. O 'Neill Jr . Federal Building , the John W. McCormack Post Office and Courthouse , the Federal Reserve Bank of Boston , the United States Court of Appeals for the First Circuit , and the United States District Court for the District of Massachusetts . Both courts are housed in the John Joseph Moakley United States Courthouse .
Federally , Boston is split between two congressional districts . The northern three @-@ fourths of the city is in the 7th district , represented by Mike Capuano since 1998 . The southern fourth is in the 8th district , represented by Stephen Lynch . Both are Democrats ; a Republican has not represented a significant portion of Boston in over a century . The state 's senior member of the United States Senate is Democrat Elizabeth Warren , first elected in 2012 . The state 's junior member of the United States Senate is Democrat Ed Markey , who was elected in 2013 to succeed John Kerry after Kerry 's appointment and confirmation as the United States Secretary of State .
= = Media = =
= = = Newspapers = = =
The Boston Globe and the Boston Herald are two of the city 's major daily newspapers . The city is also served by other publications such as Boston magazine , The Improper Bostonian , DigBoston , and the Boston edition of Metro . The Christian Science Monitor , headquartered in Boston , was formerly a worldwide daily newspaper but ended publication of daily print editions in 2009 , switching to continuous online and weekly magazine format publications . The Boston Globe also releases a teen publication to the city 's public high schools , called Teens in Print or T.i.P. , which is written by the city 's teens and delivered quarterly within the school year .
The city 's growing Latino population has given rise to a number of local and regional Spanish @-@ language newspapers . These include El Planeta ( owned by the former publisher of The Boston Phoenix ) , El Mundo , and La Semana . Siglo21 , with its main offices in nearby Lawrence , is also widely distributed .
Various LGBT publications serve the city 's large LGBT ( lesbian , gay , bisexual and transgender ) community such as The Rainbow Times , the only minority and lesbian @-@ owned LGBT newsmagazine . Founded in 2006 , The Rainbow Times is now based out of Boston , but serves all of New England .
= = = Radio and television = = =
Boston is the largest broadcasting market in New England , with the radio market being the 11th largest in the United States . Several major AM stations include talk radio WRKO , sports / talk station WEEI , and CBS Radio WBZ . WBZ ( AM ) broadcasts a news radio format . A variety of commercial FM radio formats serve the area , as do NPR stations WBUR and WGBH . College and university radio stations include WERS ( Emerson ) , WHRB ( Harvard ) , WUMB ( UMass Boston ) , WMBR ( MIT ) , WZBC ( Boston College ) , WMFO ( Tufts University ) , WBRS ( Brandeis University ) , WTBU ( Boston University , campus and web only ) , WRBB ( Northeastern University ) and WMLN @-@ FM ( Curry College ) .
The Boston television DMA , which also includes Manchester , New Hampshire , is the 8th largest in the United States . The city is served by stations representing every major American network , including WBZ @-@ TV 4 and its sister station WSBK @-@ TV 38 ( the former a CBS O & O , the latter an MyNetwork TV affiliate ) , WCVB @-@ TV 5 and its sister station WMUR @-@ TV 9 ( both ABC ) , WHDH 7 ( NBC ) , WFXT 25 ( Fox ) , and WLVI 56 ( The CW ) . The city is also home to PBS station WGBH @-@ TV 2 , a major producer of PBS programs , which also operates WGBX 44 . Spanish @-@ language television networks , including MundoFox ( WFXZ @-@ CD 24 ) , Univision ( WUNI 27 ) , Telemundo ( WNEU 60 ) , and UniMás ( WUTF @-@ DT 66 ) , have a presence in the region , with WNEU and WUTF serving as network owned @-@ and @-@ operated stations . Most of the area 's television stations have their transmitters in nearby Needham and Newton along the Route 128 corridor . Six Boston television stations are carried by Canadian satellite television provider Bell TV and by cable television providers in Canada .
= = = Film = = =
Films have been made in Boston since as early as 1903 , and it continues to be both a popular setting and a popular site for location shooting .
= = Healthcare = =
The Longwood Medical and Academic Area , adjacent to the Fenway district , is home to a large number of medical and research facilities , including Beth Israel Deaconess Medical Center , Brigham and Women 's Hospital , Children 's Hospital Boston , Dana @-@ Farber Cancer Institute , Harvard Medical School , Joslin Diabetes Center , and the Massachusetts College of Pharmacy and Health Sciences . Prominent medical facilities , including Massachusetts General Hospital , Massachusetts Eye and Ear Infirmary and Spaulding Rehabilitation Hospital are located in the Beacon Hill area . St. Elizabeth 's Medical Center is in Brighton Center of the city 's Brighton neighborhood . New England Baptist Hospital is in Mission Hill . The city has Veterans Affairs medical centers in the Jamaica Plain and West Roxbury neighborhoods . The Boston Public Health Commission , an agency of the Massachusetts government , oversees health concerns for city residents . Boston EMS provides pre @-@ hospital emergency medical services to residents and visitors .
Many of Boston 's medical facilities are associated with universities . The facilities in the Longwood Medical and Academic Area and in Massachusetts General Hospital are affiliated with Harvard Medical School . Tufts Medical Center ( formerly Tufts @-@ New England Medical Center ) , located in the southern portion of the Chinatown neighborhood , is affiliated with Tufts University School of Medicine . Boston Medical Center , located in the South End neighborhood , is the primary teaching facility for the Boston University School of Medicine as well as the largest trauma center in the Boston area ; it was formed by the merger of Boston University Hospital and Boston City Hospital , which was the first municipal hospital in the United States .
= = Infrastructure = =
= = = Transportation = = =
Logan Airport , located in East Boston and operated by the Massachusetts Port Authority ( Massport ) , is Boston 's principal airport . Nearby general aviation airports are Beverly Municipal Airport to the north , Hanscom Field to the west , and Norwood Memorial Airport to the south . Massport also operates several major facilities within the Port of Boston , including a cruise ship terminal and facilities to handle bulk and container cargo in South Boston , and other facilities in Charlestown and East Boston .
Downtown Boston 's streets grew organically , so they do not form a planned grid , unlike those in later @-@ developed Back Bay , East Boston , the South End , and South Boston . Boston is the eastern terminus of I @-@ 90 , which in Massachusetts runs along the Massachusetts Turnpike . The elevated portion of the Central Artery , which carried most of the through traffic in downtown Boston , was replaced with the O 'Neill Tunnel during the Big Dig , substantially completed in early 2006 .
With nearly a third of Bostonians using public transit for their commute to work , Boston has the fifth @-@ highest rate of public transit usage in the country . Boston 's subway system , the Massachusetts Bay Transportation Authority ( MBTA — known as the " T " ) operates the oldest underground rapid transit system in the Americas , and is the fourth @-@ busiest rapid transit system in the country , with 65 @.@ 5 miles ( 105 km ) of track on four lines . The MBTA also operates busy bus and commuter rail networks , and water shuttles .
Amtrak 's Northeast Corridor and Chicago lines originate at South Station , which serves as a major intermodal transportation hub , and stop at Back Bay . Fast Northeast Corridor trains , which serve New York City , Washington , D.C. , and points in between , also stop at Route 128 Station in the southwestern suburbs of Boston . Meanwhile , Amtrak 's Downeaster service to Maine originates at North Station , despite the current lack of a dedicated passenger rail link between the two railhubs , other than the " T " subway lines .
Nicknamed " The Walking City " , Boston hosts more pedestrian commuters than do other comparably populated cities . Owing to factors such as the compactness of the city and large student population , 13 percent of the population commutes by foot , making it the highest percentage of pedestrian commuters in the country out of the major American cities . In 2011 , Walk Score ranked Boston the third most walkable city in the United States . As of 2015 , Walk Score still ranks Boston as the third most walkable US city , with a Walk Score of 80 , a Transit Score of 75 , and a Bike Score of 70 .
Between 1999 and 2006 , Bicycling magazine named Boston three times as one of the worst cities in the US for cycling ; regardless , it has one of the highest rates of bicycle commuting . In 2008 , as a consequence of improvements made to bicycling conditions within the city , the same magazine put Boston on its " Five for the Future " list as a " Future Best City " for biking , and Boston 's bicycle commuting percentage increased from 1 % in 2000 to 2 @.@ 1 % in 2009 . The bikeshare program called Hubway launched in late July 2011 , logging more than 140 @,@ 000 rides before the close of its first season . The neighboring municipalities of Cambridge , Somerville , and Brookline joined the Hubway program in summer 2012 .
= = Notable people = =
= = Gallery = =
= = Twin towns / Sister cities = =
Boston has nine official sister cities as recognized by Sister Cities International .
Boston has less formal friendship or partnership relationships with three additional cities .
= = = Specific = = =
= = = General = = =
Bluestone , Barry ; Stevenson , Mary Huff ( 2002 ) . The Boston Renaissance : Race , Space , and Economic Change in an American Metropolis . Russell Sage Foundation . ISBN 978 @-@ 1 @-@ 61044 @-@ 072 @-@ 1 .
Bolino , August C. ( 2012 ) . Men of Massachusetts : Bay State Contributors to American Society. iUniverse . ISBN 978 @-@ 1 @-@ 4759 @-@ 3376 @-@ 5 .
Christopher , Paul J. ( 2006 ) . 50 Plus One Greatest Cities in the World You Should Visit . Encouragement Press , LLC . ISBN 978 @-@ 1 @-@ 933766 @-@ 01 @-@ 0 .
Hull , Sarah ( 2011 ) . The Rough Guide to Boston ( 6 ed . ) . Penguin . ISBN 978 @-@ 1 @-@ 4053 @-@ 8247 @-@ 2 .
Kennedy , Lawrence W. ( 1994 ) . Planning the City Upon a Hill : Boston Since 1630 . University of Massachusetts Press . ISBN 978 @-@ 0 @-@ 87023 @-@ 923 @-@ 6 .
Morris , Jerry ( 2005 ) . The Boston Globe Guide to Boston . Globe Pequot . ISBN 978 @-@ 0 @-@ 7627 @-@ 3430 @-@ 6 .
Vorhees , Mara ( 2009 ) . Lonely Planet Boston City Guide ( 4 ed . ) . Lonely Planet . ISBN 978 @-@ 1 @-@ 74179 @-@ 178 @-@ 5 .
Wechter , Eric B. ; et al . ( 2009 ) . Fodor 's Boston 2009 . Random House Digital , Inc . ISBN 978 @-@ 1 @-@ 4000 @-@ 0699 @-@ 1 .
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= The Manchester Rambler =
" The Manchester Rambler " , also known as " I 'm a Rambler " and " The Rambler 's Song " , is a song written by the English folk singer Ewan MacColl . It was inspired by his participation in the Kinder trespass , a protest by the urban Young Communist League of Manchester , and was the work that began MacColl 's career as a singer @-@ songwriter .
Since the 1950s , the song has become a standard among folk musicians , as it was for MacColl himself . It has been covered many times , including by The Dubliners and The Houghton Weavers . It has been sung both in clubs and in the open air on a variety of occasions , including at Kinder Downfall in 2009 when Kinder was designated as a National Nature Reserve .
= = Context = =
The Kinder mass trespass was a deliberate act of civil disobedience ( the law of trespass having already been repealed ) by men of the Young Communist League of Manchester , and others from Sheffield . The protest was intended to secure free access to England 's mountains and moorlands . The ' ramblers ' , led by Benny Rothman , walked from Bowden Bridge Quarry , near Hayfield to climb the hill called Kinder Scout in the Derbyshire Peak District on 24 April 1932 . A young man called James Henry Miller , better known as Ewan MacColl , was a keen rambler and an enthusiastic member of the Young Communist League . He played a major part in organising the publicity for the trespass , duplicating and handing out leaflets , though this role is disputed . He took part in the trespass , and was shocked by the violent reaction of the gamekeepers who met the ramblers on the hill , and the extremely harsh sentences handed down by the magistrates to the five ramblers who were arrested that day . What MacColl did not know was that the protest was to have a powerful long @-@ term effect , leading to improved access to the countryside in the shape of national parks ( from 1949 ) , long @-@ distance footpaths starting with the Pennine Way ( opened in 1965 ) and various forms of the desired ' right to roam ' ( such as with the CRoW Act , 2000 ) .
In his biographer Ben Harker 's view , " It would be difficult to overstate the extent to which MacColl was shaped by the 1930s . " MacColl was a keen rambler , travelling out of Manchester by bus into the Peak District , like thousands of other young unemployed people with time on their hands . For MacColl , rambling was integral to his politics ; he did not simply find nature beautiful and the urban world ugly : instead , it was an objective of the hoped @-@ for revolution :
to create a world that would harmonize with that other one that you enjoyed so much ... If the bourgeoisie had had any sense at all they would never have allowed the working class into that kind of countryside . Because it bred a spirit of revolt .
Groups of ramblers often sang songs such as " I 'm Happy When I 'm Hiking " , as well as bawdy songs , ballads and radical American protest songs at their camps . MacColl published the " Manchester Youth Song " in 1933 , singing of " Workers in Cheetham , who slave every day / In waterproof factories at starvation pay " . He also wrote the song " Mass Trespass 1932 " , setting words like " For the mass trespass is the only way there is / To gain access to the mountains once again " to the old Scottish tune of " The Road to the Isles " . His friends used to sing it as they rambled in the hills .
= = Folk song = =
" The Manchester Rambler " , written in 1932 not long after the Kinder trespass and inspired by that event , was Ewan MacColl 's first important song , according to Harker , who argues that it " marks a departure from the [ singer 's ] leaden @-@ footed and slogan @-@ heavy juvenilia " . It is also the first song that still survives for which he wrote the melody as well as the lyrics . Its swinging , jaunty melody demonstrates MacColl 's ability to combine musical forms and popular rhythms to create a song which is at once familiar and unique . Like the melody , the lyrics are witty and playful . They put out a defiant political message with " I may be a wage slave on Monday / But I am a free man on Sunday " . MacColl plays with and updates traditional English folksong phraseology with " I once loved a maid , a spot @-@ welder by trade / She was fair as the Rowan in bloom " . The lyrics are suitably comical on the confrontation between the ramblers and the gamekeepers in the style of musical theatre , argues Harker , with lines such as " He called me a louse and said ' Think of the grouse ' " . The song has 5 verses , each of 8 lines , and a 4 @-@ line chorus .
The song names the following places : Snowdon ( North Wales ) ; Crowden ( by the Woodhead pass road in Derbyshire ) ; the Wainstones ( on the Bleaklow plateau in Derbyshire ) ; Kinder Scout ; Manchester ; Grindsbrook and Upper Tor ( both Edale , Derbyshire ) .
" The Manchester Rambler " is published by Green Linnet on Ewan MacColl 's 1996 CD " Black and White : The Definitive Collection " , also released by Cooking Vinyl Records ; the recording lasts 4 minutes 42 seconds , and MacColl is assisted on vocals by his wife , the folk singer Peggy Seeger .
= = Reception and influence = =
Ben Harker said of " The Manchester Rambler " that
Rambler is the song where it all comes together . He 'd written these rather earnest agitprop pieces prior to that , but in Rambler , he manages to pull together a political perspective with a more lyrical style ... It crystallises his songwriting and that 's the first time it happens .
MacColl performed the song as a standard all his life . Cover versions were performed and recorded by dozens of folk musicians from the 1950s onwards , including by The Dubliners on " Alive Alive @-@ O " and 30 Years A @-@ Greying . Kirsty MacColl ( daughter of Ewan ) covered the song on her 1991 album The One And Only , while Casey Neill covered it on his eponymous album in 1999 . The Houghton Weavers covered it on their 2005 album Sit Thi Deawn , and in the same year Mick Groves performed it on his album " Fellow Journeyman " . Patterson Jordan Dipper covered it on their album " Flat Earth " in 2010 , and Danny and Mary O 'Leary covered it in 2014 .
The Oxford Dictionary of National Biography writes of MacColl that " One of his first and finest protest songs , ‘ The Manchester Rambler ’ , dealt with the ‘ mass trespass ’ campaigns of the 1930s , in which hikers fought pitched battles with gamekeepers when they invaded privately owned grouse moors . " The Encyclopaedia of Contemporary British Culture describes Ewan MacColl as " a crucial figure " in the folk revival of the 1950s and 1960s , and names " The Manchester Rambler " as one of his " more famous songs " .
The comedian and folk singer Mike Harding , in The Guardian , wrote that
When I was a young lad walking in the hills for the first time , camping out on the Pots and Pans stone on Saddleworth Moor , getting the last bus back from Hayfield , crawling up Jack 's Rake , in Langdale , we sang that song and meant every word of it .
Harding was running a Manchester folk club on Sunday nights at that time , and
on those nights the lobby would be choked with the rucksacks of the people who had just come off the hill and were looking forward to a night of beer and songs ... Most nights in the pub we would sing the Manchester Rambler , only too aware that it was people like Rothman and Stephenson who had fought to get the hills opened up for us . We knew that Rothman had gone to jail for walking on Kinder Scout during the mass trespass in 1932 .
The song was sung at Kinder Downfall ( the waterfall on Kinder Scout ) in 2009 when Kinder was designated as a National Nature Reserve ( NNR ) ; in attendance were establishment figures including three Members of Parliament , the Chief Executive Officers of three National Parks and the leaders of Natural England . The British Mountaineering Council 's booklet issued in 2012 to commemorate 80 years of the Kinder mass trespass reproduced the lyrics of " The Manchester Rambler " in full .
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= New York State Route 428 =
New York State Route 428 ( NY 428 ) was a north – south state highway located within Chautauqua County , New York , in the United States . The southern terminus of the route was at an intersection with NY 39 in Forestville . Its northern terminus was at a junction with U.S. Route 20 ( US 20 ) in Silver Creek . The route passed through mostly rural areas and crossed over the New York State Thruway ( Interstate 90 or I @-@ 90 ) without connecting to the highway .
NY 428 was assigned c . 1932 and removed in 1980 after ownership and maintenance of the highway was transferred from the state of New York to Chautauqua County as part of a highway maintenance swap between the two levels of government . Although the swap took effect on April 1 , the NY 428 designation was not removed until September 9 . The former routing of NY 428 is now the northernmost section of County Route 85 ( CR 85 ) .
= = Route description = =
NY 428 began at an intersection with NY 39 and CR 87 in Forestville . It headed north through the village on Center Street , passing by several blocks of homes and intersecting CR 89 before it exited Forestville . Outside of Forestville in Hanover , NY 428 continued northward as Bennett State Road through farmland , paralleling both CR 89 and Walnut Creek to the hamlet of Keaches Corners , where it met CR 84 .
The highway continued onward through open fields , intersecting CR 86 just before passing over the New York State Thruway ( I @-@ 90 ) . Past the Thruway , NY 428 continued north along Silver Creek into the village of Silver Creek , where it became known as Division Street at the village line . It followed Division Street for two blocks through a lightly populated area before turning west onto Burgess Street for another two blocks through a more densely populated portion of the community . NY 428 ended at an intersection with US 20 south of the village center .
= = History = =
NY 428 was assigned c . 1932 to a previously unnumbered roadway between Forestville and Silver Creek . The route remained intact until 1980 when the roadway was given to Chautauqua County as part of a large @-@ scale maintenance swap of routes within the county . Under the terms of the deal , NY 428 was transferred to the county along with NY 424 , the segment of NY 380 between NY 424 and US 20 , and two reference routes in the vicinity of Dunkirk and Fredonia . In exchange , NYSDOT assumed control over NY 394 between US 20 and NY 5 in Westfield , US 62 from NY 60 to NY 394 east of Jamestown , and Forest Avenue ( unsigned reference route NY 952P ) from the Pennsylvania state line in Busti to NY 60 in Jamestown . Although the swap was officially conducted on April 1 , NY 428 was not removed until September 9 . CR 85 , which ran from CR 66 in Thornton to NY 39 in Forestville at the time , was then extended northward over the former routing of NY 428 to Silver Creek .
= = Major intersections = =
The entire route was in Chautauqua County .
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= Stupid Girl ( Garbage song ) =
" Stupid Girl " is a song recorded by alternative rock band Garbage for the band 's self @-@ titled debut studio album . The song was composed and produced by bandmembers Duke Erikson , Shirley Manson , Steve Marker and Butch Vig . " Stupid Girl " features lyrics about female empowerment , and a musical arrangement centered on both a repetitive bassline and a drum sample from The Clash 's 1980 hit " Train in Vain " .
The song was released by Almo Sounds in North America and Mushroom Records worldwide as the band 's fourth international single in 1996 . " Stupid Girl " became their biggest hit in United States and the United Kingdom , with its performance on the charts driven by an innovative music video and remixes which gained massive airplay across the world . The success of " Stupid Girl " propelled sales of its parent album Garbage into the top twenty of the Billboard 200 and into the top ten of the UK Albums Chart .
Reviews of the song were positive , with praise to the production . " Stupid Girl " was nominated for two Grammy Awards , Best Rock Song and Best Rock Performance by a Duo or Group , as well as the Danish Grammy for Best Rock Song , an MTV Video Music Award for Best New Artist and an MTV Europe Music Award for Best Song .
= = Development = =
= = = Production = = =
" Stupid Girl " began as a rough demo around January 1994 . It was recorded during informal studio sessions between Duke Erikson , Steve Marker and Butch Vig in Marker 's home basement recording studio in Madison , Wisconsin prior to Shirley Manson joining the group . The band had been jamming using an ADAT eight @-@ track , AKAI samplers and a small drum kit . Vig took a loop from the drum introduction from The Clash 's " Train In Vain " and added further percussion . Afterwards , Marker created the bassline , under the request of doing something like Creedence Clearwater Revival 's " Suzie Q " , " something that 's almost like a Motown feel " . Erikson finished off what became the song 's core with a jangly guitar riff .
After Marker saw Manson 's group Angelfish on 120 Minutes , the band invited her to Vig and Marker 's Smart Studios to sing on a couple of songs , but after a " dreadful " first audition , she returned to Angelfish . Manson eventually returned to Smart for a successful second time , where she began to work on the then @-@ skeletal " Queer " , " Vow " and " Stupid Girl " . Working on the lyrics , " Stupid Girl " became an " anthem for a girl who won 't settle for less than what she wants " . Later she added , " [ " Stupid Girl " is ] really about squandering potential , [ it 's ] our version of Madonna 's ' Express Yourself ' , but a little more subversive " . Manson aimed the song as a rebuke towards a friend 's foolish behaviour : " A lot of females still find it difficult to find their own voice in society . It 's just that women have a different set of problems from men ... make the most of your potential . " Manson added that " Stupid Girl " was " a song of reproach to a lot of people we know " , both male and female , and that " we could have called it ' Stupid Guy , ' but we thought another song about a strident female dissing a guy would be tedious . "
Garbage wanted to write a song that incorporated a very thumpy and repetitive bass line ; this would act as a hook . Continuing to develop the demo throughout the recording process for what would eventually become the band 's debut album , the group decided to add textures , guitars , and keys to make " Stupid Girl " dynamic rather than built on complicated chord changes . Marker and Vig then added in elements of ambient sound effects throughout the audio mix ; including the " glitchy " sound of a broken DAT player used during the pre @-@ chorus . Marker had been dubbing between audio tracks , resulting in scratchy feedback ; he sampled the sound and tuned it to fit the song , unintentionally created by an alternative hook . When Manson recorded her first vocals for " Stupid Girl " , the band realised that the key that the song had been arranged in was too low , but instead of re @-@ recording the guitars , Vig re @-@ printed them through a pitch @-@ change patch on an effects unit . Erikson commented that the effects are " just ear candy , but they contribute to the character of the song , make the listener think in a certain way about the song " . Additional percussion on " Stupid Girl " was performed by Madison musician Pauli Ryan , while the bass guitar line was played on record by Milwaukee session bassist Mike Kashou , both of whom performed on a number of tracks on the band 's debut album .
Reflecting on the success of the song in 2002 , Vig admitted : " People still ask us who the ' Stupid Girl ' is , and that 's impossible to answer . The song is sort of meant to be a wake up call . It could be about an ex @-@ girlfriend . It could be about a rock diva that we all know , it could be about your sister . It could also be called ' Stupid Boy ' . " Looking back , he also stated , " It 's impossible to predict what will be a hit . But subconsciously , I knew the song was good when I kept playing the same rough mix over and over again on my car stereo for months . "
= = = Composition = = =
" Stupid Girl " is a moderately alternative rock fast song with touches of electronica , set in common time . It is built on a I @-@ IV change in F ♯ , with both chords , F ♯ 7 and B7 .
The tonal function of a " dominant " seventh chord is to resolve up a perfect fourth . In non @-@ classical harmony , the chord is often used similarly , but also , especially in blues , funk , and early rock music , it is used commonly for its color that seems to mesh major and minor together with its major third , minor seventh , and the dissonant interval between the two . When the F ♯ 7 chord is played , it should traditionally resolve to B , which would expectedly be a B major 7th chord , the M7 being the major 3rd of the tonic .
Instead , on the B note is another dominant seventh . Such chords are the basis of the twelve @-@ bar blues , and are used in this way to give " Stupid Girl " a bluesy , rock- ' n ' -roll feel , the chord change is manipulated to emphasize the B 's flatted seventh ( a minor third from the tonic ) , giving the song a sulky mood . This chord change is used for the intro , verse , chorus and the instrumental sections , with exception to the pre @-@ chorus , which is in the relative key of D ♯ minor . Overall , even regardless of the chord progression , the song seems to fall somewhere between major and minor , and the use of four @-@ note seventh chords ( as opposed to " three @-@ note " chords ) help to form a rich atmosphere . " Stupid Girl " is mainly carried by this arrangement , along with drum beats , sampled from " Train In Vain " .
On the intro , four bars set the rhythm , adorned by only a guitar pick @-@ slide and audio effects . The verse adds Manson 's vocals and a bass riff which uses flattened blue notes to give " Stupid Girl " an funky , unsettled feel . The eight @-@ bar prechorus abruptly cuts in with minor chords and sampled feedback replaces the bass which drops out . This , coupled with Manson singing high in her range , creates tension and enables the presence of the bass to be felt when it re @-@ enters on the chorus . The guitar figures in the bridge include a phrase played low and rhythmic guitar stabs on the opposite side of the audio mix . On the chorus , Manson 's main vocal is answered by an " aah @-@ ah " of voice and guitar together . The word " girl " lands on a flattened bass note ( A against the F ♯ note , instead of A ♯ ) .
= = Single release = =
= = = Release and promotion = = =
The first single release of " Stupid Girl " occurred in Australia and New Zealand on January 22 , 1996 , when White issued on both CD and cassette , backed with " Trip My Wire " ( previously released on the " Queer " single in the United Kingdom ) and remixes of " Queer " by Adrian Sherwood and Martin Gore . A week later , White issued a second CD featuring a cover version of The Jam 's " Butterfly Collector " and a further two " Queer " mixes produced by Danny Saber and Rabbit In the Moon ( also previously released in the UK ) . In July , White released a limited edition EP titled Stupid Girl – The Remixes collecting together the UK b @-@ sides and remixes for the Australian market . BMG released " Stupid Girl " across Europe on February 28 . The single was issued as a CD maxi backed with both " Butterfly Collector " and " Trip My Wire " . When Garbage returned to tour Europe 's rock festivals in August , BMG reissued " Stupid Girl " in France and Germany
Mushroom Records serviced " Stupid Girl " to radio stations in the United Kingdom a month in advance of the release ; it was A @-@ listed at Radio One , Virgin and Capital . Mushroom issued " Stupid Girl " on March 11 as a 2 × CD single set and limited edition 7 " vinyl packaged in two differing colours of fabric . The song was backed with " Driving Lesson " , a new version of " Dog New Tricks " and a remix of " Stupid Girl " produced by Red Snapper on the first disc ; " Alien Sex Fiend " and two versions of " Stupid Girl " remixed by Dreadzone on the second . The vinyl was backed with the mix of " Dog New Tricks " . The single was supported by Garbage 's first ever UK tour , which launched on March 19 . During the middle of the live shows , Garbage performed the single on Top of the Pops , and a live showcase performance of " Stupid Girl " and " Only Happy When It Rains " on TFI Friday .
In North America , where " Only Happy When It Rains " had been the band 's breakthrough single , Almo Sounds planned either " Stupid Girl " or a re @-@ release of their debut single " Vow " to follow it up . On May 25 , Almo serviced " Stupid Girl " to alternative radio , simultaneous with Garbage joining The Smashing Pumpkins ' North American arena tour as the opening act throughout June and July . The tour was halted after Smashing Pumpkins keyboardist Jonathan Melvoin fatally overdosed – the Pumpkins resumed without Garbage a month later . Almo re @-@ serviced " Stupid Girl " with a remix of the song produced by Todd Terry to Top 40 radio . On July 9 , Almo released " Stupid Girl " to record stores on CD and cassette single , backed with " Driving Lesson " and the Todd Terry version . Almo serviced remixes of the song to clubs . On July 11 , Garbage performed " Stupid Girl " on the Late Show with David Letterman , and in October performed the song at the VH1 Fashion Awards – which earned attention as Manson had a wardrobe malfunction . On August 6 , Almo released a 12 " vinyl format commercially featuring " Driving Lesson " and remixes of " Stupid Girl " produced by Todd Terry , Danny Saber , Rabbit In the Moon and Jason Bentley ,
= = = Chart performance = = =
" Stupid Girl " first charted on the Australian ARIA Singles Chart dated week ending February 4 , 1996 , debuting at # 99 and peaking at # 47 on March 24 , 1996 . The single charted for two non @-@ consecutive weeks on the New Zealand Top 40 – peaking at # 32 in February . In Iceland , " Stupid Girl " debuted at 18th at the start of April , and shot up to 4th in the second week , where it remained for three weeks . In Spain , " Stupid Girl " peaked at 40th on the airplay chart . In Ireland , " Stupid Girl " peaked at 16th . In France , " Stupid Girl " peaked at 38th on the French singles chart , and Garbage re @-@ charted to peak at # 16 on the album chart .
At the start of March , " Stupid Girl " debuted at 48th on the UK airplay chart , and the band 's debut album re @-@ charted at # 27 on the album chart . Later , " Stupid Girl " debuted as the highest new entry on the UK Singles Chart at 4th , which remains the band 's highest charting single . On its second week , " Stupid Girl " dropped to 10th , as Garbage broke into the albums top ten for the first time . On the airplay chart , " Stupid Girl " peaked at 5th , and spent the entire following month within the top ten . " Stupid Girl " clocked up seven weeks in the top 75 and sold 120 @,@ 000 copies .
In North America , after a week on air in April , " Stupid Girl " debuted on Modern Rock Tracks at 38th . Two weeks later , it broke into the Modern Rock top twenty – with an " Airpower " rating , meaning the song had registered over 900 detections for the first time on alternative radio - and debuted at 66th on the Hot 100 Airplay chart . At the end of the month " Stupid Girl " reached the top ten at Modern Rock - peaking at number 2 in August , and only leaving the top ten in September - as Garbage ascended into the top forty of the Billboard 200 for the first time . The remixes were rated Hot Dance Break @-@ outs as " Stupid Girl " debuted at 46th on the Hot 100 .
By August , " Stupid Girl " continued to chart , debuting at 68th on the Hot 100 Singles Sales chart , at 47th on the Top 40 Mainstream chart and at 46th on the Hot Dance / Club Play chart . The success also led the album Garbage to peak at 20th on the Billboard 200 , double its sales to shifting around 40 @,@ 000 units each week , and receive a platinum certification by the RIAA for shipping a million units . The remixes album peaked on 30 on the Maxi @-@ Singles Sales chart . In mid @-@ August , " Stupid Girl " peaked at 26th on the Hot 100 Airplay chart , and picked up enough mainstream rock airplay to spend two weeks at 39th on the Mainstream Rock Tracks chart . At the start of September , " Stupid Girl " became a crossover hit , having built up at both alternate and contemporary hit radio , where it reached 25th on the Top 40 Mainstream chart . Two weeks later , " Stupid Girl " earned Garbage 's highest position on the Hot 100 with a number 24 ; it also peaked at 33rd on the Single Sales chart , and hit 5th on the Club Play chart . " Stupid Girl " continued to gain a larger crossover audience throughout October , debuting on the Adult Top 40 . " Stupid Girl " bowed off of the Modern Rock chart in mid @-@ November after twenty @-@ five weeks , and remained on the Hot 100 until the start of December , clocking twenty weeks .
= = = Remixes = = =
In 1996 , Mushroom released a white label to clubs featuring the Red Snapper and Dreadzone mixes in advance of the UK release of " Stupid Girl " . The Red Snapper mix was later released in Europe on the b @-@ side to " Only Happy When it Rains " , while White Records released this mix along with the Dreadzone mixes on a Stupid Girl – The Remixes extended play . Almo Sounds commissioned additional remixes from Danny Saber , Rabbit In the Moon , Jason Bentley and Todd Terry for the North American release of the single . One of Todd Terry 's mixes was also serviced to Top 40 radio . Mushroom later released this version , along with the Danny Saber mix in the UK on the b @-@ side of " Milk " , while White included the Todd Terry mix on the bonus disc of the Garbage : Australian Tour Edition . In 1997 , Mushroom released four Todd Terry mixes on a set of 12 " vinyls ( Stupid Girl Remixes ) in the UK . An instrumental version of the Red Snapper mix was also included on the compilation album Big Beat Elite . In 2007 , Todd Terry 's radio mix was remastered and included on the Absolute Garbage bonus disc Garbage Mixes .
Danny Saber 's remix brief for his version of " Stupid Girl " was to create a version of the song for radio airplay on K @-@ Rock new wave / alternative rock stations . Garbage 's management wanted Saber to retain the original 's " Train in Vain " loop , as it had cost the band significantly to license . Saber opted for a Soft Cell / house music combination ; incorporating the original vocal line , tempo , key and feedback . Saber created a new bassline for the remix , arranging the mix around that . Saber completed the remix in a single day , with one further day required to mix .
= = = B @-@ sides = = =
Garbage recorded a number of tracks for the b @-@ side of " Stupid Girl " in January 1996 during rehearsals for their first full @-@ length concert tour . During the rehearsals , Garbage remixed their album track " Dog New Tricks " , wrote and recorded " Driving Lesson " and " Alien Sex Fiend " and finally , recorded their own take " Kick My Ass " , a Vic Chesnutt cover for inclusion on charity album Sweet Relief II : Gravity of the Situation . Daniel Shulman plays bass on all four tracks . On October 14 , 1998 , Garbage , Electronic Arts , AT & T and Broadcast.com linked up to promote a live webcast from Garbage 's headline show at Dallas Bronco Bowl by offering a free .a2b file format digital download of " Driving Lesson " , which registered over 6 @,@ 000 downloads .
= = Formats and track listings = =
= = Music video = =
The music video for " Stupid Girl " was filmed on January 16 , 1996 in Los Angeles by director Samuel Bayer . The video for " Only Happy When It Rains " was shot at the same time , and received a higher budget as Almo Sounds believed that that it would be a bigger hit than " Stupid Girl " . According to Manson , " Stupid Girl " had the other bandmembers drunk and all of Garbage exhausted after three days shooting the other video .
The video debuted internationally on February 1 , 1996 , and in North America on May 5 . MTV certified " Stupid Girl " a Buzz @-@ clip , the band 's third video in a row to be guaranteed heavy airplay on the network , while VH1 added the video at the start of September and incorporated it into a Pop Up Video episode .
The video for " Stupid Girl " is a performance piece , inspired by the title sequence from David Fincher 's 1995 movie Se7en . The clip was shot in just four hours entirely within a warehouse decorated with plexiglas sheets on which the song lyrics were written . Bayer cut the film into pieces , and soaked it in his bath , applying deliberate fingerprints and abrasions to the footage before putting it back together by hand . Vig would compliment the video for mirroring the band 's sound : " some of it looked beautiful , some of it looked distorted , and kinda fucked up - and it sorta described some of our music visually " . Bayer later re @-@ edited a second version of the video , with alternative footage from the original shoot for a remix version of " Stupid Girl " by Todd Terry .
The " Stupid Girl " video was nominated in the Best New Artist in a Video category at the 1996 MTV Video Music Awards , losing to the Stéphane Sednaoui @-@ directed video for Alanis Morissette 's " Ironic " .
The " Stupid Girl " video was first commercially released on VHS and Video @-@ CD on 1996 's Garbage Video , along with " making of " out @-@ take footage . A remastered version was later included on Garbage 's 2007 greatest hits DVD Absolute Garbage , and made available as a digital download via online music services the same year .
= = Critical reception and legacy = =
" Stupid Girl " received an overwhelmingly positive response from music critics both upon the release of Garbage and on its eventual single release . Select 's Ian Harrison called the song " Duran @-@ like " , describing it as " mighty doomy pop neatly tailored to enhance one 's natural discontentment " . Vox magazine 's Craig McLean called it " malignant , dirty , devious , sneering pop " , while Metal Hammer 's Pippa Lang compared Manson 's " ever @-@ so @-@ sexy , sibilant " vocals to Trent Reznor 's . Kerrang ! described " Stupid Girl " as " a classy piece of predatory pop perfection that wields an iron punch beneath it 's [ sic ] velvet glove " .
The song was nominated for two Grammy Awards , Best Rock Song and Best Rock Performance by a Duo or Group , but lost to Tracy Chapman 's " Give Me One Reason " and Dave Matthews Band 's " So Much to Say " , respectively . " Stupid Girl " was also up for the Danish Grammy for Best Rock Song , and the MTV Europe Music Award for Best Song . In 1997 , Broadcast Music Incorporated awarded " Stupid Girl " a Citation of Achievement for Best Pop Song , meaning it was among the year 's most performed songs . Erikson said the song was " a crowd favorite " that improves the setlist 's mood whenever it gets played , and Vig added that " we 've played ' Stupid Girl ' on stage more than a thousand times and I 'm still not sick of it . "
In 2005 , " Stupid Girl " was featured in Curtis Hanson 's film In Her Shoes , while later that year , Alexz Johnson recorded a cover version of the track for the soundtrack album Songs from Instant Star . In 2011 , it was nominated for a place on the final track listing of STV 's Scotland 's Greatest Album .
= = Charts = =
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= Mash Off =
" Mash Off " is the sixth episode of the third season of the American musical television series Glee , and the fiftieth overall . The episode was written by Michael Hitchcock and directed by Eric Stoltz , and originally aired on Fox in the United States on November 15 , 2011 . Special guest star Idina Menzel is featured as rival glee club director Shelby Corcoran , and she and Will Schuester ( Matthew Morrison ) hold a mash @-@ up competition between the Troubletones and the New Directions . Santana ( Naya Rivera ) mercilessly taunts rival glee club member Finn ( Cory Monteith ) , who ultimately responds by publicly accusing her of cowardice in her relationship with Brittany , thereby revealing to their fellow students that she is a lesbian . Sue Sylvester ( Jane Lynch ) starts a propaganda campaign against Burt Hummel ( Mike O 'Malley ) , her chief rival in the special election for congress .
Principal photography for " Mash Off " occurred in October 2011 . The episode features four mash @-@ ups , including the show 's 300th musical number , Adele 's " Someone Like You " and " Rumour Has It " , which sold 160 @,@ 000 copies in its first week and debuted at number eleven on the Billboard Hot 100 . All songs from the episode were released as singles available for digital download .
" Mash Off " was met with a mostly positive reception from critics , and its musical performances and cover versions were also well received by reviewers . Upon its initial airing , this episode was viewed by 7 @.@ 08 million American viewers and earned a 3 @.@ 0 / 8 Nielsen rating / share in the 18 – 49 demographic . The total viewership was up from the previous episode , " The First Time " .
= = Plot = =
Puck ( Mark Salling ) fantasizes about his substitute teacher , Shelby Corcoran ( Idina Menzel ) , whom he recently kissed and has since fallen in love with . He sings " Hot for Teacher " by Van Halen , with Mike ( Harry Shum , Jr . ) , Blaine ( Darren Criss ) and Finn ( Cory Monteith ) . Puck tries to convince Shelby , who adopted the child he fathered with Quinn ( Dianna Agron ) , to start a relationship with him , but she rejects the idea . Quinn still wants to get Beth , her birth daughter , back from Shelby , and tries to join Shelby 's glee club , the Troubletones , to get closer to Shelby . After Puck tells Shelby of Quinn 's true intentions , Shelby informs Quinn that she does not want her in Beth 's life .
Will ( Matthew Morrison ) and Shelby agree to hold a mash @-@ up competition between the New Directions and the Troubletones . Santana ( Naya Rivera ) takes the rivalry very seriously , and taunts and derides her former New Directions teammates — particularly Finn . He challenges Santana and the other Troubletones to a game of dodgeball . Finn and Santana are the last two people standing , until Santana whips a ball at Finn 's face , and wins the game . Despite having won , Santana violently targets Rory ( Damian McGinty ) , and makes his nose bleed .
Cheerleading coach Sue ( Jane Lynch ) starts a campaign against Burt Hummel ( Mike O 'Malley ) , her main rival in the election for congress . When Burt 's son Kurt ( Chris Colfer ) accuses her of lying , Sue defends her tactics , and tells Kurt that his own campaign for senior class president is boring and lacks edge . When the presidential candidates make their assembly speeches , Kurt pledges to ban dodgeball , a sport he says is too often used to bully . Rachel ( Lea Michele ) withdraws her candidacy and urges everyone to vote for Kurt . Rachel later confesses to Kurt that she quit so that he could have something important to put on his college application , and because she missed being his friend . The two make up , and go to work on Kurt 's campaign .
Mercedes ( Amber Riley ) is elected president of the Troubletones , and tells Santana that she should play fair against New Directions from now on . Santana makes a rare apology to Finn in the school hallway , but her so @-@ called apology consists of a series of insults . As she walks away , Finn retaliates by telling her to come out of the closet , and calls her a coward for constantly tearing others down while not accepting herself and her relationship with Brittany . A couple of days later , Santana is told by Sue and Burt that the niece of one of their opponents in the election overheard the conversation between her and Finn , and said opponent is about to release an attack ad that criticizes Sue for choosing a lesbian as head cheerleader . Santana runs out of the office in tears , saying that her parents do not yet know she is gay . The episode concludes with the Troubletones ' mash @-@ up of Adele songs . The moment the performance ends , Santana jumps down from the stage , blames Finn for outing her to the world and slaps him in the face .
= = Production = =
" Mash Off " was written by Michael Hitchcock and directed by Eric Stoltz . Principal photography for the episode commenced on October 6 , 2011 , while the fifth episode , " The First Time " was still shooting ; It was initially filmed in parallel with that episode , which continued through October 14 , 2011 , and also with the seventh episode , which began filming on October 13 , 2011 . This episode marked the 300th musical number Glee has filmed , which was a mash @-@ up of two Adele songs : " Rumour Has It " and " Someone Like You " , with lead vocals by Amber Riley and Naya Rivera . The performance was filmed with great fanfare " in front of an audience of press and crew members " on October 26 , 2011 , and included a press briefing afterward . Riley revealed during the briefing that she suggested the idea that she perform Adele to co @-@ creators Brad Falchuk and Ryan Murphy after finding out that Adele was hoping Riley would sing her music on the show : " Someone actually e @-@ mailed me a video of Adele saying that she wanted me to sing her song , so I e @-@ mailed it to Brad and Ryan . "
The episode was to contain a flashback to a sixteen @-@ year @-@ old Sue , played by Colby Minifie , singing the title song of the musical Oklahoma ! in a scene that would have explained Sue 's antipathy to music in the schools . Series co @-@ creator Ian Brennan said " we wanted to show that Sue at one point had Broadway dreams " , and Lynch reveals , " Will tells Sue , ' Poor little Susie Sylvester was told she wasn 't good , and now she 's got to punish the world . ' Like a lot of angry people out there , Sue 's a wannabe . " However , the scene was not broadcast because it was , according to Murphy , " too long for the episode " ; he also stated that the footage , with the title " How Sue Sylvester Became a Bitch " , would be released in the future , " either as a DVD extra or online " .
Three other mash @-@ ups beyond the Adele one are performed in the episode : a Hall & Oates mash @-@ up of " I Can 't Go for That " and " You Make My Dreams " performed by New Directions , a mash @-@ up of Lady Gaga 's " You and I " and Eddie Rabbitt and Crystal Gayle 's " You and I " , performed by Morrison and Menzel , and one of Pat Benatar 's " Hit Me with Your Best Shot " and Blondie 's " One Way or Another " , performed by competing glee clubs New Directions and the Troubletones . Van Halen 's " Hot for Teacher " , performed by Mark Salling , is also included . Recurring guest stars appearing in the episode include teacher Shelby Corcoran ( Menzel ) , Kurt 's father and new congressional candidate Burt Hummel ( O 'Malley ) , Principal Figgins ( Iqbal Theba ) , football coach Shannon Beiste ( Dot @-@ Marie Jones ) , cheerleader Becky Jackson ( Lauren Potter ) , rival glee club member Sugar Motta ( Vanessa Lengies ) , and exchange student Rory Flanagan ( McGinty ) .
= = Reception = =
= = = Ratings = = =
" Mash Off " was first broadcast on November 15 , 2011 in the United States on Fox . It received a 3 @.@ 0 / 8 Nielsen rating / share in the 18 – 49 demographic , and attracted 7 @.@ 08 million American viewers during its initial airing , which tied with " Pot o ' Gold " for the lowest rating of the third season . While the show 's viewership was up slightly from the 6 @.@ 91 million viewers for the previous episode , " The First Time " , which was broadcast on November 8 , 2011 , the rating in the 18 – 49 demographic decreased slightly from the 3 @.@ 1 / 8 rating / share received by that episode .
Viewership was also up slightly in Australia , but decreased in Canada and hit a season low in the United Kingdom , where " Mash Off " was watched on Sky1 by 900 @,@ 000 viewers , down over 7 % compared to " The First Time " the previous week , when 973 @,@ 000 viewers were watching . In Australia , " Mash Off " was watched by 683 @,@ 000 viewers , which made Glee the fourteenth most @-@ watched program of the night for the second week in a row . The viewership was up slightly from the previous episode , which was seen by 660 @,@ 000 viewers . In Canada , viewership was down slightly and 1 @.@ 64 million viewers watched the episode , which made it the eighteenth most @-@ viewed show of the week , down three slots but only 20 @,@ 000 viewers from the 1 @.@ 66 million viewers who watched " The First Time " the week before .
= = = Critical response = = =
Television critics were more favorable than not in their response to " Mash Off " . Erica Futterman of Rolling Stone felt that the series returned to form in the episode , and commented : " We 've said it before and we 'll say it again : we like our Glee with just enough ridiculousness , and this week had it . " Entertainment Weekly journalist Abby West noted that she loved the fact that it " was a bullying episode that snuck up on us " . Raymund Flandez of The Wall Street Journal opined that " Mash Off " was one of the best installments of Glee , and cited the episode 's storylines as highlights : " The mash @-@ up episodes every season can be hit or miss , but this year was perfected to the nth degree . " Amy Reiter of the Los Angeles Times wrote that there was plenty of " airy fun to be found " in " Mash Off " , but added that " underneath all the silly fake mustaches and snappy quotes about root @-@ beer fountains and robot teachers beat a very dark baboon heart . In the end , that murky , telltale undercurrent burst to the fore , like a ... slap in the face , leaving us gasping and a little confused . " Houston Chronicle 's Bobby Hankinson stated that it was " surprisingly good " , and that " Mash Off " was a " solid hour of television that was bursting with fantastic musical numbers and some really gratifying narrative developments " . Michael Slezak of TV Line said that the episode contributed to a revitalization of the quality of the show 's third season .
Catriona Wightman of Digital Spy wrote , " This was a confusing episode of Glee . For a while , it seemed pretty unremarkable — a standard installment , meandering along enjoyably enough . But then , in the last few minutes , it suddenly got really rather dark indeed . I 'm intrigued about what happens next . " The A.V. Club 's Todd VanDerWerff gave " Mash Off " a " C " grade , and felt that the episode did not reach its full potential . He wrote , " The gut @-@ punch moment is sufficiently gut @-@ punchy , and we 'll get to that in a bit . But everything building up to it is so messy that the solidly dramatic moment almost made me angry . There 's something about this show that leads to messy tonal mash @-@ ups . But where the show 's musical mash @-@ ups are usually pretty harmonious , the tonal shifts can often be brutally unsubtle . " James Poniewozik of Time felt that it was notably inferior to the previous episode , with many more " forgettable scenes and stories " .
The character development of Santana and her interactions with Finn were well received by critics . Poniewozik stated that Santana confronting her sexuality was one of the highlights of " Mash Off " . Wightman commented that despite Santana 's callous personality , " watching her burst into tears and sob that she hasn 't even told her parents about her sexuality yet [ was ] heartbreaking " . Robert Canning of IGN wrote , " The biggest development was the unexpected way Santana 's sexuality became public . It was a nice way to end things , building tension towards hopefully more resonating episodes to come . " VanDerWerff said that " the last five minutes of this episode are phenomenal , one of those times that the show gets the mix of tones just right and something that 's vaguely comedic gets more and more horrifying and dramatic , and then we plunge down the rabbit hole and everything goes nuts . " To Ryan Gajewski of Wetpaint , the scene that concluded " Mash Off " was a " fascinating twist , and one that makes it hard to choose sides " . He added , " Santana has certainly been not @-@ exactly @-@ cuddly these past few weeks , but it 's still clear that Finn totally crossed the line . "
= = = Music and performances = = =
The opening number for the episode , " Hot for Teacher " , was commended by most critics . Futterman described it as a " high @-@ energy performance with the right amount of absurdity " . Brett Berk of Vanity Fair gave the musical number a four out of five stars , and cited the choreography as the highlight of the performance . West gave it a grade of " A – " , and wrote , " This was such big fun and the backup guys ... really helped amp it up . " Slezak was less enthusiastic about the sequence . He was critical of Salling 's vocals , and felt that a heavy metal song was not suited to his stylings ; he ultimately gave it a " C + " grade . He also criticized the choreography , and stated that he had to " downgrade a little for Blaine and Mike Chang 's grotesque ' whoopsie , I 'm hiding an erection ! ' dance move that will probably haunt me to my grave . "
Berk said that the mash @-@ up of the two " You and I " songs " almost worked " , while Los Angeles Times writer L 'Oreal Thompson praised the vocals of Menzel : " It 's official . Shelby sings Gaga as good as , if not better than , Gaga sings Gaga . " Slezak awarded the performance a " B " grade , and opined : " I loved the audacity of mashing up Lady Gaga with an Eddie Rabbit – Crystal Gayle chestnut , and the results had the sheen of ' 70s a.m. radio fare . Shelby 's voice was almost too crystal clear for the Gaga half of the composition . " Futterman said that Menzel " can kill a Gaga ballad " , and while she " outshines " Morrison , he " complements her nicely " . West gave the mash @-@ up a " B + " , called it " really well @-@ done " and said it was " elevated " by Menzel 's voice . MTV 's Kevin P. Sullivan wanted Menzel to interpret more songs by Lady Gaga . In contrast , Rae Votta of Billboard denounced the sequence , and called it " horrendous " .
West gave the mash @-@ up of " Hit Me With Your Best Shot " / " One Way or Another " a " B " grade , while Slezak gave the performance a " B + " . Slezak wrote , " Santana 's moments on lead were obviously stronger than Finn 's Auto @-@ Tuned into submission vocals , but that doesn 't mean the number wasn 't a hoot . " Futterman called it a " fierce match " , and added the mash @-@ up was well crafted . Hankinson rated it the second best performance of the episode . Brian Moyler of Gawker , who writes of his dislike of mash @-@ ups , characterized it as " the only mash @-@ up of the night that actually makes sense " but he called it an " awful aural clash " and " the second least dreadful " .
Moyler felt that the combination of " I Can 't Go for That " and " You Make My Dreams " was " an abomination " and " New Directions at their worst " . He summarized : " The outfits are hokey , the dance is silly , and the music has absolutely no emotion in it . " Slezak , however , issued the performance an " A – " grade , and wrote , " The Troubletones beat New Directions in this particular battle , but I loved the frothy , silly spirit of this number , with the guys dressed like Miami Vice extras , Puck and Blaine rocking Oatestaches , and Tina getting a little moment on lead vocals . " Votta characterized the performance as a " fun , retro number " , and Jen Chaney of The Washington Post was similarly pleased , and gave it a " B + " .
The episode 's concluding musical number , " Rumour Has It " / " Someone Like You " , was acclaimed as its main highlight . Raymund Flandez described Rivera 's vocals as " electrifying " and " golden " . Futterman wrote that the performance was one of Glee 's best sequences : " Mercedes and Santana nail their vocals and the song combines great tracks from one of the year 's biggest albums while capturing both the sass and sadness of the Troubletones at this particular moment . " Votta called it the best performance since the cast 's rendition of " Don 't Stop Believin ' " in the season one finale , " Journey to Regionals " , and stated , " Naya Rivera 's powerful vocals and the strong arrangement still packs the emotional punch Glee was targeting . " Chaney awarded the sequence a " A + " grade : " Given the emotional stakes raised by Santana 's outing , which happened in the scene right before this performance , and the fact that it marked the series 's 300th musical performance , this marriage " of the two Adele songs , " Rumour Has It " and " Someone Like You " , was " all the more powerful " . Moyler asserted that the number was " perfection " and said , " This is why I watch Glee . It is just brilliant from Mercedes first belting to the snaps on the beat to the choreography with the girls walking in a circle and making little whispers to Santana bringing tears to my eyes singing ' Someone Like You ' as if it was the last song she 'll ever sing in her damn life . " Cinema Blend 's Melissa Duko stated that the show " hit it out of the park " and added that it was her favorite performance of the season . Slezak gave the number an " A + " and wrote , " Nobody can completely match Adele doing Adele , and yet Naya Rivera and Amber Riley somehow made the sum of this mashup a worthy equal to Adele 's glorious original parts . " In December 2012 , TV Guide named the mash @-@ up one of Glee 's best performances .
= = = Chart history = = =
While five singles were released from the episode , it was the four mash @-@ ups that debuted on the Billboard Hot 100 . " Rumour Has It " / " Someone Like You " debuted at number eleven in the issue dated November 23 , 2011 . It sold 160 @,@ 000 digital downloads in its first week , the fifth @-@ highest first week digital sales for the series . The mash @-@ up sparked a revival in sales for " Rumour Has It " , which achieved a new peak at number sixty that same week , during which it sold 42 @,@ 000 digital copies . In Canada , the mash @-@ up entered on the Canadian Hot 100 at number twelve on the strength of sales of 14 @,@ 000 downloads .
The remaining three mash @-@ ups that charted in the Billboard Hot 100 were " You and I " / " You and I " at number sixty @-@ nine , " I Can 't Go for That " / " You Make My Dreams " at number eighty , and " Hit Me with Your Best Shot " / " One Way or Another " at number eighty @-@ six . In Canada , " I Can 't Go for That " / " You Make My Dreams " debuted at number seventy @-@ four , " You and I " / " You and I " at number ninety @-@ three , and " Hit Me with Your Best Shot " / " One Way or Another " at number ninety @-@ five . " Hot for Teacher " did not chart , though it and " Rumour Has It " / " Someone Like You " were both featured on the subsequently released soundtrack album Glee : The Music , Volume 7 .
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= Cyclone Sina =
Severe Tropical Cyclone Sina was the only named tropical cyclone to develop within the South Pacific basin during the 1990 – 91 season . The system was first noted as a shallow depression within the South Pacific Convergence Zone to the west of Wallis Island . Over the next three days the system moved towards the west @-@ northwest , before it was named Sina during November 24 , after it had developed into a tropical cyclone . Over the next couple of days the system intensified further and developed an eye feature as it erratically moved towards Fiji . Sina subsequently peaked in intensity during November 26 , before the system passed through the Fijian Islands over the next two days as it started to gradually weaken . Sina subsequently passed just to the north of Tongatapu in Tonga during November 29 , before it passed about 160 km ( 100 mi ) to the south of Niue and near the Southern Cook Islands during the next day . The system subsequently rapidly weakened and became an extratropical cyclone during December 1 , before they were absorbed by an advancing trough of low pressure near 50 ° S on December 4 .
The cyclone caused no deaths and over $ 18 @.@ 5 million in damages , as it affected Fiji , Tonga , Niue and the Southern Cook Islands . Ahead of the system affecting Fiji , hundreds of people were evacuated from Fiji 's outer island resorts to hotels on the mainland . High winds and heavy rain forced the closure of several local airports and the main Nadi International Airport . As Sina moved through the archipelago , the system destroyed or damaged houses and other building structures , while bringing down electric and telephone lines and uprooting trees . The system also washed away a railway bridge on Vanua Levu that was used to take sugar cane to Labasa 's mills , leaving growers no choice but to go through the village of Korowiri . However , the workers refused to go into their fields unless they had police protection to go through the village , after Methodists from the local church attacked a group of growers for working on Sundays in defiance of Fiji 's Sunday Observance Decree . Within Tonga only minor damage to weak structures , trees , banana plantations , electric and telephone lines was recorded . Within both Niue and the Southern Cook Islands only minor damage to crops and structures was reported .
= = Meteorological history = =
On November 20 , the Fiji Meteorological Service 's Nadi tropical cyclone warning center ( TCWC Nadi ) started to monitor a shallow tropical depression that had developed within the South Pacific Convergence Zone to the west of Wallis Island . Over the next two days the system moved towards the west @-@ northwest and the Fijian dependency of Rotuma , before the depression 's chances of developing further became good during November 23 , as upper outflow over the system became established . The United States Joint Typhoon Warning Center ( JTWC ) subsequently initiated advisories and classified the depression as Tropical Cyclone 03P at 1200 UTC the next day , after atmospheric convection surrounding the system organized further . Later that day at 19 : 10 UTC , TCWC Nadi named the system Sina after the depression had developed into a category 1 tropical cyclone on the Australian tropical cyclone intensity scale , while it was located about 425 km ( 265 mi ) to the northwest of Rotuma . During November 25 , the cyclone continued to intensify and developed an eye as it moved erratically towards the west @-@ southwest and performed a small clockwise loop . Early on November 26 , TCWC Nadi reported that Sina had become a category 3 severe tropical cyclone . At around this time the JTWC reported that Sina had become equivalent to a category one hurricane on the Saffir @-@ Simpson hurricane wind scale ( SSHWS ) .
During that day , Sina 's eye became very distinct on satellite imagery . As the system intensified and came under the influence of a changeable upper level steering flow which resulted in Sina moving erratically towards the southeast and Fiji . Later that day TCWC Nadi reported that the system had peaked as a category 3 severe tropical cyclone , with 10 @-@ minute sustained windspeeds of 140 km / h ( 85 mph ) . The JTWC subsequently reported early the next day that Sina had peaked with 1 @-@ minute sustained windspeeds of 230 km / h ( 145 mph ) , which made it equivalent to a category 4 hurricane on the SSHWS . During that day , Sina remained at its peak intensity as it moved towards the east @-@ southeast and started to be observed on the Nadi radar . Later that day , as the system started to gradually weaken , it passed about 40 km ( 25 mi ) to the south of Viti Levu before it passed over the island groups of Vatulele and Moala and the Southern Lau Islands during November 28 . During that day the system moved across the 180th meridian , which prompted the JTWC issue their final warning on Sina and pass the responsibility for warning the United States Government to the Naval Western Oceanography Center .
Early on November 29 , Sina weakened into a category two tropical cyclone on the Australian scale just before it passed to the north of Tongatapu in Tonga . During that day , as the system moved eastwards towards the Southern Cook Islands and gradually weakened further , the NWOC issued their final advisory on Sina while estimating that it was equivalent to a category one hurricane on the SSHWS . Early on November 30 , the system passed about 160 km ( 100 mi ) to the south of Niue , before it recurved sharply towards the south @-@ southeast later that day as it approached the Southern Cook Islands . The system subsequently started to rapidly weaken under the influence of strong vertical wind shear and cooler sea surface temperatures . TCWC Nadi subsequently passed the primary warning responsibility for Sina to TCWC Wellington as it crossed 25 ° S , who quickly reported that the system had lost its tropical characteristics and had become an extratropical depression . Over the next couple of days Sina 's extratropical remnants maintained a south @-@ eastward track , before it was absorbed by an advancing trough of low pressure near 50 ° S on December 4 .
= = Preparations , impact and aftermath = =
Cyclone Sina affected Fiji , Tonga , Niue and the Southern Cook Islands and was responsible for damages totaling over $ 18 @.@ 5 million . The system had initially appeared to threaten the Solomon Islands and Vanuatu as it performed a small clockwise loop and moved erratically towards the west @-@ southwest during November 25 . After this usage of the name , Sina was retired from the tropical cyclone naming lists .
= = = Fiji = = =
Late on November 25 , TCWC Nadi issued a tropical cyclone alert for Fiji , while the system was located about 665 km ( 415 mi ) to the northwest of the country . During the next day , a gale force wind warning was issued for the western half of Viti Levu , the Yasawa and Mamanuca island groups , which was later upgraded to a storm warning while a gale warning was also issued for the rest of Viti Levu . These storm warnings were briefly dropped early on November 27 , when the storm appeared to be moving away from the country , but as Sina came within range of the Nadi radar , it became apparent that southern Fiji would be directly hit by the system . As a result , hurricane warnings were issued for Vatulele , Kadavu and smaller nearby islands , while storm warnings were re @-@ issued for the western half of Viti Levu and the Mamanuca island group . Over the next day as the cyclone approached , hurricane , storm and gale warnings were revised to cover various islands within the Koro and Southern Lau island groups , before all warnings were cancelled on November 28 , as Sina moved away from Fiji .
Ahead of Sina affecting the Fijian islands , from November 27 until November 29 , with wind gusts of up to 175 km / h ( 110 mph ) , hundreds of people were evacuated from Fiji 's outer island resorts to hotels on the mainland . As the cyclone affected Fiji high winds and heavy rain forced the closure of several local airports and the Nadi International Airport for around 20 hours . As the cyclone moved towards the east @-@ southeast between November 27 – 28 , it passed near to or over the south @-@ western coast of Viti Levu , Vatulele , Bequa , Northern Kadavu and various islands within the Moala and Southern Lau island groups and caused some coastal erosion . As it moved through the archipelago , the system destroyed or damaged houses and other building structures , while bringing down electric and telephone lines and uprooting trees . The system also severely affected crops and vegetation including sugar cane and pine forests , however the extent of the damage was limited by the fact that many of the crops had already been harvested .
On December 7 , the Australian Government via the international development bureau and Air Pacific provided emergency shelter materials , including tarpaulins , plastic sheeting and rope , after an appeal for international assistance was made by the Fijian government . After the cyclone damaged resorts were quickly repaired , while the Fijian government launched an international advertisement campaign for the islands with discounted airfares . Overall Sina caused over $ F26 million ( $ US18.5 million ) worth of damage to the Fijian islands , with most of the damage accounted for by losses to agriculture , sugar cane , and pine forests . After Cyclone Sina had washed away a railway bridge on Vanua Levu that was used to take sugar cane to Labasa 's mills , growers had no choice but to go through the village of Korowiri . However , the workers refused to go into their fields unless they had police protection to go through the village , after Methodists from the local church attacked a group of growers for working on Sundays in defiance of Fiji 's Sunday Observance Decree . As a result , sugar cane that had been damaged by Sina was left rotting in Fiji 's fields until the Fiji Sugar Corporation ordered that a temporary bridge be built to bypass the village .
= = = Tonga = = =
Late on November 27 , as Sina affected the Fijian island of Viti Levu , TCWC Nadi issued a tropical cyclone alert for the Tongatapu , Haʻapai and Vavaʻu groups of islands . During the next day the tropical cyclone alert for Vavaʻu was cancelled , while gale and storm force wind warnings were issued for Haʻapai and the Tongatapu islands . The system subsequently moved in between the Tongatapu and Haʻapai groups of islands where sustained windspeeds of up to 96 km / h ( 60 mph ) and wind gusts of up to 139 km / h ( 86 mph ) were recorded at the Nukuʻalofa weather station . Parts of the Tongan capital city Nuku 'alofa were left without power , after electric lines were brought down , while several homes were partially damaged after the roofs lost their iron . Overall only minor damage to weak structures , trees , banana plantations , electric and telephone lines was recorded within the island nation .
= = = Other island nations = = =
During November 29 , TCWC Nadi issued strong wind warnings for Niue as the island experienced marginal gale force winds from the system , as it passed about 185 km ( 115 mi ) to the south of the island . High seas salt spray and waves caused some damage to crops and the island 's wharf . They also washed away two temporary roads that were installed after Cyclone Ofa had affected the island earlier in the year .
Early on November 30 , as the system moved towards the east @-@ southeast , TCWC Nadi issued a gale warning for the Cook Islands of Rarotonga and Mangaia , while issuing strong wind warnings and tropical cyclone alerts for the rest of the Southern Islands . The warnings were subsequently maintained until later that day , as Sina spared the Cook Islands its major effects and re @-@ curved sharply towards the south @-@ southeast . Only minor damage to shallow rooted crops and weak structures was reported , after high seas and gale force winds buffeted the northern side of Rarotonga .
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= 250t @-@ class torpedo boat =
The 250t @-@ class were high @-@ seas torpedo boats built for the Austro @-@ Hungarian Navy between 1913 and 1916 . A total of 27 boats were built by three shipbuilding companies , with the letter after the boat number indicating the manufacturer . There were small variations between manufacturers , mainly in the steam turbines used , and whether they had one or two funnels . The eight boats of the T @-@ group , designated 74 T – 81 T , were built by Stabilimento Tecnico Triestino , located at Trieste . The sixteen boats of the F @-@ group , designated 82 F – 97 F , were built by Ganz & Danubius at their shipyards at Fiume and Porto Re . The three M @-@ group boats , designated 98 M – 100 M , were manufactured by Cantiere Navale Triestino at Monfalcone .
All 27 boats saw service in World War I , performing convoy , escort and minesweeping tasks , and anti @-@ submarine operations . Although widely used during the war , the class suffered no losses , and available sources indicate they were only involved in a few engagements . In 1917 , one of the 66 mm ( 2 @.@ 6 in ) guns on each boat was placed on an anti @-@ aircraft mount . Under the terms of the Treaty of Saint @-@ Germain @-@ en @-@ Laye , the boats were transferred to various countries , including seven to Romania , six to Portugal , six to Greece , and eight to the newly created Kingdom of Serbs , Croats and Slovenes ( later Yugoslavia ) . By 1940 , thirteen boats of the class had been lost or scrapped , including all six Portuguese boats .
During World War II , the five remaining Greek boats were sunk by Axis aircraft during the German @-@ led invasion of Greece in April 1941 . The six surviving Yugoslav boats were captured by the Italians during the Axis invasion of Yugoslavia in April 1941 , and were operated by the Regia Marina . Immediately following the Italian capitulation in September 1943 , one ex @-@ Yugoslav boat was sunk by German aircraft , another was scuttled by its Italian crew , and a third fell into Allied hands . The rest were seized by the Germans .
Of the boats taken over by the Germans , two were handed over to the Navy of the Independent State of Croatia , one of which was destroyed by Royal Navy Motor Torpedo Boats in 1944 . The other was transferred to the Yugoslav Navy after World War II and continued to serve until 1959 , when she was taken out of service . Another was operated by the German Navy ( German : Kriegsmarine ) with a Croatian crew until she was sunk by Royal Air Force aircraft in 1945 . The surviving Croatian boat was handed over to the Yugoslav Navy after the war and served until 1962 . The remaining two Romanian boats performed escort tasks in the Black Sea before being taken over by the Soviet Navy , and serving in their Black Sea Fleet until the end of the war ; they were finally stricken in late 1945 .
= = Background = =
In 1910 , the Austria @-@ Hungary Naval Technical Committee initiated the design and development of a 275 @-@ tonne ( 271 @-@ long @-@ ton ) coastal torpedo boat , specifying that it should be capable of sustaining 30 knots ( 56 km / h ; 35 mph ) for 10 hours . This specification was based on an expectation that the Strait of Otranto , where the Adriatic Sea meets the Ionian Sea , would be blockaded by hostile forces during a future conflict . In such circumstances , there would be a need for a torpedo boat that could sail from the Austro @-@ Hungarian Navy base at Cattaro to the Strait during darkness , locate and attack blockading ships and return to port before morning . Steam turbine power was selected for propulsion , as diesels with the necessary power were not available , and the Austro @-@ Hungarian Navy did not have the practical experience to run turbo @-@ electric boats .
= = Description and construction = =
Stabilimento Tecnico Triestino ( STT ) of Trieste was selected for the contract to build eight vessels , ahead of one other tenderer . Despite the specifications of the contract being very close to the requirements for the coastal torpedo boat , the STT boats were classified as sea @-@ going . The STT boats used Parsons turbines driving two propeller shafts . Another tender was requested for four more boats , but when Ganz & Danubius reduced their price by ten percent , a total of sixteen boats were ordered from them . These boats were powered by AEG @-@ Curtiss turbines , and had two funnels rather than the single funnel of the STT boats . The third contract went to Cantiere Navale Triestino ( CNT ) , who used Melms @-@ Pfenniger turbines , and their boats also had two funnels . The boats of all three groups used steam generated by two Yarrow water @-@ tube boilers , one of which burned fuel oil and the other coal .
When completed , all 27 boats were armed with two Škoda 66 mm ( 2 @.@ 6 in ) L / 30 guns , and four 450 mm ( 17 @.@ 7 in ) torpedo tubes . Each vessel could carry 10 – 12 naval mines .
= = = T @-@ group = = =
The T @-@ group were built by STT at the Port of Trieste between April 1913 and December 1914 . They had a waterline length of 58 @.@ 2 m ( 190 ft 11 in ) , a beam of 5 @.@ 7 m ( 18 ft 8 in ) , and a normal draught of 1 @.@ 5 m ( 4 ft 11 in ) . While their designed displacement was 262 tonnes ( 258 long tons ) , they displaced about 320 tonnes ( 310 long tons ) fully loaded . The crew consisted of 39 officers and enlisted men . Their Parsons turbines were rated at 5 @,@ 000 shp ( 3 @,@ 700 kW ) with a maximum output of 6 @,@ 000 shp ( 4 @,@ 500 kW ) and designed to reach a top speed of 28 knots ( 52 km / h ; 32 mph ) . They carried 18 tonnes ( 17 @.@ 7 long tons ) of coal and 24 tonnes ( 23 @.@ 6 long tons ) of fuel oil , which gave them a range of 980 nmi ( 1 @,@ 810 km ; 1 @,@ 130 mi ) at 16 knots ( 30 km / h ; 18 mph ) .
The T @-@ group boats were originally to be armed with three 66 mm ( 2 @.@ 6 in ) L / 30 guns , and three 450 mm ( 17 @.@ 7 in ) torpedo tubes , but this was changed to two guns and four torpedo tubes before the first boat was completed , in order to standardise the armament with the following F @-@ group . In 1914 , one 8 mm ( 0 @.@ 31 in ) machine gun was added .
When 74 T 's turbines were initially installed , the problems with them were so significant that all her power and propulsion machinery had to be rebuilt . She was launched for a second time on 26 June 1914 .
= = = F @-@ group = = =
The F @-@ group were built by Ganz & Danubius at Fiume and nearby Porto Re between October 1913 and December 1916 . They had a waterline length of 58 @.@ 5 m ( 191 ft 11 in ) , a beam of 5 @.@ 8 m ( 19 ft 0 in ) , and a normal draught of 1 @.@ 5 m ( 4 ft 11 in ) . While their designed displacement was 266 tonnes ( 262 long tons ) , they displaced about 330 tonnes ( 320 long tons ) fully loaded . The crew consisted of 38 officers and enlisted men . Their AEG @-@ Curtiss turbines were rated at 5 @,@ 000 shp ( 3 @,@ 700 kW ) with a maximum output of 6 @,@ 000 shp ( 4 @,@ 500 kW ) , and the boats were designed to reach a top speed of 28 knots ( 52 km / h ; 32 mph ) . During trials , 93 F produced 6 @,@ 450 shp ( 4 @,@ 810 kW ) , and reached a top speed of 29 @.@ 7 knots ( 55 @.@ 0 km / h ; 34 @.@ 2 mph ) . They carried 20 long tons ( 20 @.@ 3 t ) of coal and 34 long tons ( 34 @.@ 5 t ) of fuel oil , which gave them a range of 1 @,@ 200 nmi ( 2 @,@ 200 km ; 1 @,@ 400 mi ) at 16 knots ( 30 km / h ; 18 mph ) .
When Italy declared war on Austria @-@ Hungary in May 1915 , five incomplete F @-@ group boats were towed to be completed in safety . 82 F , 83 F and 84 F were taken from Porto Re to Pola , and 90 F and 91 F were taken to Novigrad . This resulted in delays to the completion of these boats .
= = = M @-@ group = = =
The M @-@ group were built by CNT at Monfalcone between March 1914 and March 1916 . They had a waterline length of 60 @.@ 5 m ( 198 ft 6 in ) , a beam of 5 @.@ 6 m ( 18 ft 4 in ) , and a normal draught of 1 @.@ 5 m ( 4 ft 11 in ) . While their designed displacement was 270 tonnes ( 266 long tons ) , they displaced about 330 tonnes ( 320 long tons ) fully loaded . The crew consisted of 38 officers and enlisted men . Their Melms @-@ Pfenniger turbines were rated at 5 @,@ 000 shp ( 3 @,@ 700 kW ) with a maximum output of 6 @,@ 000 shp ( 4 @,@ 500 kW ) , and the boats were designed to reach a top speed of 28 @.@ 5 knots ( 52 @.@ 8 km / h ; 32 @.@ 8 mph ) . They carried enough coal and fuel oil to give them a range of 1 @,@ 200 nmi ( 2 @,@ 200 km ; 1 @,@ 400 mi ) at 16 knots ( 30 km / h ; 18 mph ) .
= = Service history = =
= = = World War I = = =
At the outbreak of World War I , 74 T – 77 T comprised the 1st Torpedo Group of the 3rd Torpedo Craft Division of the Austro @-@ Hungarian 1st Torpedo Craft Flotilla . All 27 boats saw service , performing convoy , escort and minesweeping tasks , and anti @-@ submarine operations . They also conducted patrols and supported seaplane raids against the Italian coast . Due to inadequate funding , the 250t @-@ class were essentially coastal vessels , despite the original intention that they would be used for " high seas " operations . On the morning of 24 May 1915 , 80 T was part of the Bombardment of Ancona , a fleet action that involved the shelling of various targets in the Province of Ancona and 11 other Adriatic ports . At Porto Corsini near Ravenna , an Italian 120 mm ( 4 @.@ 7 in ) shore battery returned fire , hitting the light cruiser Novara and damaging 80 T.
In 1917 , one of the 66 mm ( 2 @.@ 6 in ) guns on each boat was placed on an anti @-@ aircraft mount . In late September 1917 , 98 M was part of a squadron of four destroyers and four torpedo boats supporting an air attack on the Italian airfield at Ferrara by flying boats . After destroying an Italian airship , the squadron withdrew at high speed in the darkness , but was intercepted by an Italian squadron of eight destroyers that had been sent to support an Italian air raid on Pola . In the resultant 45 minute melee , several Austro @-@ Hungarian destroyers were damaged . As the squadron retreated through the minefields off Parenzo , 98 M was hit by Italian fire , resulting in one casualty . In June 1918 , 76 T was part of the escort force that failed to protect the Austro @-@ Hungarian dreadnought Szent István from the Italian motor torpedo boats that sank her . During that action , 76 T fired at the Italian vessels , but did not score a hit .
Elements of the Austro @-@ Hungarian fleet mutinied in Cattaro in February 1918 , and in May , a plot was discovered to take over 80 T at Pola . The motive appeared to be nationalism . Two of the ringleaders , a Czech and a Dalmatian Croat , were tried , convicted and executed by firing squad . In October 1918 , 87 F was at Durazzo in Albania when the port was bombarded by a multinational Allied naval force . She escaped with minor damage , in what was the last major action involving the Austro @-@ Hungarian Navy .
= = = Post @-@ World War I transfers = = =
Under the provisions of the Treaty of Saint @-@ Germain @-@ en @-@ Laye , all Austro @-@ Hungarian warships were surrendered to the Allies . The 250t @-@ class torpedo boats were distributed among Romania , Portugal , Greece , and the newly created Kingdom of Serbs , Croats and Slovenes ( later Yugoslavia ) , as follows :
= = = World War II = = =
By 1940 , thirteen boats of the class had been lost or scrapped , including all six Portuguese boats . At the time of the Axis Balkan Campaign of April 1941 , the Yugoslav boats T1 and T3 were assigned to the Southern Sector of Coastal Defence Command based at the Bay of Kotor , along with several minesweepers and other craft . T5 – T8 comprised the 3rd Torpedo Division located at Šibenik . On 8 April , the four boats of the 3rd Torpedo Division , along with other vessels , were tasked to support an attack on the Italian enclave of Zadar on the Dalmatia coast . They were subjected to three Italian air attacks and , after the last one , sailed from the area of Zaton into Lake Prokljan , where they remained until 11 April . On 12 April , the 3rd Torpedo Division arrived at Milna on the island of Brač , and refused to follow orders to sail to the Bay of Kotor . All six Yugoslav boats still in service were captured by the Italians during the German @-@ led Axis invasion of Yugoslavia .
The five surviving Greek boats were all sunk by aircraft during the German invasion of Greece , also in April 1941 . The first was Proussa , which was sunk off Corfu on 4 April by Italian Junkers Ju 87 " Picchiatello " s of the 239th Squadron , 97th Dive Bomber Group . Later , Kios was sunk off Athens on 22 April , Kyzikos at Salamis on 24 April , Pergamos off Salamis on 25 April , and Kydoniai south of the Peloponnese peninsula on the following day , all by German aircraft .
The three Romanian boats were initially deployed against the Soviet Navy Black Sea Fleet following the launch of Operation Barbarossa in June 1941 , with Naluca and Sborul allocated to the 3rd Section of the Romanian Navy . On 9 July 1941 , Naluca , along with a gunboat and three Motor Torpedo Boats ( MTBs ) , sank the Soviet submarine SC @-@ 206 off the southern Romanian coast near Mangalia . Between 7 – 16 October 1941 , all three Romanian torpedo boats were part of the escort for a minelaying group that laid several minefields along the Bulgarian coast to protect Axis shipping . Naluca was sunk by Soviet aircraft at Constanța on 20 August 1944 , but Sborul and Smeul survived World War II , having been transferred to the Soviet Black Sea Fleet in late August 1944 after Romania changed sides and joined the Allies , serving as Musson and Toros respectively .
The Yugoslav boats served with the Royal Italian Navy ( Italian : Regia Marina ) under their Yugoslav designations . T3 and T5 were fitted with two 76 mm ( 3 @.@ 0 in ) L / 30 anti @-@ aircraft guns in place of their 66 mm ( 2 @.@ 6 in ) guns , but no other significant alterations were made to them . When the Italians capitulated in September 1943 , the Germans seized T1 and transferred her to the Navy of the Independent State of Croatia . She was renamed Golešnica and continued in Croatian service until the end of the war . T3 was seized by the Germans at Rijeka and was renamed TA48 . During her time in German service she was crewed exclusively by Croatian officers and sailors , and her complement was increased to 52 . The Germans fitted her with two single 20 mm ( 0 @.@ 79 in ) anti @-@ aircraft guns . She was sunk in the port of Trieste by the Royal Air Force on 20 February 1945 .
T5 was returned to the Royal Yugoslav Navy ( in exile ) in December 1943 . T6 was scuttled by the Italians at Rimini on 11 September to avoid her falling into German hands . Once under German control , T7 was also handed over to the Navy of the Independent State of Croatia , and served under her Yugoslav designation . Her crew came under the influence of the Yugoslav Partisans , and were preparing to mutiny when the Germans intervened . She was sunk by Royal Navy MTBs off Murter Island on 25 June 1944 . T8 was sunk by German aircraft while under Italian control on 10 September 1943 .
= = = Post @-@ World War II = = =
Only four of the twenty @-@ seven 250t @-@ class torpedo boats survived World War II , two in Yugoslav service and two in Soviet service . Golešnica was transferred to the Yugoslav Navy after the war . She was re @-@ armed with two 40 mm ( 1 @.@ 6 in ) guns on single mounts and four 20 mm ( 0 @.@ 79 in ) guns , and her torpedo tubes were removed . She continued in Yugoslav service under that name until October 1959 . T5 was also transferred to the Yugoslav Navy after the war , and renamed Cer . She was fitted with two 40 mm ( 1 @.@ 6 in ) guns on single mounts and one 20 mm ( 0 @.@ 79 in ) gun , and her torpedo tubes were also removed . She served until 1962 , when she was broken up . Musson and Toros were returned to Romania in October 1945 , and stricken the following month .
= = = Books = = =
= = = Websites = = =
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= Tropical Storm Linfa ( 2009 ) =
Severe Tropical Storm Linfa was the second named storm to develop in the South China Sea during the 2009 Pacific typhoon season . It is the seventh depression and third typhoon of the season . Forming out of an area of low pressure on June 14 , the storm briefly attained tropical depression status before degenerating . By June 17 the system regenerated in the South China Sea . Slowly tracking northward , the storm intensified , attaining severe tropical storm status on June 19 and peaking in intensity the following day . On June 21 , Linfa made landfall in Fujian Province , China as a tropical storm before weakening to a tropical depression .
In Taiwan , outer bands of the storm produced significant amounts of rain over southeastern areas of the island . Along the western coast , rip currents resulted in the drowning of one person . Six hikers also were reported to be missing . In China , torrential rains triggered flooding that destroyed 100 homes , killed one person and left six others missing . In all , seven people were killed by Linfa , with damages in mainland China estimated at ¥ 641 million ( US $ 93 @.@ 8 million ) and agricultural losses in Taiwan reached NT $ 400 million ( US $ 12 @.@ 1 million ) .
= = Meteorological history = =
On June 10 , the Joint Typhoon Warning Center ( JTWC ) began monitoring a persistent area of convection situated about 140 kilometres ( 85 mi ) southeast of Palau . Satellite imagery depicted an elongated low @-@ level circulation with deep convection centered along the southwestern portion of the system . Strong wind shear , which normally inhibits cyclonic development , provided energy for further convective development around the system . Tracking in a general northwestward direction , the low gradually developed northward outflow due to a tropical upper tropospheric trough ( TUTT ) located north of the disturbance . Following further development , the Japan Meteorological Agency declared the system as a tropical depression at 0600 UTC on June 14 .
Later on June 14 , the JTWC issued a Tropical Cyclone Formation Alert ( TCFA ) for the depression . Deep convection consolidated around the center of circulation and convective banding features developed along the periphery of the system . Several hours later , the TCFA was canceled as the system rapidly degenerated , with convection mostly dissipating and an exposed low . Outflow significantly deteriorated as the system detached itself from the TUTT . By this time , the JMA had ceased advisories on the depression . Two days later , after tracking across Luzon , the system began to regenerate . Convection redeveloped around the low and outflow was reestablished to the south .
Early on June 17 , the JTWC issued a second TCFA as the system continued to organize . By this time the system was nearly stationary and at 0600 UTC , the JMA declared that the low had developed into a tropical depression . Several hours later , the JTWC designated the system as Tropical Depression 03W while the storm was situated about 705 km ( 440 mi ) south @-@ southwest of Kaohsiung , Taiwan . Little movement took place for the first few days of the storm 's existence as weak steering currents were in place over the South China Sea . Following further development of the depression , the JTWC upgraded it to a tropical storm late on June 17 . At 0600 UTC on June 18 , the JMA classified the system as a tropical storm and gave it the name Linfa . Limited poleward outflow hindered intensification for the remainder of June 18 . By this time , the storm began to increase in forward motion due to a strengthening subtropical ridge located east of Taiwan and a mid @-@ latitude trough to the west .
Around 1200 UTC the following day , Linfa further intensified into a severe tropical storm . A microwave satellite image of the storm depicted an eye @-@ feature surrounded by deep convection . Interacting with a nearby upper @-@ level low , poleward outflow significantly improved late on June 19 , fueling further strengthening . Slowly tracking in a general northward direction , Linfa continued to organize and by June 20 , the JTWC upgraded Linfa to a typhoon . A small , ragged eye appeared on visible satellite images by this time and several hours later , the storm reached its peak intensity just below typhoon @-@ status according to the JMA . Maximum sustained winds peaked at 110 km / h ( 70 mph 10 @-@ minute winds ) and a barometric pressure of 975 hPa ( mbar ) .
Later on June 20 , convection near the center of circulation began to decrease – an indication of weakening – and the eye was no longer visible . Upper @-@ level wind shear rapidly increased to 55 km / h ( 35 mph ) , preventing re @-@ intensification of the cyclone . Taking a more northward track than anticipated , Linfa began to interact with land and was downgraded to a tropical storm by the JTWC on June 21 . Around 1230 UTC , the storm made landfall in southern Fujian as a tropical storm with winds of 85 km / h ( 50 mph 10 @-@ minute winds ) . Deep convection rapidly dissipated shortly thereafter due to interaction with land . Several hours later , the JTWC downgraded Linfa to a tropical depression . The following day , the JMA also downgraded Linfa to a tropical depression as the storm moved away from the Chinese coastline . The system later dissipated just offshore ; a circulation was no longer evident on satellite imagery .
= = Preparations and impact = =
Although Linfa was not forecast to directly impact the Philippines , the outer effects of the storm were anticipated to produce increased rainfall and large swells along western facing coastlines . By June 20 , the Central Weather Bureau issued extremely heavy rain warnings , indicating 24 @-@ hour rainfall totals in excess of 130 mm ( 5 @.@ 1 in ) were anticipated , for most of Taiwan . Beaches throughout Taiwan were closed due to rough seas and local officials inspected all public shelters to ensure they were stocked and prepared to provide for evacuees . Later that day , a level 3 emergency was declared for eastern Guangdong Province and southern Fujian Province . The local governments in the provinces enacted their emergency response plans following this declaration .
On June 21 , officials in China closed Xiamen port and stated that it would resume operations once the storm passed . Later that day 33 @,@ 000 vessels sought refuge at port . Following the issuance of a land warning , government offices and schools were closed throughout the island . Officials sent 10 million text messages to residents throughout Fujian Province to warn them about the approaching storm . In Hong Kong , public warning signal number one was raised for nearly 24 hours as Linfa briefly threatened the city on June 20 . Officials also evacuated roughly 160 @,@ 000 people from coastal areas in Fujian . A total of 167 flights to and from Taiwan were canceled or delayed due to the storm .
On June 21 , large swells of up to 5 @.@ 6 m ( 18 ft ) caused a 498 @-@ tonne oil tanker , the Colombo Queen , to run aground in southern Taiwan . Rescue crews were unable to reach the ship as it was still in the storm . Although no fuel was reported to have leaked , the ship struck a coral reef , damaging the coral . Once Linfa passed , rescuers were able to reach the nine crew members on the ship . Officials estimated that it would take over a week to remove all 39 @,@ 000 litres ( 8 @,@ 600 imp gal ; 10 @,@ 000 US gal ) of fuel from the tanker . In Taiwan , two people were hit by fallen trees and two monks were struck by a wall that collapsed during a ceremony . Rip currents in Taiwan resulted in one death after a boy went into the water unwatched . Six hikers also went missing . Power to all 505 residences of Chiangchun was also lost during the storm . Average amounts of 150 mm ( 5 @.@ 9 in ) of rain were recorded across southeastern parts of Taiwan on June 21 . The highest total was 350 mm ( 14 in ) in Taitung . Further rainfall of 150 mm ( 5 @.@ 9 in ) fell on June 22 , pushing totals over 450 mm ( 18 in ) in isolated areas along southeastern areas . In Kinmen County , 50 trees were downed , six billboards were destroyed and two homes lost their roofs . By June 22 , power companies reported that 2 @,@ 834 residents had lost power in Wuqiu Township for several hours . Severe damage was reported in the agricultural sector in Taiwan , leaving NT $ 400 million ( US $ 12 @.@ 1 million ) in losses .
In mainland China , Linfa produced torrential rains , peaking at 488 @.@ 1 mm ( 19 @.@ 22 in ) and triggering severe flooding . Heavy rains also impacted Hong Kong , where more than 100 mm ( 3 @.@ 9 in ) fell over a three @-@ day span . Following a landslide , one person was killed . Flood waters destroyed 100 homes and inundated 10 @,@ 000 others as well as an estimated 32 @,@ 000 hectares of farmland in Fujian Province . In Taoyuan Town , a total of 191 mm ( 7 @.@ 5 in ) of rain fell within one hour , breaking a 200 @-@ year @-@ old record in the town . In Meizhou , Guongdong Province , flash flooding resulted in five additional fatalities after 413 @.@ 7 mm ( 16 @.@ 29 in ) of rain fell within a nine @-@ hour span . This rainfall was higher than any recorded amount in the past 100 years in the region . A total of 362 homes were destroyed in the town and infrastructure was severely damaged . Additionally , an estimated 20 million people were affected by the storm . Damages from Linfa in China amounted to ¥ 641 million ( $ 93 @.@ 8 million ) .
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= Operation Bertram =
Operation Bertram was a major Second World War deception operation practised by the allied forces in Egypt led by Bernard Montgomery in the months leading up to the Second Battle of El Alamein in 1942 . Bertram was devised by Dudley Clarke to deceive Erwin Rommel about the timing and location of the allied attack . The operation consisted of physical deceptions using dummies and camouflage , designed and made by the British Middle East Command Camouflage Directorate led by Geoffrey Barkas . These were accompanied by electromagnetic deceptions codenamed " Operation Canwell " using false radio traffic . All of these were planned to make the enemy believe that the attack would take place to the south , far from the coast road and railway , and about two days later than the real attack .
Bertram consisted both in creating the appearance of army units where none existed , and in concealing armour , artillery and materiel . Dummy tanks and guns were made mainly of local materials including calico and palm @-@ frond hurdles . Real tanks were disguised as trucks , using light " Sunshield " canopies . Field guns and their limbers were also disguised as trucks , their real wheels visible , under a simple box @-@ shaped " Cannibal " canopy to give the shape of a truck . Petrol cans were stacked along the sides of existing revetted trenches , hidden in the shadows . Food was stacked in piles of boxes , and draped with camouflage nets , to resemble trucks .
To achieve the deception , trucks were parked openly in the tank assembly area for some weeks . Real tanks were similarly parked openly , far behind the front . Two nights before the attack , the tanks replaced the trucks , being covered with " Sunshields " before dawn . The tanks were replaced that same night with dummies in their original positions , so the armour remained seemingly two or more days ' journey behind the front line . To reinforce the impression that the attack was not ready , a dummy water pipeline was constructed , at an apparent rate of 5 miles ( 8 @.@ 0 km ) per day . Some days ' worth remained to be built at the time of the actual attack . Dummy tanks , guns and supplies were constructed to the south .
After the battle , the captured German panzerarmee general Wilhelm Ritter von Thoma told Montgomery that he had believed the Allies had at least one more armoured division than they did , and that the attack would be in the south . Rommel 's stand @-@ in , general Georg Stumme , thought the attack would not begin for several weeks . Bertram had thus succeeded in all its objectives . Announcing the victory at El Alamein in the House of Commons , Winston Churchill praised the camouflage operation .
= = Planning = =
Bertram was devised by Dudley Clarke to deceive Erwin Rommel about the timing and location of the expected allied attack by the Eighth Army . It consisted of physical deceptions using dummies and camouflage , concealing real movements , in particular of Montgomery 's armour . Bertram was accompanied by electromagnetic deceptions codenamed " Operation Canwell " using false radio traffic . The front line was relatively short : it stretched from the Mediterranean Sea in the north , near El Alamein railway station , to the effectively impassable Qattara Depression in the south , a distance of only about 30 miles . It was therefore clear to the enemy that the attack must come in this space , and since the only road was in the north , surprise and full @-@ scale attack in any other location might have been thought unlikely . The deceptions were planned to make the enemy believe that the attack would take place to the south , far from the coast road and railway , and about two days later than the real attack .
Soon after his arrival on 8 August 1942 , the new Middle East commander , Harold Alexander , visited Geoffrey Barkas 's camouflage unit at Helwan to assess its ability to implement Bertram . He looked at everything intently , but seemed most interested in the woodworking shop .
On 16 September 1942 , Freddie de Guingand , Montgomery 's chief of staff , summoned Barkas and Tony Ayrton to Eighth Army headquarters near Borg @-@ el @-@ Arab . He told them this was to be top secret , that Alexander had been impressed by his visit to Helwan , and that he wanted Camouflage 's advice . He introduced Charles Richardson , who worked for Dudley Clarke 's secretive ' A ' Force and was to implement the deception Montgomery needed . Richardson had not been trained in deception planning , given the accelerated training of staff officers in 1940 , nor had he ever prepared a deception plan before . He was determined it should succeed , since , as he wrote , " if it failed it would do far more damage than having no plan at all " . de Guingand outlined the basic plan : an attack in the north , along the line of the coast road , with a feint some 20 miles to the south . The tanks would take two days to move into battle position from their forming @-@ up positions . Engineering work was already under way . He then astonished them by asking them to hide the hundreds of tanks and field guns , and the thousands of tons of materiel , that were to be used for the decisive attack at El Alamein . Barkas had been hoping for such an opportunity , and now he was being offered the chance to camouflage perhaps the largest desert battle ever attempted .
Barkas and Ayrton went out onto the beach dunes to sit and think . Barkas recalled the sacked Jasper Maskelyne , a stage magician who had briefly worked for him , saying he needed his vanishing tricks now . Ayrton agreed , suggesting they use Sunshields to make the tanks seem to be trucks , and vice versa . By the end of that afternoon they had typed up a plan and presented it to de Guingand and Richardson . They proposed to create two dummy armoured brigades to deploy in the south . They would give the appearance of not being ready by making it seem the tanks had not moved from their forming @-@ up areas ( Murrayfield and Melting Pot ) . Dummy tanks would replace them there ; while they would mimic trucks when they arrived in the forward Martello area .
Richardson asked if they could use something like Steven Sykes 's dummy railhead which had worked so well at Misheifa . Barkas answered that he intended to build a dummy water pipeline to go down south , and to be obviously not ready .
Within two weeks Barkas 's plan was accepted , but with one change requested by Montgomery : the dummy armour was doubled to represent a whole armoured corps of over 600 vehicles . Richardson integrated the camouflage plan with the main plans : in Barkas 's words , Richardson " amplified it a great deal to fit in with all the other major considerations , which he knew and I didn 't . "
Barkas , a former film director , was set to work " on the task of providing props for the biggest ' film production ' on which I ever expect to be engaged " . Work began on 27 September , giving 4 weeks before the day of the attack .
= = Execution = =
The operation had two aims ; creating the appearance of army units where none existed and concealing the real armour , artillery and materiel at the front . Barkas observed that " the concealment of the huge assembly of the Armoured Corps was essentially a piece of military planning by Army Headquarters , with Camouflage carrying out certain specific tasks . " Since it would be impossible to hide the existence of such a large number of vehicles , and especially of tanks in the Martello area , Barkas planned instead to make the vehicles there quite obvious , as trucks , well before battle . The tanks , too , would be openly displayed , far behind the battle front . When the enemy saw that nothing seemed to be happening , the trucks would be replaced by tanks , masquerading as trucks . That meant that the tanks , too , would have to be seen not to move , so they would all be replaced with dummies . An unprecedented and " formidable " number of dummies were required : more than 400 tanks , 100 guns , and nearly 2000 soft @-@ skinned vehicles .
Different techniques were used for each of these tasks . The British Army had intentionally recruited designers , architects and artists for camouflage work . Tony Ayrton was a painter , son of the architect Maxwell Ayrton . Brian Robb had arrived more informally : he joined the army as a private , but Barkas noticed him and made use of his skills as an artist , teacher and illustrator by having him speedily promoted to Staff Lieutenant . Ayrton and Robb became Barkas 's " GSO2 " s , his senior staff officers , and they supervised the camouflage schemes used in Operation Bertram .
Three companies of Pioneers were assigned to Barkas 's command to carry out the physical work of making the thousands of dummies . They came respectively from East Africa , Mauritius , and the Seychelles . One company worked the standard bed frame palm hurdles into the required shapes and fixed them together to make tank bodies , turrets and other dummy vehicle elements . The second company prepared hessian covers for the vehicle elements . The third company painted and prepared the dummies to the required degree of realism . Since the different Pioneer companies did not like each other , Barkas moved their camps as far apart as possible . To help maintain security , a NAAFI canteen was set up exclusively for the camouflage workers to help keep everyone in camp .
= = = " Sunshields " for tanks = = =
Real tanks were disguised as trucks , using light " Sunshield " canopies . They were made in two halves , which hinged on the sides of the tank . A half could be lifted by two men , and fitted or removed in a few minutes . Different models of Sunshield existed to fit the various types of Allied tank which included Crusaders , Valentines , Grants and Shermans , mimicking different kinds of truck .
A total of 722 Sunshields were deployed in Bertram . According to Peter Forbes , " Sunshields were the most successful and the most exhilaratingly mimetic of the deceptions practised in the desert . "
The idea for the Sunshield came from Commander @-@ in @-@ Chief Middle East , General Wavell himself . He sketched a tank mimicking a truck in a handwritten note which reads
Is it a wild idea that a tank could be camouflaged to look like a lorry from air by light canvas Screen over top ( sketch ) It might would be useful during approach march etc . Please have it considered . 23 / 4 Wavell
The note was passed to Barkas , in his words " not long after my arrival in Middle East ... The whole idea was there . It was only a matter of design , development , and arrangements for manufacture . " The first heavy wooden prototype was made in 1941 by Jasper Maskelyne , who gave it the name Sunshield . 12 men were needed to lift it , and it disintegrated on its first trial run on a Crusader tank . However , Barkas had enough confidence in the Sunshield to ask for a lighter version . The Mark 2 Sunshield was made of canvas stretched over a light steel tube frame . It was strong , light , and cheap to manufacture . And crucially , from as low as 500 feet , RAF pilots found that the Mark 2 convincingly resembled a truck .
The 722 Sunshields were carefully pre @-@ positioned in the Martello tank @-@ holding area near El Imayid railway station . Each was numbered . The crew of each tank was brought to Martello , told their number , shown where they would be parked , and taught how to put up and take down the Sunshield , which they would have to do at night .
= = = " Cannibals " for field guns = = =
Field guns and their limbers were disguised as British " 3 @-@ tonner " trucks , under the direction of Tony Ayrton and Brian Robb . They arranged for the long towing pole of the limber to overlap the trail of the gun , and then put up a dummy truck canopy over both . The real wheels of both the gun and the limber added to the realism of the dummy truck , as they remained visible under the canopy , exactly where the truck 's wheels ought to be . The technique was named " Cannibal " because the gun and limber were ' eaten up ' by the canopy .
The extremely distinctive Morris C8 four wheel drive tractors , known as " Quads " that pulled the 25 pounder guns and their limbers also had to be disguised , since their presence directly advertised the presence of artillery . They were more simply camouflaged , again as trucks with real wheels , by draping a net over four poles tied to the sides of the vehicle and braced with guy ropes .
A total of 360 Cannibals were deployed in Bertram . The rear artillery concentration area and the forward artillery barrage area near El Alamein station were named Cannibal I and Cannibal II , respectively , after the camouflage technique . In Barkas 's own words
the great concentration of 25 @-@ pounders ... seems to have been quite undetectable right up to the instant when its disguise was thrown off and the gunners opened fire .
= = = Real and dummy materiel = = =
Petrol cans were stacked along the sides of existing revetted trenches near El Alamein railway station . It was found by experiment that when they were hidden in the shadows in this way , they were invisible from the air . 2000 tons of petrol were stored in this way . Over 100 @,@ 000 4 @-@ gallon petrol tins were stacked in the 100 stone @-@ faced slit trenches .
Food was stacked in piles of boxes , and draped with camouflage nets to resemble trucks : a large box @-@ shaped pile for the truck 's body , and smaller piles for the truck 's cab and engine . This meant that attractive materials including sugar and cigarettes were dispersed around the desert instead of being in readily guarded camps . The most desirable items were therefore put in the " trucks " in the middle of the areas and hidden in the middle of each stack , and army command accepted the risk of theft .
While the real supplies in the north were carefully hidden , matching dummy supplies had to be created in the south . In the area named Brian after camouflage officer Brian Robb , over 700 dummy stacks representing food , petrol , ammunition and other supplies were constructed .
Static dummy tanks and guns were made mainly of local materials including calico and palm @-@ frond hurdles . Some dummy tanks were mobile , consisting of light frames placed over jeeps . A total of 500 dummy tanks and 150 dummy guns were constructed .
One night shortly before the battle , a powerful dust storm destroyed many of the dummy vehicles . Ayrton worked throughout that night and all the following day to restore the " film set " to an appearance of reality . The Axis command did not notice the breakdown of the illusion . The Royal Air Force had established air superiority by 18 October and completely excluded German reconnaissance aircraft from the Bertram area from then until battle commenced .
= = = Double bluff = = =
On the edge of the Munassib Depression , Bertram risked a double bluff . From 15 October 1942 , a week before the attack , Camouflage constructed three and a half dummy field regiments of artillery . These were carefully made to appear seriously camouflaged , but day by day they were maintained less and less well , to allow the enemy to decide it was facing dummy guns at Munassib . When the real battle had begun , the dummies were replaced at night with real artillery , which then kept utterly still for a day . An Axis tank attack on Munassib was shocked to find itself being fired on by the massed ' dummy ' guns .
= = = Final stages = = =
To achieve the deception , trucks were parked openly in the tank assembly area for some weeks . Real tanks were similarly parked openly , far behind the front . 2 nights before the attack , the tanks replaced the trucks , being covered with " Sunshields " before dawn . The tanks were replaced that same night with dummies in their original positions , so the armour remained seemingly 2 or more days ' journey behind the front line .
To reinforce the impression that the attack was not ready , a dummy water pipeline was constructed in " Operation Diamond " , at an apparent rate of 5 miles per day . Two of Barkas 's camouflage officers , Phillip Cornish and Sidney Robinson , supervised the work . Some days ' worth remained to be built at the time of the actual attack . The pipeline was supported by dummy pump @-@ houses , overhead tanks and filling stations , complete with straw men . Real traffic was made to drive nearby to create tracks .
= = Results = =
After the battle , the captured German panzerarmee general Wilhelm Ritter von Thoma told Montgomery that he had believed the allies had at least one more armoured division than they did , and that the attack would be in the south . Rommel 's stand @-@ in , general Georg Stumme , thought the attack would not begin for several weeks . German documents and prisoners of war confirmed that the German commanders had believed in the existence of the decoy unit , and had not anticipated the true avenue of attack . Bertram had succeeded in all its objectives .
On 11 November 1942 , Winston Churchill announced victory at El Alamein in the House of Commons , London and praised the success of Operation Bertram :
By a marvellous system of camouflage , complete tactical surprise was achieved in the desert . The Xth Corps , which he had seen from the air exercising fifty miles in the rear , moved silently away in the night , but leaving an exact simulacrum of its tanks where it had been , and proceeded to its points of attack .
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= Lionel Palairet =
Lionel Charles Hamilton Palairet ( 27 May 1870 – 27 March 1933 ) was an English amateur cricketer who played for Somerset and Oxford University . A graceful right @-@ handed batsman , he was selected to play Test cricket for England twice in 1902 . Contemporaries judged Palairet to have one of the most attractive batting styles of the period . His obituary in The Times described him as " the most beautiful batsman of all time " . An unwillingness to tour during the English winter limited Palairet 's Test appearances ; contemporaries believed he deserved more Test caps .
Palairet was educated at Repton School . He played in the school cricket team for four years , as captain in the latter two , before going to Oriel College , Oxford . He achieved his cricketing Blue in each of his four years at Oxford , and captained the side in 1892 and 1893 . For Somerset , he frequently opened the batting with Herbie Hewett . In 1892 , they shared a partnership of 346 for the first wicket , an opening stand that set a record for the County Championship and remains Somerset 's highest first @-@ wicket partnership . In that season , Palairet was named as one of the " Five Batsmen of the Year " by Wisden .
Over the following decade , he was one of the leading amateur batsmen in England . He passed 1 @,@ 000 first @-@ class runs in a season on seven occasions , and struck two double centuries . His highest score , 292 runs against Hampshire in 1895 , remained a record for a Somerset batsman until 1948 . His only Test matches were the fourth and fifth Tests against Australia in 1902 : Australia won the fourth Test by three runs , and England won the fifth Test by one wicket . After 1904 , he appeared infrequently for Somerset , though he played a full season in 1907 when he was chosen to captain the county . He retired from first @-@ class cricket in 1909 , having scored over 15 @,@ 000 runs .
= = Early life = =
Lionel Palairet was born in Grange @-@ over @-@ Sands , a popular seaside resort in Lancashire , on 27 May 1870 . He was the oldest of five children born to Henry Hamilton Palairet and Elizabeth Anne Bigg . His father , of Huguenot ancestry , was five times archery champion of England , and a keen cricketer who made two first @-@ class appearances for the Marylebone Cricket Club ( MCC ) in the late 1860s . Palairet was educated first at the Reverend S. Cornish 's School in Clevedon , Somerset , where he once took seven wickets in seven successive deliveries , and then at Repton School . At Repton he developed a reputation as an all @-@ round sportsman : he broke the school 's running records in the two @-@ mile , mile and half @-@ mile distances , and played cricket in the school 's first eleven from 1886 to 1889 , captaining the team in his final two years . In 1889 , he was adjudged the school 's second best sportsman , behind only C. B. Fry . During his final year at Repton , he had a batting average of over 29 , and took 56 wickets at an average of under 13 .
Some of Palairet 's early success can be attributed to his father , who paid the professionals Frederick Martin and William Attewell , both later Wisden Cricketers of the Year , to bowl at his two sons during the Easter holidays , to help them prepare for the upcoming cricket season . During the later part of the 1889 season , Palairet made his first appearances for Somerset County Cricket Club . At the time , Somerset were a second @-@ class county , and their fixture list that summer was against a variety of first- and second @-@ class opposition . Although a Lancastrian by birth , Palairet 's family home was at Cattistock in Dorset , and it was in the south west that he chose to play his cricket . On completion of his studies at Repton , he attended Oriel College , Oxford .
= = Cricket career = =
= = = University and county cricketer = = =
Palairet was selected for the university cricket team during his first year at Oxford , and made his first @-@ class debut against the touring Australians in May 1890 . Palairet scored six and nought and took one wicket in the match which Australia won by an innings . In his next match , Palairet improved , top @-@ scoring for Oxford in their first innings against the Gentlemen with his first half @-@ century in first @-@ class cricket , 54 runs batting at number eight . He only passed 50 runs in one other innings for Oxford that summer , a score of 72 against the MCC , and in all matches for the university that season scored 285 runs at an average of 19 @.@ 00 . Batting averages in 1890 were lower than usual due to the poor weather , and Palairet 's average placed him fourth among Oxford 's team ; his 285 @-@ run total was the team 's second highest aggregate . Palairet won his Blue — the awarding of the Oxford " colours " to sportsmen — by appearing in the 1890 University match against Cambridge , a game in which he had little success . Somerset played thirteen matches in the season , won twelve of them and tied the other . Palairet played in ten of these games , and on his first appearance scored a century against Leicestershire . Somerset 's achievements led to their admission to first @-@ class cricket for 1891 .
Oxford 's batting was described by the Oxford cricket historian Geoffrey Bolton as " unreliable " during 1891 , Palairet 's second year at the university . Palairet 's batting average of 15 @.@ 78 placed him fifth amongst his peers , and he once again struggled in the University match , scoring two and eleven . Although he generally batted as part of the middle order for Oxford , he invariably opened the innings for Somerset alongside his captain , Herbie Hewett . In this role he thrived for Somerset ; his average for the county in ten matches was 31 @.@ 11 , placing him among the top ten batsmen in the County Championship . He scored his debut century in first @-@ class cricket that year , with 100 runs against Gloucestershire . Palairet had agreed to tour North America with Lord Hawke 's party , but he demurred late , and was replaced by Somerset team @-@ mate Sammy Woods .
In 1892 Palairet was elected captain of the Oxford team , and according to Wisden , " had a most brilliant season . " Palairet used himself heavily as a bowler for the university ; only George Berkeley bowled more deliveries . He took five wickets in an innings for the first of two occasions during his career in the first innings of Oxford 's match against the Gentlemen , and followed it up with four wickets in each innings against Lancashire , a match in which he also scored a half @-@ century . He recorded the best bowling figures of his first @-@ class career in the return match against Lancashire , taking six wickets for 84 runs at Old Trafford , and in the following game against Sussex , Bolton says , " Palairet played two beautiful innings and bowled to some effect " . Facing Cambridge in the University match , he was out without scoring in the first innings , but centuries from Malcolm Jardine and Vernon Hill took Oxford to 365 . Cambridge were dismissed for 160 , and were forced to follow on , whereupon they reached 388 , leaving Oxford requiring 184 runs to win . Palairet , who had injured himself while fielding , opted not to open the batting , promoting Frank Phillips in his place . Oxford started poorly , falling to 17 for two , but coming in at number five , Palairet batted for an hour and a half to score 71 runs and help his side to victory . He topped the batting averages for Oxford in 1892 , scoring 509 runs at 36 @.@ 35 , and his 28 wickets came at 22 @.@ 28 .
Palairet 's university performances were good enough to earn him selection for the Gentlemen against the Players in the prestigious matches at Lord 's and The Oval . Returning to Somerset , he struck a century against Gloucestershire in early July , In late August , playing Yorkshire , Palairet scored 132 out of a partnership of 346 with Hewett , establishing a record for the first wicket in first @-@ class cricket , surpassing W. G. Grace and Bransby Cooper 's 1869 total of 283 . Although their record has since been beaten in first @-@ class cricket , it remains Somerset 's record partnership for the first wicket . Their partnership was described as " Pure grace at one end , sheer force at the other " , in H.S. Altham and E. W. Swanton 's A History of Cricket . At the time , The Daily Telegraph reported that the pair remained together for three and a half hours , during which Palairet scored one six and nineteen fours . At the end of the season , he was selected in two representative sides : appearing for the West against the East , and once again for the Gentlemen against the Players , on this occasion at Hastings . In all first @-@ class matches that year , he scored 1 @,@ 343 runs , the third most of any cricketer . He was named as one of the Five Batsmen of the Year by the Wisden Cricketers ' Almanack in 1893 , which noted that " there can be little doubt that even greater distinction awaits him in the cricket world . "
In contrast to the previous year , 1893 was an unsuccessful one for Oxford . The university side failed to win a single match , and despite favourable batting conditions , none of the batsmen scored a century . Palairet was second in the batting averages , scoring 276 runs at 21 @.@ 23 . Bolton questioned the team selections that year under Palairet 's captaincy , particularly for the University match , in which he believed a stronger team could have been chosen . Cambridge had a powerful team , containing eight of their players from the previous year , and adding Arthur Jones and K. S. Ranjitsinhji . Oxford lost the match by 266 runs , with only Palairet and Fry scoring more than 12 runs for the side .
In his four years at Oxford , Palairet appeared for the university 31 times in first @-@ class cricket and accrued 1 @,@ 291 runs at an average of 23 @.@ 05 . He scored nine half @-@ centuries , with a top @-@ score of 75 not out . He claimed 52 wickets at 25 @.@ 03 — significantly lower than his career average — and took the only five @-@ wicket hauls of his career . While at Oxford , he also gained a Blue in athletics , running in the three @-@ mile race against Cambridge in 1892 . The same year , he played association football for Corinthians , and there were also appearances for Combined Universities and London . An injury prevented Palairet from playing against Cambridge , and thus earning his Blue in football .
= = = Leading amateur batsman = = =
Over the following seasons , Palairet moved to " the front rank of amateur batsmen , " according to W. G. Grace . He played for Arthur Shrewsbury 's England XI against Australia in 1893 , and scored 71 runs as the English side won by an innings and 153 runs . He scored five half @-@ centuries for Somerset that summer , and his batting average of 28 @.@ 94 in the County Championship was bettered only by Hewett among his team @-@ mates . The next year , Palairet made a big score against his former university . Facing a team that included his brother , Richard Palairet , and was captained by Fry , he made 181 runs in Somerset 's second innings , the highest first @-@ class score of his career to that point . He also scored a century against Nottinghamshire , making 119 runs before being out leg before wicket to his old trainer Attewell . He fell just short of 1 @,@ 000 first @-@ class runs in 1894 ; though two half @-@ centuries scored against the touring South Africans in matches not considered first @-@ class would have taken him over the milestone .
In 1895 , Palairet was fourth in the national batting averages , having scored 1 @,@ 313 runs at 46 @.@ 89 . The three batsmen above him , Archie MacLaren , Grace and Ranjitsinhji all appeared for England that year . Palairet scored three centuries during the season ; two against Middlesex , on the latter occasion batting undefeated through the whole Somerset innings , and one against Yorkshire , when he struck 165 . He passed a thousand runs again the following year , maintaining a batting average in excess of 40 . A fourth @-@ innings score of 83 not out that season drew praise from Ranjitsinhji ; on a difficult pitch , Palairet farmed the strike and rescued a draw for his side . Just over a month later , he reached his highest total in first @-@ class cricket , scoring 292 runs against Hampshire . It was his first double century , and the highest score by any Somerset batsman in first @-@ class cricket at that time . One newspaper in Australia , reporting on his innings , declared that ; " should he retain his form he will certainly be worthy of a place ... in the final Test match at the Oval . " Either side of that match against Hampshire , he appeared for the Gentlemen against the Players at The Oval and Lord 's , but made little impact on either game . He returned to form against Sussex on their visit to Taunton , sharing a 249 @-@ run partnership with his brother , and scoring 154 runs himself . The match was played shortly before the final Test match against Australia , but despite the comments in the Australian press , Palairet was not selected for the match . He did appear twice against the tourists that summer , for Somerset he scored six across two innings , and chosen to play for Charles Thornton 's XI during the Scarborough Festival , he scored 71 runs in an innings victory .
In 1897 Palairet made fewer first @-@ class appearances , playing in only 12 matches . He scored 593 runs at an average just below 30 , the only time between 1895 and 1906 that his average was below that value . Despite this relatively quiet season , Somerset still relied heavily on him ; he led the county batting averages in the 1897 County Championship . In 1898 , Palairet topped 1 @,@ 000 first @-@ class runs for the third season out of four . He struck 179 not out against Gloucestershire in Bristol , and late in the season , also against Gloucestershire , he captained Somerset for the first time , leading them to victory by an innings and 169 runs . He played in two matches during the Scarborough Festival , in which he scored 54 , his highest innings for the Gentlemen against the Players , and also appeared for Thornton 's " England XI " against that season 's county champions , Yorkshire .
Palairet missed all of the 1899 season through appendicitis ; Baily 's Magazine of Sports and Pastimes suggested that but for this he might have appeared for England against Australia that summer . He returned in 1900 , scoring 947 runs at an average of 35 @.@ 07 . His only century came against Hampshire , when he scored 161 runs , and shared a partnership of 262 with Charles Bernard .
The subsequent 1901 season was , statistically , his best . He trailed only Fry and Ranjitsinhji in the national batting averages , and drew particular acclaim for his innings of 173 against Yorkshire . The all @-@ conquering Yorkshire were reigning County Champions , unbeaten in 1900 ; the match against Somerset at Headingley was the only one they lost in 1901 . Somerset were dismissed for 87 in their first innings , and Yorkshire reached 325 to lead by 238 runs on first innings . Palairet and his fellow opener Len Braund — both of whom had been out without scoring in the first innings — then scored 222 runs together in 140 minutes at the start of Somerset 's second innings , each scoring a century . After the dismissal of Braund for 107 , Palairet continued , eventually being caught and bowled for 173 . Frank Phillips added a third century ( 122 ) , and Somerset reached a total of 630 . Yorkshire were bowled out on a wearing pitch for 113 , with Braund and Beaumont Cranfield each taking four wickets , and Somerset won by 279 runs . The Yorkshire captain , Lord Hawke , declared that it was " one of the best matches I ever lost . " In the same year , Palairet scored 182 against Lancashire and 194 against Sussex . Altogether he scored five centuries and eleven half @-@ centuries in 1901 , averaging 57 @.@ 75 for his 1 @,@ 906 runs — the highest season 's total of his career .
= = = England recognition = = =
The English summer of 1902 was badly affected by rain , making batting more difficult . Through the whole season , Palairet did not score a first @-@ class century , though he did score over 1 @,@ 000 runs . He was once again instrumental in inflicting defeat on Yorkshire : on what Sir Home Gordon described as a " rain @-@ ruined wicket " , Palairet scored 25 and 24 during a match in which only Braund also reached double @-@ figure scores in both innings . Wisden described the pair 's batting as " admirable " , and it helped secure a Somerset victory by 34 runs ; for the second successive year , Somerset were the only side to beat Yorkshire in the County Championship .
Palairet was selected to appear for the Marylebone Cricket Club against the touring Australians in the week prior to the first Test of the series . He scored 39 and 44 in a drawn match . He was not chosen to play in any of the first three Tests , but was called up for the fourth match , at Old Trafford . Palairet , Ranjitsinhji and Fred Tate replaced Fry , George Hirst and Gilbert Jessop ; the Wisden match report indicates that dropping Fry was a necessary decision , but that Hirst and Jessop should both have played . In A History of Cricket , Altham is more direct in claiming that Palairet should not have been chosen : " The selectors , it is now agreed , made a questionable choice in preferring Lionel Palairet to an all @-@ rounder such as Hirst . " On his Test debut , Palairet opened the batting and scored six runs in the first innings , one of five victims to fall to Jack Saunders and Hugh Trumble in the first 45 minutes of England 's innings . In the second innings , Palairet once again opened , though with a different partner : MacLaren replaced Bobby Abel . The pair made scored 44 runs together , though Wisden noted that " the difficulty they experienced in playing the bowling made one apprehensive " . Palairet was bowled by Saunders , and England were eventually dismissed for 120 , four runs short of victory .
For the next Test match — the fifth and final of the series — Palairet retained his place , with Hirst and Jessop restored to the side . The Australians batted throughout the first day for a total of 324 runs . Overnight rain then made batting difficult , and England totalled 183 on the second day . Palairet was dismissed for 20 by Trumble , whose bowling Altham praised as magnificent . Australia also struggled in their second innings , and England required 263 runs to win the match . Palairet was dismissed for six , the third batsman to be bowled by Trumble in the innings , at which point England 's score was 10 for 3 wickets . Lower order runs from the recalled Jessop and Hirst recovered the innings , and England won by one wicket . In Palairet 's only other match against Australia that summer , for Somerset , he scored 44 and 90 in a drawn game at Taunton . He made no further Test appearances , and completed his brief Test career with 49 runs at an average of 12 @.@ 25 , against an Australian side that has been described as among the best Test teams prior to the Second World War .
= = = Later county career = = =
In 1903 , Palairet played eleven first @-@ class matches . His only century of the season came against Surrey , when he scored 114 in the second innings , having struck a half @-@ century in the first . He passed 50 on three other occasions , and finished the year with 637 runs at 35 @.@ 38 . He appeared more frequently the following year , in which he scored 1 @,@ 000 first @-@ class runs in a season for the final time of his career . He opened the season with a century against Gloucestershire , scoring 166 runs . During the Bath cricket festival , he scored 111 , and shared an opening partnership of 161 with Braund during a ten @-@ wicket loss to Lancashire . Against Worcestershire later that month , he scored the second , and final , first @-@ class double century of his career . Opening the batting for Somerset , he reached 203 ; more than Worcestershire had managed in their first innings , before being dismissed . Somerset won the match by an innings and 114 runs . The cricket historian David Foot describes 1904 and the subsequent few seasons as undistinguished for Somerset ; between then and the First World War , the club never finished higher than tenth in the County Championship . Palairet missed most of the cricket in 1905 and 1906 , to concentrate on his work as a land agent for the Earl of Devon . He played three times in 1905 ; against the touring Australians , Kent and Warwickshire , while in 1906 he played one match , against Yorkshire . At the end of 1906 , Woods , who had captained Somerset since 1894 , retired . Despite his limited appearances over the previous couple of years , Palairet was appointed as Woods ' replacement for 1907 .
During the 1907 season , Palairet played in all of Somerset 's County Championship matches , and also appeared for the county against the touring South African side . The club struggled to find eleven eligible players for some of their matches , and at one stage were forced to recall Ted Tyler to the side – Tyler had not played for Somerset for four years , and had only played five matches since 1900 . Palairet himself had a disappointing year ; his batting average of 21 @.@ 33 was the lowest in any season in which he played ten or more matches . He passed 50 in an innings on only three occasions , one of these being 116 runs against Kent at Tonbridge , the final century of his first @-@ class career . At the end of the season , in which Somerset finished fourteenth of sixteen teams in the County Championship , Palairet resigned the captaincy . At the club 's annual general meeting , in an uncharacteristic outburst he criticised the lack of talent and team spirit . After 1907 , made only eight further appearances in first @-@ class cricket , his final match being in 1909 for Somerset against Kent at Taunton , where he scored one run in the first innings and three in the second . Palairet invariably wore a Harlequins cricket cap during matches , and was considered aloof by his colleagues . In his complete first @-@ class career he scored 15 @,@ 777 runs at an average of 33 @.@ 63 , including 27 centuries , and took 143 wickets at a bowling average of 33 @.@ 91
= = Style and technique = =
Often considered by commentators to be the benchmark against which other batsmen are compared for attractive , graceful batting , Palairet won many plaudits for his style . In his book , The Jubilee Book of Cricket , Ranjitsinhji includes a number of staged photographs of Palairet playing his shots , and describes his methods in places , using them as the model which young players should adopt . He played predominantly off the front foot , and tended to be less effective on soft pitches . He favoured shots on the off side , particularly the off drive and cover drive . During Palairet 's career , bowlers favoured a tactic , known as off theory , of bowling the ball just outside the off stump . The strength of Palairet 's off side strokes helped him to score effectively against this tactic . Fry suggests that the early practice that Palairet gained against Attewell and Martin , who bowled accurately at the stumps , was a key factor in limiting his range of leg side shots . He favoured lofted shots which were often compared to golf strokes .
For a time early in his career , he attempted to play more powerfully , but then returned to his forward style . Despite this , he remained capable of hitting the ball out of the County Ground in Taunton and into the River Tone at one end or the churchyard at the other . Although considered a stylish batsman , Palairet was described by Foot as having " the minimum of extrovert flourish " and " no quaint mannerisms " , both factors he considered relevant in Palairet 's limited Test appearances . Throughout his career , Palairet shunned improvisation , and played well @-@ established , orthodox cricket shots . He remained absolutely still at the crease while preparing to play a shot , a feature later seen in Viv Richards ' batting .
= = Personal life = =
Palairet married Caroline Mabel Laverton , the daughter of William Henry Laverton , a prominent cricket patron in Wiltshire , in 1894 . The pair had two children : Evelyn Mabel Hamilton , born in 1895 , and Henry Edward Hamilton the following year . Palairet 's brother , Richard , played first @-@ class cricket for Somerset between 1891 and 1902 , albeit without as much success as Lionel . In addition to cricket , Palairet maintained an interest in a range of other sports ; a 1901 profile of him in Baily 's Magazine records that foxhunting was his primary sporting interest . After his retirement from cricket , Palairet became a prominent golfer in the south @-@ west . He was the first chairman of the Devon County Golf Union upon its formation in 1911 , captained Devon at golf either side of the First World War , from 1914 through until 1926 , and was also president of the Union from 1923 until 1932 . He developed the idea of an inter @-@ club team championship within Devon , and donated the prize , which remains named the Palairet Trophy . During the First World War , he had command of a Remount Depot at Powderham , the seat of the Earl of Devon . He died in Exmouth on 27 March 1933 , aged 62 .
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= Black wildebeest =
The black wildebeest or white @-@ tailed gnu ( Connochaetes gnou ) is one of the two closely related wildebeest species . It is a member of the genus Connochaetes and family Bovidae . It was first described in 1780 by Eberhard August Wilhelm von Zimmermann . The black wildebeest is typically between 170 – 220 cm ( 67 – 87 in ) in head @-@ and @-@ body length , and the average weight is 110 – 180 kg ( 240 – 400 lb ) . Males stand up to approximately 111 – 121 cm ( 44 – 48 in ) at the shoulder , while the height of the females is 106 – 116 cm ( 42 – 46 in ) . The black wildebeest is characterised by its white , long , horse @-@ like tail . It also has a dark brown to black coat and long , dark @-@ coloured hair between its forelegs and under its belly .
The black wildebeest is a herbivore , and almost the whole diet consists of grasses . Water is an essential requirement . There are three distinct social groups : the female herds , the bachelor herds and the territorial bulls . They are fast runners , and communicate using a variety of visual and vocal communication . The primary breeding season for the black wildebeest is from February to April . A single calf is usually born after a gestational period of about eight and a half months . The calf remains with its mother until her next calf is born a year later . The black wildebeest inhabits open plains , grasslands and Karoo shrublands .
The natural populations of black wildebeest , endemic to the southern part of Africa , were almost completely exterminated in the 19th century , due to their reputation as pests and the value of their hides and meat . However , the species has been reintroduced widely from captive specimens , both in private areas and nature reserves throughout most of Lesotho , Swaziland , and South Africa . It has also been introduced outside its natural range in Namibia and Kenya .
= = Taxonomy and evolution = =
The scientific name of the black wildebeest is Connochaetes gnou . The animal is placed in the genus Connochaetes and family Bovidae and was first described by the German zoologist , Eberhard August Wilhelm von Zimmermann in 1780 . He based his description on an article written by natural philosopher Jean @-@ Nicolas @-@ Sébastien Allamand in 1776 . The generic name Connochaetes derives from the Greek words κόννος , kónnos , " beard " , and χαίτη , khaítē , " flowing hair " , " mane " . The specific name " gnou " originates from the Khoikhoi name for these animals , gnou . The common name " gnu " is also said to have originated from the Hottentot name T 'gnu , which refers to the repeated calls of " ge @-@ nu " by the bull in the mating season . The black wildebeest was first discovered in the northern part of South Africa in the 1800s .
The black wildebeest is currently included in the same genus as the blue wildebeest ( Connochaetes taurinus ) . This has not always been the case and at one time the latter was placed under a separate genus of its own , Gorgon . The black wildebeest lineage seems to have diverged from the blue wildebeest in the mid to late Pleistocene , and became a distinct species around a million years ago . This evolution is quite recent on a geologic time scale .
Features necessary for defending a territory such as the horns and broad @-@ based skull of the modern black wildebeest , have been found in their fossil ancestors . The earliest known fossil remains are in sedimentary rock in Cornelia in the Orange Free State and date back about eight hundred thousand years . Fossils have also been reported from the Vaal River deposits , though it is unclear whether or not they are as ancient as those found in Cornelia . Horns of the black wildebeest have been found in sand dunes near Hermanus in South Africa . This is far beyond the recorded range of the species and it has been suggested that these animals may have migrated to that region from the Karoo .
= = = Hybrids = = =
The black wildebeest is known to hybridise with its taxonomically close relative , the blue wildebeest . Male black wildebeest have been reported to mate with female blue wildebeest and vice versa . The differences in social behaviour and habitats have historically prevented interspecific hybridisation between the species , however hybridisation may occur when they are both confined within the same area . The resulting offspring is usually fertile . A study of these hybrid animals at Spioenkop Dam Nature Reserve in South Africa revealed that many had disadvantageous abnormalities relating to their teeth , horns and the wormian bones in the skull . Another study reported an increase in the size of the hybrid as compared to either of its parents . In some animals the auditory bullae are highly deformed and in others the radius and ulna are fused .
= = Description = =
Black wildebeest are sexually dimorphic , with females being smaller in size and more slender than males . The head @-@ and @-@ body length is typically between 170 and 220 cm ( 67 and 87 in ) . Males reach approximately 111 to 121 cm ( 44 to 48 in ) at the shoulder , while females reach 106 to 116 cm ( 42 to 46 in ) . Males typically weigh 140 to 157 kg ( 309 to 346 lb ) and females 110 to 122 kg ( 243 to 269 lb ) . A distinguishing feature in both sexes is the tail , which is long and similar to that of a horse . Its bright @-@ white colour gives this animal the vernacular name of " white @-@ tailed gnu " , and also distinguishes it from the blue wildebeest , which has a black tail . The length of the tail ranges from 80 to 100 cm ( 31 to 39 in ) .
The black wildebeest has a dark brown or black coat which is slightly paler in summer and coarser and shaggier in the winter . Calves are born with shaggy , fawn @-@ coloured fur . Males are darker than females . They have bushy and dark @-@ tipped manes that , as in the blue wildebeest , stick up from the back of the neck . The hairs which compose this are white or cream @-@ coloured with dark tips . On its muzzle and under its jaw it has black bristly hair . It also has long , dark @-@ coloured hair between its forelegs and under its belly . Other physical features include a thick neck , a plain back , and rather small and beady eyes .
Both sexes have strong horns that curve forward , resembling hooks and are up to 78 cm ( 31 in ) long . The horns have a broad base in mature males , and are flattened to form a protective shield . In females , the horns are both shorter and narrower . They become fully developed in females in the third year , while it is not before the age of four or five that horns are fully grown in males . The black wildebeest normally has 13 thoracic vertebrae , though specimens with 14 have been reported , and this species shows a tendency for the thoracic region to become elongated . There are scent glands that secrete a glutinous substance in front of the eyes , under the hair tufts and on the forefeet . Females have two nipples . Apart from the difference in the appearance of the tail , the two species of wildebeest also differ in size and colour , with the black being smaller and darker than the blue .
The black wildebeest can maintain its body temperature within a small range in spite of large fluctuations in external temperatures . It shows well @-@ developed orientation behaviour towards solar radiation which helps it thrive in hot , and often shadeless , habitats . The erythrocyte count is high at birth and increases till the age of two to three months , while in contrast , the leucocyte count is low at birth and falls throughout the animal 's life . The neutrophil count is high at all ages . The haematocrit and haemoglobin content decreases till twenty to thirty days after birth . There is a peak in the content of all these haemological parameters at the age of two to three months , after which the readings gradually decline , reaching their lowest values in the oldest individuals . The presence of fast @-@ twitch fibres and the ability of the muscles to use large amounts of oxygen help explain the rapid running speed of the black wildebeest and its high resistance to fatigue . Individuals may live for about twenty years .
= = Diseases and parasites = =
The black wildebeest is particularly susceptible to anthrax , and rare and widely scattered outbreaks have been recorded and have proved deadly . Ataxia related to myelopathy and low copper concentrations in the liver have also been seen in the black wildebeest . Heartwater ( Ehrlichia ruminantium ) is a tick @-@ borne rickettsial disease that affects the black wildebeest and , as the blue wildebeest is fatally affected by rinderpest and foot @-@ and @-@ mouth disease , it is believed that the black wildebeest is also likely to be susceptible to these . Malignant catarrhal fever is a fatal disease of domestic cattle caused by a gammaherpesvirus . It seems that , like the blue wildebeest , the black wildebeest acts as a reservoir for the virus and that all animals are carriers , being persistently infected but showing no symptoms . The virus is transmitted from mother to calf during the gestation period or soon after birth .
Black wildebeest act as hosts to a number of external and internal parasites . A study of the animal in Karroid Mountainveld ( Eastern Cape Province , South Africa ) revealed the presence of all the larval stages of the nasal bot flies Oestrus variolosus and Gedoelstia hässleri . The first instar larvae of G hässleri were found in large numbers on the dura mater of wildebeest calves , specially between June and August , and these later migrated to the nasal passages . Repeated outbreaks of mange ( scab ) have led to large @-@ scale extinctions . The first study of the protozoa in blue and black wildebeest showed the presence of 23 protozoan species in the rumen , with Diplodinium bubalidis and Ostracodinium damaliscus common in all the animals .
= = Ecology and behaviour = =
Black wildebeest are mainly active during the early morning and late afternoon preferring to rest during the hottest part of the day . The animals can run at speeds of 80 km / h ( 50 mph ) . When a person approaches a herd to within a few hundred metres , the wildebeest snort and run a short distance before stopping and looking back , repeating this behaviour if further approached . They communicate with each other using pheromones detected by flehmen and several forms of vocal communication . One of these is a metallic snort or an echoing " hick " , that can be heard up to 1500 metres ( 1 mile ) away . They are preyed on by animals like lion , spotted hyena , Cape hunting dog , leopard , cheetah and crocodile . Of these the calves are targeted manly by the hyenas , while lions attack the adults .
The black wildebeest is a gregarious animal with a complex social structure comprising three distinct groups : firstly , the female herds , consisting of adult females and their young ; secondly , the bachelor herds , consisting only of yearlings and older males ; thirdly , the territorial bulls . The number of females per herd is variable , generally ranging from 14 to 32 , but is highest in the densest populations and also increases with forage density . There is a strong attachment among members of the female herd , many of whom are related to each other . Large herds often get divided into smaller groups . While small calves stay with their mothers , the older ones form groups of their own within the herd . These herds have a social hierarchy , and the females are rather aggressive towards others trying to join the group . Young males are generally repelled by their mothers before the calving season starts . Separation of a young calf from its mother can be a major cause of calf mortality . While some male yearlings stay within the female herd , the others join a bachelor herd . These are usually loose associations and , unlike the female herds , the individuals are not much attached to each other . Another difference between the female and bachelor herds is the lesser aggression on the part of the males . These bachelor herds move widely in the available habitat and act as a refuge for males that have been unsuccessful as territorial bulls , and also as a reserve for future breeding males .
Mature bulls , generally more than four years old , set up their own territories through which female herds often pass . These territories are maintained throughout the year , with animals usually separated by a distance of about 100 – 400 m ( 330 – 1 @,@ 310 ft ) , but this can vary according to the quality of the habitat . In favourable conditions , this distance is as little as 9 m ( 30 ft ) , but can be as large as 1 @,@ 600 m ( 5 @,@ 200 ft ) in poor habitat . Each bull has a patch of ground in the centre of his territory in which he regularly drops dung , and in which he performs acts of display . These include urinating , scraping , pawing and rolling on the ground and thumping it with his horns - all of which demonstrate his prowess to other bulls . An encounter between two bulls involves elaborate rituals . Estes coined the term " Challenge Ritual " to describe this behaviour for the blue wildebeest , but this is also applicable to the black wildebeest , owing to the close similarity in the behaviour in both species . The bulls approach each other with their heads lowered , resembling a grazing position ( sometimes actually grazing ) . This is usually followed by movements like standing in a reverse @-@ parallel position , in which one male urinates and the opponent smells and performs flehmen , after which they may reverse the procedure . During this ritual or afterwards the two can toss their horns at each other , circle one another , or even look away . Then begins the fight , which may be of low intensity ( consisting of interlocking the horns and pushing each other in a standing position ) or high intensity ( consisting of their dropping to their knees and straining against each other powerfully , trying to remain in contact while their foreheads are nearly touching the ground ) . Threat displays like shaking the head may also take place .
= = Diet = =
Black wildebeest are predominantly grazers , preferring short grasses but also feeding on other herbs and shrubs , especially when grass is scarce . Shrubs can comprise as much as 37 % of the diet but grasses normally forms more than 90 % . Water is essential , though they can exist without drinking water everyday . The herds graze either in line or in loose groups , usually walking in single file when moving about . They are often accompanied by cattle egrets , which pick out and consume the insects hidden in their coats or disturbed by their movements .
Before the arrival of Europeans in the area , wildebeest used to roam widely , probably in relation to the arrival of the rains and the availability of good forage . They never made such extensive migrations as the blue wildebeest but at one time , they used to cross the Drakensberg Range , moving eastwards in autumn , searching for good pastures . Then they returned to the highvelds in the spring and moved towards the west , where sweet potato and Karoo vegetation were abundant . They also moved from north to south as the sourgrass found north of the Vaal River matured and became unpalatable , the wildebeest only consuming young shoots of sourgrass . Nowadays , almost all black wildebeest are in reserves or on farms and the extent of their movements is limited .
In a study of the feeding activities of a number of female black wildebeest living in a shadeless habitat , it was found that they fed mostly at night . They were observed at regular intervals over a period of one year and it was observed that with an increase in temperature , the number of wildebeest feeding at night also increased . During cool weather they lay down to rest but in hotter conditions they rested while standing up .
= = Reproduction = =
Male black wildebeest reach sexual maturity at the age of three years but may mature at a younger age in captivity . Females first come into season and breed as yearlings or as two @-@ year @-@ olds . They breed only once in a year .
A dominant male black wildebeest will have a harem of females and will not allow other males to mate with them . The breeding season occurs at the end of the rainy season and lasts a few weeks between February and April . When one of his females comes into oestrus the male concentrates on her and mates with her several times . Sexual behaviour by the male at this time includes stretching low , ears down , sniffing of the female 's vulva , performing ritual urination and touching his chin to the female 's rump . At the same time , the female keeps her tail upwards ( sometimes vertically ) or swishes it across the face of the male . The pair usually separates after copulation , but the female occasionally follows her mate afterwards , touching his rump with her snout . During the breeding season , the male loses condition as he spends little time grazing . Males are known to mount other males .
The gestational period lasts for about eight and a half months , after which a single calf is born . Females in labour do not move away from the female herd and repeatedly lie down and get up again . Births normally take place in areas with short grass when the cow is in the lying position . She stands up immediately afterwards which causes the umbilical cord to break , vigorously licks the calf and chews on the afterbirth . In spite of regional variations , around 80 % of the females give birth to their calves within a period of two to three weeks after the onset of the rainy season - from mid @-@ November to the end of December . Seasonal breeding has also been reported among wildebeest in captivity in European zoos . Twin births have not been reported .
The calf has a tawny , shaggy coat and weighs about 11 kilograms ( 24 lb ) . By the end of the fourth week , the four incisors have fully emerged and about the same time , two knob @-@ like structures , the hornbuds , appear on the head . These later develop into horns which reach a length of 200 – 250 mm ( 8 – 10 in ) by the fifth month and are well developed by the eighth month . The calf is able to stand and run shortly after birth , a period of great danger for animals in the wild . It is fed by its lactating mother for six to eight months , begins nibbling on grass blades at four weeks and remains with her until her next calf is born a year later .
= = Distribution and habitat = =
The black wildebeest is native to southern Africa . Its historical range included South Africa , Swaziland and Lesotho , but in the latter two countries it was hunted to extinction in the 19th century . It has now been reintroduced to them and also introduced to Namibia where it has become well established .
The black wildebeest inhabits open plains , grasslands and Karoo shrublands in both steep mountainous regions and lower undulating hills . The altitudes in these areas varies from 1 @,@ 350 – 2 @,@ 150 m ( 4 @,@ 430 – 7 @,@ 050 ft ) . The herds are often migratory or nomadic , otherwise they may have regular home ranges of 1 km2 ( 11 @,@ 000 @,@ 000 sq ft ) . Female herds roam in home ranges around 250 acres ( 100 ha ; 0 @.@ 39 sq mi ) in size . In the past , black wildebeest occurred in the highveld temperate grasslands during the dry winter season and the arid Karoo region during the rains . However , as a result of massive hunting of the animal for its hide , they vanished from their historical range , and are now largely limited to game farms and protected reserves in southern Africa . In most reserves , the black wildebeest shares its habitat with the blesbok and the springbok .
= = Threats and conservation = =
Where it lives alongside the blue wildebeest , the two species can hybridise , and this is regarded as a potential threat to the maintenance of the species . The black wildebeest was once very numerous and was present in southern Africa in vast herds but by the end of the nineteenth century , it had nearly been hunted to extinction and fewer than 600 animals remained . A small number of individuals was still present in game reserves and at zoos and it is from these that the population was rescued .
There are now believed to be more than 18 @,@ 000 individuals , 7 @,@ 000 of which are in Namibia , outside its natural range , and where it is farmed . Around 80 % of the wildebeest occur in private areas , while the other 20 % are confined in protected areas . The population is now trending upward ( particularly on private land ) and for this reason the International Union for Conservation of Nature ( IUCN ) , in its Red List of Threatened Species , rates the black wildebeest as being of " Least Concern " . Its introduction into Namibia has been a success and numbers have increased substantially there from 150 in 1982 to 7 @,@ 000 in 1992 .
= = Uses and interaction with humans = =
The black wildebeest is depicted on the coat of arms of the Province of Natal in South Africa . Over the years the South African authorities have issued stamps displaying the animal and the South African Mint has struck a five rand coin with a prancing black wildebeest .
Though they are not present in their natural habitat in such large numbers today , black wildebeest were at one time the main herbivores in the ecosystem and a main prey item for large predators such as the lion . Nowadays they are economically important for human beings as they are a major tourist attraction as well as providing animal products such as leather and meat . The hide makes good quality leather and the flesh is coarse , dry and rather hard . Wildebeest meat is dried to make biltong , an important part of South African cuisine . The meat of females is more tender than that of males , and is at its best during the autumn season . The wildebeest can provide ten times as much meat as the Thomson 's gazelle . The silky , flowing tail is used to make fly @-@ whisks or " chowries " .
However , black wildebeest can also affect human beings negatively . Wild individuals can be competitors of commercial livestock , and can transmit fatal diseases like rinderpest and cause epidemics among animals , particularly domestic cattle . They can also spread ticks , lungworms , tapeworms , flies and paramphistome flukes .
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= In the Middle ( Sugababes song ) =
" In the Middle " is a song by English girl group Sugababes , released on 22 March 2004 as the third single from their third studio album , Three ( 2003 ) . The Sugababes were inspired to compose the song based upon the different situations experienced on a night out ; they wrote it in collaboration with Miranda Cooper , Brian Higgins , Niara Scarlett , Shawn Lee , Lisa Cowling , Andre Tegler , Phil Fuldner and Michael Bellina . Higgins , Xenomania and Jeremy Wheatley produced the song . " In the Middle " is a dance @-@ pop , R & B and funk @-@ influenced record that contains a sample of German DJ Moguai 's song " U Know Y " .
The song received rave reviews from critics , who commended its production and appeal , and was nominated for Best British Single at the 2005 BRIT Awards . The single reached the top ten on the charts in Hungary , Netherlands and the United Kingdom . It also peaked within the top forty on the charts in Australia , Austria , Germany , Ireland and Switzerland . Matthew Rolston directed the song 's music video , which was filmed at Pinewood Studios , London . It features the green screen effect and magical settings for the video 's environments . The Sugababes performed the song on their tours in support of Three , Overloaded : The Singles Collection ( 2006 ) and Change ( 2007 ) .
= = Development and release = =
The Sugababes wrote " In the Middle " in collaboration with Miranda Cooper , Brian Higgins , Niara Scarlett , Shawn Lee , Lisa Cowling , Andre Tegler , Phil Fuldner and Michael Bellina , for their third studio album , Three ( 2003 ) . Group member Heidi Range revealed that the band wanted to write a song with which they could have fun ; it was inspired by different situations experienced during a night out . Keisha Buchanan , another member of the Sugababes , told Digital Spy that she wrote 90 % of the song but could not comprehend the meaning of the lyrics : " I think it 's because as I 've got older I don 't really relate to the lyrics . It was more of a fun song but I just don 't really feel that attached to it any more . " Higgins , Xenomania and Jeremy Wheatley produced the song ; the latter mixed it at the Town House Studios , London . " In the Middle " was programmed by Matt Duguid , Nick Coler , Tim Powell and Tim Larcombe .
The Sugababes confirmed through their official website in February 2004 that " In the Middle " would be the released as the album 's third single . Island Records released it on 22 March 2004 as a CD single and digital download . The song 's release coincided with the commencement of the group 's UK tour in March 2004 . The CD single and digital download releases contain a B @-@ side titled " Disturbed " . A maxi single was released ; it includes the B @-@ side " Colder in the Rain " , and two remixes of the track , including one by DJ Hyper , which appears on his remix album , Wired ( 2004 ) . " In the Middle " is featured on the Sugababes ' greatest hits album Overloaded : The Singles Collection .
= = Composition and lyrics = =
" In the Middle " is a dance @-@ pop song with elements of R & B and funk . The Jerusalem Post 's Harry Rubenstein described it as a " club @-@ style experimental " . According to the digital sheet music published by Hal Leonard Publishing , " In the Middle " was composed in the key of B minor using common time , with a tempo of 128 beats per minute . It is reminiscent of the group 's singles " Round Round " and " Hole in the Head " , both of which were also produced by Xenomania . " In the Middle " contains a sample of " U Know Y " by German DJ Moguai , and features guitar and keyboard instrumentation . The song contains a low bassline that derives from a synthesised trombone . The lyrical content of " In the Middle " is about finding a man after a night out , in which the chorus is opened with the lines , " I 'm caught up in the middle , jumping through the riddle , I 'm falling just a little tonight " .
= = Reception = =
= = = Critical response = = =
" In the Middle " received rave reviews from critics . Natasha Perry of Contactmusic.com named the song one of Three 's " instant winners " ; Harry Rubenstein from the Jerusalem Post similarly considered it one of the album 's best tracks . The Guardian writer Andrew Mueller regarded " In the Middle " as " vastly superior " , while Alan Braidwood of BBC described it as quality pop . Ben Hogwood of musicOMH questioned the number of songwriters it took to write the track , although cited this as reasons for the " polished production and slicker than slick chorus " . Writing for the Daily Mirror , Gavin Martin commended the Sugababes ' attitude in the song , which he described as " colourful and explosive " . Dan Gennoe of Yahoo ! Music characterised " In the Middle " as a " retro hip @-@ shake " . A critic from the Daily Record regarded the song as " addictive and dancey " and wrote that it highlights the group 's " considerable charms " . The writer noted that it echoes the appeal of their number @-@ one singles , " Freak Like Me " and " Round Round " . Daily Mail writer Adrian Thrills commented that the song replicates " the swaggering grandeur " of the group 's older material .
James Mortlock of the Eastern Daily Press described " In the Middle " as a pop classic from the Sugababes , while Hot Press magazine 's Phil Udell considered it one of the finest pop songs of the 2000s . " In the Middle " earned the Sugababes a 2005 BRIT Award nomination for Best British Single . However , the song was added to the category after the BRIT Awards organisers had made an error with the original list , as it was drawn up with the incorrect timescale .
= = = Chart performance = = =
" In the Middle " made its first chart appearance on the Irish Singles Chart on 25 March 2004 in which it peaked at number thirteen . It spent seven weeks on the chart , and was their second consecutive single to peak at this position . The song debuted and peaked at number eight on the UK Singles Chart for the issue dated 3 April 2004 and became the group 's third consecutive top @-@ ten hit in the UK . It spent eight weeks on the chart . The single 's highest chart peak was on the Netherlands ' Dutch Top 40 chart , where it debuted at number thirty @-@ one and reached number seven three weeks later . It became the chart 's 70th best @-@ performing single of 2004 . " In the Middle " peaked at number twenty @-@ three on the Swiss Singles Chart , number twenty @-@ nine on the German Singles Chart , number thirty @-@ three on the Austrian Singles Chart , and number forty on the Belgian ( Flanders ) Ultratop chart . The single reached number nine on the Hungarian Dance Chart and number thirty @-@ three on the Hungarian Radio Chart . " In the Middle " charted at number thirty @-@ three on Australian Singles Chart , becoming the Sugababes ' third consecutive top @-@ forty hit in Australia .
= = Promotion = =
= = = Music video = = =
The music video for " In the Middle " was directed by Matthew Rolston , who directed the video for the group 's previous single " Hole in the Head " . It was filmed at Pinewood Studios , London in February 2004 . The photography was completed by Martin Ahlgren . Buchanan refrained from revealing details about the video before its release , saying : " The shoot went very well but what actually happens in the video is being kept a secret until it 's shown . We ’ re all really excited and can 't wait to hear what our fans think about it ! " It aired on the Sugababes ' official website , and on television , on 20 February 2004 and was included on the single 's CD release .
Rolston used the green screen effect to produce the video , while the designs and effects for its environments were created by Jerry Steele . Rolston conceptualised a " prism @-@ like " glass room with six sides and large glass walls , in which Steele was inspired to enhance it with effects including reflections and lights . The video was developed in magical settings , as STEELE VFX created " glamorous virtual environments " such as a sparkling glass room . Buchanan wore a bikini , covered in chains and spikes , for the video . She is featured in a blue room and has rainbow @-@ coloured sparkles on her face . Buena , who is seen pole dancing in a green @-@ coloured room , is shown controlling " smoke elements " with her hands . Range is shown in a pink room , and dances around a chair and against a wall . Throughout the video , each group members ' name appears on screen , Mutya 's formed by smoke , Keisha 's formed by diamonds and Heidi 's formed by metallic cubes .
= = = Live performances = = =
The Sugababes performed an extended version of " In the Middle " during their UK tour in March and April 2004 to promote Three , in which they were supported by a four @-@ piece band . The group performed the single , along with " Hole in the Head " and " Too Lost in You " , at Birmingham 's Party in the Park festival on 10 July 2004 . " In the Middle " was included in the set list for the band 's 2007 tour in support of Overloaded : The Singles Collection . In addition , it was performed as part of the group 's 2008 Change Tour , in which the performances featured the group in large , mirrored skirts , while rays of light were reflecting around the venue . Kat Keogh of The Journal praised their performance at the Newcastle City Hall as one of the show 's highlights , while a critic from The Scotsman described their performance at the Edinburgh Playhouse as " ridiculously camp " , although admitted that the light effect was " simple yet fantastically effective " . The Sugababes performed " In the Middle " on 10 July 2009 at the Riverside Ground in County Durham , England , as part of a set list .
= = Track listings and formats = =
= = Credits and personnel = =
Songwriting – Miranda Cooper , Brian Higgins , Niara Scarlett , Shawn Lee , Lisa Cowling , Keisha Buchanan , Mutya Buena , Heidi Range , Andre Tegler , Phil Fuldner , Michael Bellina
Production – Brian Higgins , Xenomania , Jeremy Wheatley
Additional production – MOGUAI , Phil Fuldner , Michael Bellina
Mixed by Jeremy Wheatley at the Townhouse Studios , London
Programming – Matt Duguid , Nick Coler , Tim Powell , Tim Larcombe
Keyboards – Brian Higgins , Tim Powell , Tim Larcombe
Guitar – Nick Coler , Shawn Lee
Credits adapted from the liner notes of Overloaded : The Singles Collection .
= = Charts = =
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= Russian cruiser Rossia =
Rossia ( Russian : Россия ) was an armored cruiser of the Imperial Russian Navy built in the 1890s . She was designed as a long @-@ range commerce raider and served as such during the Russo @-@ Japanese War of 1904 – 05 . She was based in Vladivostok when the war broke out and made a number of sorties in search of Japanese shipping in the early months of the war without much success .
Rossia , along with the other armored cruisers of the Vladivostok Cruiser Squadron , attempted to rendezvous in the Strait of Tsushima with the main portion of the Pacific Fleet sailing from Port Arthur in August 1904 , but were delayed and had to return to port without them . They encountered a Japanese squadron of four armored cruisers between them and their base shortly after they turned around . The Japanese sank the oldest Russian ship , Rurik , and damaged Rossia and Gromoboi during the Battle off Ulsan , but both Russian ships were repaired within two months .
After the end of the war Rossia returned to Kronstadt where she underwent a three @-@ year refit that strengthened her armament . She was fitted with mine rails in 1914 and laid one minefield during World War I that damaged two German light cruisers . She was reconstructed beginning in late 1915 to further strengthen her armament , but played no part during the rest of the war as her crew became involved in revolutionary activities in 1917 . She was taken over by the Bolsheviks in late 1917 , but was put into reserve in 1918 and sold for scrap in 1922 .
= = Design = =
Rossia was originally intended to be a repeat of the armored cruiser Rurik , but the Director of the Naval Ministry wanted the armor to cover more of the ship 's side . However the design went through a number of changes during late 1892 and early 1893 and incorporated a number of technological advances that had recently become available . One notable change was the deletion of Rurik 's sailing rig .
= = = General characteristics = = =
Rossia was 485 feet ( 147 @.@ 8 m ) long overall . She had a maximum beam of 68 @.@ 6 feet ( 20 @.@ 9 m ) and a draught of 26 @.@ 2 feet ( 8 @.@ 0 m ) . She displaced 12 @,@ 195 long tons ( 12 @,@ 391 t ) , only 65 long tons ( 66 t ) more than designed . Rossia was sheathed in wood and copper to reduce fouling . She was considered to be a good sea boat with a smooth roll — attributable to her tumblehome sides .
= = = Propulsion = = =
In an effort to extend her range , Rossia was built with an unusual machinery arrangement . One large vertical triple expansion ( VTE ) steam engine drove each of the outer propeller shafts while a small cruising VTE engine drove the center shaft . At full speed the center propeller had to be uncoupled as there was not enough steam to drive all three engines simultaneously ; the outer propellers were uncoupled when cruising . The two main engines were designed for a total of 14 @,@ 500 indicated horsepower ( 10 @,@ 813 kW ) , but they developed 15 @,@ 523 ihp ( 11 @,@ 575 kW ) on trials and drove the ship to a maximum speed of 19 @.@ 74 knots ( 36 @.@ 56 km / h ; 22 @.@ 72 mph ) . The cruising engine developed 2 @,@ 500 ihp ( 1 @,@ 864 kW ) . Thirty @-@ two Belleville water @-@ tube boilers provided steam for the engines .
She could carry a maximum of 2 @,@ 200 long tons ( 2 @,@ 235 t ) of coal . This gave her a radius of action of 7 @,@ 740 nautical miles ( 14 @,@ 330 km ; 8 @,@ 910 mi ) at 10 knots ( 19 km / h ; 12 mph ) . In 1898 , some of the first large warship trials of oil fuel were carried out .
= = = Armament = = =
Rossia 's main armament consisted of four 8 @-@ inch ( 203 mm ) 45 @-@ caliber Pattern 1892 guns , one at each end of the ship on each side , sponsoned out over the tumblehome of the ship 's sides . They were protected by gun shields . The guns could be depressed to − 5 ° and elevated to 18 ° . They fired 193 @.@ 5 @-@ pound ( 87 @.@ 8 kg ) projectiles at a muzzle velocity of 2 @,@ 950 feet per second ( 900 m / s ) which gave a range of 12 @,@ 000 yd ( 11 @,@ 000 m ) at 13 ° elevation .
Her secondary armament consisted of sixteen 6 @-@ inch ( 152 mm ) / 45 Pattern 1892 guns . One gun was mounted under the forecastle and another in the stern ; neither gun could fire to the side . The remaining guns were mounted in hull embrasures . In their pivot mounts the guns could depress to -6 ° and elevate to + 20 ° . They fired 91 @.@ 4 @-@ pound ( 41 @.@ 5 kg ) Pattern 1907 high explosive projectiles at a muzzle velocity of 2 @,@ 600 feet per second ( 790 m / s ) . This gave a range of 12 @,@ 600 yd ( 11 @,@ 500 m ) at maximum elevation . Rossia carried 210 rounds per gun .
Defense against torpedo boats was provided by a variety of light @-@ caliber weapons . Twelve 75 @-@ millimeter ( 3 @.@ 0 in ) Canet Pattern 1892 50 @-@ caliber guns were mounted in sponsons on the upper deck , protected by gun shields . The gun fired 10 @.@ 8 @-@ pound ( 4 @.@ 9 kg ) shells to a range of about 8 @,@ 600 yards ( 7 @,@ 864 m ) at its maximum elevation of 21 ° with a muzzle velocity of 2 @,@ 700 ft / s ( 820 m / s ) . The rate of fire was between twelve and fifteen rounds per minute .
A total of twenty 47 @-@ millimeter ( 1 @.@ 9 in ) Hotchkiss guns were carried . They fired a 3 @.@ 3 @-@ pound ( 1 @.@ 5 kg ) shell at a muzzle velocity of 1 @,@ 476 ft / s ( 450 m / s ) at a rate of 20 rounds per minute to a range of 2 @,@ 020 yards ( 1 @,@ 850 m ) . Eighteen 37 @-@ millimeter ( 1 @.@ 5 in ) Hotchkiss guns were also carried . They fired a 1 @.@ 1 @-@ pound ( 0 @.@ 50 kg ) shell at a muzzle velocity of 1 @,@ 450 ft / s ( 440 m / s ) at a rate of 20 rounds per minute to a range of 3 @,@ 038 yards ( 2 @,@ 778 m ) .
Five above @-@ water 15 @-@ inch ( 381 mm ) torpedo tubes were mounted . The exact type of torpedo carried likely changed over Rossia 's lifetime : the original fifteen @-@ inch Whitehead torpedo only had a maximum range of 440 yards ( 402 @.@ 3 m ) at a speed of 29 knots ( 54 km / h ; 33 mph ) and a 57 @-@ pound ( 25 @.@ 9 kg ) warhead . These were later replaced by an improved model with two speed / range settings and a 141 @-@ pound ( 64 @.@ 0 kg ) warhead . Its maximum range was 980 yards ( 896 @.@ 1 m ) at a speed of 25 knots ( 46 km / h ; 29 mph ) .
= = = Armor = = =
Rossia used newly developed Harvey armor which saved considerable weight over the steel armor used by Rurik for the same amount of protection . Her waterline belt extended from the stern to 80 feet ( 24 @.@ 4 m ) short of the bow . It extended 4 feet 6 inches ( 1 @.@ 4 m ) above the waterline and 4 feet ( 1 @.@ 2 m ) below the waterline . It was 8 inches ( 203 mm ) thick amidships , but reduced to six inches fore and abaft the machinery spaces and to 5 inches ( 127 mm ) at the stern . The belt tapered to a thickness of 4 inches ( 102 mm ) at its lower edge . It was closed off at the forward end by a 7 @-@ inch ( 178 mm ) transverse bulkhead . A protective 2 @.@ 5 – 3 @-@ inch ( 64 – 76 mm ) deck ran forward from the bulkhead to the bow . The main armored deck was 2 inches ( 51 mm ) thick , but a five @-@ inch glacis projected above it to protect the tops of the engine cylinders . The conning tower had walls 12 inches ( 305 mm ) thick . The funnel uptakes were protected by 3 inches ( 76 mm ) of armor between the lower and middle decks .
= = Operational history = =
Rossia was built by the Baltic Works in Saint Petersburg . Construction began in October 1893 although she was not formally laid down until 20 May 1895 and launched on 30 April 1896 . After her launch , she was towed to Kronstadt for fitting @-@ out , but she was pushed onto a sandbar by a storm and required a month to free her . Rossia entered service in late 1896 and participated in Queen Victoria 's Diamond Jubilee Fleet Review in June 1897 at Spithead . She returned to Kronstadt to finish her trials before sailing for the Far East in October . She reached Nagasaki , Japan on 10 March 1898 and remained in the Pacific until the beginning of the Russo @-@ Japanese War in 1904 .
= = = Russo @-@ Japanese War = = =
At the start of the Russo @-@ Japanese War , Rossia was under the command of Captain Andrei Parfenovich Andreev , and was the flagship of the Vladivostok Cruiser Squadron under the overall command of Rear Admiral Karl Jessen . The other ships in the squadron were the armored cruisers Gromoboi and Rurik as well as the protected cruiser Bogatyr . The squadron made a number of sorties against Japanese shipping early in the war , but only one was reasonably successful when the transport Hitachi Maru , carrying eighteen 28 @-@ centimeter ( 11 in ) siege howitzers and over 1000 troops intended for the siege of Port Arthur , was sunk in June 1904 . On an earlier sortie in May 1904 Rossia flew an observation balloon off her quarterdeck to ( unsuccessfully ) locate Japanese shipping ; the first use of an aerial device by a warship on the high seas during a time of war .
= = = = Battle off Ulsan = = = =
During the war the bulk of the Russian Pacific Fleet was located in Port Arthur where they were blockaded by the Japanese . On 10 August 1904 the ships at Port Arthur attempted breakout to Vladivostok , but were turned back in the Battle of the Yellow Sea . Admiral Jessen was ordered to rendezvous with them , but the order was delayed and his ships had to raise steam , so he did not sortie until the evening of 13 August . Bogatyr had been damaged earlier when she grounded and did not sail with the squadron . By dawn he had reached the island of Tsushima in the Tsushima Strait between Korea and Japan . He turned back for Vladivostok when he failed to see any ships from the Port Arthur squadron . 36 miles ( 58 km ) north of the island he encountered the Japanese squadron commanded by Vice Admiral Kamimura Hikonojō tasked to patrol the Tsushima Strait . The Japanese force had four modern armored cruisers , Iwate , Izumo , Tokiwa , and Azuma . The two squadrons had passed during the night without spotting the other and each had reversed course around first light . This put the Japanese ships astride the Russian route to Vladivostok .
Admiral Jessen turned to the northeast when he spotted the Japanese at 5 : 00 a.m. and they followed suit , albeit on a slightly converging course . Both sides opened fire around 05 : 23 at a range of 8 @,@ 500 meters ( 9 @,@ 300 yd ) . The Japanese ships concentrated their fire on Rurik , the rear ship of the Russian formation . She was hit fairly quickly and began to fall astern of the other two ships . Admiral Jessen turned southeast in an attempt to open the range , but this blinded the Russian gunners and prevented any of their broadside guns from bearing on the Japanese . About 06 : 00 Admiral Jessen turned 180 ° to starboard in an attempt to reach the Korean coast and to allow Rurik to rejoin the squadron . Admiral Kamimura followed suit around 06 : 10 , but turned to port , which opened the range between the squadrons . Azuma developed engine problems around this time so the Japanese squadron slowed to conform with her best speed . Firing recommenced at 06 : 24 and Rurik was hit three times in the stern , flooding her steering compartment so that she had to be steered with her engines . Her speed continued to decrease , further exposing her to Japanese fire , and her steering jammed to port around 06 : 40 .
Admiral Jessen made another 180 ° turn in an attempt to interpose his two ships between the Japanese and Rurik , but the latter ship suddenly turn to starboard and increased speed and passed between Jessen 's ships and the Japanese . Admiral Kamimura turned 180 ° as well so that both squadrons were heading southeast on parallel courses , but Admiral Jessen quickly made another 180 ° turn so that they headed on opposing courses . Iwate was hit around this time which knocked out three six @-@ inch and one twelve @-@ pounder guns , killing 32 and wounding 43 . The Japanese squadron opened the range again when it made a 180 ° another turn to port . The Russians reversed course for the third time around 07 : 45 in another attempt to support Rurik although Rossia was on fire herself . Her fires were extinguished about twenty minutes later . Admiral Kamimura circled Rurik to the south at 08 : 00 and allowed the other two Russian ships to get to his north and gave them an uncontested route to Vladivostok . Despite this , Admiral Jessen turned back once more at 08 : 15 and ordered Rurik to make her own way back to Vladivostok before turning north at his maximum speed , about 18 knots ( 33 km / h ; 21 mph ) .
About this time Admiral Kamimura 's two elderly protected cruisers , Naniwa and Takachiho were approaching from the south . Their arrival allowed Kamimura to pursue Jessen with all of his armored cruisers . They fought a running battle with the Russians for the next hour and a half ; scoring enough hits on them to force their speed down to 15 knots ( 28 km / h ; 17 mph ) . Azuma 's engines again broke down during this chase and she was replaced in the line by Tokiwa . The Japanese closed to a minimum of about 5 @,@ 000 meters ( 5 @,@ 500 yd ) , but Admiral Kamimura then opened the range up to 6 @,@ 500 meters ( 7 @,@ 100 yd ) .
About 10 : 00 Kamimura 's gunnery officer erroneously informed him that Izumo had expended three @-@ quarters of her ammunition and he turned back after a five @-@ minute rapid @-@ fire barrage . He did not wish to leave the Tsushima Strait unguarded and thought that he could expend his remaining ammunition on Rurik . By this time she had been sunk by Naniwa and Takachiho which had closed to 3 @,@ 000 meters ( 3 @,@ 300 yd ) of Rurik in order to finish her off . They had radioed Admiral Kamimura that she was sunk , but he did not receive the message . Shortly after the Japanese turned back Gromoboi and Rossia were forced to heave @-@ to to make repairs .
Rossia suffered only 44 dead and 156 wounded ; far less than Gromoboi 's 87 dead and 170 wounded . This was attributable to Rossia 's captain 's policy of ordering the gun crews for his quick @-@ firing guns on the engaged side to lay down and those on the unengaged side to go below , in contrast to the other ship keeping her light guns manned at all times . Rossia had been hit nineteen times on the starboard side of her hull and nine on her port side , plus other hits in her funnels , boats and decks . She had half of her guns knocked out and a fire caused by the ignition of excess propellant charges . Despite this number of hits , she was not badly damaged because her waterline belt was not penetrated by any hit . She was repaired within two months by the rudimentary facilities available at Vladivostok . Rossia made no further effort to interfere with Japanese shipping during the war .
= = = Interwar period = = =
Rossia returned to Kronstadt , arriving on 8 April 1906 , where she was given a lengthy refit that was finished in 1909 . Her engines and boilers were reconditioned , her mainmast was removed and she received additional six @-@ inch guns . Six more guns in lightly armored casemates were added on the upper deck , positioned on each side in the intervals between the main @-@ deck six @-@ inch guns . In addition the bow gun was moved to the upper deck to allow it to fire to each side . This increased the ship 's broadside by four guns .
Rossia represented Russia at King George V 's Coronation Fleet Review in June 1911 . She departed Kronstadt in September 1912 for a training cruise to the Canaries and the Virgin Islands , returning to the Baltic in time to visit Copenhagen in March 1913 in company with the protected cruisers Aurora and Oleg . She left for another training cruise to the Azores in September 1913 and was cruising in the Mediterranean in April 1914 .
= = = World War I = = =
Rossia served as the flagship of the 2nd Cruiser Brigade of the Baltic Fleet during World War I. She was modified to serve as a fast minelayer with a capacity of one hundred naval mines before the war . In January 1915 she laid a minefield in company with Oleg and Bogatyr between Kiel and the Mecklenburg coast that damaged the German light cruisers SMS Augsburg and SMS Gazelle . She was reconstructed beginning in October 1915 at Kronstadt to increase her armament . Her forecastle deck was removed as well as the fore and aft six @-@ inch guns . They were replaced by two eight @-@ inch guns mounted on the centerline forward and another pair was mounted on the quarterdeck . These additions increased her broadside to six eight @-@ inch , but only seven six @-@ inch guns .
Rossia 's crew took an active part in the revolutionary movements in 1917 and came under control of the Soviet Red Fleet in September 1917 . The Treaty of Brest @-@ Litovsk required the Soviets to evacuate their base at Helsinki in March 1918 or have them interned by newly independent Finland even though the Gulf of Finland was still frozen over . Rossia sailed to Kronstadt in what became known as the ' Ice Voyage ' and was placed into reserve shortly after her arrival . She was sold to a German company for scrapping on 1 July 1922 . While being towed to Germany , she grounded on the coast of Estonia , but was subsequently towed to Kiel and broken up .
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= KaDee Strickland =
Katherine Dee " KaDee " Strickland ( born December 14 , 1975 ) is an American actress known for her role as Charlotte King on the ABC drama Private Practice .
Well known in her hometown of Patterson , Georgia , when she was a child , she began acting during high school . Strickland studied the profession in Philadelphia and New York City , where she obtained mostly small roles in film , television and theater projects , among them The Sixth Sense ( 1999 ) . Her participation in the 2003 Hollywood films Anything Else and Something 's Gotta Give led to her receiving significant parts in the horror pictures Anacondas and The Grudge ( both 2004 ) . In the period they were released , Strickland was referred to as " the pride of Patterson " and the horror fandom 's " newest scream queen " , though her performances in both films received mixed critical reviews .
In 2005 , Strickland garnered positive critical comment for the romantic comedy Fever Pitch , and in 2007 , she was a cast regular in the television show The Wedding Bells and subsequently was added to the cast of Private Practice . Strickland has spoken against the emphasis placed on beauty in the Los Angeles acting community , in which she says her Southern U.S. background has helped to distinguish herself from other blonde @-@ haired actors . She has spoken of an affinity for her strong female characters and a desire to avoid sexualizing or sensationalizing her self @-@ presentation as a woman . She also has worked closely with the Rape , Abuse , and Incest National Network ( RAINN ) after participating in a storyline in which her Private Practice character Charlotte King was raped .
= = Early life and education = =
Strickland was born in Blackshear , Georgia to Susan Strickland , a nurse , and Dee Strickland , a high school football coach , principal and superintendent . KaDee 's birthname is Katherine Dee ; her parents combined the K in Katherine with her father 's name to make KaDee . She was raised in Patterson , Georgia , which she said is a " one @-@ stoplight town " , and she had a job picking tobacco on a local farm for eight years . When she was a child , Strickland watched the Woody Allen film Annie Hall ( 1975 ) and was , as she put it , " wanting to be in that place , and being completely taken with the energy of those people . I wanted to be in it " . During her childhood , she was well known locally as a member of the Strickland family and for her extracurricular activities and achievements ( she was the Homecoming Queen in elementary , middle and high school , the student council president and a cheerleader ) . She never considered a career in the performing arts until her participation in a one @-@ act play performed by students of her high school : " [ ... ] the minute I set foot on stage , that was it . Destiny took over . There were no other options . I felt like I fit my skin , I knew what I was here to do " , Strickland said .
After graduating from high school , Strickland wanted to study drama at college in New York City , but her parents did not want her to live in such a large city so soon . Consequently , she applied instead to the University of the Arts in Philadelphia . During her studies there , she joined the Screen Actors Guild and considered using her given name , Katherine , as the first part of her stage name , before deciding she was " much too tomboy " for it . Strickland took a part @-@ time waitressing job at a local restaurant and interned at a casting agency , where one of her tasks was to read lines at auditions for small roles in local film and television projects ; the job landed Strickland her first film role . After graduating from university with a Fine Arts degree , she was schooled in New York City , and in late 2003 , she moved to Los Angeles , California . In 2006 , Strickland received the University of the Arts 's Silver Star Alumni Award .
= = Career = =
= = = Early work = = =
Strickland 's career began in 1999 with a brief appearance as a mourner at a funeral after @-@ party in The Sixth Sense , a two @-@ line part that she received after impressing writer @-@ director M. Night Shyamalan when reading lines for those auditioning for the film . According to Strickland , her role in the film helped her learn to temper her fake crying . The same year , she served as an extra in the independent film The Sterling Chase , and appeared in a small role opposite Winona Ryder and Angelina Jolie in James Mangold 's drama Girl , Interrupted .
When staying in Philadelphia , Strickland had opportunities to take part in other films in production in and around the city . Those included Rel Dowdell 's Train Ride , a date rape thriller filmed in 1998 , but not commercially released until 2005 because of financing problems . She was also cast in the crime drama Diamond Men with Robert Forster and Donnie Wahlberg ; it opened to sparkling reviews , with Richard Roeper of the Chicago Sun @-@ Times declaring it " a fantastic film , with a good cast " . After she moved to New York City , Strickland appeared in Adam Bhala Lough 's filmmaking debut , Bomb the System , which received unenthusiastic notices from critics and was not shown outside film festivals until 2005 .
Concurrent to her film work , Strickland acquired stage experience in productions such as A Requiem for Things Past in mid @-@ 1999 , and John Patrick Shanley 's Women of Manhattan . She acted in a December 2002 episode of the television show Law & Order : Criminal Intent and made nine guest appearances on All My Children , which enabled her to leave her waitressing job . In 2003 , Strickland was cast opposite Eddie Cibrian in the pilot episode for an uncommissioned small screen serial adaptation of John Grisham 's novel The Street Lawyer .
Strickland appeared in two romantic comedy films in 2003 . Anything Else , written and directed by Woody Allen , featured her as the girlfriend of Jason Biggs 's character ( whom he snubs for Christina Ricci 's Amanda Chase ) ; she said it was a " dream come true " to work with Allen , of whom she is an " obsessive diehard " fan . The film was greeted with lukewarm reviews and dismal ticket sales , though Strickland later referred to it as her " big break " . The second , Something 's Gotta Give ( starring Jack Nicholson and Diane Keaton ) , was a major critical and commercial success , though Strickland 's part in the film was brief . She played the girlfriend of Keaton 's character 's ex @-@ husband ( played by Paul Michael Glaser ) , a relationship involving age disparity that raised the eyebrows of Keaton and her daughter ( Amanda Peet ) . The following year , she made brief appearances in the direct @-@ to @-@ cable independent film Knots and the poorly received satirical comedy The Stepford Wives with Nicole Kidman , playing a partygoer and a game show contestant , respectively .
= = = Major film roles = = =
Strickland 's first lead role came when producer Doug Belgrad saw the dailies of her scene in Something 's Gotta Give . He cast her opposite Johnny Messner and Morris Chestnut in the jungle @-@ set horror film Anacondas : The Hunt for the Blood Orchid , the sequel to Anaconda ( 1997 ) . Strickland played an accomplished research scientist who travels to Borneo as part of an expedition team searching for a species of plant rumored to have life @-@ extending properties . She said she initially did not want to follow a Woody Allen film with a " snake movie " , but that she changed her mind because the hero was a female Southerner who was not " a complete idiot " or " a chick in shorts about to get whacked " . Though its box office revenue tripled its production budget , Anacondas did not perform as well as its predecessor , and most reviews panned the project . The cast received positive comment from Variety magazine and the Chicago Sun @-@ Times 's Roger Ebert , but a critic for the San Diego Union @-@ Tribune said the film was " so stupidly plotted and badly acted , it becomes unintentionally funny " , and described Strickland and her co @-@ stars ' work as " garden @-@ variety bad " . Other reviews focussed on the attractiveness of Strickland and her castmates ; Slant Magazine said " [ the film is ] populated with anonymous , attractive plastic people from the Los Angeles talent pool . " During the same period , The Florida Times @-@ Union referred to her as " the pride of Patterson " .
Strickland 's next project , The Grudge , was another horror film . In Japanese director Takashi Shimizu 's U.S. remake of his film Ju @-@ on : The Grudge ( 2003 ) , Strickland played ( in a role originated by Misaki Ito ) a Tokyo @-@ based American businesswoman whose relatives emigrate from the U.S. Strickland received the role through a casting session with producer Sam Raimi , who picked her based on her work in footage for the then @-@ unreleased Anacondas , and her willingness to work away from home for extended periods . She said that Japan and Japanese cinema had always fascinated her , and that she wanted to be " a part of that world " in which filmmakers communicate the story via action rather than dialogue ; she also highlighted the importance of being " able to explore being in the wrong place at the wrong time without being a sex object / damsel in distress . " The Grudge was a number @-@ one U.S. box office hit and quickly became one of the year 's most profitable films , but reviews were lukewarm . The Charlotte Observer wrote " the cast is drab and lifeless " , and earned " nothing but demerits " . Strickland 's presence in The Grudge and Anacondas led horror fans to name her " [ their ] newest scream queen " , but she said that when deciding what film to do next , she did not focus as much on genre as she did on good characters , scripts , and directors , which she said " don 't come around that often . " For the scene in which her character hides under her bed covers , Strickland received a 2005 Teen Choice Award nomination for Choice Movie Scary Scene .
In late 2004 , Strickland embarked on what she called " the craziest job I 've ever had " : a role in the Farrelly brothers film Fever Pitch , a baseball @-@ themed romantic comedy starring Drew Barrymore and Jimmy Fallon ( Strickland 's Anything Else co @-@ star ) and based on the Nick Hornby book . Strickland said it was " a blast " to play " such a maniac " , particularly after playing emotionally traumatised characters in Anacondas and The Grudge . On the film 's 2005 release , she received praise from PopMatters magazine , which described her as " irrepressible " in her role , and from MSNBC , which said she and JoBeth Williams " sometimes rescue [ the picture ] from its plodding moments " . The film raised Strickland 's profile further , though its critical response was mixed and it performed moderately at the box office . Strickland appeared as a lawyer and love interest in the film American Gangster , which stars Russell Crowe and Denzel Washington in 2007 .
= = = Work in television = = =
In early 2005 , Strickland was cast in the pilot episode for the fact @-@ based ABC television series Laws of Chance . It was based on the career of Kelly Siegler , a highly successful Houston , Texas @-@ based assistant district attorney . Strickland , whose co @-@ stars in the pilot included Frances Fisher and Bruce McGill , said she was " really excited to have the opportunity to portray this phenomenal lady " , but the series was dropped from development a few months later . Strickland was also cast in the independently financed 1950s @-@ set film Walker Payne as laid @-@ off stripminer Jason Patric 's love interest ; in a review of the film at the 2006 Tribeca Film Festival , Variety wrote that Strickland was " elegant " . In late 2005 , she joined the cast of The Flock , a crime drama featuring Richard Gere , Claire Danes and singer Avril Lavigne about a federal agent assigned to track down a missing girl and a paroled sex offender ( played by Strickland ) . Strickland said it was important to participate in such a story because she felt members of society need to consider and be responsible for their views on the sex offender counterculture , which she says " [ is ] actually not counter at all , it 's very real , very next door to you . "
Strickland 's first aired television project as a cast regular was the David E. Kelley @-@ produced series The Wedding Bells . According to her , she wanted to be in the series because " the subject of love and commitment is something to me that I want to walk into every day . It 's a lot better than dead bodies . " The show began airing on the Fox Network in March 2007 , and it was canceled the following month . The Baltimore Sun called it " awful in ways that make the word ' awful ' seem inadequate [ ... ] [ the cast is ] not a bad one at all , but just terrifically ill @-@ served by the material . " She joined the cast of the Grey 's Anatomy spin @-@ off Private Practice , which began airing in September 2007 ; and potrayedCharlotte King , chief of staff at the show 's local hospital and a doctor specializing in urologic surgery , and later sexology .
= = = Music video = = =
In 1996 , Strickland appeared briefly in the music video for Oasis 's " Don 't Look Back In Anger " . In 2009 , Strickland appeared in the music video for Rascal Flatts 's " Here Comes Goodbye " .
= = Artistry and image = =
Strickland has cited Jessica Lange , Holly Hunter , Diane Keaton ( in Annie Hall ) , Ione Skye ( her Fever Pitch co @-@ star ) and Jane Fonda as her inspirations and / or influences ; for The Grudge , she mimicked Fonda 's performance in Klute ( 1971 ) and her " brilliant way in that film of creating tension and fear for the audience just by walking down a hallway and looking over her shoulder . " She noted the input of her acting coach , Maggie Flanagan , who instructed Strickland to watch films with the sound turned off to gauge the quality and comprehensibility of a performance , and who Strickland credits as her " Jedi Knight " .
Strickland cites her work ethic and her " active imagination " as sources of inspiration when she is required to convey certain emotions , particularly negative ones . She said she does not practise method acting , but that actors can bring to a role elements that are , in her words , " an extension of [ their ] life experience " . According to her , she hopes to have her experience of growing up in an emotionally warm environment incorporated into her work . Strickland has spoken of her difficulty conveying different " versions " of emotions such as fear to different members of a worldwide film @-@ watching audience , saying " what really kept me going was trying to communicate something universal . " She said she is extremely flattered when people , particularly her fans , genuinely relate to her when her " version of storytelling " and work as an actress communicates to them . She said she believed she was " here " to act , and that she could not live without it : " It 's my joy , it 's what I love , and there 's no feeling like being able to do what you love in life , and really fully doing it " , she said . Strickland called her life as an actress " a crazy existence " and " completely unstable " because of the frequency with which she has to look for new jobs , but she said she is " gonna be whole hog with it " and continue to act until her death .
Strickland is a self @-@ described " big fashionista " and " very concerned with looks " , and she has noted the need for " an element of vanity " in acting , particularly in Los Angeles , where she says she is " continually surrounded by super @-@ human people [ ... ] I 've never seen so much beauty . " According to her , she has never had to rely on her appearance or felt pressurised to be beautiful — " The truth is I 'm not that girl " , she said . With regard to sources such as magazines , Strickland said she is " very careful " about the way she wants to be presented as a woman , saying she strives to avoid " sensationalizing or sexualizing " herself . As she put it , she is not accustomed to being considered a " pretty girl " or " attractive by a standard that I 've never felt that I was part of " . Strickland has a very audible Southern American accent , which she says is an advantage for her because it is " the one thing " that film and casting directors like the sound of and " really gravitate toward " , particularly in Los Angeles , which she called " a town full of blondes " . According to her , she learned to speak without the accent at university , and because she does not want people to think she has no other skills , she uses it only when it is required or requested . Strickland is experienced in stage combat and said she " like [ s ] to do physical stuff " ; in an interview to discuss Anacondas , she said " if there was a Braveheart for women , I 'd be all over it . "
= = Personal life = =
Strickland met Jason Behr , her co @-@ star in The Grudge , on the set of the film in 2004 . According to her , they had a shared affinity for Japan and Japanese culture and became best friends almost instantly because of their mutual willingness to explore it . The two began a relationship soon after filming ended . When asked about her love life in February 2005 , Strickland said it was " quiet " . On November 10 , 2006 , she married Behr in Ojai , California , in a ceremony that included elements of Japanese culture . Strickland said her experience planning the wedding aided her preparation for her role in The Wedding Bells . Her work on the wedding provided the inspiration for the wedding garden of Casa de Estrellas ( House of Stars ) , a Santa Fe , New Mexico , luxury inn and spa . Behr proposed to her on her birthday . On October 17 , 2013 , the couple welcomed their first child , a son named Atticus Elijah Behr .
Strickland is an advocate of the arts . In 2004 , before the release of Anacondas , she hosted the art debut of fellow actress Heidi Jayne Netzley at the Edgemar Center for the Arts in Santa Monica , California . Strickland was among the actors who picketed alongside writers during the 2007 – 2008 Writers Guild of America strike .
Strickland also works closely with the nation 's largest anti @-@ sexual assault organization , RAINN . When Private Practice creator Shonda Rhimes wrote a storyline in which Strickland 's character was brutally assaulted and raped , Strickland turned to RAINN in order to make sure that her portrayal of Charlotte 's recovery was as true to life as possible . Through her work with RAINN for this storyline , Strickland felt a personal connection with the group and decided to become an advocate for the organization . Since then she has spoken out for the passage of the SAFER act to eliminate the backlog of untested DNA evidence and has become a vocal advocate for using DNA evidence to solve rape cases . She also worked with Gorjana to create an exclusive piece of jewelry for RAINN , in which 80 % of the sale price goes directly to the organization .
= = Filmography and performances = =
= = = Film = = =
= = = Television = = =
= = = Theatre = = =
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= 2015 Australian Grand Prix =
The 2015 Australian Grand Prix , formally titled the 2015 Formula 1 Rolex Australian Grand Prix , was a Formula One motor race that was held on 15 March 2015 in Melbourne . The race was contested over fifty @-@ eight laps of the Melbourne Grand Prix Circuit and was the first round of the 2015 FIA Formula One World Championship . The race marked the 80th race in the combined history of the Australian Grand Prix — which dates back to the 100 Miles Road Race of 1928 — and the twentieth time the event was held at the Melbourne Grand Prix Circuit .
Mercedes driver Nico Rosberg was the defending race winner . His team @-@ mate , Lewis Hamilton started the race from pole , his fourth at the circuit and a record for the venue . Hamilton led home Rosberg in a Mercedes 1 – 2 finish , with Ferrari 's Sebastian Vettel completing the podium in his first start with the team .
= = Report = =
= = = Background = = =
= = = = Pre @-@ season testing = = = =
After a dominant performance by Mercedes in the 2014 season , pre @-@ season testing for the 2015 season proved they would still be fastest of the field . The new Williams FW37 looked to be quick and reliable , while Ferrari in particular seemed to have made a big step forward . Former four @-@ time world champions Red Bull ran a car in black @-@ and @-@ white camouflage , that did nothing to disguise the fact that the Austrian team still struggled with problems concerning their Renault engines , doing the second least laps during the first test days in Jerez . While Lotus , Toro Rosso and Sauber were considered to be contesting for points with considerable advances made over the winter , the new partnership between McLaren and Honda got off to a bad start . The team managed only 380 laps , almost half of the next worst team , Force India . Furthermore , Fernando Alonso , who had signed back to the team after his controversial 2007 season , crashed during the second testing session in Barcelona and missed the first race of the season . Force India struggled to get their new car , the VJM08 , on track . After missing the first test in Jerez , they started testing with their 2014 car in Barcelona before introducing their new model late .
= = = = Driver changes = = = =
The 2015 Australian Grand Prix saw the debut of several young drivers new to Formula One and a late replacement for McLaren 's Fernando Alonso . Two weeks prior to the Grand Prix , McLaren , announced that Alonso would miss the inaugural 2015 race due to a concussion suffered in a crash during pre @-@ season testing at the Circuit de Barcelona @-@ Catalunya . Doctors advised Alonso not to race , avoiding further medical complications and his place was therefore taken by McLaren reserve driver , Kevin Magnussen who finished second on his debut at the same event in 2014 .
The new drivers to Formula One included the Toro Rosso duo of Carlos Sainz , Jr. and Max Verstappen , Manor Marussia 's Will Stevens – on a full @-@ time basis , after one start in 2014 – and Roberto Merhi , and the oldest of this group , 24 @-@ year @-@ old Felipe Nasr racing for Sauber . Most notably , Verstappen became the youngest driver in the history of Formula One , debuting at the age of 17 years , 166 days .
= = = = Manor Marussia team = = = =
Following a tumultuous pre @-@ season in which they went through a period of administration and were saved by late investment , Manor Marussia arrived in Melbourne with a car that had passed its mandatory crash tests , but had completed no testing . Formula Renault 3 @.@ 5 Series drivers Will Stevens and Roberto Merhi were announced as their drivers , with Merhi signed on a one @-@ race deal . However , the team did not participate in any practice sessions and subsequently failed to set a qualifying time , leaving the field at eighteen cars for the race .
= = = = Legal action against Sauber = = = =
A week before the start of the Grand Prix weekend , Dutch driver Giedo van der Garde launched legal action against Sauber before the Supreme Court of Victoria , to enforce a contract he entered into in June 2014 to drive for the team during the 2015 season . This action was based on an award that van der Garde obtained on 2 March 2015 through international arbitration in Switzerland , which he initiated after the team announced in November 2014 that their 2015 drivers would instead be Marcus Ericsson and Felipe Nasr . On Wednesday , 11 March 2015 , van der Garde succeeded by obtaining court orders compelling Sauber to permit him to drive in Melbourne . On the same day , Sauber appealed the orders made against them and also publicly announced that they would not compromise the safety of the team or other drivers by putting van der Garde in the car , since the C34 chassis had only been tailored to fit Ericsson and Nasr .
The appeal was heard and dismissed the following day , Thursday , 12 March 2015 . As part of its legal argument , aside from raising safety concerns , Sauber also submitted that van der Garde 's contract had been terminated by the team in February with the approval of the FIA 's Contract Recognition Board in any event , and that van der Garde violated confidentiality clauses of the contract by discussing it with the media . Lawyers representing Ericsson and Nasr further argued that van der Garde had not followed due process by failing to give their clients prior notice of his legal action . The court upheld the previous orders to permit van der Garde to participate in the race and adjourned the hearing to the following day , Friday , 13 March 2015 , to hear arguments on contempt of court proceedings launched by van der Garde 's legal team against Sauber 's team principal , Monisha Kaltenborn .
Some two hours after the court made its initial judgment in favour of van der Garde , the FIA published an entry list for the Australian Grand Prix that included both Nasr and Ericsson for Sauber following pre @-@ event scrutineering . Despite this , neither driver took to the circuit during the first practice session on the Friday due to Sauber running the risk of having team assets seized for not complying with court orders . Nevertheless , based on media speculation about Bernie Ecclestone 's intervention to avoid further negative publicity on the sport , Ericsson and Nasr did participate in that afternoon 's second practice session . On Saturday , 14 March 2015 , the dispute reached a temporary resolution thanks to van der Garde announcing that he would forego racing in Melbourne , with a view to finding a more permanent solution in the future . The Sauber team and its new drivers for 2015 were thus able to complete Saturday 's qualifying session and a point @-@ scoring race on the Sunday .
= = = = Tyres = = = =
Pirelli announced they would be supplying teams with the white @-@ banded medium compound tyre as the prime selection and the yellow @-@ banded soft compound as the option selection for the event .
= = = Free practice = = =
Per the regulations for the 2015 season , three practice sessions were held , two 1 @.@ 5 @-@ hour sessions on Friday and another one @-@ hour session before qualifying on Saturday . Mercedes confirmed their good form from pre @-@ season testing and topped the time sheets by a considerable margin in the first two practice sessions on Friday , with Nico Rosberg fastest in both outings . Valtteri Bottas in the Williams was third fastest on Friday morning , some 1 @.@ 2 seconds down on Rosberg 's time . Ferrari 's new signing Sebastian Vettel was third on Friday afternoon , seven tenths of a second down on Rosberg . Toro Rosso showed promising times , outperforming their sister team Red Bull in the first session . Only 16 cars participated on Friday morning . Sauber kept to the garage due to their legal troubles while Manor Marussia was unable to get their cars running all weekend . The Saubers did go out for the second session , while local favourite Daniel Ricciardo and Felipe Massa missed the session due to problems with their cars . McLaren 's problems continued as both cars were limited to very few laps . The first session also saw another evaluation run of the new Virtual Safety Car system .
Lewis Hamilton got the better of his team mate during the third practice session on Saturday morning , as Rosberg only managed third behind Vettel , almost a second down on Hamilton . Both Williams and Ferrari had another good session , while Lotus got both their drivers in the top ten , raising hopes for a points finish on Sunday . Red Bull continued to struggle , with Ricciardo and Daniil Kvyat down in 15th and 18th and Ricciardo 's car stopping at the end of pit lane due to engine problems . Between them were the once more struggling McLarens .
= = = Qualifying = = =
Qualifying consisted of three parts , 18 , 15 and 12 minutes in length respectively , with five drivers eliminated from competing after each of the first two sessions . Since the cars of Manor Marussia failed to start , only three drivers were eliminated during the first session of qualifying ( Q1 ) , all of which was run in dry conditions . The McLarens of Jenson Button and Kevin Magnussen struggled as expected , following their lack of pre @-@ season testing and failed to make it into Q2 , just as Sauber driver Marcus Ericsson . Mercedes and Williams ' Valtteri Bottas were the only ones not having to use the softer tyres to proceed into the next part of qualifying .
The second session saw the Mercedes drivers doing only one timed run , which proved sufficient to proceed , while the Red Bulls and Toro Rossos were split up , with Daniil Kvyat and rookie Max Verstappen failing to make it through . Also eliminated were both Force Indias and the second Sauber of Felipe Nasr , though in a respectable eleventh place on the grid .
In Q3 , Nico Rosberg ran wide at turn 15 on his first flying lap and lost the chance to seek areas of improvement for his second run . Lewis Hamilton , who was fastest in all three sessions , capitalized on his teammate 's problem and took pole position by over half a second . It was his 39th pole position and his 4th at Albert Park . The rest of the field was more than a second behind Hamilton 's time , with Felipe Massa in the Williams best of the rest in third position . The two Ferraris of Sebastian Vettel and Kimi Räikkönen proved their regained competitiveness by taking fourth and fifth on the grid respectively .
= = = Race = = =
Since the Manor Marussia cars were unable to make their race debut , there were 18 qualified cars left . Before the race began , Valtteri Bottas was sidelined due to a back injury sustained in qualifying . Both Daniil Kvyat 's Red Bull and Kevin Magnussen 's McLaren failed to make it to the grid as their cars broke down on the out @-@ lap ; Kvyat suffering transmission problems and Magnussen with an engine failure . This left the grid with 15 starters – the lowest number for a season @-@ opening race since 1963 and the lowest overall since the infamous 2005 United States Grand Prix .
At the start , Hamilton assumed the lead while a three @-@ car wide tussle at turn one , involving Kimi Räikkönen , Felipe Nasr and Pastor Maldonado , resulted in Maldonado crashing out at turn two and race officials deploying the safety car . The next lap , Romain Grosjean 's car failed thus taking both Lotus cars out of the race . Normal racing resumed on lap four , with Carlos Sainz , Jr. falling back from fifth to his starting position in seventh place after being passed by Nasr and Daniel Ricciardo . Nasr also lost track position after being ordered by his team to relinquish a position for overtaking while still under safety car conditions .
Hamilton maintained in the lead until lap 25 , when he pitted for tyres . He resumed the lead from Rosberg after he too had to pit for new tyres . During this series of pitstops , Sebastian Vettel gained a position by passing Felipe Massa for third place . On lap 34 , Max Verstappen retired while in a points @-@ scoring position after his Toro Rosso was engulfed by smoke . On lap 42 , Räikkönen also retired at turn four after a botched pitstop caused his left rear tyre to come loose . This put Jenson Button briefly into the tenth and final points position but for Sergio Pérez quickly passing the McLaren @-@ Honda driver after a race long battle that begun at the start , for last position .
From there , the order remained relatively constant with Hamilton going on to take his 34th Grand Prix win . He was followed by Rosberg , Vettel , Massa and Nasr . Completing the point @-@ scorers were Ricciardo , Nico Hülkenberg , Ericsson , Sainz and Pérez . In all , only eleven cars finished the race with Button 's McLaren being the only car to finish outside the points and everyone from sixth position down lapped .
Ericsson , Nasr and Sainz all scored their first Formula One points , with Nasr and Sainz doing so on debut . In addition , Nasr achieved the highest placing for a Brazilian driver making their Grand Prix début .
= = = Post @-@ race = = =
There was satisfaction at Mercedes , with second @-@ placed Nico Rosberg calling it " an awesome start to the season for us as a team " . Rosberg praised Lewis Hamilton 's performance in particular , saying : " He drove like a world champion all weekend , so couldn 't quite beat him but for sure I was trying every single lap , all the way to the maximum , and I will do all year . "
The dominant performance by the Mercedes cars sparked controversy in the paddock . Daniel Ricciardo issued apologies to the Australian fans after what he felt was a " boring " race . Red Bull quarreled with their engine manufacturer Renault and lamented the dominance of their rivals , calling for the FIA to step in and apply rule changes to level the field , fearing that the public would lose interest in the sport if nothing happened . Mercedes chief Toto Wolff reacted furiously , telling his rivals to " get your fucking head down and work to sort it out " , but later made it clear that he " didn 't mean the f @-@ word in relation to him " regarding the comments by Christian Horner . Nico Rosberg voiced hopes that their rivals would get closer over the course of the season , saying during the post @-@ race press conference : " I hope we can have a good fight . That would be awesome . " This statement caused amusement from Sebastian Vettel , who replied : " Be honest . Do you really hope so ? Seriously ? You finished 30 seconds ahead of us and you hope it 's going to be closer ? So you hope you slow down ? Is that what you 're saying ? "
Sauber was delighted by their performance over the weekend , having picked up 14 points in the very first race , compared to none in the entire previous season .
Because Manor Marussia failed to notify the stewards of their inability to field a car , the team was summoned by the FIA to explain why they did not participate in qualifying . However , the hearing provided sufficient evidence to the FIA 's satisfaction that the team would have been unable to field their cars , even if they had violated curfew . Despite this , Ecclestone subsequently announced that Manor Marussia would have to cover their freight charges to and from Australia , costs normally covered by Formula One Management .
= = Classification = =
= = = Qualifying = = =
= = = Race = = =
Notes :
^ 1 – Both Kvyat 's and Magnussen 's cars failed on the way from the pitlane to the starting grid .
^ 2 – As Valtteri Bottas was unable to start the race due to a back injury suffered during qualifying and spending the night at the hospital without being cleared to race by the FIA , all cars behind him moved up one place to close the gap . However , as Kevin Magnussen and Daniil Kvyat had engine failures while driving to the grid , their vacant grid spaces were not filled .
= = = Championship standings after the race = = =
Note : Only the top five positions are included for both sets of standings .
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= Richard D 'Oyly Carte =
Richard D 'Oyly Carte ( 3 May 1844 – 3 April 1901 ) was an English talent agent , theatrical impresario , composer and hotelier during the latter half of the Victorian era . Rising from humble beginnings , Carte built two of London 's theatres and a hotel empire , while also establishing an opera company that ran continuously for over a hundred years and a management agency representing some of the most important artists of the day .
Carte started his career working for his father , Richard Carte , in the music publishing and musical instrument manufacturing business . As a young man , he conducted and composed music , but he soon turned to promoting the entertainment careers of others through his management agency . Carte believed that a school of wholesome , well @-@ crafted , family @-@ friendly , English comic opera could be as popular as the risqué French works dominating the London musical stage in the 1870s . To that end , he brought together the dramatist W. S. Gilbert and composer Arthur Sullivan and , together with his wife Helen Carte , he nurtured their collaboration on a series of thirteen Savoy operas . He founded the D 'Oyly Carte Opera Company and built the state @-@ of @-@ the @-@ art Savoy Theatre to host the Gilbert and Sullivan operas .
Carte also built the Savoy Hotel in London , and acquired other luxury hotels . In addition , he erected the Palace Theatre , London , which he had intended to be the home of a new school of English grand opera , although this ambition was not realised beyond the production of a single grand opera by Sullivan , Ivanhoe . Nevertheless , his partnership with Gilbert and Sullivan , and his careful management of their operas and relationship , created a series of works whose success was unprecedented in the history of musical theatre . His opera company , later operated by Helen and then by his son , Rupert , and granddaughter , Bridget , promoted those works for over a century , and they are still performed regularly today .
= = Early life = =
Carte was born in Greek Street in the West End of London on 3 May 1844 . He was the eldest of six children . His father , Richard Carte ( originally Cart ; 1808 – 1891 ) , was a flautist , and his mother was the former Eliza Jones ( 1814 – 1885 ) ; they had eloped , to the disappointment of her father , Thomas Jones , a clergyman . His siblings were Blanch ( 1846 – 1935 ) , Viola ( 1848 – 1925 ) , Rose ( b . 1854 ) , Henry ( 1856 – 1926 ) and Eliza ( 1860 – 1941 ) . Carte was of Welsh and Norman ancestry ; D 'Oyly is a Norman French name which " was a forename ( not part of a double surname ) " . To supplement his income as a performer , Carte 's father joined the firm of Rudall , Rose & Co . , musical instrument makers and music publishers , in 1850 . After he became a partner in the business , it changed its name to Rudall , Rose , Carte and Co. and later to Rudall , Carte & Co .
Carte was brought up in Dartmouth Park Road . His cultured mother exposed her family to art , music and poetry , and young Carte studied the violin and then the flute at an early age . The family spoke French at home two days a week , and his parents often took their children to the theatre . He was educated at University College School , which he left in 1860 . In 1861 , he achieved First Class level in the matriculation examination and then attended University College , London . However , he left later that year to work in his father 's business , along with his brother , Henry . He studied music during this time and composed some pieces , which he dedicated to the actress Kate Terry . He also acted in amateur theatricals .
= = Career = =
Between 1868 and 1877 , Carte wrote and published the music for a number of his own songs and instrumental works , as well as several comic operas : Doctor Ambrosias – His Secret , at St. George 's Hall ( 1868 ) ; Marie , with librettist E. Spencer Mott , at London 's Opera Comique in 1871 ; and Happy Hampstead , with librettist Frank Desprez , which debuted on an 1876 provincial tour and then played at the Royalty Theatre in 1877 . On tour in 1871 , Carte conducted Cox and Box by composer Arthur Sullivan and dramatist F. C. Burnand , in tandem with English adaptations of two Offenbach pieces , called Rose of Auvergne and Breaking the Spell , in which Carte 's client Selina Dolaro appeared . Carte 's musical talent would be helpful later in his career , as he was able to audition singers himself from the pianoforte .
During the late 1860s and early 1870s , from within his father 's firm in Charing Cross and , by late 1874 , from a nearby address in Craig 's Court , Carte began to build an operatic , concert and lecture management agency . His two hundred clients eventually included Charles Gounod , Jacques Offenbach , Adelina Patti , Mario , Clara Schumann , Antoinette Sterling , Edward Lloyd , Mr. and Mrs. German Reed , George Grossmith , Matthew Arnold , James McNeill Whistler and Oscar Wilde . Hesketh Pearson said of Carte : " His acute business sense was aided by a frank and agreeable manner .... He took what other people thought were risks , but he felt were certainties . He knew everyone worth knowing ... and his practical judgement was as sure as his sense of artistry . "
= = = Founding his opera company = = =
In 1874 , Carte leased the Opera Comique , a small theatre off the Strand , where he presented a Brussels company in the British premiere of the operetta Giroflé @-@ Giroflà by Charles Lecocq , followed by The Broken Branch , an English adaptation of Gaston Serpette 's La branche cassée . Carte announced his ambitions on the front of the programme for the latter : " It is my desire to establish in London a permanent abode for light Opera . " The Observer reported , " Mr D 'Oyly Carte is not only a skilful manager , but a trained musician , and he appears to have grasped the fact that the public are beginning to become weary of what is known as a genuine opera bouffe , and are ready to welcome a musical entertainment of a higher order , such as a musician might produce with satisfaction " .
Carte later said it was " the scheme of my life " to found a school of high @-@ quality , family @-@ friendly English comic opera , in contrast to the bawdy burlesques and adaptations of French operettas that dominated the London musical stage at that time . His experience in writing operettas , however , had convinced him that his own creative talents were inadequate for the task . He later wrote to dramatist W. S. Gilbert , " I envy your position but I could never attain it . If I could be an author like you I would certainly not be a manager . I am simply the tradesman who sells your works of art . " Furthermore , in 1874 Carte did not yet have the resources to make his idea into reality , and after his season at the Opera Comique , he terminated his lease . In the same year , he arranged for his client , Offenbach , to collaborate with H. B. Farnie to write a new operetta on the theme of Dick Whittington and His Cat , which played during the Christmas season at the Alhambra Theatre .
In 1875 , Carte became the business manager of the Royalty Theatre , under the direction of his client , the popular singing actress Madame Selina Dolaro . There he programmed Offenbach 's La Périchole . To fill out the evening ( as long programmes were the fashion in Victorian theatre ) , he needed another piece . He remembered a libretto for a one @-@ act comic opera that W. S. Gilbert had written and shown to him in 1873 , called Trial by Jury . Meanwhile , Sullivan 's popular 1867 opera , Cox and Box , had been revived at the Gaiety Theatre in 1874 , and Carte had already asked him to write a piece for the Royalty . Carte knew that Gilbert had worked with Sullivan to create Thespis in 1871 , and he now suggested that Sullivan could write the music for Trial by Jury . Because Gilbert and Sullivan shared his vision of increasing the quality and respectability of English musical theatre , and so broadening its audience through the promotion of well @-@ crafted English light operas , Carte gave them wider authority as director and music director than was customary at that time . Trial by Jury , a comic treatment of an English courtroom , was an unexpected hit , outrunning La Périchole , and becoming the first step in Carte 's scheme to establish a new genre of English comic opera .
Carte managed the first tour of Trial by Jury , which stopped at the Theatre Royal in Dublin , Ireland , in September 1875 . While there , he met a young Scottish actress , Susan Couper Black , who used the stage name Helen Lenoir . She became fascinated by his vision for establishing a company to promote English comic opera and gave up her next engagement to join his theatrical organisation as his secretary . Well @-@ educated , with an organisational ability , business acumen , focus on detail and diplomatic skills that surpassed even Carte 's , Lenoir gradually became intensely involved in all of his business affairs . Carte and Lenoir married in 1888 , three years after the death of his first wife .
Even after the initial production of Trial by Jury , however , Carte continued to produce continental operetta , touring in the summer of 1876 with a repertoire consisting of English adaptations of French opera bouffe ( Offenbach ’ s La Périchole , and La Grande @-@ Duchesse de Gérolstein , Lecocq 's La fille de Madame Angot and Léon Vasseur 's La Timbale d 'argent ) , paired with two one @-@ act English after @-@ pieces ( Happy Hampstead and Trial by Jury ) . Carte acted as the musical director of this travelling company that included W.H. Denny .
Encouraged by the success of Trial by Jury , Carte made attempts in 1875 – 76 to raise money for either a revival of Thespis or a new piece . A year later , he finally found four backers and formed the " Comedy Opera Company " to produce the future works of Gilbert and Sullivan , along with the works of other British author / composer teams . This allowed Carte to lease the Opera Comique and to give Gilbert and Sullivan firm terms for a new opera . By this time , Helen Lenoir had been promoted from Carte 's secretary to his assistant . The first comic opera produced by the new company was Gilbert and Sullivan 's The Sorcerer in 1877 , with a plot involving a tradesmanlike London magician and his patented love potion . Gilbert , Sullivan and Carte were able to select their own cast , instead of using the players under contract to the theatre where the work was produced , as had been the case with their earlier works . They chose talented actors , few of whom were well @-@ known stars , and Carte 's agency provided many of the artists . The reception of the piece showed that Carte had been right : there was a promising future in family @-@ friendly English comic opera .
The Sorcerer was followed by H.M.S. Pinafore in 1878 . Business for the new opera was slow at first . Carte 's investors in the Comedy Opera Company advocated cutting their losses and closing the show . After promotional efforts by Carte and Sullivan , who included some of the Pinafore music in several promenade concerts at Covent Garden , Pinafore became a hit . Carte persuaded Gilbert and Sullivan that when their original agreement with the Comedy Opera Company expired in July 1879 , a business partnership among the three of them would be to their advantage . The three each put up £ 1 @,@ 000 and formed a new partnership under the name " Mr Richard D 'Oyly Carte 's Opera Company " . Under the partnership agreement , once the expenses of mounting the productions had been deducted , each of the three men was entitled to one third of the profits .
On 31 July 1879 , the last day of their agreement with Carte , the directors of the Comedy Opera Company attempted to repossess the Pinafore set by force during a performance , causing a celebrated fracas . Carte 's stagehands managed to ward off their backstage attackers and protect the scenery and props . The Comedy Opera Company opened a rival production of H.M.S. Pinafore in London , but it was not as popular as the D 'Oyly Carte production and soon closed . Legal action over the ownership of the rights ended in victory for Carte , Gilbert and Sullivan . From 1 August 1879 , the new company , later called the D 'Oyly Carte Opera Company , became the sole authorised producer of the works of Gilbert and Sullivan .
= = = Early opera successes ; property interests = = =
H.M.S. Pinafore was so successful that Carte soon sent two additional companies out to tour in the provinces . The opera ran for 571 performances in London , the second @-@ longest run in musical theatre history up to that time . Over 150 unauthorised productions sprang up in America alone , but because American law then offered no copyright protection to foreigners , Carte , Gilbert and Sullivan were not able to demand royalties from , or to control the artistic content of , these productions .
To try to counter this copyright piracy and make some money from the popularity of their opera in America , Carte travelled to New York with the authors and the company to present an " authentic " production of Pinafore there , beginning in December 1879 , as well as American tours . Carte 's assistant , Helen Lenoir , who became his wife in 1888 , made fifteen visits to America in the 1880s and 1890s to promote Carte 's interests , superintending arrangements for American productions and tours of each of the new Gilbert and Sullivan operas . Beginning with Pinafore , Carte licensed the J. C. Williamson company to produce the works in Australia and New Zealand .
In an effort to head off unauthorised American productions of their next opera , The Pirates of Penzance , Carte and his partners opened it in New York on 31 December 1879 , prior to its 1880 London premiere . They hoped to forestall further " piracy " by establishing the authorised production and tours in America before others could copy it and by delaying publication of the score and libretto . They did succeed in keeping for themselves the direct profits of the venture , but they tried without success for many years to control the American performance copyrights over their operas . Pirates was an immediate hit in New York , and later London , becoming one of the most popular Gilbert and Sullivan operas . To secure the British copyright , there was a perfunctory performance the afternoon before the New York premiere , at the Royal Bijou Theatre , Paignton , Devon , organised by Helen Lenoir .
The next Gilbert and Sullivan opera , Patience , opened at the Opera Comique in April 1881 and was another big success , usurping Pinafore 's position as the longest running piece in the series with the second @-@ longest run in musical theatre history . Patience satirised the self @-@ indulgent aesthetic movement of the 1870s and ' 80s in England . To popularise the opera in America , in 1882 Carte sent one of the artistes under his management , the young poet Oscar Wilde , on a lecture tour to explain to Americans what the aesthetic movement was about . Carte told an interviewer at that time that he had fifteen theatrical companies and performers touring simultaneously in Europe , America and Australia .
Carte had been planning to build a new theatre for several years to promote English comic opera and , in particular , the Gilbert and Sullivan operas . With profits from the Gilbert and Sullivan operas and his concert and lecture agency , he bought property along the Strand in 1880 with frontage onto the Thames Embankment , where he built the Savoy Theatre in 1881 . Carte chose the name in honour of the Savoy Palace , which had been built on the site in the thirteenth century by Peter , Count of Savoy . It later passed to John of Gaunt but was destroyed in the Peasants ' Revolt in 1381 . The Savoy Theatre was a state @-@ of @-@ the @-@ art facility , setting a new standard for technology , comfort and decor . It was the first public building in the world to be lit entirely by electric lights and seated nearly 1 @,@ 300 people ( compared to the Opera Comique 's 862 ) .
Patience was the first production at the new theatre , transferring there on 10 October 1881 . The first generator proved too small to power the whole building , and though the entire front of house was electrically lit , the stage was lit by gas until 28 December 1881 . At that performance , Carte stepped on stage and broke a glowing lightbulb before the audience to demonstrate the safety of the new technology . The Times concluded that the theatre " is admirably adapted for its purpose , its acoustic qualities are excellent , and all reasonable demands of comfort and taste are complied with . " Carte and his manager , George Edwardes ( later famous as manager of the Gaiety Theatre ) , introduced several innovations at the theatre including free programme booklets , the orderly " queue " system with numbered tickets for the pit and gallery ( an American idea ) , tea served at the interval and a policy of no tipping for cloakroom or other services . Daily expenses at the theatre were about half the possible takings from ticket sales . The last eight of Gilbert and Sullivan 's comic operas were premiered at the Savoy , and all of their operas came to be known as Savoy operas .
The Savoy Hotel , designed by the architect Thomas Edward Collcutt , opened in 1889 . Financed by profits from The Mikado , it was the first hotel lit by electric lights and the first with electric lifts . In the 1890s , under its famous manager , César Ritz , and chef Auguste Escoffier , it became a well @-@ known luxury hotel and would generate more income and contribute more to the D 'Oyly Carte fortunes than any other enterprise , including the opera companies . Carte later acquired and refurbished Claridge 's ( 1893 ) , The Grand Hotel in Rome ( 1896 ) , Simpson 's @-@ in @-@ the @-@ Strand ( 1898 ) and The Berkeley ( 1900 ) .
= = = Peak years for the opera company = = =
During the years when the Gilbert and Sullivan operas were being written , Richard D 'Oyly Carte also produced operas and plays by other writing teams , as well as other works to fill the Savoy Theatre in between new operas . Many of these were companion pieces to the Gilbert and Sullivan operas , as the Victorian audiences preferred long evenings in the theatre . Some , however , were new full @-@ length pieces either for the Savoy or for Carte 's touring companies , which toured the Gilbert and Sullivan operas , and these new works , extensively . Carte and Lenoir also continued to run his management agency . As an example of their level of activity , an 1881 souvenir programme commemorating the 250th performance of Patience in London and its 100th performance in New York states that , in addition to these two productions of Patience , Carte was simultaneously producing many other projects . These included two companies touring with Patience , two touring with other Gilbert and Sullivan operas , one touring with the operetta Olivette ( co @-@ produced with Charles Wyndham ) , one with Claude Duval in America , a production of Youth running at a New York theatre , a lecture tour by Archibald Forbes ( a war correspondent ) and productions of Patience , Pirates , Claude Duval and Billee Taylor in association with J. C. Williamson in Australia , among other things .
Carte also introduced the practice of licensing amateur theatrical societies to present works for which he held the rights , increasing the works ' popularity and the sales of scores and libretti , as well as the rental of band parts . This had an important influence on amateur theatre in general . Cellier and Bridgeman wrote in 1914 that , prior to the creation of the Savoy operas , amateur actors were treated with contempt by professionals . After the formation of amateur Gilbert and Sullivan companies licensed to perform the operas , professionals recognised that the amateur societies " support the culture of music and the drama . They are now accepted as useful training schools for the legitimate stage , and from the volunteer ranks have sprung many present @-@ day favourites . " Cellier and Bridgeman attributed the rise in quality and reputation of the amateur groups largely to " the popularity of , and infectious craze for performing , the Gilbert and Sullivan operas " . The National Operatic and Dramatic Association was founded in 1899 . It reported , in 1914 , that nearly 200 British societies were producing Gilbert and Sullivan operas that year .
After Patience , Carte produced Iolanthe , which opened in 1882 . During its run , in February 1883 , Carte signed a five @-@ year partnership agreement with Gilbert and Sullivan , obliging them to create new operas for him upon six months ' notice . Sullivan had not intended to immediately write a new work with Gilbert , but he suffered a serious financial loss when his broker went bankrupt in November 1882 and must have felt the long @-@ term contract necessary for his security . Gilbert scholar Andrew Crowther comments , " Effectively , [ the contract ] made [ Gilbert and Sullivan ] Carte 's employees – a situation which created its own resentments . " The partnership 's next opera , Princess Ida , opened in January 1884 . Carte soon saw that Ida was running weakly at the box office and invoked the agreement to call upon his partners to write a new opera . The musical establishment constantly pressured Sullivan to abandon comic opera in favour of serious music , and after he was knighted in 1883 , the pressure only increased . He soon regretted having signed the five @-@ year contract . In March 1884 , Sullivan told Carte that " it is impossible for me to do another piece of the character of those already written by Gilbert and myself . "
During this conflict and others during the 1880s , Carte and Helen Lenoir frequently worked to smooth over the partners ' differences using a mixture of friendship and business acumen . Sullivan asked to be released from the partnership on several occasions . Nevertheless , Carte was able to coax eight comic operas out of his partners in the 1880s . When Princess Ida closed after a comparatively short run of nine months , for the first time in the partnership 's history , the next opera was not ready . Gilbert first suggested a plot in which people fell in love against their wills after taking a magic lozenge – a scenario that Sullivan had previously rejected . Gilbert eventually came up with a new idea and began work in May 1884 .
Carte produced the first revival of The Sorcerer , together with Trial by Jury , and matinees of The Pirates of Penzance played by a cast of children , while he waited for his partners to finish writing the new work . This became the partnership 's most successful opera , The Mikado , which opened in March 1885 . The piece satirised British institutions by setting them in a fictional Japan and took advantage of the Victorian craze for the exotic and " picturesque " Far East . The Mikado became the partnership 's longest @-@ running hit , lasting for 672 performances at the Savoy Theatre , and supplanting Patience as the second @-@ longest @-@ running work of musical theatre up to that time . It was extraordinarily popular in the US and worldwide and remains the most frequently performed Savoy Opera .
The partnership 's next opera was Ruddigore , which opened in January 1887 . The piece , though a financial success , was a relative disappointment after the extraordinary run of The Mikado . When Ruddigore closed after nine months , Carte mounted revivals of earlier Gilbert and Sullivan operas at the Savoy for almost a year . After another attempt by Gilbert to persuade Sullivan to set a " lozenge plot " , Gilbert met his collaborator half way by writing a serio @-@ comic plot for The Yeomen of the Guard , which premiered in October 1888 . The opera ran for over a year , with strong New York and touring productions . This was a happy time for Carte , with a long @-@ running opera , new marriage and new hotel and opera house under construction . When Carte asked his partners for a new work , Sullivan again expressed reluctance to write another comic opera , asking if Gilbert would write a " dramatic work on a larger musical scale " . Gilbert declined but offered a compromise that Sullivan ultimately accepted : the two would write a light opera for the Savoy , and at the same time , Sullivan could work on a grand opera that Carte would produce at a new theatre he was planning to build to present British grand opera . The new comic opera was The Gondoliers , which opened in December 1889 and became one of the partnership 's greatest successes .
During these years , Carte was not just the manager of the theatre . He was a full participant in the producing partnership with Gilbert and Sullivan , involved in casting and finding designers ; in charge of publicity ; directing and hiring designers for the non @-@ Gilbert works , including the many companion pieces ( sometimes with the help of assistants ) ; and casting , directing and rehearsing the touring companies , among other duties . According to Henry Lytton , " Mr. Carte was a great stage manager . He could take in the details of a scene with one sweep of his eagle eye and say unerringly just what was wrong . " The quality of Carte 's productions created a national and international taste for them , and he sent touring companies throughout the British provinces , to America ( generally managed by Helen ) , Europe and elsewhere . Queen Victoria honoured the company by calling for a Royal Command Performance of The Gondoliers at Windsor Castle in 1891 . Following the libretto closely , she noticed additions to the text made by some of the actors and asked Carte to explain why this was done . Carte replied that they " are what we call ' gags ' " . The queen answered that she had always understood that " gags were things that were put by authority into people 's mouths . " Carte rejoined , " These gags , Your Majesty , are things people put into their own mouths without authority . " George Bernard Shaw , writing in The World in October 1893 , stated :
Those who are old enough to compare the Savoy performances with those of the dark ages , taking into account the pictorial treatment of the fabrics and colors on the stage , the cultivation and intelligence of the choristers , the quality of the orchestra , and the degree of artistic good breeding , so to speak , expected from the principals , best know how great an advance has been made by Mr. D 'Oyly Carte .
= = = End of the partnership and last years = = =
On 22 April 1890 , during the run of The Gondoliers , Gilbert discovered that maintenance expenses for the theatre , including a new £ 500 carpet for the front lobby of the theatre , were being charged to the partnership instead of borne by Carte . Gilbert angrily confronted Carte , but Carte refused to reconsider the accounts . Even though the amount of the charge was not great , Gilbert felt that it was a moral issue involving Carte 's integrity , and he could not look past it . Gilbert stormed out and wrote to Sullivan that " I left him with the remark that it was a mistake to kick down the ladder by which he had risen " . Helen Carte wrote that Gilbert had addressed Carte " in a way that I should not have thought you would have used to an offending menial . " Matters deteriorated further , and Gilbert brought a lawsuit . Sullivan sided with Carte , who was building the Royal English Opera House , the inaugural production of which was to be Sullivan 's forthcoming grand opera . Gilbert won the dispute and felt vindicated , but his actions had been hurtful to his partners , and the partnership disbanded .
Carte 's first production at the Royal English Opera House was of Sullivan 's only grand opera , Ivanhoe , which opened in January 1891 . It played for an initial run of 155 performances , a record for an opera , but no other operas shared the new opera house with it . Instead , Ivanhoe was presented every night with alternating casts . When Ivanhoe finally closed in July , Carte had no new work ready to play at the opera house , and so it had to close . The opera house re @-@ opened in November 1891 with André Messager 's La Basoche at first alternating in repertory with Ivanhoe , and then La Basoche played alone , closing in January 1892 . Carte again had no new opera to present at the house , and the venture soon failed . Sir Henry Wood , who had been répétiteur for the production , recalled in his autobiography , " If D 'Oyly Carte had had a repertory of six operas instead of only one , I believe he would have established English opera in London for all time . Towards the end of the run of Ivanhoe I was already preparing The Flying Dutchman with Eugène Oudin in the name part . He would have been superb . However , plans were altered and the Dutchman was shelved . " Carte leased the theatre to Sarah Bernhardt for a season and finally abandoned the project . He sold the opera house at a loss to producer Augustus Harris . It was then converted into a music hall , the Palace Theatre of Varieties , and later became the Palace Theatre .
Because of the carpet quarrel , Gilbert had vowed to write no more for the Savoy . When The Gondoliers closed in 1891 , Carte needed new authors and composers to write works for the Savoy Theatre . He turned to old friends George Dance , Frank Desprez and Edward Solomon for his next piece , The Nautch Girl , which ran for a satisfying 200 performances in 1891 – 92 . Carte then revived Solomon and Sydney Grundy 's The Vicar of Bray , which ran through the summer of 1892 . Next came Grundy and Sullivan 's Haddon Hall , which held the stage until April 1893 . While Carte presented new pieces and revivals at the Savoy , his touring companies continued to play throughout Britain and in America . In 1894 , for example , Carte had four companies touring Britain and one playing in America .
Gilbert 's aggressive , though successful , legal action had embittered Carte and Sullivan , but the partnership had been so profitable that Carte and his wife eventually sought to reunite the author and composer . After several attempts by the Cartes , the reconciliation finally came through the efforts of Tom Chappell , who published the sheet music to their operas . In 1893 , Gilbert and Sullivan produced their penultimate collaboration , Utopia , Limited . While Utopia was being prepared , Carte produced Jane Annie , by J. M. Barrie and Arthur Conan Doyle , with music by Ernest Ford . Despite the popularity of Barrie and Conan Doyle , the show was a flop , closing after only 51 performances .
Utopia was Carte 's most expensive production to date , but it ran for a comparatively disappointing 245 performances , until June 1894 . Carte then played first Mirette , composed by André Messager , then The Chieftain , by F. C. Burnand and Sullivan . These ran for 102 and 97 performances , respectively . The company then toured the London suburbs , and the theatre was dark during the summer of 1895 , reopening in November for a revival of The Mikado . This was followed in 1896 by The Grand Duke , which ran for 123 performances and was Gilbert and Sullivan 's only financial failure . The Gondoliers turned out to be Gilbert and Sullivan 's last big hit , and after The Grand Duke , the two men never collaborated again . At the Savoy , Carte produced His Majesty ( 1897 ) , The Grand Duchess of Gerolstein ( 1897 ) , The Beauty Stone ( 1898 ) and The Lucky Star ( 1899 ) , as well as revivals of the Gilbert and Sullivan operas .
Though the 1890s brought Carte more disappointments than hits in the theatre , his hotel business prospered and grew . He acquired Simpson 's @-@ in @-@ the @-@ Strand and Claridge 's Hotel , both of which he entirely rebuilt . There was one grave setback , in 1897 , when he had to dismiss his manager , Ritz , and his star chef , Escoffier , for financial misconduct . Carte 's choice as successor to Ritz was George Reeves @-@ Smith , manager and part @-@ owner of the Berkeley Hotel . To secure his services , Carte bought the Berkeley in 1900 and promoted Reeves @-@ Smith to be managing director of the whole Savoy Group . Carte had used the same method , a year earlier , to secure a new maître d 'hôtel . He was determined to engage M. Joseph , proprietor of the Marivaux Restaurant in Paris , then at the height of its fame . Carte was seriously ill , but he insisted on being carried to the boat @-@ train . In Paris he bought the Marivaux and returned with Joseph to the Savoy .
Throughout the later 1890s , Carte 's health was in decline , and Helen assumed more and more of the responsibilities for the opera company . She profitably managed the theatre and the provincial touring companies . In 1894 , Carte had hired his son , Rupert , as an assistant . While Carte was ill , in 1897 , Rupert assisted Mrs. Carte and W. S. Gilbert with the first revival of The Yeomen of the Guard at the Savoy . The Savoy put on a number of shows for comparatively short runs during this period , including Sullivan 's The Beauty Stone , which ran for only 50 performances , in 1898 . In 1899 , Carte finally had a new success with Sullivan and Basil Hood 's The Rose of Persia , which ran for 213 performances . Neither Carte nor Sullivan lived to see the production of the next piece by Hood , The Emerald Isle , for which Edward German completed Sullivan 's unfinished score .
= = Personal life = =
Carte was married twice . His first wife was Blanche Julia Prowse ( 1853 – 1885 ) , the daughter of William Prowse , a piano manufacturer , music publisher and booking agent . As a teenager , she had participated in amateur theatricals with Carte . They married in 1870 and had two sons , Lucas ( 1872 – 1907 ) and Rupert . Blanche died of pneumonia in 1885 , and in 1888 , Carte married his assistant , Helen . Their wedding took place in the Savoy Chapel , with Arthur Sullivan as the best man . Rupert received training in an accounting firm and then became his father 's assistant in 1894 . Lucas , who was not involved in the family businesses , became a barrister . He was appointed Private Secretary to Lord Chief Justice Charles Russell in 1899 in connection with the Venezuelan boundary arbitration in Paris . There he contracted tuberculosis and later died of that disease at the age of 34 .
Carte 's London house was at the Adelphi , not far from the Savoy . Passionate about the visual arts as well as the performing arts , Carte invited his friend , the artist James McNeill Whistler , to decorate the house . Whistler had the entire billiard room painted the colour of the billiard cloth , and elsewhere painted his favourite yellow with his own hand . Equally enthusiastic for technological innovation , Carte installed a lift , the first in a private house in England . Around 1890 , he bought a small island in the River Thames , between Weybridge and Shepperton , called Folly Eyot , which he renamed D 'Oyly Carte Island . He wanted to use the island as an annex to his new Savoy Hotel , but the local authorities refused to grant him a drinks licence for the property . Instead , he built Eyot House , a large house and garden on the island , that he used as a residence . In later years , Carte displayed his macabre sense of humour by keeping a crocodile on the island .
= = Death and legacy = =
Carte died at his London home from dropsy and heart disease in 1901 , just short of his 57th birthday . He is buried in the churchyard of St. Andrew 's church in Fairlight , East Sussex , near his parents ' graves . A memorial service was held at the Chapel Royal of the Savoy , where a memorial stained glass window was later dedicated to him . He left an estate valued at £ 250 @,@ 000 .
Carte was instrumental in bringing the British theatre from its low status in the mid @-@ Victorian age to a position of respectable eminence , with knighthoods for actors , such as Henry Irving , and for dramatists , including Gilbert . George Bernard Shaw wrote of Carte 's theatrical legacy , " Mr D 'Oyly Carte founded a new school of English comic opera ; raised operatic inscenation to the rank of a fine art ; and finally built a new English Opera House and made a magnificent effort to do for English grand opera what he had done for comic opera . " In Carte 's obituary , The Times noted , " By his refined taste he raised the reputation of the mise en scène of the Savoy operas to a very high pitch . He set a high standard " . Beyond this , however , Carte 's influence , through the production of the Savoy operas , heavily influenced the course of the development of modern musical theatre .
Carte was also a prime mover in making hotels respectable and respected : in the words of the Oxford Dictionary of National Biography : " Led by the prince of Wales [ the Savoy ] became the meeting place for London high society and the nouveaux riches of the British empire .... [ The ] food and the ambience lured people from the clubs to dine in public and give great parties there . It allowed ladies , hitherto fearful of dining in public , to be seen in full regalia in the Savoy dining and supper rooms . "
Carte left the theatre , opera company , hotels and his other business interests to Helen . Her London and touring companies continued to present the Savoy Operas in Britain and overseas . In 1901 she leased the Savoy Theatre to William Greet , overseeing his management of a revival of Iolanthe and several new comic operas . Rupert became chairman of the Savoy Hotel by 1903 , which Helen continued to own . In late 1906 , Helen staged a Gilbert and Sullivan repertory season at the Savoy Theatre . The season , and the following one , which were both directed by Gilbert , earned excellent reviews and sold well , revitalising the company . After the second repertory season concluded in 1909 , however , the company did not perform in London again until 1919 , only touring throughout Britain during that time .
At her death in 1913 , Helen passed the family businesses to Carte 's son , Rupert . He maintained the hotel business , disposing of the Grand Hotel in Rome , but expanding the group in London . The Savoy Group remained under the control of the Carte family and its associates until 1994 . Carte 's hotels have remained among the most prestigious in London , with the London Evening Standard calling the Savoy " London 's most famous hotel " in 2009 .
Rupert D 'Oyly Carte refreshed the opera company 's productions and added London seasons , beginning in 1919 , as well as provincial and foreign tours . In 1948 Rupert died , leaving a strong company to his daughter Bridget D 'Oyly Carte . However , the rising costs of mounting professional light opera without any government support eventually became too much for the company . Bridget was forced to close the company in 1982 . Nevertheless , the Gilbert and Sullivan operas continue to be produced frequently today throughout the English @-@ speaking world and beyond , and Carte 's vision of wholesome light operas that celebrate Great Britain endures .
= = Compositions = =
= = = Operettas = = =
Dr. Ambrosius – His Secret ( 1868 )
Marie ( 1871 ) , with librettist E. Spencer Mott
Happy Hampstead ( 1876 ) , with librettist Frank Desprez ( Carte wrote the music for this short piece under the pen name " Mark Lynne " ) .
= = = Songs = = =
Carte 's Parlour songs include :
" Come Back to Me " , words and music by Carte .
" Diamond Eyes " , words by L. H. F. du Terraux .
" The Maiden 's Watch " , words by Amy Thornton , composed for and sung by Adelaide Newton
" The Mountain Boy " , sung by Florence Lancia
" Pourquoi ? " Chansonette , dedicated to Selina Dolaro
" Questions " , words by Desprez
" The Setting Sun " ( with obbligato flute accompaniment )
" Stars of the Summer Night " , Serenade , with poetry by Henry Wadsworth Longfellow
" Twilight " , Canzonet
" Waiting " , words by Adelaide Procter .
" Wake , Sweet Bird " ( with obbligato flute accompaniment )
" Why so pale and wan , fond lover "
|
= Radiocarbon dating =
Radiocarbon dating ( also referred to as carbon dating or carbon @-@ 14 dating ) is a method for determining the age of an object containing organic material by using the properties of radiocarbon ( 14C ) , a radioactive isotope of carbon .
The method was developed by Willard Libby in the late 1940s and soon became a standard tool for archaeologists . Libby received the Nobel Prize for his work in 1960 . The radiocarbon dating method is based on the fact that radiocarbon is constantly being created in the atmosphere by the interaction of cosmic rays with atmospheric nitrogen . The resulting radiocarbon combines with atmospheric oxygen to form radioactive carbon dioxide , which is incorporated into plants by photosynthesis ; animals then acquire 14C by eating the plants . When the animal or plant dies , it stops exchanging carbon with its environment , and from that point onwards the amount of 14C it contains begins to decrease as the 14C undergoes radioactive decay . Measuring the amount of 14C in a sample from a dead plant or animal such as a piece of wood or a fragment of bone provides information that can be used to calculate when the animal or plant died . The older a sample is , the less 14C there is to be detected , and because the half @-@ life of 14C ( the period of time after which half of a given sample will have decayed ) is about 5 @,@ 730 years , the oldest dates that can be reliably measured by radiocarbon dating are around 50 @,@ 000 years ago , although special preparation methods occasionally permit dating of older samples .
The idea behind radiocarbon dating is straightforward , but years of work were required to develop the technique to the point where accurate dates could be obtained . Research has been ongoing since the 1960s to determine what the proportion of 14C in the atmosphere has been over the past fifty thousand years . The resulting data , in the form of a calibration curve , is now used to convert a given measurement of radiocarbon in a sample into an estimate of the sample 's calendar age . Other corrections must be made to account for the proportion of 14C in different types of organisms ( fractionation ) , and the varying levels of 14C throughout the biosphere ( reservoir effects ) . Additional complications come from the burning of fossil fuels such as coal and oil , and from the above @-@ ground nuclear tests done in the 1950s and 1960s . Because the time it takes to convert biological materials to fossil fuels is substantially longer than the time it takes for its 14C to decay below detectable levels , they contain almost no 14C , and as a result there was a noticeable drop in the proportion of 14C in the atmosphere beginning in the late 19th century . Conversely , nuclear testing increased the amount of 14C in the atmosphere , which attained a maximum in 1963 of almost twice what it had been before the testing began .
Measurement of radiocarbon was originally done by beta @-@ counting devices , which counted the amount of beta radiation emitted by decaying 14C atoms in a sample . More recently , accelerator mass spectrometry has become the method of choice ; it counts all the 14C atoms in the sample and not just the few that happen to decay during the measurements ; it can therefore be used with much smaller samples ( as small as individual plant seeds ) , and gives results much more quickly . The development of radiocarbon dating has had a profound impact on archaeology . In addition to permitting more accurate dating within archaeological sites than previous methods , it allows comparison of dates of events across great distances . Histories of archaeology often refer to its impact as the " radiocarbon revolution " . Radiocarbon dating has allowed key transitions in prehistory to be dated , such as the end of the last ice age , and the beginning of the Neolithic and Bronze Age in different regions .
= = Background = =
= = = History = = =
In the early 1930s , Willard Libby was a chemistry student at the University of California , Berkeley , receiving his Ph.D. in 1933 . He remained there as an instructor until the end of the decade . In 1939 the Radiation Laboratory at Berkeley began experiments to determine if any of the elements common in organic matter had isotopes with half @-@ lives long enough to be of value in biomedical research . It was soon discovered that 14C 's half @-@ life was far longer than had been previously thought , and in 1940 this was followed by proof that the interaction of slow neutrons with 14N was the main pathway by which 14C was created . It had previously been thought that 14C would be more likely to be created by deuterons interacting with 13C . At some time during World War II Libby read a paper by W. E. Danforth and S. A. Korff , published in 1939 , which predicted the creation of 14C in the atmosphere by neutrons from cosmic rays that had been slowed down by collisions with molecules of atmospheric gas . It was this paper that gave Libby the idea that radiocarbon dating might be possible .
In 1945 , Libby moved to the University of Chicago . He published a paper in 1946 in which he proposed that the carbon in living matter might include 14C as well as non @-@ radioactive carbon . Libby and several collaborators proceeded to experiment with methane collected from sewage works in Baltimore , and after isotopically enriching their samples they were able to demonstrate that they contained radioactive 14C . By contrast , methane created from petroleum showed no radiocarbon activity . The results were summarized in a paper in Science in 1947 , in which the authors commented that their results implied it would be possible to date materials containing carbon of organic origin .
Libby and James Arnold proceeded to experiment with samples of wood of known age . For example , two samples taken from the tombs of two Egyptian kings , Zoser and Sneferu , independently dated to 2625 BC plus or minus 75 years , were dated by radiocarbon measurement to an average of 2800 BC plus or minus 250 years . These results were published in Science in 1949 . In 1960 , Libby was awarded the Nobel Prize in Chemistry for this work .
= = = Physical and chemical details = = =
In nature , carbon exists as two stable , nonradioactive isotopes : carbon @-@ 12 ( 12C ) , and carbon @-@ 13 ( 13C ) , and a radioactive isotope , carbon @-@ 14 ( 14C ) , also known as " radiocarbon " . The half @-@ life of 14C ( the time it takes for half of a given amount of 14C to decay ) is about 5 @,@ 730 years , so its concentration in the atmosphere might be expected to reduce over thousands of years , but 14C is constantly being produced in the lower stratosphere and upper troposphere by cosmic rays , which generate neutrons that in turn create 14C when they strike nitrogen @-@ 14 ( 14N ) atoms . The following nuclear reaction creates 14C :
n + 14
7N → 14
6C + p
where n represents a neutron and p represents a proton .
Once produced , the 14C quickly combines with the oxygen in the atmosphere to form carbon dioxide ( CO
2 ) . Carbon dioxide produced in this way diffuses in the atmosphere , is dissolved in the ocean , and is taken up by plants via photosynthesis . Animals eat the plants , and ultimately the radiocarbon is distributed throughout the biosphere . The ratio of 14C to 12C is approximately 1 @.@ 5 parts of 14C to 1012 parts of 12C . In addition , about 1 % of the carbon atoms are of the stable isotope 13C .
The equation for the radioactive decay of 14C is :
14
6C → 14
7N + e − + ν
e
By emitting a beta particle ( an electron , e − ) and an electron antineutrino ( ν
e ) , one of the neutrons in the 14C nucleus changes to a proton and the 14C nucleus reverts to the stable ( non @-@ radioactive ) isotope 14N .
= = = Principles = = =
During its life , a plant or animal is exchanging carbon with its surroundings , so the carbon it contains will have the same proportion of 14C as the atmosphere . Once it dies , it ceases to acquire 14C , but the 14C within its biological material at that time will continue to decay , and so the ratio of 14C to 12C in its remains will gradually decrease . Because 14C decays at a known rate , the proportion of radiocarbon can be used to determine how long it has been since a given sample stopped exchanging carbon – the older the sample , the less 14C will be left .
The equation governing the decay of a radioactive isotope is :
<formula>
where N0 is the number of atoms of the isotope in the original sample ( at time t = 0 , when the organism from which the sample was taken died ) , and N is the number of atoms left after time t. λ is a constant that depends on the particular isotope ; for a given isotope it is equal to the reciprocal of the mean @-@ life – i.e. the average or expected time a given atom will survive before undergoing radioactive decay . The mean @-@ life , denoted by τ , of 14C is 8 @,@ 267 years , so the equation above can be rewritten as :
<formula>
The sample is assumed to have originally had the same 14C / 12C ratio as the ratio in the atmosphere , and since the size of the sample is known , the total number of atoms in the sample can be calculated , yielding N0 , the number of 14C atoms in the original sample . Measurement of N , the number of 14C atoms currently in the sample , allows the calculation of t , the age of the sample , using the equation above .
The half @-@ life of a radioactive isotope ( usually denoted by t1 / 2 ) is a more familiar concept than the mean @-@ life , so although the equations above are expressed in terms of the mean @-@ life , it is more usual to quote the value of 14C 's half @-@ life than its mean @-@ life . The currently accepted value for the half @-@ life of 14C is 5 @,@ 730 years . This means that after 5 @,@ 730 years , only half of the initial 14C will remain ; a quarter will remain after 11 @,@ 460 years ; an eighth after 17 @,@ 190 years ; and so on .
The above calculations make several assumptions , such as that the level of 14C in the atmosphere has remained constant over time . In fact , the level of 14C in the atmosphere has varied significantly and as a result the values provided by the equation above have to be corrected by using data from other sources . This is done by calibration curves , which convert a measurement of 14C in a sample into an estimated calendar age . The calculations involve several steps and include an intermediate value called the " radiocarbon age " , which is the age in " radiocarbon years " of the sample : an age quoted in radiocarbon years means that no calibration curve has been used − the calculations for radiocarbon years assume that the 14C / 12C ratio has not changed over time . Calculating radiocarbon ages also requires the value of the half @-@ life for 14C , which for more than a decade after Libby 's initial work was thought to be 5 @,@ 568 years . This was revised in the early 1960s to 5 @,@ 730 years , which meant that many calculated dates in papers published prior to this were incorrect ( the error in the half @-@ life is about 3 % ) . For consistency with these early papers , and to avoid the risk of a double correction for the incorrect half @-@ life , radiocarbon ages are still calculated using the incorrect half @-@ life value . A correction for the half @-@ life is incorporated into calibration curves , so even though radiocarbon ages are calculated using a half @-@ life value that is known to be incorrect , the final reported calibrated date , in calendar years , is accurate . When a date is quoted , the reader should be aware that if it is an uncalibrated date ( a term used for dates given in radiocarbon years ) it may differ substantially from the best estimate of the actual calendar date , both because it uses the wrong value for the half @-@ life of 14C , and because no correction ( calibration ) has been applied for the historical variation of 14C in the atmosphere over time .
= = = Carbon exchange reservoir = = =
Carbon is distributed throughout the atmosphere , the biosphere , and the oceans ; these are referred to collectively as the carbon exchange reservoir , and each component is also referred to individually as a carbon exchange reservoir . The different elements of the carbon exchange reservoir vary in how much carbon they store , and in how long it takes for the 14C generated by cosmic rays to fully mix with them . This affects the ratio of 14C to 12C in the different reservoirs , and hence the radiocarbon ages of samples that originated in each reservoir . The atmosphere , which is where 14C is generated , contains about 1 @.@ 9 % of the total carbon in the reservoirs , and the 14C it contains mixes in less than seven years . The ratio of 14C to 12C in the atmosphere is taken as the baseline for the other reservoirs : if another reservoir has a lower ratio of 14C to 12C , it indicates that the carbon is older and hence that some of the 14C has decayed . The ocean surface is an example : it contains 2 @.@ 4 % of the carbon in the exchange reservoir , but there is only about 95 % as much 14C as would be expected if the ratio were the same as in the atmosphere . The time it takes for carbon from the atmosphere to mix with the surface ocean is only a few years , but the surface waters also receive water from the deep ocean , which has more than 90 % of the carbon in the reservoir . Water in the deep ocean takes about 1 @,@ 000 years to circulate back through surface waters , and so the surface waters contain a combination of older water , with depleted 14C , and water recently at the surface , with 14C in equilibrium with the atmosphere .
Creatures living at the ocean surface have the same 14C ratios as the water they live in , and as a result of the reduced 14C / 12C ratio , the radiocarbon age of marine life is typically about 440 years . Organisms on land are in closer equilibrium with the atmosphere and have the same 14C / 12C ratio as the atmosphere . These organisms contain about 1 @.@ 3 % of the carbon in the reservoir ; sea organisms have a mass of less than 1 % of those on land and are not shown on the diagram . Accumulated dead organic matter , of both plants and animals , exceeds the mass of the biosphere by a factor of nearly 3 , and since this matter is no longer exchanging carbon with its environment , it has a 14C / 12C ratio lower than that of the biosphere .
= = Dating considerations = =
The variation in the 14C / 12C ratio in different parts of the carbon exchange reservoir means that a straightforward calculation of the age of a sample based on the amount of 14C it contains will often give an incorrect result . There are several other possible sources of error that need to be considered . The errors are of four general types :
variations in the 14C / 12C ratio in the atmosphere , both geographically and over time ;
isotopic fractionation ;
variations in the 14C / 12C ratio in different parts of the reservoir ;
contamination .
= = = Atmospheric variation = = =
In the early years of using the technique , it was understood that it depended on the atmospheric 14C / 12C ratio having remained the same over the preceding few thousand years . To verify the accuracy of the method , several artefacts that were datable by other techniques were tested ; the results of the testing were in reasonable agreement with the true ages of the objects . Over time , however , discrepancies began to appear between the known chronology for the oldest Egyptian dynasties and the radiocarbon dates of Egyptian artefacts . Neither the pre @-@ existing Egyptian chronology nor the new radiocarbon dating method could be assumed to be accurate , but a third possibility was that the 14C / 12C ratio had changed over time . The question was resolved by the study of tree rings : comparison of overlapping series of tree rings allowed the construction of a continuous sequence of tree @-@ ring data that spanned 8 @,@ 000 years . ( Since that time the tree @-@ ring data series has been extended to 13 @,@ 900 years . ) In the 1960s , Hans Suess was able to use the tree @-@ ring sequence to show that the dates derived from radiocarbon were consistent with the dates assigned by Egyptologists . This was possible because although annual plants , such as corn , have a 14C / 12C ratio that reflects the atmospheric ratio at the time they were growing , trees only add material to their outermost tree ring in any given year , while the inner tree rings don 't get their 14C replenished and instead start losing 14C through decay . Hence each ring preserves a record of the atmospheric 14C / 12C ratio of the year it grew in . Carbon @-@ dating the wood from the tree rings themselves provides the check needed on the atmospheric 14C / 12C ratio : with a sample of known date , and a measurement of the value of N ( the number of atoms of 14C remaining in the sample ) , the carbon @-@ dating equation allows the calculation of N0 – the number of atoms of 14C in the sample at the time the tree ring was formed – and hence the 14C / 12C ratio in the atmosphere at that time . Armed with the results of carbon @-@ dating the tree rings , it became possible to construct calibration curves designed to correct the errors caused by the variation over time in the 14C / 12C ratio . These curves are described in more detail below .
Coal and oil began to be burned in large quantities during the 19th century . Both are sufficiently old that they contain little detectable 14C and , as a result , the CO
2 released substantially diluted the atmospheric 14C / 12C ratio . Dating an object from the early 20th century hence gives an apparent date older than the true date . For the same reason , 14C concentrations in the neighbourhood of large cities are lower than the atmospheric average . This fossil fuel effect ( also known as the Suess effect , after Hans Suess , who first reported it in 1955 ) would only amount to a reduction of 0 @.@ 2 % in 14C activity if the additional carbon from fossil fuels were distributed throughout the carbon exchange reservoir , but because of the long delay in mixing with the deep ocean , the actual effect is a 3 % reduction .
A much larger effect comes from above @-@ ground nuclear testing , which released large numbers of neutrons and created 14C . From about 1950 until 1963 , when atmospheric nuclear testing was banned , it is estimated that several tonnes of 14C were created . If all this extra 14C had immediately been spread across the entire carbon exchange reservoir , it would have led to an increase in the 14C / 12C ratio of only a few per cent , but the immediate effect was to almost double the amount of 14C in the atmosphere , with the peak level occurring in about 1965 . The level has since dropped , as the " bomb carbon " ( as it is sometimes called ) percolates into the rest of the reservoir .
= = = Isotopic fractionation = = =
Photosynthesis is the primary process by which carbon moves from the atmosphere into living things . In photosynthetic pathways 12C is absorbed slightly more easily than 13C , which in turn is more easily absorbed than 14C . The differential uptake of the three carbon isotopes leads to 13C / 12C and 14C / 12C ratios in plants that differ from the ratios in the atmosphere . This effect is known as isotopic fractionation .
To determine the degree of fractionation that takes place in a given plant , the amounts of both 12C and 13C isotopes are measured , and the resulting 13C / 12C ratio is then compared to a standard ratio known as PDB . The 13C / 12C ratio is used instead of 14C / 12C because the former is much easier to measure , and the latter can be easily derived : the depletion of 13C relative to 12C is proportional to the difference in the atomic masses of the two isotopes , so the depletion for 14C is twice the depletion of 13C . The fractionation of 13C , known as δ13C , is calculated as follows :
<formula>
where the ‰ sign indicates parts per thousand . Because the PDB standard contains an unusually high proportion of 13C , most measured δ13C values are negative .
For marine organisms , the details of the photosynthesis reactions are less well understood , and the δ13C values for marine photosynthetic organisms are dependent on temperature . At higher temperatures , CO
2 has poor solubility in water , which means there is less CO
2 available for the photosynthetic reactions . Under these conditions , fractionation is reduced , and at temperatures above 14 ° C the δ13C values are correspondingly higher , while at lower temperatures , CO
2 becomes more soluble and hence more available to marine organisms . The δ13C value for animals depends on their diet . An animal that eats food with high δ13C values will have a higher δ13C than one that eats food with lower δ13C values . The animal 's own biochemical processes can also impact the results : for example , both bone minerals and bone collagen typically have a higher concentration of 13C than is found in the animal 's diet , though for different biochemical reasons . The enrichment of bone 13C also implies that excreted material is depleted in 13C relative to the diet .
Since 13C makes up about 1 % of the carbon in a sample , the 13C / 12C ratio can be accurately measured by mass spectrometry . Typical values of δ13C have been found by experiment for many plants , as well as for different parts of animals such as bone collagen , but when dating a given sample it is better to determine the δ13C value for that sample directly than to rely on the published values .
The carbon exchange between atmospheric CO
2 and carbonate at the ocean surface is also subject to fractionation , with 14C in the atmosphere more likely than 12C to dissolve in the ocean . The result is an overall increase in the 14C / 12C ratio in the ocean of 1 @.@ 5 % , relative to the 14C / 12C ratio in the atmosphere . This increase in 14C concentration almost exactly cancels out the decrease caused by the upwelling of water ( containing old , and hence 14C depleted , carbon ) from the deep ocean , so that direct measurements of 14C radiation are similar to measurements for the rest of the biosphere . Correcting for isotopic fractionation , as is done for all radiocarbon dates to allow comparison between results from different parts of the biosphere , gives an apparent age of about 440 years for ocean surface water .
= = = Reservoir effects = = =
Libby 's original exchange reservoir hypothesis assumed that the 14C / 12C ratio in the exchange reservoir is constant all over the world , but it has since been discovered that there are several causes of variation in the ratio across the reservoir .
Marine effect
The CO
2 in the atmosphere transfers to the ocean by dissolving in the surface water as carbonate and bicarbonate ions ; at the same time the carbonate ions in the water are returning to the air as CO
2 . This exchange process brings14C from the atmosphere into the surface waters of the ocean , but the 14C thus introduced takes a long time to percolate through the entire volume of the ocean . The deepest parts of the ocean mix very slowly with the surface waters , and the mixing is uneven . The main mechanism that brings deep water to the surface is upwelling , which is more common in regions closer to the equator . Upwelling is also influenced by factors such as the topography of the local ocean bottom and coastlines , the climate , and wind patterns . Overall , the mixing of deep and surface waters takes far longer than the mixing of atmospheric CO
2 with the surface waters , and as a result water from some deep ocean areas has an apparent radiocarbon age of several thousand years . Upwelling mixes this " old " water with the surface water , giving the surface water an apparent age of about several hundred years ( after correcting for fractionation ) . This effect is not uniform – the average effect is about 440 years , but there are local deviations of several hundred years for areas that are geographically close to each other . The effect also applies to marine organisms such as shells , and marine mammals such as whales and seals , which have radiocarbon ages that appear to be hundreds of years old .
Hemisphere effect
The northern and southern hemispheres have atmospheric circulation systems that are sufficiently independent of each other that there is a noticeable time lag in mixing between the two . The atmospheric 14C / 12C ratio is lower in the southern hemisphere , with an apparent additional age of 30 years for radiocarbon results from the south as compared to the north . This is probably because the greater surface area of ocean in the southern hemisphere means that there is more carbon exchanged between the ocean and the atmosphere than in the north . Since the surface ocean is depleted in 14C because of the marine effect , 14C is removed from the southern atmosphere more quickly than in the north .
Other effects
If the carbon in freshwater is partly acquired from aged carbon , such as rocks , then the result will be a reduction in the 14C / 12C ratio in the water . For example , rivers that pass over limestone , which is mostly composed of calcium carbonate , will acquire carbonate ions . Similarly , groundwater can contain carbon derived from the rocks through which it has passed . These rocks are usually so old that they no longer contain any measurable 14C , so this carbon lowers the 14C / 12C ratio of the water it enters , which can lead to apparent ages of thousands of years for both the affected water and the plants and freshwater organisms that live in it . This is known as the hard water effect because it is often associated with calcium ions , which are characteristic of hard water ; other sources of carbon such as humus can produce similar results . The effect varies greatly and there is no general offset that can be applied ; additional research is usually needed to determine the size of the offset , for example by comparing the radiocarbon age of deposited freshwater shells with associated organic material .
Volcanic eruptions eject large amounts of carbon into the air . The carbon is of geological origin and has no detectable 14C , so the 14C / 12C ratio in the vicinity of the volcano is depressed relative to surrounding areas . Dormant volcanoes can also emit aged carbon . Plants that photosynthesize this carbon also have lower 14C / 12C ratios : for example , plants on the Greek island of Santorini , near the volcano , have apparent ages of up to a thousand years . These effects are hard to predict – the town of Akrotiri , on Santorini , was destroyed in a volcanic eruption thousands of years ago , but radiocarbon dates for objects recovered from the ruins of the town show surprisingly close agreement with dates derived from other means . If the dates for Akrotiri are confirmed , it would indicate that the volcanic effect in this case was minimal .
= = = Contamination = = =
Any addition of carbon to a sample of a different age will cause the measured date to be inaccurate . Contamination with modern carbon causes a sample to appear to be younger than it really is : the effect is greater for older samples . If a sample that is 17 @,@ 000 years old is contaminated so that 1 % of the sample is modern carbon , it will appear to be 600 years younger ; for a sample that is 34 @,@ 000 years old the same amount of contamination would cause an error of 4 @,@ 000 years . Contamination with old carbon , with no remaining 14C , causes an error in the other direction independent of age – a sample contaminated with 1 % old carbon will appear to be about 80 years older than it really is , regardless of the date of the sample .
= = Samples = =
Samples for dating need to be converted into a form suitable for measuring the 14C content ; this can mean conversion to gaseous , liquid , or solid form , depending on the measurement technique to be used . Before this can be done , the sample must be treated to remove any contamination and any unwanted constituents . This includes removing visible contaminants , such as rootlets that may have penetrated the sample since its burial . Alkali and acid washes can be used to remove humic acid and carbonate contamination , but care has to be taken to avoid destroying or damaging the sample .
= = = Material considerations = = =
It is common to reduce a wood sample to just the cellulose component before testing , but since this can reduce the volume of the sample to 20 % of its original size , testing of the whole wood is often performed as well . Charcoal is often tested but is likely to need treatment to remove contaminants .
Unburnt bone can be tested ; it is usual to date it using collagen , the protein fraction that remains after washing away the bone 's structural material . Hydroxyproline , one of the constituent amino acids in bone , was once thought to be a reliable indicator as it was not known to occur except in bone , but it has since been detected in groundwater .
For burnt bone , testability depends on the conditions under which the bone was burnt . If the bone was heated under reducing conditions , it ( and associated organic matter ) may have been carbonized . In this case the sample is often usable .
Shells from both marine and land organisms consist almost entirely of calcium carbonate , either as aragonite or as calcite , or some mixture of the two . Calcium carbonate is very susceptible to dissolving and recrystallizing ; the recrystallized material will contain carbon from the sample 's environment , which may be of geological origin . If testing recrystallized shell is unavoidable , it is sometimes possible to identify the original shell material from a sequence of tests . It is also possible to test conchiolin , an organic protein found in shell , but it constitutes only 1 – 2 % of shell material .
The three major components of peat are humic acid , humins , and fulvic acid . Of these , humins give the most reliable date as they are insoluble in alkali and less likely to contain contaminants from the sample 's environment . A particular difficulty with dried peat is the removal of rootlets , which are likely to be hard to distinguish from the sample material .
Soil contains organic material , but because of the likelihood of contamination by humic acid of more recent origin , it is very difficult to get satisfactory radiocarbon dates . It is preferable to sieve the soil for fragments of organic origin , and date the fragments with methods that are tolerant of small sample sizes .
Other materials that have been successfully dated include ivory , paper , textiles , individual seeds and grains , straw from within mud bricks , and charred food remains found in pottery .
= = = Preparation and size = = =
Particularly for older samples , it may be useful to enrich the amount of 14C in the sample before testing . This can be done with a thermal diffusion column . The process takes about a month and requires a sample about ten times as large as would be needed otherwise , but it allows more precise measurement of the 14C / 12C ratio in old material and extends the maximum age that can be reliably reported .
Once contamination has been removed , samples must be converted to a form suitable for the measuring technology to be used . Where gas is required , CO
2 is widely used . For samples to be used in liquid scintillation counters , the carbon must be in liquid form ; the sample is typically converted to benzene . For accelerator mass spectrometry , solid graphite targets are the most common , although iron carbide and gaseous CO
2 can also be used .
The quantity of material needed for testing depends on the sample type and the technology being used . There are two types of testing technology : detectors that record radioactivity , known as beta counters , and accelerator mass spectrometers . For beta counters , a sample weighing at least 10 grams ( 0 @.@ 35 ounces ) is typically required . Accelerator mass spectrometry ( AMS ) is much more sensitive , and samples as small as 0 @.@ 5 milligrams ( 0 @.@ 0077 grains ) can be used .
= = Measurement and results = =
For decades after Libby performed the first radiocarbon dating experiments , the only way to measure the 14C in a sample was to detect the radioactive decay of individual carbon atoms . In this approach , what is measured is the activity , in number of decay events per unit mass per time period , of the sample . This method is also known as " beta counting " , because it is the beta particles emitted by the decaying 14C atoms that are detected . In the late 1970s an alternative approach became available : directly counting the number of 14C and 12C atoms in a given sample , via accelerator mass spectrometry , usually referred to as AMS . AMS counts the 14C / 12C ratio directly , instead of the activity of the sample , but measurements of activity and 14C / 12C ratio can be converted into each other exactly . For some time , beta counting methods were more accurate than AMS , but as of 2014 AMS is more accurate and has become the method of choice for radiocarbon measurements . In addition to improved accuracy , AMS has two further significant advantages over beta counting : it can perform accurate testing on samples much too small for beta counting ; and it is much faster – an accuracy of 1 % can be achieved in minutes with AMS , which is far quicker than would be achievable with the older technology .
= = = Beta counting = = =
Libby 's first detector was a Geiger counter of his own design . He converted the carbon in his sample to lamp black ( soot ) and coated the inner surface of a cylinder with it . This cylinder was inserted into the counter in such a way that the counting wire was inside the sample cylinder , in order that there should be no material between the sample and the wire . Any interposing material would have interfered with the detection of radioactivity , since the beta particles emitted by decaying 14C are so weak that half are stopped by a 0 @.@ 01 mm thickness of aluminium .
Libby 's method was soon superseded by gas proportional counters , which were less affected by bomb carbon ( the additional 14C created by nuclear weapons testing ) . These counters record bursts of ionization caused by the beta particles emitted by the decaying 14C atoms ; the bursts are proportional to the energy of the particle , so other sources of ionization , such as background radiation , can be identified and ignored . The counters are surrounded by lead or steel shielding , to eliminate background radiation and to reduce the incidence of cosmic rays . In addition , anticoincidence detectors are used ; these record events outside the counter , and any event recorded simultaneously both inside and outside the counter is regarded as an extraneous event and ignored .
The other common technology used for measuring 14C activity is liquid scintillation counting , which was invented in 1950 , but which had to wait until the early 1960s , when efficient methods of benzene synthesis were developed , to become competitive with gas counting ; after 1970 liquid counters became the more common technology choice for newly constructed dating laboratories . The counters work by detecting flashes of light caused by the beta particles emitted by 14C as they interact with a fluorescing agent added to the benzene . Like gas counters , liquid scintillation counters require shielding and anticoincidence counters .
For both the gas proportional counter and liquid scintillation counter , what is measured is the number of beta particles detected in a given time period . Since the mass of the sample is known , this can be converted to a standard measure of activity in units of either counts per minute per gram of carbon ( cpm / g C ) , or becquerels per kg ( Bq / kg C , in SI units ) . Each measuring device is also used to measure the activity of a blank sample – a sample prepared from carbon old enough to have no activity . This provides a value for the background radiation , which must be subtracted from the measured activity of the sample being dated to get the activity attributable solely to that sample 's 14C . In addition , a sample with a standard activity is measured , to provide a baseline for comparison .
= = = Accelerator mass spectrometry = = =
AMS counts the atoms of 14C and 12C in a given sample , determining the 14C / 12C ratio directly . The sample , often in the form of graphite , is made to emit C − ions ( carbon atoms with a single negative charge ) , which are injected into an accelerator . The ions are accelerated and passed through a stripper , which removes several electrons so that the ions emerge with a positive charge . The C3 + ions are then passed through a magnet that curves their path ; the heavier ions are curved less than the lighter ones , so the different isotopes emerge as separate streams of ions . A particle detector then records the number of ions detected in the 14C stream , but since the volume of 12C ( and 13C , needed for calibration ) is too great for individual ion detection , counts are determined by measuring the electric current created in a Faraday cup . Some AMS facilities are also able to evaluate a sample 's fractionation , another piece of data necessary for calculating the sample 's radiocarbon age .
The use of AMS , as opposed to simpler forms of mass spectrometry , is necessary because of the need to distinguish the carbon isotopes from other atoms or molecules that are very close in mass , such as 14N and 13CH . As with beta counting , both blank samples and standard samples are used . Two different kinds of blank may be measured : a sample of dead carbon that has undergone no chemical processing , to detect any machine background , and a sample known as a process blank made from dead carbon that is processed into target material in exactly the same way as the sample which is being dated . Any 14C signal from the machine background blank is likely to be caused either by beams of ions that have not followed the expected path inside the detector , or by carbon hydrides such as 12CH
2 or 13CH . A 14C signal from the process blank measures the amount of contamination introduced during the preparation of the sample . These measurements are used in the subsequent calculation of the age of the sample .
= = = Calculations = = =
The calculations to be performed on the measurements taken depend on the technology used , since beta counters measure the sample 's radioactivity whereas AMS determines the ratio of the three different carbon isotopes in the sample .
To determine the age of a sample whose activity has been measured by beta counting , the ratio of its activity to the activity of the standard must be found . To determine this , a blank sample ( of old , or dead , carbon ) is measured , and a sample of known activity is measured . The additional samples allow errors such as background radiation and systematic errors in the laboratory setup to be detected and corrected for . The most common standard sample material is oxalic acid , such as the HOxII standard , 1 @,@ 000 lb of which was prepared by NIST in 1977 from French beet harvests .
The results from AMS testing are in the form of ratios of 12C , 13C , and 14C , which are used to calculate Fm , the " fraction modern " . This is defined as the ratio between the 14C / 12C ratio in the sample and the 14C / 12C ratio in modern carbon , which is in turn defined as the 14C / 12C ratio that would have been measured in 1950 had there been no fossil fuel effect .
Both beta counting and AMS results have to be corrected for fractionation . This is necessary because different materials of the same age , which because of fractionation have naturally different 14C / 12C ratios , will appear to be of different ages because the 14C / 12C ratio is taken as the indicator of age . To avoid this , all radiocarbon measurements are converted to the measurement that would have been seen had the sample been made of wood , which has a known δ13C value of − 25 ‰ .
Once the corrected 14C / 12C ratio is known , a " radiocarbon age " is calculated using :
<formula>
The calculation uses Libby 's half @-@ life of 5 @,@ 568 years , not the more accurate modern value of 5 @,@ 730 years . Libby ’ s value for the half @-@ life is used to maintain consistency with early radiocarbon testing results ; calibration curves include a correction for this , so the accuracy of final reported calendar ages is assured .
= = = Errors and reliability = = =
The reliability of the results can be improved by lengthening the testing time . For example , if counting beta decays for 250 minutes is enough to give an error of ± 80 years , with 68 % confidence , then doubling the counting time to 500 minutes will allow a sample with only half as much 14C to be measured with the same error term of 80 years .
Radiocarbon dating is generally limited to dating samples no more than 50 @,@ 000 years old , as samples older than that have insufficient 14C to be measurable . Older dates have been obtained by using special sample preparation techniques , large samples , and very long measurement times . These techniques can allow measurement of dates up to 60 @,@ 000 and in some cases up to 75 @,@ 000 years before the present .
Radiocarbon dates are generally presented with a range of one standard deviation ( usually represented by the Greek letter sigma as 1σ ) on either side of the mean . However , a date range of 1σ represents only 68 % confidence level , so the true age of the object being measured may lie outside the range of dates quoted . This was demonstrated in 1970 by an experiment run by the British Museum radiocarbon laboratory , in which weekly measurements were taken on the same sample for six months . The results varied widely ( though consistently with a normal distribution of errors in the measurements ) , and included multiple date ranges ( of 1σ confidence ) that did not overlap with each other . The measurements included one with a range from about 4250 to about 4390 years ago , and another with a range from about 4520 to about 4690 .
Errors in procedure can also lead to errors in the results . If 1 % of the benzene in a modern reference sample accidentally evaporates , scintillation counting will give a radiocarbon age that is too young by about 80 years .
= = = Calibration = = =
The calculations given above produce dates in radiocarbon years : i.e. dates that represent the age the sample would be if the 14C / 12C ratio had been constant historically . Although Libby had pointed out as early as 1955 the possibility that this assumption was incorrect , it was not until discrepancies began to accumulate between measured ages and known historical dates for artefacts that it became clear that a correction would need to be applied to radiocarbon ages to obtain calendar dates .
To produce a curve that can be used to relate calendar years to radiocarbon years , a sequence of securely dated samples is needed which can be tested to determine their radiocarbon age . The study of tree rings led to the first such sequence : individual pieces of wood show characteristic sequences of rings that vary in thickness because of environmental factors such as the amount of rainfall in a given year . These factors affect all trees in an area , so examining tree @-@ ring sequences from old wood allows the identification of overlapping sequences . In this way , an uninterrupted sequence of tree rings can be extended far into the past . The first such published sequence , based on bristlecone pine tree rings , was created by Wesley Ferguson . Hans Suess used this data to publish the first calibration curve for radiocarbon dating in 1967 . The curve showed two types of variation from the straight line : a long term fluctuation with a period of about 9 @,@ 000 years , and a shorter term variation , often referred to as " wiggles " , with a period of decades . Suess said he drew the line showing the wiggles by " cosmic schwung " , by which he meant that the variations were caused by extraterrestrial forces . It was unclear for some time whether the wiggles were real or not , but they are now well @-@ established . These short term fluctuations in the calibration curve are now known as de Vries effects , after Hessel de Vries .
A calibration curve is used by taking the radiocarbon date reported by a laboratory , and reading across from that date on the vertical axis of the graph . The point where this horizontal line intersects the curve will give the calendar age of the sample on the horizontal axis . This is the reverse of the way the curve is constructed : a point on the graph is derived from a sample of known age , such as a tree ring ; when it is tested , the resulting radiocarbon age gives a data point for the graph .
Over the next thirty years many calibration curves were published using a variety of methods and statistical approaches . These were superseded by the INTCAL series of curves , beginning with INTCAL98 , published in 1998 , and updated in 2004 , 2009 , and 2013 . The improvements to these curves are based on new data gathered from tree rings , varves , coral , plant macrofossils , speleothems , and foraminifera . The INTCAL13 data includes separate curves for the northern and southern hemispheres , as they differ systematically because of the hemisphere effect ; there is also a separate marine calibration curve . For a set of samples with a known sequence and separation in time such as a sequence of tree rings , the samples ' radiocarbon ages form a small subset of the calibration curve . The resulting curve can then be matched to the actual calibration curve by identifying where , in the range suggested by the radiocarbon dates , the wiggles in the calibration curve best match the wiggles in the curve of sample dates . This " wiggle @-@ matching " technique can lead to more precise dating than is possible with individual radiocarbon dates . Wiggle @-@ matching can be used in places where there is a plateau on the calibration curve , and hence can provide a much more accurate date than the intercept or probability methods are able to produce . The technique is not restricted to tree rings ; for example , a stratified tephra sequence in New Zealand , known to predate human colonization of the islands , has been dated to 1314 AD ± 12 years by wiggle @-@ matching . The wiggles also mean that reading a date from a calibration curve can give more than one answer : this occurs when the curve wiggles up and down enough that the radiocarbon age intercepts the curve in more than one place , which may lead to a radiocarbon result being reported as two separate age ranges , corresponding to the two parts of the curve that the radiocarbon age intercepted .
Bayesian statistical techniques can be applied when there are several radiocarbon dates to be calibrated . For example , if a series of radiocarbon dates is taken from different levels in a given stratigraphic sequence , Bayesian analysis can help determine if some of the dates should be discarded as anomalies , and can use the information to improve the output probability distributions . When Bayesian analysis was introduced , its use was limited by the need to use mainframe computers to perform the calculations , but the technique has since been implemented on programs available for personal computers , such as OxCal .
= = = Reporting dates = = =
Several formats for citing radiocarbon results have been used since the first samples were dated . As of 2014 , the standard format required by the journal Radiocarbon is as follows .
Uncalibrated dates should be reported as " < laboratory > : < 14C year > ± < range > BP " , where :
< laboratory > identifies the laboratory that tested the sample , and the sample ID
< 14C year > is the laboratory 's determination of the age of the sample , in radiocarbon years
< range > is the laboratory 's estimate of the error in the age , at 1σ confidence .
BP stands for " before present " , referring to a reference date of 1950 , so that 500 BP means the year 1450 AD .
For example , the uncalibrated date " UtC @-@ 2020 : 3510 ± 60 BP " indicates that the sample was tested by the Utrecht van der Graaf Laboratorium , where it has a sample number of 2020 , and that the uncalibrated age is 3510 years before present , ± 60 years . Related forms are sometimes used : for example , " 10 ka BP " means 10 @,@ 000 radiocarbon years before present ( i.e. 8 @,@ 050 BC ) , and 14C yr BP might be used to distinguish the uncalibrated date from a date derived from another dating method such as thermoluminescence .
Calibrated 14C dates are frequently reported as cal BP , cal BC , or cal AD , again with BP referring to the year 1950 as the zero date . Radiocarbon gives two options for reporting calibrated dates . A common format is " cal < date @-@ range > < confidence > " , where :
< date @-@ range > is the range of dates corresponding to the given confidence level
< confidence > indicates the confidence level for the given date range .
For example , " cal 1220 – 1281 AD ( 1σ ) " means a calibrated date for which the true date lies between 1220 AD and 1281 AD , with the confidence level given as 1σ , or one standard deviation . Calibrated dates can also be expressed as BP instead of using BC and AD . The curve used to calibrate the results should be the latest available INTCAL curve . Calibrated dates should also identify any programs , such as OxCal , used to perform the calibration . In addition , an article in Radiocarbon in 2014 about radiocarbon date reporting conventions recommends that information should be provided about sample treatment , including the sample material , pretreatment methods , and quality control measurements ; that the citation to the software used for calibration should specify the version number and any options or models used ; and that the calibrated date should be given with the associated probabilities for each range .
= = Use in archaeology = =
= = = Interpretation = = =
A key concept in interpreting radiocarbon dates is archaeological association : what is the true relationship between two or more objects at an archaeological site ? It frequently happens that a sample for radiocarbon dating can be taken directly from the object of interest , but there are also many cases where this is not possible . Metal grave goods , for example , cannot be radiocarbon dated , but they may be found in a grave with a coffin , charcoal , or other material which can be assumed to have been deposited at the same time . In these cases a date for the coffin or charcoal is indicative of the date of deposition of the grave goods , because of the direct functional relationship between the two . There are also cases where there is no functional relationship , but the association is reasonably strong : for example , a layer of charcoal in a rubbish pit provides a date which has a relationship to the rubbish pit .
Contamination is of particular concern when dating very old material obtained from archaeological excavations and great care is needed in the specimen selection and preparation . In 2014 , Tom Higham and co @-@ workers suggested that many of the dates published for Neanderthal artefacts are too recent because of contamination by " young carbon " .
As a tree grows , only the outermost tree ring exchanges carbon with its environment , so the age measured for a wood sample depends on where the sample is taken from . This means that radiocarbon dates on wood samples can be older than the date at which the tree was felled . In addition , if a piece of wood is used for multiple purposes , there may be a significant delay between the felling of the tree and the final use in the context in which it is found . This is often referred to as the " old wood " problem . One example is the Bronze Age trackway at Withy Bed Copse , in England ; the trackway was built from wood that had clearly been worked for other purposes before being re @-@ used in the trackway . Another example is driftwood , which may be used as construction material . It is not always possible to recognize re @-@ use . Other materials can present the same problem : for example , bitumen is known to have been used by some Neolithic communities to waterproof baskets ; the bitumen 's radiocarbon age will be greater than is measurable by the laboratory , regardless of the actual age of the context , so testing the basket material will give a misleading age if care is not taken . A separate issue , related to re @-@ use , is that of lengthy use , or delayed deposition . For example , a wooden object that remains in use for a lengthy period will have an apparent age greater than the actual age of the context in which it is deposited .
= = = Notable applications = = =
= = = = Pleistocene / Holocene boundary in Two Creeks Fossil Forest = = = =
The Pleistocene is a geological epoch that began about 2 @.@ 6 million years ago . The Holocene , the current geological epoch , begins about 11 @,@ 700 years ago , when the Pleistocene ends . Establishing the date of this boundary − which is defined by sharp climatic warming − as accurately as possible has been a goal of geologists for much of the 20th century . At Two Creeks , in Wisconsin , a fossil forest was discovered ( Two Creeks Buried Forest State Natural Area ) , and subsequent research determined that the destruction of the forest was caused by the Valders ice readvance , the last southward movement of ice before the end of the Pleistocene in that area . Before the advent of radiocarbon dating , the fossilized trees had been dated by correlating sequences of annually deposited layers of sediment at Two Creeks with sequences in Scandinavia . This led to estimates that the trees were between 24 @,@ 000 and 19 @,@ 000 years old , and hence this was taken to be the date of the last advance of the Wisconsin glaciation before its final retreat marked the end of the Pleistocene in North America . In 1952 Libby published radiocarbon dates for several samples from the Two Creeks site and two similar sites nearby ; the dates were averaged to 11 @,@ 404 BP with a standard error of 350 years . This result was uncalibrated , as the need for calibration of radiocarbon ages was not yet understood . Further results over the next decade supported an average date of 11 @,@ 350 BP , with the results thought to be most accurate averaging 11 @,@ 600 BP . There was initial resistance to these results on the part of Ernst Antevs , the palaeobotanist who had worked on the Scandinavian varve series , but his objections were eventually discounted by other geologists . In the 1990s samples were tested with AMS , yielding ( uncalibrated ) dates ranging from 11 @,@ 640 BP to 11 @,@ 800 BP , both with a standard error of 160 years . Subsequently a sample from the fossil forest was used in an interlaboratory test , with results provided by over 70 laboratories . These tests produced a median age of 11 @,@ 788 ± 8 BP ( 2σ confidence ) which when calibrated gives a date range of 13 @,@ 730 to 13 @,@ 550 cal BP . The Two Creeks radiocarbon dates are now regarded as a key result in developing the modern understanding of North American glaciation at the end of the Pleistocene .
= = = = Dead Sea Scrolls = = = =
In 1947 , scrolls were discovered in caves near the Dead Sea that proved to contain writing in Hebrew and Aramaic , most of which are thought to have been produced by the Essenes , a small Jewish sect . These scrolls are of great significance in the study of Biblical texts because many of them contain the earliest known version of books of the Hebrew bible . A sample of the linen wrapping from one of these scrolls , the Great Isaiah Scroll , was included in a 1955 analysis by Libby , with an estimated age of 1 @,@ 917 ± 200 years . Based on an analysis of the writing style , palaeographic estimates were made of the age of 21 of the scrolls , and samples from most of these , along with other scrolls which had not been palaeographically dated , were tested by two AMS laboratories in the 1990s . The results ranged in age from the early 4th century BC to the mid 4th century AD . In many cases the scrolls were determined to be older than the palaeographically determined age . The Isaiah scroll was included in the testing and was found to have two possible date ranges at a 2σ confidence level , because of the shape of the calibration curve at that point : there is a 15 % chance that it dates from 355 − 295 BC , and an 84 % chance that it dates from 210 − 45 BC . Subsequently these dates were criticized on the grounds that before the scrolls were tested , they had been treated with modern castor oil in order to make the writing easier to read ; it was argued that failure to remove the castor oil sufficiently would have caused the dates to be too young . Multiple papers have been published both supporting and opposing the criticism .
= = = Impact = = =
Soon after the publication of Libby 's 1949 paper in Science , universities around the world began establishing radiocarbon @-@ dating laboratories , and by the end of the 1950s there were more than 20 active 14C research laboratories . It quickly became apparent that the principles of radiocarbon dating were valid , despite certain discrepancies , the causes of which then remained unknown .
The development of radiocarbon dating has had a profound impact on archaeology - often described as the " radiocarbon revolution " . In the words of anthropologist R. E. Taylor , " 14C data made a world prehistory possible by contributing a time scale that transcends local , regional and continental boundaries " . It provides more accurate dating within sites than previous methods , which usually derived either from stratigraphy or from typologies ( e.g. of stone tools or pottery ) ; it also allows comparison and synchronization of events across great distances . The advent of radiocarbon dating may even have led to better field methods in archaeology , since better data recording leads to firmer association of objects with the samples to be tested . These improved field methods were sometimes motivated by attempts to prove that a 14C date was incorrect . Taylor also suggests that the availability of definite date information freed archaeologists from the need to focus so much of their energy on determining the dates of their finds , and led to an expansion of the questions archaeologists were willing to research . For example , from the 1970s questions about the evolution of human behaviour were much more frequently seen in archaeology .
The dating framework provided by radiocarbon led to a change in the prevailing view of how innovations spread through prehistoric Europe . Researchers had previously thought that many ideas spread by diffusion through the continent , or by invasions of peoples bringing new cultural ideas with them . As radiocarbon dates began to prove these ideas wrong in many instances , it became apparent that these innovations must sometimes have arisen locally . This has been described as a " second radiocarbon revolution " , and with regard to British prehistory , archaeologist Richard Atkinson has characterized the impact of radiocarbon dating as " radical ... therapy " for the " progressive disease of invasionism " . More broadly , the success of radiocarbon dating stimulated interest in analytical and statistical approaches to archaeological data . Taylor has also described the impact of AMS , and the ability to obtain accurate measurements from very small samples , as ushering in a third radiocarbon revolution .
Occasionally , radiocarbon dating techniques date an object of popular interest , for example the Shroud of Turin , a piece of linen cloth thought by some to bear an image of Jesus Christ after his crucifixion . Three separate laboratories dated samples of linen from the Shroud in 1988 ; the results pointed to 14th @-@ century origins , raising doubts about the shroud 's authenticity as an alleged 1st @-@ century relic .
Researchers have studied other radioactive isotopes created by cosmic rays to determine if they could also be used to assist in dating objects of archaeological interest ; such isotopes include 3He , 10Be , 21Ne , 26Al , and 36Cl . With the development of AMS in the 1980s it became possible to measure these isotopes precisely enough for them to be the basis of useful dating techniques , which have been primarily applied to dating rocks . Naturally occurring radioactive isotopes can also form the basis of dating methods , as with potassium – argon dating , argon – argon dating , and uranium series dating . Other dating techniques of interest to archaeologists include thermoluminescence , optically stimulated luminescence , electron spin resonance , and fission track dating , as well as techniques that depend on annual bands or layers , such as dendrochronology , tephrochronology , and varve chronology .
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= Oroville Dam =
Oroville Dam is an earthfill embankment dam on the Feather River east of the city of Oroville , California in the United States . At 770 feet ( 230 m ) high , it is the tallest dam in the U.S. and serves mainly for water supply , hydroelectricity generation and flood control . The dam impounds Lake Oroville , the second largest man @-@ made lake in the state of California , capable of storing more than 3 @.@ 5 million acre @-@ feet ( 4 @.@ 4 km3 ) , and is located in the Sierra Nevada foothills east of the Sacramento Valley .
Built by the California Department of Water Resources ( DWR ) , Oroville Dam is one of the key features of the California State Water Project ( SWP ) , one of two major projects passed that set up California 's statewide water system . Construction was initiated in 1961 , and despite numerous difficulties encountered during its construction , including multiple floods and a major train wreck on the rail line used to transport materials to the dam site , the embankment was topped out in 1967 and the entire project was ready for use in 1968 . The dam began to generate electricity after completion of the Edward Hyatt Pump @-@ Generating Plant , then the country 's largest underground power station .
Since its completion in 1968 , the Oroville Dam has allocated the flow of the Feather River from the Sacramento @-@ San Joaquin Delta into the State Water Project 's California Aqueduct , which provides a major supply of water for irrigation in the San Joaquin Valley as well as municipal and industrial water supplies to coastal Southern California , and has prevented large amounts of flood damage to the area – more than $ 1 @.@ 3 billion between the years of 1987 and 1999 . The dam has confined fish migration up the Feather River and the controlled flow of the river as a result of the Oroville Dam has affected riparian habitat . Multiple aims at trying to counter the dam 's impacts on anadromous fish have included the construction of a salmon / steelhead incubator on the river which began shortly after the dam was completed .
= = History = =
In 1935 , work began on the Central Valley Project ( CVP ) , a federal water project that would develop the Sacramento and San Joaquin river systems for irrigation of the highly fertile Central Valley . However , after the end of World War II in 1945 , the state experienced an economic boom that led to rapid urban and commercial growth in the central and southern portions of the state , and it became clear that California 's economy could not depend solely on a state water system geared primarily towards agriculture . A new study of California 's water supplies by the Division of Water Resources ( now California Department of Water Resources , DWR ) was carried out under an act of the California State Legislature in 1945 .
In 1951 , California State Engineer A.D. Edmonston proposed the Feather River Project , the direct predecessor to the SWP , which included a major dam on the Feather River at Oroville , and aqueducts and pumping plants to transfer stored water to destinations in central and southern California . The proposed project was strongly opposed by voters in Northern California and parts of Southern California that received water from the Colorado River , but was supported by other Southern Californians and San Joaquin Valley farmers . However , major flooding in the 1950s prompted the 1957 passage of an emergency flood @-@ control bill that provided sufficient funding for construction for a dam at Oroville , whether it would be part of the SWP or not . Groundbreaking on the dam site occurred in May 1957 with the relocation of the Western Pacific Railroad tracks that ran through the Feather River canyon . The Burns @-@ Porter Act , which authorized the SWP , was not passed until November 8 , 1960 – and only by a slim margin . Engineer Donald Thayer of the DWR was commissioned to design and head construction of Oroville Dam , and the primary work contract was awarded to Oro Dam Constructors Inc . , a joint venture led by Oman Construction Co .
Two concrete @-@ lined diversion tunnels , each 4 @,@ 400 feet ( 1 @,@ 300 m ) long and 35 feet ( 11 m ) in diameter , were excavated to channel the Feather River around the dam site . One of the tunnels was located at river level and would carry normal water flows , while the second one would only be used during floods . In May 1963 , workers poured the last of 252 @,@ 000 cubic yards ( 193 @,@ 000 m3 ) of concrete that comprised the 128 @-@ foot ( 39 m ) high cofferdam , which would protect the construction site from floods . This structure would later serve as an impervious core for the completed dam . With the cofferdam in place , an 11 @-@ mile ( 18 km ) rail line was constructed to move earth and rock to the dam site . An average of 120 train cars ran along the line each hour , transporting fill that was mainly excavated from enormous piles of hydraulic mining debris that were washed down by the Feather River after the California Gold Rush .
On December 22 , 1964 , disaster nearly struck when the Feather River , after days of heavy rain , reached a peak flow of 250 @,@ 000 cubic feet per second ( 7 @,@ 100 m3 / s ) above the Oroville Dam site . The water rose behind the partially completed embankment dam and nearly overtopped it , while a maximum of 157 @,@ 000 cubic feet per second ( 4 @,@ 400 m3 / s ) poured from the diversion tunnels . This Christmas flood of 1964 was one of the most disastrous floods on record in Northern California , but the incomplete dam was able to reduce the peak flow of the Feather River by nearly 40 percent , averting massive amounts of damage to the area . Ten months later , four men died in a tragic accident on the construction rail line . On October 7 , 1965 , two 40 @-@ car work trains , one fully loaded and the other empty , collided head @-@ on at a tunnel entrance , igniting 10 @,@ 000 US gallons ( 38 @,@ 000 l ) of diesel fuel , completely destroying the two locomotives . The burning fuel from the collision started a forest fire that burned 100 acres ( 40 ha ) before it could be extinguished . The crash delayed construction of the Dam by a week while the train wreckage was cleared .
Oroville Dam was designed to withstand the strongest possible earthquake for the region , and was fitted with hundreds of instruments that serve to measure water pressure and settlement of the earth fill used in its construction , earning it the nickname " the dam that talks back " . ( It is believed that a MW 5 @.@ 7 earthquake in the Oroville area in 1975 was caused by induced seismicity from the weight of the Oroville Dam and reservoir itself on a local fault line . ) The embankment was finally topped out on October 6 , 1967 , with the last of 155 million tons ( 140 @.@ 6 million t ) of material that took over 40 @,@ 000 train trips to transport . On May 4 , 1968 Oroville Dam was officially dedicated by the state of California . Among the notable figures present were Chief Justice ( formerly California governor ) Earl Warren , Senator Thomas Kuchel , and California Representative Harold T. " Bizz " Johnson . The dedication was accompanied by a week of festivities in nearby Oroville , attended by nearly 50 @,@ 000 people .
= = Operations = =
Construction of the underground Edward Hyatt Pump @-@ Generating Plant was finished shortly after the completion of Oroville Dam . At the time , it was the largest underground power station in the United States , with three 132 megawatt ( MW ) conventional turbines and three 141 MW pump @-@ generators for a total installed capacity of 819 MW . The Hyatt Powerplant is capable of pumping water back into Lake Oroville when surplus power is available . The pump @-@ generators at Hyatt can lift up to 5 @,@ 610 cubic feet per second ( 159 m3 / s ) into Lake Oroville ( with a net consumption of 519 MW ) , while the six turbines combined utilize a flow of 16 @,@ 950 cubic feet per second ( 480 m3 / s ) at maximum generation .
Since 1969 , the Hyatt plant has worked in tandem with an extensive pumped @-@ storage operation comprising two offstream reservoirs west of Oroville . These two facilities are collectively known as the Oroville @-@ Thermalito Complex . Water is diverted into the upper Thermalito reservoir ( Thermalito Forebay ) via the Thermalito Diversion Dam on the Feather River . During periods of off @-@ peak power use , surplus energy generated at Hyatt is used to lift water from Thermalito 's lower reservoir ( the Thermalito Afterbay ) to the forebay , which releases water back into the afterbay to generate up to 114 MW of power at times of high demand . The Hyatt and Thermalito plants produce an average of 2 @.@ 2 billion kilowatt hours ( KWh ) of electricity each year , about half of the total power produced by the SWP 's eight hydroelectric facilities .
Water released from Oroville Dam travels down the Feather River before joining with the Sacramento River , eventually reaching the Sacramento @-@ San Joaquin Delta , where the SWP 's California Aqueduct diverts the freshwater for transport to the arid San Joaquin Valley and Southern California . Oroville @-@ Thermalito hydroelectric facilities furnish about one @-@ third of the power necessary to drive the pumps that lift the water in the aqueduct from the delta into the valley , and then from the valley over the Tehachapi Mountains into coastal southern California . Water and power from the dam contributes to the irrigation of 755 @,@ 000 acres ( 306 @,@ 000 ha ) in the arid San Joaquin Valley Westside and municipal supplies to some 25 million people .
During the winter and early spring , Lake Oroville is required to have at least 750 @,@ 000 acre feet ( 0 @.@ 93 km3 ) , or a fifth of the reservoir 's storage capacity , available for flood control . The dam is operated to maintain an objective flood @-@ control release of 150 @,@ 000 cubic feet per second ( 4 @,@ 200 m3 / s ) , which may be further reduced during large storms when flows below the Feather 's confluence with the Yuba River exceed 300 @,@ 000 cubic feet per second ( 8 @,@ 500 m3 / s ) . In the particularly devastating flood of 1997 inflows to the reservoir hit more than 331 @,@ 000 cubic feet per second ( 9 @,@ 400 m3 / s ) , but dam operators managed to limit the outflow to 160 @,@ 000 cubic feet per second ( 4 @,@ 500 m3 / s ) , sparing large regions of the Sacramento Valley from flooding .
Oroville Dam completely blocks migrations of Chinook salmon and steelhead in the Feather River . In 1967 , in an effort to compensate for lost habitat , the DWR and the California Department of Fish and Game completed the Feather River Fish Hatchery . The Fish Barrier Dam , built in 1962 , intercepts fish before they reach the base of the impassable Thermalito Diversion Dam and forces them to swim up a fish ladder to the hatchery , which is located on the north bank of the Feather River . The hatchery produces 10 million salmon smolt to stock in the river each year , with 20 % for the spring run and 80 % for the fall run . This facility has been successful enough that there is concern that salmon of hatchery stock is out @-@ competing remaining wild salmon in the Feather River system .
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= Constantine II of Scotland =
Constantine , son of Áed ( Medieval Gaelic : Constantín mac Áeda ; Modern Gaelic : Còiseam mac Aoidh , known in most modern regnal lists as Constantine II ; before 879 – 952 ) was an early King of Scotland , known then by the Gaelic name Alba . The Kingdom of Alba , a name which first appears in Constantine 's lifetime , was in northern Great Britain . The core of the kingdom was formed by the lands around the River Tay . Its southern limit was the River Forth , northwards it extended towards the Moray Firth and perhaps to Caithness , while its western limits are uncertain . Constantine 's grandfather Kenneth I of Scotland ( Cináed mac Ailpín , died 858 ) was the first of the family recorded as a king , but as king of the Picts . This change of title , from king of the Picts to king of Alba , is part of a broader transformation of Pictland and the origins of the Kingdom of Alba are traced to Constantine 's lifetime .
His reign , like those of his predecessors , was dominated by the actions of Viking rulers in the British Isles , particularly the Uí Ímair ( " the grandsons of Ímar " , or Ivar the Boneless ) . During Constantine 's reign the rulers of the southern kingdoms of Wessex and Mercia , later the Kingdom of England , extended their authority northwards into the disputed kingdoms of Northumbria . At first allied with the southern rulers against the Vikings , Constantine in time came into conflict with them . King Æthelstan was successful in securing Constantine 's submission in 927 and 934 , but the two again fought when Constantine , allied with the Strathclyde Britons and the Viking king of Dublin , invaded Æthelstan 's kingdom in 937 , only to be defeated at the great battle of Brunanburh . In 943 Constantine abdicated the throne and retired to the Céli Dé ( Culdee ) monastery of St Andrews where he died in 952 . He was succeeded by his predecessor 's son Malcolm I ( Máel Coluim mac Domnaill ) .
Constantine 's reign of 43 years , exceeded in Scotland only by that of King William the Lion before the Union of the Crowns in 1603 , is believed to have played a defining part in the gaelicisation of Pictland , in which his patronage of the Irish Céli Dé monastic reformers was a significant factor . During his reign the words " Scots " and " Scotland " ( Old English : Scottas , Scotland ) are first used to mean part of what is now Scotland . The earliest evidence for the ecclesiastical and administrative institutions which would last until the Davidian Revolution also appears at this time .
= = Pictland from Constantín mac Fergusa to Constantine I = =
The dominant kingdom in eastern Scotland before the Viking Age was the northern Pictish kingdom of Fortriu on the shores of the Moray Firth . By the 9th century , the Gaels of Dál Riata ( Dalriada ) were subject to the kings of Fortriu of the family of Constantín mac Fergusa ( Constantine son of Fergus ) . Constantín 's family dominated Fortriu after 789 and perhaps , if Constantín was a kinsman of Óengus I of the Picts ( Óengus son of Fergus ) , from around 730 . The dominance of Fortriu came to an end in 839 with a defeat by Viking armies reported by the Annals of Ulster in which King Uen of Fortriu and his brother Bran , Constantín 's nephews , together with the king of Dál Riata , Áed mac Boanta , " and others almost innumerable " were killed . These deaths led to a period of instability lasting a decade as several families attempted to establish their dominance in Pictland . By around 848 Kenneth MacAlpin had emerged as the winner .
Later national myth made Kenneth MacAlpin the creator of the kingdom of Scotland , the founding of which was dated from 843 , the year in which he was said to have destroyed the Picts and inaugurated a new era . The historical record for 9th century Scotland is meagre , but the Irish annals and the 10th @-@ century Chronicle of the Kings of Alba agree that Kenneth was a Pictish king , and call him " king of the Picts " at his death . The same style is used of Kenneth 's brother Donald I ( Domnall mac Ailpín ) and sons Constantine I ( Constantín mac Cináeda ) and Áed ( Áed mac Cináeda ) .
The kingdom ruled by Kenneth 's descendants — older works used the name House of Alpin to describe them but descent from Kenneth was the defining factor , Irish sources referring to Clann Cináeda meic Ailpín ( " the Clan of Kenneth MacAlpin " ) — lay to the south of the previously dominant kingdom of Fortriu , centred in the lands around the River Tay . The extent of Kenneth 's nameless kingdom is uncertain , but it certainly extended from the Firth of Forth in the south to the Mounth in the north . Whether it extended beyond the mountainous spine of north Britain — Druim Alban — is unclear . The core of the kingdom was similar to the old counties of Mearns , Forfar , Perth , Fife , and Kinross . Among the chief ecclesiastical centres named in the records are Dunkeld , probably seat of the bishop of the kingdom , and Cell Rígmonaid ( modern St Andrews ) .
Kenneth 's son Constantine died in 876 , probably killed fighting against a Viking army which had come north from Northumbria in 874 . According to the king lists , he was counted the 70th and last king of the Picts in later times .
= = Britain and Ireland at the end of the 9th century = =
In 899 Alfred the Great , king of Wessex , died leaving his son Edward the Elder as ruler of Britain south of the River Thames and his daughter Æthelflæd and son @-@ in @-@ law Æthelred ruling the western , English part of Mercia . The situation in the Danish kingdoms of eastern Britain is less clear . King Eohric was probably ruling in East Anglia , but no dates can reliably be assigned to the successors of Guthfrith of York in Northumbria . It is known that Guthfrith was succeeded by Sigurd and Cnut , although whether these men ruled jointly or one after the other is uncertain . Northumbria may have been divided by this time between the Viking kings in York and the local rulers , perhaps represented by Eadulf , based at Bamburgh who controlled the lands from the River Tyne or River Tees to the Forth in the north .
In Ireland , Flann Sinna , married to Constantine 's aunt Máel Muire , was dominant . The years around 900 represented a period of weakness among the Vikings and Norse @-@ Gaels of Dublin . They are reported to have been divided between two rival leaders . In 894 one group left Dublin , perhaps settling on the Irish Sea coast of Britain between the River Mersey and the Firth of Clyde . The remaining Dubliners were expelled in 902 by Flann Sinna 's son @-@ in @-@ law Cerball mac Muirecáin , and soon afterwards appeared in western and northern Britain .
To the south @-@ west of Constantine 's lands lay the kingdom of Strathclyde . This extended north into the Lennox , east to the River Forth , and south into the Southern Uplands . In 900 it was probably ruled by King Dyfnwal .
The situation of the Gaelic kingdoms of Dál Riata in western Scotland is uncertain . No kings are known by name after Áed mac Boanta . The Frankish Annales Bertiniani may record the conquest of the Inner Hebrides , the seaward part of Dál Riata , by Northmen in 849 . In addition to these , the arrival of new groups of Vikings from northern and western Europe was still commonplace . Whether there were Viking or Norse @-@ Gael kingdoms in the Western Isles or the Northern Isles at this time is debated .
= = Early life = =
Áed , Constantine 's father , succeeded Constantine 's uncle and namesake Constantine I in 876 but was killed in 878 . Áed 's short reign is glossed as being of no importance by most king lists . Although the date of his birth is nowhere recorded , Constantine II cannot have been born any later than the year after his father 's death , that is 879 . His name may suggest that he was born rather earlier , during the reign of his uncle Constantine I.
After Áed 's death there is a two decade gap until the death of Donald II ( Domnall mac Constantín ) in 900 during which nothing is reported in the Irish annals . The entry for the reign between Áed and Donald II is corrupt in the Chronicle of the Kings of Alba , and in this case the Chronicle is at variance with every other king list . According to the Chronicle , Áed was followed by Eochaid , a grandson of Kenneth MacAlpin , who is somehow connected with Giric , but all other lists say that Giric ruled after Áed and make great claims for him . Giric is not known to have been a kinsman of Kenneth 's , although it has been suggested that he was related to him by marriage . The major changes in Pictland which began at about this time have been associated by Alex Woolf and Archie Duncan with Giric 's reign .
Woolf suggests that Constantine and his cousin Donald may have passed Giric 's reign in exile in Ireland where their aunt Máel Muire was wife of two successive High Kings of Ireland , Áed Findliath and Flann Sinna . Giric died in 889 . If he had been in exile , Constantine may have returned to Pictland where his cousin Donald II became king . Donald 's reputation is suggested by the epithet dasachtach , a word used of violent madmen and mad bulls , attached to him in the 11th @-@ century writings of Flann Mainistrech , echoed by the his description in the Prophecy of Berchan as " the rough one who will think relics and psalms of little worth " . Wars with the Viking kings in Britain and Ireland continued during Donald 's reign and he was probably killed fighting yet more Vikings at Dunnottar in the Mearns in 900 . Constantine succeeded him as king .
= = Vikings and bishops = =
The earliest event recorded in the Chronicle of the Kings of Alba in Constantine 's reign is an attack by Vikings and the plundering of Dunkeld " and all Albania " in his third year . This is the first use of the word Albania , the Latin form of the Old Irish Alba , in the Chronicle which until then describes the lands ruled by the descendants of Cináed as Pictavia .
These Northmen may have been some of those who were driven out of Dublin in 902 , but could also have been the same group who had defeated Domnall in 900 . The Chronicle states that the Northmen were killed in Srath Erenn , which is confirmed by the Annals of Ulster which records the death of Ímar grandson of Ímar and many others at the hands of the men of Fortriu in 904 . This Ímar was the first of the Uí Ímair , that is the grandsons of Ímar , to be reported ; three more grandsons of Ímar appear later in Constantín 's reign . The Fragmentary Annals of Ireland contain an account of the battle , and this attributes the defeat of the Norsemen to the intercession of Saint Columba following fasting and prayer . An entry in the Chronicon Scotorum under the year 904 may possibly contain a corrupted reference to this battle .
The next event reported by the Chronicle of the Kings of Alba is dated to 906 . This records that :
King Constantine and Bishop Cellach met at the Hill of Belief near the royal city of Scone and pledged themselves that the laws and disciplines of the faith , and the laws of churches and gospels , should be kept pariter cum Scottis .
The meaning of this entry , and its significance , have been the subject of debate .
The phrase pariter cum Scottis in the Latin text of the Chronicle has been translated in several ways . William Forbes Skene and Alan Orr Anderson proposed that it should be read as " in conformity with the customs of the Gaels " , relating it to the claims in the king lists that Giric liberated the church from secular oppression and adopted Irish customs . It has been read as " together with the Gaels " , suggesting either public participation or the presence of Gaels from the western coasts as well as the people of the east coast . Finally , it is suggested that it was the ceremony which followed " the custom of the Gaels " and not the agreements .
The idea that this gathering agreed to uphold Irish laws governing the church has suggested that it was an important step in the gaelicisation of the lands east of Druim Alban . Others have proposed that the ceremony in some way endorsed Constantine 's kingship , prefiguring later royal inaugurations at Scone . Alternatively , if Bishop Cellach was appointed by Giric , it may be that the gathering was intended to heal a rift between king and church .
= = Return of the Uí Ímair = =
Following the events at Scone , there is little of substance reported for a decade . A story in the Fragmentary Annals of Ireland , perhaps referring to events some time after 911 , claims that Queen Æthelflæd , who ruled in Mercia , allied with the Irish and northern rulers against the Norsemen on the Irish sea coasts of Northumbria . The Annals of Ulster record the defeat of an Irish fleet from the kingdom of Ulaid by Vikings " on the coast of England " at about this time .
In this period the Chronicle of the Kings of Alba reports the death of Cormac mac Cuilennáin , king of Munster , in the eighth year of Constantine 's reign . This is followed by an undated entry which was formerly read as " In his time Domnall [ i.e. Dyfnwal ] , king of the [ Strathclyde ] Britons died , and Domnall son of Áed was elected " . This was thought to record the election of a brother of Constantine named Domnall to the kingship of the Britons of Strathclyde and was seen as early evidence of the domination of Strathclyde by the kings of Alba . The entry in question is now read as " ... Dynfwal ... and Domnall son Áed king of Ailech died " , this Domnall being a son of Áed Findliath who died on 21 March 915 . Finally , the deaths of Flann Sinna and Niall Glúndub are recorded .
There are more reports of Viking fleets in the Irish Sea from 914 onwards . By 916 fleets under Sihtric Cáech and Ragnall , said to be grandsons of Ímar ( that is , they belonged to the same Uí Ímair kindred as the Ímar who was killed in 904 ) , were very active in Ireland . Sihtric inflicted a heavy defeat on the armies of Leinster and retook Dublin in 917 . The following year Ragnall appears to have returned across the Irish sea intent on establishing himself as king at York . The only precisely dated event in the summer of 918 is the death of Queen Æthelflæd on 12 June 918 at Tamworth , Staffordshire . Æthelflæd had been negotiating with the Northumbrians to obtain their submission , but her death put an end to this and her successor , her brother Edward the Elder , was occupied with securing control of Mercia .
The northern part of Northumbria , and perhaps the whole kingdom , had probably been ruled by Ealdred son of Eadulf since 913 . Faced with Ragnall 's invasion , Ealdred came north seeking assistance from Constantine . The two advanced south to face Ragnall , and this led to a battle somewhere on the banks of the River Tyne , probably at Corbridge where Dere Street crosses the river . The Battle of Corbridge appears to have been indecisive ; the Chronicle of the Kings of Alba is alone in giving Constantine the victory .
The report of the battle in the Annals of Ulster says that none of the kings or mormaers among the men of Alba were killed . This is the first surviving use of the word mormaer ; other than the knowledge that Constantine 's kingdom had its own bishop or bishops and royal villas , this is the only hint to the institutions of the kingdom .
After Corbridge , Ragnall enjoyed only a short respite . In the south , Alfred 's son Edward had rapidly secured control of Mercia and had a burh constructed at Bakewell in the Peak District from which his armies could easily strike north . An army from Dublin led by Ragnall 's kinsman Sihtric struck at north @-@ western Mercia in 919 , but in 920 or 921 Edward met with Ragnall and other kings . The Anglo @-@ Saxon Chronicle states that these king " chose Edward as father and lord " . Among the other kings present were Constantine , Ealdred son of Eadwulf , and the king of Strathclyde , either Dyfnwal II or , more probably , Owen I. Here , again , a new term appears in the record , the Anglo @-@ Saxon Chronicle for the first time using the word scottas , from which Scots derives , to describe the inhabitants of Constantine 's kingdom in its report of these events .
Edward died in 924 . His realms appear to have been divided with the West Saxons recognising Ælfweard while the Mercians chose Æthelstan who had been raised at Æthelflæd 's court . Ælfweard died within weeks of his father and Æthelstan was inaugurated as king of all of Edward 's lands in 925 .
= = Æthelstan = =
By 926 Sihtric had evidently acknowledged Æthelstan as over @-@ king , adopting Christianity and marrying a sister of Æthelstan at Tamworth . Within the year he may have abandoned his new faith and repudiated his wife , but before Æthelstan and he could fight , Sihtric died suddenly in 927 . His kinsman , perhaps brother , Gofraid , who had remained as his deputy in Dublin , came from Ireland to take power in York , but failed . Æthelstan moved quickly , seizing much of Northumbria . In less than a decade , the kingdom of the English had become by far the greatest power in Britain and Ireland , perhaps stretching as far north as the Firth of Forth .
John of Worcester 's chronicle suggests that Æthelstan faced opposition from Constantine , from Owain of Strathclyde , and from the Welsh kings . William of Malmesbury writes that Gofraid , together with Sihtric 's young son Olaf Cuaran fled north and received refuge from Constantine , which led to war with Æthelstan . A meeting at Eamont Bridge on 12 July 927 was sealed by an agreement that Constantine , Owen of Strathclyde , Hywel Dda , and Ealdred would " renounce all idolatry " : that is , they would not ally with the Viking kings . William states that Æthelstan stood godfather to a son of Constantine , probably Indulf ( Ildulb mac Constantín ) , during the conference .
Æthelstan followed up his advances in the north by securing the recognition of the Welsh kings . For the next seven years , the record of events in the north is blank . Æthelstan 's court was attended by the Welsh kings , but not by Constantine or Owen of Strathclyde . This absence of record means that Æthelstan 's reasons for marching north against Constantine in 934 are unclear .
Æthelstan 's campaign is reported by in brief by the Anglo @-@ Saxon Chronicle , and later chroniclers such as John of Worcester , William of Malmesbury , Henry of Huntingdon , and Symeon of Durham add detail to that bald account . Æthelstan 's army began gathering at Winchester by 28 May 934 , and reached Nottingham by 7 June . He was accompanied by many leaders , including the Welsh kings Hywel Dda , Idwal Foel , and Morgan ab Owain . From Mercia the army went north , stopping at Chester @-@ le @-@ Street , before resuming the march accompanied by a fleet of ships . Owen of Strathclyde was defeated and Symeon states that the army went as far north as Dunnottar and Fortriu , while the fleet is said to have raided Caithness , by which a much larger area , including Sutherland , is probably intended . It is unlikely that Constantine 's personal authority extended so far north , and while the attacks may have been directed at his allies , they may also have been simple looting expeditions .
The Annals of Clonmacnoise state that " the Scottish men compelled [ Æthelstan ] to return without any great victory " , while Henry of Huntingdon claims that the English faced no opposition . A negotiated settlement may have ended matters : according to John of Worcester , a son of Constantine was given as a hostage to Æthelstan and Constantine himself accompanied the English king on his return south . He witnessed a charter with Æthelstan at Buckingham on 13 September 934 in which he is described as subregulus , that is a king acknowledging Æthelstan 's overlordship . The following year , Constantine was again in England at Æthelstan 's court , this time at Cirencester where he appears as a witness , appearing as the first of several subject kings , followed by Owen of Strathclyde and Hywel Dda , who subscribed to the diploma . At Christmas of 935 , Owen of Strathclyde was once more at Æthelstan 's court along with the Welsh kings , but Constantine was not . His return to England less than two years later would be in very different circumstances .
= = Brunanburh and after = =
Following his disappearance from Æthelstan 's court after 935 , there is no further report of Constantine until 937 . In that year , together with Owen of Strathclyde and Olaf Guthfrithson of Dublin , Constantine invaded England . The resulting battle of Brunanburh — Dún Brunde — is reported in the Annals of Ulster as follows :
a great battle , lamentable and terrible was cruelly fought ... in which fell uncounted thousands of the Northmen . ... And on the other side , a multitude of Saxons fell ; but Æthelstan , the king of the Saxons , obtained a great victory .
The battle was remembered in England a generation later as " the Great Battle " . When reporting the battle , the Anglo @-@ Saxon Chronicle abandons its usual terse style in favour of a heroic poem vaunting the great victory . In this the " hoary " Constantine , by now around 60 years of age , is said to have lost a son in the battle , a claim which the Chronicle of the Kings of Alba confirms . The Annals of Clonmacnoise give his name as Cellach . For all its fame , the site of the battle is uncertain and several sites have been advanced , with Bromborough on the Wirral the most favoured location .
Brunanburh , for all that it had been a famous and bloody battle , settled nothing . On 27 October 939 Æthelstan , the " pillar of the dignity of the western world " in the words of the Annals of Ulster , died at Malmesbury . He was succeeded by his brother Edmund , then aged 18 . Æthelstan 's empire , seemingly made safe by the victory of Brunanburh , collapsed in little more than a year from his death when Amlaíb returned from Ireland and seized Northumbria and the Mercian Danelaw . Edmund spent the remainder of Constantín 's reign rebuilding the empire .
For Constantine 's last years as king there is only the meagre record of the Chronicle of the Kings of Alba . The death of Æthelstan is reported , as are two others . The first of these , in 938 , is that of Dubacan , mormaer of Angus or son of the mormaer . Unlike the report of 918 , on this occasion the title mormaer is attached to a geographical area , but it is unknown whether the Angus of 938 was in any way similar to the later mormaerdom or earldom . The second death , entered with that of Æthelstan , is that of Eochaid mac Ailpín , who may , from his name , have been a kinsman of Constantín .
= = Abdication and posterity = =
By the early 940s Constantine was an old man , perhaps more than 70 years of age . The kingdom of Alba was too new to be said to have a customary rule of succession , but Pictish and Irish precedents favoured an adult successor descended from Kenneth MacAlpin . Constantine 's surviving son Indulf , probably baptised in 927 , would have been too young to be a serious candidate for the kingship in the early 940s , and the obvious heir was Constantine 's nephew , Malcolm I. As Malcolm was born no later than 901 , by the 940s he was no longer a young man , and may have been impatient . Willingly or not — the 11th @-@ century Prophecy of Berchán , a verse history in the form of a supposed prophecy , states that it was not a voluntary decision — Constantine abdicated in 943 and entered a monastery , leaving the kingdom to Malcolm .
Although his retirement may have been involuntary , the Life of Cathróe of Metz and the Prophecy of Berchán portray Constantine as a devout king . The monastery which Constantine retired to , and where he is said to have been abbot , was probably that of St Andrews . This had been refounded in his reign and given to the reforming Céli Dé ( Culdee ) movement . The Céli Dé were subsequently to be entrusted with many monasteries throughout the kingdom of Alba until replaced in the 12th century by new orders imported from France .
Seven years later the Chronicle of the Kings of Alba says :
[ Malcolm I ] plundered the English as far as the river Tees , and he seized a multitude of people and many herds of cattle : and the Scots called this the raid of Albidosorum , that is , Nainndisi . But others say that Constantine made this raid , asking of the king , Malcolm , that the kingship should be given to him for a week 's time , so that he could visit the English . In fact , it was Malcolm who made the raid , but Constantine incited him , as I have said .
Woolf suggests that the association of Constantine with the raid is a late addition , one derived from a now @-@ lost saga or poem .
Constantine 's death in 952 is recorded by the Irish annals , who enter it among ecclesiastics . His son Indulf would become king on Malcolm 's death . The last of Constantine 's certain descendants to be king in Alba was a great @-@ grandson , Constantine III ( Constantín mac Cuiléin ) . Another son had died at Brunanburh , and , according to John of Worcester , Amlaíb mac Gofraid was married to a daughter of Constantine . It is possible that Constantine had other children , but like the name of his wife , or wives , this has not been recorded .
The form of kingdom which appeared in Constantine 's reign continued in much the same way until the Davidian Revolution in the 12th century . As with his ecclesiastical reforms , his political legacy was the creation of a new form of Scottish kingship that lasted for two centuries after his death .
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= Portrait Diptych of Dürer 's Parents =
Portrait Diptych of Dürer 's Parents ( or Dürer 's Parents with Rosaries ) is the collective name for two small late @-@ 15th century portrait panels by the German painter and printmaker Albrecht Dürer . They show the artist 's parents , Barbara Holper ( c . 1451 – 1514 ) and Albrecht Dürer the Elder ( c . 1427 – 1502 ) , when she was around 39 and he was 63 years . The portraits are unflinching records of the physical and emotional effects of ageing . The Dürer family was close and Dürer may have intended the panels either to display his skill to his parents or as keepsakes while he travelled soon after as a journeyman painter .
They were created either as pendants , that is conceived as a pair and intended to hang alongside each other , or diptych wings . However this formation may have been a later conception ; Barbara 's portrait seems to have been executed some time after her husband 's and it is unusual for a husband to be placed to the viewer 's right in paired panels . His father 's panel is considered the superior work and has been described as one of Dürer 's most exact and honest portraits . They are among four paintings or drawings Dürer made of his parents , each of which unsentimentally examines the deteriorating effects of age . His later writings contain eulogies for both parents , from which the love and respect he felt toward them is evident .
Each panel measured 47 @.@ 5 cm x 39 @.@ 5 cm ( 18 @.@ 7 in x 15 @.@ 6 in ) , but the left hand panel has been cut down . They have been separated since at least 1628 , until Barbara 's portrait — long considered lost — was reattributed in 1977 . The panels were reunited in the Germanisches Nationalmuseum 's 2012 exhibition " The Early Dürer " .
= = Description = =
Albrecht the Elder was 62 or 63 when his panel was painted early in 1490 . Barbara 's portrait may have been completed soon after , when she would have been around 39 . Their son was around 18 and had just completed his apprenticeship with Michael Wolgemut , and would soon leave for Nuremberg to travel as a journeyman painter . The father panel was painted first ; for aesthetic reasons Dürer may have waited a year or two until his mother looked older .
The sitters are presented in three @-@ quarter view before flat , nondescript lacquer @-@ like green backgrounds , which although lushly coloured , are thinly layered . Each has a white ground and light red imprimatura with lead content . The sitter 's form and pose echo and in many ways counterbalance each other . Brand Philip draws attention to the similarities of the panels ' linear construction , especially the manner in which the folds and lines of their clothing form triangular shapes . The train of Barbara 's headdress across her chest corresponds with the opening of Albrecht 's fur @-@ lined coat . It was more usual in pendant portraits of this type for the male to be on the left @-@ hand side ; the positioning here may be an indication that Dürer originally intended his father 's panel to stand alone , given that Barbara 's was painted some time later .
Albrecht the Elder 's panel is regarded as the superior of the two works . This may in part be attributed to differing contemporary treatments of male and female portraits ; men were allowed more individuality , while female portraits were bound by stereotypes and were not as daring , for example showing evidence of ageing . In either case , the father painting is far more closely detailed , especially in the lining of clothing , which is summary in Barbara 's panel , compared to the long seam of her husband 's gown . This contrast in detail can also be seen in the treatment of the rosaries , which are given prominence and a glowing red colour in his panel , but are small and relegated in hers .
Albrecht the Elder 's panel is usually , but not always , thought to be the first of the two to be executed and , if so , is the earliest extant example of his son 's painting . In contrast , a number of art historians have noted that his mother 's portrait contains bland passages , especially around the eyes and may be a near @-@ contemporary copy of a lost original . Lotte Brand Philip believes the clumsiness in the mother panel indicated that Dürer painted it first , as a youthful attempt at portraiture , and that Albrecht the Elder might have later " commissioned " his own portrait to pair with Barbara 's . Recent technical examination of the two panels confirms that Barbara 's portrait was painted later than her husband 's .
= = = Barbara Holper = = =
Barbara Holper was the daughter of Hieronymus Holper , under whom Albrecht the Elder served his apprenticeship as a goldsmith . The two men became friends , and when she came of age Holper gave his daughter into marriage when Dürer senior was 40 and she was 15 . The couple were compatible , well @-@ matched and fond of each other . Yet their son 's writings detail their difficult lives and many setbacks ; three of their 18 children survived into adulthood – 17 of whom had been born by the time of this portrait . After her husband died Barbara was destitute and went to live with her son . After she in turn died in 1514 , her son wrote " This my pious Mother ... often had the plague and many other severe and strange illnesses , and she suffered great poverty , scorn , contempt , mocking words , terrors , and great adversities . Yet she bore no malice . Also she died hard ... I felt so grieved for her that I cannot express it . "
Barbara is shown wearing a red dress and a matte white bonnet which fully covers her hair , indicating her marital status . Her headdress is draped with a long scarf or train which stretches down her neck and across her left shoulder , contrasting in colour and shape against the black head @-@ wear of her husband . The lines of her face contain touches of white paint to give a highlighting and enlivening effect ; they are especially evident around her eyes , the bridge of her nose and around her upper lip . Barbara was attractive in her youth ; her son described her as having been " comely and of erect bearing " . However , by the time of this portrait the effects of time and losing so many children weigh heavily on her face . The panel was grounded with white paint , while the composition seems to have changed significantly from the imprimatura . Faint traces of the original figuration are visible in parts of the background and in the darkened areas of her hood . At some point the panel was cut down at the left side , shifting the compositional balance and removing a portion of her shoulder and headdress .
The panel closely resembles Dürer 's 1514 drawing Portrait of the artist 's mother at the age of 63 . David Price writes of the drawing 's " rough depiction of her flesh emaciated by old age " , and the " existential piety in the cast of Barbara Dürer 's right eye , which , almost unnaturally , directs her vision heavenward " . Although Barbara is some 25 years older in the later drawing and by then terminally ill , the facial resemblance and pose are unmistakable . However , there is a dramatic difference between the relatively young looking 39 @-@ year @-@ old woman in the diptych and the aged and terminally ill widow in the 1514 drawing . A family resemblance can be detected between both works and Dürer 's Vienna self @-@ portrait ; most evidently around the mouth . Kemperdick concludes that these passages are so closely modeled that it is reasonable to presume they were drawn by the same hand , but is conservative in saying definitively that the sitters were related by blood , as Dürer was very young , and though precociously talented , to some extent still reliant on facial " types " .
= = = Albrecht Dürer the Elder = = =
Dürer 's father wears a dark shirt , russet coat and a black hat lined with fur . His skin is slack at the mouth and chin , and he has small , intelligent eyes , which Von Fircks describes as " dark and serious " . Their curves echo those of the heavy lids beneath . His eyes are lined with crow 's feet and shadowed with brown hatched paint . His facial features are built from brush strokes more typical of drawing than painting — at this young age Dürer was a far more skilled draughtsman than painter . Technical analysis carried out in 2013 by Dagmar Hirschfelder revealed a detailed background which was over @-@ painted by the artist . The abandoned interior space consisted of a corner of a room with an arched window looking out to a countryside view . This type of interior can be traced to the Netherlandish tradition , and is rare in German portraiture of the period .
Albrecht the Elder 's lips are thin and tightly pursed and his mouth is broad and down @-@ turned , yet his features are those of a handsome man . Marcel Brion described him as appearing " mild and thoughtful " , an impression reinforced by the uncomplicated design of the painting . This view is reinforced by the relative drabness or simplicity of his clothes , which seem intended to convey a reserved , ascetic piousness . Dürer presents his father more like a low @-@ ranking ecclesiastic than a tradesman : a calm , considerate and straightforward man dressed up in his best , albeit modest , clothes . After his father 's death in 1502 , Dürer wrote that Albrecht the Elder " passed his life in great toil and stern hard labour , having nothing for his support save what he earned with his hand for himself , his wife and his children ... He underwent manifold afflictions , trials and adversities . But he won just praise from all who knew him ... he was also of few words , and was a God @-@ fearing man . "
Martin Conway describes the portrayal of a dignified man marked by a grave expression and deep " furrows ploughed by seventy years of labour and sorrow " . Conway believed the strength of the portrait is in part achieved through Dürer 's ability to convey this hardship , while at the same time presenting a man still imbued with traces of pride , and possessing " a kind old face " . Noting the obvious affection between the father and son as well as the half smile of the older man , he wonders if that grin might have been born of Albrecht the Elder 's satisfaction that his toil has been rewarded by a son of such talent , who was now about to set out on the world for his wanderjahr . A contributing factor to this pride is that Albrecht the Elder trained his son in his own profession , as a jeweller , but at one point came to regret the choice of apprenticeship as the younger man was so obviously suited to drawing and painting . However , his son learned many skills during that period and it gave him a discipline with his hands that became a defining factor of his work , especially in his ability as an engraver .
Conway described the panel as indicating " an astonishing depth of psychological insight " for an artist not yet 20 years old . In its simple design and detail it shares many of the characteristics of , and is a key precursor to , Dürer 's mature work . He portrayed his father again in 1497 , when the older man would have been around 70 . He has aged noticeably in the intervening seven years : his skin is saggier , the wrinkles deeper and more pronounced . In this later portrait Dürer seems at pains to convey these effects of ageing , which are all too evident on his father 's face . According to Brion , his eyes have lost their " distant , mystic " appearance and now seem less contented . Conway agrees , seeing traces of haggardly agitation , but holds that the two paintings convey a similar overall highly favourable and compassionate impression of the man .
= = = The panels = = =
Each canvas is mounted on two boards of equal width , which have been cut vertically and appear have come from the same tree . Tree @-@ ring dating of the wood suggests it was felled around 1482 . Wood intended for use in panel painting was generally allowed to mature for around 10 years , giving an approximate dates of 1490 – 92 for the works . The panels are covered with canvas made of fine but loosely woven linen , and underpainted in white paint . Whether Dürer prepared the panels himself or purchased them already prepared is unknown .
The father panel is signed and dated on both sides , in what may be the oldest extant instance of Dürer 's signature monogram of a large open A and small d . However this inscription and the 1490 date are later additions . The Florence canvas is in relatively poor condition : retouching has largely removed Dürer 's top layer of brushwork and left the paint hard and dry . Barbara 's panel underwent a restoration in 1974 , when the surface was cleaned and partially revarnished , with repairs to damage on the reverse sustained from woodboring .
The reverse of Albrecht 's panel contains a rendition of the allied Dürer and Holper families ' coats of arms , which are shown beneath a winged Moor wearing a red dress . The Dürer family are represented by a crest showing an open door , a pun on the word Dürer ( Thürer meaning ' doormaker ' ) . Albrecht the Elder was born in the Hungarian village of Ajtó . Ajtos is Hungarian for " door " — when his parents moved to Germany their name changed from Tür to Düre . The Holper crest features a stag , but its significance is lost . The back of Barbara 's panel contains imagery of a dragon in a lightning storm set against a rocky landscape or cliff .
= = Provenance and attribution = =
After the painter 's death in 1528 , the portraits were held by his brother , and then his brother 's widow before they passed into the collection of Willibald Imhoff , a grandson of Dürer 's friend Willibald Pirckheimer . Inventories from the Imhoff collection from 1573 – 74 , 1580 and 1588 list both panels . The next surviving Imhoff inventory , of 1628 , again lists the mother 's portrait , but it disappears after mention in the 1633 – 58 account books of Hans Hieronymus Imhoff , after which its whereabouts became unknown . Dürer expert Matthias Mende described the missing portrait of Barbara Holper as " among the most severe losses in the Dürer oeuvre " .
In 1977 , art historian Lotte Brand Philip proposed that Unknown Woman in a Coif , held by the Germanisches Nationalmuseum in Nuremberg , was the original portrait of Barbara Holper . The Nuremberg panel was previously thought to have originated from a member of Wolgemut 's workshop , a Franconian artist in his circle , or the anonymous Mainz painter Master W. B. Brand Philip 's attribution was based on striking similarities in composition and its shared tone , theme and size with the father panel at the Uffizi . In both works the sitters are holding rosary beads , and Dürer attentively describes their hands . Both portraits show the sitter in the same pose , against a similarly coloured background . Both are lit from the upper left . The boards are identically cut in width and depth , although 3 cm was removed from the left edge of Barbara 's panel . Brand Philip noted the similarities between the panel and Dürer 's 1514 charcoal drawing Portrait of the Artist 's Mother at the Age of 63 . Fedja Anzelewsky agreed with the attribution , noting that both portraits bear , on their reverse , the catalogue number recorded in the Imhoff inventories , as well as " precisely the same design of masses of dark clouds " .
Anzelewsky speculated that the father 's portrait , which was not listed in the 1628 Imhoff inventory , had been broken off and sold to Rudolph II of Austria . Hans Hieronymus Imhoff 's lukewarm description of Barbara 's portrait — " the mother of Albrecht Dürer in oil colors on wood , [ but ] there are many who do not believe it to be a work of Dürer " — led Brand Philip to conclude that Albrecht 's panel was likely sold individually as the more accomplished and marketable of the two . The attribution is widely accepted today . In 2013 Stephan Kemperdick noted the sophistication of the Nuremberg portrait and that its three @-@ dimensional modeling of the head displays a level of skill beyond Wolgemut and his circle .
The two panels were reunited in 2012 during a Dürer exhibition in Nuremberg having been separated since sometime between 1588 and 1628 .
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= The Inbetweeners 2 =
The Inbetweeners 2 is a 2014 British comedy film and sequel to The Inbetweeners Movie ( 2011 ) , which is based on the E4 sitcom The Inbetweeners . It was written and directed by series creators Damon Beesley and Iain Morris .
The film involves four school friends who meet up again for a holiday in Australia , and stars Simon Bird , Joe Thomas , James Buckley and Blake Harrison . In media interviews , the film 's writers and actors stated that it was to be an end to the series .
The Inbetweeners 2 was released on 6 August 2014 in the United Kingdom and the Republic of Ireland , to positive reception from critics . It surpassed the record of its predecessor for the highest gross on the opening day of a comedy in the UK , with £ 2 @.@ 75 million , and ended its first weekend with a gross of £ 12 @.@ 5 million , the largest opening of any film in 2014 , then remained on top for a second week . With an overall gross of £ 33 @.@ 3 million , it was the highest @-@ grossing British film in the domestic market in 2014 . On 21 August , it was released in Australia , to a mixed reception , and topped the box office in its opening weekend .
= = Plot = =
Will , Neil and Jay 's girlfriends have all broken up with them since the events of the last film , and Simon is unhappy with his girlfriend Lucy , who has become obsessive and abusive . Simon and Will are depressed and ostracised at university ; Neil is working in a bank ; and Jay is taking a gap year in Australia . He emails Neil , claiming that he is now a top DJ at a popular night club , lives in a luxury mansion , and has daily sex with multiple partners . This convinces them to visit him in Australia for their Easter holidays . Once they arrive at the club they find that Jay in fact only works as a toilet attendant , while Will meets Katie , an old friend from his private school days , who is backpacking , and she persuades him to join her .
The next day , the four travel to a youth hostel in Byron Bay , as Will wants to follow Katie there . He attempts to become friends with one of the backpackers , Ben , but is unsuccessful when the backpackers quickly deduce that he is a tourist , rather than a " traveller " . Will struggles to fit in with the ' spiritual ' activities of the travellers and discovers that Katie is seeing multiple people at once , launching him into one of his foul @-@ mouthed tirades towards them , which leads Katie into having sex with Ben .
The boys and the backpackers visit a water park , where Jay intends to find his ex @-@ girlfriend , Jane . The park staff tell Jay that Jane has found a new job in the vast Outback , which leaves Jay feeling very dejected . Lucy tells Simon via Skype that Jane is working on a stud farm in the remote settlement of Birdsville , and the boys intend to drive there . Their car runs out of petrol in the middle of the desert . The group hold hands together as they realise that they will most likely die , but are rescued by Jane and her co @-@ workers . She realises how far Jay came to win her over again , and although she is touched by the gesture , she does not take him back . Back at Jay 's uncle 's house , the boys find that their parents have travelled to find them after hearing of their near @-@ death experience . The boys are shocked to find Mr Gilbert ( their old head of sixth form and Will 's nemesis ) there too , and Will 's mother announces that she and Gilbert are in a relationship , to the abject horror of Will and amusement of the other three friends . Over Skype , Lucy breaks @-@ up with Simon because she is now in a relationship with his university ' best friend ' Pete , which Simon responds to by cheering and abruptly hanging @-@ up on her .
The four boys decide to travel to Vietnam in a montage during the film 's credits . As they return to England , Neil begins a relationship with one of the travellers while Will 's mother reveals that she and Gilbert are engaged . Will attempts to run back to the plane , but is wrestled to the ground by security .
= = Cast = =
Daisy Ridley 's scenes were cut from the final version .
= = Production = =
= = = Origin = = =
Although originally intended as an unambiguous ending to the television series , the unexpected popularity and box office success of The Inbetweeners Movie led to speculation over the possibility of a sequel . These rumours began in early September 2011 , while the film was still in cinemas , and were denied by its writers and actors . Around the same time , producer Christopher Young openly recognised the possibility of another film based on the series , claiming that " if there is a sequel it will come from the creative elements ... We 've talked about it . In the short term people are dispersing and doing other things but I 'm sure in the medium term a sequel is very possible . It won 't be immediate but it 's definitely not closed . " Co @-@ writer Damon Beesley later admitted " we didn 't know how successful it would be and that it would have a life on screen . But they did translate to big @-@ screen characters , people did care about them and did go back and see it more than once – and that 's very rare in cinema . The idea of not following that up seemed insane to most people " . The actors had mixed emotions on making a sequel . Although Buckley and Thomas felt put off by the success of the first film , Harrison and Bird became convinced on reading the script .
Iain Morris received inspiration for the film from his own experiences as a high school exchange student on Australia 's Gold Coast , describing it as " a place where people go to get drunk , pick some fruit and get drunk again " .
= = = Development = = =
On 21 August 2012 , it was announced that a sequel was in early stages of pre @-@ production . On 8 November , it was announced by series creators Morris and Beesley that a script was being written and it was at " version 0 @.@ 5 " On 1 May 2013 , it was announced that , although nothing had been signed , a sequel was in the planning stage possibly set in Australia and to be released sometime in 2014 .
On 2 August 2013 , the sequel was officially confirmed for release in August 2014 . The series ' Facebook page revealed on 15 March 2014 that the sequel would be released on 6 August 2014 .
On 9 May 2014 , a teaser trailer was released , in which the characters drive through the Outback and call an Aborigine a " fire wanker " . A second trailer , this time full length , was released on The Inbetweeners official Facebook page on 18 June , showing more of the storyline .
= = = Filming = = =
Filming began in Australia on 7 December 2013 , before moving to the UK in January 2014 . Part of the film was shot in Marree , South Australia , an isolated Outback settlement without mobile reception or Internet .
Ben Palmer , the director of the first Inbetweeners film , was involved with Simon Pegg 's film Man Up , so Morris and Beesley directed The Inbetweeners 2 . Bird said that the actors were initially disheartened by the absence of Palmer , and nervous about the direction of Morris and Beesley due to their lack of experience in the position .
Morris had considered filming the Australian scenes in South Africa due to the comparatively high costs in Australia , which despite a higher budget caused the sequel to have fewer resources than its predecessor . While all locations for the first film had been within 10 minutes of the hotel , locations in the second were separated by a three @-@ hour flight and nine @-@ hour car journey . During filming in the Outback , the Australian crew provided two doctors and 40 litres of IV fluid , although the only point in which a doctor was called was when Buckley thought that he was having a heart attack , which was in reality indigestion from chips and lager . Beesley considered it " the maniac 's choice of a film to be your first film " . The water park scenes were filmed at Wet 'n'Wild Gold Coast , which Thomas described as " some quite challenging scenes " .
When asked whether he ever felt averse to any material in the film due to perceived offence , Morris said that the crew 's attitude was " let ’ s shoot everything , push it , and then if it feels like too much when we ’ re watching it , we can always pull it back in the editing room " .
= = Release = =
The film premiered at Leicester Square , London , on 5 August 2014 . In attendance were guests including Beverley Knight , Union J and Alex Zane . In Australia it was distributed by Roadshow Entertainment and released on 21 August . The same company took the film to New Zealand a week later .
= = = Box office = = =
The Inbetweeners 2 grossed £ 2 @.@ 75 million on its opening day of 6 August 2014 , surpassing its predecessor as the top grossing opening day in the UK for a comedy film . By the end of its first weekend , it topped the UK box office with a gross of £ 12 @.@ 5 million , surpassing Transformers : Age of Extinction ( £ 11 @.@ 7 million ) as the largest UK opening in 2014 ; this , however , was less than the £ 13 @.@ 2 million opening of The Inbetweeners Movie in 2011 . It topped the box office for a second week , in which it grossed £ 9 @.@ 83 million . In its third week , it fell to second spot behind new release Lucy .
In its opening week in Australia , the film grossed $ 3 @.@ 155 million in Australian dollars , topping the box office and pushing Guardians of the Galaxy into second place . It fell to second place in its second week , with Guardians of the Galaxy returning to top spot .
As of 12 October 2014 , the film had made $ 55 @,@ 652 @,@ 783 in the United Kingdom , $ 6 @,@ 598 @,@ 273 in Australia , and $ 473 @,@ 316 in New Zealand .
With an overall gross of £ 33 @.@ 3 million , The Inbetweeners 2 was the highest grossing British or Irish film in the domestic market in 2014 , ahead of Paddington ( £ 27 @.@ 9 million ) . It was the third highest grossing of any film in the UK and Ireland in 2014 , after The Lego Movie and The Hobbit : The Battle of the Five Armies .
= = = Critical reception = = =
Of the thirty @-@ five reviews surveyed by review aggregator Rotten Tomatoes , 69 % of reviews were positive . On Metacritic , the film has a 55 / 100 rating based on 7 critics , indicating " mixed or average reviews " .
= = = = United Kingdom = = = =
Robbie Collin of The Daily Telegraph gave the film four stars out of five , saying " Perhaps the biggest compliment you could pay the film , apart from that it ’ s by and large hysterically funny , is that it is unmistakably film @-@ like , with a smoothly arcing plot and gross @-@ out moments staged with the verve and ceremony of an action @-@ movie set @-@ piece . " In The Guardian , Mike McCahill gave the film three stars . He found fault in its treatment of female characters , saying " Some of the abundant thought channelled into knob gags could have been diverted towards developing the boys ' female counterparts beyond harpies and lust objects " . Unlike Collin , he found The Inbetweeners 2 to resemble a television show more than a film : " as with the first film , number 2 never quite shakes its resemblance to primetime E4 , complete with ad @-@ ready fadeouts and Walkabout interiors ... couldn 't the vehicles transporting them to the wider world display slightly more ambition ? " . Chris Hewitt of Empire magazine gave the film four stars out of five , summing it up as " The Fannytastic Four leave us on a poo @-@ flecked , piss @-@ soaked , sun @-@ burned high that more than overcomes its familiar flaws to become a real contender for the year ’ s funniest film . Four star wankers " .
A negative review came from Graham Young of the Birmingham Mail , who found the film 's humour to be repetitive : " Damon Beesley and Iain Morris have both directed this sequel which lacks an emotional arc to create momentum ... Yes , it can be funny , and you ’ d have to be a prude not to laugh ... But the endless , alliterative phrases for sex and countless in @-@ your @-@ face sight gags dilute the characters and turn the mood wearingly lewd . Like Nick Frost ’ s The Cuban Fury [ sic ] earlier this year , The Inbetweeners 2 takes a funny premise – and then ruins it . " Writing in The Observer , Jonathan Romney gave the film two stars out of five , summing it up as " British TV comedy 's favourite Four Stooges take another holiday , resulting in fountainous poo , pee and puke , rampant misogyny , ' ironic ' rampant misogyny , rampant ' irony ' , and that old Carry On staple , horror of sex ( especially among the over @-@ 25s ) " . He however predicted that on the record of the first film , The Inbetweeners 2 would be a financial success . In Time Out , Tom Huddleston gave the film one star out of five , saying " ‘ The Inbetweeners 2 ’ is riddled with contempt : for its characters , for its audience and most notably for the entire female gender . That a film in 2014 can still get away with depicting all women as either dumb , hapless sluts or ball @-@ busting harridans is frankly unbelievable . "
= = = = Australia = = = =
In Australia , Matthew Toomey , a film critic for 612 ABC Brisbane , gave The Inbetweeners 2 a B + . He said " Don ’ t expect a deep , underlying narrative . This is just a bunch of horny teenagers doing really dumb things . To each their own ... but I was entertained . First and foremost , it shocked me – and that ’ s not easy given how many movies I watch . It pushes the envelope a lot further than I expected and I 'd highly recommend seeing the film in a packed cinema . The audience reactions would be hilarious . " Louise Keller of Urban Cinefile wrote a mixed review , stating that the film takes a long time to " get going " due to a " silly establishment skit " . However , she concluded that " there is genuine affection with which the filmmakers portray their characters and as a consequence , the level of offence is lessened to some degree " . Simon Miraudo of Quickflix gave the film three stars out of five , calling it " the biggest ribbing since The Simpsons invaded [ Australia 's ] shores " . Although opining that the film was " slightly more insensitive to its female leads than previous efforts " , he concluded that a scene in which faeces chase Will down a waterslide " challenges Caddyshack for the mantle of ' Best Ever S * * * in Water ' gag " .
In the Herald Sun , Leigh Paatsch gave the film one star . He criticised the casting , describing the main characters as " supposed to be aged about 20 [ but ] played by blokes who all look as if they ’ re 30 @-@ plus , and carry on as if they ’ re not yet 10 " , and also found the film misogynistic , saying " the derogatory manner in which women are spoken of ( and often depicted ) is relentlessly , callously crass . Sometimes even hateful " . A mixed review from Philippa Hawker of the Sydney Morning Herald concluded " The Australian elements seem hastily inserted and incidental : the movie could have been set in any country that had a water park and a place to get lost . But as a hymn to male bonding , and an exploration of the comic possibilities of what happens when a turd hits a water slide , The Inbetweeners 2 is a precisely crafted , assured piece of work " .
= = = Home media = = =
The Inbetweeners 2 was released on DVD and Blu @-@ ray in the United Kingdom on 1 December 2014 . A DVD edition also including the first film was released at the same time .
The DVD featured two audio commentaries — one with Morris and Beesley and the other by the four lead actors — in addition to a behind @-@ the @-@ scenes featurette , deleted scenes , and a blooper reel . The film 's release on home media was sponsored by STA Travel , who offered a prize of a holiday to the Australian state of Queensland .
= = Legacy = =
At its premiere on 5 August 2014 , Bird said of the film :
In an interview with the BBC , Thomas said that Morris and Beesley had been " very adamant " that the series had finished . On his co @-@ stars , he added " There is a bond there that I think would be a stupid thing to waste . You don 't get that bond very often with other performers and we do have it and it 's a valuable thing " .
In the same interview , when asked whether the series had finished , both co @-@ creators answered with a simultaneous " Yes ! " . Morris expressed that " I think the time is right . After the first film , I wanted to hear more from Jay , Will , Neil and Simon . But this time I feel there is enough . There is more than enough Jay in this world " , and Beesley added " The end of the story has always felt like the time where they go off and start living their adult life . And I think this film takes us up to that point " .
Various media outlets blamed The Inbetweeners 2 for an increase in a craze of deliberate defecation in swimming pools to distress other guests . They linked the craze , known as " logging " or " Code Brown " , to a scene akin to it in the film .
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= Bedřich Smetana =
Bedřich Smetana ( Czech pronunciation : [ ˈbɛdr ̝ ɪx ˈsmɛtana ] ; 2 March 1824 – 12 May 1884 ) was a Czech composer who pioneered the development of a musical style which became closely identified with his country 's aspirations to independent statehood . He is thus widely regarded in his homeland as the father of Czech music . Internationally he is best known for his opera The Bartered Bride and for the symphonic cycle Má vlast ( " My Homeland " ) , which portrays the history , legends and landscape of the composer 's native land .
Smetana was naturally gifted as a pianist , and gave his first public performance at the age of six . After his conventional schooling , he studied music under Josef Proksch in Prague . His first nationalistic music was written during the 1848 Prague uprising , in which he briefly participated . After failing to establish his career in Prague , he left for Sweden , where he set up as a teacher and choirmaster in Gothenburg , and began to write large @-@ scale orchestral works . During this period of his life Smetana was twice married ; of six daughters , three died in infancy .
In the early 1860s , a more liberal political climate in Bohemia encouraged Smetana to return permanently to Prague . He threw himself into the musical life of the city , primarily as a champion of the new genre of Czech opera . In 1866 his first two operas , The Brandenburgers in Bohemia and The Bartered Bride , were premiered at Prague 's new Provisional Theatre , the latter achieving great popularity . In that same year , Smetana became the theatre 's principal conductor , but the years of his conductorship were marked by controversy . Factions within the city 's musical establishment considered his identification with the progressive ideas of Franz Liszt and Richard Wagner inimical to the development of a distinctively Czech opera style . This opposition interfered with his creative work , and may have hastened the health breakdown that precipitated his resignation from the theatre in 1874 .
By the end of 1874 , Smetana had become completely deaf but , freed from his theatre duties and the related controversies , he began a period of sustained composition that continued for almost the rest of his life . His contributions to Czech music were increasingly recognised and honoured , but a mental collapse early in 1884 led to his incarceration in an asylum and his subsequent death . Smetana 's reputation as the founding father of Czech music has endured in his native country , where advocates have raised his status above that of his contemporaries and successors . However , relatively few of Smetana 's works are in the international repertory , and most foreign commentators tend to regard Antonín Dvořák as a more significant Czech composer .
= = Biography = =
= = = Family background and childhood = = =
Bedřich Smetana was born as Friedrich Smetana on 2 March 1824 , in Litomyšl , east of Prague near the traditional border between Bohemia and Moravia , then provinces of the Habsburg Empire . He was the third child , and first son , of František Smetana and his third wife Barbora Lynková . František had fathered eight children in two earlier marriages , five daughters surviving infancy ; he and Barbora had ten more children , of whom seven reached adulthood . At this time , under Habsburg rule , German was the official language of Bohemia . František knew Czech , but for business and social reasons rarely used it , and his children were ignorant of the correct literary Czech until much later in their lives .
The Smetana family came from the Hradec Králové region of Bohemia . František had initially learned the trade of a brewer , and had acquired moderate wealth during the Napoleonic Wars by supplying clothing and provisions to the French Army . He subsequently managed several breweries before coming to Litomyšl in 1823 as brewer to Count Waldstein , whose Renaissance castle dominates the town .
The elder Smetana , although uneducated , had a natural gift for music and played in a string quartet . Bedřich was introduced to music by his father and in October 1830 , at the age of six , gave his first public performance . At a concert held in Litomyšl 's Philosophical Academy he played a piano arrangement of Auber 's overture to La muette de Portici , to a rapturous reception . In 1831 the family moved to Jindřichův Hradec in the south of Bohemia – the region where , a generation later , Gustav Mahler grew up . Here , Smetana attended the local elementary school and later the gymnasium . He also studied violin and piano , discovering the works of Mozart and Beethoven , and began composing simple pieces , of which one , a dance ( Kvapiček , or " Little Galop " ) , survives in sketch form .
In 1835 , František retired to a farm in the south @-@ eastern region of Bohemia . There being no suitable local school , Smetana was sent to the gymnasium at Jihlava , where he was homesick and unable to study . He then transferred to the Premonstratensian school at Německý Brod , where he was happier and made good progress . Among the friends he made here was the future Czech revolutionary poet Karel Havlíček , whose departure for Prague in 1838 may have influenced Smetana 's own desire to experience life in the capital . The following year , with František 's approval , he enrolled at Prague 's Academic Grammar School under Josef Jungmann , a distinguished poet and linguist who was a leading figure in the movement for Czech national revival .
= = = Apprentice musician = = =
= = = = First steps = = = =
Smetana arrived in Prague in the autumn of 1839 . Finding Jungmann 's school uncongenial ( he was mocked by his classmates for his country manners ) , he soon began missing classes . He attended concerts , visited the opera , listened to military bands and joined an amateur string quartet for whom he composed simple pieces . After Liszt gave a series of piano recitals in the city , Smetana became convinced that he would find satisfaction only in a musical career . He confided to his journal that he wanted " to become a Mozart in composition and a Liszt in technique " . However , the Prague idyll ended when František discovered his son 's truancy , and removed him from the city . František at this time saw music as a diverting pastime , not as a career choice . Smetana was placed temporarily with his uncle in Nové Město , where he enjoyed a brief romance with his cousin Louisa . He commemorated their passion in Louisa 's Polka , Smetana 's earliest complete composition that has survived .
An older cousin , Josef Smetana , a teacher at the Premonstratensian School in Plzeň ( Pilsen ) , then offered to supervise the boy 's remaining schooling , and in the summer of 1840 Smetana departed for Plzeň . He remained there until he completed his schooling in 1843 . His skills as a pianist were in great demand at the town 's many soirées , and he enjoyed a hectic social life . This included a number of romances , the most important of which was with Kateřina Kolářová , whom he had known briefly in his early childhood . Smetana was entirely captivated with her , writing in his journal : " When I am not with her I am sitting on hot coals and have no peace " . He composed several pieces for her , among which are two Quadrilles , a song duet , and an incomplete piano study for the left hand . He also composed his first orchestral piece , a B @-@ flat minuet .
= = = = Student and teacher = = = =
By the time Smetana completed his schooling , his father 's fortunes had declined . Although František now agreed that his son should follow a musical career , he could not provide financial support . In August 1843 Smetana departed for Prague with twenty gulden , and no immediate prospects . Lacking any formal musical training , he needed a teacher , and was introduced by Kateřina Kolářová 's mother to Josef Proksch , head of the Prague Music Institute – where Kateřina was now studying . Proksch used the most modern teaching methods , drawing on Beethoven , Chopin , Berlioz and the Leipzig circle of Liszt . In January 1844 Proksch agreed to take Smetana as a pupil , and at the same time the young musician 's financial difficulties were eased when he secured an appointment as music teacher to the family of a nobleman , Count Thun .
For the next three years , besides teaching piano to the Thun children , Smetana studied theory and composition under Proksch . The works he composed in these years include songs , dances , bagatelles , impromptus and the G minor Piano Sonata . In 1846 Smetana attended concerts given in Prague by Berlioz , and in all likelihood met the French composer at a reception arranged by Proksch . At the home of Count Thun he met Robert and Clara Schumann , and showed them his G minor sonata , but failed to win their approval for this work — they detected too much of Berlioz in it . Meanwhile , his friendship with Kateřina blossomed . In June 1847 , on resigning his position in the Thun household , Smetana recommended her as his replacement . He then set out on a tour of Western Bohemia , hoping to establish a reputation as a concert pianist .
= = = Early career = = =
= = = = Revolutionary = = = =
Smetana 's concert tour to Western Bohemia was poorly supported , so he abandoned it and returned to Prague , where he made a living from private pupils and occasional appearances as an accompanist in chamber concerts . He also began work on his first major orchestral work , the Overture in D major .
For a brief period in 1848 , Smetana was a revolutionary . In the climate of political change and upheaval that swept through Europe in that year , a pro @-@ democracy movement in Prague led by Smetana 's old friend Karel Havlíček was urging an end to Habsburg absolutist rule and for more political autonomy . A Citizens ' Army ( " Svornost " ) was formed to defend the city against possible attack . Smetana wrote a series of patriotic works , including two marches dedicated respectively to the Czech National Guard and the Students ' Legion of the University of Prague , and The Song of Freedom to words by Ján Kollár . In June 1848 , as the Habsburg armies moved to suppress rebellious tendencies , Prague came under attack from the Austrian forces led by the Prince of Windisch @-@ Grätz . As a member of Svornost , Smetana helped to man the barricades on the Charles Bridge . The nascent uprising was quickly crushed , but Smetana avoided the imprisonment or exile received by leaders such as Havlíček . During his brief spell with Svornost , he met the writer and leading radical , Karel Sabina , who would later provide libretti for Smetana 's first two operas .
= = = = Piano Institute = = = =
Early in 1848 , Smetana wrote to Franz Liszt , whom he had not yet met , asking him to accept the dedication of a new piano work , Six Characteristic Pieces , and recommend it to a publisher . He also requested a loan of 400 gulden , to enable him to open a music school . Liszt replied cordially , accepting the dedication and promising to help find a publisher , but he offered no financial assistance . This encouragement was the beginning of a friendship that was of great value to Smetana in his subsequent career . Despite Liszt 's lack of financial support , Smetana was able to start a Piano Institute in late August 1848 , with twelve students . After a period of struggle the Institute began to flourish and became briefly fashionable , particularly among supporters of Czech nationalism in whose eyes Smetana was developing a reputation . Proksch wrote of Smetana 's support for his people 's cause , and said that he " could well become the transformer of my ideas in the Czech language . " In 1849 the Institute was relocated to the home of Kateřina 's parents , and began to attract distinguished visitors ; Liszt came regularly , and the former Austrian emperor Ferdinand , who had settled in Prague , attended the school 's matinée concerts . Smetana 's performances in these concerts became a recognised feature of Prague 's musical life . In this time of relative financial stability Smetana married Kateřina , on 27 August 1849 . Four daughters were born to the couple between 1851 and 1855 .
= = = = Budding composer = = = =
In 1850 , notwithstanding his revolutionary sentiments , Smetana accepted the post of Court Pianist in Ferdinand 's establishment in Prague Castle . He continued teaching in the Piano Institute , and devoted himself increasingly to composition . His works , mainly for the piano , included the three @-@ part Wedding Scenes , some of the music of which was later used in The Bartered Bride . He also wrote numerous short experimental pieces collected under the name Album Leaves , and a series of polkas . During 1853 – 54 he worked on a major orchestral piece , the Triumphal Symphony , composed to commemorate the wedding of Emperor Franz Joseph . The symphony was rejected by the Imperial Court , possibly on the grounds that the brief musical references to the Austrian national anthem were not sufficiently prominent . Undeterred , Smetana hired an orchestra at his own expense to perform the symphony at the Konvikt Hall in Prague on 26 February 1855 . The work was coolly received , and the concert was a financial failure .
= = = = Private sorrows and professional disenchantment = = = =
In the years between 1854 and 1856 Smetana suffered a series of personal blows . In July 1854 his second daughter , Gabriela , died of tuberculosis . A year later his eldest daughter Bedřiška , who at the age of four was showing signs of musical precocity , died of scarlet fever . Smetana wrote his Piano Trio in G minor as a tribute to her memory ; it was performed in Prague on 3 December 1855 and , according to the composer , was received " harshly " by the critics , although Liszt praised it . Smetana 's sorrows continued ; just after Bedřiška 's death a fourth daughter , Kateřina , had been born but she , too , died in June 1856 . By this time Smetana 's wife Kateřina had also been diagnosed with tuberculosis .
In July 1856 , Smetana received news of the death in exile of his revolutionary friend Karel Havlíček . The political climate in Prague was a further source of gloom ; hopes of a more enlightened government and social reform following Franz Joseph 's accession in 1848 had faded as Austrian absolutism reasserted itself under Baron Alexander von Bach . Despite the good name of the Piano Institute , Smetana 's status as a concert pianist was generally considered to be below that of contemporaries such as Alexander Dreyschock . Critics acknowledged Smetana 's " delicate , crystalline touch " , closer in style to Chopin than Liszt , but believed that his physical frailty was a serious drawback to his concert @-@ playing ambitions . His main performance success during this period was his playing of Mozart 's D minor Piano Concerto at a concert celebrating the centenary of Mozart 's birth , in January 1856 . His disenchantment with Prague was growing and , perhaps influenced by Dreyschock 's accounts of opportunities to be found in Sweden , Smetana decided to seek success there . On 11 October 1856 , after writing to his parents that " Prague did not wish to acknowledge me , so I left it " , he departed for Gothenburg .
= = = Years of travel = = =
= = = = Gothenburg = = = =
Smetana initially went to Gothenburg without Kateřina . Writing to Liszt , he said that the people there were musically unsophisticated , but he saw this as an opportunity " ... for an impact I could never have achieved in Prague . " Within a few weeks of his arrival , he had given his first recital , opened a music school that was rapidly overwhelmed by applications , and become conductor of the Gothenburg Society for Classical Choral Music . In a few months Smetana had achieved both professional and social recognition in the city , although he found little time for composition ; two intended orchestral works , provisionally entitled Frithjof and The Viking 's Voyage , were sketched but abandoned .
In summer 1857 , Smetana came home to Prague and found Kateřina in failing health . In June , Smetana 's father František died . That autumn Smetana returned to Gothenburg , with Kateřina and their surviving daughter Žofie , but before doing so he visited Liszt in Weimar . The occasion was the Karl August Goethe @-@ Schiller Jubilee celebrations ; Smetana attended performances of Liszt 's Faust Symphony and the symphonic poem Die Ideale , which invigorated and inspired him . Liszt was Smetana 's principal teacher throughout the latter 's creative life , and at this time was crucially able to revive his spirits and rescue him from the relative artistic isolation of Gothenburg .
Back in Sweden , Smetana found among his new pupils a young housewife , Fröjda Benecke , who briefly became his muse and his mistress . In her honour Smetana transcribed two songs from Schubert 's Die schöne Müllerin cycle , and transformed one of his own early piano pieces into a polka entitled Vision at the Ball . He also began composing on a more expansive scale . In 1858 he completed the symphonic poem Richard III , his first major orchestral composition since the Triumphal Symphony . He followed this with Wallenstein 's Camp , inspired by Friedrich Schiller 's Wallenstein drama trilogy , and began a third symphonic poem Hakon Jarl , based on the tragic drama by Danish poet Adam Oehlenschläger . Smetana also wrote two large @-@ scale piano works : Macbeth and the Witches , and an Étude in C in the style of Liszt .
= = = = Bereavement , remarriage and return to Prague = = = =
Kateřina 's health gradually worsened and in the spring of 1859 failed completely . Homeward bound , she died at Dresden on 19 April 1859 . Smetana wrote that she had died " gently , without our knowing anything until the quiet drew my attention to her . " After placing Žofie with Kateřina 's mother , Smetana spent time with Liszt in Weimar , where he was introduced to the music of the comic opera Der Barbier von Bagdad , by Liszt 's pupil Peter Cornelius . This work would influence Smetana 's own later career as an opera composer . Later that year he stayed with his younger brother Karel , and fell in love with Karel 's sister @-@ in @-@ law Barbora ( Bettina ) Ferdinandiová , sixteen years his junior . He proposed marriage , and having secured her promise returned to Gothenburg for the 1859 – 60 winter . The marriage took place the following year , on 10 July 1860 , after which Smetana and his new wife returned to Sweden for a final season . This culminated in April 1861 with a piano performance in Stockholm , attended by the Swedish royal family . The couple 's first daughter , Zdeňka , was born in September 1861 .
Meanwhile , the defeat of Franz Joseph 's army at Solferino in 1859 had weakened the Habsburg Empire , and led to the fall from power of von Bach . This had gradually brought a more enlightened atmosphere to Prague , and by 1861 Smetana was seeing prospects of a better future for Czech nationalism and culture . Before deciding his own future , in September Smetana set out on a concert tour of the Netherlands and Germany . He was still hoping to secure a reputation as a pianist , but once again he experienced failure . Back in Prague , he conducted performances of Richard III and Wallenstein 's Camp in the Žofín Island concert hall in January 1862 , to a muted reception . Critics accused him of adhering too closely to the " New German " school represented primarily by Liszt ; Smetana responded that " a prophet is without honour in his own land . " In March 1862 he made a last brief visit to Gothenburg , but the city no longer held his interest ; it appeared to him a provincial backwater and , whatever the difficulties , he now determined to seek his musical future in Prague : " My home has rooted itself into my heart so much that only there do I find real contentment . It is to this that I will sacrifice myself . "
= = = National prominence = = =
= = = = Seeking recognition = = = =
In 1861 , it was announced that a Provisional Theatre would be built in Prague , as a home for Czech opera . Smetana saw this as an opportunity to write and stage opera that would reflect Czech national character , similar to the portrayals of Russian life in Mikhail Glinka 's operas . He hoped that he might be considered for the theatre 's conductorship , but the post went to Jan Nepomuk Maýr , apparently because the conservative faction in charge of the project considered Smetana a " dangerous modernist " , in thrall to avant garde composers such as Liszt and Wagner . Smetana then turned his attention to an opera competition , organised by Count Jan von Harrach , which offered prizes of 600 gulden each for the best comic and historical operas based on Czech culture . With no useful model on which to base his work — Czech opera as a genre scarcely existed — Smetana had to create his own style . He engaged Karel Sabina , his comrade from the 1848 barricades , as his librettist , and received Sabina 's text in February 1862 , a story of the 13th century invasion of Bohemia by Otto of Brandenburg . In April 1863 he submitted the score , under the title of The Brandenburgers in Bohemia .
At this stage in his career , Smetana 's command of the Czech language was poor . His generation of Czechs was educated in German , and he had difficulty expressing himself in what was supposedly his native tongue . To overcome these linguistic deficiencies he studied Czech grammar , and made a point of writing and speaking in Czech every day . He had become Chorus Master of the nationalistic Hlahol Choral Society soon after his return from Sweden , and as his fluency in the Czech language developed he composed patriotic choruses for the Society ; The Three Riders and The Renegade were performed at concerts in early 1863 . In March of that year Smetana was elected president of the music section of Umělecká Beseda , a society for Czech artists . By 1864 he was proficient enough in the Czech language to be appointed as music critic to the main Czech language newspaper Národní listy . Meanwhile , Bettina had given birth to another daughter , Božena .
On 23 April 1864 , Smetana conducted Berlioz 's choral symphony Roméo et Juliette at a concert celebrating the Shakespeare tercentenary , adding to the programme his own March for the Shakespearean Festival . That year , Smetana 's bid to become Director of the Prague Conservatory failed . He had set high hopes on this appointment : " My friends are trying to persuade me that this post might have been especially created for me , " he wrote to a Swedish friend . Again his hopes were thwarted by his association with the perceived radical Liszt , and the appointing committee chose the conservative patriot Josef Krejčí for the post .
Almost three years passed before Smetana was declared the winner of Harrach 's opera competition . Before then , on 5 January 1866 , The Brandenburgers had been performed to an enthusiastic reception at the Provisional Theatre — over strong opposition from Maýr , who had refused to rehearse or conduct the piece . The idiom was too advanced for Maýr 's liking , and the opera was eventually staged under the composer 's own direction . " I was called on stage nine times , " Smetana wrote , recording that the house was sold out and that the critics were full of praise . Music historian Rosa Newmarch believes that , although The Brandenburgers has not stood the test of time , it contains all the germs of Smetana 's operatic art .
= = = = Opera maestro = = = =
In July 1863 , Sabina had delivered the libretto for a second opera , a light comedy entitled The Bartered Bride , which Smetana composed during the next three years . Because of the success of The Brandenburgers , the management of the Provisional Theatre readily agreed to stage the new opera , which was premiered on 30 May 1866 in its original two @-@ act version with spoken dialogue . The opera went through several revisions and restructures before reaching the definitive three @-@ act form that in due course established Smetana 's international reputation . The opera 's first performance was a failure ; it was held on one of the hottest evenings of the year , on the eve of the Austro @-@ Prussian War , with Bohemia under imminent threat of invasion by Prussian troops . Unsurprisingly the occasion was poorly attended , and receipts failed to cover costs . When presented at the Provisional Theatre in its final form , in September 1870 , it was a tremendous public success .
Back in 1866 , as the composer of The Brandenburgers with its overtones of German military aggression , Smetana thought he might be targeted by the invading Prussians , so he absented himself from Prague until hostilities ceased . He returned in September , and almost immediately achieved a long @-@ standing ambition – appointment as principal conductor of the Provisional Theatre , at an annual salary of 1 @,@ 200 gulden . In the absence of a body of suitable Czech opera , Smetana in his first season presented standard works by Weber , Mozart , Donizetti , Rossini and Glinka , with a revival of his own Bartered Bride . The quality of Smetana 's production of Glinka 's A Life for the Tsar angered Glinka 's champion Mily Balakirev , who expressed himself forcefully . This caused prolonged hostility between the two men . On 16 May 1868 Smetana , representing Czech musicians , helped to lay the foundation stone for the future National Theatre ; he had written a Festive Overture for the occasion . That same evening Smetana 's third opera , Dalibor , was premièred at Prague 's New Town Theatre . Although its initial reception was warm its reviews were poor , and Smetana resigned himself to its failure .
= = = = Opposition = = = =
Early in his Provisional Theatre conductorship Smetana had made a powerful enemy in František Pivoda , the Director of the Prague School of Singing . Formerly a supporter of Smetana 's , Pivoda was aggrieved when the conductor recruited singing talent from abroad rather than from Pivoda 's school . In an increasingly bitter public correspondence , Pivoda claimed that Smetana was using his position to further his own career , at the expense of other composers .
Pivoda then took issue with Dalibor , calling it an example of extreme " Wagnerism " and thus , unsuited as a model for Czech national opera . " Wagnerism " meant the adoption of Wagner 's theories of a continuous role for the orchestra and the building of an integrated musical drama , rather than a stringing together of lyrical numbers . The Provisional Theatre 's chairman , František Rieger , had first accused Smetana of Wagnerist tendencies after the first performance of The Brandenburgers , and the issue eventually divided Prague 's musical society . The music critic Otakar Hostinský believed that Wagner 's theories should be the basis of the national opera , and argued that Dalibor was the beginning of the " correct " direction . The opposite camp , led by Pivoda , supported the principles of Italian opera , in which the voice rather than the orchestra was the predominant dramatic device .
Even within the theatre itself there was division . Rieger led a campaign to eject Smetana from the conductorship and reappoint Maýr , and in December 1872 a petition signed by 86 subscribers to the theatre called for Smetana 's resignation . Strong support from vice @-@ chairman Antonín Čísek , and an ultimatum from prominent musicians among whom was Antonín Dvořák , ensured Smetana 's survival . In January 1873 he was reappointed , with a bigger salary and increased responsibility as Artistic Director .
Smetana gradually brought more operas by emergent Czech composers to the theatre , but little of his own work . By 1872 he had completed his monumental fourth opera , Libuše , his most ambitious work to date , but was withholding its premiere for the future opening of the forthcoming National Theatre . The machinations of Pivoda and his supporters distracted Smetana from composition , and he had further vexation when The Bartered Bride was produced in Saint Petersburg , in January 1871 . Although the audience was enthusiastic , press reports were hostile , one describing the work as " no better than that of a gifted fourteen @-@ year @-@ old boy . " Smetana was deeply offended , and blamed his old adversary , Balakirev , for inciting negative feelings against the opera .
= = = Final decade = = =
= = = = Deafness = = = =
In the respite following his reappointment , Smetana concentrated on his fifth opera , The Two Widows , composed between June 1873 and January 1874 . After its first performance at the Provisional Theatre on 27 March 1874 , Smetana 's supporters presented him with a decorative baton . But his opponents continued to attack him , comparing his conductorship unfavourably with the Maýr regime and claiming that under Smetana " Czech opera sickens to death at least once annually . " By the summer Smetana was ill ; a throat infection was followed by a rash and an apparent blockage to the ears . By mid @-@ August , unable to work , he transferred his duties to his deputy , Adolf Čech . A press announcement stated that Smetana had " become ill as a result of nervous strain caused by certain people recently . "
In September , Smetana told the theatre he would resign his appointment unless his health improved . He had become totally deaf in his right ear , and in October lost all hearing in his left ear also . After his subsequent resignation the theatre offered him an annual pension of 1 @,@ 200 gulden for the continued right to perform his operas , an arrangement Smetana reluctantly accepted . Money raised in Prague by former students , and by former lover Fröjda Benecke in Gothenburg , amounted to 1 @,@ 244 gulden . This allowed Smetana to seek medical treatment abroad , but to no avail . In January 1875 Smetana wrote in his journal : " If my disease is incurable , then I should prefer to be liberated from this life . " His spirits were further lowered at this time by a deterioration in his relationship with Bettina , mainly over money matters . " I cannot live under the same roof as a person who hates and persecutes me " , Smetana informed her . Although divorce was considered , the couple stayed unhappily together .
= = = = Late flowering = = = =
In worsening health , Smetana continued to compose . In June 1876 he , Bettina and their two daughters left Prague for Jabkenice , the home of his eldest daughter Žofie where , in tranquil surroundings , Smetana was able to work undisturbed . Before leaving Prague he had begun a cycle of six symphonic poems , called Má vlast ( " My Fatherland " ) , and had completed the first two , Vyšehrad and Vltava , which had both been performed in Prague during 1875 . In Jabkenice Smetana composed four more movements , the complete cycle being first performed on 5 November 1882 under the baton of Adolf Čech . Other major works composed in these years were the E minor String Quartet , From My Life , a series of Czech dances for piano , several choral pieces and three more operas : The Kiss , The Secret and The Devil 's Wall , all of which received their first performances between 1876 and 1882 .
The long @-@ delayed premiere of Smetana 's opera Libuše finally arrived when the National Theatre opened on 11 June 1881 . He had not initially been given tickets , but at the last minute was asked into the theatre director 's box . The audience received the work enthusiastically , and Smetana was called to the stage repeatedly . Shortly after this event the new theatre was destroyed by fire ; despite his infirmities , Smetana helped to raise funds for the rebuilding . The restored theatre reopened on 18 November 1883 , again with Libuše
These years saw Smetana 's growing recognition as the principal exponent of Czech national music . This status was celebrated by several events during Smetana 's final years . On 4 January 1880 , a special concert in Prague marked the 50th anniversary of his first public performance ; Smetana attended , and played his Piano Trio in G minor from 1855 . In May 1882 The Bartered Bride was given its 100th performance , an unprecedented event in the history of Czech opera . It was so popular that a repeat " 100th performance " was staged . A gala concert and banquet was arranged to honour Smetana 's 60th birthday in March 1884 , but he was too ill to attend .
= = = Illness and death = = =
In 1879 , Smetana had written to a friend , the Czech poet Jan Neruda , revealing fears of the onset of madness . By the winter of 1882 – 83 he was experiencing depression , insomnia , and hallucinations , together with giddiness , cramp and a temporary loss of speech . In 1883 he began writing a new symphonic suite , Prague Carnival , but could get no further than an Introduction and a Polonaise . He started a new opera , Viola , based on the character in Shakespeare 's Twelfth Night , but wrote only fragments as his mental state gradually deteriorated . In October 1883 his behaviour at a private reception in Prague disturbed his friends ; by the middle of February 1884 he had ceased to be coherent , and was periodically violent . On 23 April his family , unable to nurse him any longer , removed him to the Kateřinky Lunatic Asylum in Prague , where he died on 12 May 1884 .
The hospital registered the cause of death as senile dementia . However , Smetana 's family believed that his physical and mental decline was due to syphilis . An analysis of the autopsy report , published by the German neurologist Dr Ernst Levin in 1972 , came to the same conclusion . Tests carried out by Prof. Emanuel Vlček in the late 20th century on samples of muscular tissue from Smetana 's exhumed body provided further evidence of the disease . However , this research has been challenged by Czech physician Dr Jiří Ramba , who has argued that Vlček 's tests do not provide a basis for a reliable conclusion , citing the age and state of the tissues and highlighting reported symptoms of Smetana 's that were incompatible with syphilis .
Smetana 's funeral took place on 15 May , at the Týn Church in Prague 's Old Town . The subsequent procession to the Vyšehrad Cemetery was led by members of the Hlahol , bearing torches , and was followed by a large crowd . The grave later became a place of pilgrimage for musical visitors to Prague . On the funeral evening , a scheduled performance of The Bartered Bride at the National Theatre was allowed to proceed , the stage draped with black cloth as a mark of respect .
Smetana was survived by Bettina , their daughters Zdeňka and Božena , and by Žofie . None of them played any significant role in Smetana 's musical life . Bettina lived until 1908 ; Žofie , who had married Josef Schwarz in 1874 , predeceased her stepmother , dying in 1902 . The younger daughters eventually married , living out their lives away from the public eye . A permanent memorial to Smetana 's life and work is the Bedřich Smetana Museum in Prague , originally founded in 1926 within the Charles University 's Institute for Musicology . In 1936 the museum moved to the former Waterworks building on the banks of the Vltava , and since 1976 has been part of the Czech Museum of Music .
= = Music = =
The basic materials from which Smetana fashioned his art , according to Newmarch , were nationalism , realism and romanticism . A particular feature of all his later music is its descriptive character – all his major compositions outside his operas are written to programmes , and many are specifically autobiographical . Smetana 's champions have recognised the major influences on his work as Liszt , Wagner and Berlioz – the " progressives " – while those same advocates have often played down the significance of " traditionalist " composers such as Rossini , Donizetti , Verdi and Meyerbeer .
= = = Piano works = = =
All but a handful of Smetana 's compositions before his departure for Gothenburg had been piano works . Some of these early pieces have been dismissed by music historian Harold Schonberg as " bombastic virtuoso rhetoric derived from Liszt " . Under Proksch , however , Smetana acquired more polish , as revealed in works such as the G minor Sonata of 1846 and the E @-@ flat Polka of the same year . The set of Six Characteristic Pieces of 1848 was dedicated to Liszt , who described it as " the most outstanding , finely felt and finely finished pieces that have recently come to my note . " In this period Smetana planned a cycle of so @-@ called " album leaves " , short pieces in every major and minor key , after the manner of Chopin 's Preludes . The project became somewhat disorganised ; in the pieces completed , some keys are repeated while others are unrepresented . After Smetana 's final return from Gothenburg , when he committed himself primarily to the development of Czech opera , he wrote nothing for the piano for 13 years .
In his last decade Smetana composed three substantial piano cycles . The first , from 1875 , was entitled Dreams . It was dedicated to former pupils of Smetana 's , who had raised funds to cover medical expenses , and is also a tribute to the composer 's models of the 1840s — Schumann , Chopin and Liszt . Smetana 's last major piano works were the two Czech Dances cycles of 1877 and 1879 . The first of these had the purpose , as Smetana explained to his publisher , of " idealising the polka , as Chopin in his day did with the mazurka . " The second cycle is a medley of dances , each given a specific title so that people would know " ... which dances with real names we Czechs have . "
= = = Vocal and choral = = =
Smetana 's early songs are settings of German poems for single voice . Apart from his 1848 Song of Freedom , he did not begin to write pieces for a full choir until after his Gothenburg sojourn , when he composed numerous works for the Hlahol choral society , mostly for unaccompanied male voices . Smetana 's choral music is generally nationalistic in character , ranging in scale from the short Ceremonial Chorus written after the death of the composer 's revolutionary friend Havlíček , to the setting of Song of the Sea , a substantial work with the character of a choral drama .
Towards the end of his life Smetana returned to simple song @-@ writing , with five Evening Songs ( 1879 ) to words by the poet Vítězslav Hálek . His final completed work , Our Song ( 1883 ) , is the last of four settings of texts by Josef Srb @-@ Debrnov . Despite the state of Smetana 's health , this is a happy celebration of Czech song and dance . The piece was lost for many years , and only received its first performance after rediscovery in 1924 .
= = = Chamber = = =
Apart from a juvenile fantasia for violin and piano , Smetana composed only four chamber works , yet each had a deep personal significance . The Piano Trio in G minor of 1855 was composed after the death of his daughter Bedřiška ; its style is close to that of Robert Schumann , with hints of Liszt , and the overall tone is elegiac . It was 20 years before he returned to the chamber genre with his first String Quartet . This E minor work , subtitled From My Life , was autobiographical in character , illustrating the composer 's youthful enthusiasm for his art , his friendships and loves and , in a change of mood , the onset of his deafness represented by a long harmonic E in the final movement above ominous string tremolos . His second String Quartet , in D minor , written in 1882 – 83 in defiance of his doctor 's orders to refrain from all musical activity , was composed in short snatches , " a swirl of music of a person who has lost his hearing . " It represents Smetana 's frustrations with his life , but is not wholly gloomy , and includes a bright polka . It was one of his final compositions ; between the two quartets he wrote a violin and piano duet From the homeland , a mixture of melancholy and happiness with strong affinity to Czech folk material .
= = = Orchestral = = =
Dissatisfied with his first large @-@ scale orchestral work , the D major Overture of 1848 , Smetana studied passages from Beethoven , Mendelssohn , Weber and Berlioz before producing his Triumphal Symphony of 1853 . Though this is dismissed by Rosa Newmarch as " an epithalamium for a Habsburg Prince " , Smetana 's biographer Brian Large identifies much in the piece that characterises the composer 's more mature works . Despite the symphony 's rejection by the Court and the lukewarm reception on its premiere , Smetana did not abandon the work . It was well received in Gothenburg in 1860 , and a revised version was performed in Prague in 1882 , without the " triumphal " tag , under Adolf Čech . The piece is now sometimes called the Festive Symphony .
Smetana 's visit to Liszt at Weimar in the summer of 1857 , where he heard the latter 's Faust Symphony and Die Ideale , caused a material reorientation of Smetana 's orchestral music . These works gave Smetana answers to many compositional problems relating to the structure of orchestral music , and suggested a means for expressing literary subjects by a synthesis between music and text , rather than by simple musical illustration . These insights enabled Smetana to write the three Gothenburg symphonic poems , ( Richard III , Wallenstein 's Camp and Hakon Jarl ) , works that transformed Smetana from a composer primarily of salon pieces to a modern neo @-@ Romantic , capable of handling large @-@ scale forces and demonstrating the latest musical concepts .
From 1862 Smetana was largely occupied with opera and , apart from a few short pieces , did not return to purely orchestral music before beginning Má vlast in 1872 . In his introduction to the Collected Edition Score , František Bartol brackets Má vlast with the opera Libuše as " direct symbols of [ the ] consummating national struggle " . Má vlast is the first of Smetana 's mature large @-@ scale works that is independent of words , and its musical ideas are bolder than anything he had tried before . To musicologist John Clapham , the cycle presents " a cross @-@ section of Czech history and legend and impressions of its scenery , and ... conveys vividly to us Smetana 's view of the ethos and greatness of the nation . " Despite its nationalistic associations this work has , according to Newmarch , carried Smetana 's name further afield than anything he wrote , with the exception of The Bartered Bride Overture . Smetana dedicated Má vlast to the city of Prague ; after its first performance in November 1882 it was acclaimed by the Czech musical public as the true representation of Czech national style . Its Vltava ( or " The Moldau " in German ) movement , depicting the river that runs through Prague towards its junction with the Elbe , is Smetana 's best @-@ known and most internationally popular orchestral composition .
= = = Opera = = =
Smetana had virtually no precursors in Czech opera apart from František Škroup , whose works had rarely lasted beyond one or two performances . In his mission to create a new canon , rather than using traditional folksong Smetana turned to the popular dance music of his youth , especially the polka , to establish his link with the vernacular . He drew on existing European traditions , notably Slavonic and French , but made only scarce use of arias , preferring to base his scores on ensembles and choruses .
Although a follower of Wagner 's reforms of the operatic genre , which he believed would be its salvation , Smetana rejected accusations of excessive Wagnerism , claiming that he was sufficiently occupied with " Smetanism , for that is the only honest style ! " The predominantly " national " character of the first four operas is tempered by the lyrical romanticism of those written later , particularly the last three , composed in the years of Smetana 's deafness . The first of this final trio , The Kiss , written when Smetana was receiving painful medical treatment , is described by Newmarch as a work of serene beauty , in which tears and smiles alternate throughout the score . Smetana 's librettist for " The Kiss " was the young feminist Eliška Krásnohorská , who also supplied the texts for his final two operas . She dominated the ailing composer , who had no say in the subject @-@ matter , the voice types or the balance between solos , duets and ensembles . Nevertheless , critics have noted few signs of a decline in Smetana 's powers in these works , while his increasing proficiency in the Czech language meant that his settings of the language are much superior to those of his earlier operas .
Smetana 's eight operas created the bedrock of the Czech opera repertory , but of these only The Bartered Bride is performed regularly outside the composer 's homeland . After reaching Vienna in 1892 , and London in 1895 , it rapidly became part of the repertory of every major opera company worldwide . Newmarch argues that The Bartered Bride , while not a " gem of the first order " , is nevertheless " a perfectly cut and polished stone of its kind . " Its trademark overture , which Newmarch says " lifts us off our feet with its madcap vivacity " , was composed in a piano version before Smetana received the draft libretto . Clapham believes that this has few precedents in the entire history of opera . Smetana himself was later inclined to disparage his achievement : " The Bartered Bride was merely child 's play , written straight off the reel " . In the view of German critic William Ritter , Smetana 's creative powers reached their zenith with his third opera , Dalibor .
= = = Reception = = =
Even in his own homeland the general public was slow to recognise Smetana . As a young composer and pianist he was well regarded in Prague musical circles , and had the approval of Liszt , Proksch and others , but the public 's lack of acknowledgement was a principal factor behind his self @-@ imposed exile in Sweden . After his return he was not taken particularly seriously , and was hard put to get audiences for his new works , hence his " prophet without honour " remark after the nearly empty hall and indifferent reception of Richard III and Wallenstein 's Camp at Žofín Island in January 1862 .
Smetana 's first noteworthy public success was his initial opera The Brandenburgers in Bohemia , in 1866 when he was already 42 years old . His second opera , The Bartered Bride , survived the unfortunate mistiming of its opening night and became an enduring popular triumph . The different style of his third opera , Dalibor , closer to that of Wagnerian music drama , was not readily understood by the public and was condemned by critics who believed that Czech opera should be based on folk @-@ song . It disappeared from the repertory after only a handful of performances . Thereafter the machinations that accompanied Smetana 's tenure as Provisional Theatre conductor restricted his creative output until 1874 .
In his final decade , the most fruitful of his compositional career despite his deafness and increasing ill @-@ health , Smetana belatedly received national recognition . Of his later operas , The Two Widows and The Secret were warmly received , while The Kiss was greeted by an " overwhelming ovation " . The ceremonial opera Libuše was received with thunderous applause for the composer ; by this time ( 1881 ) the disputes around his music had declined , and the public was ready to honour him as the founder of Czech music . Nevertheless , the first few performances in October 1882 of an evidently under @-@ rehearsed The Devil 's Wall were chaotic , and the composer was left feeling " dishonoured and dispirited . " This disappointment was swiftly mitigated by the acclaim that followed the first performance of the complete Má vlast cycle in November : " Everyone rose to his feet and the same storm of unending applause was repeated after each of the six parts ... At the end of Blaník [ the final part ] the audience was beside itself and the people could not bring themselves to take leave of the composer . "
= = Character and reputation = =
Smetana 's biographers describe him as physically frail and unimpressive in appearance yet , at least in his youth , he had a joie @-@ de @-@ vivre that women evidently found attractive . He was also excitable , passionate and strong @-@ willed , determined to make his career in music whatever the hardships , over the wishes of his father who wanted him to become a brewer or a civil servant . Throughout his career he stood his ground ; when under the severest of criticism for the " Wagnerism " in Dalibor he responded by writing Libuše , even more firmly based on the scale and concept of Wagnerian music drama . His personal life became stressful ; his marriage to Bettina was loveless , and effectively broke down altogether in the years of illness and relative poverty towards the end of his life . Little of his relationships with his children is on record , although on the day that he was transferred to the asylum , Žofie was " crying as though her heart would break " .
There is broad agreement among most commentators that Smetana created a canon of Czech opera where none had previously existed , and that he developed a style of music in all his compositions that equated with the emergent Czech national spirit . A modified view is presented by the music writer Michael Steen , who questions whether " nationalistic music " can in fact exist : " We should recognise that , whereas music is infinitely expressive , on its own it is not good at describing concrete , earthly objects or concepts . " He concludes that much is dependent upon what listeners are conditioned to hear .
According to the musicologist John Tyrrell , Smetana 's close identification with Czech nationalism and the tragic circumstances of his last years , have affected the objectivity of assessments of his work , particularly in his native land . Tyrrell argues that the almost iconic status awarded to Smetana in his homeland " monumentalized him into a figure where any criticism of his life or work was discouraged " by the Czech authorities , even as late as the last part of the 20th century . As a result , Tyrrell claims , a view of Czech music has been propagated that downplays the contributions of contemporaries and successors such as Dvořák , Janáček , Josef Suk and other , lesser known , composers . This is at odds with perceptions in the outside world , where Dvořák is far more frequently played and much better known . Harold Schonberg observes that " Smetana was the one who founded Czech music , but Antonín Dvořák ... was the one who popularized it . "
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= I 'm Goin ' Down =
" I 'm Goin ' Down " is a song written and performed by American singer Bruce Springsteen that was released as the sixth single from his album Born in the U.S.A. in August 1985 . The song is one of several of the album 's tracks that he recorded with the E Street Band in May 1982 at the Power Station music studio . The release of these full @-@ band tracks was put into question when Springsteen used solo material for his September 1982 LP , Nebraska , and considered doing the same for his next album , which would become Born in the U.S.A. He later decided to use several of the May 1982 recordings on Born in the U.S.A. " I 'm Goin ' Down " beat out contender " Pink Cadillac " for a spot on the album .
" I 'm Goin ' Down " , which features a prominent drum performance and possesses an energetic feel , deals with the frustration of diminishing sexual activity in romantic relationships . As a single , it reached No. 9 in the United States and the top 40 in Sweden , Canada , and Italy . The song , which has received positive appraisal from critics , has not been performed often by Springsteen since his Born in the U.S.A. Tour ; between 2009 and 2014 , he played it at less than 12 percent of his concerts whose set lists his official website has published . Cover versions of " I 'm Goin ' Down " include renditions by Frank Black and the Catholics , Free Energy , Vampire Weekend , Dessa , and Trampled by Turtles .
= = Background and recording = =
In October 1980 , Springsteen released his fifth album , The River . For his next album , which would become Nebraska , he initially recorded a demo cassette by himself of over a dozen songs on January 3 , 1982 . In April 1982 , he began recording sessions at the Power Station studio in New York City with the E Street Band — whose line @-@ up then consisted of Roy Bittan , Clarence Clemons , Danny Federici , Garry Tallent , Steve Van Zandt , and Max Weinberg — with production by Springsteen , Van Zandt , Jon Landau , and Chuck Plotkin .
At first , Springsteen attempted full @-@ band versions of Nebraska songs at these sessions , including " Atlantic City " , " Nebraska " , and " Mansion on the Hill " . However , he and his co @-@ producers were unsatisfied with the group renditions of the demo songs . To buy time to decide on a solution , by May the band had begun recording other material , including " I 'm Goin ' Down " , " Born in the U.S.A. " , " Glory Days " , " Downbound Train " , " Darlington County " , " Working on the Highway " , and " I 'm on Fire " . " I 'm Goin ' Down " was recorded on May 12 . Eventually , Springsteen decided to release the January demos as the Nebraska album , which came out in September 1982 , such that " I 'm Goin ' Down " and other band tracks from May were temporarily shelved .
In 1983 , he did more songs with the E Street Band , but was considering instead recording his next album solo , like Nebraska . By the following year , Landau and Plotkin had convinced Springsteen to release band tracks , including several from May 1982 and a number of subsequently recorded songs . At one point , Springsteen was not going to include " I 'm Goin ' Down " on Born in The U.S.A. , but later added it in place of " Pink Cadillac " , which he used as the B @-@ side of the " Dancing in the Dark " single .
= = Music and lyrics = =
" I 'm Goin ' Down " features an energetic rhythm , propelled by a heavy drumbeat by Weinberg , and contains a saxophone solo by Clemons . The music has a basic chord progression of A – E – F # m – D. In concerts in 1984 , Springsteen introduced the song by describing the diminishing intimacy and sexual activity that can occur over the course of a romantic relationship : " [ First ] you 're making love to ' em all the time , three or four times a day . Then you come back a little bit later , and , uh @-@ oh ... it 's like ' Are you gonna make love to me tonight , or are we gonna wait for the full moon again ' , y 'know ? " The song 's lyrics include lines such as " I 'm sick and tired of you setting me up / Setting me up just to knock @-@ a knock @-@ a knock @-@ a me down " and " You used to love to drive me wild / But lately girl you get your kicks from just driving me down " . The lyrics later turn into a stream of gibberish syllables .
= = Release and reception = =
The Born in the U.S.A. album was released on June 4 , 1984 , and " I 'm Goin ' Down " , the album 's sixth single , came out in August 1985 . The 7 " single version includes B @-@ side " Janey , Don 't You Lose Heart " while the 12 " Maxi has this and " Held Up Without a Gun " . In the United States , " I 'm Goin ' Down " entered the Billboard Hot 100 singles chart on September 7 , and peaked at No. 9 on October 26 . It was one of a record @-@ tying seven top 10 singles to be released from Born in the U.S.A. It also reached No. 13 in Sweden , No. 23 in Canada , No. 29 in Italy , and No. 61 in Germany . No music video was made for the song . The track was additionally released on 12 " Singles Collection in 1985 , and The Album Collection Vol . 1 1973 – 1984 in 2014 .
" I 'm Goin ' Down " has generally been well received by critics . Debbie Miller of Rolling Stone describes the song as " wonderfully exuberant " and " hilarious " . For Billboard 's Caryn Rose , it is " a prime exemplar of the kind of good @-@ time party song that Springsteen and E Street do best , sliding easily through the verses with a ... bouncing rhythm ... and a fun , jumping end " . Writer Chuck Klosterman , who is not a fan of Born in the U.S.A. , nonetheless rates " I 'm Goin ' Down " as one of two decent tracks on the album . A 2014 Rolling Stone article ranks " I 'm Goin ' Down " as the 52nd best Bruce Springsteen song ever . In the book Counting Down Bruce Springsteen : His 100 Finest Songs , writer Jim Beviglia puts " I 'm Goin ' Down " as the 131st best Springsteen track , calling it " a fun but relatively minor " work . Critic Bruce Pollock lists it and several other Born in the U.S.A. tracks in Rock Song Index : The 7500 Most Important Songs for the Rock and Roll Era . In Uncut magazine 's 2015 Ultimate Collector 's Edition : Springsteen , " I 'm Goin ' Down " is rated four stars out of five .
= = Live performances = =
Springsteen has played " I 'm Goin ' Down " infrequently since the end of the Born in the U.S.A. Tour . For Springsteen 's tours since 2009 , most of his set lists are available on his official website , Brucespringsteen.net. Of the concert dates whose set lists the website has published , Springsteen performed " I 'm Goin ' Down " 13 times out of 85 concerts on his Working on a Dream Tour in 2009 , 14 times out of 138 concerts on his Wrecking Ball World Tour in 2012 – 2013 , and three times out of 34 concerts on his High Hopes Tour in 2014 — for a total of 30 times out of 257 concerts . At some of these 30 shows , Springsteen played the entire Born in the U.S.A. album .
= = Cover versions = =
Various musicians have covered " I 'm Goin ' Down " . In 1998 , Frank Black and the Catholics included a version on their " Dog Gone " single , and in 2015 on The Complete Recordings . In 2010 , Free Energy performed the song live in Atlanta , and released a version of the song as a single ; the same year , Vampire Weekend performed the song in Vancouver and Seattle , as well as including a recording of the song on their iTunes Session ; their version also appeared on the TV soundtrack Girls , Vol . 2 : All Adventurous Women Do ... in 2014 . Rancid frontman Tim Armstrong put out a cover in 2012 as part of his Tim Timebomb and Friends collection , and included it on his album Special Lunacy . Dessa released a version on her 2013 album Parts of Speech , and the following year , Trampled by Turtles did likewise on Dead Man 's Town : A Tribute to Born in the U.S.A.
= = Formats and track listing = =
7 " and 12 " singles
" I 'm Goin ' Down " – 3 : 29
" Janey , Don 't You Lose Heart " – 3 : 23
" Held Up Without a Gun " – 1 : 15 ( in only 12 " single )
= = Charts = =
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= Linn Isobarik =
The Linn Isobarik , nicknamed " Bariks " or " Briks " , is a loudspeaker designed and manufactured by Linn Products . The Isobarik is known for both its reproduction of low bass frequencies and being very demanding on amplifiers .
Launched in 1973 , the Isobarik DMS , Linn 's maiden and flagship loudspeaker was based on and named for the isobaric loading principle invented in the 1950s . The speaker exists also as the Isobarik PMS – destined for the professional market . Although discontinued in 1992 , it remains popular among audiophiles .
= = History = =
While other loudspeaker manufacturers sought to outperform each other to produce more quantum bass output from their products , Linn was seeking clear undistorted low frequency bass . Linn theorised a design whose bass could go all the way to DC and be without fundamental resonance . The quest for that extra octave of " dry and extended bass sound " and more accurate reproduction resulted in the Isobarik .
Linn launched the original Isobarik DMS loudspeaker in 1973 , the year following the release of its first product , the Sondek LP12 . " DMS " is the contraction for " domestic monitor system " , and is designed to be driven passively in the home setting – it incorporated a crossover within the loudspeaker cabinet . The Isobarik PMS ( " professional monitor system " ) loudspeaker launched in 1977 , destined for the professional market is without the internal crossover . This latter configuration opens up more wiring and driving options , in particular active operation and tri @-@ amping .
The Isobarik is so named as it employs the isobaric loading principle invented by Harry Olson in the 1950s : two bass units are mounted in a sealed container and driven in parallel so as to effectively double the speaker enclosure volume and extend its bass frequency response beyond what would be possible for otherwise identical speakers . Linn used a variant of the isobaric principle and patented the use of two bass drive units ( " woofers " ) facing forward in an isobaric arrangement in early 1974 .
In 1988 , Linn externalised the crossover of the DMS to boards with nominal 4 @-@ ohm impedance designed to lie flat at the base of the stands . Upon that change , the original distinction between DMS and PMS disappeared along with the suffix designation . The " DMS " was thus discontinued , although " Isobarik PMS " remained on price lists until the speaker was discontinued in 1992 .
= = Speaker = =
Linn brochures dwell little on performance specifications , mentioning somewhat vaguely that the frequency response " varies by only a few db from 20Hz to 20KHz with the isobaric loading extending usable bass response to below 10Hz " . Linn also claimed " very low distortion " and " high sound pressure levels " , without quantification . Recommended amplifier power rating is in the range of 50 – 500 watts . Hi @-@ Fi for Pleasure noted that the speakers ' impedance , although quoted at 3 ohms nominal , dipped considerably at some parts of the audio spectrum . This made the DMS Isobarik very hard for amplifiers to drive , potentially causing many amplifiers ' output protection to trip . Equally , the two heavy woofers in each Isobarik made them twice as power @-@ hungry . Such demands happened to make Naim amplification the perfect match because of its high current delivery capabilities and its toleration of near short circuits . The Isobarik was famously used as the acid test for the budget @-@ priced NAD 3020 amplifier at its UK launch . In the 1970s , the DMS Isobarik , available in a number of veneers , sold for £ 1 @,@ 000 .
As part of their corporate philosophy , Linn intended significant dealer involvement in customer education and decision @-@ making , and included teaching customers how to listen correctly for musical attributes . The trial and evaluation of the product prior to purchase and dealer 's expert installation are considered by Linn to be important parts of the value added of their top @-@ end products . As such , no instructions were supplied with the product . The Isobaric PMS retailed at £ 2 @,@ 400 including stands in May 1991 , and the 4 @-@ ohm crossover was priced at just under £ 500 .
= = = Design = = =
As a three @-@ way loudspeaker system employing six individual drive units , each Isobarik kabinet has two tweeters , two midrange drivers and two woofers . One driver of each frequency range faces forward ; a second tweeter and midrange are mounted on the top surface of the enclosure , and one bass unit is hidden from view . While the bass units are isobaric loaded , the midrange is mounted in a terminated transmission line . Crossover points are set at 375 Hz between the woofer and midrange , and 3 kHz between the tweeter and midrange . The upward @-@ firing drivers were designed to aid dispersion and improve the off @-@ axis listening experience .
The Isobarik , like the Sara and Kan that were developed in the 1970s and 80s , was designed to work best near room boundaries . Manufacturer 's leaflets advise positioning of the speaker close to a rear wall and approximately 2 to 3 feet ( 60 to 90 cm ) from corners . The trade @-@ off is the less than solid stereo image . Linn declared forthrightly that loudspeakers that were not designed to work tight against a wall were without merit . According to Art Dudley of Stereophile , Linn also maintained provocatively that " anyone who would design , manufacture , buy , sell , or positively review a loudspeaker made to be installed away from room boundaries was a fool " .
In early product manuals , Linn recommended using the Isobarik PMS in tri @-@ amped configuration with Naim amplifiers . Three NAP 250 amplifiers , fed by a 3 @-@ way Naim electronic crossover , would typically be used , one for each pair of the doubled @-@ up treble , midrange and bass units . From its introduction in 1984 , the monaural NAP 135 can be used in a " 6 @-@ pack " configuration .
After Linn had started manufacturing electronics and upon the release of the Isobarik Aktiv crossover , Linn declared that the ' AKTIV ' system comprises : the source components plus one Linn LK1 preamplifier , one Linn Aktiv Isobarik crossover , three Linn LK2 power amplifiers , one pair of Linn Isobarik loudspeakers and the necessary cables .
= = = Construction = = =
The loudspeaker cabinet measures 15 × 15 × 30 inches ( 38 × 38 × 76 cm ) . The extremely rigid 55 @-@ litre cabinet is constructed using 19mm high @-@ density particle board that is strategically damped in places , and extensively braced . According to the manufacturer , there is an array of stressed steel rods inside the enclosure to control energy flows . The techniques employed ensure that energy that would have caused the unwanted motion of the front panel and drivers is cancelled by a similar but opposite energy from the upward facing units , resulting in the minimum amount of resonances . The cabinets were initially made by Linn in their own factory , but the manufacturing was later outsourced to furniture @-@ makers Leon Levin of Glasgow .
Although the speaker uses bought @-@ in drivers , they have been rebuilt using stronger materials . Drivers ' metal baskets are treated to reduce the effects of vibration , and the enclosure designed and constructed to control energy . The drive units ( T27 , B110 and B139 ) were sourced from KEF in kit form , and two KEFKIT3 kits were judiciously used for each cabinet . However , Linn found the T27 tweeter too fragile and replaced it with the more robust and better @-@ sounding D2008 from Scan @-@ Speak after a very short run ; the Scan @-@ Speak tweeter was later changed to a Linn D20 @-@ LP @-@ 1 , sourced from Hiquphon in Denmark . The midrange KEF B110 , known for its use in the LS3 / 5A BBC monitor , is a 100mm @-@ diameter unit to which Linn applied a layer of doping . The woofer is a KEF B139 .
Each unit of the Isobarik cabinet weighs 40 kilograms ( 88 lb ) , and is designed to be placed on stands that are 33 centimetres ( 13 in ) tall so that the tweeter is positioned at the listener 's ear @-@ level . The speaker is supplied with heavy stands made from welded square cross @-@ section tubing , to which top and bottom spikes are fitted prior to positioning the speaker cabinet .
Input connections are established through 3 @-@ pin XLR connectors . Later versions and the PMS version have banana sockets ( see image ) .
= = = Product revisions = = =
1973 Isobarik DMS launched .
1976 Sep Revised cabinet style .
1977 Isobarik PMS launched .
1978 Sep Damping : Midrange enclosure and cabinet damping changed . SN . 10283 / 4
1979 The smaller Isobarik Sara launched .
1979 Nov Midrange unit : Vented . SN . 10 @,@ 800 / 1
1980 Feb Treble unit : Scan @-@ Speak treble unit replaced SN . 10 @,@ 925 / 6
1980 Mar Wiring : common earth at cannon socket . SN . 11 @,@ 035 / 6
1981 Oct Treble unit : Fitted with t @-@ nuts . SN . 2741 / 2
1982 Jan Cabinet : Changed from chipboard to medite and veneered on both sides . SN . 2859 / 60
1983 Mar Bass / Midrange units : Sound deadening material painted on bass and midrange units . SN . 3000 / 1
1984 May Crossover / Treble units : circuit board with wider tracks and improved layout . New treble units with a smoother response . Linn logo incorporated on front plate . SN . 3939 / 40
1985 Dec Cabinet : improved internal sealing and damping SN . 4825 / 6
1986 Apr Midrange units : harder rubber used for surround . SN . 4953 / 4
1987 Cabinet : Crossover moved to compartment in bottom of speaker . SN . 5575 / 6
1987 Sep Isobarik Sara 9 replaces Isobarik Sara
1988 Crossover : New 4 ohm external crossover fitted in stand . Facility for tri @-@ wiring .
1988 DMS discontinued – PMS can be driven passively ( 4 ohm ) or actively . SN . 6701 / 2
1989 Isobarik Sara 9 discontinued
1991 Dec Speaker : Addition of Ku @-@ Stone ceramic absorber , sealant changed to gaskets from silicone , improved cabinet bracing ( non @-@ retrofittable ) SN . 8293 / 4
1992 Isobarik discontinued .
Source : Linn
= = = Reception = = =
The Isobarik loudspeaker has received some polarised opinions , although Hi @-@ fi News noted that the speaker kept its promise by managing to " play the lowest bass guitar notes cleanly and give an impression of unlimited bass extension " . The Linn / Naim triamped active system , using a LP12 source , Naim amplification and electronic crossovers together with the Isobarik PMS , was regarded as the pinnacle of " flat @-@ earther " hi @-@ fi systems , and the speaker is integral to the general aura of mysticism that went with the Linn / Naim equipment .
= = Other Isobarik products = =
The Isobarik Sara is a product concurrent with the PMS for the whole of its life . This 2 @-@ way , 4 @-@ ohm , design was a physically much smaller product – measuring 425 × 332 × 244 mm ( 16 @.@ 7 × 13 @.@ 1 × 9 @.@ 6 in ) – that required tall speaker stands . Launched in 1978 , it was Linn 's entry @-@ level loudspeaker until the Kan ( a non @-@ isobaric bookshelf speaker using the same Linn D20 @-@ LP @-@ 1 and KEF B110 drive units as its big brother ) was released . The Kan was discontinued in 1990 .
In the late 1980s , Linn worked on a replacement for the Isobarik . The project bearing the codename " Isobarik LS2000 " became the Keltik . Although the final product does not bear the Isobarik name , the technology was mentioned in marketing materials and the product manual . Other products bearing the trade @-@ marked " Isobarik " name include the Melodik Active Isobarik Bass and the Majik Isobarik ( 2011 – )
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= Prior Park Landscape Garden =
Prior Park Landscape Garden surrounding the Prior Park estate south of Bath , Somerset , England , was designed in the 18th century by the poet Alexander Pope and the landscape gardener Capability Brown , and is now owned by the National Trust . The garden was influential in defining the style known as the " English landscape garden " in continental Europe . The garden is Grade I listed in the Register of Historic Parks and Gardens of special historic interest in England .
Around 1100 the site was part of a deer park set out by the Bishop of Bath and Wells John of Tours . In 1720s it was bought by Ralph Allen and landscaped to complement his new house . Further development was undertaken after the house became a seminary and then a Roman Catholic grammar school ( which later became Prior Park College ) . In the 1990s 11 @.@ 3 hectares ( 28 acres ) of the park and pleasure grounds were acquired by the National Trust and a large scale restoration undertaken . Features of Prior Park Landscape Garden include a Palladian architecture bridge , lake and ancillary buildings .
= = History = =
Set in a small steep valley overlooking the city of Bath a park was established on the site by John of Tours , the Bishop of Bath and Wells , in around 1100 as a deer park . It was subsequently sold to Humphrey Colles , a lawyer and member of parliament for Somerset , and then another member of parliament , Matthew Colthurst . Even before the Dissolution of the Monasteries the walls which had enclosed the deer park had fallen into disrepair and the deer had escaped . The land was then returned to agricultural use .
= = = 18th @-@ century design = = =
Purchased by the local entrepreneur and philanthropist Ralph Allen in the 1720s , Prior Park 's 11 @.@ 3 hectares ( 28 acres ) English landscape garden was laid out with advice from the poet Alexander Pope during the construction of the house , overseen by Allen between the years 1734 and his death in 1764 . During 1737 , at least 55 @,@ 200 trees , mostly elm and Scots pine , were planted , along the sides and top of the valley . The valley floor remained as grassland and drainage water was channelled to form fish ponds at the bottom of the valley .
Later work , during the 1750s and 1760s , was undertaken by the landscape gardener Capability Brown ; this included extending the gardens to the north , removing the central cascade and making the wooded hillside ( combe ) into a single sweep . " The garden was influential in defining the style of garden known as the ' English garden ' in continental Europe " . The gardens were laid out in two distinct areas : those on the east side of the house were set out as vegetable plots on either side of the serpentine path , while on the western side were statues and grottoes , trees and evergreens with climbing and scented plants . Exotic plants which had only recently arrived in Britain included Aristolochiaceae , Passiflora and Bignonia .
In 1828 the house and estate were purchased by Bishop Augustine Baines to create a seminary and then Bishop William Clifford for a Roman Catholic grammar school which later became Prior Park College . Further landscaping was carried out in the 1880s .
= = = Restoration = = =
In 1993 the park and pleasure grounds were acquired by the National Trust and it was opened to the public in 1996 . In November 2002 , a large @-@ scale restoration project began on the cascade , serpentine lake and Gothic temple in the wilderness area , this is now complete . Extensive planting also took place in 2007 . Future plans include re @-@ roofing the grotto and building a replica Gothic temple .
= = Garden features = =
The garden 's features include a Palladian architecture bridge ( one of only four of this design left in the world ) , Gothic temple , gravel cabinet , Mrs Allen 's Grotto , the ice house , lodge and three pools with curtain walls as well as a serpentine lake . The curtain wall by the lake is known as the Sham Bridge and is similar to Kent 's Cascade at Chiswick House and Vunus Vale at Rousham House . Ralph Allen was also responsible for the construction of Sham Castle on a hill overlooking Bath .
The rusticated stone piers on either side of the main entrance gates are surmounted by entablatures and large ornamental vases , while those at the drive entrance have ornamental carved finials . The Porter 's Lodge was built along with the main house to designs by John Wood the Elder .
= = = Palladian bridge = = =
The Palladian bridge , which is a copy of the one at Wilton House , has been designated as a Grade I listed building and scheduled monument . It was repaired in 1936 .
= = Bath Skyline = =
A five @-@ minute walk from the garden leads on to the Bath Skyline , a six @-@ mile ( 10 km ) circular walk around the city that encompasses woodlands , meadows , an Iron Age hill @-@ fort , Roman settlements , 18th @-@ century follies and views over the city .
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= Aldermaston =
Aldermaston / ˈɔːldərmɑːstən / is a mostly rural , dispersed settlement , civil parish and electoral ward in Berkshire , South @-@ East England . In the United Kingdom Census 2011 , the parish had a population of 1015 . The village is in the south the mid @-@ Kennet alluvial plain and bounds to the south Hampshire . It is roughly equidistant from Newbury , Basingstoke and Reading , centred 46 miles ( 74 km ) west @-@ by @-@ south @-@ west of London .
Aldermaston may have been inhabited as early as 1690 CE ; a number of postholes and remains of cereal grains have been found in the area . Written history of the village is traced back at least as far as the 9th century AD . The Anglo @-@ Saxon Chronicles show that the Ealdorman of Berkshire had his country estate in the village . The manor of Aldermaston was established by the early 11th century , when the village was given to the Achard family by Henry I ; the manor is documented in the Domesday survey . The village church was established in the 13th century , and some of the original Norman architecture remains in the building 's structure . The last resident Lord of the Manor , Charles Keyser , died in 1929 . The manor estate has been subsequently occupied by Associated Electrical Industries , the XIX Tactical Air Command , the Women 's Land Army , Collier Macmillan Schools , Blue Circle Industries , and the Compass Group , who ran it as a hotel and corporate venue . It was bought by the Praxis Group in 2013 for £ 4 @.@ 7 million and is now subject to plans for restoration that include 227 new homes in order to finance the restoration of the manor house and grounds .
The name " Aldermaston " is well known in connection with the UK 's nuclear weapons programme , as well as the Campaign for Nuclear Disarmament . The Atomic Weapons Establishment ( AWE ) , which develops , maintains , and disposes of the UK 's nuclear weaponry is in the parish . Built on the site of the former RAF Aldermaston , the plant has been the destination of numerous Aldermaston Marches . Until 2006 , the village was home to the Aldermaston Pottery , which was established by Alan Caiger @-@ Smith and Geoffrey Eastop in 1955 .
= = History = =
Evidence suggests that Aldermaston was inhabited in the 12th century CE , possibly extending back to 1690 CE . Radiocarbon dating on postholes and pits in the area show activity from 1690 to 1390 , 1319 to 1214 , and 977 to 899 CE . Wheat and barley grains have been found in these excavations . Tests show that most of the barley was dehulled , but that absence of such debris may mean that the cereal was brought in from other areas .
= = = Middle ages = = =
Before the 1066 Norman conquest of England , the land and properties of Aldermaston formed part of the estates of Harold Godwinson , the Earl of Wessex , who later became King Harold II of England . Harold 's assessment of Aldermaston valued the village 's 15 hides at £ 20 a year . As with much of the land seized by William the Conqueror after his arrival in England in 1066 , Aldermaston was held in demesne . His Domesday Survey of 1086 identified the existence of a mill , worth twenty shillings , and two fisheries , worth five shillings . During the rest of William 's reign , and that of his son William Rufus , Aldermaston was owned by the Crown .
The history of the Lords of the Manor of Aldermaston Court can be traced to Achard D 'Aldermaston , who was born in 1036 . Six families have had lordship of the Aldermaston estate . In the 11th century , Henry I gave Aldermaston to Robert Achard ( or Hachard ) of Sparsholt . In the mid @-@ 12th century , the Achard family founded the church of St Mary the Virgin . In 1292 , Edward I granted the right for the lord of the manor to hold a market in the village . Another charter was granted by Henry IV , with evidence that the market existed until approximately 1900 . The Achards also established an annual fair to observe the feast of St. Thomas the Martyr on 7 July .
Aldermaston was held by the Achard family until the 14th century , when it passed through marriage to Thomas De La Mare of Nunney Castle , Somerset . The De La Mare family governed Aldermaston for approximately 120 years , until Elizabeth de la Mare — whose male relatives predeceased her — married into the Forster family . In about 1636 , the Forsters built a large manor house to the east of the church . The house incorporated parts of an earlier ( 15th century ) house , including the chimney stacks . The Forsters ' house was fronted by two porches , separated by a central section with seven bays . The porches had ornate Solomonic columns , similar to those at the University Church of St Mary the Virgin in Oxford . The interior of the house featured a number of mythical statues , as well as artwork by Gaspard Dughet , portraits of William Congreve and Godfrey Kneller , and Tintoretto 's Esther Before Ahasuerus . The house 's Jacobean garden featured patterns of groves and avenues of oak , yew , Spanish chestnut and lime trees . In the early 18th century the Forsters oversaw the building of almshouses in Church Road . Built by R Dixon in 1706 , the houses became known as " Dixon 's Cottages " . The manor passed through the Forster family until 1752 , when the Forster lineage ended and the estate was inherited by Ralph Congreve , the husband of the last Forster 's grand @-@ niece .
= = = Victorian era = = =
On Ralph 's death a second @-@ cousin of dramatist William Congreve inherited the manor . The Congreve Family owned the estate at the time of the 1830 Swing Riots . The rioters marched across Aldermaston , wrecking twenty @-@ three agricultural machines . Workers were so frightened by the riots that they left their machinery in the open in an attempt to limit additional damage . Around the same time , the River Kennet ( along the north side of the estate ) was made navigable between Reading and Newbury .
In 1843 , the manor house was destroyed by fire , news of which was carried in The Illustrated London News . The estate passed into the Court of Chancery and was purchased by Daniel Higford Davall Burr . In 1848 , Burr commissioned the building of a neoclassical mansion to the south west of the original building . Burr saved the 17th @-@ century manor 's wooden staircase , though all that remains of the building is a staircase to the cellar ( which is now home to a colony of bats ) . By 1851 the new building was complete , costing £ 20 @,@ 000 and having a Tudor @-@ like appearance . Burr held the estate until his death 50 years later , when was inherited by his son , who sold it in 1893 .
The buyer was wealthy stockbroker Charles Edward Keyser , who was preoccupied with the idea of keeping the village unchanged — or , as he described it , " unspoilt " . He forbade advertisements , opposed all modernisation and refused to allow any expansion by the building of houses . He did , however , commission the building of a parish hall in 1897 and provided the village with a water supply , and the water fountain on the small village green was installed to commemorate Queen Victoria 's Diamond Jubilee . Keyser oversaw the restoration of the village almshouses in 1906 and 1924 , and defrayed the cost of a memorial oak tablet in memory of those killed in World War I. Of the 100 men from the village who served in the war , 22 were killed ( the highest percentage of town population in the country ) . The tablet bears the name of each man lost in action .
During Keyser 's lordship , John Marius Wilson 's Imperial Gazetteer of England and Wales listed Adminston as a possible name for the village . On his death in 1929 , his wife , Mary , continued to occupy the house until she died in 1938 . The estate was auctioned off in September 1938 , and many lots were purchased by their occupiers . The manor house was bought by Associated Electrical Industries ( AEI ) for £ 16 @,@ 000 . One of the houses in the village is recorded as having fetched £ 1 @,@ 375 . As AEI 's chairman , Felix Pole became the de jure Lord of the Manor upon their purchase of Aldermaston Court .
= = = Post @-@ World War II = = =
During the 1940s RAF Aldermaston was created on the parkland at the southern end of the parish , with XIX Tactical Air Command stationed at the manor house . After World War II , the manor was returned to AEI who built the MERLIN reactor on part of the land . The reactor was opened on 6 November 1959 by The Duke of Edinburgh . With the opening of the Atomic Weapons Research Establishment ( AWRE ) in 1950 , Aldermaston became synonymous with a number of CND marches .
In 1953 , Pole stepped down as Lord of the Manor and was succeeded by AEI 's senior representative , Thomas Allibone . Allibone held the position for 32 years , until Blue Circle Industries acquired the estate in 1985 . Allibone was succeeded by Tony Jackson , and the current Lord of the Manor is Andy Hall . Blue Circle could not gain planning permission in the grounds of the court , so the MERLIN reactor was demolished to make way for Portland House . With a full redevelopment of Aldermaston Manor , the £ 14 million office development became Blue Circle 's international headquarters and the complex was opened by Prince Richard , Duke of Gloucester .
= = = Toponymy = = =
The village of Aldermaston derives its name from Ældremanestone , Eldremanestune or Hedlremanestone , the Old English for " Ealdorman 's Homestead " . The Ealdorman — or Alderman — was a person of extreme importance , equating to the modern @-@ day Lord @-@ Lieutenant of the County . Although his country estate was in Aldermaston , he would have spent most of the time in the original county town of Wallingford . The Anglo @-@ Saxon Chronicle states that the first known Ealdorman of Berkshire , Aethelwulf , fought the Danes with Ethelred of Wessex at the nearby Battle of Englefield in 871 .
Other documented names include Aldermaston ad Pontem ( 11th century ) , Aldremanneston ( 12th century ) , Aldremaneston ( 13th century ) , Aldermanston and Aldermanneston Achard ( 14th century ) , and Aldmerston ( 19th century ) .
= = Government = =
Historically , Aldermaston was a hundred , though for a period it was within the Theale hundred . By the 19th century , the hundreds had been superseded by other sub @-@ divisions . From then on , Aldermaston was , at times , part of the Bradfield Poor Law Union and Sanitary District , and the registration sub @-@ districts of Mortimer ( late 19th century ) and Bucklebury ( early 20th century ) . It was at all times an ecclesiastical parish and acquired civil parish status in the 1890s .
The civil parish council is elected by every resident on West Berkshire elections . It is in the area of West Berkshire unitary authority . The electoral ward of Aldermaston includes the neighbouring parishes of Wasing , Brimpton , Midgham , and Woolhampton . The ward is the smallest in West Berkshire by population . The ward 's councillor is Dominic Boeck , who represents the Conservative Party .
Aldermaston is under the catchment of Thames Valley Police and is covered by the Brimpton Neighbourhood Policing Team . In a meeting with Aldermaston Parish Council , the police reported that 57 criminal offences were reported to have taken place in the parish between 2009 and 2010 . Of this , the majority was theft from non @-@ dwelling properties . Vehicle crime had dropped by 57 % on the previous year but violent crime had risen from four to six incidents . Five of these crimes were reported to be domestic violence . There have been no reported cases of robbery in Aldermaston since 2006 .
= = Geography = =
Aldermaston is in West Berkshire , about 2 miles ( 3 @.@ 2 km ) from the Hampshire boundary . The village is 1 mile ( 1 @.@ 6 km ) south of the A4 road that links the parish with Newbury and Reading . The main road in Aldermaston , The Street , is part of the A340 road and links the village with Pangbourne and Basingstoke . The course of Ermin Street , the Roman road that linked Calleva Atrebatum ( Silchester ) with Glevum ( Gloucester ) via Corinium Dobunnorum ( Cirencester ) runs south of the village , but none of the road survives in the area .
At the southern end of The Street is a small triangular village green called The Loosey — supposedly named after a " Lucy " who planted the oak tree which stands on the green . The Loosey is the site of a Roman well , discovered in 1940 by a cow that almost fell down it . The Loosey was previously home to the village maypole ( which was often climbed by Daniel Burr 's monkey ) and a drinking fountain erected by Charles Keyser to celebrate the Diamond Jubilee of Queen Victoria .
The River Kennet and River Enborne flow through the parish . The confluence of the rivers is approximately 0 @.@ 6 miles ( 0 @.@ 97 km ) north of the village . The Kennet and Avon Canal forms part of the parish 's boundaries with Woolhampton and Padworth .
Sections of Grim 's Bank are in the parish . Part of the earthwork in the AWE complex survives at a height of 3 @.@ 3 metres ( 11 ft ) and with a ditch 0 @.@ 9 metres ( 3 @.@ 0 ft ) deep .
= = = Geology = = =
The landscape of Aldermaston is influenced by Paices Hill and Rag Hill , which are extremities of the chalk formation the North Wessex Downs as part of the Thames Basin Heaths . The topography of the land in the parish generally slopes northward to the River Kennet .
The soil in the parish is high in clay . Due to the parish 's location within the Kennet Valley there is a high concentration of alluvium , with the content largely determined by the London Clay Formation , the Bagshot Formation , and the Bracklesham Beds .
= = = Flooding = = =
The quite flat low clay of Aldermaston 's north has with exceptional rainfall led to flooding certain populous streets on three occasions — 1971 , 1989 , and 2007 . The flood in 1971 caused by torrential rain was exacerbated by the non @-@ porous tarmac and buildings of the Atomic Weapons Establishment which managed for the first time to overwhelm its balancing ponds . This happened again in July 1989 , when an average of 6 inches ( 150 mm ) of rain was deposited across the parish in two hours ; water rose 5 feet ( 1 @.@ 5 m ) above the ponds and broke through a brick wall . The destroyed wall was rebuilt with 17 grilles to avoid another build @-@ up of water . A donation of £ 10 @,@ 000 was given to the village by Blue Circle .
In July 2007 , torrential rain flooded some of the traditional village centre and primary school . The storm coincided with the annual Glade music festival and jeopardised the event . The festival gates were temporarily closed while organisers assessed the flooding , which submerged one of the stages . The festival 's car park was incapacitated , with thousands of revellers stranded in the village and surrounding lanes .
The floods also hit the Church of England primary school , with the Royal Berkshire Fire and Rescue Service evacuating pupils and staff from the school in life rafts . The evacuation used four rafts , rescuing pupils and teachers from the school through windows . The 165 people ( 140 pupils and 25 members of staff ) were taken uphill to the parish hall , where blankets and sleeping bags had been provided .
Ian Henderson , a police constable at Thames Valley Police stated that the emergency services were " really stretched because of what happened over the county and the Glade event " , that " the [ A340 ] junction was two or three @-@ foot under water " , and predicted that " a lot of householders [ would be ] homeless . "
= = Demography = =
The 1831 census showed that 68 % of the employed population of Aldermaston were working class or " labourers and servants " . 20 % were middle class ( " middling sorts " ) , 10 % were upper class ( " employers and professionals " ) and 2 % were unclassified .
In 1887 the population of the parish was 528 . By 1896 , the population had grown to 585 . The population fluctuated steadily around 550 until the 1950s and 1960s , when a population explosion resulted in the 1961 UK census reporting 2 @,@ 186 residents in the parish . This coincides with the opening of the Atomic Weapons Establishment in the early 1950s , and the majority of this figure counts residents in the parts of Tadley within the parish of Aldermaston — between 1901 and 1961 , 368 houses were built in the parish .
A number of parish border changes occurred in the first half of the 20th century , including the net loss of 307 acres ( 124 ha ) to Beenham and Woolhampton on 1 April 1934 alone . By 2001 , the parish population had reduced to 927 .
The 2001 United Kingdom Census identified that 99 @.@ 3 % of householders in the parish as white . In 2005 30 % of parish residents lived in the village . Of the 70 % outside the village , 30 % lived at Aldermaston Wharf , 20 % in the local mobile home parks , 10 % in the Falcon Fields development and 10 % in " other outlying areas " . Falcon Fields is a housing development on the southern border of the parish , completed in the early 2000s . Ravenswing and Pinelands are mobile home parks near the Hampshire border . Raghill is an industrial area to the east of the parish , which has some light residential developments .
The average age of residents in the parish is approximately 50 with 31 @.@ 5 % of residents in the 45 – 64 age group . The average age of residents of Aldermaston Wharf is 30 @.@ 7 , and in the mobile home parks the average age is 53 @.@ 9 . Of these , 53 @.@ 3 % were female . This is in contrast with the 2001 census data , which showed that 49 @.@ 8 % were female .
In 2005 , 3 % of the parish population were unemployed and 25 % were retired . The retirement figure increased in the Pinelands and Ravenswing areas , with a statistic of 42 % . Most residents ' places of work are in surrounding towns , with their location in the parish largely dictating where to look for work . The 2005 survey identified that residents in the south of the parish ( Falcon Fields and Ravenswing / Pinelands ) travel towards Tadley and Basingstoke whereas those further north in the parish tend to find work in Reading , Newbury and London .
= = Economy = =
Historically , the main source of industry in Aldermaston has been agriculture . According to the 1831 census , approximately 66 % of working men ( aged 20 and over ) were employed in some form of agriculture . The next highest industry by workers was " retail and handicrafts " , which employed approximately 20 % . Employment categories in the 1881 census were more discreet ; just 20 % of working men identified their employment as agriculture . 30 % however , were listed as " general or unspecified commodities " . In this census , women 's employment was also documented . Of the 137 working women in the parish , 40 ( slightly fewer than 30 % ) worked in domestic services , whereas 82 ( approximately 60 % ) were of an unknown occupation .
= = = Agriculture = = =
In about 1797 a schoolmaster living in the village cultivated the Williams pear . The schoolmaster ( either Mr Wheeler or his successor , John Stair ) was the original cultivator , but the pear ( a cultivar of the European Pear ) was named after Richard Williams of Turnham Green , who grew several grafts of the original tree . On 5 December 1956 , a plaque commemorating the tree was unveiled on the wall of the village school .
Locally @-@ farmed wheat was milled at Aldermaston Mill until the 1920s . In existence at the time of the Domesday survey , the mill was previously called the " Kingsmill " , and at one time supplied flour to Huntley & Palmers in Reading . Now known as The Old Mill , it was owned by Wasing 's Mount family throughout the 18th and 19th centuries . William Mount let the mill to Francis Webb ( 1797 – 1811 ) , Mr Sherwood ( 1811 – 1820 ) , Mr King ( 1820 – 1824 ) , Mr Waldren ( 1824 – 1828 ) , Mr Mathews ( 1828 – 1848 ) , and William Gilchrist ( 1848 – 1856 ) . Gilchrist ( Mathews ' business partner ) bought the mill from Mount in 1856 using money inherited from his brother 's death the previous year . Owning it outright for approximately a year , he drowned in the River Kennet in 1857 after visiting the Angel public house in Woolhampton . Joseph Crockett purchased the mill in an auction the same year , before it was acquired by a Richard Sisling of Godalming in 1858 . In approximately 1860 , the mill was purchased by the Kersley family . Between then and 1885 , it was operated by Anthony Kersley , a miller and maltster who employed " six men and a boy , a carter , several domestic servants and a governess " . Kersley 's son , also named Anthony , ran the mill until 1895 . That year , Walter Parson bought the mill and operated it until approximately 1897 . Charles Keyser subsequently oversaw restoration on the mill building which " had been untenanted for upwards of three years " . He let the mill out to a Mr Iremonger from 1901 . Iremonger used the mill until the late 1920s , shortly before Keyser 's death . After Keyser had died and the Aldermaston estate had been divided and sold , his widow , Mary , approached Evelyn Arlott to run the mill as a tea room and guesthouse . The Arlott family purchased the mill in approximately 1939 , after the death of Mary Keyser .
In 1939 , there were seven farms on the Aldermaston estate — Forsters Farm , Village Farm , Church Farm , Upper Church Farm , Raghill Farm , Park Farm , and Soke Farm . These accounted for approximately 75 % of the estate 's land . Aside from these , there were six smallholdings within the parish but outside the land owned by the court . These were Springhill Farm , Court Farm , Strawberry Farm , Circus Farm , Ravenswing Farm , and Frouds Farm .
Of these , Church Farm and Forster 's Farm remain in operation . Upper Church Farm was originally known as Harry 's Farm , after a William Harry who died in 1544 .
= = = Pubs and brewing = = =
The local pub is named The Hind 's Head in honour of the Forster family crest . Built in the 17th century and originally operating as a coaching inn , the establishment was named The Pack Horse during the De La Mare and Forster lordships and The Congreve Arms throughout the Congreves ' ownership .
The building has a large black and gold clock set into the gable , and a small bellturret upon which is a gilt fox @-@ shaped weather vane . The bell was intended to be rung as an air @-@ raid siren during the Second World War . In the early 19th century the pub 's signboard carried the arms of the Congreve family , as well as branding for a company named " Adams " . In the British Parliamentary Papers of 1817 , the Committee on the State of the Police in the Metropolis reported evidence of a John Adams — a Reading @-@ based distiller and hop merchant — who competed for business against Simonds ' Brewery . By 1850 , the pub brewed beer on @-@ site ; a brewery was built as an out @-@ building behind the main pub building . John Knight produced beer at the pub for 40 years , selling it for 2d . The brewery building is still in existence , with the wooden louvres still operational . The building is now the pub 's kitchen . In the 1970s , the pub was owned by Whitbread . In the mid @-@ 1990s the pub was taken over by Gales Brewery ( having previously been a free house ) , later becoming tied to Fuller 's Brewery on their acquisition of Gales in 2006 . In the 1970s , the pub was home to the Kennet Folk Club .
The pub has its own gaol @-@ house , the lock @-@ up , at the rear . Built out of red brick , the small single @-@ storey building has a shallow domed roof . The inside of the lock @-@ up measures approximately 7 @.@ 5 feet ( 2 @.@ 3 m ) by 6 feet ( 1 @.@ 8 m ) , and is enclosed by a studded door with a grille . It was last used in 1865 and its drunk inhabitant burnt himself to death trying to keep warm . The lock @-@ up was designated as a Grade II listed building in April 1967 . On 11 September 2010 the lock @-@ up was opened to the public as part of the Heritage Open Days scheme .
Another pub in the parish , The Butt Inn , is located approximately 1 @.@ 25 miles ( 2 @.@ 01 km ) north @-@ east of the village . The pub is named after the archery butts that were located in the fields opposite the pub . The Falcon Inn was on the southern border of the parish . The pub , which closed in 2009 , was demolished in 2011 to improve traffic flow to AWE . In 2013 , the adjacent petrol station was rebuilt , extending onto the pub site .
The Aldermaston Brewery was established at Aldermaston Wharf in 1770 , and was demolished in the 1950s . It was replaced with a cable factory , which was demolished in 1990 .
= = = Cricket bats = = =
Old Village Farm ( on Fishermans Lane ) is now the location of a wood yard , used since the 1930s to prepare local willow for the production of cricket bats . The trees are grown at Harbour Hill Copse , where 70 trees are felled annually for this purpose . There are approximately 1000 trees growing at any given time . The workers at the yard cut the wood into approximate bat shapes , then cure the wood in a kiln . The clefts of wood are then shipped to India where the final manufacturing can be undertaken under moisture @-@ controlled conditions .
The yard would take on three up @-@ coming cricketers for the winter , in the hope that the hard work would " toughen them up " to get them picked for the England cricket team . One year the yard had help from Frank Tyson , Alan Moss , and Peter Loader . The following year they hosted three Davids — David Kaufman , David Spragbury , and David Gibson .
The wood yard was featured on A Question of Sport , when cricketer Graham Gooch took part in the programme 's " Mystery Guest " round . Gooch endorsed the bats made from Aldermaston willow , which were sold by Surridge . When he scored 333 runs against India at Lord 's in the 1990 test season , the Turbo 333 bat , made from Aldermaston wood , was launched in his honour .
In the 1960s , Blue Peter aired a short documentary on the cricket bat production entitled " The Life of a Cricket Bat " . It was presented by Christopher Trace .
= = = Pottery = = =
In 1955 , the Aldermaston Pottery was established on the main street by studio potters Alan Caiger @-@ Smith and Geoffrey Eastop . The pottery was renowned for tin @-@ glazed and porcelain wares , which used scrap wood from the Village Farm woodyard to fire the kiln . The pottery closed in 2006 . It had previously scaled back its output in 1993 due to Caiger @-@ Smith 's partial retirement after the 1992 recession .
= = = Atomic Weapons Establishment = = =
The Atomic Weapons Establishment ( AWE ) , for which Aldermaston has become known , is less than 1 mile ( 1 @.@ 6 km ) south of the village . The establishment is where the UK designs and manufactures Trident missiles , and where decommissioned and redundant nuclear weapons are dismantled . In April 1958 , the first Aldermaston March was held . The march saw around 3 @,@ 000 protesters march from London to Aldermaston over four days , with a total attendance of 12 @,@ 000 at the establishment 's gates . The 50th anniversary of the event was marked on 24 March 2008 with the " Bomb Stops Here " protest , attended by Vivienne Westwood and CND president Walter Wolfgang . The 2008 demonstration was the biggest protest staged by CND in ten years . Until 2005 , AWE discharged " pre @-@ treated waste water " into the River Thames at Pangbourne via an 11 @.@ 8 miles ( 19 @.@ 0 km ) pipeline which runs under roads and fields within the parish . A water processing facility was installed on @-@ site in 2006 , though the Pangbourne Pipeline remains in situ .
= = = Other businesses = = =
Lafarge Aggregates owns various sites in the parish . In 1974 the village won an appeal against Pioneer Concrete 's application for gravel extraction near the village . Similar events took place in March 2003 when hundreds of local residents protested against an application of gravel extraction by Lafarge . Larfarge 's initial appeal , in April 2003 , was turned down by West Berkshire Council . A further application to extract aggregate at the Wasing Estate was due to be decided in 2010 . One former extraction site , Butts Lake Quarry , is now a nature reserve and the flooded lakes have been identified as a Site of Special Scientific Interest and is now operated by the Berkshire , Buckinghamshire and Oxfordshire Wildlife Trust . The reserve contains specimens of trees such as alder , cherry , hawthorn , oak , and willow . Examples of reeds present include typha latifolia , phragmites australis , mentha aquatica , and lythrum salicaria . Numerous species of bird nest in the reserve , including the common teal , shoveler , warbler , kingfisher , water rail , and nightingale .
Britain 's first roadside petrol filling station was opened by The AA on the Bath Road near Aldermaston on 2 March 1919 . The following year , one villager requested that a pump be installed by his house . " Chuffer " Ford , who lived in The Forge with his wife Olive , was told by Keyser that it must be " behind a wall and recessed " . A hole was cut in the brick wall beside Ford 's yard to house the Shell @-@ branded pump . The location of this pump is marked by a square hole in the present wall . Ford 's business offered other motoring services , with signage reading " vacuum , oil , and cycles " .
There is a number of small businesses in the village , including a hairdressing salon , a software development company and the village shop . In the 1970s the hairdressers was a music shop , which was opened by Terry Wogan . Before this it was a cooperative village stores started by Charles Keyser .
There are two business parks in the parish — Calleva Business Park ( on the Berkshire / Hampshire border ) and Youngs Industrial Estate ( on Paices Hill ) . The latter opened in the early 1980s , and is the location of Paices Wood Country Parkland , a wildlife project sponsored by English Nature .
In 2007 Aldermaston won the Business Category Award in the regional final of the Calor Village of the Year competition . The judges stated that the village " has a very successful business community " and that " local businesses are well @-@ supported by villagers and in return these businesses support village activities " . In addition to the business award , the village was announced as the Overall Winner of the Calor " Berkshire Village of the Year " competition in 2006 , as well as category winners in the " Building Community Life " , " Business " , " Young People " and " ICT " categories .
= = Architecture = =
The majority of houses in the village were built between the 17th and late 19th centuries , including examples of Victorian Gothic architecture . Only one house has been built on the village 's main street since the early 20th century . The parish hall , built in 1897 , is predominantly flint and brick .
Most of the houses in the village are Grade II listed buildings , and many were built using local red and blue bricks . In total , 51 structures in the parish are listed , including gatepiers , greenhouses , a tomb , railings and a wall , the village telephone box and Aldermaston Lock .
= = Culture = =
Since the early 1800s , Aldermaston has held a candle auction every three years . The open auction starts with a horseshoe nail driven through a tallow candle an inch below the wick and lit in the parish hall . The lot is the lease of Church Acre , a plot of 2 acres ( 0 @.@ 81 ha ) granted to the church in 1815 after the Inclosures Act . The proceedings are overseen by the vicar and churchwardens , who drink rum punch throughout the auction . Traditionally , the churchwardens smoked clay pipes during the event .
The parish hall often holds other events , such as plays produced by the village 's own amateur dramatics society . The society , known as The Aldermaston Players , have staged fundraising events in the village 1966 . In 1976 , the parish hall hosted an episode of the BBC 's Any Questions ? .
The village , along with the neighbouring parish of Wasing , holds an annual produce show at The Old Mill . The show , which was previously held behind the Hind 's Head pub , hosts produce competitions in approximately 100 classes . In the 1990s , a team of gardeners formed from the produce show entered the Chelsea Flower Show . They won a silver gilt in the Best Courtyard Garden Award in two consecutive years , for gardens named " Calma " and " Time Lords " .
Since 1957 there has been an annual performance of the York Nativity Play from the 15th century York Mystery Cycle . The play follows a script by E. Martin Browne with carols by William Byrd , Johannes Eccard , and Michael Praetorius . The performances are at the Church of St Mary the Virgin in early December , and the actors are local people who have appeared in the play for many years . In 1964 , the play was recorded and broadcast by the BBC Home Service under the title of Star Over Aldermaston . One member of the production team was David Shute .
Aldermaston was mentioned in Plum Pie ( 1966 ) by P. G. Wodehouse — " Every now and then we march from Aldermaston , protesting like a ton of bricks ... And then we sit a good deal . " This was a reference to the demonstrations of the Campaign for Nuclear Disarmament ( the Aldermaston Marches ) which took the form of marches from Aldermaston to London ( apart from in 1958 , when the march went from London to Aldermaston ) . This was an annual march from 1958 to 1963 . Aldermaston was the original location of The Glade Festival . The 2007 event was jeopardised by torrential rains and flooding but cautiously went ahead . In 2009 , the festival moved from the area and was held near Winchester . Since 2006 , the village has held a blues festival known as " Blues on the Meadow " .
The parish of Aldermaston forms a group with the local parishes of Wasing and Brimpton . The three share a monthly Parish Magazine featuring stories from churches , organisations , schools , businesses and various miscellany .
= = Transport = =
Aldermaston railway station is in Aldermaston Wharf , 1 @.@ 5 miles ( 2 @.@ 4 km ) from the village itself . The station is managed by National Rail and served by First Great Western services between Reading and Newbury .
The village is on the A340 road , and has nearby access to the A4 road and the M4 motorway . Newbury Buses route 104 serves the village , with services terminating in Newbury , Calcot and Reading . The 2005 Parish Plan identified a need for a relief road near the village . A report was presented in 2009 evaluating the problems caused by HGV traffic through the village , and described solutions which included support from Newbury MP Richard Benyon .
The nearest operating airstrip , Brimpton Airfield , is less than 1 mile ( 1 @.@ 6 km ) west of the village , within AWE 's restricted airspace . RAF Aldermaston ceased to operate as a civilian airport in 1950 .
The village is 1 @.@ 5 miles ( 2 @.@ 4 km ) south @-@ east of the Reading Marine Company 's headquarters on the Kennet and Avon Canal , which provides waterway links to London ( via the Thames ) and Bristol ( via the River Avon ) .
= = Education = =
The parish of Aldermaston has two primary schools . Aldermaston Primary School is a Local Authority @-@ run Church of England school in Wasing Lane and has about 150 pupils . It was established in 1836 and originally located in Church Road , moving to the present site in 1988 . The school uses the names of the manor 's squires in its house system .
The Cedars is a private school opened in 1992 in the former buildings of the Church of England school . The school has approximately 40 pupils enrolled .
Alder Bridge Steiner School , although located in Aldermaston Wharf , is within the parish of Padworth . Padworth College is situated on the border of Aldermaston and Padworth parishes .
= = Religious sites = =
= = = Parish church = = =
The Church of England parish church of Saint Mary the Virgin and was built in the mid @-@ 12th century . The Norman building was altered throughout the following millennium , particularly in 13th , 14th , 15th and 17th centuries . The 12th @-@ century building now comprises the current nave , with additions seen in the Forster Chapel and chancel ( 13th century ) , the steeple ( 14th century ) , and vestry ( 17th century ) . The 17th @-@ century Jacobean pulpit is an unusual heptagonal design . Various additions were made to the structure in the 14th and 15th centuries , primarily to the walls and ogee windows . A scratch dial was added to the south @-@ west buttress in the 14th century .
The church features architecture by Edward Doran Webb and stained glass by Charles Eamer Kempe . The Forster Chapel , a lady chapel added to the south face in the 13th century , contains the alabaster effigial monument of Sir George Forster and his wife Elizabeth which was built in 1530 . Evidence suggests that the chapel may originally have been a chantry dedicated to St Nicholas . The roundel windows in the north wall date from the 13th century and are the oldest glass in Berkshire .
The tower has a peal of eight bells dating from 1681 to 1900 . The current organ , which has 16 stops , was installed in 1880 .
Individuals buried in the churchyard include squires Charles Keyser ( 1847 – 1929 ) and Daniel Burr ( c.1811 – 1885 ) , schoolmaster John Stair ( c.1745 – 1820 ) , and Maria Hale ( 1791 – 1879 ) .
= = Sport = =
Aldermaston has a number of sports teams . The village cricket team , Aldermaston Village CC , play at nearby Wasing Park . The club , which first played in 1786 as " The Gentlemen of Aldermaston " , originally played at a pitch at Aldermaston Court . The ground was lost when the airfield was built . Sir William Mount , 2nd Baronet , the grandfather of British Prime Minister David Cameron , allowed a cricket pitch to be established on a portion of his Wasing estate . The original football club played next to the cricket pitch . The club 's strip was sponsored by Mr. George L Heighton , the proprietor of the village shop .
Aldermaston Rugby Club and A.F.C. Aldermaston both play their home games at the Recreational Society at AWE . Tadley RFC is in the parish , about 1 @.@ 5 miles ( 2 @.@ 4 km ) from the village .
Aldermaston Raceway , a banger racing , demolition derby and stock car venue , Fleet Motor Club , is the relocation of the Aldershot Raceway which closed in 2007 . A course for off @-@ road 4x4 trials is close to the Raceway .
= = Notable people = =
Thomas Allibone , Lord of the Manor ( 1953 – 1985 )
Alan Caiger @-@ Smith , the studio potter , founded Aldermaston Pottery
Duncan Grant , painter , lived in the village with Paul Roche for the last few years of his life , and died in the village
Felix Pole , Lord of the Manor ( 1939 – 1953 )
Paul Roche , poet , lived in the village
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= Major League Baseball =
Major League Baseball ( MLB ) is a professional baseball organization , the oldest of the four major professional sports leagues in the United States and Canada . A total of 30 teams now play in the American League ( AL ) and National League ( NL ) , with 15 teams in each league . The AL and NL operated as separate legal entities from 1901 and 1876 respectively . After cooperating but remaining legally separate entities since 1903 , the leagues merged into a single organization led by the Commissioner of Baseball in 2000 . The organization also oversees Minor League Baseball , which comprises about 240 teams affiliated with the Major League clubs . With the World Baseball Softball Confederation , MLB manages the international World Baseball Classic tournament .
Baseball 's first professional team was founded in Cincinnati in 1869 . The first few decades of professional baseball were characterized by rivalries between leagues and by players who often jumped from one team or league to another . The period before 1920 in baseball was known as the dead @-@ ball era ; players rarely hit home runs during this time . Baseball survived a conspiracy to fix the 1919 World Series , which came to be known as the Black Sox Scandal . The sport rose in popularity in the 1920s , and survived potential downturns during the Great Depression and World War II . Shortly after the war , baseball 's color barrier was broken by Jackie Robinson .
The 1950s and 1960s were a time of expansion for the AL and NL , then new stadiums and artificial turf surfaces began to change the game in the 1970s and 1980s . Home runs dominated the game during the 1990s , and media reports began to discuss the use of anabolic steroids among Major League players in the mid @-@ 2000s . In 2006 , an investigation produced the Mitchell Report , which implicated many players in the use of performance @-@ enhancing substances , including at least one player from each team .
Today , MLB is composed of thirty teams : twenty @-@ nine in the United States and one in Canada . Teams play 162 games each season and five teams in each league advance to a four @-@ round postseason tournament that culminates in the World Series , a best @-@ of @-@ seven championship series between the two league champions that dates to 1903 . Baseball broadcasts are aired throughout North America and in several other countries throughout the world . Games are aired on television , radio , and the Internet . MLB has the highest season attendance of any sports league in the world with more than 73 million spectators in 2015 .
= = Organizational structure = =
MLB is governed by the Major League Baseball Constitution . This document has undergone several incarnations since 1875 , with the most recent revisions being made in 2012 . Under the direction of the Commissioner of Baseball , MLB hires and maintains the sport 's umpiring crews , and negotiates marketing , labor , and television contracts . MLB maintains a unique , controlling relationship over the sport , including most aspects of Minor League Baseball . This is due in large part to the 1922 U.S. Supreme Court ruling in Federal Baseball Club v. National League , which held that baseball is not interstate commerce and therefore not subject to federal antitrust law . This ruling has been weakened only slightly in subsequent years . The weakened ruling granted more stability to the owners of teams and has resulted in values increasing at double @-@ digit rates . There were several challenges to MLB 's primacy in the sport between the 1870s and the Federal League in 1916 ; the last attempt at a new major league was the aborted Continental League in 1960 .
The chief executive of MLB is the commissioner , Rob Manfred . The chief operating officer is Tony Petitti . There are six executive vice @-@ presidents in charge of the following areas : baseball development , business , labor relations and human resources , finance , administration ( whose vice @-@ president is MLB 's Chief Information Officer ) , and baseball operations . As of November 19 , 2013 , the MLB website lists only five executive VPs ; the office of executive VP for labor relations and human resources is not listed .
The multimedia branch of MLB , which is based in Manhattan , is MLB Advanced Media . This branch oversees MLB.com and each of the 30 teams ' websites . Its charter states that MLB Advanced Media holds editorial independence from the league , but it is under the same ownership group and revenue @-@ sharing plan . MLB Productions is a similarly structured wing of the league , focusing on video and traditional broadcast media . MLB also owns 67 percent of MLB Network , with the other 33 percent split between several cable operators and satellite provider DirecTV . It operates out of studios in Secaucus , New Jersey , and also has editorial independence from the league .
= = League organization = =
In 1920 , the weak National Commission , which had been created to manage relationships between the two leagues , was replaced with the much more powerful Commissioner of Baseball , who had the power to make decisions for all of professional baseball unilaterally . For 60 years , the American and National Leagues fielded eight teams apiece .
In the 1960s , MLB expansion added eight teams , including the first non @-@ U.S. team ( the Montreal Expos ) . Two teams ( the Seattle Mariners and the Toronto Blue Jays ) were also added in the 1970s . From 1969 through 1993 , each league consisted of an East and West Division . A third division , the Central Division , was added in each league in 1994 . Through 1996 , the two leagues met on the field only during the World Series and the All @-@ Star Game . Regular @-@ season interleague play was introduced in 1997 .
In March 1995 , two new franchises — the Arizona Diamondbacks and Tampa Bay Devil Rays ( now known simply as the Tampa Bay Rays ) — were awarded by MLB , to begin play in 1998 . This addition brought the total number of franchises to 30 . In early 1997 , MLB decided to assign one new team to each league : Tampa Bay joined the AL and Arizona joined the NL . The original plan was to have an odd number of teams in each league ( 15 per league , with 5 in each division ) . In order for every team to be able to play daily , this would have required interleague play to be scheduled throughout the entire season . However , it was unclear at the time if interleague play would continue after the 1998 season , as it had to be approved by the players ' union . For this and other reasons , it was decided that both leagues should continue to have an even number of teams ; one existing club would have to switch leagues . The Milwaukee Brewers agreed in November 1997 to move from the AL to the NL , thereby making the NL a 16 @-@ team league . Later , when the Houston Astros changed ownership prior to the 2013 season , the team moved from the NL Central to the AL West , resulting in both leagues having three divisions of five teams each and allowing all teams to have a more balanced schedule . Interleague play is held throughout the season .
In 2000 , the AL and NL were dissolved as legal entities , and MLB became a single , overall league de jure , similar to the National Football League ( NFL ) , National Basketball Association ( NBA ) and National Hockey League ( NHL ) — albeit with two components called " leagues " instead of " conferences . " The same rules and regulations are used in both leagues , with one exception : the AL operates under the designated hitter rule , while the NL does not . This difference in rules between leagues is unique to MLB ; the other sports leagues of the U.S. and Canada have one set of rules for all teams .
= = Current teams = =
An asterisk ( * ) denotes a relocation of a franchise . See respective team articles for more information .
= = History = =
= = = Founding = = =
In the 1860s , aided by the Civil War , " New York " -style baseball expanded into a national game and spawned baseball 's first governing body , The National Association of Base Ball Players . The NABBP existed as an amateur league for 12 years . By 1867 , more than 400 clubs were members . Most of the strongest clubs remained those based in the northeastern U.S. For professional baseball 's founding year , MLB uses the year 1869 — when the first professional team , the Cincinnati Red Stockings , was established .
A schism developed between professional and amateur ballplayers after the founding of the Cincinnati club . The NABBP split into an amateur organization and a professional organization . The National Association of Professional Base Ball Players , often known as the National Association ( NA ) , was formed in 1871 . Its amateur counterpart disappeared after only a few years . The modern Chicago Cubs and Atlanta Braves franchises trace their histories back to the National Association of Professional Base Ball Players in the 1870s .
In 1876 , the National League of Professional Base Ball Clubs ( later known as the National League or NL ) was established after the NA proved ineffective . The league placed its emphasis on clubs rather than on players . Clubs could now enforce player contracts , preventing players from jumping to higher @-@ paying clubs . Clubs were required to play the full schedule of games instead of forfeiting scheduled games when the club was no longer in the running for the league championship , which happened frequently under the NA . A concerted effort was made to curb gambling on games , which was leaving the validity of results in doubt . The first game in the NL — on Saturday , April 22 , 1876 ( at the Jefferson Street Grounds , Philadelphia ) — is often pointed to as the beginning of MLB .
The early years of the NL were tumultuous , with threats from rival leagues and a rebellion by players against the hated " reserve clause " , which restricted the free movement of players between clubs . Competitor leagues formed regularly and also disbanded regularly . The most successful was the American Association ( 1882 – 1891 ) , sometimes called the " beer and whiskey league " for its tolerance of the sale of alcoholic beverages to spectators . For several years , the NL and American Association champions met in a postseason championship series — the first attempt at a World Series . The two leagues merged in 1892 as a single 12 @-@ team NL , but the NL dropped four teams after the 1899 season . This led to the formation of the American League in 1901 under AL president Ban Johnson , and the resulting bidding war for players led to widespread contract @-@ breaking and legal disputes .
The war between the AL and NL caused shock waves throughout the baseball world . At a meeting at the Leland Hotel in Chicago in 1901 , the other baseball leagues negotiated a plan to maintain their independence . A new National Association was formed to oversee these minor leagues . While the NA continues to this day ( known as Minor League Baseball ) , at the time Ban Johnson saw it as a tool to end threats from smaller rivals who might expand in other territories and threaten his league 's dominance .
After 1902 , the NL , AL , and NA signed a new National Agreement which tied independent contracts to the reserve @-@ clause contracts . The agreement also set up a formal classification system for minor leagues , the forerunner of today 's system that was refined by Branch Rickey .
Several other early defunct baseball leagues are officially considered major leagues , and their statistics and records are included with those of the two current major leagues . These include the AA , the Union Association ( 1884 ) , the Players ' League ( 1890 ) , and the Federal League ( 1914 – 1915 ) . Both the UA and AA are considered major leagues by many baseball researchers because of the perceived high caliber of play and the number of star players featured . Some researchers dispute the major @-@ league status of the UA by pointing out that franchises came and went and that the St. Louis club was deliberately " stacked " ; the St. Louis club was owned by the league 's president and it was the only club that was close to major @-@ league caliber .
= = = Dead @-@ ball era = = =
The period between 1900 and 1919 is commonly called the " dead @-@ ball era . " Games of this era tended to be low scoring and were often dominated by pitchers , such as Walter Johnson , Cy Young , Christy Mathewson , Mordecai Brown , and Grover Cleveland Alexander . The term also accurately describes the condition of the baseball itself . The baseball used American rather than the modern Australian wool yarn and was not wound as tightly as it would become later , affecting the distance that it would travel . More significantly , balls were kept in play until they were mangled , soft and sometimes lopsided : a baseball cost three dollars , equal to $ 40 @.@ 95 today ( in inflation @-@ adjusted U.S. dollars ) , and owners were reluctant to purchase new balls . Fans were expected to throw back fouls and ( rare ) home runs . Baseballs also became stained with tobacco juice , grass , and mud , and sometimes the juice of licorice , which some players would chew for the purpose of discoloring the ball .
Also , pitchers could manipulate the ball through the use of the spitball . ( In 1921 use of this pitch was restricted to a few pitchers with a grandfather clause ) . Additionally , many ballparks had large dimensions , such as the West Side Grounds of the Chicago Cubs , which was 560 feet ( 170 m ) to the center field fence , and the Huntington Avenue Grounds of the Boston Red Sox , which was 635 feet ( 194 m ) to the center field fence , thus home runs were rare , and " small ball " tactics such as singles , bunts , stolen bases , and the hit @-@ and @-@ run play dominated the strategies of the time . Hitting methods like the Baltimore Chop were used to increase the number of infield singles . On a successful Baltimore chop , the batter hits the ball forcefully into the ground , causing it to bounce so high that the batter reaches first base before the ball can be fielded and thrown to the first baseman .
The adoption of the foul strike rule in the early twentieth century quickly sent baseball from a high @-@ scoring game to one where scoring runs became a struggle . Prior to the institution of this rule , foul balls were not counted as strikes : a batter could foul off any number of pitches with no strikes counted against him ; this gave an enormous advantage to the batter . In 1901 , the NL adopted the foul strike rule , and the AL followed suit in 1903 .
After the 1919 World Series between the Chicago White Sox and Cincinnati Reds , baseball was rocked by allegations of a game fixing scheme known as the Black Sox Scandal . Eight players — Joe Jackson , Eddie Cicotte , Claude Williams , Buck Weaver , Arnold " Chick " Gandil , Fred McMullin , Charles " Swede " Risberg , and Oscar " Happy " Felsch — intentionally lost the World Series in exchange for a ring worth $ 100 @,@ 000 . Despite being acquitted , all were permanently banned from Major League Baseball .
= = = Rise in popularity = = =
Baseball 's popularity increased in the 1920s and 1930s . The 1920 season was notable for the death of Ray Chapman of the Cleveland Indians . Chapman , who was struck in the head by a pitch and died a few hours later , became the only MLB player to die of an on @-@ field injury , a tragedy which led directly to both leagues requiring the placing into play new , white baseballs whenever a ball became scuffed or dirty , helping bring the " dead @-@ ball " era to an end . The following year , the New York Yankees made their first World Series appearance . By the end of the 1930s , the team had appeared in 11 World Series , winning eight of them . Yankees slugger Babe Ruth had set the single season home run record in 1927 , hitting 60 home runs ; a few years earlier , Ruth had set the same record with 29 home runs .
Affected by the difficulties of the Great Depression , baseball 's popularity had begun a downward turn in the early 1930s . By 1932 , only two MLB teams turned a profit . Attendance had fallen , due at least in part to a 10 % federal amusement tax added to baseball ticket prices . Baseball owners cut their rosters from 25 men to 23 men , and even the best players took pay cuts . Team executives were innovative in their attempts to survive , creating night games , broadcasting games live by radio and rolling out promotions such as free admission for women . Throughout the period of the Great Depression , no MLB teams moved or folded .
= = = World War II era = = =
The onset of World War II created a significant shortage of professional baseball players , as more than 500 men left MLB teams to serve in the military . Many of them played on service baseball teams that entertained military personnel in the US or in the Pacific . MLB teams of this time largely consisted of young men , older players , and those with a military classification of 4F , indicating mental , physical , or moral unsuitability for service . Men like Pete Gray , a one @-@ armed outfielder , got the chance to advance to the major leagues . However , MLB rosters did not include any black players through the end of the war . Black players , many of whom served in the war , were still restricted to playing Negro league baseball .
Wartime blackout restrictions , designed to keep outdoor lighting at low levels , caused another problem for baseball . These rules limited traveling and night games to the point that the 1942 season nearly had to be cancelled . On January 14 , 1942 , MLB Commissioner Kenesaw Mountain Landis wrote a letter to U.S. President Franklin D. Roosevelt and pleaded for the continuation of baseball during the war in hopes for a start of a new major league season . President Roosevelt responded , " I honestly feel that it would be best for the country to keep baseball going . There will be fewer people unemployed and everybody will work longer hours and harder than ever before . And that means that they ought to have a chance for recreation and for taking their minds off their work even more than before . "
With the approval of President Roosevelt , spring training began in 1942 with few repercussions . The war interrupted the careers of stars including Stan Musial , Ted Williams , and Joe DiMaggio , but baseball clubs continued to field their teams .
= = = Breaking the color barrier = = =
Branch Rickey , president and general manager of the Brooklyn Dodgers , began making efforts to introduce a black baseball player to the previously all @-@ white professional baseball leagues in the mid @-@ 1940s . He selected Jackie Robinson from a list of promising Negro league players . After obtaining a commitment from Robinson to " turn the other cheek " to any racial antagonism directed at him , Rickey agreed to sign him to a contract for $ 600 a month . In what was later referred to as " The Noble Experiment " , Robinson was the first black baseball player in the International League since the 1880s , joining the Dodgers ' farm club , the Montreal Royals , for the 1946 season .
The following year , the Dodgers called Robinson up to the major leagues . On April 15 , 1947 , Robinson made his major league debut at Ebbets Field before a crowd of 26 @,@ 623 spectators , including more than 14 @,@ 000 black patrons . Black baseball fans began flocking to see the Dodgers when they came to town , abandoning their Negro league teams which they had followed exclusively . Robinson 's promotion met a generally positive , although mixed , reception among newspapers and white major league players . Manager Leo Durocher informed his team , " I do not care if the guy is yellow or black , or if he has stripes like a fuckin ' zebra . I 'm the manager of this team , and I say he plays . What 's more , I say he can make us all rich . And if any of you cannot use the money , I will see that you are all traded . "
After a strike threat by some players , NL President Ford Frick and Baseball Commissioner Happy Chandler let it be known that any striking players would be suspended . Robinson received significant encouragement from several major league players , including Dodgers teammate Pee Wee Reese who said , " You can hate a man for many reasons . Color is not one of them . " That year , Robinson earned the inaugural Major League Baseball Rookie of the Year Award ( separate NL and AL Rookie of the Year honors were not awarded until 1949 ) .
Less than three months later , Larry Doby became the first African @-@ American to break the color barrier in the American League with the Cleveland Indians . The next year , a number of other black players entered the major leagues . Satchel Paige was signed by the Indians and the Dodgers added star catcher Roy Campanella and Don Newcombe , who was later the first winner of the Cy Young Award for his outstanding pitching .
= = = Ban on women = = =
Major League Baseball banned the signing of women to contracts in 1952 , and that ban lasted until 1992 .
= = = Expanding west , south , and north = = =
From 1903 to 1953 , the two major leagues consisted of two eight @-@ team leagues . The 16 teams were located in ten cities , all in the northeastern and midwestern United States : New York City had three teams and Boston , Chicago , Philadelphia , and St. Louis each had two teams . St. Louis was the southernmost and westernmost city with a major league team . The longest possible road trip , from Boston to St. Louis , took about 24 hours by railroad . In 1953 , the NL 's Boston Braves became the Milwaukee Braves . In 1954 , the St. Louis Browns became the Baltimore Orioles . In 1955 , the Philadelphia Athletics became the Kansas City Athletics .
Baseball experts consider the Brooklyn / Los Angeles Dodgers ' boss Walter O 'Malley to be " perhaps the most influential owner of baseball 's early expansion era . " Before the 1958 Major League Baseball season , he moved the Brooklyn Dodgers to Los Angeles . When O 'Malley moved the Dodgers from Brooklyn , he appeared on the cover of TIME . O 'Malley was also influential in persuading the rival New York Giants to move west to become the San Francisco Giants . The Giants were already suffering from slumping attendance records at their aging ballpark , the Polo Grounds . Had the Dodgers moved out west alone , the St. Louis Cardinals — 1 @,@ 600 mi ( 2 @,@ 575 km ) away — would have been the closest NL team . The joint move made West Coast road trips economical for visiting teams . O 'Malley invited San Francisco Mayor George Christopher to New York to meet with Giants owner Horace Stoneham . Stoneham was considering moving the Giants to Minnesota , but he was convinced to join O 'Malley on the West Coast at the end of 1957 . The meetings between Stoneham , Christopher and O 'Malley occurred against the wishes of Commissioner of Baseball Ford Frick . The dual moves were successful for both franchises — and for MLB . The Dodgers set a single @-@ game MLB attendance record in their first home appearance with 78 @,@ 672 fans .
In 1961 , the first Washington Senators franchise moved to Minneapolis – St. Paul to become the Minnesota Twins . Two new teams were added to the American League at the same time : the Los Angeles Angels ( who soon moved from downtown L.A. to nearby Anaheim ) and a new Washington Senators franchise . The NL added the Houston Astros and the New York Mets in 1962 . The Astros ( known as the " Colt .45s " during their first three seasons ) became the first southern major league franchise since the Louisville Colonels folded in 1899 and the first franchise to be located along the Gulf Coast . The Mets established a reputation for futility by going 40 – 120 during their first season of play in the nation 's media capital — and by playing only a little better in subsequent campaigns — but in their eighth season ( 1969 ) the Mets became the first of the 1960s expansion teams to play in the post @-@ season , culminating in a World Series title over the heavily @-@ favored Baltimore Orioles .
In 1966 , the major leagues moved to the " Deep South " when the Braves moved to Atlanta . In 1968 , the Kansas City Athletics moved west to become the Oakland Athletics . In 1969 , the American and National Leagues both added two expansion franchises . The American League added the Seattle Pilots ( who became the Milwaukee Brewers after one disastrous season in Seattle ) and the Kansas City Royals . The NL added the first Canadian franchise , the Montreal Expos , as well as the San Diego Padres .
In 1972 , the second Washington Senators moved to the Dallas – Fort Worth metroplex to become the Texas Rangers . In 1977 , baseball expanded again , adding a second Canadian team , the Toronto Blue Jays , as well as the Seattle Mariners . Subsequently , no new teams were added and no teams moved until the 1990s . In 1993 , the NL added the Florida Marlins in the Miami area and the Colorado Rockies in Denver . In 1998 , the Brewers switched leagues by joining the National League and two new teams were added : the NL 's Arizona Diamondbacks in Phoenix and the American League 's Tampa Bay Devil Rays in St. Petersburg , Florida .
After the 2001 season , the team owners voted in favor of contraction . Several MLB teams had been considered for elimination in early talks about contraction , but the Montreal Expos and the Minnesota Twins were the two teams that came closest to folding under the plan . Plans for MLB contraction were halted when the Twins landlord was awarded a court injunction that required the team to play its 2002 home games at their stadium . MLB owners agreed to hold off on reducing the league 's size until at least 2006 .
The Montreal Expos became the first franchise in over three decades to move when they became the Washington Nationals in 2005 . This move left Canada with just one team , but it also returned baseball to the United States capital city after a 33 @-@ year absence . This franchise shift , like many previous ones , involved baseball 's return to a city which had been previously abandoned . Not counting the short @-@ lived Federal League , Montreal is the only city granted an MLB franchise since 1901 that does not currently host a team .
= = = Pitching dominance and rule changes = = =
By the late 1960s , the balance between pitching and hitting had swung in favor of the pitchers . In 1968 — later nicknamed " the year of the pitcher " — Boston Red Sox player Carl Yastrzemski won the American League batting title with an average of just .301 , the lowest in the history of Major League Baseball . Detroit Tigers pitcher Denny McLain won 31 games , making him the only pitcher to win 30 games in a season since Dizzy Dean in 1934 . St. Louis Cardinals starting pitcher Bob Gibson achieved an equally remarkable feat by allowing an ERA of just 1 @.@ 12 .
Following these pitching performances , in December 1968 the MLB Playing Rules Committee voted to reduce the strike zone from knees to shoulders to top of knees to armpits and lower the pitcher 's mound from 15 to 10 inches , beginning in the 1969 season .
In 1973 the American League , which had been suffering from much lower attendance than the National League , sought to increase scoring even further by initiating the designated hitter ( DH ) rule .
= = = New stadiums and artificial surfaces = = =
Throughout the 1960s and 1970s , as baseball expanded , NFL football had been surging in popularity , making it economical for many of these cities to build multi @-@ purpose stadiums instead of single @-@ purpose baseball fields . Because of climate and economic issues many of these facilities had playing surfaces made from artificial turf , as well as the oval designs characteristic of stadiums designed to house both baseball and football . This often resulted in baseball fields with relatively more foul territory than older stadiums . These characteristics changed the nature of professional baseball , putting a higher premium on speed and defense over home @-@ run hitting power , since the fields were often too big for teams to expect to hit many home runs and foul balls hit in the air could more easily be caught for outs .
Teams began to be built around pitching — particularly their bullpens — and speed on the basepaths . Artificial surfaces meant balls traveled quicker and bounced higher , so it became easier to hit ground balls " in the hole " between the corner and middle infielders . Starting pitchers were no longer expected to throw complete games ; it was enough for a starter to go 6 – 7 innings and turn the game over to the team 's closer , a position which grew in importance over these decades . As stolen bases increased , home run totals dropped . After Willie Mays hit 52 home runs in 1965 , only one player ( George Foster ) reached that mark until the 1990s .
= = = Power age = = =
Routinely in the late 1990s and early 2000s , baseball players hit 40 or 50 home runs in a season , a feat that was considered rare even in the 1980s . It has since become apparent that at least some of this power surge was a result of players using steroids and other performance @-@ enhancing drugs . Many modern baseball theorists believe that the need of pitchers to combat the rise in power could lead to a pitching revolution at some point . New pitches , such as the mysterious gyroball , could shift the balance of power back to the defensive side . Several pitches have changed the game of baseball , including the slider in the 1950s and 60s and the split @-@ fingered fastball in the 1970s to 90s . Since the 1990s , the changeup has made a resurgence , being thrown masterfully by pitchers such as Trevor Hoffman , Greg Maddux , Jamie Moyer , Tom Glavine , Johan Santana , Pedro Martínez and Tim Lincecum . Recently , pitchers such as Lincecum , Jonathan Sánchez , and Ubaldo Jiménez have been throwing changeups with a split @-@ finger grip , creating a dropping movement , dubbed the " split change . "
= = Uniforms = =
A baseball uniform is a type of uniform worn by baseball players , and by some non @-@ playing personnel , such as field managers and coaches . It is worn to indicate the person 's role in the game and — through the use of logos , colors , and numbers — to identify the teams and their players , managers , and coaches .
Traditionally , home uniforms display the team name on the front , while away uniforms display the team 's home location . In modern times , however , exceptions to this pattern have become common , with teams using their team name on both uniforms . Most teams also have one or more alternate uniforms , usually consisting of the primary or secondary team color on the vest instead of the usual white or gray . In the past few decades throwback uniforms have become popular .
The New York Knickerbockers were the first baseball team to use uniforms , taking the field on April 4 , 1849 , in pants made of blue wool , white flannel shirts ( jerseys ) and straw hats . Caps and other types of headgear have been a part of baseball uniforms from the beginning . Baseball teams often wore full @-@ brimmed straw hats or no cap at all since there was no official rule regarding headgear . Under the 1882 uniform rules , players on the same team wore uniforms of different colors and patterns that indicated which position they played .
In the late 1880s , the Detroit Wolverines and Washington Nationals of the National League and the Brooklyn Bridegrooms of the American Association were the first to wear striped uniforms . By the end of the 19th century , teams began the practice of having two different uniforms , one for when they played at home in their own baseball stadium and a different one for when they played away ( on the road ) at the other team 's ballpark . It became common to wear white pants with a white color vest at home and gray pants with a gray or solid ( dark ) colored vest when away . By 1900 , both home and away uniforms were standard across the major leagues .
= = Season structure = =
= = = Spring training = = =
Spring training is a series of practices and exhibition games preceding the start of the regular season . Spring training allows new players to audition for roster and position spots , and gives existing team players practice time prior to competitive play . The teams are divided into the Cactus League and the Grapefruit League . Spring training has always attracted fan attention , drawing crowds who travel to the warmer climates to enjoy the weather and watch their favorite teams play , and spring training usually coincides with spring break for many college students . Autograph seekers also find greater access to players during spring training .
Spring training typically lasts almost two months , starting in mid February and running until just before the season opening day , traditionally the first week of April . As pitchers benefit from a longer training period , pitchers and catchers begin spring training several days before the rest of the team .
= = = Regular season = = =
The current MLB regular season , consisting of 162 games per team , typically begins on the first Sunday in April and ends on the first Sunday in October . Each team 's schedule is typically organized into three @-@ game series , with occasional two- or four @-@ game series . Postponed games or continuations of suspended games can result in an ad hoc one @-@ game or five @-@ game series . A team 's series are organized into homestands and road trips that group multiple series together . Teams generally play games five to seven days per week , commonly having Monday or Thursday as an off day . Frequently , games are scheduled at night . Sunday games are generally played during the afternoon , allowing teams to travel to their next destination prior to a Monday night game . In addition , teams will play day games frequently on Opening Day , holidays , and getaway days .
Each team plays 19 games against each of its four divisional opponents . It plays one home series and one away series , amounting to six or seven games , against the 10 other teams in its league . A team also plays one of the divisions in the other league , rotating each year , with two opponents in a three @-@ game home series , two in a three @-@ game away series , and one with four games split between home and away . Furthermore , each team has an interleague " natural rival " ( in many cases its counterpart in the same metro area ) with which it plays two home games and two away games each year .
With an odd number of teams in each league ( 15 ) , it is necessary to have two teams participate in interleague play for most days in the season , except when two or more teams have a day off . Each team plays 20 interleague games throughout the season , usually with just one interleague game per day , but for one weekend in late May all teams will participate in an interleague series . Use of the DH rule is determined by the home team 's league rules . Before 2013 interleague play was structured differently : there would be one weekend in mid @-@ May and another period consisting typically of the last two @-@ thirds of June in which all teams played interleague games ( save for two NL teams each day ) , and no interleague games were scheduled outside those dates .
Over the course of a season , teams compete for one of the five playoff berths in their league . They can win one of these berths by either winning their division , or by capturing a wild card spot .
After the conclusion of the 162 @-@ game season , an additional tie @-@ breaking game ( or games ) may be needed to determine postseason participation .
= = = All @-@ Star Game = = =
In early @-@ to @-@ mid July , just after the midway point of the season , the Major League Baseball All @-@ Star Game is held during a four @-@ day break from the regular @-@ season schedule . The All @-@ Star game features a team of players from the American League ( AL ) — led by the manager of the previous AL World Series team — and a team of players from the National League ( NL ) , similarly managed , in an exhibition game . From 1959 to 1961 , two games were held each season , one was held in July and one was held in August . The designated @-@ hitter rule was used in the All @-@ Star game for the first time in 1989 . Following games used a DH when the game was played in an AL ballpark . Since 2010 , the DH rule has been in effect regardless of venue .
The first official All @-@ Star Game was held as part of the 1933 World 's Fair in Chicago , Illinois , and was the idea of Arch Ward , then sports editor for The Chicago Tribune . Initially intended to be a one @-@ time event , its great success resulted in making the game an annual one . Ward 's contribution was recognized by Major League Baseball in 1962 with the creation of the " Arch Ward Trophy " , given to the All @-@ Star Game 's Most Valuable Player each year . ( In 2002 , this was renamed the Ted Williams Most Valuable Player Award . )
Beginning in 1947 , the eight position players in each team 's starting lineup have been voted into the game by fans . The fan voting was discontinued after a 1957 ballot @-@ box @-@ stuffing scandal in Cincinnati : seven of the eight slots originally went to Reds players , two of whom were subsequently removed from the lineup to make room for Willie Mays and Hank Aaron . Fan voting was reinstated in 1970 and has continued ever since , including Internet voting in recent years .
The 2002 contest in Milwaukee controversially ended in an 11 @-@ inning tie . Since 2003 , the league which wins the All @-@ Star game gets home @-@ field advantage in the World Series : the league champion hosts the first two games at its own ballpark as well as the last two ( if necessary ) . The National League did not win an All @-@ Star game and thus gain home @-@ field advantage until 2010 ; it was able to overcome this disadvantage and win in three of the seven World Series from 2003 to 2009 .
MLB All @-@ Star game players from both leagues have worn their team uniforms at the game with one exception . In the 1933 All @-@ Star Game , the National League All @-@ Star Team members wore special gray uniforms with " National League " written in navy blue letters across the front of the jersey .
= = = Postseason = = =
When the regular season ends after the first Sunday in October ( or the last Sunday in September ) , ten teams enter the postseason playoffs . These ten teams consist of six teams that are division champions by earning the best regular season overall win @-@ loss record for their respective divisions , and four who are " wild @-@ card " teams that are each one of two teams in their respective leagues who have earned the best regular season win @-@ loss record , but are not division champions . Four rounds of series of games are played to determine the champion :
Wild Card Game , a one @-@ game playoff between the two wild @-@ card teams in each league .
American League Division Series and National League Division Series , each a best @-@ of @-@ five @-@ games series .
American League Championship Series and National League Championship Series , each a best @-@ of @-@ seven @-@ games series played between the surviving teams from the ALDS and NLDS . The league champions are informally referred to as the AL and NL pennant winners .
World Series , a best @-@ of @-@ seven @-@ games series played between the pennant winners of each league .
Within each league , the division winners are the # 1 , # 2 and # 3 seeds , based on win – loss records . The team with the best record among non division winners will be the first wildcard and the # 4 seed . The team with the second best record among non division winners will be the second wildcard and the # 5 seed . In the wildcard round , the # 5 seed will play at the # 4 seed in a one @-@ game playoff . For the division series , the matchup will be the # 1 seed against the Wild Card Game winner and the # 2 seed against the # 3 seed . The team belonging to the league that won the mid @-@ season All @-@ Star Game receives home @-@ field advantage in the World Series .
Because each postseason series is split between the home fields of the two teams , home @-@ field advantage does not usually play a large role in the postseason unless the series goes to its maximum number of games , giving one team an additional game at home . However , the first two games of a postseason series are hosted by the same team . That team may have an increased chance of starting the series with two wins , thereby gaining some momentum for the rest of the series .
Use of the DH rule in the World Series is determined by the home team 's league rules .
= = International play = =
Since 1986 an All @-@ Star team from MLB is sent to a biennial end @-@ of @-@ the @-@ season tour of Japan , dubbed as MLB Japan All @-@ Star Series , playing exhibition games in a best @-@ of format against the All @-@ Stars from Nippon Professional Baseball ( NPB ) or recently as of 2014 their national team Samurai Japan .
In 2008 , MLB played the MLB China Series in the People 's Republic of China . It was a series of two spring @-@ training games between the San Diego Padres and Los Angeles Dodgers . The games were an effort to popularize baseball in China .
MLB played the MLB Taiwan Series in Taiwan in November 2011 . It was a series of five exhibition games played by a team made up of MLB players called the MLB All @-@ Stars and the Chinese Taipei National Team . The MLB All @-@ Stars swept the series , five games to zero . At the end of the 2011 season , it was announced that the Seattle Mariners and the Oakland Athletics would play their season openers in Japan . In October 2013 , Phil Rogers of the Chicago Tribune wrote that MLB was considering postseason all @-@ star tours in Taiwan and Korea ; baseball is increasing in popularity in both countries .
The Arizona Diamondbacks opened the 2014 season against Los Angeles Dodgers on March 22 – 23 in Australia . The teams played each other at the historic Sydney Cricket Ground , which has a seating capacity of 46 @,@ 000 . The two games represented the first MLB regular @-@ season play held in that country . The games counted as home games for the Diamondbacks , so they played 79 home games at Chase Field .
Together with the World Baseball Softball Confederation , MLB sponsors the World Baseball Classic , an international baseball tournament contested by national teams .
= = Steroids in baseball = =
In 1998 , both Mark McGwire and Sammy Sosa hit more than the long @-@ standing single @-@ season MLB record of 61 home runs . Barry Bonds topped the record in 2001 with 73 home runs . McGwire , Bonds and Sosa became the subjects of speculation regarding the use of performance @-@ enhancing substances . McGwire later admitted that he used a steroid hormone that was still legal in baseball during the 1998 season . Baseball 's original steroid testing policy , in effect from 2002 to 2005 , provided for penalties ranging from a ten @-@ game suspension for a first positive test to a one @-@ year suspension for a fourth positive test . Players were tested at least once per year , with the chance that several players could be tested many times per year .
A 2006 book , Game of Shadows by San Francisco Chronicle investigative reporters Lance Williams and Mark Fainaru @-@ Wada , chronicled alleged extensive use of performance enhancers , including several types of steroids and growth hormone by baseball superstars Barry Bonds , Gary Sheffield , and Jason Giambi . Former Senate Majority Leader George Mitchell was appointed by Selig on March 30 , 2006 to investigate the use of performance @-@ enhancing drugs in MLB . The appointment was made after several influential members of the U.S. Congress made negative comments about both the effectiveness and honesty of MLB 's drug policies and Commissioner Selig .
The day before the Mitchell Report was to be released in 2007 , Selig said , " I haven 't seen the report yet , but I 'm proud I did it . " The report said that after mandatory random testing began in 2004 , HGH treatment for athletic enhancement became popular among players , as HGH is not detectable in tests . It pointed out that HGH is likely a placebo with no performance @-@ enhancing effects . The report included substance use allegations against at least one player from each MLB team .
According to ESPN , some people questioned whether Mitchell 's director role with the Boston Red Sox created a conflict of interest , especially because no " prime [ Sox ] players were in the report . " The report named several prominent Yankees who were parts of World Series clubs ; there is a long @-@ running and fierce Yankees – Red Sox rivalry . Former U.S. prosecutor John M. Dowd brought up Mitchell 's conflict of interest , but he later said that the former senator had done a good job . Mitchell acknowledged that his " tight relationship with Major League Baseball left him open to criticism " , but he said that readers who examine the report closely " will not find any evidence of bias , of special treatment of the Red Sox " .
On January 10 , 2013 , MLB and the players union reached an agreement to add random , in @-@ season HGH testing . They also agreed to implement a new test to reveal the use of testosterone for the 2013 season . The current MLB drug policy provides for an 80 @-@ game suspension for a first positive test , a 162 @-@ game suspension for a second positive test , and a lifetime suspension for a third positive test . In 2009 , allegations surfaced against Alex Rodriguez and David Ortiz , and Manny Ramirez received a 50 @-@ game suspension after testing positive for banned substances . In early April 2011 , Ramirez retired from baseball rather than face a 100 @-@ game suspension for his second positive steroid test .
= = MLB in media = =
= = = Television = = =
Several networks televise baseball games , including Fox , ESPN , and MLB Network . Since 2008 , Fox Sports has broadcast MLB games on Fox Saturday Baseball throughout the entire season ; Fox previously only broadcast games from May to September . Fox also holds rights to the All @-@ Star Game each season . Fox also alternates League Championship Series broadcasts , broadcasting the American League Championship Series ( ALCS ) in odd @-@ numbered years and the National League Championship Series ( NLCS ) in even @-@ numbered years . Fox broadcasts all games of the World Series . ESPN continues to broadcast MLB games through 2013 as well , beginning with national Opening Day coverage . ESPN broadcasts Sunday Night Baseball , Monday Night Baseball , Wednesday Night Baseball , and Baseball Tonight . ESPN also has rights to the Home Run Derby at the All @-@ Star Game each July .
TBS airs Sunday afternoon regular season games ( non @-@ exclusive ) nationally . In 2007 , TBS began its exclusive rights to any tiebreaker games that determine division or wild card champions ; it also airs exclusive coverage of the Division Series round of the playoffs . TBS carries the League Championship Series that are not included under Fox 's television agreement ; TBS shows the NLCS in odd @-@ numbered years and the ALCS in even @-@ numbered years .
In January 2009 , MLB launched the MLB Network , featuring news and coverage from around the league , and airing 26 live games in the 2009 season . Each team also has local broadcasts for all games not carried by Fox on Saturdays or ESPN on Sunday nights . These games are typically split between a local broadcast television station and a local or regional sports network ( RSN ) , though some teams only air local games through RSNs or through their own team networks . As Canada only contains one team , Sportsnet broadcasts Toronto Blue Jays games nationally . The channel is owned by Rogers Communications , who is also the parent company of the Blue Jays . Sportsnet also televises Fox 's Saturday afternoon games , the All @-@ Star Game , playoff games , and the World Series . In April 2011 , TSN2 began carrying ESPN Sunday Night Baseball in Canada .
= = = Blackout policy = = =
MLB has several blackout rules . A local broadcaster has priority to televise games of the team in their market over national broadcasters . For example , at one time TBS showed many Atlanta Braves games nationally and internationally in Canada . Fox Sports Networks also show many games in other areas . If the Braves played a team that FSN or another local broadcaster showed , the local station will have the broadcast rights for its own local market , while TBS would have been blacked out in the same market during the game . A market that has a local team playing in a weekday ESPN or ESPN2 game and is shown on a local station will see ESPNews , or , in the past , another game scheduled on ESPN or ESPN2 at the same time ( if ESPN or ESPN2 operates a regional coverage broadcasting and operates a game choice ) , or will be subject to an alternative programming feed . MLB 's streaming Internet video service is also subject to the same blackout rules .
= = = Radio and Internet = = =
ESPN Radio holds national broadcast rights and broadcasts Sunday Night Baseball weekly throughout the season in addition to all playoff games . The rights to the World Series are exclusive to ESPN .
In addition , each team employs its own announcers , who broadcast during the regular season . Most teams operate regional networks to cover their fan bases ; some of these supposedly regional networks ( such as the New York Yankees Radio Network ) have a national reach with affiliates located across the United States . Major League Baseball has an exclusive rights deal with XM Satellite Radio , which includes the channel MLB Network Radio and live play @-@ by @-@ play of all games . Many teams also maintain a network of stations that broadcast their games in Spanish ; the former Montreal Expos broadcast their games in both English and French .
MLB games are also broadcast live on the internet . All television and radio broadcasts of games are available via subscription to MLB.tv at Major League Baseball 's website , MLB.com , and radio @-@ only broadcasts are also available via subscription to MLB.com Gameday Audio . Blackout rules are still applied for live television broadcasts , but not radio broadcasts .
= = = International broadcasting = = =
ESPN Deportes televises a large number of MLB games in Spanish throughout Latin America . Wapa 2 airs games in Puerto Rico , including spring training games and most of the World Baseball Classic games involving the team from Puerto Rico . In Brazil , ESPN Brasil has exclusive rights on TV ( ESPN and ESPN + ) and Internet ( WatchESPN ) , with Fox Sports also broadcasting some games .
Five in the United Kingdom previously screened MLB games , including the All @-@ Star Game and the postseason games , on Sunday and Wednesday usually starting at 1 am BST . Most recently , Johnny Gould and Josh Chetwynd presented MLB on Five on that station . The channel covered baseball beginning on its opening night in 1997 , but for financial reasons , the decision was made not to pick up MLB for the 2009 season . ESPN UK show live and recorded games several times a week — it is available with BT Sport and ( on a subscriber @-@ basis ) Virgin Media in the UK . ESPN America televised a large number of games in the UK and dozens of other countries ; in May 2013 , ESPN announced that it would shut down the channel on July 31 , 2013 .
In Australia , MLB games are regularly shown on ESPN Australia ( subscription ) .
In the Middle East & North Africa , MLB games are broadcast on beIN Sports channels .
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= Raemer Schreiber =
Raemer Edgar Schreiber ( November 11 , 1910 – December 24 , 1998 ) was an American physicist from McMinnville , Oregon who served Los Alamos National Laboratory during World War II , participating in the development of the atomic bomb . He saw the first one detonated in the Trinity nuclear test in July 1945 , and prepared the Fat Man bomb that was used in the bombing of Nagasaki . After the war , he served at Los Alamos as a group leader , and was involved in the design of the hydrogen bomb . In 1955 , he became the head of its Nuclear Rocket Propulsion ( N ) Division , which developed the first nuclear @-@ powered rockets . He served as deputy director of the laboratory from 1972 until his retirement in 1974 .
= = Early life = =
Raemer Edgar Schreiber was born in McMinnville , Oregon on November 11 , 1910 , the son of Bertha ( née Raemer ) and Michael Schreiber . He was educated at Masonville Grade School and McMinnville High School . In 1927 he entered Linfield College in McMinnville , where he majored in physics and mathematics , and received his Bachelor of Arts degree in 1931 . He then earned his Master of Arts degree from the University of Oregon in 1932 . He married Marguerite Elizabeth Doak , a Linfield College French major in 1933 . They had two daughters , Paula and Sara .
Schreiber was a graduate assistant at Oregon State College from 1932 to 1935 , when he became an instructor at Purdue University . He was awarded his Ph.D. from Purdue in 1941 , writing a thesis on an " Investigation of Nuclear Reactions and Scattering Produced by Neutrons " . For his thesis , he constructed a neutron generator , and originally intended to discuss the possibilities of studying neutron diffraction in crystals , but this really only became possible with the development of nuclear reactors that produced large quantities of high energy neutrons . After the discovery of nuclear fission in 1939 , he became interested in the phenomenon , and re @-@ oriented his thesis to the study of neutrons emitted by fission .
= = Manhattan Project = =
From 1942 to 1943 , Schreiber was a researcher with the Purdue Research Foundation . He participated in early work for the Manhattan Project there using the university 's cyclotron . In 1943 , he joined the Los Alamos Laboratory , and moved to Los Alamos , New Mexico with his wife and 16 @-@ month @-@ old daughter . At Los Alamos , he worked on the Water Boiler , an aqueous homogeneous reactor . The Water Boiler group was headed by Donald W. Kerst from the University of Illinois , and consisted mainly of people from Purdue who had been working on calculations for Edward Teller 's thermonuclear " Super " bomb . The group designed and built the Water Boiler , which commenced operation in May 1944 . It was intended as a laboratory instrument to test critical mass calculations and the effect of various tamper materials . It was the first reactor to use enriched uranium as a fuel , and the first to use liquid fuel in the form of soluble uranium sulfate dissolved in water .
Schreiber worked on improved reactor designs until April 1945 , when he was transferred to Robert Bacher 's Gadget ( G ) Division as a member of the pit assembly team for the Trinity nuclear test . He observed the explosion from the Base Camp on July 16 . Nine days later , Lieutenant Colonel Peer de Silva , the official courier , and Schreiber collected another plutonium pit , which Schreiber carried in a magnesium case . They took it to Kirtland Army Air Field , where they boarded a C @-@ 54 transport plane on July 26 . Two days later , they arrived on the Pacific island of Tinian , where Schreiber helped assemble the Fat Man bomb that was used in the bombing of Nagasaki on August 9 . Comparing it with the firebombing of Tokyo by B @-@ 29 bombers that killed 100 @,@ 000 people in one night in March 1945 , Schreiber noted that :
Just the fact you could do the same thing with one airplane and one bomb proved the efficiency , but it didn ’ t change the effect very much . But the firebombing , the saturation bombing of the B @-@ 29s , was not bringing Japan to its knees , and the shock effect of one airplane being able to wipe out a city , I think , is what finally convinced the Japanese military they had to give up .
= = Later career = =
After the war , Schreiber remained at Los Alamos , where he became a group leader in the Weapon ( W ) Division . His first assignment was to ready bombs for the Operation Crossroads nuclear tests at Bikini Atoll in the Pacific . During the preparations , he witnessed the accident in which Louis Slotin was exposed to a fatal dose of neutron radiation when a screwdriver Slotin was using during a criticality experiment with one of the plutonium pits for Operation Crossroads slipped and the core went critical . Slotin would die from radiation poisoning nine days later but his quick reaction saved the lives of Schreiber and the others in the room ( see also : demon core ) . Schreiber became an exponent of remote handling of dangerous substances , and designed remote @-@ control machines to perform such experiments with all personnel at a quarter @-@ mile distance .
He went on to lead the pit teams on Bikini Atoll in June and July 1946 .
Schreiber became the associate leader of W Division in 1947 , and then the head of the division in 1951 . During this time , W Division worked on the development of the hydrogen bomb . He was once again in charge of the pit crew for the Ivy Mike nuclear test on Enewetak Atoll in the Pacific , the first test of a thermonuclear device . Even the veteran Schreiber was impressed by the 10 @-@ megaton @-@ of @-@ TNT ( 42 PJ ) explosion . " It really filled up the sky , " he recalled , " It was awesome . It just went on and on . "
In 1955 , Schreiber became the head of the Nuclear Rocket Propulsion ( N ) Division , which was responsible for Project Rover and NERVA . N Division developed nuclear rocket engines required for deep space exploration . He oversaw the first successful test of a nuclear rocket engine in 1959 , In this capacity , he greeted President John F. Kennedy during the president 's visit to Los Alamos in 1962 . That year , he became Technical Associate Director , with responsibility for the entire nuclear rocket propulsion program . He became Deputy Director of Los Alamos in 1972 , and served as a member of the United States Air Force Scientific Advisory Board and NASA 's Advisory Committee on Nuclear Systems .
= = Retirement = =
Schreiber retired in 1974 , but remained as a consultant until 1995 . He served as a member of the Laboratory 's History Advisory Council in the late 1980s , and assisted in the publication of Critical Assembly : A Technical History of Los Alamos during the Oppenheimer Years , 1943 @-@ 1945 ( 1993 ) . He also helped the Human Studies Project Team by reviewing its history of medical studies at the Laboratory .
Schreiber and Marguerite bought a property at Pajarito Village in the Española Valley in the late 1940s , where they built an adobe home on the weekends . They lived there from 1955 until 1972 , when they returned to Los Alamos . He died at his home there on December 24 , 1998 . He was survived by his wife Marguerite , daughters Paula and Sara , and his sister Anna . The Laboratory 's Advanced Nuclear Technology Group ( NIS @-@ 6 ) named its conference room the Raemer E. Schreiber Room in his honor .
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= The X @-@ Files Mythology , Volume 3 – Colonization =
The X @-@ Files Mythology – Volume 3 collection is the third DVD release containing selected episodes from the fifth to the eighth seasons of the American science fiction television series The X @-@ Files . The episodes collected in the release form the middle of the series ' mythology , and are centered on alien colonization efforts , the fall of the Syndicate , and Fox Mulder 's ( David Duchovny ) abduction .
The collection contains three episodes from the fifth season , five from the sixth , six from the seventh , and two from the eighth . The episodes follow the investigations of paranormal @-@ related cases , or X @-@ Files , by FBI Special Agents Fox Mulder and Dana Scully ( Gillian Anderson ) . Mulder is a believer in the paranormal , while the skeptical Scully has been assigned to debunk his work . Events covered in the episodes include the discovery of alien @-@ human hybrid Cassandra Spender ( Veronica Cartwright ) , the destruction of the Syndicate ; the discovery of the remains of a space ship in Africa ; the fate of Mulder 's sister , Samantha ; and the abduction of the former , as well as the subsequent hunt for him under the direction of John Doggett ( Robert Patrick ) .
The collection features the closure of several long @-@ running arcs , as well as new introductions to the series ' mythology . Series creator Chris Carter felt that the series ' ongoing story lines were becoming too confusing , so he scrapped them and started over . Released on September 27 , 2005 , the collection generally received mixed to positive reviews from critics . William B. Davis , Mitch Pileggi , Nicholas Lea and Laurie Holden all play supporting roles in the collection .
= = Plot summary = =
The show centers on FBI special agents Fox Mulder ( David Duchovny ) and Dana Scully ( Gillian Anderson ) who work on cases linked to the paranormal , called X @-@ Files . Mulder is a former believer in the paranormal — having lost his belief in the fifth season opener " Redux " , while the skeptical Scully has been assigned to debunk his work . As a rebel alien race secretly attacks several groups of former alien abductees , the agents meet Cassandra Spender ( Veronica Cartwright ) , a woman who claims to be a multiple abductee and wants to deliver a positive message about aliens . Eventually , Mulder has Scully put under hypnosis to learn the truth about her abduction after Cassandra goes missing and her son , Jeffrey Spender ( Chris Owens ) , angrily attempts to push his way up in the FBI . The Syndicate , meanwhile , quicken their tests for the black oil vaccine , sacrificing their own to do so . Later , the assassination of a chess grandmaster leads Mulder and Scully into an investigation that they soon discover strikes at the heart of the X @-@ Files ; they learn that the real target was a telepathic boy named Gibson Praise ( Jeff Gulka ) .
In Washington , D.C. , Mulder appears before an FBI panel regarding his experiences in Antarctica , but is later denied reassignment to the X @-@ Files division : Mulder and Scully have been replaced by Spender and Diana Fowley ( Mimi Rogers ) . Later , Skinner is mysteriously poisoned by a nanorobot infection . The culprit is revealed to be Alex Krycek ( Nicholas Lea ) , a rogue FBI agent who formerly worked for the Syndicate , who continues to control the potentially debilitating nanotechnology in Skinner 's system in order to achieve his goals . Mulder and Scully later learn of reports of rebel aliens burning doctors who were working on Cassandra . After finding her , she informs Mulder and Scully that the aliens are here to destroy all life on Earth and that she is a successful alien @-@ human hybrid . The Smoking Man ( William B. Davis ) reveals everything to Diana Fowley , who agrees to help him and betray Mulder . Fowley forcibly takes Mulder , Cassandra , and Scully to a Centers for Disease Control facility at Fort Marlene . Meanwhile , the Syndicate rendezvous at a check point , preparing to be taken away by the Colonists , who are prepping for invasion . However , they are met by the alien rebels , who incinerate them all , including Cassandra — save The Smoking Man and Fowley , who escape . Jeffrey Spender is then purportedly killed by The Smoking Man .
Several months later , a metallic artifact with inscriptions is discovered on the beach of Côte d 'Ivoire in Africa . After Mulder examines rubbings of the object , he falls into a dangerous coma . Hoping to find a cure for her partner , Scully rushes to Africa and discovers a massive wreck of a large spacecraft partially buried in the ocean . Skinner and Michael Kritschgau ( John Finn ) desperately attempt to find the truth behind the alien object . Unsuccessful , Scully returns from Africa to revisit Mulder , but instead she finds out that he has disappeared . She contacts Kritschgau and Skinner to find her partner . The Smoking Man has taken Mulder away to transplant the telepathic part of Mulder 's brain into his own cranium , but the surgery is a failure .
While investigating a bizarre disappearance of a young girl from her home , Mulder soon discovers the truth about his sister 's disappearance . It is revealed that his sister was taken by " walk @-@ ins " , benevolent spirit who save the souls of children doomed to live unhappy lives . Together , Mulder and Scully locate evidence that proves that Samantha was abducted by The Smoking Man , and was forced to live in a now @-@ abandoned US Army base . Mulder eventually is reunited with the spirit of his sister , allowing him to finally let go . Mulder and Scully investigate a case of alien abduction which leads them back to Oregon , the site of their first case together . While investigating , Mulder is taken by a UFO . Scully soon meets Special Agent John Doggett ( Robert Patrick ) , the leader of an FBI taskforce organized to conduct a search for Fox Mulder . Although the search ultimately proves unsuccessful , Doggett is assigned to the X @-@ Files and works with Scully to look for explanations to several cases .
= = Background = =
From the third season to the sixth season , the mysterious Syndicate was explored in detail . In the two part episode " Two Fathers " / " One Son " , the Syndicate was destroyed . The plan to eliminate the Syndicate and relaunch the series ' mythology in a new direction was originally conceived in September 1998 . Director Kim Manners stated " I 've said for years that the show really resolved itself , if you will , by accident . The whole story line of the Syndicate and the bees and the aliens and the chips in the neck , they all seemed to just accidentally fall into place and create an intriguing , mysterious storyline that eventually got so mysterious and so intriguing that Chris had to blow it up , because he couldn 't deal with it anymore . "
The " Biogenesis " / " The Sixth Extinction " / " Amor Fati " trio of episodes started a new mythology for the series , questioning the origin of human life . Series creator Chris Carter claimed to be interested in the subject for a while , citing the possibility of extraterrestrial involvement in great extinctions that had happened millions of years ago . Carter claimed that early in the show he had met with a man who was one of the people responsible for leading the project of mapping the human genome and that he was interested enough in the subject to tie it into the show 's alien mythology . The scientific basis for extraterrestrials pursued the writers to help Mulder an Scully 's beliefs come together , which was furthered in the later seasons of the show . Frank Spotnitz claimed that the ideas used in this episode had been discussed between him and Carter for a few years , and had become easier to bring up after clearing away elements of the conspiracy in the episodes " Two Fathers " and " One Son " .
" Closure " was written to create an end to Mulder 's quest for his sister , Samantha , who had been abducted when he was a child . The idea to close the story arc received mixed reactions from various production and crew members . However , many of the show 's producers realized that the time had come to answer one of the show 's biggest questions . Spotnitz explained that , " I think [ series star , David Duchovny ] grew tired of playing the man who is missing his sister . [ ... ] I told him , ' This is going to be the last time you 're going to have to play [ that part ] . ' " Paul Rabwin noted that , " It 's been seven years . I don 't think any of us are going to miss Samantha Mulder . That device and motivation were very strong in the early years of the show . But as the years have gone by , the speculation kind of melted away . "
" Requiem " was written as a way to potentially end the series . While filming was underway for the seventh season , many members of the crew felt that the show had entered into its final season . Executive producer Frank Spotnitz later explained , " There was a pretty strong sentiment inside and outside the show that it was time to call it a day . " Eventually , it was decided that Mulder would be abducted at the end of the seventh season , leaving things open for the actor 's return in 11 episodes the following year . They eventually replaced Duchovny 's Mulder with Robert Patrick 's John Doggett .
= = Reception = =
Critical reception to the release ranged from mixed to positive . Monica S. Kuebler from Exclaim magazine noted that , while the set was " only for diehards , completists " , the compilation was " the strongest of the mythology boxes thus far [ released ] " . She went on to name the " Biogenesis " / " The Sixth Extinction " / " Amor Fati " arc the " best " of the set . Jeffrey Robinson from DVD Talk , was more critical , however . He wrote that , although the story was " interesting , intriguing , and entertaining " , the selection of episodes " does not offer the same level of excitement " when compared to the previous two volumes . He concluded by commenting that there is " enough entertainment value for you to enjoy " . Keith Uhlich from Slant Magazine awarded the box set three @-@ and @-@ a @-@ half stars out of five . He commented on the conclusion of many of the show 's long @-@ running arcs , and noted that Mulder was often only a witness to these events , such as the destruction of the Syndicate and the death of his sister . Of the latter , Uhlich wrote that he " waver [ s ] back and forth on how emotionally effective it is " . He did , however , award the image quality of the DVDs four stars out of five and refer to their presentation as " excellent " .
= = Episodes = =
= = Special features = =
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= 1910 Cuba hurricane =
The 1910 Cuba hurricane , popularly known as the Cyclone of the Five Days , was an unusual and destructive tropical cyclone that struck Cuba and the United States in October 1910 . It formed in the southern Caribbean on October 9 and strengthened as it moved northwestward , becoming a hurricane on October 12 . After crossing the western tip of Cuba , it peaked in intensity on October 16 , corresponding to Category 4 on the Saffir @-@ Simpson Hurricane Scale . That same day , the hurricane moved in a counterclockwise loop and hit Cuba again . It then tracked toward Florida , landing near Cape Romano . After moving through the state , it hugged the coast of the Southeastern United States on its way out to sea .
Due to its unusual loop , initial reports suggested it was two separate storms that developed and hit land in rapid succession . Its track was subject to much debate at the time ; eventually , it was identified as a single storm . Analysis of the event gave a greater understanding of weather systems that took similar paths .
The hurricane is considered one of the worst natural disasters in Cuban history . Damage was extensive , and thousands were left homeless . It also had a widespread impact in Florida , including the destruction of houses and flooding . Although total monetary damage from the storm is unknown , estimates of losses in Havana , Cuba exceed $ 1 million and in the Florida Keys , $ 250 @,@ 000 . At least 100 deaths occurred in Cuba alone .
= = Meteorological history = =
On October 9 , the fifth tropical depression of the 1910 season formed from a tropical disturbance in the extreme southern Caribbean , to the north of Panama . It tracked steadily northwestward , and attained tropical storm intensity on October 11 . It continued to strengthen , and became a hurricane the next day . On October 13 , the storm was observed to the southwest of Cuba . Early on October 14 , the hurricane briefly reached an intensity corresponding to Category 3 status on the modern @-@ day Saffir @-@ Simpson Hurricane Scale before tracking ashore along the western tip of Cuba . However , it weakened somewhat after crossing the island . Upon emerging into the Gulf of Mexico , the hurricane slowed considerably .
Steered by currents from an area of high pressure to the north , the storm began to drift northwestward and rapidly deepen over warm waters of the Gulf . It executed a tight counterclockwise loop , and continued to mature ; on October 16 it reached peaked winds of 150 mph ( 240 km / h ) with a minimum barometric pressure of 924 mbar ( hPa ; 27 @.@ 29 inHg ) . The hurricane turned northeastward , again approaching western Cuba , and began to accelerate towards the Florida Peninsula on October 17 . Its center passed west of Key West and made landfall near Cape Romano . The storm moved due north for a time as it moved inland , and deteriorated into a tropical storm . From northeastern Florida , the cyclone curved northeastward and hugged the coast of the Southeast United States before heading out to sea . The storm is estimated to have dissipated on October 23 .
The storm is unusual in that due to its loop near Cuba , initial reports suggested that it was actually two separate cyclones . The Monthly Weather Review describes the event as multiple disturbances and reports that the first hurricane dissipated in the central Gulf of Mexico after crossing Cuba , while the second formed subsequently and hit Florida . At the time , the storm 's track was subject to much debate . It was later identified as a single storm , although observations on the hurricane led to advances in the understanding of tropical cyclones with similar paths . On October 19 , The Washington Post wrote , " Whether two storms have been raging in Cuban waters within the past week , or whether the same storm has revisited Cuba , traversing southern Florida in its backwards course , remains to be determined . If the later supposition be correct , the recurve of the storm , after its entrance into the Gulf of Mexico , must have been unusually sudden and sharp . "
= = Impact = =
On October 15 , all vessels within a 500 mi ( 800 km ) radius of Key West were warned of the approaching storm , and many ships anchored in harbors . Throughout the region , storm warnings and advisories were issued .
= = = Cuba = = =
The storm wrought severe destruction in Cuba , considered to be among the worst effects from a tropical cyclone on record . High winds and torrential rainfall flooded streets , destroyed crops , and damaged plantations . In particular , the storm caused substantial damage to the tobacco in the region of Vuelta Abajo . Many towns were severely damaged or destroyed . The city of Casilda was devastated , while the town of Batabanó was inundated by flood waters . The hurricane cut off communications to inland areas . The majority of the fatalities and property damages were suspected to be in the Pinar del Río province .
The New York Times wrote that Cuba had " probably suffered the greatest material disaster in all its history " . It was reported that thousands of peasants were left homeless due to the cyclone . Losses in Havana were also extensive ; along the shore , scores of ships carrying valuable cargo had sunk . The storm also seriously damaged goods stored on local wharves and barges . " Tremendous " waves crashed ashore , flooding coastal areas . Numerous ships and small watercraft were wrecked by the cyclone . The raging seas submerged about 1 sq mi ( 2 @.@ 6 km2 ) of Havana 's oceanfront land . The Malecón sea wall breached , allowing flood waters to engulf the roadway there and residences in the area .
It is estimated that at least 100 people lost their lives , mostly due to mudslides , including five persons in Havana . However , reports range as high as 700 . Initial estimates of the financial damage caused by the storm were in the millions of dollars , including losses of $ 1 million in Havana , largely from the destruction of Customs House sheds there , which were filled with many valuable goods . Some of these buildings were swept 0 @.@ 5 mi ( 0 @.@ 80 km ) away , and the winds tore the roof off the main warehouse . In the aftermath — while the hurricane was still widely considered to be two separate storms — rumors arose " of the approach of a third storm " , although in actuality no additional storms were known to have occurred in the 1910 season .
= = = Holliswood = = =
A four @-@ masted schooner , the Holliswood , became trapped in the storm in the Gulf of Mexico . The vessel departed from New Orleans on October 1 , carrying cypress wood . The crew fought the storm for days and eventually the masts were cut to avoid capsizing . Waterlogged , the ship was blown miles off course . As described by the owner of the schooner , Paul Mangold :
On Wednesday , the 12th , we began to get the first of the hurricane . We were running under very little canvas . Early Saturday morning we got the full force of the storm . We managed to get the sails fast and ran with the hurricane under bare poles . The wind circled about us sometimes at a hundred @-@ mile rate . The seas came from all directions , though it was from the starboard that the real trouble seemed to come .
The steamboat Harold spotted the ship and rescued all of its crew except Captain E. E. Walls , who opted to stay behind with the order " Report me to my owners " . At the time , the Holliswood was badly damaged , with her house destroyed and her rudder torn away . The crew apparently advised the captain that the ship would not stay afloat for another five hours , although he dismissed their concerns . After the crew was rescued , Captain Walls struggled against the storm for days without food or fresh water . On October 20 , the Parkwood rescued Walls unconscious , but initially feared to be dead . Once aboard , he regained consciousness and , reportedly amidst an episode of delirium , asked to be returned to the Holliswood . Ultimately , the captain of the Parkwood agreed to tow the battered ship to shore .
= = = Southern Florida = = =
At Key West , pressures began to fall at midnight on October 12 as the storm approached from the southwest . By late on October 13 , heavy rain had begun to fall , and winds began to increase , reaching 50 mph ( 80 km / h ) on October 14 . Gusts reached 110 mph ( 180 km / h ) and storm tide ran 15 ft ( 4 @.@ 6 m ) ; swells in the area attained " unusually high " levels . Many docks were destroyed , and on October 17 , the basement of the Weather Bureau office was submerged by rising waters . Before the rain gauge was washed out to sea , 3 @.@ 89 in ( 99 mm ) of precipitation was recorded . Damage throughout the Florida Keys was moderate , estimated at worth around $ 250 @,@ 000 ( 1910 USD ) . Property damage was generally limited to structures along the shore .
As the storm progressed westward , Tampa and nearby locations started to experience its effects . Strong winds from the northeast blew water out of the Tampa Bay to the lowest level ever recorded . The barometer fell to 961 mbar ( hPa ; 28 @.@ 4 inHg ) , and extremely high waves battered the shore from Flamingo to Cape Romano . The surf continued well inland , forcing survivors to cling atop trees . North of Tampa , the hurricane 's effects were moderate or light , while in the southwestern part of the state , damage increased in severity . A portion of the local citrus crop was destroyed . Property damage was widespread from Tampa to Jacksonville and points south . High winds tore the roofs off homes and shook some structures off their foundations .
Seven men lost their lives in the wreckage of several Cuban schooners at Punta Gorda . Nearby , one man and a baby drowned as a result of the storm surge , and another died while attempting to cross a flooded river . A French steamship , the Louisiane , went ashore with 600 passengers ; all people aboard the vessel were rescued by the Forward , a Revenue cutter .
= = = Northeastern Florida and southern United States = = =
Damage on the Atlantic coast was less severe , although at Jupiter , the Weather Bureau office reported : " the rainfall at this point did more damage than the wind . It had rained every day from the 3rd to the 13th , with a total fall of 5 @.@ 96 inches ( 151 mm ) , and the creeks and flat woods were full of water when the first storm began . From the 14th to the 18th , inclusive , 14 @.@ 27 inches ( 362 mm ) more fell . The inlet being closed the rivers rose 8 feet ( 2 @.@ 4 m ) above normal high water , which in a flat country like this , puts practically all land under water from 1 foot ( 0 @.@ 30 m ) to 8 feet ( 2 @.@ 4 m ) . Fortunately the sea remained low and comparatively smooth so that it was possible to open the inlet and let the water out . "
A large number of pine trees were blown down near the city of Jupiter . One man near Lemon City was killed by falling timber . Small watercraft , docks and boathouses sustained damage , but otherwise the storm 's effects on the east coast were more moderate compared to other areas . Portions of the Florida East Coast Railroad bed were washed out , and repairs were anticipated to be costly . An American schooner blew ashore at Boca Raton , killing three and leaving the rest of the crew stranded for 12 hours until help arrived . Estimates of the cyclone 's impact on citrus crops in the region vary widely .
On its way to sea , the storm passed just west of Jacksonville . Although very little damage occurred in and around the city , persistent northeasterly winds caused flooding in low @-@ lying coastal areas . Minor flooding extended northward into Georgia and South Carolina ; initially , interruptions of communication between cities led to exaggerated reports of damage in those states . Early on October 18 , light precipitation began to fall in Savannah as the winds picked up . By October 19 , winds had reached 70 mph ( 110 km / h ) . However , it was said that the city 's worst damage came as a result of the high tides rather than the intense winds . Certain rivers exceeded their banks , submerging surrounding farmland . Minor damage occurred in Charleston , South Carolina .
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= If Day =
If Day ( French : " Si un jour " , " If one day " ) was a simulated Nazi German invasion and occupation of the Canadian city of Winnipeg , Manitoba , and surrounding areas on 19 February 1942 , during the Second World War . It was organized by the Greater Winnipeg Victory Loan organization , which was led by prominent Winnipeg businessman J. D. Perrin . The event was the largest military exercise in Winnipeg to that point .
If Day included a staged firefight between Canadian troops and volunteers dressed as German soldiers , the internment of prominent politicians , the imposition of Nazi rule , and a parade . The event was a fundraiser for the war effort : over C $ 3 million was collected in Winnipeg on that day . It was the subject of a 2006 documentary , and was included in Guy Maddin 's film My Winnipeg .
= = Background = =
If Day was an elaborate campaign to promote the purchase of Victory Bonds . These bonds , which were loans to the government to allow for increased war spending , were sold to individuals and corporations throughout Canada . If Day was the second Victory Loan campaign of the Second World War . The campaign began on 16 February 1942 , and continued until 9 March . Manitoba 's fundraising target was $ 45 million ( $ 620 million in 2011 dollars ) , including $ 24 @.@ 5 million from Winnipeg . The Greater Winnipeg Victory Loan committee , a regional branch of the National War Finance Committee , organized If Day under chairman John Draper Perrin . The organizers believed that bringing the war ( or , rather , a simulation thereof ) to people 's homes would result in a change of attitude among those not directly affected by the war .
The committee drew up a map of Manitoba , which was divided into 45 sections , each representing $ 1 million of their fundraising target . As money came in from those selling Victory Bonds , the sections were " reclaimed " from the Nazi invaders . The map was posted at the corner of Portage and Main , the city 's central intersection . The campaign was publicized in local newspapers for a few days before the event , although the " invasion " took many citizens by surprise . To prevent a rush to emergency shelters , residents of neighbouring northern Minnesota were also warned because radio broadcasts dramatizing the event could be received in that area . Royal Canadian Air Force aircraft painted to look like German fighter planes flew over the city on 18 February 1942 . Selkirk , a small town northeast of Winnipeg , held its own fundraising simulation , a one @-@ hour blackout and mock bombing , on 18 February 1942 in preparation for the main If Day event .
= = Events = =
The simulation included 3 @,@ 500 Canadian Army members , representing all of Winnipeg 's units , making it the largest military exercise in Winnipeg to that point . The defending forces were commanded by Colonels E. A. Pridham and D. S. McKay . Troops were drawn from the 18th ( Manitoba ) Armoured Car Regiment , No. 10 District Engineers and Signals , the Royal Winnipeg Rifles , the Winnipeg Grenadiers , the Winnipeg Light Infantry , the Queen 's Own Cameron Highlanders of Canada , Veteran 's Guard of Canada ( including over 300 veterans of the First World War ) , and a number of reserve and civilian groups . The ' Nazi ' troops were volunteers from the Young Men 's Board of Trade , using uniforms rented from Hollywood and with painted sabre scars on their faces . They were commanded by Erich von Neurenberg . Approximately $ 3 @,@ 000 was spent on the event .
'Nazi ' patrols in the city began before 5 : 30 am on 19 February . A radio announcer was detained and his microphone commandeered for radio broadcasts , beginning at 5 : 45 am . ' Nazi ' troops assembled on the west side of the city half an hour after the first patrols . Canadian troops were massed at Fort Osborne barracks and the Minto and Macgregor armouries at 6 : 30 am , and at 7 am air @-@ raid sirens were sounded and a blackout ordered in preparation for the invasion . The aerial blitzkrieg began before 7 am with mock bombings . Beginning at 7 : 03 am , troops started their simulated attack on the city , which was defended by a small group of active and reserve troops assisted by local community groups . The defenders formed a perimeter around the industrial and downtown areas of the city , approximately 5 kilometres ( 3 mi ) from City Hall , retreating to a 3 @-@ kilometre ( 2 mi ) perimeter at 7 : 45 .
The firefight included large @-@ scale troop movements and the simulated destruction of major bridges . Nine troop formations held three positions each during the tightly scripted invasion sequence ; they were directed via telephone ( one line per formation ) and flash @-@ lamp signals from the headquarters established at the Chamber of Commerce building . The defensive pattern employed was similar to that used during the First World War in Paris to conduct soldiers to the front . Light tanks were stationed at road and rail junctions as fighting intensified . Thirty anti @-@ aircraft vehicles fired blanks at fighter planes overhead , assisted by anti @-@ aircraft gunners on buildings downtown . The first mock casualty was reported at 8 am . Dressing stations were set up at strategic points to treat the mock casualties ; they also treated the two real casualties of the event – a soldier who sprained his ankle , and a woman who cut her thumb preparing toast during the early @-@ morning blackout .
At 9 : 30 am , the defenders surrendered to the ' Nazis ' and withdrew to the downtown muster point , and the city was occupied . The fake Nazis began a widespread harassment campaign , sending armed troops throughout the city . A tank was driven down Portage Avenue , one of the main streets of the downtown area . Some people were taken to an internment camp at Lower Fort Garry ; those interned included prominent local politicians like Premier John Bracken ( arrested with several members of his cabinet at a caucus meeting ) , Mayor John Queen , Lieutenant Governor of Manitoba Roland Fairbairn McWilliams , and visiting Norwegian ambassador to the United States Wilhelm de Morgenstierne . One council member , Dan McClean , escaped but was recaptured after an intensive search . Chief of Police George Smith avoided capture because he was dining out when soldiers arrived at his office . The Union Flag at Lower Fort Garry was replaced with the swastika . The city was renamed " Himmlerstadt " , and Main Street was termed " Hitlerstrasse " .
Erich von Neurenberg was installed as gauleiter ( provincial leader ) ; he was assisted by George Waight , who acted as the local Gestapo chief . Their stated purpose was to assist Hitler in his plans to take advantage of Canada 's relatively low population density by colonizing the country . Von Neurenberg issued the following decree , which was posted throughout the city :
This territory is now a part of the Greater Reich and under the jurisdiction of Col. Erich Von Neuremburg , Gauleiter of the Fuehrer .
No civilians will be permitted on the streets between 9 : 30 pm and daybreak .
All public places are out of bounds to civilians , and not more than 8 persons can gather at one time in any place .
Every householder must provide billeting for 5 soldiers .
All organizations of a military , semi @-@ military or fraternal nature are hereby disbanded and banned . Girl Guide , Boy Scout and similar youth organizations will remain in existence but under direction of the Gauleiter and Storm troops .
All owners of motor cars , trucks and buses must register same at Occupation Headquarters where they will be taken over by the Army of Occupation .
Each farmer must immediately report all stocks of grain and livestock and no farm produce may be sold except through the office of the Kommandant of supplies in Winnipeg . He may not keep any for his own consumption but must buy it back through the Central Authority in Winnipeg .
All national emblems excluding the Swastika must be immediately destroyed .
Each inhabitant will be furnished with a ration card , and food and clothing may only be purchased on presentation of this card .
The following offences will result in death without trial
Attempting to organize resistance against the Army of Occupation
Entering or leaving the province without permission .
Failure to report all goods possessed when ordered to do so .
Possession of firearms .
No one will act , speak or think contrary to our decrees .
Notices were posted on churches forbidding worship services , and priests who objected were arrested . Buses were stopped and their passengers searched by armed troops . The Winnipeg Tribune was renamed Das Winnipeger Lügenblatt ( " The Winnipeg Lies @-@ sheet " ) , a ' Nazi ' publication featuring heavily @-@ censored columns and a front page written almost entirely in German . One satirical story noted that " this is a great day for Manitoba ... The Nazis , like Der Fuehrer , are patient , kind and tolerant , but THEIR PATIENCE IS RAPIDLY EXHAUSTED BECOMING " , while another included an " official joke " , approved by the German authorities , at which all readers were ordered to laugh or be imprisoned . Henry Weppler , a newspaper seller for the Winnipeg Free Press , was attacked and his papers ripped up . The Winnipeg Free Press featured a front @-@ page story about the " invasion " , describing in great detail the devastation caused by the Nazis in Winnipeg .
Books were burned in front of the main Carnegie branch of the Winnipeg Public Library ( the books had been pre @-@ selected for incineration as damaged or outdated ) . Soldiers entered the cafeteria at Great West Life and stole lunches from workers . They seized buffalo coats from the police station and wore them throughout the day , as the temperature was below − 8 ° C ( 18 ° F ) . At one local elementary school , the principal was arrested and replaced with a ' Nazi ' educator dedicated to teaching the " Nazi Truth " ; special lessons were prepared for high @-@ school students throughout the city . Some stores and homes were looted by the fake troops . Canadian currency was replaced with fake German Reichsmarks , the only propaganda notes that Canada created during the war .
The day ended at 5 : 30 pm with a ceremonial release of prisoners , a parade , and speeches from the released dignitaries . Members of the organizing committee and local businesspeople marched down Portage Avenue with banners reading " It MUST Not Happen Here ! " and " Buy Victory Bonds " . Following the parade , a banquet was held at the Hudson 's Bay Company building . Ambassador de Morgenstierne spoke about his experiences with If Day and in Norway , suggesting that the " make @-@ believe Nazi occupation of [ Winnipeg ] was an authentic glimpse of German behavior in German @-@ ridden Europe " .
Surrounding towns were also affected by the invasion : for example , in Neepawa ' Nazi ' soldiers confronted citizens in the streets . Virden was renamed " Virdenberg " . A mock attack was planned for strategic targets in Brandon . The Canadian Broadcasting Corporation broadcast a program called " Swastika over Canada " on the radio throughout the province , along with military music and extracts of Hitler 's speeches .
= = Effects = =
The If Day event not only resulted in Victory Bond sales well over Greater Winnipeg 's goal , but brought Winnipeg 's innovative efforts to the attention of people throughout North America . Life Magazine ran a pictorial spread of the If Day activities in Winnipeg and in smaller centres across Manitoba , photographed by William Shrout . Reporters from several American publications , including Newsweek , The New York Times and The Christian Science Monitor , were also present for the event ; cameraman Lucien Roy shot newsreel footage for BBC News . Newspapers as far away as New Zealand included stories about the event . An estimated 40 million people worldwide saw coverage of If Day .
The money raised for the Victory Loan campaign on If Day was $ 3 @.@ 2 million , which was the city 's largest single @-@ day total . Winnipeg passed its $ 24 million Victory Loan quota on 24 February , largely because of the effects of If Day . The provincial total for the entire campaign was $ 60 million , well above its target quota of $ 45 million . The campaign raised approximately $ 2 billion nationwide for the war effort , and If Day was considered one of the most successful fundraising events of the nationwide drive . Officials had expected a significant increase in army recruits as a result of the event , but it failed to end the long @-@ term decline in recruitment numbers : 23 people enlisted at the Winnipeg recruitment office on If Day , compared to an average of 36 per day for the first half of February .
If Day was successful enough to spark imitations in other communities . The US government contacted the organizing committee for details of the event . A smaller @-@ scale invasion was staged in Vancouver , using promotional materials from the Winnipeg campaign .
In 2006 , a television documentary of the events was made by Aaron Floresco for CTV 's local series Manitoba Moments . The work incorporates newsreel footage from the event , as well as interviews with historians and participants . Filmmaker Guy Maddin included a brief newsreel clip of If Day in his film My Winnipeg .
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= Take On Me =
" Take On Me " is a song by Norwegian new wave / synthpop band A @-@ ha . Written by the band members , the original version was produced by Tony Mansfield and remixed by John Ratcliff . The second version of the song was produced by Alan Tarney for the group 's debut studio album Hunting High and Low ( 1985 ) . The song combines synthpop with a varied instrumentation that includes acoustic guitars , keyboards and drums .
The original " Take On Me " was recorded in 1984 and it took two versions and three releases to finally chart in the United Kingdom , reaching number two on the UK Singles Chart in October 1985 . In the United States in October 1985 , the song became the only A @-@ ha song to reach the top position of the Billboard Hot 100 , due in no small part to the wide exposure on MTV of its innovative music video , directed by Steve Barron . The video features the band in a pencil @-@ sketch animation method called rotoscoping , combined with live action . The video won six awards and was nominated for two others at the 1986 MTV Video Music Awards .
= = Background = =
Pål Waaktaar and Magne Furuholmen began their music careers playing in a band called Bridges , together with Viggo Bondi and Øystein Jevanord . In 1981 , the band produced Fakkeltog ( Torch @-@ light parade ) , an LP for which all of the music was composed by the group themselves , most of it being written by Waaktaar . One of the tracks rehearsed at this time ( although not included on the LP ) was called " The Juicy Fruit Song " . It included elements of the future " Take On Me " , including an early version of the central riff . Soon after , Bridges disbanded . Waaktaar and Furuholmen relocated to London to try their hand in the music industry there , but after six months of disappointment they returned to Norway .
The duo then decided to try to get Morten Harket to join them as lead singer . At the time , Harket was singing in a band called Souldier Blue , but he felt that his band was stagnating , and decided to join Waaktaar and Furuholmen . They stayed together for six months , writing some songs and working on demo tapes , including " Lesson One " , a new song based on " The Juicy Fruit Song " which would in turn evolve into " Take On Me " . In January 1983 , the trio returned to London in search of a recording contract .
= = Recording and production = =
The band moved into an apartment in London and began calling on record companies and publishing houses . After a few meetings with various A & R personnel , the band signed with a publishing house called Lionheart . A @-@ ha then returned to Norway to earn some money . When they returned to London , they left Lionheart out of frustration . They decided to record new demos , and chose the studio of musician and producer John Ratcliff , intending to re @-@ record five songs . The band signed with Ratcliff , who in return introduced them to his manager , Terry Slater . With this encouragement , the band managed to complete some songs , including " Take On Me " . After a few meetings , Slater signed them with Warner Bros. Records .
The band met with producer Tony Mansfield , an expert in the use of the Fairlight CMI , who mixed the demos with electronic instrumentation . The sound was not what A @-@ ha had hoped to achieve , and the album was remixed again . The band rushed to release " Take On Me " as a single in the United Kingdom but the single only charted at 137 , the lowest @-@ charted of all A @-@ ha songs . After this , Warner Brothers ' main office in the United States decided to invest in the band , and gave them the opportunity to re @-@ record the song . Terry Slater convinced Alan Tarney to produce the new version . The song was soon completed and re @-@ released in the United Kingdom , but the record label 's office in London gave them little support , and the single flopped for the second time .
In the United States , Warner Bros. put the group on high priority , and made the move to invest significant money in a revolutionary video for " Take On Me " using the audio version produced by Tarney . The single was released in the United States a month after the music video , and immediately appeared in the Billboard Hot 100 .
Magne played the main melody on a Roland Juno @-@ 60 " MIDI 'd up " to a Yamaha DX7 . The drum machine used on the second and third releases ( rotoscoped video version ) was a Linn LinnDrum - Paul overdubbed real cymbals and hi @-@ hat using this drum machine . Morten sang " Take On Me " using a Neumann U47 microphone as well as a Neve microphone pre @-@ amp and Neve equaliser .
Allmusic journalist Tim DiGravina described " Take On Me " as being " a new wave classic laced with rushing keyboards , made emotionally resonant thanks to Morten Harket 's touching vocal delicacy . "
= = Composition = =
" Take On Me " is a synthpop song that includes acoustic guitars and keyboards . It moves at a very quick tempo of 169 beats per minute . The lyrics are a plea for love , and are constructed in a verse @-@ chorus form with a bridge before the third and final chorus . With the chord progression of Bm @-@ E @-@ A @-@ D--E , the song is written in the key of A Major . Harket demonstrates a vocal range of over two and a half octaves . He sings the lowest pitch in the song , A2 ( the tonic ) , at the beginning of the chorus , on the first syllable of the phrase " Take On me " .
As the chorus progresses , Harket 's voice hits ever higher notes , reaching a falsetto and hitting the song 's highest note ( E5 , the dominant note ) at the end . There is a temporary change of markings in the drum pattern in the chorus , where for two bars the drums play in half time , returning to the same rhythm as before for the climax of the vocal line . A mix of a drum machine , the LinnDrum , acoustic guitars and electronic instrumentation serves as the song 's backing track .
= = Music videos = =
The first release of " Take On Me " in 1984 includes a completely different recording , and was featured in the first video , which shows the band singing with a blue background .
The second video was directed by Steve Barron , and filmed at Kim 's Café ( now called " Savoy " cafe ) and on a sound stage in London , in 1985 . The video used a pencil @-@ sketch animation / live @-@ action combination called rotoscoping , in which the live @-@ action footage is traced over frame by frame to give the characters realistic movements . Approximately 3 @,@ 000 frames were rotoscoped , which took 16 weeks to complete .
The video 's main theme is a romantic fantasy narrative . It begins with a montage of pencil drawings in a comic @-@ book style representing motorcycle sidecar racing , in which the hero , played by Morten Harket , is pursued by two opponents , one of whom is played by English actor Philip Jackson . It then cuts to a scene in a cafe , in which a young woman , played by Bunty Bailey ( Harket 's girlfriend at the time ) , is seen drinking coffee and reading the comic book in a coffee shop . As the girl reads , the waitress brings her the bill . The comic 's hero , after winning the race , seemingly winks at the girl from the page . His pencil @-@ drawn hand reaches out of the comic book , inviting the girl into it . Once inside , she too appears in the pencil @-@ drawn form , as he sings to her and introduces her to his black @-@ and @-@ white world which features a sort of looking @-@ glass portal where people and objects look real on one side and pencil @-@ drawn on the other .
Meanwhile , back in the restaurant , the waitress returns to find that the girl is not there . Believing that the girl has left without paying the bill , she angrily crumples and throws the girl 's comic book into a bin . This makes Harket 's two opposing racers reappear , armed with a large pipe wrench and apparently aggressive . The racers smash the looking glass with the pipe wrench , evidently trapping the girl in the comic book . Harket punches one of the thugs and retreats with the girl into a maze of paper . Arriving at a dead end , he tears a hole in the paper wall so that the girl can escape as the menacing opposing racers close in on him . The girl , now back in the real world and found lying beside the bin to the surprise of restaurant guests and staff , grabs the comic from the bin and runs home , where she attempts to smooth out the creases to learn what happens next .
The next panel shows Harket lying seemingly lifeless , and the girl begins to cry . But he wakes up and tries to break out of his comic @-@ book frames . At the same time , his image appears in the girl 's hallway , seemingly torn between real and comic form , hurling himself repeatedly left @-@ and @-@ right against the walls as he attempts to shatter his two @-@ dimensional barrier . ( This scene is largely patterned after a climactic scene in the 1980 film Altered States ) . He escapes from the comic book by becoming human and stands up . Smiling , the girl runs towards him and he embraces her . The video story is effectively concluded in the intro sequence of its successor , " The Sun Always Shines on T.V. " .
At the 1986 MTV Video Music Awards , the video for " Take On Me " won six awards — Best New Artist in a Video , Best Concept Video , Most Experimental Video , Best Direction , Best Special Effects , and Viewer 's Choice — and was nominated for two others , Best Group Video and Video of the Year . It was also nominated for Favorite Pop / Rock Video at the 13th American Music Awards in 1986 .
The second music video was produced by Limelight Productions . The crew of the video were director Steve Barron , producer Simon Fields , cinematographer Oliver Stapleton , editor Richard Simpson from Rushes Film Editing , and animators Michael Patterson and Candace Reckinger .
= = Chart performance = =
" Take On Me " was originally released in 1984 , and was mixed by Tony Mansfield , but failed to make an impact in the United Kingdom . This release peaked at number three in Norway but failed to reach audiences abroad . The group re @-@ recorded the song with the help of producer Alan Tarney , releasing the new version in 1985 .
In the United States , Warner Bros. invested in the revolutionary second video for " Take On Me , " which used Tarney 's version of the song . The new video was released to dance clubs and television a month before the record was available in stores or played on the radio . Wide exposure on MTV made the song quickly soar to the top position of the Billboard Hot 100 on 19 October 1985 . It remained on the chart for twenty @-@ three weeks , and ended up at the tenth position of the 1985 year @-@ end chart . As of June 2014 , the song has sold 1 @,@ 463 @,@ 000 digital copies in the US after it became available for download in the digital era .
" Take On Me " was released for the third time in the United Kingdom in September 1985 . The song debuted on the UK Singles Chart at number fifty @-@ five , peaked at number two for three consecutive weeks , held off the top spot by Jennifer Rush 's " The Power of Love " , and received a gold certification by the British Phonographic Industry ( BPI ) .
In Norway , A @-@ ha 's native country , " Take On Me " reentered the VG @-@ lista singles chart , reaching a new peak of number one , a year after it was first released . The single was largely successful elsewhere , reaching the top of the Eurochart Hot 100 for nine weeks , topping the singles charts in 36 countries , including Austria , Belgium , Germany , Italy , the Netherlands , Sweden , and Switzerland , and reaching the top three in France and number two in Ireland . The success of " Take On Me " lies also in its sales , as the single would go on to sell over 7 million copies worldwide , making it one of the best @-@ selling singles of all time .
= = Formats and track listing = =
7 " : Warner Bros. / W 9146 United Kingdom ( 1984 )
" Take On Me " ( Original version ) – 3 : 18
" And You Tell Me " – 1 : 48
Track 1 is produced by Tony Mansfield and remixed by John Ratcliff with A @-@ ha .
12 " : Warner Bros. / W 9146T United Kingdom ( 1984 )
" Take On Me " ( Long version ) – 3 : 46
" And You Tell Me " – 1 : 48
" Stop ! And Make Your Mind Up " – 2 : 57
Track 1 is produced by Tony Mansfield and remixed by John Ratcliff .
7 " : Warner Bros. / W 9006 United Kingdom ( 1985 )
" Take On Me " ( Single version ) – 3 : 49
" Love Is Reason " – 3 : 04
Track 1 is produced by Alan Tarney .
Track 1 is the same version as the album version .
12 " : Warner Bros. / W 9006T United Kingdom ( 1985 )
" Take On Me " ( Extended version ) – 4 : 50
" Love Is Reason " ( LP version ) – 3 : 04
" Take On Me " ( Single version ) – 3 : 49
Track 1 & 3 is produced by Alan Tarney .
Track 3 is the same version as the album version .
7 " : Warner Bros. / 7 @-@ 29011 United States ( 1985 )
" Take On Me " – 3 : 46
" Love Is Reason " – 3 : 04
Track 1 is produced by Alan Tarney .
Track 2 is produced by John Ratcliff with A @-@ ha .
12 " : Warner Bros. / PRO @-@ A @-@ 2291 ( Promo ) United States ( 1985 )
" Take On Me " ( Long version ) – 4 : 47 ( a.k.a. " Extended Version " )
" Take On Me " ( Single version ) – 3 : 46
Track 1 & 2 is produced by Alan Tarney .
= = 2015 remix = =
On August 27 , 2015 Norwegian DJ Kygo released a remixed version via iTunes . His version drops the iconic keyboard riffs and features a new one . The style of his version is described as " tropical house " .
= = Personnel = =
Morten Harket – lead vocals
Magne Furuholmen – synthesizer , backing vocals
Pål Waaktaar – guitars , backing vocals
Neill King – engineering
Alan Tarney – production
John Ratcliff - production and re @-@ mixing
Barry Grint – mastering
= = Charts and certifications = =
= = Reel Big Fish version = =
In 1998 , ska punk band Reel Big Fish covered " Take On Me " for the film BASEketball . The song was later released on the BASEketball soundtrack and the international version of their album Why Do They Rock So Hard ? . The band also performed the song at concerts . Reel Big Fish released a video clip for " Take On Me " , directed by Jeff Moore , and features the band playing the song while walking down an aisle in the stadium , and playing a game of BASEketball interlaced with clips from the film . An alternative video for the song 's international release that contained only the stadium aisle footage was also released . Reel Big Fish also included a live version of the song in their live album Our Live Album Is Better than Your Live Album and live DVD 's You 're All in This Together and Reel Big Fish Live ! In Concert ! .
This song was released on Billboard and Sirius in 1999 – 2000 .
= = = Track listing = = =
CD single
" Take On Me " – 3 : 02
" Alternative Baby " – 2 : 56
" Why Do All the Girls Think They 're Fat ? " – 2 : 22
= = = Personnel = = =
Aaron Barrett – celesta , guitar , lead vocals , synthesizer
Grant Barry – trombone
Andrew Gonzales – drums
Scott Klopfenstein – celesta , keyboards , trumpet , vocals
Dan Regan – screams , trombone
Tavis Werts – flügelhorn , trumpet
Matt Wong – bass guitar , vocals
= = A1 version = =
In August 2000 , British @-@ Norwegian boy band A1 released a cover of " Take On Me " for their second studio album The A List . Despite being panned by music critics , who called it a " lame cover version " , and a " note for note copy " that seems like " a re @-@ release of the original " ; it was commercially successful , topping the charts in the United Kingdom and Norway ,
= = = Music video = = =
The music video was directed by Stuart Gosling . It features A1 entering the computer world by putting on virtual reality glasses after finding out about a deadly computer virus . After flying for a distance , they find the virus and destroy it , saving the world . The video was inspired by the 1982 science fiction film Tron .
= = = Formats and track listings = = =
CD , Maxi @-@ single , Enhanced , CD1
" Take On Me " – 3 : 31
" Beatles Medley ( I Feel Fine / She Loves You ) " – 3 : 20
" I Got Sunshine " – 3 : 41
CD , Maxi @-@ single , Enhanced , Limited Edition , CD2
" Take On Me " ( UK 2K Mix ) – 3 : 25
" Take On Me " ( Metro Extended Club Mix ) – 6 : 02
" Take On Me " ( D @-@ Bop Saturday Night Mix ) – 7 : 52
= = = Charts = = =
= = = Year @-@ end charts = = =
= = = Certifications = = =
= = In popular culture = =
= = = Other cover versions = = =
Despite being notoriously difficult to sing , the song has inspired many cover versions , including the following :
In the Lips Karaoke advertisement for Xbox 360 , a pair of lips animated in the music video 's style sang the song .
In 1986 Yomi , a drinking yogurt from Yomo Italia , used the video to explain that cartoons also like to drink yogurt .
Italian multi colored watches " Hip Hop " have used the song in their advertising .
In 1995 , punk rock band MxPx included this song on their album of covers , On the Cover .
In 1996 , German Eurodance duo Captain Jack covered the song for their first album The Mission .
In 1998 , American band Cap 'n Jazz cover the song for their two @-@ disc set Analphabetapolothology .
In 2000 , German punk band Wohlstandskinder covered the song on the compilation Punk Chartbusters Vol . 3 .
In 2000 , Belgian punk band Janez Detd. covered the song for their first major label release Janez Detd .
In 2001 , German rock band Emil Bulls covered the song for their studio album Angel Delivery Service .
In 2002 , Italian progressive power metal Vision Divine covered the song on their album Send Me an Angel .
In 2004 , Trinidadian soca musician Destra Garcia uses a cover of the instrumental in her song , " Bonnie and Clyde " .
In 2006 , Spanish folk metal band Mägo de Oz made a cover of the song , which was included in their compilation album The Best Oz .
In 2007 , Latvian instrumental cello rock trio Melo @-@ M included a cover version for their album Singalongs .
In 2008 , Finnish symphonic metal cover group Northern Kings covered the song for their album , Rethroned .
In 2008 , American boy band the Jonas Brothers covered this song during their When You Look Me in the Eyes Tour and on an episode of Dancing with the Stars .
In 2008 , American R & B duo Zo ! and Tigallo ( Phonte , formerly of Little Brother ) recorded a cover for their EP entitled Zo ! & Tigallo Love the 80s .
In 2008 , Danish experimental band Slaraffenland covered the song on their Sunshine EP .
In 2009 , Spanish artist Anni B Sweet made an acoustic cover version of the song .
In 2009 , Carl Newman of The New Pornographers recorded a cover of the song on the Starbucks @-@ sponsored compilation album Sweetheart : Our Favorite Artists Sing Their Favorite Love Songs .
In 2010 , South Korean pop singer Seo In @-@ guk covered and released the song on 22 November of that year as a single . The verses of the song were re @-@ written into Korean while the chorus kept the original English lyrics . The song was re @-@ titled as " Take " .
In 2010 , Italian gothic metal singer Lord Vampyr , famous for being the former frontman of the extreme metal band Theatres des Vampires , covered the song on his third studio solo album , Horror Masterpiece .
In 2011 , Norwegian jazz singer Inger Marie Gundersen released a cover version of the song on her album For You .
In 2011 , Christian punk pop band Eleventyseven released a cover of " Take On Me " on their Quota EP in April and on the Japan edition of their full @-@ length 2011 album , Sugarfist , in November .
American duo Letters Lost released a version of the song on its album You Are My Biggest Fan .
In 2011 , accordion players of the Kum Song School of Music of Pyongyang , North Korea performed a cover for Morten Traavik , a Norwegian cultural event organizer . Traavik 's video of the first performance was a YouTube hit in February 2012 , and the quintet subsequently performed at a cultural festival in Kirkenes , Norway , a few days after the YouTube video gained widespread attention .
In 2012 , Mexican musical group OV7 included the cover of Take On Me titled " Prisioneros . " It was the second single of the bands Forever 7 album .
Also in 2012 , American alternative rock band Lazlo Bane released a cover on Guilty Pleasures the 80 's Volume 1 EP . Their version was used in ABC 's Private Practice episode " Short Cuts " two years before its release .
In 2013 , " Feel This Moment " , by Pitbull featuring Christina Aguilera , was a global hit and although not a cover version , throughout the song it heavily sampled the hook from Take On Me .
In 2013 , Webank 's advertising uses a cover by German singer Graziella Schazad .
In 2014 , Inverse Phase released a chiptune version titled " Take on XE " on his album Chiplust . The title is a portmanteau of the original title and the Atari XE console it was created on .
In 2015 , the song was covered on the second episode of the sixth and final season of the American television series Glee . It was sung by Naya Rivera , Mark Salling , Amber Riley , Chris Colfer , Heather Morris , Dianna Agron , Kevin McHale , Lea Michelle , Jenna Ushkowitz and Chord Overstreet .
In 2015 , an instrumental version was released on YouTube by violinist Steve Bingham and arranger Phil Toms , performed on live violins with synth programming with a music video paying homage to the iconic original .
In 2015 , the song was used for the Toronto International Film Festival 's 2015 volunteer trailer ( which was played before each film being screened that year ) .
In 2016 , band Ninja Sex Party released their own cover version of the song as part of their album Under the Covers .
In 2016 , American J @-@ Pop singer Joshua P. Wood made a Japanese cover of the song , which he uploaded to YouTube on July 14 , 2016 . The video depicts the currently tentative art of the album that the song will be released on , titled " Just Being Me " outside of Japan .
= = = Live cover performances = = =
Japanese American singer Hikaru Utada covered the song on her " Bohemian Summer 2000 Tour " . It was included on the Bohemian Summer 2000 DVD .
Argentinian electropop band Miranda ! included a cover of the song in their 2005 live album En Vivo Sin Restricciones .
American singer Sara Bareilles has performed acoustic versions of the song in live concerts .
The protagonist of Sleeping Dogs , Wei Shen , can choose to sing this during the game 's Karaoke minigame .
= = = Parodies = = =
Dustin McLean 's literal version cover of " Take on Me " was the first @-@ known example of the " literal music video " meme .
In the Family Guy episode Breaking Out is Hard to Do , Chris gets dragged into the music video while in the dairy section of the grocery store . The music video in the episode is nearly identical to the actual video , albeit much shorter and with minor differences . Towards the end of the video , the two hostile racers appear with the pipe wrench and pursue Chris and Harket , causing the chase scene through the maze of paper . When he escapes the video , Lois asks where he 's been , to which Chris replies in a panicked tone , " I don 't know ! " .
In the Psych episode American Duos , Shawn Spencer and Burton Guster performed a rendition of " Take On Me " for their audition .
The Weebl and Bob episode " Paper " parodies both the song " Take On Me " and its music video .
Choking Victim parodies " Take On Me " with their song " Corporate Tra $ h " on their Crack Rock Steady Demo . The song Corporate Tra $ h is mocking mainstream music and how it is written to simply make money .
Harry Hill did a parody of the song and video for Children in Need 2013 .
= = = Media = = =
A cover recording was used in the episode " Asspen " ( 2002 ) of the animated TV series South Park .
A GEICO commercial features the song being played by a dog with a synthesizer and a singing cockatoo .
The Wohlstandskinder cover recording was used over the closing credits of the George Romero directed film Bruiser ( 2000 ) .
The song was featured on the soundtrack of the video game Saints Row 2
The song was sung by Jeffster ! in the series finale of Chuck , Chuck vs. the Goodbye .
The song was featured in the movie This Is 40 ( 2012 ) in the scene where Leslie Mann 's character is singing in the car with her family .
The song and its music video were featured in the Family Guy episode Breaking Out is Hard to Do .
The song Amarillion by Norwegian duo Datarock pays homage to the song with the lines " Take me on / Take On me " .
The melody of the song was used in the opening sequence of the second season of the Israeli TV show Danny Hollywood ( 2009 ) , which its plot is set on the year 1986 .
During the 2012 Major League Baseball season , Washington Nationals player Michael Morse used a portion of the song for his walk @-@ up music prior to late @-@ game at @-@ bats . By the end of the season , fans at Nationals Park were singing along , enjoying the final falsetto . After the season , Morse was traded to the Seattle Mariners , but the song remained a part of the in @-@ game entertainment at Nationals Park in 2013 , being played over the public @-@ address system during the seventh @-@ inning stretch after the traditional " Take Me Out to the Ballgame . "
It is heard in a 2013 TV commercial for Volkswagen . The video was recreated , with a Volkswagen Passat NMS inserted as one of the cars . The video cuts to a man in an office drawing the photos for the animation while singing the falsetto note ( E5 ) out of tune ( referencing the song 's difficulty ) as everyone in the room stares at him . He then walks outside to his Volkswagen Passat , with the narrator stating that the car 's offer of " no @-@ charge scheduled maintenance " makes people " feel carefree " .
The song played in one episode of The CW 's The Carrie Diaries .
The musical comedy act The Axis of Awesome featured the song in their medley " Four Chords " ( 2012 ) accompanied by dozens of other songs that use the same chord progression .
A re @-@ recorded version was used in the Blu @-@ ray trailer for The Lego Movie .
This song is in Just Dance 3 .
The song was used in a 2015 ad by Ryanair celebrating 30 years of the airline .
The track is used in the video game Metal Gear Solid V : The Phantom Pain as an obtainable addition to the player 's music collection .
The song makes an appearance in the 2016 film Whiskey Tango Foxtrot , starring Tina Fey . It is used during the karaoke party scene .
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= Italian cruiser San Marco =
The Italian cruiser San Marco was a San Giorgio @-@ class armoured cruiser built for the Royal Italian Navy ( Regia Marina ) in the first decade of the 20th century . She was the first large Italian ship fitted with steam turbines and the first turbine @-@ powered ship in any navy to have four propeller shafts . The ship participated in the Italo @-@ Turkish War of 1911 – 12 , during which time she supported the occupations of Benghazi and Derna , the island of Rhodes , and bombarded the fortifications defending the entrance to the Dardanelles . During World War I , San Marco 's activities were limited by the threat of Austro @-@ Hungarian submarines , although the ship did participate in the bombardment of Durazzo , Albania in late 1918 . She played a minor role in the Corfu incident in 1923 and was converted into a target ship in the first half of the 1930s . San Marco was captured by the Germans when they occupied northern Italy in 1943 and was found sunk at the end of the war . The ship was broken up and scrapped in 1949 .
= = Design and description = =
The ships of the San Giorgio class were designed as improved versions of the Pisa @-@ class design . San Marco 's design featured several new innovations that differentiated her from her sister ship San Giorgio . San Marco was given the first steam turbines fitted in a large Italian ship and she was the first turbine @-@ powered ship in any navy to have four shafts , the first with a gyroscopic compass , the first with antiroll tanks , and the first not to use wood in any way .
San Marco had a length between perpendiculars of 131 @.@ 04 metres ( 429 ft 11 in ) and an overall length of 140 @.@ 89 metres ( 462 ft 3 in ) . She had a beam of 21 @.@ 03 metres ( 69 ft 0 in ) and a draught of 7 @.@ 76 metres ( 25 ft 6 in ) . The ship displaced 10 @,@ 969 tonnes ( 10 @,@ 796 long tons ) at normal load , and 11 @,@ 900 tonnes ( 11 @,@ 700 long tons ) at deep load . Her complement was 32 officers and 666 to 673 enlisted men .
The ship was powered by four steam turbines , each driving one propeller shaft using steam supplied by 14 Babcock & Wilcox boilers . Designed for a maximum output of 23 @,@ 000 shaft horsepower ( 17 @,@ 000 kW ) and a speed of 23 knots ( 43 km / h ; 26 mph ) , San Marco handily exceeded this , reaching a speed of 23 @.@ 75 knots ( 43 @.@ 99 km / h ; 27 @.@ 33 mph ) during her sea trials from 23 @,@ 030 ihp ( 17 @,@ 170 kW ) . The ship was also required to be a half a knot faster than San Giorgio , a requirement she easily surpassed . San Marco had a cruising range of 4 @,@ 800 nautical miles ( 8 @,@ 900 km ; 5 @,@ 500 mi ) at a speed of 10 knots ( 19 km / h ; 12 mph ) .
The main armament of the San Giorgio @-@ class ships consisted of four Cannone da 254 / 45 A Modello 1908 guns in twin @-@ gun turrets fore and aft of the superstructure . The ships mounted eight Cannone da 190 / 45 A Modello 1908 in four twin @-@ gun turrets , two in each side amidships , as their secondary armament . For defense against torpedo boats , they carried 18 quick @-@ firing ( QF ) 40 @-@ caliber 76 mm ( 3 @.@ 0 in ) guns . Eight of these were mounted in embrasures in the sides of the hull and the rest in the superstructure . The ships were also fitted with a pair of 40 @-@ caliber QF 47 mm ( 1 @.@ 9 in ) guns . The San Giorgios were also equipped with three submerged 450 mm ( 17 @.@ 7 in ) torpedo tubes . During World War I , eight of the 76 mm guns were replaced by six 76 mm anti @-@ aircraft ( AA ) guns and one torpedo tube was removed .
The ships were protected by an armoured belt that was 200 mm ( 7 @.@ 9 in ) thick amidships and reduced to 80 mm ( 3 @.@ 1 in ) at the bow and stern . The armoured deck was 50 mm ( 2 @.@ 0 in ) thick and the conning tower armour was 254 mm thick . The 254 mm gun turrets were protected by 200 mm of armour while the 190 mm turrets had 160 mm ( 6 @.@ 3 in ) .
= = Construction and career = =
San Marco , named after Saint Mark , the patron saint of Venice , was ordered on 18 September 1905 and laid down on 2 January 1907 at the Regio Cantieri di Castellammare di Stabia in Castellammare di Stabia , on the Bay of Naples . The ship was launched on 20 December 1907 and completed on 7 February 1911 .
When the Italo @-@ Turkish War of 1911 – 12 began on 29 September 1911 , San Marco was not initially assigned to the 2nd Division of the 1st Squadron of the Mediterranean Fleet . She was assigned to the Division on 1 October and later escorted several Italian transports that arrived off Derna , Libya on 15 October together with the battleship Napoli and the armoured cruisers Pisa and Amalfi . After negotiations for a surrender of the town fell apart , Pisa shelled the barracks and a fort . There was no return fire from Derna , so a boat with offers of a truce was sent in . When it was greeted by a volley of rifle fire , San Marco and the other armoured cruisers opened fire on the town with their 190 mm guns and , according to a contemporary account , " completely destroyed " the town in 30 minutes time . A landing party was unable to reach the shore because of rough seas and gunfire from the shore . San Marco and her consorts then shelled the beach for two hours . Weather conditions prevented a landing until the 18th , when 1 @,@ 500 men took possession of Derna . The ship then supported Italian troops at Benghazi in December . In mid @-@ April 1912 the Italian fleet sortied into the eastern Aegean Sea with Pisa and Amalfi leading in an attempt to lure out the Ottoman fleet . When that failed , the Italians bombarded the fortifications defending the Dardanelles to little effect before the main body departed for Italy on the 19th . In May San Marco provided support for the occupation of Rhodes and finally returned home on 20 September .
She was used for experiments evaluating shipboard operation of seaplanes before the start of World War I. The ship was based at Brindisi when Italy declared war on the Central Powers on 23 May 1915 . That night , the Austro @-@ Hungarian Navy bombarded the Italian coast in an attempt to disrupt the Italian mobilization . Of the many targets , Ancona was hardest hit , with disruptions to the town 's gas , electric , and telephone service ; the city 's stockpiles of coal and oil were left in flames . All of the Austrian ships safely returned to port , putting pressure on the Regia Marina to stop the attacks . When the Austrians resumed bombardments on the Italian coast in mid @-@ June , Admiral Paolo Thaon di Revel responded by sending San Marco and the other armoured cruisers at Brindisi — the navy 's newest — to Venice to supplement the older ships already there . Shortly after their arrival at Venice , Amalfi was sunk by a submarine on 7 July and her loss severely restricted the activities of the other ships based at Venice . San Marco later participated in the bombardment of Durazzo ( now known as Durrës ) on 2 October 1918 which sank one merchantman and damaged two others .
On 21 September 1923 , the ship transported to Taranto the bodies of the members of the Boundary Commission killed on Corfu on 27 August ( their deaths sparked the Corfu incident ) . On 1 October , San Marco ferried the last occupation troops from Corfu to Brindisi . On 16 March 1924 , she saluted King Victor Emmanuel III when he arrived in Fiume to attend the ceremony commemorating the city 's annexation by Italy . San Marco escorted Crown Prince Umberto , travelling aboard San Giorgio , during his South American tour in July – September 1924 .
San Marco was disarmed and converted into a radio @-@ controlled ( by the elderly destroyer Audace ) target ship in 1931 – 35 . Her old boilers were replaced by four oil @-@ burning Thornycroft @-@ type boilers which reduced her maximum speed to 18 knots ( 33 km / h ; 21 mph ) from 13 @,@ 000 shaft horsepower ( 9 @,@ 700 kW ) . During a naval review for Adolf Hitler in the Bay of Naples on 5 May 1938 , the ship was used as a target by the heavy cruisers Fiume and Zara . She was captured by the Germans when they occupied La Spezia on 9 September 1943 ; the ship was found at the end of the war sunk in the harbor there . San Marco was formally stricken from the Navy List on 27 February 1947 and broken up in 1949 .
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= Tom 's Divorce =
" Tom 's Divorce " is the 11th episode of the second season of American comedy television series Parks and Recreation , and the seventeenth overall episode of the series . It originally aired on NBC in the United States on December 3 , 2009 . In the episode , Tom gets a divorce and Leslie tries to cheer him up , unaware it was a green card marriage . Meanwhile , Andy challenges Mark to a game of pool with the hopes of winning back Ann 's affections .
The episode was written by Harris Wittels and was directed by Troy Miller . Although officially entitled " Tom 's Divorce " , it has also been referred to in some media reports as " The Fourth Floor " in reference to the pre @-@ credits sequence in which Leslie visits the horrifying and grotesque fourth floor of the Pawnee Hall , a scene that was praised by television reviews .
According to Nielsen Media Research , " Tom 's Divorce " was seen by 4 @.@ 83 million viewers , an increase over the previous episode , " Hunting Trip " . The episode received generally positive reviews , particularly for the development of Tom 's character , although commentators voiced less praise for the subplot involving Ann , Mark and Andy .
= = Plot = =
Ron ( Nick Offerman ) sends Leslie ( Amy Poehler ) to run an errand at the DMV in Pawnee Hall 's fourth floor , a dark and unsettling place that includes probation offices and divorce filings . A reluctant and frightened Leslie navigates past reprobates and blood stains on the floor and spots Tom ( Aziz Ansari ) leaving the divorce office with his wife Wendy ( Jama Williamson ) . Unaware that their relationship was a green card marriage to prevent Wendy from being deported back to Canada , Leslie later tries to comfort Tom , who insists he is fine . Nevertheless , Leslie persists in her efforts to cheer him up , in part by ordering a singing horse telegram to cheer him up . Ron , who knows about Tom 's fake marriage , suggests Tom act sad so Leslie can feel like she cheered him up . When Leslie sets up a social event to cheer him up , Tom suggests a strip club , but Leslie follows Jerry 's ( Jim O 'Heir ) suggestion they go to the dinosaur @-@ themed restaurant , Jurassic Fork .
The parks employees eat several dinosaur @-@ themed entrees , served by a depressed waiter ( Evan O 'Brien ) , they enjoy " Tyranna @-@ Ceasar Salads " and " Surf and Turfasaurus " . Tom seems so cheery that Leslie begins to suspect he is faking being sad . Ron pulls Tom aside and asks whether he could ask Wendy on a date once the divorce is finalized . Tom consents , but is visibly disappointed . Determined to cheer him up , Leslie agrees to compromise her morals and take Tom to his favorite strip club , the Glitter Factory . Leslie is horrified by the club and tries to encourage the strippers to change their lives . Ron is also uninterested in the strippers , but happily consumes the free breakfast buffet .
Tom remains depressed even after Leslie hires a stripper ( Cheryl Texiera ) to give him a lap dance and " grind the sorrow out of him " . A drunken Tom tells Leslie that Ron plans to ask out Wendy , prompting an angry reaction from her . When Tom passes out at the bar , they take him to Wendy 's house , and Leslie is shocked to find she is on a date with another man ( James Ball ) . She storms out after expressing her disgust with Wendy and Ron . The next morning at work , Tom confesses to Leslie that it was a green card marriage , and that he only recently realized he really likes Wendy .
Meanwhile , Andy ( Chris Pratt ) continues his efforts to break up the relationship between his ex @-@ girlfriend Ann ( Rashida Jones ) and her new boyfriend Mark ( Paul Schneider ) . Andy challenges Mark to a game of pool with the hopes of hustling him , but Mark turns out to be an excellent player and wins multiple games . Mark and Andy make one final wager : if Andy wins , he gets Ann , but if Mark wins he has to leave them alone . Mark dominates the game but loses when he scratches on the 8 ball . Initially delighted , Andy becomes confused when Ann leaves with Mark anyway . The next day , he tells Mark and Ann he will no longer be bothering them , and says a final goodbye to Ann .
= = Production and cultural references = =
" Tom 's Divorce " was written by Harris Wittels and directed by Troy Miller . Although officially titled " Tom 's Divorce " , it was referred to in some media reports by the name " The Fourth Floor " . Aziz Ansari said " Tom 's Divorce " was his favorite episode of the series so far . He said , " It was really fun because there was some serious acting for me to do , compared to my usual dick jokes . "
" Tom 's Divorce " included several references to previous Parks and Recreation episodes . Tom and Wendy 's green card marriage was first identified in the episode " Practice Date " . During the final scenes of the episode " Greg Pikitis " , Tom expresses sadness when Wendy mentions that the couple will eventually get a divorce , which set the scene for this film . Television reviewer Alan Sepinwall , television columnist with The Star @-@ Ledger , said this allowed the show to humanize and further develop Tom 's character . In certain shots in " Tom 's Divorce " , it appears the back of Ron 's head is missing patches of hair . This is a reference to the previous episode , " Hunting Trip " , in which he is accidentally shot in the back of the head while hunting . The episode also features scenes with Ron describing his admiration for strong women and his immense enjoyment of the strip club 's complimentary breakfast . Both of these refers to the elements of Ron 's character that were conveyed in the episode " Ron and Tammy " , which involves Ron 's romantic life and includes dialogue about his love of breakfast foods . Ron also identifies tennis player Steffi Graf and basketball player Sheryl Swoopes as ideal romantic partners . He previously declared Steffi Graf a " perfect ten " on his attractiveness scale in " Practice Date " .
The notion in " Tom 's Divorce " that the fourth floor refers to tetraphobia , the superstitious fear of the number four . Jokes about this have been featured in such pop culture works as the 1999 film Being John Malkovich and the NBC comedy series 30 Rock . The song " Unskinny Bop " , a 1990 single by the band Poison , plays during one of the strip club scene . Leslie said Tom hides his emotions behind " a very thick layer of Axe body spray " , a reference to the real @-@ life male grooming product . The Parks department employees eat at a restaurant called Jurassic Fork , a reference to the Steven Spielberg dinosaur adventure film Jurassic Park , which was adapted from a novel of the same name by Michael Crichton . During one scene , Tom refers to Ron as " Rondoleezza Rice " , a reference to former United States Secretary of State Condoleezza Rice . At the strip club , Leslie mistakenly refers to a stripper named Sierra by the name Seabiscuit , a champion thoroughbred racehorse . Reflecting on his marriage , Tom said , " At least we lasted longer than Avril Lavigne and that guy from Sum 41 " , a reference to the pop singer 's short @-@ lived marriage to Sum 41 guitarist Deryck Whibley . Tom says one of the strippers also works at Quiznos , a sandwich fast @-@ food franchise ; Tom says of her : " She 's really nice to me here , but really mean to me at Quiznos . " Andy said he has a T @-@ shirt that is " literally priceless " because he was wearing it when he tackled American singer Eddie Vedder . When Ron was commenting on how well Tom was pretending to be sad about his divorce , he tells Tom , " Take it down a notch . You 've already won your Oscar , DiCaprio , " which is a reference to the Academy Awards and the actor Leonardo DiCaprio .
= = Reception = =
On its original American broadcast on December 3 , 2009 , " Tom 's Divorce " was seen by 4 @.@ 83 million households , according to Nielsen Media Research . This amounted to a five percent ratings increase over the previous week 's episode , " Hunting Trip " . " Tom 's Divorce " drew a 2 @.@ 1 rating / 6 share among viewers aged between 18 and 49 . The episode received generally positive reviews , particularly for the development of Tom 's character and the " fourth floor " pre @-@ credits sequence , although commentators voiced less praise for the subplot involving Ann , Mark and Andy . Steve Heisler of The A.V. Club said the episode addressed two of the show 's more downbeat stories ( Tom 's divorce and Andy 's failed attempts to woo Ann ) but " managed to do so by keeping its plucky , upbeat sense of humor intact " . Heisler praised the growth of Tom 's character and the fourth floor joke , which he said " started with yet another delicious chapter in behind @-@ the @-@ scenes Pawnee lore " .
Time magazine television critic James Poniewozik said Ansari did " an excellent job " at showing a new side to Tom , and complimented the staging of the fourth floor sequence . Alan Sepinwall of The Star @-@ Ledger said " Tom 's Divorce " was " by design , more melancholy " than previous Parks and Recreation episodes , but served to develop Tom 's character and proved Aziz Ansari " could tone it down and play a quieter , sadder Tom for once " . Sepinwall said the Mark , Ann and Andy subplot was not as funny as in previous episodes . Entertainment Weekly writer Sandra Gonzalez said she had been awaiting a storyline centering on Tom , and said the episode " makes us love the show more " . However , she said Andy 's continued obsession with Ann was growing tiresome and expressed hope his character should go in a new direction . Matt Fowler of IGN said the episode further added to the strong character development that has been consistent throughout the show 's second season . Fowler also enjoyed the frightening portrayal of the fourth floor , which he said helps establish Pawnee as " a place where both the engrossingly real and the entertainingly surreal can co @-@ exist " . GQ writer Dan Fierman praised the episode , particularly Ron 's character and the singing telegram " divorce horse " .
= = DVD release = =
" Tom 's Divorce " , along with the other 23 second season episodes of Parks and Recreation , was released on a four @-@ disc DVD set in the United States on November 30 , 2010 . The DVD included deleted scenes for each episode .
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= Monte Pearson =
Montgomery Marcellus " Monte " Pearson ( September 2 , 1908 – January 27 , 1978 ) was an American baseball pitcher who played ten seasons in Major League Baseball ( MLB ) . Nicknamed " Hoot " , he played for the Cleveland Indians , New York Yankees and Cincinnati Reds from 1932 to 1941 . He batted and threw right @-@ handed and served primarily as a starting pitcher .
Pearson played minor league baseball for three different teams until 1932 , when he signed with the Cleveland Indians . After spending four seasons with the organization , Pearson was traded to the New York Yankees , where he spent the next five years . At the conclusion of the 1940 season , he was traded to the Cincinnati Reds , with whom he played his last game on August 5 , 1941 . A four @-@ time World Series champion , Pearson holds the MLB record for lowest walks plus hits per inning pitched ( WHIP ) in the postseason . He is most famous for pitching the first no @-@ hitter at the original Yankee Stadium .
= = Early life = =
Pearson was born on September 2 , 1908 in Oakland , California . He was raised as a member of The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter @-@ day Saints and was one of the first Mormons to find success in the major leagues . He later moved to Fresno , California and studied at Fresno High School , where he started playing baseball at catcher and third base and was a letterman in four sports . After graduating , he attended college at the University of California , Berkeley , where he played two seasons of baseball for the California Golden Bears from 1928 – 29 . He worked as a mechanic as one of his first jobs , and his ability to sing and play the guitar helped develop his reputation as a positive influence on the clubhouse throughout his major league career .
= = Professional career = =
= = = Minor leagues = = =
Pearson began his professional baseball career in 1929 with the Bakersfield Bees , a Minor League Baseball team that were members of the California State League . He was signed by the Oakland Oaks of the Pacific Coast League the following year , and was optioned to the Arizona State League 's Phoenix Senators after recording a 5 @.@ 77 earned run average ( ERA ) in 24 games pitched . However , he established himself in the Oaks ' pitching rotation in 1931 and compiled a 17 – 16 win – loss record and a 4 @.@ 46 ERA in 234 innings pitched . His performance that year , coupled with his heavy @-@ breaking curveball , caught the attention of the Cleveland Indians , who promptly bought his contract after the season ended .
= = = Cleveland Indians ( 1932 – 35 ) = = =
Pearson made his major league debut for the Indians on April 22 , 1932 , at the age of 23 , relieving Pete Appleton in the eighth inning and giving up 6 earned runs in 1 1 ⁄ 2 innings in a 16 – 3 loss against the Detroit Tigers . His subsequent games were disappointing and , after compiling a 10 @.@ 13 ERA in 8 innings from 8 games pitched , he was demoted back to the minor leagues . He played the rest of the season for the Toledo Mud Hens of the American Association ( AA ) , where continued his dismal performance with a 3 – 9 record and 3 @.@ 99 ERA . However , he improved significantly the following year , posting an 11 – 5 record and 3 @.@ 41 ERA in 148 innings with the Mud Hens , as well as leading the AA in strikeouts at the time he was called back up to the majors . His pitching during the first half of the season prompted the Indians to bring him back up to the first team in early July . He continued to pitch well in the majors and finished the season with a 10 – 5 record ; his 2 @.@ 33 ERA was the lowest in the American League ( AL ) that year and although he pitched only 135 1 ⁄ 3 innings , he is recognized as the AL ERA champion by Baseball @-@ Reference.com.
Pearson followed up his impressive 1933 season with another strong showing in 1934 . That year , he finished second in the AL in games started ( 33 ) , fifth in strikeouts ( 140 ) and complete games ( 19 ) and sixth in wins ( 18 ) . In spite of 13 losses , a 4 @.@ 52 ERA , 130 walks ( the second highest in the AL ) and 15 wild pitches ( the most in MLB ) , this was considered one of his best seasons . However , his poor performance in 1935 — where he went 8 – 13 with a 4 @.@ 90 ERA — convinced the Indians to cut their losses with their once @-@ promising prospect . Pearson was traded at the end of the season to the New York Yankees with Steve Sundra in exchange for Johnny Allen .
= = = New York Yankees ( 1936 – 40 ) = = =
Pearson 's trade to the New York Yankees was initially unpopular among fans , with Joe McCarthy receiving heavy criticism for dealing Allen — who had a 13 – 6 record in 1935 — for Pearson . However , Pearson repaid his manager 's faith in him by churning out the best statistical year in his career . His .731 winning percentage ( 19 – 7 record ) was third best in the AL ; he finished fifth in ERA ( 3 @.@ 71 ) and strikeouts ( 118 ) and sixth in wins , though he also recorded the third highest number of walks in the AL with 135 . His performance during the first half of the season resulted in him being selected for the 1936 All @-@ Star Game , though he did not pitch in it . In the postseason , the Yankees advanced to the World Series , where they defeated the New York Giants 4 – 2 . In Game 4 , Pearson — who insisted on being included in the rotation even after falling ill with pleurisy just before the Series — limited the Giants to just two runs while striking out seven in a complete game win . Offensively , he managed to get two hits , including a double . The 5 – 2 victory ended Carl Hubbell 's streak of 17 consecutive regular and postseason wins .
During spring training of 1937 , Pearson injured his right ankle after accidentally stepping onto a rolling ball . He was still able recover in time for the start the season and pitched solidly . In arguably his best start of the year , he threw a one @-@ hit shutout against the Chicago White Sox on May 10 ; he also recorded three hits and drove in two runs in the 7 – 0 win . However , other health problems and injuries — most notably a sore arm — began to affect him , limiting his season to just 144 2 ⁄ 3 innings pitched in 20 games started and 2 games finished in relief . Despite his many ailments , he still came up clutch in Game 3 of the 1937 World Series . Facing a familiar foe in the New York Giants , Pearson stymied them to a solitary run in 8 2 ⁄ 3 innings pitched and received the win as the Yankees cruised to a 5 – 1 victory , taking a commanding 3 – 0 lead in the Series . The Yankees eventually triumphed in 5 games , giving Pearson his second World Series ring in as many years with the team .
The 1938 season saw Pearson rebound in his regular season numbers . He had the fifth highest winning percentage ( .696 ) , the sixth most wins ( 16 ) and the seventh most complete games ( 17 ) in the AL , but he struggled with his control , ending the season with 9 wild pitches ( second highest in the AL ) and 113 walks ( fifth most ) . During a June 26 road game at Briggs Stadium , he held the Detroit Tigers to three runs in a complete game , 10 – 3 Yankees win . By not giving up any home runs in the game , he halted the Tigers ' quest of breaking the MLB record for most consecutive games with a home run for a team . The highlight of his season came on August 27 , when he pitched a no @-@ hitter against the Cleveland Indians in the second game of a doubleheader . Facing his former team on only two days of rest , Pearson struck out seven , allowed just two baserunners through walks and retired the last 18 consecutive batters in a 13 – 0 victory , marking his 13th win of the season and 10th consecutive win . This was the first Yankee no @-@ hitter in fifteen years ( pitched by Sad Sam Jones ) , as well as first no @-@ hitter at Yankee Stadium .
In October , Pearson suffered from a dead arm . Doctors advised him to undergo surgery after X @-@ rays revealed a spur on his elbow . However , he was able to overcome injury once again and pitched in Game 3 of the 1938 World Series . Up against the Chicago Cubs , he kept them to two runs ( one earned ) while striking out nine in a complete game , 5 – 2 win . The Yankees completed their Series sweep over the Cubs in the next game , giving them their third straight championship .
During the 1938 – 39 offseason , Pearson became a contract holdout after he rejected the Yankees ' initial offer . Reportedly the same amount he had earned the season before ( $ 10 @,@ 000 ) , he described the contract offer as " not up to [ his ] expectations . " The two sides eventually agreed to a contract worth $ 13 @,@ 500 . He kept up his good pitching , garnering the seventh highest winning percentage ( .706 ) in the AL that year , though his ERA ballooned to 4 @.@ 49 . Throughout the season , problems in his pitching arm flared up again , restricting him to just 146 1 ⁄ 3 innings pitched and 20 games started . As a result , his inclusion on the postseason roster was not guaranteed ; in late September , McCarthy appeared resigned to the fact that Pearson would not " be able to help [ him ] in this series . " However , he managed to shrug off his injury woes and was penciled into the starting rotation for Game 2 of the 1939 World Series . Facing the Cincinnati Reds , he held them hitless through 7 1 ⁄ 3 innings pitched — eventually giving up just two singles — while striking out eight and walking one in a complete game , 4 – 0 victory . Pearson 's sublime pitching performance is considered one of the greatest in World Series history ; with a game score of 90 , it is one of only eight Fall Classic starts to record a game score of 90 or above . The Yankees proceeded to sweep the Reds two games later , resulting in their fourth consecutive championship and giving Pearson the distinction of winning a World Series ring in every season of his Yankees tenure .
In 1940 , Pearson 's pitching during the first half of the season earned him his second All @-@ Star Game selection , but he was not called upon to pitch in it . About a week after the game , on July 17 , he tore his shoulder ligament which prematurely shortened his playing career . After pitching 13 innings against Bob Feller and his former team , Pearson eventually won the game but the injury — discovered after a full physical examination on his sore arm a few weeks after the game — ended his season ; he finished with a 7 – 5 record and 3 @.@ 69 ERA in only 109 2 ⁄ 3 innings pitched and 16 games started . He received treatment at the Union Memorial Hospital in Baltimore , and at the end of the season , he was placed on waivers and traded to the Cincinnati Reds in exchange for Don Lang and $ 20 @,@ 000 .
= = = Cincinnati Reds and back to the minors ( 1941 ) = = =
Pearson 's final major league team was ironically the one he pitched his World Series two @-@ hitter against . Due to his history of injuries , the Yankees refused to offer a guarantee and thus , no other team was willing sign him . However , Reds manager Bill McKechnie made the gamble , remarking how Pearson " showed [ the Reds ] more that day than any National League right @-@ hander showed [ them ] that season " when he threw the two @-@ hitter against them . Pearson expressed his delight at the trade and looked forward to working with McKechnie . However , he was unable to rediscover his pre @-@ injury form ; in his first start for the Reds , Pearson was battered by the opposing team , giving up six earned runs and five walks to the Chicago Cubs before being pulled out of the game after only 1 1 ⁄ 3 innings . In a total of 7 games pitched – 4 starts and 3 games finished — for the Reds , he pitched poorly , posting a 1 – 3 record with a 5 @.@ 18 ERA in just 24 1 ⁄ 3 innings pitched . This dismal showing convinced the Reds to cut ties with Pearson , and he was sold to the Hollywood Stars of the Pacific Coast League on August 21 .
Pearson 's sojourn in the minor leagues was brief , lasting just one game . In his only start for the Stars , he pitched a complete game , giving up six hits and three walks in five innings . He announced his retirement from baseball the following year on August 27 .
= = Personal life = =
Pearson married Cleo Wimer in January 1931 . They had a son and a daughter . He remained with Cleo for thirty @-@ two years , before she filed for divorce in 1962 . He remarried to Nellie , with whom he had one son , Larry . Larry was signed by the Washington Senators in 1959 .
During the 1939 offseason , Pearson was nearly killed while hunting with William Rudolph , a 15 @-@ year @-@ old high school baseball player from Fresno . Rudolph accidentally fired his shotgun at the same time as Pearson . The shot penetrated Pearson 's cap and knocked it from his head . Pearson , who escaped uninjured , described the incident as " the thrill of [ his ] life . " In 1942 , during a leave of absence away from baseball to recover from injury , Pearson worked at the Fresno Air National Guard Base as a firefighter . After his Major League career ended , he planned on switching to a career in boxing , but returned to Fresno State College and graduated with a degree in chemistry . He became the chief sanitarian of Madera County . He unsuccessfully ran for a seat on the Fresno County Board of Supervisors in 1952 .
On May 15 , 1962 , Pearson was arrested and charged with accepting bribes in exchange for approving shoddy septic tanks . In November of that year , he was found guilty of one count of bribery involving $ 200 . The court sentenced him to eight months imprisonment and placed him on probation for three years . After a long battle with cancer , Pearson died on January 27 , 1978 in Fresno , California at the age of 69 and was cremated .
= = Legacy = =
Despite having mediocre statistics in the regular season , Pearson excelled in the postseason . He won all four of his World Series starts , finishing with a 4 – 0 win – loss record . His 0 @.@ 729 walks plus hits per inning pitched ( WHIP ) is the lowest of all @-@ time in the postseason , while he also has the second lowest hits per nine innings ( 4 @.@ 794 ) and seventh lowest ERA ( 1 @.@ 01 ) . Together with teammate Red Ruffing , they held a combined 8 – 1 record and a 1 @.@ 79 ERA spanning from the 1936 – 39 World Series , and the two are viewed as one of the most dominant postseason pitching duos of all @-@ time .
Pearson appeared on the Baseball Hall of Fame ballot in 1958 . He received just one vote — 0 @.@ 4 % of the vote — and was not included on any subsequent ballots . He was inducted into the Fresno Athletic Hall of Fame in 1967 .
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= Charlie Haas =
Charles Doyle " Charlie " Haas II ( born March 27 , 1972 ) is an American semi @-@ retired professional and amateur wrestler . He is best known for his appearances with World Wrestling Entertainment ( WWE ) in the 2000s and Ring of Honor ( ROH ) in the 2010s .
Haas was an amateur wrestler in high school , and attended Seton Hall University on a wrestling scholarship , before becoming a stockbroker . He became a professional wrestler in 1996 , and teamed regularly with his brother , Russ , with the two winning numerous championships on the independent circuit , including the CZW World Tag Team Championship and the JAPW Tag Team Championship . After signing contracts with WWE , The Haas Brothers were assigned to WWE 's developmental territories , where they won the MCW Southern Tag Team Championship on three occasions . After Russ ' death in 2001 due to a heart attack , Haas began wrestling in singles competition , winning the HWA Heavyweight Championship once .
Haas formed a team with Shelton Benjamin and the two debuted on SmackDown in December 2002 . They won the WWE Tag Team Championship twice , and dubbed themselves The World 's Greatest Tag Team before they split in 2004 . Haas won the WWE Tag Team Championship once more with Rico , and gained Miss Jackie , whom he later married , as a valet . Haas then transferred into singles competition before being released from WWE in 2005 . After a short stint in Jersey All Pro Wrestling ( JAPW ) and other independent promotions , Haas was re @-@ signed to WWE in April 2006 . He formed a short @-@ lived team with Viscera , before reforming the World 's Greatest Tag Team with Benjamin . After Benjamin transferred to the ECW brand , Haas began wrestling with a comical luchador persona , before developing a character where he imitated other wrestlers and WWE Hall of Famers . In addition , Haas won the last ever match on WWE Heat when the show ended on May 30 , 2008 .
Haas was released from WWE in February 2010 . He soon returned to the independent circuit , including returning to JAPW and appearing for Ring of Honor . In September 2010 , he won the NWA Texas Heavyweight Championship . On April 1 , 2011 , Haas and Benjamin won the ROH World Tag Team Championship and held it until December 2011 . Haas announced his retirement from professional wrestling in March 2013 , but returned to competition in August that same year . Aside from wrestling , Haas and his wife Jackie run a nutritional store , Custom Muscle Nutrition and Smoothie Shop , in Frisco , Texas , which they opened in October 2008 .
= = Professional wrestling career = =
= = = Independent circuit ( 1996 – 2000 ) = = =
After debuting in 1996 as a professional wrestler , Haas regularly teamed with his brother Russ for numerous independent promotions . On July 22 , 1998 , The Haas Brothers won the Jersey All Pro Wrestling Tag Team Championship by defeating The Skin Head Express . They lost it to The Nation of Immigration just over a month later on August 25 . They won the championship for the second time on May 21 , 1999 , by defeating The Big Unit ( Rick Silver and Dave Desire ) , and held the championship until February 25 , 2000 when they were defeated by Da Hit Squad . During 2000 they also held the Pennsylvania Championship Wrestling Tag Team Championship and the ECWA Tag Team Championship in the East Coast Wrestling Association promotion , which they won by defeating The Backseat Boyz ( Trent Acid and Johnny Kashmere ) .
The Haas brothers began competing for Combat Zone Wrestling ( CZW ) in November 1999 , losing to The King Pinz at The War Begins on November 20 , 1999 . They competed regularly for CZW throughout early 2000 , and won the CZW World Tag Team Championship on February 12 at Climbing The Ladder by defeating The Kashmerino Brothers and The Thrill Kill Kult in a three @-@ way match . On July 10 , they lost the championship to The Backseat Boyz at Caged To The End , when Johnny Kashmere defeated Russ in a singles match and was awarded the championship .
= = = World Wrestling Federation / Entertainment ( 2000 – 2005 ) = = =
After a World Wrestling Federation ( WWF ) tryout match at Madison Square Garden on August 7 , 2000 , they signed a developmental contract with WWF . The two worked their way through the tag ranks in the WWF 's developmental territories , Memphis Championship Wrestling ( MCW ) and the Heartland Wrestling Association ( HWA ) . The brothers won the MCW Southern Tag Team Championship three times during early 2001 , defeating The Dupps the first time and The Island Boyz and Joey Matthews and Christian York in a three @-@ way match on both the second and third occasions . Russ died from a heart attack due to a pre @-@ existing heart condition , on December 15 , 2001 at age 27 . The brothers fought in house shows and dark matches in the WWF up until Russ died . After Russ ' death , Charlie continue to fight in dark matches . After Russ ' death as a tribute to him , Haas wrote Russ ' name on his wrist tape , and used the name " R.C. Haas " ( standing for Russ – Charlie ) before being called up to the main WWE roster . On January 2 , 2002 , Haas won the HWA Heavyweight Championship , his first singles championship , by defeating Val Venis . He was later stripped of the title on January 29 due to a scripted contract loophole . After World Wrestling Entertainment ( renamed from the WWF ) ended its affiliation with the HWA , Haas was moved to Ohio Valley Wrestling ( OVW ) where he competed until December 2002 .
Haas debuted on WWE 's main roster on the December 26 , 2002 episode of SmackDown ! as a heel ( villainous character ) along with Shelton Benjamin as Team Angle . The tag team was the " contingency plan " of Paul Heyman , and were intended to help WWE Champion Kurt Angle retain his title , attacking Chris Benoit and Brock Lesnar in an attempt to soften them up . They quickly won the WWE Tag Team Championship on February 6 , 2003 , by defeating Los Guerreros ( Eddie and Chavo Guerrero ) . They held the championship for three months , including a successful title defense at WrestleMania XIX against Los Guerreros and the team of Chris Benoit and Rhyno , before losing the championship to Eddie Guerrero and his new partner Tajiri in a ladder match on May 18 at Judgment Day . On the June 12 episode of SmackDown , Angle fired Haas and Benjamin after they blamed him for losing the Tag Team Championship and began to question his leadership . The duo then dubbed themselves The World 's Greatest Tag Team , although announcers made sure to add " Self Proclaimed " to the name . Haas and Benjamin regained the championship from Guerrero and Tajiri on the July 3 episode of SmackDown , but lost it to the reformed Los Guerreros on September 18 . The team was separated when Benjamin was moved to the Raw brand as part of the 2004 Draft Lottery .
After Benjamin 's draft , Haas turned into a fan favorite and gained Miss Jackie as a valet . He teamed with Rico to win the WWE Tag Team Championship on April 22 , 2004 . The pair lost the championship to the Dudley Boyz on June 17 , and shortly afterwards , Haas became a singles wrestler , although he retained Miss Jackie as his valet . Haas lost a match to Luther Reigns at the Great American Bash .
Haas was later involved in an angle in which he was in a love triangle with Miss Jackie , who was acknowledged on @-@ screen as his fiancée , and Dawn Marie . The storyline culminated when Haas served as the special @-@ guest referee in a match at Armageddon 2004 between the two women . After the match , Haas left both women in storyline , although he continued his relationship with Miss Jackie off @-@ screen . In early @-@ 2005 , he formed a tag team with Hardcore Holly . They were involved in a feud ( scripted rivalry ) with MNM for the WWE Tag Team Championship , but never won the championship .
On July 8 , 2005 , Haas was released by World Wrestling Entertainment along with his real @-@ life wife Jackie Gayda .
= = = Independent circuit ( 2005 ) = = =
He returned to JAPW later in July 2005 , and began a feud for the JAPW Heavyweight Championship with Jay Lethal . On September 10 at JAPW Haas of Pain , Lethal defeated Haas to retain his title . In JAPW , on October 27 , 2007 , Haas was inducted along with his late brother Russ into the first class of the Jersey All Pro Wrestling Hall of Fame .
He won the New Legacy Championship at Ballpark Brawl V on August 13 , 2005 , defeating then @-@ champion Christopher Daniels and Chris Sabin in a triple threat match . He successfully defended the title the next night at Ballpark Brawl VI against Harry Smith with Mick Foley as a referee .
During his time back in the independent circuit , Haas competed in the East Coast Wrestling Association 's ( ECWA ) Super 8 Tournament in 2006 , where he advanced all the way to the finals before losing to Davey Richards .
= = = Return to WWE = = =
= = = = Singles competition ( 2006 ) = = = =
Haas returned to WWE in 2006 , appearing on the April 17 , 2006 , episode of Raw as Rob Van Dam 's handpicked opponent for his former partner , Shelton Benjamin . Haas defeated Benjamin in the ensuing match . Haas continued to wrestle on the lower midcard spot , becoming a regular fixture on Heat .
On the June 5 , 2006 episode of Raw , Haas inadvertently knocked Lilian Garcia off the ring apron as he was entering the ring . It was announced on WWE 's official website that as a result , Garcia suffered a sprained wrist . As a result of the legitimate accident , Haas began a feud with Garcia 's onetime storyline love interest Viscera . Haas made advances towards Garcia , at one point forcefully kissing her and then dropping her to the ground . Haas and Viscera continued to fight for Garcia 's affection in the ring , until she told them both that she wanted to be " just friends " . Haas gave Viscera an eye rake in anger , and a blinded Viscera accidentally gave Garcia a Samoan drop . Though it was unintentional , when both Haas and Viscera had seen what had happened to their now former love interest , they simply had a laugh about it , thus making Haas a villain . After that , Viscera and Haas became a tag team , competing on both Raw and Heat until splitting in December 2006 .
= = = = Return of The World 's Greatest Tag Team ( 2006 – 2007 ) = = = =
After Shelton Benjamin won a match against Super Crazy on the December 4 , 2006 , edition of Raw , Haas came out to celebrate his win with a bewildered Benjamin . Haas and Benjamin announced the return of The World 's Greatest Tag Team on the December 11 , 2006 edition of Raw , and they defeated The Highlanders in their return match . They then started a feud with Cryme Tyme . They continued to compete on Raw through the start of 2007 , facing teams including John Cena and Shawn Michaels and Ric Flair and Carlito . In mid @-@ 2007 , The World 's Greatest Tag Team feuded briefly with The Hardys in storyline ; at the One Night Stand pay @-@ per @-@ view on June 3 , 2007 , they challenged The Hardys for the WWE World Tag Team Championship in a ladder match but were unsuccessful . The team broke up once again when Benjamin moved to the ECW brand on November 20 , 2007 .
= = = = Various gimmicks and SmackDown return ( 2008 – 2010 ) = = = =
Early in 2008 , Haas developed a gimmick in which he would go under the ring in the middle of his matches and re @-@ emerge wearing a mask . In this " alter @-@ ego " , Haas would sometimes perform luchador @-@ esque maneuvers in a comical fashion ( such as attempting a diving splash , but instead landing on his feet and hitting a standing splash ) . The opponent would often unmask Haas mid @-@ match , returning him to his normal demeanor . During this persona , Haas usually competed in dark matches before the live broadcast of Raw or on Heat .
Beginning in late August , Haas turned into a face ( heroic character ) and began a storyline in which he began to impersonate other wrestlers , a concept created by John Laurinaitis , a WWE executive . His first match under this gimmick was a loss to Carlito 's real @-@ life brother Primo Colón , while Haas was parodying Carlito with the name " Charlito " . He has portrayed such superstars as John Cena , John " Bradshaw " Layfield , Jim Ross , The Great Khali , Montel Vontavious Porter , legends such as Stone Cold Steve Austin , Bret Hart , " Mr. Perfect " Curt Hennig , Jimmy " Superfly " Snuka , Rowdy Roddy Piper , Hulk Hogan and even WWE Diva Beth Phoenix for which he won a Slammy Award .
On April 15 , 2009 , Haas was drafted to the SmackDown brand as part of the 2009 Supplemental Draft . On the May 8 , 2009 episode of SmackDown , Haas made his in @-@ ring return to the brand as a heel , abandoning his persona of imitating other wrestlers , and losing to John Morrison in a match where he was accompanied by his former World 's Greatest Tag Team partner , Shelton Benjamin . The following week on the May 15 , 2009 episode of SmackDown , Benjamin and Haas unofficially reunited and competed against John Morrison and CM Punk in a losing effort , but Benjamin was traded to the ECW brand in June .
After an absence of several months , Haas made his return to television by teaming with Mike Knox in a losing effort against Cryme Tyme on the December 31 , 2009 episode of Superstars . On February 28 , 2010 , WWE announced that Haas had been released from his contract .
= = = Return to the independent circuit ( 2010 – present ) = = =
On March 20 , 2010 , Haas made a surprise return to Jersey All Pro Wrestling and defeated Devon Moore for the JAPW New Jersey State Championship . On May 22 Haas and JAPW Heavyweight Champion Dan Maff put their titles on the line in a tag team match against the Hillbilly Wrecking Crew ( Brodie Lee and Necro Butcher ) . In the end Maff turned on Haas and hit him with a chair , after which Lee pinned him to win the JAPW New Jersey State Championship .
On September 10 , 2010 , Haas won the NWA Texas Heavyweight Championship by defeating Michael Faith in Amarillo . In May 2011 , Haas took part in New Japan Pro Wrestling 's first tour of the United States , the Invasion Tour 2011 . In their opening show on May 13 in Rahway , New Jersey , Haas teamed with Rhyno in a tag team main event , where they defeated IWGP Heavyweight Champion Hiroshi Tanahashi and Togi Makabe . The following day in New York City , Haas unsuccessfully challenged Tanahashi for his title . On August 20 , 2011 , Haas became the inaugural Family Wrestling Entertainment ( FWE ) Heavyweight Champion by defeating Jay Lethal and Eric Young . He held the championship for four months before losing it to Young on December 17 .
After his retirement from pro wrestling , Haas made his return on August 17 , 2013 , where Haas defeated Jax Dane to win the NWA Branded Outlaw Wrestling championship .
At JAPW 18th Anniversary Show , Haas , Benjamin , and Angle reunited , as Team Angle , for the first time in 11 years . In the main event , Benjamin and Haas defeated Chris Sabin and Teddy Hart .
At NWA Parade Of Champions 2K16 Haas was defeated by the NWA World Heavyweight Champion Jax Dane
= = = Ring of Honor ( 2010 – 2013 ) = = =
On September 11 , 2010 , Haas and Shelton Benjamin made their debut as Wrestling 's Greatest Tag Team in Ring of Honor ( ROH ) losing to The Kings of Wrestling at the Glory By Honor IX pay @-@ per @-@ view . They returned to ROH at the Ring of Honor Wrestling television tapings on December 9 , where they defeated the Bravado Brothers ( Harlem and Lance ) . The following day , at the second set of television tapings , Haas and Benjamin defeated the All @-@ Night Xpress of Kenny King and Rhett Titus , and participated in an eight @-@ man tag team match , teaming with the Briscoe Brothers against the Kings of Wrestling and the All @-@ Night Xpress , which ended in a no contest . At the Final Battle 2010 pay @-@ per @-@ view on December 18 , Haas and Benjamin announced they would be wrestling regularly for ROH in 2011 . At the following pay @-@ per @-@ view , 9th Anniversary Show , on February 26 , 2011 , Haas and Benjamin defeated the Briscoe Brothers in the main event of the evening to earn another shot at the Kings of Wrestling and the ROH World Tag Team Championship . On April 1 , at the first night of the Honor Takes Center Stage pay @-@ per @-@ view , Haas and Benjamin defeated the Kings of Wrestling to win the ROH World Tag Team Championship . On June 26 at Best in the World 2011 , Haas and Benjamin successfully defended the ROH World Tag Team Championship in a four @-@ way match against the Briscoe Brothers , the Kings of Wrestling and the All @-@ Night Express . The following day ROH announced that both Haas and Benjamin had signed contracts with the promotion . At Final Battle 2011 , Haas and Benjamin lost the ROH World Tag Team Championship to the Briscoes despite severely attacking them before the match started , turning them into villainous characters . On May 12 , 2012 , at Border Wars , Haas and Benjamin regained the ROH World Tag Team Championship from the Briscoe Brothers . On June 24 at Best in the World 2012 , Haas and Benjamin lost the title to Kenny King and Rhett Titus . Shortly after their loss , Benjamin was suspended in storyline , to explain his absence while wrestling in Japan . Benjamin returned at the Death Before Dishonor X pay @-@ per @-@ view , accompanying Haas and Rhett Titus in a tag team championship match . Following Death Before Dishonor , Haas and Benjamin would continue to feud with Titus and his new tag team partner B.J. Whitmer defeating them at Glory By Honor XI . They defeated them again in a street fight at Final Battle , where Haas won the match after sent BJ against a table . On February 2 , 2013 , Haas turned on Benjamin during an ROH World Tag Team Championship match against the Briscoe Brothers . He continued his feud with BJ , fighting in the 11th Anniversary Show in a No Holds Barred Match . BJ won the match when the referee stopped the match .
On March 30 , 2013 , Haas announced his retirement from professional wrestling which coincided with him leaving Ring of Honor . However , Haas has continued to compete in various promotions in his home state of Texas .
= = Personal life = =
Haas competed in amateur wrestling during high school , and for Seton Hall University , where he attended on a wrestling scholarship . He also has various other awards for wrestling from high school . Haas was a two @-@ time Big East Champion at Seton Hall and graduated with a degree in economics and business . He then became a stockbroker with Goldman Sachs . According to Haas via the Q & A section on his website , he is a devout Christian . Following the death of his brother , Haas has wrestled with Russ ( his brother 's name ) written on his wrist tape as a tribute . Since 2002 he has maintained a close friendship with his longtime tag team partner Shelton Benjamin , who he often refers to as his brother . Benjamin also served as Haas 's best man at his wedding to Jackie Gayda .
His grandfather , Hugh Devore , was an assistant with the Houston Oilers and a former Head Coach of the Notre Dame Fighting Irish . Haas ' brother Russ was also a professional wrestler , until his death in 2001 due to a heart attack . After getting engaged in September 2004 , Haas married fellow wrestler Jackie Gayda on June 10 , 2005 . Their first child , daughter Kayla Jacquelyn Haas , was born on December 14 , 2006 . The couple 's second daughter , Taylor Suzanne , was born on September 17 , 2008 . On June 1 , 2010 , the couple 's third child , son Thomas Russell Haas , was born . Haas and his wife opened " Custom Muscle Nutrition and Smoothie Shop " , a nutritional store in Frisco , Texas on October 1 , 2008 . On July 23 , 2012 , Haas announced the birth of his fourth child .
On August 30 , 2007 , an article on Sports Illustrated 's website named Haas as one of ten superstars found to have purchased illegal steroids not in compliance with WWE 's Talent Wellness program . He was allegedly prescribed anastrozole , somatropin , stanozolol , nandrolone , and chorionic gonadotropin between August 2006 and January 2007 . Haas later said that he thought it was legal , and he was doing it for " maintenance " after he had both his knees reconstructed .
= = In wrestling = =
Finishing moves
Diving crossbody – 2004
Haas of Pain – Innovated
Haastile Takeover / Haastruction ( Scoop lift dropped into an inverted DDT ) – 2006
Inverted cloverleaf
Olympic Slam
Signature moves
Back body drop
Dropkick
Inverted atomic drop
Multiple arm drags
Multiple suplex variations
Exploder
German
Overhead belly to belly
Shoot kick to the back of a seated opponent
With Shelton Benjamin
Double team finishing moves
The World 's Greatest Finisher ( Double powerbomb )
Inverted atomic drop ( Haas ) followed by a superkick ( Benjamin ) followed by a jackknife pin ( Haas )
Double team signature moves
Broken Arrow ( Aided leapfrog body guillotine )
Managers
Paul Heyman
Kurt Angle
Jackie Gayda
Nicknames
" The Outlaw "
Entrance themes
" Medal " by Jim Johnston ( WWE ; used while a part of Team Angle )
" Heroes " by Jim Johnston ( WWE ; Used while a part of The World 's Greatest Tag Team )
" You Look So Good To Me " by Jim Johnston ( WWE / Used while teaming with Rico )
" Pay the Price " by Eric & The Hostiles ( WWE / Independent circuit )
" T.N.T. " by AC / DC ( ROH ; used while teaming with Shelton Benjamin )
" Mess You Up " by Maurice Davis ( ROH ; used while teaming with Shelton Benjamin )
" Hot Stakes " by Crushpile ( ROH ; used while teaming with Shelton Benjamin )
" Road House " by The Wild ! ( ROH )
= = Championships and accomplishments = =
Ballpark Brawl
Natural Heavyweight Championship ( 1 time )
Combat Zone Wrestling
CZW World Tag Team Championship ( 1 time ) – with Russ Haas
East Coast Wrestling Association
ECWA Tag Team Championship ( 1 time ) – with Russ Haas
ECWA Hall of Fame ( Class of 2004 )
Family Wrestling Entertainment
FWE Heavyweight Championship ( 1 time )
Heartland Wrestling Association
HWA Heavyweight Championship ( 1 time )
Insane Hardcore Wrestling Entertainment
IHWE California West Coast Heavyweight Championship ( 1 time )
IHWE DFW Championship ( 2 times )
IHWE Heavyweight Championship ( 1 time , current )
Jersey All Pro Wrestling
JAPW New Jersey State Championship ( 1 time )
JAPW Tag Team Championship ( 2 times ) – with Russ Haas
JAPW Hall of Fame ( Class of 2007 )
Memphis Championship Wrestling
MCW Southern Tag Team Championship ( 3 times ) – with Russ Haas
NWA Branded Outlaw Wrestling
NWA BOW Heavyweight Championship ( 1 time )
NWA Southwest
NWA Texas Heavyweight Championship ( 1 time )
NWA Texoma
NWA Texoma Heavyweight Championship ( 1 time , current )
NWA Texoma Tag Team Championship ( 1 time , current ) - with Dane Griffin
Ohio Valley Wrestling
Danny Davis Invitational Tag Team Tournament ( 2015 ) - with Shelton Benjamin
Pennsylvania Championship Wrestling
PCW Tag Team Championship ( 1 time ) – with Russ Haas
Phoenix Championship Wrestling
Russ Haas Memorial Tag Team Tournament ( 2002 ) – with Nova
Pro Wrestling Illustrated
PWI Tag Team of the Year ( 2003 ) with Shelton Benjamin
PWI ranked him # 25 of the top 500 singles wrestlers in the PWI 500 in 2003
Ring of Honor
ROH World Tag Team Championship ( 2 times ) – with Shelton Benjamin
Texas Outlaw Promotion
TOP Heavyweight Championship ( 1 time )
World Wrestling Entertainment
WWE Tag Team Championship ( 3 times ) – with Shelton Benjamin ( 2 ) and Rico ( 1 )
Slammy Award ( 1 time )
Best Impersonation ( 2008 ) The GlamaHaas
Wrecking Ball Wrestling
Match of the Year ( 2011 ) vs. Low Ki
WrestleForce
WrestleForce World Heavyweight Championship ( 1 time )
|
= Judge , Jury , Executioner =
" Judge , Jury , Executioner " is the eleventh episode of the second season of the post @-@ apocalyptic horror television series The Walking Dead . It originally aired on AMC in the United States on March 4 , 2012 . In this episode , Rick Grimes ( Andrew Lincoln ) and his group opt to execute Randall ( Michael Zegen ) , much to the frustration of Dale Horvath ( Jeffrey DeMunn ) . Dale fears that the group is losing their humanity , which prompts him to persuade some of the group members to protest against the consensus . Meanwhile , Carl Grimes ( Chandler Riggs ) behaves recklessly and carelessly , going as far as to steal Daryl Dixon ( Norman Reedus ) ' s gun and harass a walker , which will ultimately initiate grave consequences for the group .
" Judge , Jury , Executioner " was directed by Greg Nicotero and written by Angela Kang . It explores themes of declining morality and humanity during a catastrophic event .
The episode features the death of Dale , who was severely injured during an attack by a walker . It also marks changes in the character development of Carl , who evolves into a desensitized character who loses his naivete to the world around him . " Judge , Jury , Executioner " features recurring appearances from several actors and actresses including Lauren Cohan , Emily Kinney , Scott Wilson , Michael Zegen , and IronE Singleton .
Commentators praised the episode , citing its character development and concluding scene as episode highlights . Upon airing , " Judge , Jury , Executioner " attained 6 @.@ 771 million viewers and a 3 @.@ 5 rating in the 18 – 49 demographic , according to Nielsen ratings . It became the highest @-@ rated cable telecast of the day , as well as the highest @-@ rated cable program of the week .
= = Plot = =
Randall ( Michael Zegen ) is beaten and interrogated by Daryl ( Norman Reedus ) in the barn . He reveals that his former group , which is composed of some thirty heavily armed men , had once found and raped two female teenagers that were camping with their father , forcing him to watch the attack . This subsequently convinces the group that harboring Randall poses an imminent threat .
Rick Grimes ( Andrew Lincoln ) has concluded that Randall should be executed to protect the group , but leaves the act until sunset for a final decision . Dale ( Jeffrey DeMunn ) learns that the whole group has come to a consensus in favor of the decision to kill Randall . Dismayed , he unsuccessfully tries to convince Rick to abandon such plans , as it would set a poor example to his son Carl ( Chandler Riggs ) . Dale gains similar responses from Andrea ( Laurie Holden ) , but she agrees to guard the barn from Shane ( Jon Bernthal ) . Hershel ( Scott Wilson ) is indifferent on the matter when approached by Dale , but will follow the decision as he believes that Randall may pose a threat to his daughters Beth ( Emily Kinney ) and Maggie ( Lauren Cohan ) safety . Daryl avows to Dale that his opinion is meaningless , since Rick looks to Shane for validation . Dale later encounters Shane , who proposes that he will go along with Dale if he successfully convinces the group .
Carl becomes restless and careless , and ultimately sneaks into the barn . Randall sees him and attempts to persuade Carl to release him . Discovering the interaction , Shane angrily scolds Carl for going into the barn , warning him of manipulations by the prisoner . Carol ( Melissa McBride ) attempts to cheer Carl up by mentioning that Sophia is in heaven . Carl rudely lashes out , and insults her for believing in heaven . After being chastised by Rick for doing so , Carl ventures into Daryl 's campsite and takes a pistol from among his possessions . Armed , he wanders into the woods , where he encounters a walker stuck in the creek bed 's mire . Carl provokes it by throwing rocks at it and later moves within closer range to shoot it in the head . Suddenly , the walker manages to free one leg and tries to attack Carl . Carl loses the pistol but narrowly escapes , and upon returning to the campsite , does not report the entire incident . Meanwhile , Beth has since recovered from her earlier suicide attempt . When Glenn ( Steven Yeun ) comes to check on her condition , Hershel gives him a family heirloom representing his approval of Glenn 's relationship with Maggie .
Later , the group meets to discuss Randall 's fate . Dale 's arguments on humanity , civilization and morality fails to sway most of the members and he storms out . Rick , Shane , and Daryl then take Randall to the barn . As Rick prepares to shoot him , Carl enters and urges his father to do it . Horrified , Rick puts down his revolver , causing Shane to storm out in disappointment . Meanwhile , Dale walks alone across the fields . He encounters a dying cow , which he discovers has been gutted . Realizing the danger , Dale turns , but a walker ambushes him . Dale 's screams alert the group , but the walker manages to rip open Dale 's abdomen and mortally wounds him . Upon arrival , the walker is dispatched by Daryl , but the group is distraught over Dale 's condition . Carl is shocked to see that the walker that injured Dale was the same one he encountered earlier in the forest . Hershel informs Rick that Dale 's injuries are too severe and he will not survive . The group comes to a quick and grievous consensus , as Rick prepares to shoot Dale in the head but is unable . Daryl takes the revolver and delivers the final shot to end Dale 's suffering .
= = Production = =
" Judge , Jury , Executioner " was directed by Greg Nicotero and written by Angela Kang . The episode became Nicotero 's first directing credit for a full @-@ length television episode of the series ; he had previously conceived and directed the six @-@ part web series The Walking Dead : Torn Apart . As part of a promotional campaign , cast member Norman Reedus participated in a live chat on Entertainment Weekly coinciding with the airing of " Judge , Jury , Executioner " .
This episode addresses the death of Dale Horvath , who is attacked and ripped open by a walker . Since writer Robert Kirkman felt that Dale epitomized a character of morality and humanity , much of " Judge , Jury , Executioner " explores themes related to the declining morality of individuals during a catastrophic event . Kirkman proclaimed that Dale 's death was a momentous occasion , ultimately marking a turning point for future development of The Walking Dead . " Dale 's character has been the heart and soul of the show , " he iterated . " He 's definitely the moral compass . He ’ s the guy that , more so than anyone , has been warning people to be careful how you let this world change you and monitoring what lengths people are going to survive . His loss is going to mean a great deal for all the characters in the show and is definitely going to represent a turn to a darker space . His death means a lot . " Kirkman added that it was difficult to release DeMunn from the cast . He stated : " It ’ s heartbreaking to lose Jeffrey DeMunn . He 's really given us a lot , these last two seasons on the show . It 's been amazing to work with him and get to know him and he ’ s an awesome dude and we ’ re definitely going to miss him . "
In contrast to his role in the television series , Dale 's comic book counterpart is among the longest surviving characters in the series , and he enters into a sexual relationship with Andrea . Kirkman asserted that it was necessary for writers to distance the development of Dale 's television character from that in the comic : " I have talked many times how much I like the difference between the comics and the show . There are going to be big plot lines that we may not necessarily get to , like the romance between Dale and Andrea . If you think you really want to read that story line , that 's available in the comics , and I highly recommend you pick those up . The show is always going to be a different animal and the decision to kill Dale off was a big one and it wasn 't one that was made lightly . "
As a visibly distraught Rick hesitates to shoot Dale , Daryl takes the gun and inevitably shoots Dale in the head . Lesley Goldberg of The Hollywood Reporter suggested that producers were subtly building up prior to the moment . Kirkman felt this marked Daryl 's place in the group and was closure for the deceased Sophia Peletier , whose death caused Daryl to pull away from interacting with the group . Kirkman iterated that such actions were the testaments of his " putting everything on the line and opening himself up in a way he had never done before because his childhood was so messed up . " ; " So when he found out she was dead and in the barn all the time , that 's why he retreated and separated himself from the group . It was because he allowed himself to care and it just backfired on him in a big way . He didn 't want to be a part of the group and have those emotions and care about these people . So he 's been distancing himself from them up until this point , and now he 's seeing that these people need him and that he can fill a role and in being that harsh distant guy , you can do the things that no one else wants to do . He wants to step in and take that burden away from Rick for a moment . Rick is the one who stepped up and shot Sophia . Daryl saw that and because of his pain over the loss of Sophia he couldn 't do that . But when he sees Rick hesitate to do the same thing with Dale he knows : this is my moment , this is where I can prove my worth , and he steps in and does what he needs to do . "
In " Judge , Jury , Executioner " , Carl evolves into a desensitized character and ultimately relinquishes his naïveté to the world around him . Although Entertainment Weekly writer Clark Collis drew parallels to a serial killer , Kirkman suggested this was an initiative to give more screen time to the character . He avouched that Carl was " one of the most fun characters to tell stories about in this world . " He continued : " It 's true of the comic and it 's true of the show . Over time , we ’ re going to start to see more and more of this kid . What 's awesome about that is , think about what it would be like to grow up in this world . It 's one thing to have everything you know taken away from you and have to deal with this s — y world you now have to live in . But to have barely even really recognized what the world is and how it works and what to expect and then to be thrust into this apocalyptic threat and to grow up and mature with these kinds of situations . It 's going to make him grow up weird , is what I like to say . "
= = Reception = =
= = = Ratings = = =
" Judge , Jury , Executioner " was originally broadcast on March 4 , 2012 in the United States on AMC . Upon airing , the episode garnered 6 @.@ 771 million viewers and a 3 @.@ 5 rating in the 18 – 49 demographic , according to Nielsen ratings . This indicates that 3 @.@ 5 % of people from the demographic viewed the episode . It became the highest @-@ rated cable telecast of the day , attaining significantly higher ratings than that of Storage Wars on A & E Television and Real Housewives of Atlanta on Bravo . Similarly , the episode outperformed all cable television programs during the week dated March 4 . Total viewership and ratings declined moderately from the previous installment , " 18 Miles Out " , which obtained 7 @.@ 04 million viewers and a 3 @.@ 8 rating in the 18 – 49 demographic .
= = = Critical response = = =
" Judge , Jury , Executioner " was lauded by television critics . Mark A. Perigard of the Boston Herald called it an " incredible episode " ; " Walking Dead again proves it is one of the best dramas on TV and almost makes me feel good about paying my cable bill . " Writing for the San Antonio Express @-@ News , Rene Guzman opined that it " delivers all that messy drama in spades with a true gut @-@ wrenching end to one of the series ’ core characters " . Wetpaint 's Molly Friedman stated that in " Judge , Jury , Executioner " , the audience " finally had a reason to shed some tears and remember just how much we care about the original gang of apocalyptic misfits " . Kevin Yeoman of The Christian Science Monitor and E ! Online journalist Tierney Bricker concluded that the episode managed to effectively surprise the audience , while Cyriaque Lamar of io9 declared that " Judge , Jury , Executioner " was inferior to its predecessor by writing that it " served up a bunch of quasi @-@ entertaining scenes of people arguing and capped them off with one of the most accidentally funny closers ever committed to basic cable " . In his B + review , Zack Handlen of The A.V. Club said that the episode continued the series ' path of a more focused and central direction . Josh Jackson of Paste was intrigued with the series ' exploration of morality during an apocalyptic event in " Judge , Jury , Executioner " . Eric Goldman of IGN was much more pessimistic about the episode than the general consensus . In his 6 @.@ 5 out of 10 rating review , he called it " especially dull " when compared to the previous installment .
Dale 's death was adulated by commentators , who affirmed that it was a gruesome and emotional scene . Scott Meslow of The Atlantic suggested that because of his death , The Walking Dead embraced a more dark and sinister philosophy . He asserted , " Taken broadly , his death marks the death of a certain morality on the show , and the embrace of a philosophy that 's something crueler and darker . Dale , unlike any of the other survivors , maintained his humanity to the very end of his waking life — but even he couldn 't choose not to come back as something amoral and inhuman . In a world that seems utterly incapable of getting better , it 's a none @-@ too @-@ reassuring sign that things will almost certainly get worse . " Gina McIntyre of Los Angeles Times echoed synonymous thoughts : " It 's left to Daryl to shoot the man to end his suffering , which is profoundly too bad . Without Dale to raise all those nagging concerns about doing what 's right , zombie apocalypse or no zombie apocalypse , I fear for the future of this walker @-@ infested world . " Handlen and Calgary Herald 's Kimberly Potts thought that it was among the shocking moments in the series , while Friedman expressed that she was " riveted by the awesome attack [ ... ] and filled with sadness , as the original gang watched their friend die a slow and painful death " . Handlen remarked : " It ’ s a shocking scene , partially for its straight @-@ forward gore , and partially for the astonished , uncomprehending expression on Dale ’ s face . [ ... ] This , right here , is the kind of sequence the show needs . There ’ s too little sense of danger right now . " Verne Gay of Newsday described the sequence as " violent " , and ultimately summated that DeMunn 's absence will be felt as the show progresses . However , Lamar professed that the writers should have written off Dale in a more respectable way ; " That wasn 't the way to off the show 's most annoyingly sane character . Dale 's redeeming quality was his ability to guilt everybody into paying lip service to rule of law ; his weakness was his naïveté . Having an escaping Randall kill him would 've offered some poetic symmetry . I 'm not going to miss this character , but he deserved a better send @-@ off . " Time journalist Nate Rawlings drew allusions from Dale 's attack to the episode title , commenting that " when the lone zombie we see in this episode tears open Dale ’ s stomach , spilling the contents of his body onto the cold ground , we ’ re reminded that the walkers are the judges , they ’ re the jury , and this particular one was a most brutal executioner . " Although he was shocked by the sequence , Goldman assailed the earlier development of Dale in the episode , opining that he was obnoxious .
Handlen felt that the character development of Carl Grimes was more stable than similar developments in the episode ; " Using Carl to both resolve the episode ’ s plot , and making him semi @-@ responsible for Dale ’ s death , has a satisfying neatness , and serves as a reminder that for all their talk , Rick and the group have no idea what impact their choices will make . " Likewise , Jackson and Ryan Rigley of MTV noticed the darker transition of the character ; " Carl 's moral compass has greatly shifted since being shot and seeing the walking corpse of his friend , Sophia , " asserted Rigley . Jackson concluded that it was one of the episode highlights , writing , " He awakened from his coma talking about the beautiful doe , but ever since the dead body of Sophia limped its way out of that barn door , he 's become colder and harder . When Carol sees him at Sophia ’ s gravesite , she tries to comfort him with talk of heaven , and he calls her an idiot . He 's looking to emulate the men leading the group — the different kinds of toughness displayed by his father , Shane and Daryl . And he finds the chance to test his own bravery , playing near a zombie stuck in the mud by the creek , keeping the discovery to himself . " Jackson commented on Carl 's reaction to the death of Dale , saying that despite a gradual change to a dark nature , he " realizes [ ... ] that he 's still very much a kid " .
|
= 1983 Pacific hurricane season =
The 1983 Pacific hurricane season was the longest season ever recorded at that time . The 1983 Pacific hurricane season started on May 15 , 1983 in the eastern Pacific , and on June 1 , 1983 in the central Pacific , and lasted until November 30 , 1983 . These dates conventionally delimit the period of each year when most tropical cyclones form in the northeastern Pacific Ocean . During the 1983 season , there were 21 named storms , which was slightly less than the previous season . Furthermore , eight storms reached major hurricane status , or Category 3 or higher on the Saffir – Simpson hurricane wind scale ( SSHWS ) . The decaying 1982 @-@ 83 El Niño event likely contributed to this level of activity . That same El Niño influenced a very quiet Atlantic hurricane season .
The first storm of the season , Hurricane Adolph became the southernmost @-@ forming east Pacific tropical cyclone on record after forming at a latitude of 7 @.@ 1 ° N. After a slow start , activity picked up in July , when Hurricane Gil moved through the Hawaiian Islands , resulting in moderate damage . In early August , Hurricane Ismael was responsible for three deaths and $ 19 million ( 1983 USD ) in damage . During early September , Hurricanes Kiko and Lorena brought significant damage and seven deaths to southern Mexico . About a month later , Tropical Storm Octave became the worst tropical cyclone on record to affect Arizona . Octave killed 15 people , and caused $ 500 million in damage to Arizona and $ 12 @.@ 5 million to New Mexico . Later in October , Hurricane Tico was a very intense hurricane at the time of its landfall and thus left 25 @,@ 000 homeless . Damage throughout the country was estimated at $ 200 million while 135 deaths were reported in Mexico . Although most of its impact occurred in Mexico , Tico 's remnants brought significant flooding in the Central United States , resulting in six deaths and $ 42 million in damage . A few days later , Hurricane Raymond posed a threat to Hawaii , but did little actual damage . The final storm of the season , Hurricane Winnie , was a rare December cyclone .
= = Seasonal summary = =
During the 1983 season , a total of 21 named storms formed , which was well @-@ above the average of 15 .
However , this total was slightly less active than the 1982 Pacific hurricane season , which saw a then @-@ record 22 storms form . However , 1983 was at that time the most active season in the Eastern Pacific Hurricane Center ( EPHC ) warning zone , but this record itself was surpassed during the 1985 Pacific hurricane season , and again in the 1992 Pacific hurricane season . Additionally , 12 storms reached hurricane intensity , which was above the average of eight . Of the 12 hurricanes , eight attained Category 3 intensity or higher on the SSHWS . The season started on May 21 with the formation of Adolph and ended on December 9 , with the dissipation of Hurricane Winnie . Lasting 201 days , 1983 was the longest season on record . There were a total of 1 @,@ 238 storm hours , which was the most in four years . Despite the activity in the EPHC 's warning responsibility , only two storms formed in the Central Pacific Hurricane Center ( CPHC ) ' s area of responsibility , both of which stayed depressions . A moderate El Niño was present throughout the season , with water temperatures across the equatorial Central Pacific was nearly 5 ° F ( 0 @.@ 6 ° C ) above normal . The Pacific decadal oscillation ( PDO ) was in a warm phase during this time period . Both of these factors are known to enhance Pacific hurricane season activity . Furthermore , 1983 was in the middle of an era where all but the 1988 Pacific hurricane season was near or above average . Also despite a relatively active season , no storms developed within the Central Pacific basin .
One storm in 1983 formed in May , an event the occurs every other year on average . Another storm formed in June , which was below the average of 1 @.@ 7 storms per June . Despite a somewhat slow start , activity picked up in July , where 6 storms formed . This was twice the average , though only two of the storm thus far had exceeded hurricane intensity . Although August was less active , with only 3 storms developing , compared to the average of 4 , two of the storms that formed in July lasted into the early part of the month . However , activity picked back up again in September , with 5 storms forming , which was above the average of 3 . Three storms also formed in October , which was two storms above normal . One storm developed in November as well , a somewhat unusual occurrence . For the first time since 1947 , a hurricane developed in December .
Three storms during the season made landfall on Mexico . The first , Adolph did so in May . The second , Tico , hit near Mazatlán as a powerful hurricane , resulting in severe damage . Around this time , a weak tropical depression made landfall along the western portion of the nation as well . In addition , Tropical Depression Raymond made landfall on Hawaii in late October . Hurricane Hunters flew in to 2 storms within the EPHC zone ( Manuel and Ismael ) . Moreover , they flew into 3 storms in CPHC 's area of responsibility , Tropical Storms Gil and Narda , and Hurricane Raymond .
= = Storms = =
= = = Hurricane Adolph = = =
On May 21 , a tropical depression formed 500 mi ( 805 km ) southwest of Managua , at a latitude of 7 @.@ 1 ° N , becoming the southernmost @-@ forming tropical cyclone in the east Pacific basin . As the depression headed gradually west @-@ northwestward over extremely warm sea surface temperatures , it steadily intensified . Later that day , the depression intensified into Tropical Storm Adolph . Further intensification occurred as Adolph headed west @-@ northwestward ; by May 24 , the EPHC reported that Adolph had strengthened into a hurricane , setting a then @-@ record for the earliest known hurricane in the basin , though this was later surpassed by Hurricane Alma in May 1990 . Shortly thereafter , the storm turned northwestward and intensified into a Category 2 hurricane on the SSHWS . Around that time , Adolph attained its peak intensity with winds of 110 mph ( 175 km / h ) as the storm briefly developed a well @-@ defined eye . At that time , Adolph was the strongest May hurricane on record . However , this record was broken by a hurricane in 2001 that was also named Adolph .
Following peak intensity , Adolph gradually weakened to a Category 1 hurricane . By May 25 , Adolph curved sharply north @-@ northeastward , as a result of being steered by anticyclonic deep @-@ layer mean . Despite being situated over fairly warm waters , Adolph weakened considerably due to increased wind shear . Although the EPHC expected the storm to stay at sea , Adolph curved north @-@ northeastward . It was then downgraded to a tropical storm on May 25 . Rapidly weakening , Tropical Storm Adolph moved onshore near Puerto Vallarta early the next day . After briefly moving offshore , it again made landfall near Mazatlán at 0800 UTC that day . Adolph soon dissipated over land , becoming the first of two storms to strike the Pacific coast of Mexico during the season . Because Hurricane Adolph weakened significantly prior to landfall , no deaths or major damage occurred . However , the remnants of the storm brought heavy showers and gusty winds to Florida . Although a modern Pacific hurricane season begins May 15 , one newspaper considered Adolph a " pre @-@ season " storm .
= = = Hurricane Barbara = = =
A tropical disturbance was first observed in early June about 210 mi ( 340 km ) south of Guatemala , and headed westward . The tropical disturbance intensified , and became the second tropical depression of the season on June 9 . After staying a tropical depression for 24 hours , the system was subsequently upgraded to Tropical Storm Barbara . Initially , Barbara was expected to come very close to the Mexican coast ; however , this failed to happen . At first , Tropical Storm Barbara moved west @-@ northwest , though on June 11 , the cyclone turned west @-@ northwest while gradually gaining intensity . At 1800 UTC on June 12 , Barbara was estimated to have attained hurricane status while centered 175 mi ( 280 km ) north of Clipperton Island . Shortly after becoming a hurricane , rapid deepening commenced , and by early the next morning , the hurricane was a high @-@ end Category 1 . Six hours later , Barbara skipped Category 2 status , and became a major hurricane . At 1800 UTC on June 13 , Hurricane Barbara was upgraded into a category 4 hurricane on the SSHWS while its peak strength of 135 mph ( 215 km / h ) . At peak , Barbara had a " fantastic eye " .
Hurricane Barbara held on to peak intensity for a day . Thereafter , Barbara slowly weakened after peak intensity as it began to encounter cooler water temperatures , while moving slowly northward around the western edge of a high pressure area over central Mexico . By the early morning hours of June 16 , the hurricane was positioned 380 km ( 235 mi ) west @-@ southwest of Socorro Island and about 500 mi ( 805 km ) west of the coast of Mexico . Later that day , Barbara weakened into a tropical storm due to strong wind shear . Barbara was downgraded to a tropical depression early on June 17 . Further weakening persisted , and Barbara dissipated on June 18 . At the time of dissipation , the system was situated several hundred miles west @-@ southwest of the Baja California peninsula .
= = = Tropical Storm Cosme = = =
A westward @-@ moving low @-@ latitude tropical disturbance was declared a tropical depression early on July 2 . After making a turn northwest , the depression maintained its intensity for 42 hours . By 1200 UTC on July 4 , the system was finally upgraded into a tropical storm after convection increased in coverage . However , Cosme failed to intensify further , and after encountering cooler waters , the storm rapidly dissipated . The EPHC declared Cosme dissipated at 1800 UTC on July 5 .
= = = Tropical Storm Dalilia = = =
An intense area of thunderstorms developed 230 mi ( 370 km ) south of the Gulf of Tehuantepec on July 4 . The system was first classified as a tropical depression at 1800 UTC on July 5 roughly 345 mi ( 555 km ) south @-@ southeast of Acapulco . Turning west @-@ northwest and then northwest while accelerating , the EPHC upgraded the depression into Tropical Storm Dalilia at 1800 UTC on July 6 . Continuing to gain strength , Dalila reached its peak intensity as a strong tropical storm early on July 8 . After turning west the tropical storm started to lose strength while encountering colder water . At 0600 UTC on July 10 , Tropical Storm Dalilia had been downgraded into a tropical depression . Two days later , the EPHC reported that the tropical cyclone had dissipated .
= = = Tropical Storm Erick = = =
Tropical Storm Erick originated from a tropical wave that crossed Central America on July 9 and July 10 . At 0600 UTC on July 12 , the EPHC reported that it had upgraded the disturbance into a tropical depression . The depression moved steadily west @-@ northwest under the influence of an anticyclone over the Yucatán Peninsula . The system gradually intensified over waters as warm as 86 ° F ( 30 ° C ) and at 0000 UTC on July 13 , the agency upgraded the low into a tropical storm . Tropical Storm Erick reached its peak intensity on July 14 as a high @-@ end tropical storm . The storm maintained peak intensity for 24 hours , before encountering cooler water . Rapidly weakening , Erick dissipated on July 16 far from land .
= = = Tropical Storm Flossie = = =
A tropical disturbance developed 70 mi ( 115 km ) southwest of Manzanillo late on June 16 . Several hours later , the disturbance was classified as a tropical depression . Initially , the depression drifted southward , but at 1800 UTC on July 17 , the system suddenly turned west @-@ northwest and accelerated . The storm gradually intensified while passing northeast of Socorro Island . Midday on July 19 , the tropical depression was upgraded into Tropical Storm Flossie . Six hours later , Tropical Storm Flossie reached its peak wind speed of 60 mph ( 95 km / h ) . While the storm approached the Baja California peninsula , the storm ultimately turned west into an area of cool water and high amounts of wind shear . By 0000 UTC on July 21 , Flossie weakened into a tropical storm . Twelve hours later , Flossie ceased to exist as a tropical cyclone .
= = = Hurricane Gil = = =
The seventh tropical cyclone of the season developed during the afternoon hours of July 23 north of Clipperton Island . Thereafter , the EPHC upgraded the depression to Tropical Storm Gil on July 24 . Gil subsequently began to intensify ; on 0000 UTC July 26 , the storm was upgraded into a Category 1 hurricane . Early on July 27 , the storm attained its peak intensity of 90 mph ( 145 km / h ) . Despite turning west @-@ northwest , Hurricane Gil maintained hurricane intensity until July 29 when the storm began to encounter cooler waters . Two days later , Gil was downgraded a tropical depression . After entering CPHC 's warning zone on August 1 , the CPHC Gil was re @-@ upgraded into a tropical storm . Gil accelerated while approaching the Hawaiian Islands ; on August 3 , the tropical cyclone reached its secondary peak of 45 mph ( 70 km / h ) . After passing through the Hawaiian islands , Gil passed very close to French Frigate Shoals on August 4 as a marginal tropical storm . Early on August 5 , the system was downgraded into a tropical depression and degenerated into a trough about 300 mi ( 485 km ) west @-@ northwest of Tern Island later that day .
Prior to arrival of Gil , gale warnings were issued for much of the islands , but on August 2 , these warnings were discontinued for all islands except for Kauai . Jellyfish stung 50 tourists . On the northern part of the island , 70 mph ( 115 km / h ) winds were reported , resulting in extensive damage in some areas , but slight damage to others . A minor power outage on the island briefly left 2 @,@ 400 customers without electricity . In Maui , the outer rainbands of Gil led to minor flooding . Overall , damage from Gil was minimal and less than expected . Offshore , one person was presumed to have died when a 19 ft ( 5 m ) catamaran , named Hurricane , went missing . Additionally , the 30 @-@ foot ship Adad nearly sunk in the storm and all three people on board sustained injuries .
= = = Hurricane Henriette = = =
While Tropical Storm Gil was moving westward , a tropical disturbance began to develop about 180 mi ( 290 km ) south of the Guatemala coastline . After developing a circulation , the system was upgraded into a tropical depression on July 27 . Moving west @-@ northwest , the depression strengthened into Tropical Storm Henriette at 1800 UTC that day . Henriette continued to deepen , and by late on July 28 , the storm attained winds of 65 mph ( 105 km / h ) . Although initially expected to pose a threat to Hawaii , this did not occur . It rapidly intensified , and late on July 28 , the EPHC upgraded the storm into a hurricane . While turning west @-@ southwest on a track similar to Gil 's , it attained Category 2 intensity on July 29 . At 0000 UTC on July 30 , Henriette was upgraded into a Category 3 hurricane . After leveling off in intensity , the storm passed within 70 mi ( 115 km ) within Clipperton Island . Hurricane Henriette attained its peak intensity early on July 31 , with winds of 135 mph ( 215 km / h ) , a Category 4 system . At peak , Henriette displayed a well @-@ defined eye .
After continuing west @-@ northwest for 12 hours , it then veered northwest and began to encounter cooler ocean temperatures . Henriette was slow to weaken , and by August 2 , it was downgraded into a Category 2 hurricane . Two days later , Henriette was downgraded into a tropical storm . A strong trough of low pressure pulled Henriette northwest , and later north . On August 5 , the storm was downgraded into a tropical depression . The storm dissipated the next day at a high latitude , though the remnants of Henriette brought cloud cover to Oregon and Washington .
= = = Tropical Depression Nine @-@ E = = =
On July 30 and 31 , a tropical disturbance crossed Central America . At a low latitude , a tropical depression was declared on August 3 . At first , the storm was expected to turn west @-@ northwest , but it continued west instead . Nine failed to intensify despite being situated over warm water . The depression dissipated on August 7 later over somewhat cooler water .
= = = Hurricane Ismael = = =
The origins of Hurricane Ismael were from a northward bulge of the Intertropical Convergence Zone ( ITCZ ) in early August , which resulted in the formation of a tropical depression on August 8 . Six hours later , it was upgraded into Tropical storm Ismael . Continuing to intensity , Ismael was upgraded into a hurricane late on August 10 and subsequently developed an eye . The storm soon reached its peak of 100 mph ( 160 km / h ) . Late on August 11 , Hurricane Ismael began to weaken as it encountered cooler waters and the hurricane was soon downgraded to a Category 1 on the SSHWS . The following day , Ismael was downgraded into a tropical storm about 380 mi ( 610 km ) west of the Baja California peninsula . On August 14 , the storm was downgraded into a tropical depression while centered about 250 mi ( 400 km ) west of Point Ensenada . Manuel dissipated that day .
While still out at sea , Ismael brought 6 – 9 ft ( 1 @.@ 8 – 2 @.@ 7 m ) waves to much of Southern California , though waves from the storm were less than expected . One person was swept away at a beach . The remnants of the storm later moved over South California , resulting in moderate rainfall . The Yucca Valley was the worst hit by the storm , where nearly every road was washed out . Almost 50 @,@ 000 residents in Palm Springs were isolated due to rains . A tornado near Los Angeles led to minor damage . In San Bernardino , many buildings were destroyed , forcing numerous evacuations . Around 80 @,@ 000 homes were left without power across the Inland Empire . Moreover , three interstates were closed . In all , minor injures were reported and three people died in San Bernardino when their car swept into a channel . Damage from the storm totaled $ 19 million ( 1983 USD ) . After affecting California , the remnants of the hurricane moved into Nevada . Many parking lots in Laughlin were flooded . Two small towns were also isolated . Several major streets in the outskirts of Las Vegas were closed because of flooding .
= = = Tropical Depression Eleven @-@ E = = =
The eleventh cyclone of the 1983 season formed from an intense area of thunderstorms located over the Yucatán Peninsula on August 11 and 12 . After crossing the Mexican mainland , it emerged into the Pacific basin near Guadalajara early on August 13 . After turning northwest , it intensified into a depression two days later after showing sign of a circulation . The depression continued northwest with little change in wind speed , and on August 16 , about 24 hours after formation , the depression dissipated after its circulation ceased very close to landfall on the Baja California peninsula .
= = = Tropical Depression One @-@ C = = =
Tropical Depression One @-@ C formed on August 19 far from land , with winds of 35 mph ( 56 km / h ) . It moved steadily west . Despite being over warm waters , One @-@ C quickly weakened and lost deep convection . The depression dissipated on August 20 after briefly developing a closed circulation .
= = = Tropical Storm Juliette = = =
Tropical Storm Juliette originated from a tropical depression that first formed on August 24 130 mi ( 210 km ) east @-@ northeast of Clipperton Island . Moving west @-@ northwest and briefly west , the depression gradually intensified . The system then turned northwest around a ridge off the west coast of Baja California Sur . At 1800 UTC on August 26 , the EPHC announced that the depression had strengthened into a tropical storm . Moving toward a strong trough off the west coast of the peninsula , Juliette reached its peak intensity as a mid @-@ level tropical storm early on August 29 , with winds of 60 mph ( 95 km / h ) . Upon attaining peak intensity , Juliette developed an eye . However , Juliette began to weaken over cooler water . Meanwhile , the trough weakened and Tropical Storm Juliette headed west . On August 30 , the EPHC remarked that Juliette was downgraded into a depression . Two days later , Tropical Depression Juliette had dissipated over cold water .
= = = Tropical Depression Two @-@ C = = =
A disturbance in the ITCZ developed a circulation on August 29 and organized into a tropical depression two days later . Traveling west @-@ northwest , Two @-@ C was initially in a favorable environment , and was thus expected to become a tropical storm . However , it soon encountered a trough and dry air , which arrested development . It crossed the international dateline on September 1 and the Joint Typhoon Warning Center began issuing advisories on the system . The depression gradually weakened and dissipated on September 8 . Its remnants lingered near the Marshall Islands for a few more days .
= = = Hurricane Kiko = = =
Hurricane Kiko originated from a tropical disturbance that crossed Central America on August 26 and 27 . After emerging into the Pacific , the disturbance moved steadily westward . At 0600 UTC on August 31 , the EPHC classified the system as a tropical depression about 300 mi ( 485 km ) south of Salina Cruz . A well @-@ developed ridge was centered over New Mexico and was moving southward , causing light wind shear over the system . At 1800 UTC on August 31 , the depression intensified into Tropical Storm Kiko . Initially expected to turn west and head out to sea , the storm moved northwest while paralleling the Mexican coast . Early on September 1 , Kiko began to explosively deepen , and by 1800 UTC , it intensified into a Category 3 hurricane on the SSHWS , bypassing both Category 1 and 2 status . Six hours later , the EPHC reported that Kiko had intensified into a low @-@ end Category 4 . After remaining at this intensity for 30 hours , the hurricane resumed intensification , attaining its peak intensity of 145 mph ( 235 km / h ) late on September 3 about 400 mi ( 645 km ) west of Lázaro Cárdenas .
Shortly after its peak , a combination of cooler waters and increased wind shear associated with the subtropical jetstream resulted in rapid weakening . Hurricane Kiko was soon downgraded to Category 3 status on the SSHWS , before briefly re @-@ intensifying on September 4 . That day , Kiko resumed weakening and was downgraded to a Category 2 as the storm turned west @-@ northwest away from the Mexican coast . On September 5 , the storm was downgraded into a Category 1 system ; by this time , the EPHC revised their forecast and expected the storm to accelerate and approach Baja California . On September 7 , Kiko weakened into a tropical storm . Subsequently , the system turned north and was downgraded to a tropical depression the next day . Now devoid of convection , Kiko dissipated early on September 9 about 450 mi ( 725 km ) west @-@ southwest of Baja California .
The outer rainbands of Hurricane Kiko caused considerable damage to homes and hotels situated near the coast of Mexico , forcing the evacuation of hundreds . The resorts of Tecomán and Manzanillo were the worst hit by the storm . Outside of Colima , however , little damage was reported . Kiko brought high clouds to the extreme southwestern portion of the Baja California Peninsula for four days . While at sea , Hurricane Kiko was responsible for 12 ft ( 3 @.@ 7 m ) waves along Newport Beach , California , resulting in more than 100 lifeguard rescues . As a weakening tropical system , Kiko brought subtropical moisture and high clouds to California .
= = = Hurricane Lorena = = =
Towards the end of the first week of September , the next cyclone of the season was starting to form south of the Mexican coast . A disturbance moved westward and was classified as a tropical depression about 90 mi ( 145 km ) south of Acapulco early on September 6 . Like Kiko , the storm deepened rapidly , and was upgraded into a tropical storm at 1800 UTC that day . Initially moving very slowly , the storm made a sharp turn northwest , parallel to the coast of Mexico . Accelerating , a poorly defined eye first became visible on satellite imagery around 1500 UTC on September 7 . The EPHC upgraded Lorena into a hurricane three hours later . Early the next day , Lorena intensified into a Category 2 hurricane . At 1200 UTC on September 8 , Lorena attained winds of a Category 3 hurricane on the SSHWS ; simultaneously , the storm reached its peak intensity , with winds of 115 mph ( 185 km / h ) .
After maintaining peak intensity for six hours , Lorena began to weaken over cooler waters . Very early on September 9 , the EPHC downgraded Lorena weakened into a Category 1 hurricane ; the storm was expected to emerge into the southern Gulf of California in about 48 hours and thereafter meander . However , this did not occur . Meanwhile , Lorena was re @-@ upgraded into a Category 2 hurricane , an intensity of which it held on to for 12 hours . After briefly weakening back to a Category 1 hurricane , Lorena moved west @-@ northwest and into a low wind shear environment . Subsequently , Lorena attained its secondary peak with winds of 105 mph ( 170 km / h ) while passing about 150 mi ( 240 km ) south of Cabo San Lucas . However , cooler water began to take its toll on the storm and on September 12 , the storm was downgraded into a Category 1 . Later that day , Lorena weakened into a tropical storm due to a combination of strong shear and cold sea surface temperatures . Midday on September 13 , the EPHC downgraded the system into a tropical depression . Furthermore , the system dissipated 18 hours later . At the time of dissipation , Lorena was centered about 750 mi ( 1 @,@ 205 km ) west @-@ southwest of San Diego .
Hurricane Lorena brought rough surf and squally weather to much of the coast of Mexico , particularly Manzanillo . Furthermore , it was also responsible for $ 33 @,@ 000 in damage to Acapulco . Seven people died due to flooding . Four ships drowned in the storm ; as a result , many local ports were closed . In addition , a mudslide blocked a portion of the Pan @-@ American Highway .
= = = Hurricane Manuel = = =
A vigorous tropical disturbance was first noted on September 10 south of the Gulf of Tehuantepec . Despite the presence of wind shear , the EPHC upgraded system into a tropical depression at 0600 UTC on September 12 and a tropical storm at 1200 UTC that day while centered around 300 mi ( 485 km ) south of Puerto Escondido . Manuel reached hurricane strength early on September 14 . Several hours later , Manuel reached a secondary peak wind speed of 90 mph ( 145 km / h ) . However , this trend was short lived , and very early on September 15 , the storm 's wind diminished to 75 mph ( 120 km / h ) , only to reintensify again that evening . Early on September 16 , Manuel turned towards the north while developing a small eye . Hurricane Manuel maintained winds of 90 mph ( 145 km / h ) for a day before the EPHC upgraded Manuel into a Category 2 hurricane . On September 17 , however , Manuel developed a much larger and well @-@ defined eye ; that afternoon ; Manuel reaching its peak intensity of 115 mph ( 185 km / h ) as a major hurricane .
The storm held onto major hurricane winds for 12 hours before subsequently weakening . At 0000 UTC on September 18 , the eye collapsed as it began to encounter colder ocean temperatures . Manuel was intercepted by a Hurricane Hunter aircraft that day , which found no evidence of an eyewall , thus , Manuel was downgraded into a tropical storm about 600 mi ( 965 km ) south of San Diego . After turning north @-@ northeast , Hurricane Hunters penetrated the storm for the second time , noting that the storm was a swirl of clouds . On September 19 , the EPHC downgraded the system into a depression . The following day , Manuel made landfall along the eastern portion of Guadalupe Island before dissipating at 1200 UTC .
The remnants of Hurricane Manuel later brought rain to the southwestern United . The outer rainbands of Manuel began to produce moisture over the region on September 18 , and continued until September 21 . In the mountains and deserts of California , the storm brought heavy rains across . A laboratory near Palm Springs recorded a peak rainfall total of 2 @.@ 85 in ( 72 mm ) . A total 3 @,@ 000 customers lost electricity in Porterville because of high winds , heavy rains , which led to minor damage . Numerous fires occurred in Kern County , but none of these fires caused major damage . Further east , in Arizona , isolated rain showers were reported , peaking at 2 @.@ 56 in ( 65 mm ) at the Alamo Dam . Along the northern portion Baja California , Manuel brought showers and high waves . In all , impact from the storm was less than anticipated .
= = = Tropical Storm Narda = = =
Several hours after Manuel dissipated on September 20 , a tropical disturbance formed 200 mi ( 320 km ) south of Socorro Island . While situated south of a ridge , the disturbance started to deepen . After developing a circulation , the system was declared a tropical depression the morning of September 21 . Later that morning , the EPHC upgraded the disturbance into a tropical storm . Narda held on to marginal tropical storm intensity for 36 hours before quickly intensifying , and by September 23 , the storm had attained winds of 60 mph ( 95 km / h ) . Thereafter , the storm turned west @-@ northwest and weakened steadily after encountering cooler water . On September 26 , the EPHC downgraded Narda into a depression . After accelerating , the storm entered the CPHC zone the next day .
Tropical Storm Narda then began to encounter slightly warmer waters , and thus began to restrengthen . At 1800 UTC on September 27 , the CPHC announced that Narda had regained tropical storm strength . It quickly intensified and early on September 29 , a Hurricane Hunter aircraft reported winds of 70 mph ( 115 km / h ) and the formation of an eye . At this time , Narda was located about 300 mi ( 485 km ) southeast of Hilo . That evening , the storm start to show signs of weakening as it turned southwest away from the Hawaiian group . On September 30 , however , Narda , with winds of 50 mph ( 80 km / h ) , made its closest approach the Hawaii , passing 150 mi ( 240 km ) south of South Point . After briefly intensifying on October 1 , it suddenly dissipated hours later .
Because of data from tropical cyclone forecast models , which showed Narda passing very near the Hawaiian islands , and fears of a repeat of Hurricane Iwa , a hurricane watch was posted for all the Hawaiian Islands at 0700 UTC on September 28 . Gale warnings and high surf advisories were issued for the entire state . Officials urged many Hawaiians to complete preparations by the night of September 28 . Campers at coastal parks were also ordered by police to find shelter on higher ground . However , the hurricane watch was discontinued after Narda veered away on September 29 . Meanwhile , gale warnings and high surf advisories were dropped that day for all islands except for the Big Island . The outer rainbands of Narda brought locally heavy rain to the state . Flooding was reported of eastern areas of the Big Island . Nine families were evacuated to shelters . Higher than normal surf was also observed on southeast and east facing beaches . Overall , damage from Narda was minor .
= = = Tropical Storm Octave = = =
A tropical disturbance formed south of the Gulf of Tehuantepec on September 23 , which moved west for four days prior to attaining tropical depression status . Initially , the depression was situated over warm waters ; however , wind shear subsequently increased in the vicinity of the storm . However , on September 28 , the depression strengthened into Tropical Storm Octave . Six hours later , Octave attained its peak intensity of 45 mph ( 70 km / h ) and decreased in forward speed while turning to the northeast . On September 30 , began to weaken due to cooler waters and increasing vertical wind shear . At 1200 UTC on October 2 , the EPHC issued their last advisory on the storm , as the surface circulation had dissipated .
Due to the threat for flooding , local flood warnings were issued for much of Arizona . In the end , the highest rainfall associated with Octave was 12 @.@ 0 in ( 300 mm ) at Mount Graham . Throughout the state , excessive rainfall caused many rivers to overflow . The Santa Cruz , Rillito , and Gila rivers experienced their highest crests on record . Runoff from both the Rillito and Santa Cruz rivers flooded Marana . Major flooding was reported along the Gila River , and two of its tributaries , the San Francisco River and the San Pedro River . These rains devastated Clifton along the San Francisco River valley . Over 700 homes were destroyed in Clifton . Further south along the Gila River , major flooding was reported in extreme southeastern Arizona . Willcox was nearly flooded . Further west , in Phoenix , 150 people were evacuated from an apartment complex . Throughout the greater Phoenix area , eight fires were started via lighting .
Tropical Storm Octave was considered the worst flood in Pima County history . Octave is also regarded as the worst tropical system to affect Arizona . Around 3 @,@ 000 buildings were damaged due to Octave . A total of 853 structures were destroyed by Octave while 2 @,@ 052 others were damaged . About 10 @,@ 000 people were temporarily displaced . Damage in Arizona totaled $ 500 million . Fourteen people drowned and 975 persons were injured . Elsewhere , in New Mexico , a peak total of 5 @.@ 42 in ( 138 mm ) of rain was recorded , resulting in flooding . New Mexico governor Toney Anaya declared a state of emergency in Catron County . Damage in New Mexico was estimated at $ 12 @.@ 5 million . In Mexico , 12 in ( 300 mm ) of rain was reported in Altar . In Sonora , many roads were closed . On October 3 , Arizona Governor Bruce Babbitt declared a state of emergency . President Ronald Reagan declared eight Arizona counties a " major disaster area " on October 5 .
= = = Hurricane Priscilla = = =
While Tropical Storm Octave was still active , a tropical disturbance formed on September 29 near Clipperton Island . The disturbance moved northwest , and was upgraded into a depression at 1800 UTC . While moving beneath the southwest side of a ridge , Priscilla steadily intensified . Early on October 3 , Priscilla was upgraded into a hurricane . After remaining a Category 1 hurricane for most of the day , it was upgraded into a Category 2 hurricane that evening , and subsequently , began to rapidly intensify . At 0000 UTC on October 4 , about 24 hours after first becoming a hurricane , Priscilla was upgraded into a major hurricane , with winds of 115 mph ( 185 km / h ) . While at peak , which it held on for 12 hours , Priscilla displayed a well @-@ defined eye . Additionally , the hurricane began a sharp turn to the north @-@ northwest due to a strong trough off the Southern California coast and the storm was initially expected to move onshore Baja California and bring flooding rains to Arizona .
Shortly after its peak , Priscilla began to encounter cooler waters and thus it start to slowly lose strength . During the pre @-@ dawn hours of October 5 , Priscilla weakened into a Category 2 . Later that day , it was downgraded into a Category 1 system . By 0000 UTC on October 6 , the EPHC downgraded the system into a tropical storm . By this time , it was anticipated that the system would make landfall as a tropical system on California . Quickly weakening , Priscilla was downgraded into a depression that day . Early on October 7 , Priscilla dissipated about 150 mi ( 240 km ) southwest of Guadalupe Island .
Due to the storm 's threat to California , flash flood watches were issued for much of the southern portion of the state . In Arizona , heavy equipment was evacuated from flood @-@ prone areas . Along the central Baja California peninsula , showers were reported . While still a Category 2 hurricane , the outer rainbands of Priscilla brought rains to California , resulting in power outages , hail , and traffic accidents . In Los Angeles , a daily rainfall record was set . Some streets in Anaheim and Santa Ana were flooded . The roof of a church was also damaged . Consequently , flash flood warnings were posted for parts of Los Angeles , Riverside , and San Bernardino Counties . Offshore , rough seas were generated . Across northwestern Arizona and Nevada , heavy showers and thunderstorms occurred . The remnants of the storm moved over the area on October 7 . Rainfall totals were less than expected and most weather stations recorded less than .1 in ( 5 mm ) of precipitation . A peak total of .35 in ( 8 @.@ 9 mm ) was measured in Ely .
= = = Hurricane Raymond = = =
A tropical wave crossed Nicaragua on October 5 , moving westward . A ridge center was over Mexico and a well @-@ developed ridge extended westward towards the Hawaiian Islands . Despite the presence of strong wind shear , it was upgraded to a tropical depression 764 mi ( 1 @,@ 230 km ) south @-@ southeast of Cabo San Lucas on October 8 . The depression moved over 84 to 86 ° F ( 29 to 30 ° C ) waters , intensifying into Tropical Storm Raymond on October 9 . Intensifying quickly , Raymond attained hurricane status on October 10 . Hurricane Raymond subsequently developed a small but distinct eye . Rapidly intensifying , the storm rapidly moved west . Raymond was upgraded into a major hurricane late on October 10 . Raymond reached its peak winds of 145 mph ( 235 km / h ) as a moderate Category 4 hurricane roughly 24 hours after becoming a hurricane . At the time of its peak , the hurricane was located about 800 mi ( 1 @,@ 285 km ) south of San Diego . Raymond is believed to have held on to peak intensity for almost two days .
The hurricane subsequently weakened and was only a Category 2 by October 13 , but it re @-@ intensified over the next few days . With continued warm waters , the system crossed into the CPHC warning zone , reaching a secondary peak of 140 mph ( 230 km / h ) on October 14 while becoming one of the strongest storms ever recorded in the region . By then , Raymond had begun a movement to the northwest . The eye later became poorly defined while the symmetric shape of the hurricane became elongated . The Hurricane Hunters confirmed the weakening trend , reporting a pressure of 968 mbar ( 28 @.@ 6 inHg ) . Hurricane Raymond weakened to a tropical storm on October 16 as wind shear took its toll on the storm . Meanwhile , the storm drifted northwest and underwent several loops . Two days later the storm resumed its westward motion as it weakened to a tropical depression . It became devoid of deep convection , and made landfall on Molokai on October 20 while still tropical depression . Shortly thereafter , Raymond dissipated inland .
Because meteorologists were predicting that the storm may pose a threat to the Hawaiian island group , the CPHC issued a hurricane watch for Hawaii . A high @-@ surf advisory also was issued . As Raymond approached Hawaii , the cyclone kicked up very high surfs that pounded the big island . On the east end of the Hawaiian Island chain was battered by 10 – 15 ft ( 3 @.@ 0 – 4 @.@ 6 m ) waves . In addition , Raymond brought beneficial rains and gusty winds on all islands . Precipitation ranged from 1 to 2 in ( 25 to 51 mm ) on Maui . There was one casualty when a sailor was lost overboard off the craft " Hazana " ; the boat was traveling from Tahiti to San Diego , but the course was altered to Hawaii because of the storm . While only minor damage was reported as a result of the hurricane , a fishing vessel did also issue a Mayday for help because of the storm .
= = = Tropical Storm Sonia = = =
Situated several hundred miles west of Hurricane Raymond , a tropical disturbance formed on October 8 . Moving west @-@ northwest , the disturbance was upgraded into a tropical depression on October 9 . After moving west @-@ northwest for 12 hours , it turned west . Despite warm waters , strong westerly wind shear prevented much further development . On October 10 , the EPHC upgraded Sonia into a tropical storm . That day , Sonia reached its peak intensity of 45 mph ( 75 km / h ) . However , this was short @-@ lived as the thunderstorm activity quickly became displaced from the center . At 0000 UTC on October 11 , Sonia weakened into a tropical depression . About 24 hours later , Sonia weakened into a tropical disturbance after it failed to maintain a closed circulation . Thereafter , the storm entered the CPHC 's warning zone , where it began to encounter warmer waters and lighter wind shear , and thus began to deepen . On October 13 , Sonia regained tropical storm intensity and briefly posed a threat to Hawaii . Despite remaining small and disorganized , Sonia reached its peak intensity of 45 mph ( 75 km / h ) for a second time that evening . However , outflow from Hurricane Raymond weakened the system and Sonia dissipated on October 14 over 1 @,@ 000 miles ( 1 @,@ 610 km ) south @-@ southeast of the Big Island .
= = = Hurricane Tico = = =
The origins of Hurricane Tico were from a weak tropical disturbance that crossed Costa Rica into the Pacific Ocean on October 7 . Over warm waters , the system was sufficiently organized to be declared Tropical Depression Twenty @-@ One on October 11 , about 575 mi ( 930 km ) south of Acapulco . On October 12 it turned sharply northward ; the depression was upgraded to Tropical Storm Tico on October 13 . Tropical Storm Tico continued to intensify . Two days after becoming a tropical storm , Tico strengthened further to attain hurricane status . By October 16 , Tico had reached major hurricane status . Early on October 19 , it reached peak winds of 130 mph ( 215 km / h ) . It weakened slightly as it approached the coast , and at about 1500 UTC that day Tico made landfall near Mazatlán with winds of 125 mph ( 205 km / h ) . It rapidly weakened over land and merged with a cold front . The remnants of Tico were last observed on October 24 over Ohio .
Moderate rainfall was reported around the landfall location , peaking at 8 @.@ 98 in ( 228 mm ) in Pueblo Nuevo , Durango ; lighter precipitation of 1 – 3 in ( 25 – 75 mm ) occurred further inland toward the Mexico / United States border . Two 328 ft ( 100 m ) anchored ships were washed aground by strong waves and swells , with a total of seven ships reported missing . Overall , the hurricane sank nine small ships , and nine fishermen were killed . Hurricane Tico was responsible severe flooding and heavy damage due to strong winds . Throughout the state of Sinaloa , the hurricane destroyed nearly 19 @,@ 000 acres ( 77 km ² ) of bean and corn , although most of the agricultural damage occurred south of Mazatlán . In addition , the hurricane disrupted the flow of drinking water . A total of 13 hotels received extensive damage and 14 people were hurt . Twenty @-@ five thousand people were left homeless and damage throughout the country was estimated at $ 200 million ( 1983 USD ) . Hurricane Tico caused a total of 135 deaths in Mexico .
Rain from Tico continued into the South @-@ Central United States ; serious flooding was reported along the lower Washita River . Across Guthire , 5 % of the town 's population , sought three emergency shelter due to 7 ft ( 2 @.@ 1 m ) deep water . Throughout Oklahoma and Texas , 200 people were displaced and six people were killed . A total of $ 77 million in crop damage occurred in Oklahoma . Total damage in the state was estimated at $ 84 million . Elsewhere , one person was killed in the Kansas .
= = = Tropical Depression Twenty @-@ Two @-@ E = = =
On October 18 , a tropical disturbance was noted about 300 mi ( 485 km ) south of the Gulf of Tehuantepec . Moving west @-@ northwest , the disturbance was upgraded into a depression . After turning northwest , the depression dissipated an hour before moving ashore . Lasting less than 24 hours , Twenty @-@ Two was the shortest @-@ lived storm of the season . Despite the lack of damage , 10 in ( 250 mm ) of rain was measured along portions of the Southern Mexico coast .
= = = Tropical Storm Velma = = =
A tropical disturbance developed within the ITCZ during October 31 . Despite unfavorable conditions , the system began to organize , and became Tropical Depression Twenty @-@ Three on November 1 . It quickly intensified , and was upgraded to Tropical Storm Velma six hours later . No further intensification occurred ; Velma peaked as a minimal tropical storm . The tropical storm began to weaken after 18 hours , and was downgraded to a tropical depression on November 2 . The following day , the EPHC issued the final advisory on Tropical Depression Velma .
= = = Hurricane Winnie = = =
Due to a combination of unusually warm sea surface temperatures and the displacement of the ITCZ to north , a small area of disturbed weather formed in early December . Situated south @-@ southwest of Acapulco , the disturbance organized into a tropical depression on December 4 . It slowly headed north , and intensified into a tropical storm . Winnie peaked in intensity on December 6 .. Initially expected to continue north , the storm stalled instead . Due to wind shear caused by a trough , Winnie began to rapidly deteriorate , and it was downgraded into a tropical storm that night . After weakening further into a depression , Winnie dissipated on December 7 . Its remnant disturbance then moved west . Winnie was an out of season storm , and is the only known December tropical cyclone in the east Pacific proper since the modern record began in 1949 . Winnie is the latest hurricane on record in the eastern North Pacific .
Although the tropical cyclone never made landfall , it caused rain in parts of Mexico . The highest total of 3 @.@ 6 in ( 91 mm ) was recorded in Caleta de Campos . Furthermore , the storm brought strong winds to the region , but damage was less than expected .
= = 1983 storm names = =
The following names were used for named storms that formed in the eastern Pacific in 1983 . All the names on the list were used this year . No names were retired , so it was used again in the 1989 season . No central Pacific names were used ; the first name used would have been Keli .
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= Cultural depictions of spiders =
Throughout history , there have been many cultural depictions of spiders in popular culture , mythology and in symbolism . From Greek mythology to African folklore , the spider has been used in human culture to represent many varied things , and endures into the present day with characters such as Shelob from The Lord of the Rings and Spider @-@ Man from the eponymous comic series . The spider has symbolized patience and persistence due to its hunting technique of setting webs and waiting for its prey to become ensnared . It is also a symbol of mischief and malice for its toxic venom and the slow death it causes , which is often seen as a curse . In addition , the spider has inspired creations from an ancient geoglyph to a modern steam @-@ punk spectacle .
Although not all spiders spin webs to hunt prey , numerous cultures attribute this ability with the origin of spinning , textile weaving , basketry , knotwork and net making . Web @-@ spinning has also associated the spider with creation myths because they seemingly can secrete their own artistic worlds . Spiders have been the focus of fears , stories and mythologies of various cultures for centuries . Philosophers often use the spider 's web as a metaphor or analogy ; and today , terms such as the Internet or World Wide Web evoke the inter @-@ connectivity of a spider web .
= = In folklore and mythology = =
The spider , along with its web , is featured in mythological fables , cosmology , artistic spiritual depictions , and in oral traditions throughout the world since ancient times .
In Ancient Egypt , the spider was associated with the goddess Neith in her aspect as spinner and weaver of destiny , this link continuing later through the Babylonian Ishtar and the Greek Athena , who was later equated as the Roman goddess Minerva .
The most notable ancient legend that explains the origin of the spider comes from the Greek story of the weaving competition between Athena the goddess , and Arachne , sometimes described as a princess . This story may have originated in Lydian mythology ; but the myth , briefly mentioned by Virgil in 29 BC , is known from the later Greek mythos after Ovid wrote the poem Metamorphoses between the years AD 2 and 8 . The Greek Arachne ( αράχνη ) means " spider " , and is the origin of Arachnida , the spiders ' Class in taxonomy .
This myth tells of Arachne , the daughter of a famous Tyrian purple wool dyer in Hypaepa of Lydia . Due to her father 's skill with cloth dyeing , Arachne became adept in the art of weaving . Eventually , she began to consider herself to be a greater weaver than the goddess Athena herself , and challenged the goddess to a weaving contest to prove her superior skill . Athena wove the scene of her victory over Poseidon that had earned her the patronage of Athens , while Arachne wove a tapestry featuring many episodes of infidelity among the Gods of Olympus , which angered Athena . The goddess conceded that Arachne 's weaving was flawless , but she was infuriated by the mortal 's pride . In a final moment of anger , Athena destroyed Arachne 's tapestry and loom with her shuttle and cursed Arachne to live with extreme guilt . Out of sadness , Arachne soon hanged herself . Taking pity on her , Athena brought her back to life transformed as a spider , using the poison aconite ; " — and ever since , Arachne , as a spider , weaves her web . "
The scholar Robert Graves proposed Ovid 's tale may have its roots in the commercial rivalry between the Athenian citizenry of Greece and that of Miletus on the isle of Crete in Asia Minor , which flourished around 2000 BC . In Miletus , the spider may have been an important figure ; seals with spider emblems have been recovered there .
In African mythology , the spider is personified as a creation deity Anansi , and as a trickster character in African traditional folklore . There are many variations of the name including Kwaku Ananse of the Ashanti in West Africa ( his original name ) and anglicized as Aunt Nancy ( or Sister Nancy ) in the West Indies and some other parts of the Americas . Stories of Ananse became such a prominent and familiar part of Ashanti oral culture that the word Anansesem — " spider tales " — came to embrace all kinds of fables . This fed into the Anansi toree or " spider tales " ; stories that were brought over from Africa and told to children of Maroon people and other Africans in the diaspora . These tales are allegorical stories that teach a moral lesson .
North American cultures have traditionally depicted spiders . The Native American Lakota people 's oral tradition also includes a spider @-@ trickster figure , which is known by several names . As chronicled in the legend of The " Wasna " ( Pemmican ) Man and the Unktomi ( Spider ) , a man encounters a hungry spider family , and the hero Stone Boy is tricked out of his fancy clothes by Unktomi , a trickster spider figure . The spider is also present as the deity Iktomi , which is occasionally depicted in this form . In Native American mythology , the spider is also seen in the legend about the birth of the constellation Ursa Major . The constellation was seen as seven men transformed into stars and climbing to paradise by unrolling a spider 's web . The Hopi have the creation myth of Spider Grandmother . In this story , Spider Grandmother thought the world into existence through the conscious weaving of her webs . Spider Grandmother also plays an important role in the creation mythology of the Navajo , and there are stories relating to Spider Woman in the heritage of many Southwestern native cultures as a powerful helper and teacher .
The South American Moche people of ancient Peru worshiped nature ; they placed emphasis on animals and often depicted spiders in their art . The people of the Nazca culture created expansive geoglyphs , including a large depiction of a spider on the Nazca plain in southern Peru . The purpose or meaning of the so @-@ called " Nazca lines " is still uncertain .
Spiders are depicted in Indigenous Australian art , in rock and bark paintings , and for clan totems . Spiders in their webs are associated with a sacred rock in central Arnhem Land on the Burnungku clan estate of the Rembarrnga / Kyne people . Their totem design is connected with a major regional ceremony , providing a connection with neighboring clans also having spider totems in their rituals . Nareau , the Lord Spider , created the universe , according to the traditional Cosmology of Oceania 's Kiribati islanders of the Tungaru archipelago ( Gilbert Islands ) ; similarly , Areop @-@ Enap ( " Old Spider " ) plays an important part in the creation myth of the traditional Nauru islanders of Micronesia . In the Philippines , there is a Visayan folk tale version of The Spider and the Fly which explains why the spider hates the fly .
The Tsuchigumo ( translated as " Earth spiders " ) of Japan , is a mythical , supernatural creature faced by the legendary Minamoto no Raiko . Depending on the version of the story , the Tsuchigumo was able to take the visage of either a boy or a woman . In one version , while on a search for a mythical giant skull , Minamoto is lured to a house and placed in an illusion created by a Tsuchigumo in the guise of a young boy . However , after suspecting foul play , Minamoto breaks this illusion by striking out at him with his sword . Minamoto then discovers himself as actually being covered in a spider 's web , and after tracking him down , learns that the boy is in reality , a giant spider Tsuchigumo .
Another Japanese mythological spider figure is the Jorōgumo ( " prostitute spider " ) which is portrayed as being able to transform into a seductive woman . In some instances , the Jorōgumo attempts to seduce and perhaps marry passing samurai . In other instances she is venerated as a goddess dwelling in the Jōren Falls who saves people from drowning . Her name also refers to a golden orb @-@ spider species Nephila clavata ( Jorō @-@ gumo , or Jorō spider ) .
An Islamic oral tradition holds that during the Hijra , the journey from Mecca to Medina , Muhammad and his companion Abu Bakr were being pursued by Quraysh soldiers , and they decided to take refuge in the Cave of Thawr . The tale goes on to say that Allah commanded a spider to weave a web across the opening of the cave . After seeing the spider 's web , the Quraysh pass the cave by , since Muhammad 's entry to the cave would have broken the web . Since then , it has been held in many Muslim traditions that a spider is , if not holy , then it is at least to be respected . A similar story occurs in the Jewish tradition , where it is David who is being chased by King Saul . David hides in a cave , and Saul and his men do not bother to search the cave because while David was hiding inside , a spider had spun a web over the mouth of the cave .
The 10th Century Saint Conrad of Constance is sometimes represented as a bishop holding a chalice with a spider . According to this story , while he was celebrating Easter Mass , a spider fell into the chalice . Ignoring the commonly @-@ held belief of the time that all or most spiders were poisonous ; as a token of faith , Conrad nevertheless drank the wine with the spider in it .
For King Robert the Bruce of Scotland , the spider is depicted as an inspirational symbol , according to an early 14th century legend . The legend tells of Robert the Bruce 's encounter with a spider during the time of a series of military failures against the English . One version tells that while taking refuge in a cave on Rathlin Island , he witnesses a spider continuously failing to climb its silken thread to its web . However , due to perseverance the spider eventually succeeds , demonstrating that , " if at first you don 't succeed , try , try and try again " . Taking this as being symbolic of hope and perseverance , Bruce came out of hiding and eventually won Scotland 's independence .
= = In philosophy = =
In the Vedic philosophy of India , the spider is depicted as hiding the ultimate reality with the veils of illusion . The Vedic god Indra is referred to as Śakra in Buddhism , or with the title Devānām Indra . Indra 's net is used as a metaphor for the Buddhist concept of interpenetration , which holds that all phenomena are intimately connected . Indra 's net has a multifaceted jewel at each vertex , and each jewel is reflected in all of the other jewels .
As related in the book , Vermeer 's Hat by historian Timothy Brook :
When Indra fashioned the world , he made it as a web , and at every knot in the web is tied a pearl . Everything that exists , or has ever existed , every idea that can be thought about , every datum that is true — every dharma , in the language of Indian philosophy — is a pearl in Indra 's net . Not only is every pearl tied to every other pearl by virtue of the web on which they hang , but on the surface of every pearl is reflected every other jewel on the net . Everything that exists in Indra 's web implies all else that exists .
= = In literature = =
The epic poem Metamorphoses , written by Ovid two millennia ago , includes the metamorphosis of Arachne . This was retold in Dante Alighieri 's depiction as the half @-@ spider Arachne in the 2nd book of his Divine Comedy , Purgatorio . In the 16th @-@ century Chinese folk novel , Wu Cheng 'en 's Journey to the West , the buddhist monk Xuánzàng 's odyssey includes being trapped in a spider 's cave and bound by beautiful women and many children , who are transformations of spiders .
In the 15th century , the French king Louis XI acquired the nickname " the universal spider " ( l 'universelle aragne ) , from Georges Chastelain , a chronicler of the dukes of Burgundy , referring to the king 's tendency to implement schemes and plans during his contention with Burgundy and the following conflicts with Charles the Bold .
The spider gained an evil reputation from the 1842 Biedermeier novella by Jeremias Gotthelf , The Black Spider . In this allegorical tale which was adapted to various media , the spider symbolizes evil works and represents the moral consequences of making a pact with the devil .
Spiders recur in themes for works by J. R. R. Tolkien . Tolkien included giant spiders in his 1937 book The Hobbit where they roamed Mirkwood attacking and sometimes capturing the main characters . The character of Ungoliant is featured as a spider @-@ like entity , and as a personification of Night from his earliest writings . In The Lord of the Rings , the spider takes its form as the menacing giant spider Shelob , and was featured in the film adaption of the last book of the Lord of the Rings series . Although described as giant spiders , Tolkien gave them fictional attributes such as compound eyes , beaks and the spinning of black webs . He also resurrected the Old English words cob and lob for " spider " .
More recently , giant spiders have featured in books such as the 1998 fantasy novel Harry Potter and the Chamber of Secrets by J. K. Rowling . This book was later followed by a motion picture of the same name , using the giant spider Aragog from the novel as a supporting character and pet of grounds keeper , Hagrid . In Fantastic Beasts and Where to Find Them , a book about many of the creatures within the Harry Potter universe , these giant spiders are also known as Acromantulas .
The 1952 children 's novel Charlotte 's Web written by E. B. White , is notable in its portrayal of the spider in a positive manner as a heroine rather than an object of fear or horror .
Atlach @-@ Nacha is the creation of Clark Ashton Smith and first appeared in his short story " The Seven Geases " ( 1934 ) . Atlach @-@ Nacha resembles a huge spider with an almost @-@ human face . In the story , Atlach @-@ Nacha is the reluctant recipient of a human sacrifice given to it by the toad @-@ god Tsathoggua .
The spider is also found in modern children 's tales . The nursery rhymes Itsy Bitsy Spider and Little Miss Muffet have spiders as focal characters . The poem " The Spider and the Fly " ( 1829 ) by Mary Howitt is a cautionary tale of seduction and betrayal which later inspired a 1949 film and a 1965 Rolling Stones song , each sharing the same title , as well as a 1923 cartoon by Aesop Fables Studio .
The poet Walt Whitman describes a ballooning spider in his 1868 poem , A Noiseless Patient Spider :
= = = In comics and manga = = =
In graphic novels , spiders are often adapted by superheroes or villains as their symbols or alter egos due to the arachnid 's strengths and weaknesses . One of the most notable characters in comic book history has taken his identity from the spider , the Marvel comic book hero Spider @-@ Man . Peter Parker was accidentally bitten by a radioactive spider and then , as Spider @-@ Man , was able to scale tall buildings and shoot web fluid from a device attached to his wrist . Along with these abilities , came super senses and instant reflexes . Writer Stan Lee and artist Steve Ditko originated this franchise . Due to the character 's popularity , Spider @-@ Man appeared in movies and various other media . In addition to Spider @-@ Man , the Marvel universe included several new characters using the spider as their patron ; including Spider @-@ Woman , Spider @-@ Girl , the Scarlet Spider , Venom , Araña , Black Widow , and Tarantula . The DC Comics universe also include characters named Spider Girl and Tarantula .
Many other comic book , manga and anime characters have taken the guise of a spider , such as Black Spider from the Batman universe ; in the Pokémon franchise , Spinarak and Ariados are similar to spiders in shape . In the Static Shock series , Anansi the Spider takes his name and techniques from the African trickster god . In the second season of the anime based on the manga Kuroshitsuji , one main antagonist , the demon butler Claude Faustus , has spider @-@ like qualities and powers . He is also capable of transforming into a spider and making webs .
In the manga The Saga of Darren Shan , the titular character is fascinated by spiders . He kept them as pets until he killed one that he got when he was nine years old . He used to let them go into his mouth and he 'd imagine them eating him from the inside out . Normally , the spiders would stay with him for about a day or two , but some lasted longer . Later on , we find out that he can communicate with spiders .
= = In film and television = =
Spiders have been present for many decades both in film and on television , predominantly in the horror genre . Those who suffer from arachnophobia , an acute fear of spiders , become particularly horrified . The spider web is used as a motif to adorn dark passageways , depicting the recesses of the unknown . Many horror films have featured the spider , including 1955 's Tarantula , exploiting America 's fear of atomic radiation during the nuclear arms race , The 1967 Godzilla film Son of Godzilla featured a spider kaiju named Kumonga ( also known occasionally as " Spiga " in English ) and another version of Kumonga featured in 2004 's Godzilla : Final Wars. the 1975 low @-@ budget cult film The Giant Spider Invasion , and Kingdom of the Spiders , a 1977 film starring William Shatner , depicting the consequence of hungry spiders deprived of their natural food supply due to pesticides . The fear of spiders culminates in Arachnophobia , a 1990 movie in which spiders multiply in large numbers .
On the other hand , a person who admires spiders is referred to as an " arachnophile " ; such as Virginia , an orphan who likes to play spider games in the black comedy horror B movie , Spider Baby .
The 1999 film Wild Wild West features a giant mechanical spider . Experiments with spiders in space tend to go horribly wrong , as with a DNA experiment on board a NASA space shuttle in the 2000 film Spiders , or mutant spiders from a derelict Soviet space station in the 2013 film Spiders 3D . Before there were Snakes on a Plane ( 2006 ) , there were spiders on a plane in Tarantulas : The Deadly Cargo ( 1977 ) . Radiation and spiders once again combine to wreak havoc in the 2002 film Eight Legged Freaks , this time due to nuclear waste .
Several books featuring spiders have been adapted to film , including The Lord of the Rings : The Return of the King featuring Shelob and Harry Potter and the Chamber of Secrets with Aragog the Acromantula . Charlotte 's positive portrayal of a spider character can be seen in two full @-@ length feature versions of Charlotte 's Web . The first Charlotte 's Web was a Hanna @-@ Barbera musical animation released in 1973 , followed by a live @-@ action 2006 film version of the original story . Furthermore , spider characters have crawled out of the pages of comic books and onto the big screen , most notably the Spider @-@ Man film adaptations .
In Ingmar Bergman 's 1961 Swedish film adaptation Through a Glass Darkly , the psychotic Karin believes she has an encounter with God as a spider . Surreal spider imagery , symbolism and themes are featured prominently in the 2013 psychological thriller Enemy ; director Denis Villeneuve 's film adaptation of the novel The Double by José Saramago .
On television , the 1990 miniseries Stephen King 's It is based on his novel It , where the true form of Pennywise the Dancing Clown resembles a monstrous spider . The character Kamen Rider Leangle from the 2004 Japanese TV show Kamen Rider Blade has a motif based on the onigumo spider .
Spider themes are also featured in early film history . Fritz Lang 's 1919 and 1920 The Spiders series were considered lost films , until these two parts of the action @-@ adventure serial episodes were restored in 1978 from rediscovered original prints . In this adventure , a spider was the calling @-@ card for " The Spiders " criminal organization . Pan Si Dong ( 1927 ) , 盘丝洞 , ( The Cave of the Silken Web ) was a film adaptation of the classic tale of Xuánzàng 's encounter from a chapter of the 16th century Great Classical Novel , Journey to the West , and was remade as a 1967 Hong Kong cinema production .
The Ghost in The Shell manga by Masamune Shirow prominently features spider @-@ like , AI @-@ equipped , multi @-@ legged combat vehicles called Fuchikoma ( evolving into the Tachikoma , Uchikoma and Logicoma in subsequent anime versions of the series ) . These mobile weapons platforms are used by the members of Section 9 to aid in their various missions . In real life , Shirow is known to keep numerous spiders as pets .
= = In music = =
The Rolling Stones adapted themes from Mary Howitt 's poem in their 1965 song " The Spider and the Fly " . Released in 1966 , " Boris the Spider " was the first song written by John Entwistle for The Who , and became a staple of their live concerts . " Spiderwebs " became a hit for No Doubt in 1995 . Alice Cooper 's 2008 concept album , Along Came a Spider is about a fictitious serial killer known as ' Spider ' , who wraps his victims in silk and cuts off one of their legs in order to create his own eight @-@ legged arachnoid . The Spiders from Mars was a backing band with Mick Ronson , actually from Hull , for David Bowie .
= = Other depictions = =
Information technology terms such as the " web spider " ( or " web crawler " ) and the World Wide Web imply the spider @-@ like connection of information accessed on the Internet .
A dance , the tarantella , refers to the spider Lycosa tarantula .
Giant spider sculptures ( 11 feet tall and 22 feet across ) described as " looming and powerful protectresses , yet are nurturing , delicate , and vulnerable " and a " favorite with children " have been found in Washington DC , Denver CO , and elsewhere . Even larger sculptures are found in places like Ottawa and Zürich . These sculptures , two series of six by Louise Bourgeois , can be seen at the National Gallery of Art , Denver Art Museum , London 's Tate Modern and in a few other select sculpture gardens . The larger series is titled Maman and the other simply titled Spider . One Spider sold at a Christie 's auction house for over $ 10 million .
A four @-@ day performance art spectacle in Liverpool ( September 2008 ) featured La Princesse by the French performance art company La Machine . This giant steam @-@ punk spider climbed walls , stalked the streets and sprayed unwary citizens while in search of a nest .
= = = Games and toys = = =
Giant spiders appear in several role @-@ playing video games , such as Lolth , the Spider Queen of Dungeons & Dragons , and the first edition of Warcraft , where spiders are described as being " of staggering size — perhaps 15 feet around — with great furred body . " In the Metroid series of video games , spider @-@ shaped foes are common , with the trilogy 's antagonist , Metroid Prime , having a spider @-@ like Metroid as her primary physical form . The trilogy also includes the Ing , antagonists of Echoes , whose warrior forms resemble spiders , albeit with five legs rather than eight . Atlach @-@ Nacha is an H @-@ game centered on a spider demon disguising herself as a human . In The Legend of Zelda series , giant spiders are a frequent foe . In particular , Ocarina of Time features large spiders named Skulltulas , and Twilight Princess has an enormous spider boss . A spider @-@ like creature named Muffet is featured in the 2015 video game Undertale . She will attack the player if they did not buy anything from her bakesale in Hotland , but will spare the player if they bought from a bakesale in the Ruins early in the game .
In the Lego toyline Bionicle series , the Visorak horde is a species consisting of six spider @-@ like breeds . They are created by the Brotherhood of Makuta to conquer islands ; they possess mutagenic venom and spin sticky green webs . In the Transformers franchise , Tarantulas and Blackarachnia are both Predacons that turn into giant spiders . Blackarachnia , being part biological , has venom that paralyzes other Transformers and she is capable of spinning webs .
= = = Sports = = =
Notable athletes with spider nicknames include Olympic skier " Spider " Sabich , so named by his father due to his long , thin arms and legs as a baby , and UFC Middleweight Champion Anderson " The Spider " Silva who was dubbed " Brazil 's Spiderman " by an announcer who thought he looked like a superhero in the ring . Spider mascots are associated with the Cleveland Spiders baseball team and the San Francisco Spiders hockey team .
= = = Modern myths and urban legends = = =
Huntsman spiders are large and swift , often eliciting arachnophobic reactions from susceptible people , and are the subject of many superstitions , exaggerations and myths . The banana spider myth claims that the Huntsman spider lays its eggs in banana flower blossoms , resulting in spiders inside the tip of bananas , waiting to terrorize an unsuspecting consumer . This is supposed to explain why monkeys allegedly peel bananas from the " wrong " end . Another example is the clock spider urban legend from around 2002 . A discussion was started on an Internet message board based on pictures of an allegedly " clock @-@ sized " Sparassid ( Huntsman ) spider on a wall . That discussion , and its derivatives , lasted for several months .
According to another urban legend , daddy long legs ( Pholcidae ) have very potent venom , but their fangs are too short to deliver the poison . This myth might have arisen due to its similarity in appearance with the Brown recluse spider . In a 2004 episode of Discovery Channel 's Mythbusters , it was shown that host Adam Savage survived a bite from the spider .
A modern myth depicts a young woman who found out that her beehive hairdo was infested with Black widow spiders .
The Spider Bite legend emerged in Europe in the late 1970s . In most versions of this tale , a young vacationing female sunbather is bitten on the cheek by a spider . After seeking medical attention for the resultant swelling , hundreds of tiny spiders are discovered emerging from her lanced wound , which causes the victim to go insane .
An email hoax describes the attacks by the South American Blush Spider in public toilets . The alleged spider 's scientific name is Arachnius gluteus , where " gluteus " is supposed to mean " buttocks " ( since there are muscles in the buttocks called gluteus maximus ) , and " arachnius " is a made @-@ up word intended to mean " spider " . The hoax spider shares some characteristics with the two @-@ striped telamonia ( Telamonia dimidiata ) , and there is an updated version of the hoax using that name for the spider 's species , with the rest of the text left unchanged .
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= Lay You Down =
" Lay You Down " is a song by American R & B recording artist Usher . It was written by himself , Rico Love and Dwayne Nesmith , and produced by the latter two . It was released to urban radio on September 28 , 2010 in the United States , as the third and final single from Usher 's EP , Versus , which is an extension of his sixth studio album , Raymond v. Raymond . " Lay You Down " is an R & B song , that takes influence from pop musician Prince . The song received positive reviews from critics , who praised its production and Usher 's vocals , noting the track as a stand @-@ out from Versus . It entered the US Hot R & B / Hip @-@ Hop Songs chart , and peaked at number fifty @-@ six .
= = Background and composition = =
" Lay You Down " was written by Usher , Rico Love and Dwayne Nesmith , and produced by the latter two . Additional vocals were contributed by Love , and keyboard and programming was done by Nesmith . The song was recorded by Ian Cross at Midnight Blue Studios in Miami , Florida and mixed by Rob Marks at Circle House Studios . " Lay You Down " is an R & B song with a length of four minutes and three seconds . In an interview with music video website Vevo , Usher explained that the song is a " classic R & B baby maker " . Sara Anderson of AOL wrote that it opens " with improvisational , high @-@ pitched ' ooohs ' and base @-@ driven synth beats . " The song was released as the third and final single from Versus , an extended play released as an extension of his sixth studio album , Raymond v. Raymond ( 2010 ) .
= = Reception = =
Describing " Lay You Down " as one of the more sensual songs on Versus , Mark Nero of About.com wrote " the best of which might be the piano @-@ laced ' Lay You Down , ' on which Usher sings : ' This ain 't bump ' n grind , I 'll show you what love is if you let me lay you down . ' " Sarah Rodman of The Boston Globe commended Usher 's use of falsetto , whilst writing that the song " is an urgent boudoir jam that draws a neat line " – she also commented on how it takes inspiration from both Prince and Marvin Gaye . Los Angeles Times 's Jeff Weiss also pointed out the influence from pop musician Prince , and how Usher is " unctuously cooing about wanting to be the : one who keeps your body warm . " " Lay You Down " entered the R & B / Hip @-@ Hop Songs chart on the week ending November 13 , 2010 , and peaked at number fifty @-@ six , due to strong radio play .
= = Credits and personnel = =
Recording locations
Vocal recording – Midnight Blue Studios , Miami , FL .
Mixing – Circle House Studios , Miami , FL .
Personnel
Songwriting – Rico Love , Usher Raymond , Dwayne Nesmith
Production – Rico Love , Dwayne Nesmith
Vocal recording – Ian Cross
Mixing – Rob Marks
Additional vocals – Rico Love
Keyboard and programming – Dwayne Nesmith
Credits adapted from the liner notes of Versus .
= = Charts = =
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= Final Fantasy X =
Final Fantasy X ( ファイナルファンタジーX , Fainaru Fantajī Ten ) is a role @-@ playing video game developed and published by Square ( now Square Enix ) as the tenth entry in the Final Fantasy series . Originally released in 2001 for Sony 's PlayStation 2 , the game was re @-@ released as Final Fantasy X / X @-@ 2 HD Remaster for PlayStation 3 and PlayStation Vita in 2014 , for PlayStation 4 in 2015 and for Microsoft Windows in 2016 . The game marks the Final Fantasy series transition from entirely pre @-@ rendered backdrops to fully three @-@ dimensional areas , and is also the first in the series to feature voice acting . Final Fantasy X replaces the Active Time Battle ( ATB ) system with the " Conditional Turn @-@ Based Battle " ( CTB ) system , and uses a new leveling system called the " Sphere Grid " .
Set in the fantasy world of Spira , the game 's story revolves around a group of adventurers and their quest to defeat a rampaging monster known as Sin . The player character is Tidus , an athlete star of the fictional sport known as blitzball , who finds himself in the world Spira after his home city of Zanarkand is destroyed by Sin . Shortly after arriving to Spira , Tidus joins the summoner Yuna on her pilgrimage to destroy Sin .
Development of Final Fantasy X began in 1999 , with a budget of more than US $ 32 @.@ 3 million and a team of more than 100 people . The game was the first in the main series not entirely scored by Nobuo Uematsu ; Masashi Hamauzu and Junya Nakano were signed as Uematsu 's fellow composers . Final Fantasy X was both a critical and commercial success , selling over 6 @.@ 6 million units worldwide . On March 3 , 2003 , it was followed by Final Fantasy X @-@ 2 , making it the first Final Fantasy game to have a direct game sequel . In October 2013 , Square Enix announced Final Fantasy X and its sequel Final Fantasy X @-@ 2 together sold over 14 million copies worldwide on PlayStation 2 .
= = Gameplay = =
Like previous games in the series , Final Fantasy X is presented in a third @-@ person perspective , with players directly navigating the main character , Tidus , around the world to interact with objects and people . Unlike previous games , however , the world and town maps have been fully integrated , with terrain outside of cities rendered to scale . When an enemy is encountered , the environment switches to a turn @-@ based battle area where characters and enemies await their turn to attack .
The gameplay of Final Fantasy X differs from that of previous Final Fantasy games in its lack of a top @-@ down perspective world map . Earlier games featured a miniature representation of the expansive areas between towns and other distinct locations , used for long @-@ distance traveling . In Final Fantasy X , almost all the locations are essentially continuous and never fade out to a world map . Regional connections are mostly linear , forming a single path through the game 's locations , though an airship becomes available late in the game , giving the player the ability to navigate Spira faster . Like previous games in the series , Final Fantasy X features numerous minigames , most notably the fictional underwater sport " blitzball " .
= = = Combat = = =
Final Fantasy X introduces the Conditional Turn @-@ Based Battle system in place of the series ' traditional Active Time Battle system first used in Final Fantasy IV . Whereas the ATB concept features real @-@ time elements , the CTB system is a turn @-@ based format that pauses the battle during each of the player 's turns . Thus , the CTB design allows the player to select an action without time pressure . A graphical timeline along the upper @-@ right side of the screen details who will be receiving turns next , and how various actions taken will affect the subsequent order of turns . The player can control up to three characters in battle , though a swapping system allows the player to replace them with a character outside the active party at any time . " Limit Breaks " , highly damaging special attacks , reappear in Final Fantasy X as " Overdrives " . In this new incarnation of the feature , most of the techniques are interactive , requiring button inputs to increase their effectiveness . While initially the Overdrives can be used when the character receives a significant amount of damage , the player is able to modify the requirements to unlock them .
Final Fantasy X introduces an overhaul of the summoning system employed in previous games of the series . Whereas in previous titles a summoned creature would arrive , perform one action , and then depart , the " Aeons " of Final Fantasy X arrive and entirely replace the battle party , fighting in their place until either the aeon wins the battle , is defeated itself , or is dismissed by the player . Aeons have their own statistics , commands , special attacks , spells , and Overdrives . The player acquires five aeons over the course of the game , but three additional aeons can be obtained by completing various side @-@ quests .
= = = Sphere Grid = = =
As with previous titles in the series , players have the opportunity to develop and improve their characters by defeating enemies and acquiring items , though the traditional experience point system is replaced by a new system called the " Sphere Grid " . Instead of characters gaining pre @-@ determined statistic bonuses for their attributes after leveling up , each character gains " Sphere Levels " after collecting enough Ability Points ( AP ) . Sphere Levels allow players to move around the Sphere Grid , a pre @-@ determined grid of interconnected nodes consisting of various statistic and ability bonuses . " Spheres " are applied to these nodes , unlocking its function for the selected character .
The Sphere Grid system also allows players to fully customize characters in contrast to their intended battle roles , such as turning the White Mage @-@ roled Yuna into a physical powerhouse and the swordsman Auron into a healer . The International and PAL versions of the game include an optional " Expert " version of the Sphere Grid ; in these versions , all of the characters start in the middle of the grid and may follow whichever path the player chooses . As a trade @-@ off , the Expert grid has fewer nodes in total , thus decreasing the total statistic upgrades available during the game .
= = Plot = =
= = = Setting and characters = = =
Final Fantasy X is set in the fictional world of Spira , consisting of one large landmass divided into three subcontinents , surrounded by small tropical islands . It features diverse climates , ranging from the tropical Besaid and Kilika islands , to the temperate Mi 'ihen region , to the frigid Macalania and Mt . Gagazet areas . Although predominantly populated by humans , Spira features a variety of races . Among them are the Al Bhed , a technologically advanced but disenfranchised sub @-@ group of humans with distinctive green eyes and unique language . The Guado are less human in appearance , with elongated fingers and other arboreal features . Still less human are the lion @-@ like Ronso and the frog @-@ like Hypello . A subset of Spira 's sentient races are the " unsent " , the strong @-@ willed spirits of the dead that remain in corporeal form . In Spira , the dead who are not sent to the Farplane by a summoner come to envy the living and transform into " fiends " , the monsters that are encountered throughout the game ; however , unsent with strong attachments to the world of the living may retain their human form . Other fauna in Spira , aside from those drawn from real animals , such as cats , dogs , birds , and butterflies , include the gigantic , amphibious shoopufs ( which are similar to elephants ) ; and the emu @-@ like chocobo , which appears in most Final Fantasy games . Spira is very different from the mainly European @-@ style worlds found in previous Final Fantasy games , being much more closely modeled on Southeast Asia , most notably with respect to vegetation , topography , architecture , and names .
There are seven main playable characters in Final Fantasy X , starting with Tidus , a cheerful young teenager and a star blitzball player from Zanarkand , who seeks a way home after an encounter with Sin transported him to Spira . To do so , he joins Yuna , a summoner on a journey to obtain the Final Aeon and defeat the enormous whale @-@ like " Sin " . Journeying with them are : Kimahri Ronso , a young warrior of the Ronso tribe who watched over Yuna during her childhood ; Wakka , a blitzball player whose younger brother was killed by Sin ; and Lulu , a stoic black mage close to Yuna and Wakka . During the journey , they are joined by Auron , a former warrior monk , who worked with both Tidus ' and Yuna 's fathers to defeat Sin 10 years prior ; and Rikku , Yuna 's cousin , a perky Al Bhed girl and the first friendly person Tidus meets upon arriving in Spira .
= = = Story = = =
The story begins with the main protagonist , Tidus , waiting with his allies outside the ruins of an ancient city . Tidus narrates the events that led to the present , spanning most of the game 's storyline . It begins in Tidus 's home city , the high @-@ tech metropolis of Zanarkand , where he is a renowned star of the underwater sport blitzball . During a blitzball tournament , the city is attacked by an immense creature which Auron , a man not originally from Zanarkand , calls " Sin " . Sin destroys Zanarkand , taking Tidus and Auron to the world of Spira .
Upon arriving in Spira , Tidus is rescued by Al Bhed salvagers in the area . Upon asking him where he is from , one of them , Rikku , tells him that Sin destroyed Zanarkand 1 @,@ 000 years ago . After Sin attacks again , Tidus is separated from the divers and drifts to the tropical island of Besaid , where he meets Wakka , captain of the local blitzball team . Wakka introduces Tidus to Yuna , a young summoner about to go on a pilgrimage to obtain the Final Aeon and defeat Sin with her guardians Lulu and Kimahri . Meanwhile , Tidus joins to help Wakka in the upcoming blitzball tournament to find a way back home . The party travels across Spira to gather aeons , defending against attacks by Sin and its " offspring " — fiends called Sinspawn . After the tournament , they are joined by Auron , who convinces Tidus to become Yuna 's guardian . He reveals to Tidus that Yuna 's father , Lord Braska ; Tidus 's father , Jecht ; and himself made the same pilgrimage to defeat Sin ten years ago . Tidus thought his father had died at sea ten years earlier . Following another attack from Sin , they are joined by Rikku , later revealed to be Yuna 's cousin .
When the party arrives in the city of Guadosalam , the leader of the Guado , Seymour Guado , proposes to Yuna , saying that it will ease Spira 's sorrow . At Macalania Temple , the group sees a message from Seymour 's father Jyscal , who declares he was killed by his son , who now aims to destroy Spira . The group reunites with Yuna to engage Seymour in battle , killing him ; soon afterward , Sin attacks , separating Yuna from the others . While searching for her on Bikanel Island , the homeland of the Al Bhed where they had surfaced , Tidus has an emotional breakdown when he learns that summoners die after summoning the Final Aeon , leading to his desire to find a way to defeat Sin while keeping Yuna alive . The group finds Yuna in Bevelle , where she is being forced to marry the unsent Seymour . They crash the wedding and escape with Yuna . The group is captured at the Bevelle temple , and are ordered to stand trial . After escaping from their sentence , the group heads towards the ruins of Zanarkand , seen in the introduction of the game .
On the way there , Tidus learns that he , Jecht , and the Zanarkand they hail from are summoned entities akin to aeons based on the original Zanarkand and its people . Long ago , the original Zanarkand battled Bevelle in a machina war , in which the former was defeated . Zanarkand 's survivors became " fayth " so that they could use their memories of Zanarkand to create a new city in their image , removed from the reality of Spira . One thousand years after its creation , the fayth have become exhausted from " dreaming " their Zanarkand , but are unable to stop due to Sin 's influence .
Once they reach Zanarkand , Yunalesca — the first summoner to defeat Sin and unsent ever since — tells the group that the Final Aeon is created from the fayth of one close to the summoner . After defeating Sin , the Final Aeon kills the summoner and transforms into a new Sin , which has caused its cycle of rebirth to continue . Yuna decides against using the Final Aeon , due to the futile sacrifices it carries and the fact that Sin would still be reborn . Disappointed by their resolution , Yunalesca tries to kill Tidus ' group , but she is defeated and vanishes , ending hope of ever attaining the Final Aeon . After the fight , the group learns that Yu Yevon , a summoner who lost his humanity and mind , is behind Sin 's cycle of rebirth . This leads the group to infiltrate Sin 's body to battle Seymour , and Jecht 's imprisoned spirit . With Sin 's host defeated , Tidus ' group battles and defeats Yu Yevon . Sin 's cycle of rebirth ends , and the spirits of Spira 's fayth are freed from their imprisonment . Auron , who had earlier been revealed to be unsent , goes to the Farplane . Just then , Dream Zanarkand and Tidus disappear , now that the freed fayth stopped the summoning . Afterward , in a speech to the citizens of Spira , Yuna resolves to help rebuild their world now that it is free of Sin . In a post @-@ credits scene , Tidus awakens under water . He then swims towards the ocean surface , and the screen fades to white .
= = Development = =
Final Fantasy X 's development began in 1999 , costing approximately ¥ 4 billion ( approximately US $ 32 @.@ 3 million ) with a crew of over 100 people , most of whom worked on previous games in the series . Executive producer Hironobu Sakaguchi has stated that although he had concerns about the transition from 2D to 3D backgrounds , the voice acting , and the transition to real @-@ time story @-@ telling , the success of the Final Fantasy series can be attributed to constantly challenging the development team to try new things . Producer Yoshinori Kitase was also the chief director of Final Fantasy X , while the direction of events , maps and battles was split up between Motomu Toriyama , Takayoshi Nakazato and Toshiro Tsuchida , respectively . The development of the script for the game took three to four months , with the same amount of time dedicated to the voice recording afterwards . Kazushige Nojima collaborated with Daisuke Watanabe , Toriyama and Kitase on writing the scenario for Final Fantasy X. Nojima was particularly concerned with establishing a connection in the relationship between player and main character . Thus , he penned the story such that the player 's progress through the world and growing knowledge about it is reflected in Tidus ' own understanding and narration .
= = = Influences = = =
Character designer Tetsuya Nomura has identified the South Pacific , Thailand and Japan as major influences on the cultural and geographic design of Spira , particularly concerning the geographic location of the southern Besaid and Kilika islands . He has also said that Spira deviates from the worlds of past Final Fantasy games in the level of detail incorporated , something he has expressed to have made a conscious effort to maintain during the design process . Kitase felt that if the setting went back to a medieval European fantasy , it would not seem to help the development team advance . While he was thinking of different world environments , Nojima suggested a fantasy world that incorporated Asian elements . Sub @-@ character chief designer Fumi Nakashima 's focus was to ensure that characters from different regions and cultures bore distinctive characteristics in their clothing styles , so that they could be quickly and easily identified as members of their respective sub @-@ groups . For example , she has said that the masks and goggles of the Al Bhed give the group a " strange and eccentric " appearance , while the attire of the Ronso lend to them being able to easily engage in battle .
= = = Design = = =
Final Fantasy X features innovations in the rendering of characters ' facial expressions , achieved through motion capture and skeletal animation technology . This technology allowed animators to create realistic lip movements , which were then programmed to match the speech of the game 's voice actors . Nojima has revealed that the inclusion of voice acting enabled him to express emotion more powerfully than before , and he was therefore able to keep the storyline simple . He also said that the presence of voice actors led him to make various changes to the script , in order to match the voice actors ' personalities with the characters they were portraying . The inclusion of voice , however , led to difficulties . With the game 's cutscenes already programmed around the Japanese voice work , the English localization team faced the difficulty of establishing English @-@ oriented dialogue and the obstacle of incorporating this modified wording with the rhythm and timing of the characters ' lip movements . Localization specialist Alexander O. Smith described the process of fitting natural @-@ sounding English speech into the game as " something akin to writing four or five movies ' worth of dialogue entirely in haiku form [ and ] of course the actors had to act , and act well , within those restraints . "
The game was initially going to feature online elements , offered through Square 's PlayOnline service . The features , however , were dropped during production , and online gaming would not become part of the Final Fantasy series until Final Fantasy XI . Map director Nakazato wanted to implement a world map concept with a more realistic approach than that of the traditional Final Fantasy game , in line with the realism of the game 's 3D backgrounds , as opposed to pre @-@ rendered backgrounds . As a player of the games in the Final Fantasy series , battle director Tsuchida wanted to recreate elements he found interesting or entertaining , which eventually led to the removal of the Active Time Battle system , and instead , incorporated the strategy @-@ focused Conditional Turn @-@ Based Battle system . Originally , Final Fantasy X was going to feature wandering enemies visible on the field map , seamless transitions into battles , and the option for players to move around the landscape during enemy encounters . Battle art director Shintaro Takai has explained that it was his intention that battles in Final Fantasy X come across as a natural part of the story and not an independent element . However , due to hardware limitations , this idea was not used . Instead , a compromise was made , whereby some transitions from the field map to the battle map were made relatively seamless with the implementation of a motion blur effect that would happen at the end of an event scene . The desire for seamless transitions also led to the implementation of the new summoning system seen in the game . Kitase has explained that the purpose behind the Sphere Grid is to give players an interactive means of increasing their characters ' attributes , such that they will be able to observe the development of those attributes firsthand .
= = = Music = = =
Final Fantasy X marks the first time regular series composer Nobuo Uematsu has had any assistance in composing the score for a game in the main series . His fellow composers for Final Fantasy X were Masashi Hamauzu and Junya Nakano . They were chosen for the soundtrack based on their ability to create music that was different from Uematsu 's style while still being able to work together . PlayOnline.com first revealed that the game 's theme song was completed in November 2000 . As Square still had not revealed who would sing the song , GameSpot personally asked Uematsu , who jokingly answered " It 's going to be Rod Stewart . "
The game features three songs with vocalized elements , including the J @-@ pop ballad " Suteki da ne " , which translates to " Isn 't it Wonderful ? " . The lyrics were written by Kazushige Nojima , and the music was written by Uematsu . The song is performed by Japanese folk singer Rikki , whom the music team contacted while searching for a singer whose music reflected an Okinawan atmosphere . " Suteki da ne " is also sung in Japanese in the English version of Final Fantasy X. Like " Eyes on Me " from Final Fantasy VIII and " Melodies of Life " from Final Fantasy IX , an orchestrated version of " Suteki da ne " is used as part of the ending theme . The other songs with lyrics are the heavy metal opening theme , " Otherworld " , sung in English by Bill Muir ; and " Hymn of the Fayth " , a recurring piece sung using Japanese syllabary .
The original soundtrack spanned 91 tracks on four discs . It was first released in Japan on August 1 , 2001 , by DigiCube , and was re @-@ released on May 10 , 2004 , by Square Enix . In 2002 , Tokyopop released a version of Final Fantasy X Original Soundtrack in North America entitled Final Fantasy X Official Soundtrack , which contained 17 tracks from the original album on a single disc . Other related CDs include feel / Go dream : Yuna & Tidus which , released in Japan by DigiCube on October 11 , 2001 , featured tracks based on Tidus ' and Yuna 's characters . Piano Collections Final Fantasy X , another collection of music from the game , and Final Fantasy X Vocal Collection , a compilations of exclusive character dialogues and songs were both in Japan in 2002 .
The Black Mages , a band led by Nobuo Uematsu that arranges music from Final Fantasy video games into a rock music style , have arranged three pieces from Final Fantasy X. These are " Fight With Seymour " from their self @-@ titled album , published in 2003 , and " Otherworld " and " The Skies Above " , both of which can be found on the album The Skies Above , published in 2004 . Uematsu continues to perform certain pieces in his Dear Friends : Music from Final Fantasy concert series . The music of Final Fantasy X has also appeared in various official concerts and live albums , such as 20020220 Music from Final Fantasy , a live recording of an orchestra performing music from the series including several pieces from the game . An odd note ; the unreleased / promo CD @-@ R ( Instrumental ) version of Madonna 's " What It Feels Like For A Girl " done by Tracy Young was used in the blitzball sequences . Additionally , " Swing de Chocobo " was performed by the Royal Stockholm Philharmonic Orchestra for the Distant Worlds – Music from Final Fantasy concert tour , while " Zanarkand " was performed by the New Japan Philharmonic Orchestra in the Tour de Japon : Music from Final Fantasy concert series . Independent but officially licensed releases of Final Fantasy X music have been composed by such groups as Project Majestic Mix , which focuses on arranging video game music . Selections also appear on Japanese remix albums , called dojin music , and on English remixing websites .
= = Versions and merchandise = =
The Japanese version of Final Fantasy X included an additional disc entitled " The Other Side of Final Fantasy " , which featured interviews , storyboards , and trailers for Blue Wing Blitz , Kingdom Hearts , and Final Fantasy : The Spirits Within , as well as the first footage of Final Fantasy XI . An international version of the game was released in Japan as Final Fantasy X International in January 2002 , and in PAL regions under its original title . It features content not available in the original NTSC releases , including battles with " Dark " versions of the game 's aeons and an airship fight with the superboss " Penance " . The Japanese release of Final Fantasy X International also includes " Eternal Calm " , a 14 @-@ minute video clip bridging the story of Final Fantasy X with that of its sequel , Final Fantasy X @-@ 2 . The video clip was included in a bonus DVD for Unlimited Saga Collector 's Edition under the name Eternal Calm , Final Fantasy X @-@ 2 : Prologue . It was first released in Europe on October 31 , 2003 , and featured English voice @-@ overs .
The international and PAL versions include a bonus DVD called Beyond Final Fantasy , a disc including interviews with the game 's developers , and two of the game 's English voice actors , James Arnold Taylor ( Tidus ) and Hedy Burress ( Yuna ) . Also included are trailers for Final Fantasy X and Kingdom Hearts , a concept and promotional art gallery for the game , and a music video of " Suteki da ne " performed by Rikki . In 2005 , a compilation featuring Final Fantasy X and Final Fantasy X @-@ 2 was released in Japan as Final Fantasy X / X @-@ 2 Ultimate Box .
Square also produced various types of merchandise and several books , including The Art of Final Fantasy X and three Ultimania guides , a series of artbooks / strategy guides published by DigiCube in Japan . They feature original artwork from Final Fantasy X , offer gameplay walkthroughs , expand upon many aspects of the game 's storyline and feature several interviews with the game 's designers . There are three books in the series : Final Fantasy X Scenario Ultimania , Final Fantasy X Battle Ultimania , and Final Fantasy X Ultimania Ω . On December 18 , 2012 the game will be re @-@ released as part of the Final Fantasy 25th Anniversary Ultimate Box release .
= = = HD Remaster = = =
On September 13 , 2011 , Square Enix announced that Final Fantasy X would be re @-@ released in high @-@ definition for the PlayStation 3 and PlayStation Vita , in celebration of the game 's 10 @-@ year anniversary . In January 2012 , production of the game had started . Producer Yoshinori Kitase was once again involved in the production of the game , wishing to work on its quality . On February 18 , 2013 the first footage of the PlayStation Vita version of Final Fantasy X HD was released , showing off HD models of Tidus , Yuna , Bahamut and Yojimbo . On 19 March , it was confirmed that the PS3 version of the game would also include its sequel X @-@ 2 , and that it would be remastered in HD . The two HD remastered games for the PS3 were released under the title Final Fantasy X / X @-@ 2 HD Remaster on a single Blu @-@ ray disc game , and was sold separately on game cartridges on Vita in Japan and sold together in North America as a set , with FFX being on a cartridge and FFX @-@ 2 being included as a download voucher . Downloadable versions are available for both systems . Square Enix launched an official website for the two HD remastered titles in March 2013 . The games contain all the content found in the International version , including Last Mission . During the PlayStation China press conference that took place in Shanghai on December 11 , 2014 , Square Enix confirmed Final Fantasy X / X @-@ 2 HD Remaster would be available for the PlayStation 4 in Spring 2015 . It was released in North America on May 12 , 2015 . One year later on May 12 , 2016 , it was released for Microsoft Windows via Steam .
= = Reception = =
= = = Sales = = =
Square expected the game to sell at least two million copies worldwide owing to the reduced PlayStation 2 's fanbase , making it smaller than the last three released titles . However , within four days of its release in Japan , the game had sold over 1 @.@ 4 million copies in pre @-@ orders , which set a record for the fastest @-@ selling console RPG . These figures exceeded the performances of Final Fantasy VII and IX in a comparable period , and Final Fantasy X became the first PlayStation 2 game to reach two million and four million sold copies . In October 2007 , the game was listed as the 8th best @-@ selling game for the PlayStation 2 . Final Fantasy X sold over 2 @.@ 26 million copies in Japan alone in 2001 , and has sold 6 @.@ 6 million copies worldwide as of January 2004 . The " Ultimate Hits " bargain reissue of the game in September 2005 sold over 131 @,@ 000 copies in Japan by the end of 2006 . In October 2013 , Square Enix announced Final Fantasy X and its sequel Final Fantasy X @-@ 2 have together sold over 14 million copies worldwide on PlayStation 2 .
= = = Critical reception = = =
Final Fantasy X received critical acclaim by the media . The Japanese video game magazine Famitsu and Famitsu PS2 awarded the game a near @-@ perfect 39 / 40 score . Another Japanese gaming magazine , The Play Station , gave the game a score of 29 / 30 . Famitsu , Famitsu PS2 , and The Play Station expressed particularly favorable responses toward the game 's storyline , graphics , and movies . The game maintains a 92 out of 100 on Metacritic . Producer Shinji Hashimoto stated that the overall reception to the game was " excellent " , having received praise and awards from the media .
IGN 's David Smith offered praise for the voice actors and the innovations in gameplay , particularly with the revised battle and summon systems , the option to change party members during battle , and the character development and inventory management systems . They also felt that the game 's graphics had improved on its predecessors in every way possible , and that the game as a whole was " the best @-@ looking game of the series [ and ] arguably the best @-@ playing as well " . Greg Kasavin of GameSpot praised the game 's storyline , calling it surprisingly complex , its ending satisfying , and its avoidance of role @-@ playing game clichés commendable with Tidus viewed as an appealing protagonist . He also lauded the music , feeling it was " diverse and well suited to the various scenes in the game " . Similarly , GamePro described its character building system and battle system as " two of the best innovations in the series " . The visuals of the game were commended by GameSpy 's Raymond Padilla , who referred to them as " top @-@ notch " , as well as giving praise to the character models , backgrounds , cutscenes , and animations . The voice casting was praised by Game Revolution who noted most of them were " above average " and called the music " rich " .
Edge rated the game considerably lower , criticizing many aspects of the game for being tedious and uninnovative and describing the dialogue as " nauseating " , particularly panning Tidus . Andrew Reiner of Game Informer criticized the game 's linearity and that players were no longer able to travel the world by chocobo or control the airship . Eurogamer 's Tom Bramwell noted that the game 's puzzle segments were " depressing " and " superfluous " , and that although the Sphere Grid was " a nice touch " , it took up too much of the game . The linearity of the game was positively commented on by GamePro who stated that a player would not be required to participate in side @-@ quests or the mini @-@ game to reach the game 's conclusion , finding some of them unappealing . Game Revolution complained that cutscenes could not be skipped , some even being too long .
= = = Awards = = =
Final Fantasy X received the Best Game Award from the Japan Game Awards for 2001 – 2002 . In GameSpot 's " Best and Worst Awards " from 2001 , it came seventh in the category " Top 10 Video Games of the Year " . Readers of Famitsu magazine voted it the best game of all time in early 2006 . Final Fantasy X came in fifth on IGN 's " Top 25 PS2 Games of All Time " list in 2007 and sixth in " The Top 10 Best Looking PS2 Games of All Time " . In a similar list by GameSpy , the game took the 21st place . 1UP.com listed its revelation during the ending as the third @-@ biggest video game spoiler , while IGN ranked the ending as the fifth best pre @-@ rendered cutscene . In a Reader 's Choice made in 2006 by IGN , it ranked as the 60th @-@ best video game . It was also named one of the 20 essential Japanese role @-@ playing games by Gamasutra . It also placed 43rd in Game Informer 's list of " The Top 200 Games of All Time " . In 2004 , Final Fantasy X was listed as one of the best games by GameFAQs , while in November 2005 it was voted as the 12th " Best Game Ever " . In a general overview of the series , both GamesRadar and IGN listed Final Fantasy X as the fourth best game . At the sixth annual Interactive Achievement Awards in 2003 , it was nominated for " Outstanding Achievement in Animation " and " Console Role @-@ Playing Game of the Year " . At the end of 2007 , it was named the ninth best @-@ selling RPG by Guinness World Records . Readers from GameFaqs also voted it as Game of the Year during 2001 . In 2008 , readers of Dengeki magazine voted it the second best game ever made . It was voted first place in Famitsu 's and Dengeki 's polls of most tear @-@ inducing games of all time . Both Tidus and Yuna have been popular characters in games in general due to their personalities and their romantic relationship .
= = Legacy = =
Due to its commercial and critical success , Square Enix released a direct sequel to Final Fantasy X in 2003 , titled Final Fantasy X @-@ 2 . The sequel is set two years after the conclusion of Final Fantasy X , establishing new conflicts and dilemmas and resolving loose ends left by the original game . Although the sequel did not sell as well as the original , 3 @.@ 96 million units versus 6 @.@ 6 million units , it can still be considered a commercial success . As a result of the title 's popularity , Yoshinori Kitase and Kazushige Nojima decided to establish a plot @-@ related connection between Final Fantasy X and Final Fantasy VII , another well @-@ received Final Fantasy game . In 2013 , after the release of the HD Remaster , Nojima stated that he would like to see a second sequel to X , and if there were demand for it , it could happen .
The advancements in portraying realistic emotions achieved with Final Fantasy X through voice @-@ overs and detailed facial expressions have since become a staple of the series , with Final Fantasy X @-@ 2 and other subsequent titles ( such as Dirge of Cerberus : Final Fantasy VII , Final Fantasy XII , XIII and its sequels , and XV ) also featuring this development . Traversing real @-@ time 3D environments instead of an overworld map has also become a standard of the series , as demonstrated in Final Fantasy XI , XII , XIII and its sequels , XIV and XV . Final Fantasy X can be considered a pioneer in 3 @-@ D RPG maps .
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= Military history of Puerto Rico =
The recorded military history of Puerto Rico encompasses the period from the 16th century , when Spanish conquistadores battled native Taínos in the rebellion of 1511 , to the present employment of Puerto Ricans in the United States Armed Forces in the military campaigns in Afghanistan and Iraq .
Puerto Rico was part of the Spanish Empire for four centuries , when the Puerto Ricans defended themselves against invasions from the British , French , and Dutch . They fought alongside General Bernardo de Gálvez during the American Revolutionary War in the battles of Baton Rouge , Mobile , Pensacola and St. Louis . During the mid @-@ 19th century , Puerto Ricans residing in the United States fought in the American Civil War .
The quest for Latin American independence from Spain spread to Puerto Rico , in the short lived revolution known as the Grito de Lares and culminating with the Intentona de Yauco . The island was invaded by the United States during the Spanish – American War . After the war ended , Spain officially ceded the island to the United States under the terms established in the Treaty of Paris of 1898 . Puerto Rico became a United States territory and the " Porto Rico Regiment " ( Puerto Rico 's name was changed to Porto Rico ) was established on the island .
Upon the outbreak of World War I , the U.S. Congress approved the Jones – Shafroth Act , which extended United States citizenship ( the Puerto Rican House of Delegates rejected US citizenship ) with limitations upon Puerto Ricans and made them eligible for the military draft . As citizens of the United States , Puerto Ricans have participated in every major United States military engagement from World War I onward . During World War II , Puerto Ricans participated in the Pacific and Atlantic theaters , not only as combatants , but also as commanders . It was during this conflict that Puerto Rican nurses were allowed to participate as members of the WAACs . The members of Puerto Rico 's 65th Infantry Regiment distinguished themselves in combat during the Korean War and were honored with the Congressional Gold Medal . During the Vietnam War five Puerto Ricans were awarded the Medal of Honor , the highest military honor in the United States . Presently Puerto Ricans continue to serve in the military of the United States . The following is brief history of the military events in which Puerto Ricans have participated .
= = Taíno rebellion of 1511 = =
Christopher Columbus arrived in the island of Puerto Rico on November 19 , 1493 , during his second voyage to the so @-@ called " New World " . The island was inhabited by the Arawak group of indigenous peoples known as Tainos , who called the island " Borikén " or " Borinquen " . The Tainos were known as a peaceful people , however they were also warriors and often fought against the Caribs , who in more than one occasion attempt to invade the island . Columbus named the island San Juan Bautista in honor of Saint John the Baptist . The main port was named Puerto Rico ( Rich Port ) ( eventually the island was renamed Puerto Rico and the port which was to evolve into the capital of the island was renamed San Juan ) . The conquistador Juan Ponce de León accompanied Columbus on this trip .
When Ponce de León arrived in Puerto Rico , he was well received by the Cacique ( Tribal chief ) Agüeybaná ( The Great Sun ) , chieftain of the island Taino tribes . Besides the conquistadors , some of the first colonists were farmers and miners in search of gold . In 1508 , Ponce de León became the first appointed governor of Puerto Rico , founding the first settlement of Caparra between the modern @-@ day cities of Bayamón and San Juan . After being named Governor , de León and the conquistadors forced the Tainos to work in the mines and to build fortifications ; many Tainos died as a result of cruel treatment during their labor . In 1510 , upon Agüeybaná 's death , his brother Güeybaná , better known as Agüeybaná II ( The Brave ) , and a group of Tainos led Diego Salcedo , a Spaniard , to a river and drowned him , proving to his people that the white men were not gods . Upon realizing this , Agüeybaná II led his people in the Taino rebellion of 1511 , the first rebellion in the island against the better armed Spanish forces . Guarionex , cacique of Utuado , attacked the village of Sotomayor ( present day Aguada ) and killed eighty of its inhabitants . Cacique Guarionex died during the attack which was considered a Taino victory .
After the Taino victory the colonists formed a citizens ' militia to defend themselves against the attacks . Juan Ponce de León and one of his top commanders , Diego de Salazar led the Spaniards in a series of offensives which included a massacre of the Taino forces in the domain of Agüeybaná II . The Spanish offensive culminated in the Battle of Yagüecas against Cacique Mabodomoca . Agüeybaná II was shot and killed , ending the first recorded military action in Puerto Rico . After the failed rebellion , the Tainos were forced to give up their customs and traditions by order of a Royal decree , approved by King Ferdinand II , which required that they adopt and practice the values , religion and language of their conquerors .
According to the " 500TH Florida Discovery Council Round Table " , on March 3 , 1513 , Juan Ponce de León , organized and commenced an expedition ( with a Crew of 200 @-@ including Women and Free Blacks ) departing from " Punta Aguada " Puerto Rico . Puerto Rico was the historic 1st gateway to the discovery of Florida which opened the doors to the advanced settlement of the USA . They introduced Christianity , Cattle , Horses , Sheep , the Spanish language and more to the land ( Florida ) that later became the United States of America , 107 years before the Pilgrims landed .
= = Europeans fight over Puerto Rico = =
= = = 16th Century = = =
Puerto Rico was considered the " Key to the Antilles " by the Spanish because of its location as a way station and port for Spanish vessels . In 1540 , with revenue from Mexican mines , the Spanish settlers began the construction of Fort San Felipe del Morro ( " the promontory " ) in San Juan . With the completion of the initial phase of the construction in 1589 El Morro became the island 's main military fortification , guarded by professional soldiers . The rest of Puerto Rico , which had been reorganized in 1580 as a captaincy general , had to rely on only a handful of soldiers and the local volunteer militia to defend the island against militant and pirate attacks .
The main enemies of Spain at the time were the English and the Dutch . They , however were not the only enemies that Spain faced in the Caribbean during this period . On October 11 , 1528 , the French sacked and burned the settlement of San Germán during an attempt to capture the island , destroying many of the island 's first settlements — including Guánica , Sotomayor , Daguao and Loiza — before the local militia forced them to retreat . The only settlement that remained was San Juan .
In 1585 , war broke out between England and Spain . The Anglo @-@ Spanish War was not limited to Europe — extending to Spanish and English territories in the Americas . In November 1595 , Sir Francis Drake , the vice @-@ admiral in command of the Royal Navy fleet that tackled the Spanish Armada , and Sir John Hawkins attempted an unsuccessful invasion of San Juan . Both Hawkins and Drake died of illness in the course of the campaign . On June 15 , 1598 , the English fleet , led by George Clifford , landed in Santurce and held the island for several months . He was forced to abandon the island upon an outbreak of bacillary dysentery among his troops . In 1599 , 400 additional soldiers and 46 cannons were sent to the island along with a new governor , Alonso de Mercado , to rebuild the city .
= = = 17th century = = =
The Netherlands was a world military and commercial power by 1625 , competing in the Caribbean with the English . The Dutch wanted to establish a military stronghold in the area , and dispatched Captain Boudewijn Hendricksz ( also Boudoyno Henrico or Balduino Enrico ) to capture Puerto Rico . On September 24 , 1625 , Enrico arrived at the coast of San Juan with 17 ships and 2 @,@ 000 men . Enrico sent a message to the governor of Puerto Rico , Juan de Haros , ordering him to surrender the island . De Haros refused ; he was an experienced military man and expected an attack in the section known as Boqueron . He therefore had that area fortified . However , the Dutch took another route and landed in La Puntilla .
De Haro realized that an invasion was inevitable and ordered Captain Juan de Amezquita and 300 men to defend the island from El Morro Castle and then had the city of San Juan evacuated . He also had former governor Juan de Vargas organize an armed resistance in the interior of the island . On September 25 , Enrico attacked San Juan , besieging El Morro Castle and La Fortaleza ( the Governor 's Mansion ) . He invaded the capital city and set up his headquarters in La Fortaleza . The Dutch were counterattacked by the civilian militia on land and by the cannons of the Spanish troops in El Morro Castle . The land battle left 60 Dutch soldiers dead and Enrico with a sword wound to his neck which he received from the hands of Amezquita . The Dutch ships at sea were boarded by Puerto Ricans , who defeated those aboard . After a long battle , the Spanish soldiers and volunteers of the city 's militia were able to defend the city from the attack and save the island from an invasion . On October 21 , Enrico set La Fortaleza and the city ablaze . Captains Amezquita and Andre Botello decided to put a stop to the destruction and led 200 men in an attack against the enemy 's front and rear guard . They drove Enrico and his men from their trenches and into the ocean in their haste to reach their ships . Enrico upon his retreat left behind him one of his largest ships , stranded , and over 400 dead . He then tried to invade the island by attacking the town of Aguada . He was again defeated by the local militia and abandoned the idea of invading Puerto Rico .
In 1693 , the Milicias Urbanas de Puerto Rico were organized in almost every town . Every native male , ages 16 to 60 , was obliged to serve in these companies , unless he had an official exemption on account of physical disability or family hardship .
While Spain and England were in a power struggle in the New World , Puerto Rican privateering of English ships was encouraged by the Spanish Crown . Captain Miguel Enríquez and Captain Roberto Cofresí ( in the 19th century ) were two of the most famous . In the first half of the 18th century , Henriquez , a shoemaker by occupation , decided to try his luck as a privateer . He showed great valor in intercepting English merchant ships and other ships dedicated to contraband that were infesting the seas of Puerto Rico and the Atlantic Ocean in general . Henriquez organized an expeditionary force which fought and defeated the English in the island of Vieques . He was received as a national hero when he returned the island of Vieques to the Spanish Empire and to the governorship of Puerto Rico . In recognition of his service , the Spanish Crown awarded Henriquez the Medalla de Oro de la Real Efigie ( The Gold Medal of the Royal Effigy ) , named him " Captain of the Seas and War " , and gave him a letter of marque and reprisal , thus granting him the privileges of privateer .
= = = 18th century = = =
= = = = Armed conflicts with the British = = = =
The English continued their attacks against Spanish colonies in the Caribbean , taking minor islands including Vieques east of Puerto Rico . On August 5 , 1702 , the city of Arecibo , on Puerto Rico 's northern coast , was invaded by the British . Armed only with spears and machetes , under the command of Captain Antonio de los Reyes Correa , 30 militia members defended the city from the English , who were armed with muskets and swords . The British were defeated , suffering 22 losses on land and 8 at sea . Reyes Correa was declared a national hero and was awarded the Medalla de Oro de la Real Efigie ( " Gold Medal of the Royal Image " ) and the title of " Captain of Infantry " by King Philip V.
Native @-@ born Puerto Rican ( criollos ) had petitioned the Spanish Crown to serve in the regular Spanish army , resulting in the 1741 organization of the Regimiento Fijo de Puerto Rico . The Fijo served in the defense of Puerto Rico and other Spanish overseas possessions , performing in battles in Santo Domingo , other islands in the Caribbean , and South America , most notably in Venezuela . However , Puerto Rican complaints that the Fijo was being used to suppress the revolution in Venezuela caused the Crown to bring the Fijo home and in 1815 it was mustered out of service .
In 1765 , the Spanish Crown sent Field Marshal Alejandro O 'Reilly to Puerto Rico to form an organized militia . O 'Reilly , known as the " Father of the Puerto Rican Militia " , oversaw training to bring fame and glory to the militia in future military engagements , nicknaming the civilian militia the " Disciplined Militia . " O 'Reilly was later appointed governor of colonial Louisiana in 1769 and became known as " Bloody O 'Reilly . "
= = = = The American Revolutionary War = = = =
During the American Revolutionary War , Spain lent the rebelling colonists the use of its ports in Puerto Rico , through which flowed financial aid and arms for their cause . An incident occurred in the coast of Mayagüez , in 1777 , between two Continental Navy ships , the Eudawook and the Henry , and a Royal Navy warship , HMS Glasgow . Both American ships were chased by the larger and more powerful Glasgow . The American colonial ships were close to the coast of Mayagüez ; members of the Puerto Rican militia of that town , realizing that something was wrong , signaled for the ships to dock at the town 's bay . After the ships docked , the crews of both ships got off and some Mayagüezanos boarded and raised the Spanish flag on both ships . The commander of the Glasgow became aware of the situation and asked the island 's governor , Jose Dufresne to turn over the ships . Dufresne refused and ordered the British warship out of the Puerto Rican dock .
The governor of Louisiana , Bernardo de Gálvez , was named Field Marshal of the Spanish colonial army in North America . In 1779 , Galvez and his troops , composed of Puerto Ricans and people from other Spanish colonies , distracted the British from the revolution by capturing Pensacola , the capital of the British colony of West Florida and the cities of Baton Rouge , St. Louis and Mobile . The Puerto Rican troops , under the leadership of Brigadier General Ramón de Castro , helped defeat the British and Indian army of 2 @,@ 500 soldiers and British warships in Pensacola . Galvez and his multinational army also provided the Continental Army with guns , cloth , gunpowder and medicine shipped from Cuba up the Mississippi River . General Ramón de Castro , who was Galvez 's Aide @-@ de @-@ camp in the Mobile and Pensacola campaigns , became the appointed governor of Puerto Rico in 1795 .
= = = = Sir Ralph Abercromby attacks Puerto Rico = = = =
On February 17 , 1797 , the governor of Puerto Rico Brigadier General Ramón de Castro , received news that Great Britain had invaded the island of Trinidad . Believing that Puerto Rico would be the next British objective he decided to put the local militia on alert and to prepare the island 's forts against any military action . On April 17 , 1797 , British ships under the command of Sir Ralph Abercromby approached the coastal town of Loíza , to the east of San Juan . On April 18 , British soldiers and German mercenaries ( " Hessians " ) landed on Loíza 's beach . Under the command of de Castro , British ships were shot at by artillery from both El Morro and the San Gerónimo fortresses but were beyond reach . After the invaders disembarked practically all fighting was land based with many skirmishes , field artillery and mortar fire exchanges between the San Gerónimo and San Antonio Bridge fortress and British emplacements in Condado to the East and El Olimpo hill in Miramar to the South . The British tried to take the San Antonio , a key passage to the San Juan islet , and repeatedly bombarded the nearby San Gerónimo to the tune of nearly one thousand shells and almost demolishing it . At the Martín Peña Bridge , they were met by the likes of Sergeants José and Francisco Díaz and Colonel Rafael Conti who together with Lieutenant Lucas de Fuentes attacked the enemy with two cannons . After fiercely fighting by the Spanish forces and local militia , they were defeated in all attempts to advance into San Juan . The invasion failed because Puerto Rican volunteers and Spanish troops fought back and defended the island in a manner described by a British lieutenant as of " astonishing bravery " .
= = = = " La Rogativa " folklore = = = =
The defense of San Juan served as the base for the legend of " La Rogativa " . According to the popular Puerto Rican legend , on the night of April 30 , 1797 , the townswomen , led by a bishop , formed a rogativa ( prayer procession ) and marched throughout the streets of the city singing hymns and carrying torches while at the same time praying for the deliverance of the city . Outside the walls , the invaders mistook the torch @-@ lit movement for the arrival of Spanish reinforcements . When morning came , the enemy was gone from the island and the city was saved from a possible invasion . Four statues , sculptured by Lindsay Daen in the Plazuela de la Rogativa ( Rogativa Plaza ) in Old San Juan , pay tribute to the bishop and townswomen who participated in La Rogativa .
= = = = Attack of Aguadilla = = = =
The British also attacked Aguadilla and Punta Salinas . They were defeated by Colonel Conti and the members of the militia in Aguadilla , and the British troops that had landed on the island were taken prisoner . The British retreated on April 30 to their ships and on May 2 set sail northward . Because of the defeat given to the British forces , governor Ramon de Castro petitioned Spanish King Charles IV for recognition for the victors ; he was promoted to Field Marshal and several others were promoted and given pay raises . The British persisted in invading Puerto Rico , after Abercromby 's defeat , with unsuccessful skirmishes on the coastal towns of Aguadilla ( December 1797 ) , Ponce , Cabo Rojo , and Mayagüez . This continued to occur until 1802 when the war finally came to an end .
= = = 19th century = = =
France had threatened to invade the Spanish colony of Santo Domingo . In 1808 , the Spanish Crown sent their Navy , under the command of Puerto Rican Captain Ramón Power y Giralt , to prevent the invasion of Santo Domingo by the French by enforcing a blockade . Col. Rafael Conti organized a military expedition with the intention of defending the Dominican Republic . They were successful and were proclaimed as heroes by the Spanish Government .
= = = American Civil War = = =
During the 1800s , commerce existed between the ports of the eastern coast of the United States and Puerto Rico . Ship records show that many Puerto Ricans traveled on ships that sailed to and from the U.S. and Puerto Rico . Many of them settled in places such as New York , Connecticut and Massachusetts . Upon the outbreak of the American Civil War , many Puerto Ricans joined the ranks of the United States military armed forces , however since Puerto Ricans were Spanish subjects they were inscribed as Spaniards . The 1860 census of New Haven , Connecticut , shows there were 10 Puerto Ricans living there . Among of them was Augusto Rodriguez who joined the 15th Connecticut Regiment ( a.k.a. Lyon Regiment ) in 1862 . During the Civil War , Rodriguez , who reached the rank of Lieutenant , served in the defenses of Washington , D.C .. He also led his men in the Battles of Fredericksburg and Wyse Fork . The regiment was mustered out on June 27 , 1865 and he was discharged in New Haven on July 12 , 1865 .
= = = Slave revolts = = =
Up until 1873 , when slavery was abolished in Puerto Rico , the wealth amassed by many landowners in Puerto Rico derived mainly from the exploitation of slaves . But slavery generated its antithesis — disobedience , uprisings and flights .
In Puerto Rico there were many minor slave revolts in which the slaves clashed with the military establishment . In July 1821 , Marcos Xiorro , a bozal slave , planned and organized a conspiracy against the slave masters and the colonial government of Puerto Rico . According to his plot , which was to be carried out on July 27 , during the festival celebrations for Santiago ( St. James ) , several slaves were to escape from various plantations in Bayamón , which included the haciendas of Angus McBean , C. Kortnight , Miguel Andino and Fernando Fernández . They were then to proceed to the sugarcane fields of Miguel Figueres , and retrieve cutlasses and swords which were hidden in those fields . Xiorro , together with a slave from the McBean plantation named Mario and another slave named Narciso , would lead the slaves of Bayamón and Toa Baja and capture the city of Bayamón . They would then burn the city and kill those who were not black . After this , they would all unite with slaves from the adjoining towns of Río Piedras , Guaynabo and Palo Seco . With this critical mass of slaves , all armed and emboldened from a series of quick victories , they would then invade the capital city of San Juan , where they would declare Xiorro as their king . Unfortunately for the slave conspirators , the plot was divulged by a fellow slave to the authorities .
The mayor of Bayamón mobilized 500 soldiers . The ringleaders and followers of the conspiracy were captured immediately . A total of 61 slaves were imprisoned in Bayamón and San Juan . The ringleaders were executed and the fate of Xiorro remains a mystery . There were other minor revolts up until the abolition of slavery in the island became official .
= = Revolt against Spain = =
= = = South America = = =
In 1822 , there was an attempt , known as the Ducoudray Holstein Expedition , conceived , carefully planned and organized by General Henri La Fayette Villaume Ducoudray Holstein to invade Puerto Rico and declare it a republic .
This invasion was different from all its precursors since none before had intended to make Puerto Rico an independent nation , and use the Taino name " Boricua " as the official name of the republic , it was also intended more as a mercantile venture than a patriotic endeavor . It was the first time an invasion intended to make the city of Mayagüez the capital of the island . However , plans of the invasion were soon disclosed to the Spanish authorities and the plot never materialized .
= = = = United Provinces of New Granada = = = =
In the early 19th century the Spanish colonies , in what is known as the Latin American wars of independence , began to revolt against Spanish rule . Antonio Valero de Bernabé was a Puerto Rican military leader known in Latin America as the " Liberator from Puerto Rico " . Valero was a recent graduate of the Spanish Military Academy when Napoleon Bonaparte convinced King Charles IV of Spain to permit him to pass through Spanish soil with the sole purpose of attacking Portugal . When Napoleon refused to leave , the Spanish government declared war . Valero joined the Spanish Army and helped defeat Napoleon 's army at the Siege of Saragossa . Valero became a hero ; he was promoted to the rank of colonel and was awarded many decorations .
When Ferdinand VII assumed the throne of Spain in 1813 , Valero became critical of the new king 's policies towards the Spanish colonies in Latin America . He developed a keen hatred of the monarchy , resigned his commission in the army , and headed for Mexico . There he joined the insurgent army headed by Agustín de Iturbide , in which Valero was named chief of staff . He fought for and helped achieve Mexico 's independence from Spain . After the Mexican victory , Iturbide proclaimed himself Emperor of Mexico . Since Valero had developed anti @-@ monarchist feelings following his experiences in Spain , he revolted against Iturbide . His revolt failed and he attempted to escape from Mexico by way of sea .
Valero was captured by a Spanish pirate , who turned him over to the Spanish authorities in Cuba . Valero was imprisoned but managed to escape with the help of a group of men that identified with Simón Bolívar 's ideals . Upon learning of Bolívar 's dream of creating a unified Latin America , including Puerto Rico and Cuba , Valero decided to join him . Valero stopped in St. Thomas , where he established contacts with the Puerto Rican independence movement .
He then traveled to Venezuela , where he was met by General Francisco de Paula Santander . He next joined Bolívar and fought alongside " The Liberator " against Spain , gaining his confidence and admiration . Valero was named Military Chief of the Department of Panama , Governor of Puerto Cabello , Chief of Staff of Colombia , Minister of War and Maritime of Venezuela , and in 1849 was promoted to the rank of Brigadier General .
The meetings of the Puerto Rican Independence movement which met in St. Thomas were discovered by the Spanish authorities and the members of the movement were either imprisoned or exiled . In a letter dated October 1 , 1824 , which Venezuelan rebel leader José María Rojas sent to María de las Mercedes Barbudo , Rojas stated that the Venezuelan rebels had lost their principal contact with the Puerto Rican Independence movement in the Danish island of Saint Thomas and therefore the secret communication which existed between the Venezuelan rebels and the leaders of the Puerto Rican independence movements was in danger of being discovered .
Mercedes Barbudo , also known as the " first Puerto Rican female freedom fighter " , was a businesswoman who became a follower of the independence ideal for Puerto Rico upon learning that Bolivar dreamed of eventually engendering an American Revolution @-@ style federation , that would be known as the United Provinces of New Granada , between all the newly independent republics , with a government ideally set @-@ up solely to recognize and uphold individual rights . She was involved with the Puerto Rican Independence Movement which had ties with the Venezuelan rebels led by Simón Bolívar and who were against Spanish colonial rule in Puerto Rico .
Unknown to Mercedes Barbudo , the Spanish authorities in Puerto Rico under Governor Miguel de la Torre , were suspicious of the correspondence between her and the rebel factions of Venezuela . Secret agents of the Spanish Government had retained some of her mail and delivered it to Governor de la Torre . He ordered an investigation and had her mail confiscated . The Government believed that the correspondence served as propaganda of the Bolivian ideals and that it would also serve to motivate Puerto Ricans to seek their independence . Governor Miguel de la Torre ordered her arrest on the charge that she planned to overthrow the Spanish Government in Puerto Rico . Since Puerto Rico did not have a women 's prison she was held without bail at the Castillo San Cristóbal . Among the evidence which the Spanish authorities presented against her was Rojas letter . She was exiled to Cuba where she was able to escape and make her way to Venezuela where she spent her final days .
= = = Puerto Rico = = =
The Spanish government had received many complaints from the nations whose ships were attacked by Puerto Rican pirate Captain Roberto Cofresí . Cofresí and his men had attacked eight ships , amongst them an American ship . The Spanish government , which routinely encouraged piracy against other nations , was pressured and felt obliged to pursue and capture the famous pirate . In 1824 , Captain John Slout of the U.S. Naval Forces and his schooner USS Grampus engaged Cofresí in a fierce battle . The pirate Cofresí was captured , along with eleven of his crew members , and turned over to the Spanish Government . He was imprisoned in El Castillo del Morro in San Juan . Cofresi was judged by a Spanish Council of War , found guilty , and executed by firing squad on March 29 , 1825 .
On April 13 , 1855 , a mutiny broke out among the artillerymen at Fort San Cristóbal . They were protesting an extended two years of military service imposed by the island 's Spanish governor , Garcia Cambia . The mutineers pointed their cannons towards San Juan , creating a state of panic among the population . Upon their surrender , the governor had the eight men arrested and sentenced to death by firing squad .
= = = = Grito de Lares = = = =
Many Spanish colonies had gained their independence by the mid @-@ 1850s . In Puerto Rico , there were two groups : the loyalists , who were loyal to Spain , and the independentistas , who advocated independence . In 1866 , Dr. Ramón Emeterio Betances , Segundo Ruiz Belvis , and other independence advocates met in New York City where they founded the Revolutionary Committee of Puerto Rico . An outcome of this venture was a plan to send an armed expedition from the Dominican Republic to invade the island . Several revolutionary cells were formed in the western towns and cities of Puerto Rico . Two of the most important cells were at Mayagüez , led by Mathias Brugman and code named " Capa Prieto " and at Lares , code @-@ named " Centro Bravo " and headed by Manuel Rojas . " Centro Bravo " was the main center of operations and was located in the Rojas plantation of El Triunfo . Manuel Rojas was named " Commander of the Liberation Army " by Betances . Mariana Bracetti ( sister @-@ in @-@ law of Manuel ) was named " Leader of the Lares Revolutionary Council . " Upon the request of Betances , Bracetti knitted the first flag of Puerto Rico also known as the revolutionary Flag of Lares ( Bandera de Lares ) .
The Spanish authorities discovered the plot and were able to confiscate Betances 's armed ship before it arrived in Puerto Rico . The Mayor of the town of Camuy , Manuel González ( leader of that town 's revolutionary cell ) , was arrested and charged with treason . He learned that the Spanish Army was aware of the independence plot , and escaped to warn Manuel Rojas . Alerted , the revolutionists decided to start the revolution as soon as possible , and set the date for September 28 , 1868 . Mathias Brugman and his men joined with Manuel Rojas 's men and with about 800 men and women , marched on and took the town of Lares . This was to be known as " Grito de Lares " ( The Cry of Lares ) The revolutionists entered the town 's church and placed Mariana Bracetti 's revolutionary flag on the High Altar as a sign that the revolution had begun . They declared Puerto Rico to be the " Republic of Puerto Rico " and named Francisco Ramírez its President . Manuel and his poorly armed followers proceeded to march on to the town of San Sebastián , armed only with clubs and machetes . The Spanish Army had been forewarned , and awaited with superior firepower . The revolutionists were met with deadly fire . The revolt failed , many revolutionists were killed , and at least 475 , including Manuel Rojas and Mariana Bracetti , were imprisoned in the jail of Arecibo and sentenced to death .
Others fled and went into hiding . Mathias Brugman was hiding in a local farm where he was betrayed by a farmer named Francisco Quiñones ; he was captured and executed on the spot . In 1869 , fearing another revolt , the Spanish Crown disbanded the Puerto Rican Militia , which had been composed almost entirely of native @-@ born Puerto Ricans , and also the Compañia de Artilleros Morenos de Cangrejos , a separate company of black Puerto Ricans . They then organized the Volunteer Institute , composed entirely of Spaniards and their sons .
= = = = Intentona de Yauco = = = =
Leaders of El Grito de Lares who were in exile in New York City joined the Puerto Rican Revolutionary Committee , founded on December 8 , 1895 to continue the quest for independence . In 1897 , with the aid of Antonio Mattei Lluberas and Fidel Velez , the local leaders of the independence movement of the town of Yauco , they organized another uprising , which became known as the Intentona de Yauco . On March 26 , 1897 , there was a second and last major attempt to overthrow the Spanish government . The local conservative political factions , which believed that such an attempt would be a threat to their struggle for autonomy , opposed such an action . Rumors of the planned event spread to the local Spanish authorities , who acted swiftly and put an end to what would be the last major uprising in the island to Spanish colonial rule .
= = = Cuba = = =
In 1869 , the incoming governor of Puerto Rico , Jose Laureano Sanz , in an effort to ease tensions in the island , dictated a general amnesty and released all who were involved with the Grito de Lares revolt from prison . Both Mariana Bracetti and Manuel Rojas were released . Bracetti lived her lst years in the town of Añasco , while Rojas was deported to Venezuela . Many of the former prisoners joined the Cuban Liberation Army and fought against Spain . Among the many Puerto Ricans who volunteered to fight for Cuba 's independence were Juan Ríus Rivera , Francisco Gonzalo Marín , also known as " Pachin Marín " and José Semidei Rodríguez .
Juan Ríus Rivera as a young man met and befriended Betances , and was joined the pro @-@ independence movement in the island . He became a member of the Mayagüez revolutionary cell " Capá Prieto " under the command of Brugman . Ríus , did not participated directly in the revolt because at the time he was studying law in Spain , however he was an avid reader about information pertaining to the Antilles and learned about the failed revolt . He interrupted his studies and traveled to the United States where he went to the Cuba Revolutionary " Junta " and offered his services . He joined the Cuban Liberation Army and was given the rank of General . He fought alongside Gen. Máximo Gómez in Cuba 's Ten Years ' War . He later fought alongside Gen. Antonio Maceo Grajales and upon Maceo 's death was named Commander @-@ in @-@ Chief of the Cuban Liberation Army . After Cuba gained its independence , Gen. Juan Ríus Rivera became an active political figure in the new nation .
Francisco Gonzalo Marín was a poet and journalist in Puerto Rico who joined the Cuban Liberation Army upon learning of the death of his brother Wecenlao in the battlefields of Cuba . Marin , who was given the rank of Lieutenant , befriended and fought alongside José Martí . In November 1897 Lt. Marin died from the wounds he received in a skirmish against the Spanish Army .
José Semidei Rodríguez from Yauco , Puerto Rico , fought in various battles in the Cuban War of Independence ( 1895 – 98 ) . After Cuba gained its independence he joined the Cuban National Army with the rank of Brigadier General . Semidei Rodríguez continued to serve in Cuba as a diplomat upon his retirement from the military .
= = Spanish – American War = =
In 1890 , Captain Alfred Thayler Mahan , a member of the Navy War Board and leading U.S. strategic thinker , wrote a book titled The Influence of Sea Power upon History in which he argued for the creation of a large and powerful navy modeled after the British Royal Navy . Part of his strategy called for the acquisition of colonies in the Caribbean Sea which would serve as coaling and naval stations and which would serve as strategical points of defense upon the construction of a canal in the Isthmus .
This was not new , since William H. Stewart , the former Secretary of State under the administrations of various presidents , among them Abraham Lincoln and Ulysses Grant , had stressed that a canal be built either in Honduras , Nicaragua or Panama and that the United States annex the Dominican Republic and purchase Puerto Rico and Cuba . The idea of annexing the Dominican Republic failed to receive the approval of the U.S. Senate and Spain did not accept the 160 million dollars which the U.S. offered for Puerto Rico and Cuba .
Captain Mahan made the following statement to the War Department :
Since 1894 , the Naval War College had been formulating plans for war with Spain . By 1896 , the Office of Naval Intelligence had prepared a plan which including military operations in Puerto Rican waters . Not only was Puerto Rico considered a valuable as a naval station , Puerto Rico and Cuba were also abundant in valuable commercial commodity which the United States lacked , that commodity was sugar .
The United States declared war on Spain in 1898 following the sinking of the battleship USS Maine in Havana harbor , Cuba . One of the United States ' principal objectives in the Spanish – American War was to take control of Spanish possessions Puerto Rico and Cuba in the Atlantic , and the Philippines and Guam in the Pacific .
The Spanish Crown sent the 1st , 2nd and 3rd Puerto Rican Provisional Battalions to defend Cuba against the American invaders . The 1st Puerto Rican Provisional Battalion , composed of the Talavera Cavalry and Krupp artillery , was sent to Santiago de Cuba where they battled the American forces in the Battle of San Juan Hill . After the battle , the Puerto Rican Battalion suffered a total of 70 % casualties which included their dead , wounded , MIA 's and prisoners .
The invasion of Puerto Rico by the American military forces was known as the Puerto Rican Campaign . On May 10 , 1898 , Spanish forces , under the command of Captain Ángel Rivero Méndez in the fortress of San Cristóbal in San Juan , exchanged fire with the USS Yale , and on May 12 a fleet of 12 American ships bombarded San Juan . On June 25 , the USS Yosemite arrived in San Juan and blockaded the port . Captains Ramón Acha Caamaño and José Antonio Iriarte , both natives of Puerto Rico , were among those who defended the city form Fort San Felipe del Morro . They had 3 Batteries under their command , which were armed with at least three 15 cm Ordóñez cannons . The battle lasted 3 hours and resulted in the death of Justo Esquivies , the first Puerto Rican soldier to die in the Puerto Rican Campaign .
On July 25 , General Nelson A. Miles entered the southern town of Guánica with 3 @,@ 300 troops and faced a minor skirmish in their landing .
One of the most notable battles during the Puerto Rico Campaign occurred between the Spanish forces and Puerto Rican volunteers , led by Captain Salvador Meca and Lieutenant Colonel Francisco Puig against the American forces led by Brigadier General George A. Garretson on July 26 , 1898 . The Spanish forces engaged the 6th Massachusetts in a firefight in what became known as the Battle of Yauco . Puig and his forces suffered 2 officers and 3 soldiers wounded and 2 soldiers dead . The Spanish forces were ordered to retreat .
The Puerto Rican Campaign was short compared to the other campaigns because the Puerto Ricans who resided in the southern and western towns and villages resented Spanish rule and tended to view the Americans as their liberators , thereby making the invasion much easier and because , as stated before , the 1st , 2nd and 3rd Puerto Rican Provisional Battalions where in Cuba defending that island . However , the Americans met resistance from the Spanish forces and Puerto Rican Volunteers and were engaged in the following battles : Battle of Fajardo , Battle of Guayama , Battle of the Guamani River Bridge , Battle of Coamo , Battle of Silva Heights and Battle of Asomante . On August 13 , 1898 , the Spanish – American War ended and the Spanish surrendered without other major incidents . Some Puerto Rican leaders such as José de Diego and Eugenio María de Hostos expected the United States to grant the island its independence . Believing that Puerto Rico would gain its independence , a group of men staged an uprising in Ciales which became known as " El Levantamiento de Ciales " or the " Ciales Uprising of 1898 " and proclaimed Puerto Rico to be a republic . The Spanish authorities who were unaware that the cease fire had been signed brutally suppressed the uprising The total casualties of the Puerto Rican Campaign were 450 dead or wounded Spanish and Puerto Ricans , and 4 dead and 39 wounded Americans .
Upon the signing of the Treaty of Paris on December 10 , Puerto Rico became a territory of the United States . The Spanish troops had already left by October 18 , and the United States named General Nelson A. Miles military governor of the island . On July 1 , 1899 , " The Porto Rico Regiment of Infantry , United States Army " was created , and approved by the U.S. Congress on May 27 , 1908 . The regiment was a segregated , all @-@ volunteer unit made up of 1 @,@ 969 Puerto Ricans .
= = = Puerto Rican commander in the Philippines = = =
In 1897 , before the onset of fighting in Puerto Rico , Juan Alonso Zayas , born in San Juan , was a Second Lieutenant in the Spanish Army when he received orders to head for the Philippines to take command of the 2nd Expeditionary Battalion stationed in Baler . He arrived in Manila , the capital , in May 1897 . There he took a vessel and headed for Baler , on the island of Luzon . The distance between Manila and Baler is 62 miles ( 100 km ) ; if traveled through the jungles and badly built roads , the actual distance was 144 miles ( 230 km ) . At that time a system of communication between Manila and Baler was almost non @-@ existent . The only way Baler received news from Manila was by way of vessels . The Spanish colonial government was under constant attack from local Filipino groups who wanted independence . Zayas 's mission was to fortify Baler against any possible attack . Among his plans for the defense of Baler was to convert the local church of San Luis de Tolosa into a fort .
The independence advocates , under the leadership of Colonel Calixto Vilacorte , were called " insurgents " ( Tagalos ) by the Spanish crown . On June 28 , 1898 , they demanded the surrender of the Spanish army . The Spanish governor of the region , Enrique de las Morena y Fossi , refused ; the Filipinos immediately attacked Baler in a battle that was to last for seven months . Despite being outnumbered and suffering hunger and disease , the battalion did not capitulate . In the meantime , Zayas and the rest of the battalion were totally unaware of the Spanish – American War that was going on . In August 1898 , the hostilities between the United States and Spain came to an end . The Philippines became a U.S. possession under the accordance of the Treaty of Paris . In May 1899 , the Battalion at Baler found out about the Spanish – American War and its aftermath . They had been unaware that they had been fighting for a possession which was no longer theirs to fight for . On June 2 , 1899 the Battalion 's commander , Lieutenant Martín Cerezo surrendered to the Tagalos only after some conditions were met . Among the conditions were the following :
1 . That the Spaniards not be treated as prisoners of war and
2 @.@ that they would not be harmed in their quest of reaching a Spanish ship which would take them back to Spain .
The 32 survivors of Zayas Battalion were sent to Manila , where they boarded a ship for Spain . In Spain , they were given a hero 's welcome and became known as los Ultimos de Baler — " the Last of Baler . "
= = Porto Rico Provisional Regiment of Infantry = =
On March 2 , 1898 , Congress authorized the creation of the first body of native troops in Puerto Rico . On June 30 , 1901 , the " Porto Rico Provisional Regiment of Infantry came into being . An Act of Congress , approved on May 27 , 1908 , reorganized the regiment as part of the " regular " Army . Since the native Puerto Rican officers where Puerto Rican citizens and not citizens of the United States , they were required to undergo a new physical examination to determine their fitness for commissions in the Regular Army and to take an oath of U.S. citizenship with their new officers oath .
= = Puerto Rican National Guard = =
In 1906 , a group of Puerto Ricans met with the appointed Governor Winthrop , and suggested the organization of a Puerto Rican National Guard . The petition failed because the U.S. Constitution prohibits the formation of any armed force within the United States and its territories without the authorization of Congress .
On June 19 , 1915 , Major General Luis R. Esteves of the U.S. Army became the first Puerto Rican and the first Hispanic to graduate from the United States Military Academy at West Point , New York . While he attended West Point , he tutored classmate Dwight D. Eisenhower in Spanish ; a second language was required in order to graduate . He was a Second Lieutenant in the 8th Infantry Brigade of the army under the command of John J. Pershing when he was sent to El Paso , Texas in the Pancho Villa Expedition . From El Paso , he was sent to the town of Polvo , where he was appointed mayor and judge by its citizens . Esteves helped organize the 23rd Battalion , which would be composed of Puerto Ricans and be stationed in Panama during World War I. He would also play a key role in the formation of the Puerto Rico National Guard .
= = World Wars = =
= = = World War I = = =
In 1904 , Camp Las Casas was established in Santurce under the command of Lt. Colonel Orval P. Townshend . The Porto Rico Regiment was assigned to the camp . The regiment consisted of two battalions of the former Porto Rico Provisional Regiment of Infantry .
= = = = U.S. first shot of World War I fired in Puerto Rico = = = =
Lieutenant Teófilo Marxuach was the officer of the day at El Morro Castle on March 21 , 1915 . The Odenwald , built in 1903 ( not to be confused with the German World War II war ship which carried the same name ) , was an armed German supply ship which tried to force its way out of the San Juan Bay and deliver supplies to the German submarines waiting in the Atlantic Ocean . Lt. Marxuach gave the order to open fire on the ship from the walls of the fort . Sergeant Encarnacion Correa then manned a machine gun and fired warningf shots with little effect . Marxuach fired a shot from a cannon located at the Santa Rosa battery of " El Morro " fort , in what is considered to be the first shot of World War I fired by the regular armed forces of the United States against any ship flying the colors of the Central Powers , forcing the Odenwald to stop and to return to port where its supplies were confiscated . The shots ordered by Lt. Marxuach were the first fired by the United States in World War I. The Odenwald was confiscated by the United States and renamed SS Newport . It was assigned to the U.S. Shipping Board , where it served until 1924 when it was retired .
As more countries became involved in what became known as World War I , the U.S. Congress approved the Jones – Shafroth Act , which imposed United States citizenship upon Puerto Ricans . Those who were eligible , with the exception of women , were expected to serve in the military . About 20 @,@ 000 Puerto Ricans were drafted during World War I. On May 3 , 1917 , the Regiment recruited 1 @,@ 969 men . The 295th and 296 Infantry Regiments were created in Puerto Rico . On November 1917 , the first military draft ( conscription ) lottery in Puerto Rico was held in the island 's capital , San Juan . The first draft number was picked by Diana Yaeger , the daughter of the U.S. appointed governor of Puerto Rico Arthur Yager . The number she picked was 1435 and it belonged to San Juan native Eustaquio Correa . Thus , Correa became the first Puerto Rican to be " drafted " into the Armed Forces of the United States .
On May 17 , 1917 , the Porto Rico Regiment of Infantry was sent to guard the Panama Canal in defense of the Panama Canal Zone One of the Puerto Ricans who distinguished himself during World War I was Lieutenant Frederick Lois Riefkohl of the US Navy , who on August 2 , 1917 , became the first known Puerto Rican to be awarded the Navy Cross . The Navy Cross , which is the second highest medal after the Medal of Honor , that can be awarded by the U.S. Navy , was awarded to Lt. Riefkohl for his actions in an engagement with an enemy submarine . Lt. Riefkohl , who was also the first Puerto Rican to graduate from the United States Naval Academy , served as a Rear Admiral in World War II .
Frederick L. Riefkohl 's brother , Rudolph William Riefkohl also served . Riefkohl was commissioned a Second Lieutenant and assigned to the 63rd Heavy Artillery Regiment in France where he actively participated in the Meuse @-@ Argonne Offensive . According to the United States War Department , after the war he served as Captain of Coastal Artillery at the Letterman Army Medical Center in Presidio of San Francisco , in California ( 1918 ) . He played an instrumental role in helping the people of Poland overcome the 1919 typhus epidemic .
By 1918 , the Army realized that there was a shortage of physicians specializing in anesthesia , a low salary specialty required in the military operating rooms . Therefore , the Army reluctantly began hiring women physicians as civilian contract employees . The first Puerto Rican woman doctor to serve in the Army under contract was Dr. Dolores Piñero from San Juan . She was assigned to the San Juan base hospital where she worked as an anesthesiologist during the mornings and in the laboratory during the afternoons .
In New York , many Puerto Ricans joined the 369th Infantry Regiment which was mostly composed of Afro @-@ Americans . They were not allowed to fight alongside their white counterparts ; however , they were permitted to fight as members of a French unit in French uniforms . They fought along the Western Front in France , and their reputation earned them the nickname of " the Harlem Hell Fighters " by the Germans . Among them was Rafael Hernández Marín , considered by many as Puerto Rico 's greatest composer . The 369th was awarded French Croix de guerre for battlefield gallantry by the French President .
Marine aviation was fairly new , it came into existence on May 22 , 1912 , and the first major expansion of the Marine Corps ' air component , of which Puerto Rico played a major rule , came with America 's entrance into World War I. On January 6 , 1914 , First Lieutenant Bernard L. Smith established the Marine Section of the Navy Flying School in the island municipal Culebra . As the number of Marine Aviators grew so did the avid desire to separate from Naval Aviation . By doing so , the Marine Aviation was designated as separate from the United States Naval Aviation . The creation of a " Marine Corps Aviation Company in Puerto Rico consisted of 10 officers and 40 enlisted men .
The Porto Rico Regiment returned to Puerto Rico in March 1919 and was renamed the 65th Infantry Regiment under the Reorganization Act of June 4 , 1920 . It is estimated that 18 @,@ 000 Puerto Ricans from the Porto Rico Regiment served in the war and that 335 were wounded by the chemical gas experimentation which the United States conducted as part of its active chemical weapons program in Panama , however neither the military nor the War Department of the United States kept statistics in regard to the total number of Puerto Ricans who served in the regular units of the Armed Forces ( United States mainland forces ) , therefore , even though it is known that four Puerto Ricans died in combat , it is impossible to determine the exact number of Puerto Ricans who served and perished in World War I.
The need for a Puerto Rican National Guard unit became apparent to Major General Luis R. Esteves , who had served as instructor of Puerto Rican Officers for the Porto Rico Regiment of Infantry at Camp Las Casas in Puerto Rico . His request was met with the approval of the government and Puerto Rican Legislature . In 1919 , the first regiment of the Puerto Rican National Guard was formed , and General Luis R. Esteves became the first official Commandant of the Puerto Rican National Guard .
= = = Second Nicaraguan Campaign ( 1926 – 33 ) = = =
After World War I , Puerto Ricans fought on foreign shores as members of the United States Marine Corps . Civil war broke out in Nicaragua during the first months of 1926 , and upon the request of the Nicaraguan government , 3 @,@ 000 U.S. Marines were sent ashore to establish a neutral zone for the protection of American citizens . The American intervention was also known as the Banana Wars . Both Captain Pedro del Valle and Private Rafel Toro from Puerto Rico , participated in the Second Nicaraguan Campaign .
In 1926 , Captain del Valle served with the Gendarmerie of Haiti for three years and during that time , he also became active in the war against Augusto Sandino in Nicaragua . In 1927 , Lieutenant Jaime Sabater , from San Juan , Puerto Rico graduated from United States Naval Academy .
Private Rafel Toro , from Humacao , Puerto Rico , was part of the U.S. Marine Corps occupation force in Nicaragua , serving with the Guardia Nacional de Nicaragua . On July 25 , 1927 , Private Toro was assigned to advance guard duty in Nueva Segovia . As he rode into town , he was attacked ; returning fire , he was able to hold back the enemy until reinforcements arrived . He was mortally wounded in this action for which he was posthumously awarded the Navy Cross .
Puerto Rico suffered greatly during the Great Depression of the 1930s , and many Puerto Ricans moved to the East Coast of the United States looking for jobs and a better way of life . On the island , the unemployment rate continued to rise and many Puerto Ricans who were unable to find a job looked to the Armed Forces of the United States as a source of employment . Not only were they paid better than at the few other available jobs , but they were also guaranteed three meals a day , clothing , and shelter .
= = = The Rif War ( 1920 ) = = =
After the Spanish – American War , members of the Spanish forces and civilians who were loyal to the Spanish Crown were allowed to return to Spain . Those who returned to their motherland took with them their Puerto Rican spouses and children . Among those who were born in Puerto Rico and who would go on to serve in the Rif War as members of the Spanish mititary were General Manuel Goded Llopis and Captain Felix Arenas Gaspar . The Rif War is a rebellion against Spanish colonial rule took place in Spanish Morocco , a Spanish protectorate in 1919 . During the Rif War Captain Félix Arenas Gaspar , who was born in San Juan , distinguished himself in combat . He was posthumously awarded the Cruz Laureada de San Fernando " Laureate Cross of Saint Ferdinand " ( Spain 's version of the United States Medal of Honor ) for his actions in the defense of his company .
= = = Spanish Civil War ( 1936 – 39 ) = = =
Before the United States entered World War II , Puerto Ricans were already fighting on European soil , not only in the Rif War , but also on both sides of the Spanish Civil War .
The Spanish Civil War was a major conflict in Spain that started after an attempted coup d 'état committed by parts of the army , led by the Fascist General Francisco Franco , against the government of the Second Spanish Republic . Puerto Ricans fought on behalf of both of the factions involved , the " Nationalists " as members of the Spanish Army and the " Loyalists " ( Republicans ) as members of the Abraham Lincoln International Brigade .
Among the Puerto Ricans who fought alongside General Franco on behalf of the Nationalists was General Manuel Goded Llopis ( 1882 – 1936 ) , a high @-@ ranking officer in the Spanish Army . Llopis , who was born in San Juan , was named Chief of Staff of the Spanish Army of Africa , after his victories in the Rif War , took the Balearic Islands and by order of Franco , suppressed the rebellion of Asturias . Llopis was sent to lead the fight against the Anarchists in Catalonia , but his troops were outnumbered . He was captured and was sentenced to die by firing squad .
Among the many Puerto Ricans who fought on behalf of the Second Spanish Republic as members of the Abraham Lincoln Brigade , was Lieutenant Carmelo Delgado Delgado ( 1913 – 1937 ) , a leader of the Puerto Rican Nationalist Party from Guayama who upon the outbreak of the Spanish Civil War was in Spain in pursuit of his law degree . Delgado was an anti @-@ fascist who believed that the Spanish Nationalists were traitors . He fought in the Battle of Madrid , but was captured and was sentenced to die by firing squad on April 29 , 1937 .
= = = World War II = = =
= = = = The Pearl Harbor of the Atlantic = = = =
In 1940 , when Germany attacked Great Britain , the United States feared that if Germany controlled Great Britain , Mexico and the U.S. would be next . In the same year , President Franklin Delano Roosevelt ordered the construction of a naval base in the Atlantic similar to Pearl Harbor in Hawaii . The site was meant to provide anchorage , docking , repair facilities , fuel , and supplies for 60 % of the Atlantic Fleet . The naval base , which was named U.S. Naval Station Roosevelt Roads , became the largest naval installation in the world in landmass and was meant to be the Pearl Harbor of the Atlantic . However , with the defeat of Germany in 1945 , the United States concentrated all of their efforts to the war in the Pacific . In May 2003 , after six decades of existence , the base was officially shut down by the U.S. Navy .
In 1939 , a survey was conducted of possible air base sites . It was determined that Punta Borinquen was the best site for a major air base . Later that year , Major Karl S. Axtater assumed command of what was to become " Borinquen Army Air Field " ( Later renamed Ramey Air Force Base ) . The first squadron based at Borinquen Field was the 27th Bombardment Squadron , consisting of nine B @-@ 18A Bolo medium bombers . In 1940 , the air echelon of the 25th Bombardment Group ( 14 B @-@ 18A aircraft and two A @-@ 17 aircraft ) arrived at the base from Langley Field .
During World War II , the following squadrons were assigned to the airfield :
27th Engineer Battalion ( Combat ) , 9 Oct 1939 ( formed at Fort Dupont , Delaware ) – 20 Oct 1939 ( arrives in Puerto Rico )
Headquarters , 13th Composite Wing , 1 Nov 1940 – 6 Jan 1941 ; 1 May – 25 Oct 1941
Headquarters , 25th Bombardment Group , 1 Nov 1940 – 1 Nov 1942 ; 5 Oct 1943 – 24 Mar 1944
417th Bombardment Squadron , 21 Nov 1939 – 13 Apr 1942 ( B @-@ 18 Bolo )
10th Bombardment Squadron , 1 Nov 1940 – 1 Nov 1942 ( B @-@ 18 Bolo )
12th Bombardment Squadron , 1 Nov 1940 – 8 Nov 1941 ( B @-@ 18 Bolo )
35th Bombardment Squadron , 31 Oct – 11 Nov 1941 ( B @-@ 18 Bolo )
44th Bombardment Squadron ( 40th Bombardment Group ) 1 Apr 1941 – 16 Jun 1942 ( B @-@ 18 Bolo )
20th Troop Carrier Squadron ( Panama Air Depot ) Jun 1942 @-@ Jul 1943 ( C @-@ 47 Skytrain )
4th Tactical Reconnaissance Squadron ( 72d Reconnaissance Group ) 27 Oct 1943 – 21 May 1945 ; 5 Oct 1945 – 20 Aug 1946
123d AAA Battalion – Fort Brooke
501st Military Police Battalion ( Combat ) – Fort Brooke
Detached Enlisted Mens List – Fort Brooke
542d Military Police Battalion – Fort Brooke
Battery D of the 123d Antiaircraft Artillery Gun Battalion – Cataño
Battery B of the 253d Coast Artillery Regiment – Goat Island ( Isla de Cabras )
Battery B of the 123d AAA Battalion – Fort Brooke
Battery C of the 253d Coast Artillery – Fort Brooke
Battery C of the 123d AAA Battalion – far end of the harbor on the Rio Piedras
123d AAA Battalion Headquarters – Fort Buchanan
Battery A of the 123d AAA Battalion – Fort Buchanan
Antilles Air Command , 1 Mar – 25 Aug 1946
As : Antilles Air Division , 12 Jan 1948 – 22 Jan 1949
24th Composite Wing , 25 Aug 1946 – 28 Jun 1948
Navy Patrol Plane Squadron VP @-@ 31 – Borinquen Field
= = = = Puerto Ricans in the military = = = =
In October 1940 , the 295th and 296th Infantry Regiments of the Puerto Rican National Guard , founded by Major General Luis R. Esteves , were called into Federal Active Service and assigned to the Puerto Rican Department in accordance with the existing War Plan Orange .
There weren no Puerto Rican military @-@ related fatalities in the Japanese attack of Pearl Harbor . However , there was one civilian Puerto Rican fatality . Daniel LaVerne was a Puerto Rican armature boxer who was working at Pearl Harbor 's Red Hill underground fuel tank construction project when the Japanese attacked Pearl Harbor . He died as a result of the injuries which he received during the attack . His name is listed among the 2 @,@ 338 Americans killed or mortally wounded on December 7 , 1941 , in the Remembrance Exhibit in the back lawn of the USS Arizona Memorial Visitor Center at Pearl Harbor .
It is estimated by the Department of Defense that 65 @,@ 034 Puerto Ricans served in the U.S. military during World War II . Soldiers from the island , serving in the 65th Infantry Regiment , participated in combat in the European Theater — in Germany and Central Europe . Those who resided in the mainland of the United States were assigned to regular units of the military and served either in the European or Pacific theaters of the war . Some families had multiple members join the Armed Forces . Seven brothers of the Medina family known as " The Fighting Medinas " , fought in the war . They came from Río Grande , Puerto Rico and Brooklyn , New York . In some cases Puerto Ricans were subject to the racial discrimination which at that time was widespread in the United States .
World War II was also the first conflict in which women , other than nurses , were allowed to serve in the U.S. Armed Forces . However , when the United States entered World War II , Puerto Rican nurses volunteered for service but were not accepted into the Army or Navy Nurse Corps . As a result , many of the island 's women work force migrated to the mainland U.S. to work in the factories which produced military equipment . In 1944 , the Army Nurse Corps decided to actively recruit Puerto Rican nurses so that Army hospitals would not have to deal with the language barriers . Among them was Second Lieutenant Carmen Lozano Dumler , who became one of the first Puerto Rican female military officers .
In 1944 , the Army sent recruiters to the island to recruit no more than 200 women for the Women 's Army Corps ( WAC ) . Over 1 @,@ 000 applications were received for the unit which was to be composed of only 200 women . The Puerto Rican WAC unit , Company 6 , 2nd Battalion , 21st Regiment of the Women 's Army Auxiliary Corps , a segregated Hispanic unit , was assigned to the New York Port of Embarkation , after their basic training at Fort Oglethorpe , Georgia . They were assigned to work in military offices which planned the shipment of troops around the world . Among them was PFC Carmen García Rosado , who in 2006 , authored and published a book titled " LAS WACS @-@ Participacion de la Mujer Boricua en la Segunda Guerra Mundial " ( The WACs @-@ The participation of the Puerto Rican women in the Second World War ) , the first book to document the experiences of the first 200 Puerto Rican women who participated in said conflict . According to García Rosado , one of the hardships which Puerto Rican women in the military were subject to was the social and racial discrimination , which at the time was rampant in the United States against the Latino community .
The 149th Women 's Army Auxiliary Corps ( WAAC ) Post Headquarters Company was the first WAAC Company to go overseas , setting sail from New York Harbor for Europe on January 1943 . The unit arrived in Northern Africa on January 27 , 1943 , and rendered overseas duties in Algiers within General Dwight D. Eisenhower 's theatre headquarters . Tech4 Carmen Contreras @-@ Bozak , a member of this unit , was the first Hispanic to serve in the Women 's Army Corps as an interpreter and in numerous administrative positions .
The 65th Infantry , after an extensive training program in 1942 , was sent to Panama to protect the Pacific and the Atlantic sides of the isthmus in 1943 . On November 25 , 1943 , Colonel Antulio Segarra , proceeded Col. John R. Menclenhall as Commander of the 65th Infantry , thus becoming the first Puerto Rican Regular Army officer to command a Regular Army regiment .
On January 12 , 1944 , the 296th Infantry Regiment departed from Puerto Rico to the Panama Canal Zone . In April 1945 , the unit returned to Puerto Rico and soon after was sent to Honolulu , Hawaii . The 296th arrived on June 25 , 1945 and was attached to the Central Pacific Base Command at Kahuku Air Base . Lieutenant Colonel Gilberto José Marxuach , " The Father of the San Juan Civil Defense " , was the commander of both the 1114th Artillery Co. and the 1558th Engineers Co .
Also on January 1944 , the 65th Infantry Regiment was embarked for Jackson Barracks in New Orleans and later sent to Fort Eustis in Newport News , Virginia in preparation for overseas deployment to North Africa . After they arrived at Casablanca , they underwent further training . By April 29 , 1944 , the 65th Infantry regiment was sent to North Africa , arriving at Casablanca , where they underwent further training . For some Puerto Ricans , this would be the first time that they were away from their homeland . Being away from their homeland for the first time would serve as an inspiration for compositions of two Bolero 's ; " En mi viejo San Juan " by Noel Estrada and " Despedida " ( My Good @-@ bye ) , a farewell song written by Pedro Flores and interpreted by Daniel Santos . By April 29 , 1944 , the Regiment had landed in Italy and moved on to Corsica . On September 22 , 1944 , the 65th Infantry landed in France and was committed to action on the Maritime Alps at Peira Cava . On December 13 , 1944 , the 65th Infantry , under the command of Lieutenant Colonel Juan César Cordero Dávila , relieved the 2nd Battalion of the 442nd Infantry Regiment , a Regiment which was made up of Japanese Americans under the command of Col. Virgil R. Miller , a native of Puerto Rico . The 3rd Battalion fought against and defeated Germany 's 34th Infantry Division 's 107th Infantry Regiment . There were 47 battle casualties including Pvt. Sergio Sanchez @-@ Sanchez and Sergeant Angel Martinez , from the town of Sabana Grande , who were the first two Puerto Ricans to be killed in combat action from the 65th Infantry . On March 18 , 1945 , the regiment was sent to the District of Mannheim and assigned to military occupation duties . In all , the 65th Infantry participated in the battles of Naples @-@ Fogis , Rome @-@ Arno , central Europe and of the Rhineland .
It was during this conflict that CWO2 Joseph B. Aviles , Sr. , a member of the United States Coast Guard and the first Hispanic @-@ American to be promoted to Chief Petty Officer , received a war @-@ time promotion to Chief Warrant Officer ( November 27 , 1944 ) , thus becoming the first Hispanic American to reach that level as well . Aviles , who served in the United States Navy as Chief Gunner 's Mate in World War I , spent most of the war at St. Augustine , Florida training recruits .
= = = = Commanders = = = =
This was also the first time that Puerto Ricans played important roles as commanders in the Armed Forces of the United States . Besides Lieutenant Colonel Juan César Cordero Dávila who served with the 65th Infantry and Colonel Virgil R. Miller , a West Point graduate , born in San Germán , Puerto Rico , who was the Regimental Commander of the 442d Regimental Combat Team , a unit which was composed of " Nisei " ( second generation Americans of Japanese descent ) , that rescued Lost Texas Battalion of the 36th Infantry Division , in the forests of the Vosges Mountains in northeastern France . Colonel Virgilio N. Cordero , Jr . ( 1893 – 1980 ) was the Battalion Commander of the 31st Infantry Regiment on December 8 , 1941 , when Japanese planes attacked the U.S. military installations in the Philippines . Cordero and his men underwent brutal torture and humiliation during the Bataan Death March and nearly four years of captivity . He was one of nearly 1 @,@ 600 members of the 31st Infantry who were taken as prisoners . Half of these men perished while prisoners of the Japanese forces . After Cordero gained his freedom , when the Allied troops defeated the Japanese , he was sent to Italy and in 1946 , returned to the United States . Cordero , who retired with the rank of Brigadier General , wrote about his experiences as a prisoner of war and what he went through during the Bataan Death March . He authored My Experiences during the War with Japan , which was published in 1950 . In 1957 , he authored a revised Spanish version titled Bataan y la Marcha de la Muerte ; Volume 7 of Colección Vida e Historia .
The following seven Puerto Ricans , who graduated from the United States Naval Academy , served in command positions in the Navy and the Marine Corps . Lieutenant General Pedro Augusto del Valle , was the first Hispanic Marine Corps general . He played a key role in the Guadalcanal Campaign and the Battle of Guam and became the Commanding General of the First Marine Division . Del Valle played an instrumental role in the defeat of the Japanese forces in Okinawa and was in charge of the reorganization of Okinawa . Admiral Horacio Rivero , Jr . , USN , who later became the first Puerto Rican to become a four @-@ star Admiral ; Captain Marion Frederic Ramírez de Arellano , USN , the first Hispanic submarine commanding officer . As submarine commander of the USS Balao ( SS @-@ 285 ) , he is credited with sinking two Japanese ships ; Rear Admiral Rafael Celestino Benítez , USN , a highly decorated submarine commander who was the recipient of two Silver Star Medals ; Rear Admiral José M. Cabanillas , USN , who was the Executive Officer of the USS Texas which participated in the invasions of North Africa and Normandy ( D @-@ Day ) ; Rear Admiral Edmund Ernest García , USN , commander of the destroyer USS Sloat who saw action in the invasions of Africa , Sicily , and France ; Rear Admiral Frederick Lois Riefkohl , USN , the first Puerto Rican to graduate from the Naval Academy and recipient of the Navy Cross and Colonel Jaime Sabater , Sr. , USMC , who commanded the 1st Battalion , 9th Marines during the Bougainville amphibious operations . Sabater also participated in the Battle of Guam ( July 21 – August 10 , 1944 ) as Executive officer of the 9th Marines . He was wounded in action on July 21 , 1944 and awarded the Purple Heart .
= = = = Notable combatants = = = =
Among the many Puerto Ricans who distinguished themselves in combat were Sergeant First Class Agustín Ramos Calero and the first three Puerto Ricans to be awarded the Distinguished Service Cross : PFC . Luis F. Castro , Private Anibal Irrizarry and PFC Joseph R. Martinez .
PFC Joseph ( José ) R. Martinez , born in San Germán , destroyed a German Infantry unit and tank in Tunis by providing heavy artillery fire , saving his platoon from being attacked in the process . He received the Distinguished Service Cross from General George S. Patton , thus becoming the first Puerto Rican recipient of said military decoration . His citation reads as follow :
Sergeant First Class Agustín Ramos Calero was awarded a total of 22 decorations and medals his actions in Europe during World War II , thus becoming most decorated soldier in the United States Military during that war .
= = = = Aviators = = = =
Puerto Ricans also served in the United States Army Air Forces . In 1944 , Puerto Rican aviators were sent to the Tuskegee Army Air Field in Tuskegee , Alabama to train the famed 99th Fighter Squadron of the Tuskegee Airmen . The Tuskegee Airmen were the first African @-@ American military aviators in the United States armed forces . Puerto Ricans were also involved in clerical positions with the Tuskegee unit . Among the Puerto Ricans who helped make the Tuskegee experiment a successful one were T / Sgt. Pablo Diaz Albortt , an NCO ( Non Commissioned Officer ) in charge of the Special Service Office , and Eugene Calderon , who was assigned to the " Red Tail " unit , as the Company Clerk . By the end of the war , the Tuskegee Airmen were credited with 109 Luftwaffe aircraft shot down , a patrol boat run aground by machine @-@ gun fire , and destruction of numerous fuel dumps , trucks and trains .
Among the Puerto Ricans who served in either the Royal Canadian Air Force , the British Royal Air Force or the United States Army Air Forces during the war and distinguished themselves as fighter pilots and bombardiers were Captains Mihiel " Mike " Gilormini and Alberto A. Nido , Lieutenants José Antonio Muñiz and César Luis González , and T / Sgt. Clement Resto .
Captain Mihiel " Mike " Gilormini served in the Royal Air Force and in United States Army Air Forces as a fighter pilot during World War II . He was the recipient of the Silver Star Medal , the Air Medal with four clusters and the Distinguished Flying Cross 5 times . Gilormini later became a co @-@ founder of the Puerto Rico Air National Guard and retired as Brigadier General .
Captain Alberto A. Nido served in the Royal Canadian Air Force , the Royal Air Force and in the United States Army Air Forces during the war . He flew missions as a bomber pilot for the RCAF and as a Supermarine Spitfire fighter pilot for the RAF . As member of the RAF , he belonged to 67th Reconnaissance Squadron who participated in 275 combat missions . Nido later transferred to the USAAF 's 67th Fighter Group as a P @-@ 51 Mustang fighter pilot . He was awarded the Distinguished Flying Cross with four oak leaf clusters and the Air Medal with four oak leaf clusters . Nido co @-@ founded the Puerto Rico Air National Guard and , as Gilormini , retired a Brigadier General .
Lieutenant José Antonio Muñiz served with distinction in the China Burma India Theater . During his tour of duty he flew 20 combat missions against the Imperial Japanese Army Air Force and shot down a Mitsubishi A6M Zero . Muñiz was also a co @-@ founder of the Puerto Rico Air National Guard .
2nd Lieutenant César Luis González , a co @-@ pilot of a C @-@ 47 , was the first Puerto Rican pilot in the United States Army Air Forces . He was one of the initial participants of the invasion of Sicily on July 10 , 1943 also known as Operation Husky . During the invasion of Sicily , he flew on two night missions , the first on July 9 , where his mission was to release paratroops of 82nd Airborne Division on the area of Gela and the second on July 11 , when he dropped reinforcements in the area . His unit was awarded a " DUC " for carrying out this second mission in spite of bad weather and heavy attack by enemy ground and naval forces . González died on November 22 , 1943 , when his plane crashed during training off the end of the runway at Castelvetrano . He was posthumously promoted to First Lieutenant .
T / Sgt. Clement Resto served with the 303rd Bomb Group and participated in numerous bombing raids over Germany . During a bombing mission over Düren , Germany , Resto 's plane , a B @-@ 17 Flying Fortress , was shot down . He was captured by the Gestapo and sent to Stalag XVII @-@ B where he spent the rest of the war as a prisoner of war . Resto , who lost an eye during his last mission , was awarded a Purple Heart , a POW Medal , and an Air Medal with one battle star after he was liberated from captivity .
= = Human experimentation = =
Puerto Rican soldiers were also subject to human experimentation by the United States Armed Forces . On Panama 's San Jose Island , Puerto Rican soldiers were exposed to mustard gas to see if they reacted differently than their " white " counterparts . According to Susan L. Smith of the University of Alberta , the researchers were searching for evidence of race @-@ based differences in the responses of the human body to mustard gas exposure .
= = Post World War II = =
The American participation in the Second World War came to an end in Europe on May 8 , 1945 when the western Allies celebrated " V @-@ E Day " ( Victory in Europe Day ) upon Germany 's surrender , and in the Asian theater on August 14 , 1945 " V @-@ J Day " ( Victory over Japan Day ) when the Japanese surrendered by signing the Japanese Instrument of Surrender . Lieutenant Junior Grade Maria Rodriguez Denton ( U.S. Navy ) , born in Guanica , Puerto Rico , was the first woman from Puerto Rico who became an officer in the United States Navy as member of the WAVES . It was LTJG Denton who forwarded the news ( through channels ) to President Harry S. Truman that the war had ended .
On October 27 , 1945 , the 65th Infantry sailed home from France . Arriving at Puerto Rico on November 9 , 1945 , they were received by the local population as national heroes and given a victorious reception at the Military Terminal of Camp Buchanan .
According to the book " Historia Militar De Puerto Rico " ( Military history of Puerto Rico ) , by historian Col. Héctor Andrés Negroni , the men of the 65th Infantry were awarded the following military decorations :
65th Infantry Regiment Individual Awards in World War II
The 295th Regiment returned on February 20 , 1946 from the Panama Canal Zone , and the 296th Regiment on March 6 . Both regiments were awarded the American Theatre streamer and the Pacific Theatre streamer . They were inactivated that same year .
According to the 4th Report of the Director of Selective Service of 1948 , a total of 51 @,@ 438 Puerto Ricans served in the Armed Forces during World War II , however the Department of Defense in its report titled " Number of Puerto Ricans serving in the U.S. Armed Forces during National Emergencies " stated that the total of Puerto Ricans who served was 65 @,@ 034 and from that total 2 @,@ 560 were listed as wounded . Unfortunately , the exact total amount of Puerto Ricans who served in World War II in other units , besides those of Puerto Rico , cannot be determined because the military categorized Hispanics under the same heading as whites . The only racial groups to have separate stats kept were African @-@ Americans and Asian Americans .
= = Revolt against the United States = =
During the mid @-@ 1940s , various pro @-@ independence groups , such as the Puerto Rican Independence Party , which believed in gaining the island 's independence through the electoral process , and the Puerto Rican Nationalist Party , which believed in the concept of armed revolution , existed in Puerto Rico . On October 30 , 1950 , the nationalists , under the leadership of Dr. Pedro Albizu Campos staged uprisings in the towns of Ponce , Mayagüez , Naranjito , Arecibo , Utuado ( Utuado Uprising ) , San Juan ( San Juan Nationalist revolt ) and Jayuya .
The most notable of these occurred in Jayuya in what became known as El Grito de Jayuya ( Jayuya Uprising ) . Nationalist leader Blanca Canales led the armed nationalists into the town and attacked the police station . A small battle with the police occurred ; one officer was killed and three others were wounded before the rest dropped their weapons and surrendered . The nationalists cut the telephone lines and burned the post office . Canales led the group into the town square where the illegal light blue version of the Puerto Rican Flag was raised ( it was against the law to carry a Puerto Rican Flag from 1898 to 1952 . ) In the town square , Canales gave a speech and declared Puerto Rico a free Republic . The town was held by the nationalists for three days .
The United States declared martial law in Puerto Rico and sent the Puerto Rico National Guard to attack Jayuya . The town was attacked by U.S. bomber planes and ground artillery . Even though part of the town was destroyed , news of this military action was prevented from spreading outside of Puerto Rico . It was called an incident between Puerto Ricans . The top leaders of the nationalist party , including Albizu Campos and Blanca Canales , were arrested and sent to jail to serve long prison terms .
Griselio Torresola , Albizu Campos 's bodyguard , was in the United States at the time of the Jayuya Uprising . Torresola and fellow nationalist Oscar Collazo , were to assassinate President Harry S. Truman . On November 1 , 1950 , they attacked the Blair House where Torresola and a policeman , Leslie Coffelt , lost their lives . Oscar Collazo was arrested and sentenced to death . His sentence was later commuted to life imprisonment by President Truman and he eventually received a presidential pardon .
= = Cold War ( 1947 – 91 ) = =
After World War II a geopolitical , ideological , and economic struggle emerged between the United States and the Soviet Union which included their respective allies . This struggle was popularly named the Cold War because open hostilities never occurred between the main parties involved . The so @-@ called " war " involved a nuclear and conventional weapons arms race , networks of military alliances , economic warfare and trade embargoes , propaganda , espionage , and proxy wars . The Cuban Missile Crisis of 1962 was the most important direct confrontation . The Korean and Vietnam War were among the major civil wars polarized along Cold War lines .
= = = Puerto Rico Air National Guard = = =
Colonel Mihiel Gilormini , was named base commander to the 198th Fighter Squadron in Puerto Rico . Gilormini and Colonel Alberto A. Nido , together with Lieutenant Colonel Jose Antonio Muñiz , played an instrumental role in the creation of the Puerto Rico Air National Guard on November 23 , 1947 . The Puerto Rico Air National Guard is a part of the Air Reserve Component ( ARC ) of the United States Air Force . Both Gilormini and Nido were eventually promoted to Brigadier General and served as commanders of PRANG . In 1963 , the Air National Guard Base , at the San Juan International airport in Puerto Rico , was renamed " Muñiz Air National Guard Base " in honor of Lt. Col. Jose Antonio Muñiz who perished in July 4 , 1960 when his F @-@ 86 crashed during take off during the 4th of July festivities in Puerto Rico .
= = = The USS Cochino incident = = =
The USS Cochino ( SS @-@ 345 ) was a Gato @-@ class submarine under the command of Rafael Celestino Benítez . On August 12 , 1949 , the Cochino , along with the USS Tusk ( SS @-@ 426 ) , departed from the harbor of Portsmouth , England . Both diesel submarines were supposed to be on a cold @-@ water training mission , however , according to Blind Man 's Bluff : The Untold Story of American Submarine Espionage , the submarines were part of an American intelligence operation . They had snorkels that allowed them to spend long periods underwater , largely invisible to an enemy , and they carried electronic gear designed to detect far @-@ off radio signals . The mission of the Cochino and the Tusk was to eavesdrop on communications that revealed the testing of submarine @-@ launched Soviet missiles that might soon carry nuclear warheads . Thus , making this the first American undersea spy missions of the cold war .
The mission was cut short when one the Cochino 's 4 @,@ 000 @-@ pound batteries caught fire . Commander Benitez directed the firefighting , trying both to save the ship and his crew from the toxic gases . The crew members of the Tusk rescued all except one Cochino crew member and convinced Commander Benitez , who was the last man on the Cochino , to board the Tusk . The Cochino sank off the coast of Norway two minutes after Benitez 's departure . Benitez retired as a Rear Admiral from the Navy in 1957 .
= = = The Korean War = = =
Sixty @-@ one thousand Puerto Ricans served in the Korean War , including 18 @,@ 000 Puerto Ricans who enlisted in the continental United States . Puerto Ricans distinguished themselves as part of the 65th Infantry Regiment receiving many awards and recognitions ; however , they were also involved in the largest court martial of the Korean War .
On August 26 , 1950 , the 65th Infantry departed from Puerto Rico and arrived in Pusan , Korea on September 23 , 1950 . It was during the long sea voyage that the 65th Infantry was nicknamed the " Borinqueneers " . The name is a combination of the words " Borinquen " ( the Taíno name for Puerto Rico ) and " Buccaneers " . The men of the 65th were the first infantrymen to meet the enemy on the battle fields of Korea . Among the hardships suffered by the Puerto Ricans was the lack of warm clothing during the cold , harsh winters . The enemy made many attempts to encircle the Regiment , but each time they failed because of the many casualties inflicted by the 65th . On December 1950 , U.S. Marines found themselves at the Chosin Reservoir area . In June 1951 , The 65th was part of a task force which enabled the Marines to withdraw from the Hauack @-@ on Reservoir . When the Marines were encircled by the Chinese Communist troops close to the Sino @-@ Korean border , the 65th rushed to their defense . As a consequence , the Marines were able to return safely to their ships .
Among the battles and operations in which the 65th participated was the Operation " Killer " of January 1951 , becoming the first Regiment to cross the Han River . On April 1951 , the Regiment participated in the Uijonber Corridor drives and on June 1951 , the 65th was the third Regiment to cross the Han Ton River . Master Sergeant Juan E. Negrón will receive the Medal of Honor posthumously on March 18 , 2014 , for his courageous actions while serving as a member of Company L , 65th Infantry Regiment , 3d Infantry Division during combat operations against an armed enemy in Kalma @-@ Eri , Korea on April 28 , 1951 . The 65th was the Regiment that took and held Cherwon and they were also instrumental in breaking the Iron Triangle of Hill 717 on July 1951 . On November 1951 , the Regiment fought off an attack by two Regimental size enemy units , with success . Colonel Juan César Cordero Dávila was named commander of 65th Infantry on February 8 , 1952 , thus becoming one of the highest @-@ ranking ethnic officers in the Army . On July 3 , 1952 , the Regiment defended the MLR for 47 days and saw action at Cognac , King and Queen with successful attacks on Chinese positions . On October the Regiment also saw action in the Cherwon Sector and on Iron Horse , Hill 391 , whose lower part was called " Jackson Heights " . On September 1952 , the 65th Infantry was holding on to a hill known as " Outpost Kelly " . Chinese Communist forces that had joined the North Koreans overran the hill in what became known as the Battle for Outpost Kelly . Twice the 65th Regiment was overwhelmed by Chinese artillery and driven off .
In June 1953 , the 2nd Battalion conducted a series of successful raids on Hill 412 and in November , the Regiment successfully counterattacked enemy units in the Numsong Valley and held their positions until the truce signing between all parts involved .
= = = = Mass court @-@ martial = = = =
Col. Cordero Dávila was relieved of his command by Col. Chester B. DeGavre , a West Point graduate and a " continental " officer from the mainland United States and the officer staff of the 65th was replaced with non @-@ Hispanic officers . DeGavre ordered that the unit stop calling itself the Borinqueneers , cut their special rations of rice and beans , ordered the men to shave off their mustaches and had one of them wear signs that read " I am a coward " . It is believed that as a result of this humiliation , combat exhaustion , and the language barrier where factors that influenced some of the men of Company L of the 65th in their refusal to continue to fight .
In December 1954 , 162 Puerto Ricans of the 65th Infantry were arrested , 95 were court martialed , and 91 were found guilty and sentenced to prison terms ranging from 1 to 18 years of hard labor . It was the largest mass court martial of the Korean War . The Secretary of the Army Robert T. Stevens moved quickly to remit the sentences and granted clemency and pardons to all those involved . Though the men who were court martialed were pardoned , there is currently a campaign for a formal exoneration .
An Army report released in 2001 blamed the breakdown of the 65th on the following factors : a shortage of officers and noncommissioned officers , a rotation policy that removed combat @-@ experienced leaders and soldiers , tactics that led to high casualties , an ammunition shortage , communication problems between largely white , English @-@ speaking officers and Spanish @-@ speaking Puerto Rican enlisted men , and declining morale . The report also found bias in the prosecution of the Puerto Ricans , citing instances of continental soldiers who were not charged after refusing to fight in similar circumstances , before and after Jackson Heights .
= = = Post Korean War = = =
The 65th Infantry was credited with battle participation in nine campaigns . Among the distinctions awarded to the members of the 65th were a Medal of Honor , 10 Distinguished Service Crosses , 256 Silver Stars and 595 Bronze Stars . According to El Nuevo Día newspaper , May 30 , 2004 , a total of 756 Puerto Ricans lost their lives in Korea and a total of 3 @,@ 630 men were wounded , from all four branches of the U.S. Armed Forces . More than half of these were from the 65th Infantry ( This is without including non @-@ Puerto Ricans ) . The 65th Infantry returned to Puerto Rico and was deactivated in 1956 . However , Major General Juan César Cordero Dávila , Puerto Rico 's Adjutant General ( 1958 – 65 ) , persuaded the Department of the Army to transfer the 65th Infantry from the regular Army to the Puerto Rican National Guard . This was the only unit ever transferred from active component Army to the Army Guard .
65th Infantry Regiment
Individual Awards in the Korean War
Among the Puerto Ricans from the regiment who distinguished themselves are : Brigadier General Antonio Rodríguez Balinas ( awarded two Silver Stars ) , Colonel Carlos Betances Ramírez ( only Puerto Rican officer to command an infantry battalion ) , Master Sergeant Pedro Rodríguez ( awarded two Silver Stars ) , and Staff Sergeant Modesto Cartagena ( the most decorated Hispanic in history ) . Other Puerto Ricans who distinguished themselves were United States Marines Private First Class Fernando Luis García , who became the first Puerto Rican recipient of the Medal of Honor when he covered a grenade with his body , saving the lives of his fellow Marines and PFC . Ramón Núñez @-@ Juárez and PFC Enrique Romero @-@ Nieves , who were awarded the Navy Cross . On February 21 , 2014 , President Barack Obama announced that three Puerto Ricans who fought in the Korean War will posthumously be awarded the Medal of Honor . They are Master Sergeant Juan E. Negrón of the 65th Infantry Regiment , Private Demensio Rivera of the 7th Infantry Regiment , 3d Infantry Division and Private Miguel A. Vera of the 38th Infantry Regiment , 2d Infantry Division . Master Sergeant Juan E. Negron of the 65th Infantry Regiment , Private Demensio Rivera pf the 7th Infantry Regiment , 3d Infantry Division and Private Miguel A. Vera of the 38th Infantry Regiment , 2d Infantry Division .
Puerto Rican women continued to volunteer for military service during and after the war . CWO3 Rose Franco was the first Puerto Rican woman to become a Chief Warrant Officer in the U.S. Marine Corps . With the outbreak of the Korean War , Rose surprised her family by announcing that she was leaving college to join the United States Marine Corps . In 1965 , Rose was named Administrative Assistant to the Secretary of the Navy Paul Henry Nitze by the administration of President Lyndon B. Johnson . 1st Lieutenant Gloria Esparra Petersen was an Army nurse at Walter Reed Army Hospital in Washington , D.C. , during the War . Captain Julia Benitez Aviles was the first Puerto Rican servicewoman to obtain the rank of captain . She joined the Army Nurse Corps in 1950 and served in Occupation Germany ; Washington , D.C. ; Texas ; and Puerto Rico as a nurse anesthetist , retiring in 1964 . Lieutenant Nilda Carrulas Cedero Fuertes joined the Army Nurse Corps in 1953 , serving on active duty until 1964 . She then joined the Reserves , where she served until 1990 . Among her assignments in the military was teaching the latest modern nursing techniques to Nicaraguan Army nurses while TDY ( on temporary duty ) in Nicaragua for six months .
= = = Cuban Missile Crisis = = =
The Cuban Missile Crisis was a tense confrontation between the Soviet Union and the United States over the Soviet deployment of nuclear missiles in Cuba . On October 22 , 1962 , Admiral Horacio Rivero , Jr. was the commander of the American fleet sent by President John F. Kennedy to set up a quarantine ( blockade ) of the Soviet ships . On October 28 , Soviet Premier Nikita Khrushchev ordered the removal of the Soviet missiles in Cuba , and Kennedy ordered an end of the quarantine of Cuba on November 20 , bringing an end to the crisis . Admiral Rivero later served as U.S. Ambassador to Spain ( 1972 – 75 ) .
= = = Vietnam War = = =
During the Vietnam War , an estimated 48 @,@ 000 Puerto Ricans served in the four branches of the armed forces . Some sources state that a total of 345 Puerto Ricans who resided in the island died in combat , however according to a report by the Department of Defense , titled " Number of Puerto Ricans serving in the U.S. Armed Forces during National Emergencies " the total number of Puerto Ricans who died was 455 and that were wounded was 3 @,@ 775 . A total of 17 men were listed as Missing in Action ( MIA ) , and of these , PFC . Humberto Acosta @-@ Rosario is the only one whose body has never been recovered and is currently still listed as MIA . Five Puerto Ricans — Staff Sergeant Felix M. Conde @-@ Falcon , Spc4 Héctor Santiago Colón , Captain Eurípides Rubio , PFC Carlos Lozada and Captain Humbert Roque Versace — were awarded the Medal of Honor , the highest United States military decoration . Lance Corporal Jose L. Rivera , Corporal Miguel Rivera @-@ Sotomayor , and Sergeant Angel Mendez , members of the United States Marine Corps , were awarded the Navy Cross for their heroic actions . Mendez was posthumously awarded the Navy Cross for his actions on March 16 , 1967 , for saving the life of his platoon commander , Lieutenant Ronald D. Castille , ( one of the seven justices of the Supreme Court of Pennsylvania ) . U.S. Senator Charles Schumer has recommended that Mendez ' award be upgraded to Medal of Honor . The most decorated Hispanic American soldier in the Vietnam War was Sergeant First Class Jorge Otero Barreto from the town of Vega Baja , Puerto Rico . Otero @-@ Barreto , has also been called by the media , the most decorated U.S. soldier of the Vietnam War . Sgt. Otero @-@ Barreto was a member of the U.S. Army . From 1961 to 1970 , Otero Barreto served five tours in Southeast Asia , starting as an advisor who helped train Vietnamese troops . He was awarded 38 decorations , among them 3 Silver Star Medals , 5 Bronze Star Medals with Valor , 4 Army Commendation Medals , 5 Purple Heart Medals and 5 Air Medals .
Other Puerto Ricans who served in Vietnam and had distinguished military careers include : Major General Salvador E. Felices , Rear Admiral Diego E. Hernández , Colonel Héctor Andrés Negroni and Brigadier General Ruben A. Cubero who in 1991 became the first person of Hispanic heritage to be named Dean of Faculty of the United States Air Force Academy .
Two Puerto Ricans who served in Vietnam held positions in the Administration of President George W. Bush . They are Dr. Richard Carmona , a former Green Beret who was awarded two Purple Hearts and was appointed Surgeon General in March 2002 , and Major General William A. Navas Jr . , who was awarded the Bronze Star Medal and was named Assistant Secretary of the Navy on June 6 , 2001 . In September 22 , 2015 , the documentary “ On Two Fronts : Latinos & Vietnam ” examined the Latino experience during the Vietnam War .
= = = Operation El Dorado Canyon = = =
On April 14 , 1986 , in response to acts of terrorism sponsored by Libyan leader Muammar al @-@ Gaddafi — in particular , the Berlin disco bombing of April 6 — and against the backdrop of heightened tension and clashes between the Libyan and U.S. Navies over Libya 's disputed territorial water claims in the Gulf of Sidra , the United States launched a surprise attack on key facilities in Tripoli and other parts of Libya . The attack was code @-@ named Operation El Dorado Canyon .
With the acquiescence of the British government , 24 U.S. Air Force F @-@ 111F fighter @-@ bombers took off from U.S. air bases in England . Attacking in the pre @-@ dawn hours of April 15 , their main objectives were 22 airfields , terrorist training camps , and other military installations . Captain Fernando L. Ribas @-@ Dominicci was one of the pilots who participated in the Libyan air raid . His F @-@ 111 was shot down over the disputed Gulf of Sidra off the Libyan coast . Ribas @-@ Dominicci and his weapons systems officer , Captain Paul F. Lorence , were the only U.S. casualties . Al @-@ Qaddafi , who was also personally targeted , escaped harm , but his daughter was killed .
= = Post Cold War campaigns = =
On October 7 , 1975 , President Gerald R. Ford signed legislation permitting women to enter the United States service academies . As a consequence Puerto Rican women who graduated from the academies would be allowed to serve in sensitive leadership positions during their military careers .
In 1980 , Captain Linda Garcia Cubero became the first Hispanic woman to graduate from a military academy . Garcia Cubero was a member of the first class of women to graduate from the United States Air Force Academy .
That same year then Lieutenant Olga E. Custodio became the first female Hispanic U.S. military pilot . Custodio studied at the University of Puerto Rico and joined that institutions ROTC program . She graduated from the Officer Training School in January 1980 , and was commissioned a Second Lieutenant . She holds the distinction of being first Latina to complete U.S. Air Force military pilot training . One of her assignments in the military was that of instructor pilot where she was the first female Northrop T @-@ 38 Talon ( T @-@ 38 ) UPT flight instructor at Laughlin AFB . After retiring in 2003 , with the rank Lieutenant Colonel , she became the first Latina to become a commercial airline captain .
In 1984 , Michelle Fraley became the first Puerto Rican women to graduate from West Point . Fraley ( née Hernández ) graduated from West Point Military Academy and eventually served as chief of staff of the Army Network Enterprise Technology Command . She retired in 2014 with the rank of Colonel .
= = = Gulf War and Operation Restore Hope = = =
In 1990 , 1 @,@ 700 Puerto Rican National Guardsmen were among the 20 @,@ 000 Hispanics deployed to the Persian Gulf in Operations Desert Shield and Desert Storm as part of the Gulf War . Four Puerto Ricans lost their lives , including Captain Manuel Rivera , Jr. of the Marine Corps , a Puerto Rican from the South Bronx , who on January 22 , 1991 became the first soldier to be killed in Operation Desert Shield . Rivera was killed during a support mission over the Persian Gulf . On January 30 , 1991 , the U.S. House of Representatives paid tribute to Rivera .
During this era Haydee Javier Kimmich , from Cabo Rojo , Puerto Rico , was the highest @-@ ranking Hispanic female in the Navy when she was promoted to the rank of Capatin . The naval rank of Captain is the equivalent of Colonel in the other US armed forces . Kimmich was assigned as the Chief of Orthopedics at the Navy Medical Center in Bethesda and reorganized their Reservist Department during Operation Desert Storm . In 1998 , she was selected as the woman of the year in Puerto Rico .
Operation Restore Hope was an American military operation with the support of the United Nations that was formed to deliver humanitarian aid and restore order to the African nation of Somalia , which was suffering from a severe famine , anarchy , and domination by a number of warlords following the collapse of Siad Barre 's Marxist government and the outbreak of the Somalian Civil War . On January 30 , 1993 , Private First Class Domingo Arroyo , Jr . , a Marine from Puerto Rico , became the first of the 44 American soldiers killed during the operation . He was ambushed in Mogadishu , the capital of Somalia , by Somali warlords .
= = September 11 attacks = =
On September 11 , 2001 , United Airlines Flight 93 was hijacked by four members of al @-@ Qaeda as part of the September 11 attacks . The hijackers ' specific target was the United States Capitol . Among the pilots available that day of the 113th Wing of the DC Air National Guard were Lieutenant Colonel Marc H. Sasseville and Lieutenant Heather Penney Garcia . They were given the mission of finding the United Airlines Flight 93 and destroying it however they could . Since the fighter jets were absent of missiles and packed only with dummy ammunition from a recent training mission , there was only one way to do it and that was by ramming the aircraft . The fighter jets passed over the ravaged Pentagon building , however it was not until hours later that they would find out that United 93 had already gone down in a field outside Shanksville , Pennsylvania , killing all 44 people aboard including the 4 hijackers .
= = = 21st century campaigns = = =
In the 21st century , Puerto Ricans have participated in the military campaigns of Afghanistan and Iraq , in what the United States and its allies refer to as the War on Terror . Among those that have perished during the Irag Operation are the first three Puerto Rican women to die in a foreign combat zone . They are Specialist Frances M. Vega , Specialist Lizbeth Robles and Specialist Aleina Ramirez Gonzalez . On November 2 , 2003 , Specialist Frances M. Vega became the first female Puerto Rican soldier born in the United States to die in a war zone . A ground @-@ to @-@ air missile fired by insurgents in Fallujah hit the Chinook transport helicopter Vega was in ; she was one of 16 soldiers who lost their lives in the crash that followed . On March 1 , 2005 , Specialist Lizbeth Robles became the first female Puerto Rican soldier born on the island to die in Iraq when her Humvee was involved in an accident . On July 10 , 2007 , Captain María Inés Ortiz , who was assigned to a hospital in an area known as the " Green Zone " in Baghdad , Iraq , became the first Puerto Rican nurse to die in combat and the first Army nurse to die in the Iraq War after the area came under a heavy mortar attack .
Brigadier General Hector E. Pagan graduated from the U.S. Army War College in 2003 . Pagan took command of the 5th SF Group ( Airborne ) in Baghdad , Iraq , Operation Iraqi Freedom . He led the 5th SF Group ( Airborne ) in combat as the commander of the Combined Joint Special Operations Task Force in the Arabian Peninsula for two combat tours in 2003 and 2004 . Later Pagan became the first Hispanic of Puerto Rican descent to become Deputy Commanding General of the U.S.Army John F. Kennedy Special Warfare Center and School at Fort Bragg , North Carolina .
That same year , Colonel Maritza Sáenz Ryan , who had participated in both Operations Desert Shield and Desert Storm , became the first woman and first Hispanic West Point graduate to serve as an academic department head . She also has the distinction of being the most senior ranking Hispanic Judge Advocate and has been instrumental in raising awareness of the inequity and impracticality of the Combat Exclusion Policy , which restricts women 's roles and opportunities in the military regardless of talent or ability .
Colonel Evelio Otero , Jr. helped establish the U.S. Central Command Headquarters at Qatar . When the United States military began Operations Enduring Freedom and Iraqi Freedom , Otero was called upon to establish the Intelligence Division which supported the military operations . The first Sensitive Site Exploitation of the Ba 'ath Party Headquarters in Baghdad was led by Otero . He was promoted to Colonel in 2004 and as Chief Coalition Intelligence Center in the Central Command at MacDill Air Force Base . His assignment included multiple trips to the Coalition Intelligence Center in Iraq where he worked on Detainee Interrogation Release Parameters .
In 2006 , Capt. Iván Castro ( then a First Lieutenant ) was providing support by fire during a battle with insurgents in Iraq when a mortar round exploded close to him leaving him totally blind . He continued serving on active duty in the Special Forces despite losing his eyesight becoming the only blind officer serving in the United States Army Special Forces .
As of May 2004 , there were 1 @,@ 800 Puerto Rican soldiers stationed in Iraq , Kuwait , Afghanistan and Bosnia and Herzegovina .
= = Adjutant General of the Puerto Rican National Guard = =
In July 2015 , Puerto Rico Governor Alejandro Garcia Padilla nominated Colonel Martha Carcana for the position of Adjutant General of the Puerto Rican National Guard , a position which she unofficially held since 2014 . On September 4 , 2015 , she was confirmed as the first Puerto Rican woman to lead the Puerto Rican National Guard .
= = Monument of Remembrance = =
General William W. Harris was quoted in the Puerto Rico Herald as saying ,
Over 1 @,@ 225 Puerto Ricans have died while serving the United States . The names of those who perished in combat are inscribed in " El Monumento de la Recordación " ( Monument of Remembrance ) , which was unveiled on May 19 , 1996 , and is situated in front of the Capitol Building in San Juan , Puerto Rico .
On Veterans Day , November 11 , 2013 , a group representing the Puerto Rican community in Connecticut placed a floral arrangement on the tomb of Augusto Rodrigues , who fought in the American Civil War , recognizing him as Puerto Rico ’ s first known U.S. Armed Forces veteran .
= = Congressional Gold Medal = =
On June 10 , 2014 , President Barack Obama , signed the legislation known as " The Borinqueneers CGM Bill " at an official ceremony . The Bill honors the 65th Infantry Regiment with the Congressional Gold Medal .
A Congressional Gold Medal is an award bestowed by the United States Congress and is , along with the Presidential Medal of Freedom , the highest civilian award in the United States . It is awarded to persons or military units " who have performed an achievement that has an impact on American history and culture that is likely to be recognized as a major achievement in the recipient 's field long after the achievement . "
They join the four military units that had been awarded the Congressional Gold Medal prior to them . These were the Navaho Wind Talkers – Native American Marines whose primary job was the transmission of secret tactical messages with the use of their Native language ; the Nisei Soldiers , Japanese American intelligence soldiers during WWII in the Pacific , Africa , Italy and France ; the Tuskegee Airmen , the first African @-@ American military aviators ; and the Montford Point Marines , the first African @-@ Americans to break the race barrier in the Marines .
A decision on designs for a congressional gold medal being awarded in 2015 to the Borinqueneers of the 65th Infantry Regiment was selected by the Citizens Coinage Advisory Committee on June 16 , 2015 . In August 2015 , the Borinqueneers CGM design was finally approved by the Secretary of the Treasury .
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= Mr. Monk Takes Manhattan =
" Mr. Monk Takes Manhattan " is the first episode of the third season of the American comedy @-@ drama detective television series Monk , and the show 's 30th episode overall . The series follows Adrian Monk ( Tony Shalhoub ) , a private detective with obsessive – compulsive disorder and multiple phobias , and his assistant Sharona Flemming ( Bitty Schram ) . In this episode , Monk travels to New York City in an attempt to discover his wife 's killer , but may solve the case of the death of the Latvian ambassador .
Written by Andy Breckman and directed by Randall Zisk , " Mr. Monk Takes Manhattan " was shot in New York . When the episode first aired in the United States on USA Network on June 18 , 2004 , it was watched by 5 @.@ 5 million viewers . The episode garnered a mixed reaction from critics , praising the comedy obtained through putting Monk in a scenario that would arouse his fears while criticizing Monk 's exaggerated reactions to the setting .
= = Plot = =
Detective Adrian Monk ( Tony Shalhoub ) flies to New York City to find criminal Warrick Tennyson ( Frank Collison ) . In the preceding episode , criminal Dale " The Whale " Biederbeck ( Tim Curry ) told Monk that Tennyson was involved in the murder of Monk 's wife , Trudy . On the trip , Monk is accompanied by his nurse Sharona Fleming ( Bitty Schram ) , and police officers Captain Stottlemeyer ( Ted Levine ) and Lieutenant Disher ( Jason Gray @-@ Stanford ) . They stay at the same hotel as the Latvian ambassador , who is subsequently discovered shot to death along with his two bodyguards . Police Captain Walter Cage ( Mykelti Williamson ) asks for Monk 's help in solving the murder . Monk notices the ambassador 's coat is damp , even though it had been dry minutes before the murder .
The four retrace the ambassador 's movements that day , discovering that he had stopped at a bar before arriving at the hotel . Then , Stottlemeyer and Disher go back to the precinct to try to get a bead on Tennyson 's location while Monk and Sharona discover that the ambassador 's final words meant " This is not my coat " . Stottlemeyer breaks into Cage 's office to discover that Tennyson is dying in a hospital and has days left to live . Stottlemeyer confronts Cage , who says the only way he will allow access to Tennyson is if Monk solves the ambassador 's murder .
Monk is briefly separated from the group after accidentally boarding the wrong train . While reuniting with his partners he notices Steven Leight ( Jeffrey Dean Morgan ) being interviewed on a TV screen about the recent murder of his wife . Noticing Leight eating a mint from the same bar the ambassador had last been seen , Monk insists Steven Leight is the ambassador 's murderer , despite the lack of supporting evidence . To support his theory , Monk proposes that Leight stole his wife 's jewelry to stage a robbery , then proceeded to the bar before calling the police . He asserts Leight and the ambassador were wearing essentially identical coats , and that they must have been switched accidentally at the bar . As rain falls , Leight locates the ambassador 's hotel room , and subsequently kills both him and his bodyguards , and switches the newly wet coat with his own .
Subsequently , a ballistics report confirms that Leight 's wife and the ambassador were killed with the same gun and Leight is arrested . Having solved the case , Monk is allowed to visit Tennyson who remembers being hired by a man who had six fingers on his right hand . Tennyson asks for forgiveness , but Monk cannot bring himself to give it . He turns off Tennyson 's morphine drip saying , " This is me , turning off your morphine ; " but a few moments later , he says , " This is Trudy , the woman you killed , turning it back on , " and does .
The foursome prepares to leave New York , having gotten a step further in solving Monk 's most important case .
= = Production = =
" Mr. Monk Takes Manhattan " was written by Andy Breckman and directed by Randall Zisk . Series creator and executive producer Breckman was credited for the script for the fifth time in the series , while it was the sixth time Zisk worked on a Monk episode . While Monk 's second season was entirely filmed and produced in Los Angeles , " Mr. Monk Takes Manhattan " was shot in New York City in March 2004 .
In the series ' plot , Trudy was killed years prior its first episode , which led Monk to develop obsessive – compulsive disorder and to be discharged from the San Francisco Police Department . At the beginning of the third season , executive producer and co @-@ creator David Hoberman said the staff felt it was a good idea to explore Trudy 's death . They were , however , careful about the manner in which they mentioned her death and Monk 's desire to find the culprit . This was out of concern that they would " burden " the series with it .
= = Reception = =
" Mr. Monk Takes Manhattan " was first broadcast in the United States on the USA Network at 9 pm EST on June 18 , 2004 . According to Nielsen Media Research , the episode was viewed by an estimated number of 5 @.@ 9 million viewers . It was the third most watched program on cable television that week with a 3 @.@ 6 percent household rating and a household audience of 3 @.@ 9 million .
CurrentFilm.com and MovieFreak.com 's Dennis Landmann qualified it as one of the best episodes of the season . Seattle Post @-@ Intelligencer 's Melanie McFarland said although it is " a fecund opportunity for cheap laughs " , Shalhoub was able to keep the " balance between Monk 's power and helplessness without caving into lower comedic impulses . " McFarland praised its writing and Shalhoub , saying " It would begin to look like shoddy choreography " if they were not good . " A welcome return " was how it was described by Robert Lloyd from the Los Angeles Times who asserted its " pleasures are all in the predictable eccentricities of its characters , and the fact that it 's clearly being staged for our benefit . " Ted Cox of the Chicago @-@ area Daily Herald praised the scene when Monk forgives Tennyson dubbing it " great TV . " Chris Hicks of Deseret News deemed it as " a terrific example of how the writers come up with simple situations that throw Monk into turmoil but also allow us to identify with him : Monk in Manhattan . The crowds , the noise , the confusion . Perfect . "
Not all reviews were positive . David Bianculli , writing in the New York Daily News , stated that the idea of putting Monk in New York " sound [ ed ] great " on paper but it did not take advantage of what could be " a delightful study in contrasts . " Bianculli called it a " misstep " , criticizing its premise and how it was not able to keep the balance between comedy and drama that made it " too outrageous . " A review for the The Beaver County Times considered it a " stunt episode " and its humor " uncharacteristically forced " , saying it " really doesn 't do justice to the show 's considerable charms . " Steve Johnson of Chicago Tribune affirmed that while the premise is funny , " the writers go out of their way to play the city against his condition . " He continued by saying it " wouldn 't be so bad " if he went to solve crimes " but Friday 's first case is a real stretch . " Although excited for the episode 's premise prior its broadcast , Austin Smith of the New York Post was very critical of it . Smith said in this episode " the producers have him [ Monk ] crossing that fine line between genius and insanity , transforming our hero into a full @-@ blown mental patient . " He also criticized the " Mr. Monk vs. the City of New York " scenes as they do not further the episode 's plot . Smith co @-@ worker , Linda Stasi also panned the episode , considering Monk 's reactions " caricature [ d ] " . Stasi wrote , " It 's one thing to be an obsessive / compulsive ex @-@ detective who lines up the pins on the murder map and it 's another to act like you 've got a pin in your brain . " As Smith , Kay McFadden of The Seattle Times called the jokes " predictable " and said " If you aren 't a Monk fan , these devices may strike you as altogether shopworn . "
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= Guy Bradley =
Guy Morrell Bradley ( April 25 , 1870 – July 8 , 1905 ) was an American game warden and deputy sheriff for Monroe County , Florida . Born in Chicago , Illinois , he relocated to Florida with his family when he was young . As a boy , he often served as guide to visiting fishermen and plume hunters , although he later denounced poaching after legislation was passed to protect the dwindling number of birds . In 1902 , Bradley was hired by the American Ornithologists ' Union , at the request of the Florida Audubon Society , to become one of the country 's first game wardens .
Tasked with protecting the area 's wading birds from hunters , he patrolled the area stretching from Florida 's west coast , through the Everglades , to Key West , single @-@ handedly enforcing the ban on bird hunting . Bradley was shot and killed in the line of duty , after confronting a man and his two sons who were hunting egrets in the Everglades . His much @-@ publicized death at the age of 35 galvanized conservationists , and served as inspiration for future legislation to protect Florida 's bird populations . Several national awards and places have been named in his honor .
= = Early life = =
Guy Bradley was born in Chicago , Illinois , in 1870 . His family had strong ties to the city ; his father , Edwin Ruthven Bradley , was born there in 1840 , and two members of the family held high positions in Chicago 's law enforcement . Six years after Guy 's birth , the family relocated to Florida . After making their home in smaller towns , the family eventually settled in Fort Lauderdale , where Edwin became keeper of the Fort Lauderdale House of Refuge . Shortly after the death of Bradley 's sister Flora from an unknown illness — which also affected Guy , leaving him ill for several years — the family moved to Lake Worth . Edwin became a postman , earning an annual wage of six hundred dollars . He , with the help of his oldest son , later received national attention for being one of several barefoot mailmen , who operated until a road was constructed in 1892 .
The family then relocated to Miami , where Edwin served as superintendent of the Dade County school district . In 1885 , fifteen @-@ year @-@ old Guy and his older brother Louis served as scouts for noted French plume hunter Jean Chevalier on his trip to the Everglades . Accompanied by their friend Charlie Pierce , the men set sail on Pierce 's craft , the Bonton , ending their journey in Key West . At the time , plume feathers — selling for more than $ 20 an ounce ( $ 501 in 2011 ) — were reportedly more valuable than gold . On their expedition , which lasted several weeks , the young men and Chevalier 's party killed 1 @,@ 397 individual birds of thirty @-@ six different species .
= = Hunt for plumes = =
At the turn of the 20th century , vast numbers of birds were being killed in order to provide feathers to decorate women 's hats . The fashion craze , which began in the 1870s , became so prominent that by 1886 birds were being killed for the millinery trade at a rate of five million a year ; many species faced extinction as a result . In Florida , plume birds were first driven away from the most populated areas in the northern part of the state , and forced to nest further south . Rookeries concentrated in and around the Everglades area , which had abundant food and seasonal dry periods , ideal for nesting birds . By the late 1880s , there were no longer any large numbers of plume birds within reach of Florida 's most settled cities .
The most popular plumes came from various species of wading birds , known as " little snowies " for their snowy @-@ white feathers ; even more prized were the " nuptial plumes " , grown during mating season and displayed by birds during courtship . Poachers often stole into the densely populated rookeries , where they would shoot and then pluck the roosting birds clean , leaving their carcasses to rot . Unprotected eggs became easy prey for predators , as were newly hatched birds , who also starved or died from exposure . One ex @-@ poacher would later write of the practice , " The heads and necks of the young birds were hanging out of the nests by the hundreds . I am done with bird hunting forever ! "
In the mid @-@ 1890s , Edwin became head of the Florida Coast Line Canal and Transportation Company and then the Model Land Company , both of which sold land for the railroads . In 1900 , after twenty years living in Lake Worth , the family moved to Flamingo in Monroe County , near the Everglades . Edwin had heard that railroad tycoon Henry Flagler planned to build his railroad through the area , and that the then primitive city of Flamingo would flourish as a result ; Flagler later changed his mind , deciding to build to Key West instead . Guy and his brother , who continued working as guides and hunters , each received a quarter of a mile of land on Florida Bay as part of their father 's deal with the Model Land Company . While working variously as a postman , farmer and boatman during his 20s , Guy continued to augment his income with an occasional plume hunt . In 1899 , he married the young widow Sophronia ( " Fronie " ) Vickers Kirvin from Key West . Their first child , Morrell , was born a year later .
= = Game warden = =
When the Florida legislature passed the American Ornithologists ' Union ( AOU ) model law to outlaw the killing of plume birds , this created a need for qualified and competent wardens to enforce it . Kirk Munroe , a friend of the Bradley family and a founding vice president of the Florida Audubon Society , recommended Guy for the position . Seen as different from the other " wild " young men in Flamingo , Bradley was described as " pleasant , quiet … fair , with blue eyes , always whistling and a pretty good violinist … [ a ] social asset to the isolated , frontier community , clean @-@ cut , reliable , courageous , energetic and conscientious " .
Bradley was at this time a reformed plume hunter , who had given up the profession after the passage of the Lacey Act of 1900 . In a letter to William Dutcher , president of the Florida Audubon Society , Bradley wrote " I used to hunt plume birds , but since the game laws were passed , I have not killed a plume bird . For it is a cruel and hard calling not withstanding being unlawful . I make this statement upon honor . " Soon after being accepted for the position , Bradley traveled to Key West to secure his appointment as both game warden and deputy sheriff , which gave him the authority to arrest those hunting illegally .
As one of the first game wardens , Bradley was responsible for reporting suspected poachers and the businesses with which they worked . He was paid a monthly stipend of $ 35 ( $ 917 in 2010 ) to single @-@ handedly patrol the enormous area stretching from the Ten Thousand Islands on Florida 's west coast , through the Everglades , to Key West , which served as nesting areas for popular plume birds such as egrets , herons , spoonbills and ibis . Bradley took his job seriously ; he educated locals about the newly implemented laws which made plume hunting a punishable offense , spoke to hunters directly , and posted warning signs throughout his territory . He also set up a network of spies who watched for suspicious behavior , and employed his brother Louis and others close to him to work as assistant wardens during the height of the plume season .
= = Difficulties = =
In 1903 , President Theodore Roosevelt created the first wildlife refuge in the United States , Pelican Island . Its first warden , Paul Kroegel , joined forces with Bradley to enforce the illegality of bird @-@ hunting in Florida . By 1904 , the various Audubon organizations had 34 wardens employed in ten states . Conservationist publications were optimistic that Bradley and other wardens would be successful in their enforcement ; in AOU 's January 1904 issue of The Auk , an editor wrote : " The natives are beginning to realize that the birds are to be protected and that the wardens are fearless men who are not to be trifled with . The Bradleys have the reputation of being the best rifle shots in that vicinity and they would not hesitate to shoot when necessary . "
After accepting the position as game warden , however , Bradley became a vilified figure in southern Florida ; working alone , with no reinforcements , he had been shot at more than once . In 1904 , Bradley alerted visiting ornithologist and author Frank Chapman that one of the more isolated rookeries , called Cuthbert , had been " shot out " despite previously having been found to be in good condition . He reportedly said , " You could 've walked right around the Rookery on those bird 's bodies — between four and five hundred of them . "
Bradley took the slaughter to mean that he was being watched by local hunters , who only could have discovered the rookery by tracking his movements . Chapman later wrote , " Under his guardianship the ' white birds ' had increased in numbers , which , with aigrettes selling at $ 32 an ounce , made the venture worth the risk ( for there was a risk ; as the man who attempted to ' shoot out ' a rookery while Bradley was on guard would probably have lost his own ' plume ' ) ; the warden watched and in his absence his charges were slaughtered . "
= = Death = =
On July 8 , 1905 , Bradley heard gunshots close to his waterfront home in Flamingo . He set sail in his small skiff , and encountered a father and his two sons by the name of Smith , who were shooting up a rookery . The families had known each other for years , but Civil War veteran Walter Smith had a reputation for being troublesome , and Bradley had previously had altercations with him . He had arrested Smith on one occasion and Smith 's oldest son , Tom , twice for poaching . Smith threatened to retaliate against Bradley if he tried again , reportedly telling the warden , " You ever arrest one of my boys again , I 'll kill you . "
According to Walter Smith 's account , Bradley encountered the three men as they were loading dead plume birds onto their boat . An argument ensued , and as the warden attempted to arrest one of the young men , Smith opened fire with his hunting rifle , fatally wounding Bradley . His body was found the next day by his brother 's search party , after drifting 10 miles ( 16 km ) from the scene of the crime . He had bled to death .
= = Aftermath = =
Smith set sail to Key West and turned himself in to the authorities the next day . Despite evidence found by the prosecution — paid for by the Florida Audubon Society — that Bradley had not fired his weapon , Smith claimed self @-@ defense . He maintained that the warden had fired first , but missed , hitting Smith 's boat . Those who knew Bradley , however , insisted that he had been an excellent shot , and would not have missed his target had he , in fact , shot first . Smith later was found not guilty of murder , when the jury decided there was insufficient evidence to convict ; he served only five months in jail , unable to pay $ 5 @,@ 000 for bail . While he was incarcerated , Bradley 's two brothers @-@ in @-@ law burned down Smith 's Flamingo home .
Bradley 's death and Smith 's acquittal made national headlines ; detailed stories ran in the New York Times , the New York Herald , the Philadelphia North American , and Forest and Stream . The warden 's wife and two young children were given a home in Key West , paid for by donations secured by the Florida Audubon Society . The Society , however , made no effort to replace Bradley , and his job as warden went unfilled . Bradley 's obituary , written by William Dutcher and published in August 1905 's edition of Bird Lore , characterized him as " fearless and brave . " Dutcher eulogized Bradley by saying , " A faithful and devoted warden , who was a young and sturdy man , cut off in a moment , for what ? That a few more plume birds might be secured to adorn heartless women 's bonnets . Heretofore the price has been the life of the birds , now is added human blood . Every great movement must have its martyrs , and Guy M. Bradley is the first martyr in bird protection . "
With no one to replace Bradley , lawlessness continued in the Everglades and rookeries were devastated for several more years . Frank Chapman remarked that " There is no community sufficiently law @-@ abiding to leave a bank vault unmolested if it were left unprotected . We have given up . We can 't protect it , and the rookery will have to go . " In November 1908 , game warden and deputy sheriff of DeSoto County , Columbus G. McLeod , went missing near Charlotte Harbor . A month later , his boat was found weighted down and sunk ; inside , police found the warden 's bloodstained hat , long gashes cut into the crown with what appeared to be an axe . It was suspected that he was killed by poachers . His body was never found and the perpetrators were not caught . Later that year , an employee of the South Carolina Audubon Society , Pressly Reeves , was shot and killed during an ambush by unknown assailants .
= = Legacy = =
These three deaths within as many years helped end the commercial trade of feathers from Florida . In 1910 , the New York legislature passed the Audubon Plumage Act , outlawing the plume trade ; other states followed , and Congress soon banned the import of hats decorated with bird feathers . In time , the fashion craze for bird feathers faded . As the demand for plumage dwindled , thousands of birds returned to the Everglades rookeries ; adventure writer Zane Grey wrote after visiting a creek near Cape Sable :
Though we saw birds everywhere , in the air and on the foliage , we were not in the least prepared for what a bend in the stream disclosed . Banks of foliage as white with curlew as if with heavy snow ! With tremendous flapping of wings that merged into a roar , thousands of curlew took wing , out over the water . … It was a most wonderful experience .
Bradley was buried on a shell ridge at Cape Sable , overlooking Florida Bay . A nearby monument was erected by the Florida Audubon Society , reading : " Guy M. Bradley , 1870 – 1905 , Faithful Unto Death , As Game Warden of Monroe County He Gave his Life for the Cause to Which He Was Pledged " . The grave and monument , however , were later washed away in 1960 's Hurricane Donna . The original gravestone was recovered , and is now on display at the Flamingo Visitor Center . A nearby plaque was also dedicated to Bradley 's memory , and reads : " Audubon warden was shot and killed off this shore by outlaw feather hunters , July 8 , 1905 . His martyrdom created nationwide indignation , strengthened bird protection laws and helped bring Everglades National Park into being . "
The story of Bradley 's defense of the Everglades ' birds , and the manner of his death , has been depicted in both literature and film . Author Marjory Stoneman Douglas , who would later become famous for publicizing the need for conserving and restoring the Everglades , based the hero of her 1930 short story " Plumes " on Bradley . The 1958 film Wind Across the Everglades , starring Christopher Plummer and Burl Ives , was loosely based upon Bradley 's life and death .
In 1988 , the National Fish and Wildlife Foundation established the Guy Bradley Award to recognize achievements in wildlife law enforcement . The award is presented annually to two recipients , one state and one federal officer . Another honor , the Guy Bradley Lifetime Conservation Award , was established in 1997 by the Audubon Society Everglades Ecosystem Restoration Campaign to those who promote conservation and offer workable conservation solutions . A trail in the Everglades , leading from the Flamingo Visitor Center to the Flamingo Campground , also was named in Bradley 's honor .
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= Batman Forever =
Batman Forever is a 1995 American superhero film directed by Joel Schumacher and produced by Tim Burton , based on the DC Comics character Batman . It is the third installment of the initial Batman film series , with Val Kilmer replacing Michael Keaton as Bruce Wayne / Batman . The film stars Chris O 'Donnell , Nicole Kidman , Tommy Lee Jones and Jim Carrey . The plot focuses on Batman trying to stop Two @-@ Face ( Jones ) and the Riddler ( Carrey ) in their villainous scheme to extract confidential information from all the minds in Gotham City and use it to learn Batman 's identity and bring the city under their control . He gains allegiance from a love interest — psychiatrist Dr. Chase Meridian ( Kidman ) and a young , orphaned circus acrobat named Dick Grayson ( O 'Donnell ) , who becomes his sidekick Robin .
Batman Forever 's tone is significantly different from the previous installments , becoming more family @-@ friendly since Warner Bros. believed that the previous Batman film , Batman Returns ( 1992 ) , failed to outgross its predecessor due to parent complaints about the film 's violence and dark overtones . Schumacher eschewed the dark , dystopian atmosphere of Burton 's films by drawing inspiration from the Batman comic book of the Dick Sprang era , as well as the 1960s television series . Keaton chose not to reprise the role due to Burton stepping down as director . William Baldwin and Ethan Hawke were initially considered for Keaton 's replacement , before Kilmer joined the cast . The film was released on June 16 , 1995 , receiving mixed reviews , but was a financial success . Batman Forever grossed over $ 336 million worldwide and became the sixth @-@ highest grossing film worldwide of 1995 .
= = Plot = =
In Gotham City , the crime fighter Batman stops a hostage situation caused by a criminal known as Two @-@ Face , the alter ego of the former district attorney Harvey Dent , but Two @-@ Face escapes and remains at large . Edward Nygma , a researcher at Wayne Enterprises who idolizes Bruce Wayne , has developed a device that can beam television into a person 's brain . However , Bruce rejects the invention , believing it to be too close to mind manipulation . After killing his secretary Fred Stickley , Nygma resigns and seeks retaliation against Bruce for rejecting his invention and begins to send him riddles . A news report reveals how Harvey Dent became Two @-@ Face : when he was prosecuting a mob boss named Sal Maroni , Maroni threw acid on Dent 's face , disfiguring half of it . Batman tried to save him , but failed . After the incident , Dent seeks to kill Batman for failing to save him . Bruce meets Chase Meridian , a psychiatrist who is obsessed with Batman , and invites her to come with him to a circus event . After a performance from the circus performers , The Flying Graysons , Two @-@ Face arrives and threatens to blow up the circus unless Batman comes forward and surrenders his life to him . The Flying Graysons attempt to stop Two @-@ Face , but they get killed by as a result . However , Dick Grayson , the youngest member , survives as he throws Two @-@ Face 's bomb into a river .
Bruce invites the orphaned Dick to stay at Wayne Manor . Dick , still troubled by the murder of his family , intends to kill Two @-@ Face and avenge his family . When he discovers that Bruce is Batman , he asks Bruce to help him find Two @-@ Face so that he can kill him , but Bruce refuses . Meanwhile , Nygma becomes a criminal called the Riddler and forms an alliance with Two @-@ Face . The two steal capital in order to mass produce Nygma 's brainwave device . At Nygma 's business party , Nygma discovers Bruce 's alter ego using the brainwave device . Two @-@ Face arrives and crashes the party . He nearly kills Batman , but Dick manages to save his life . Meanwhile , Chase has fallen in love with Bruce , which surpasses her obsession with Batman , but she soon discovers that they are one and the same . Bruce decides to stop being Batman in order to have a normal life with Chase and to prevent Dick from finding Two @-@ Face and kill him . Dick runs away while Bruce and Chase have dinner together in the manor . The Riddler and Two @-@ Face arrive and attack Wayne Manor . The Riddler destroys the Batcave and kidnaps Chase , while leaving an injured Bruce another riddle .
Using the riddles , Bruce and his butler , Alfred , find out the Riddler 's secret identity . Dick returns and becomes Batman 's sidekick , Robin . Batman and Robin head to Riddler and Two @-@ Face 's lair , Claw Island , where they are separated . Robin encounters Two @-@ Face and nearly kills him . Realizing that he does not have it in him to murder , Robin spares him . Two @-@ Face gets the upper hand and captures Robin . Batman arrives at the lair , where Robin and Chase are held as hostages . The Riddler gives Batman a chance to save only one hostage . But instead , Batman destroys the Riddler 's brainwave collecting device , causing the Riddler to suffer a mental breakdown . Batman manages to save Robin and Chase . Two @-@ Face corners the trio and determines their fate with the flip of a coin , but Batman throws a handful of identical coins in the air , causing Two @-@ Face to stumble and fall to his death . The Riddler is taken to Arkham Asylum and imprisoned , but he claims he knows who Batman is . Chase is asked to consult on the case , but Nygma says that he himself is Batman , due to his damaged memories . Chase meets Bruce outside and tells him that his secret is safe before leaving . Bruce decides to become Batman again and he and Robin continue to protect Gotham from crime .
= = Cast = =
Val Kilmer as Bruce Wayne / Batman
After coming across the journal of his father , he starts questioning his act of vengeance . Bruce struggles with his dual identity as a crime fighter , becoming romantically involved with Dr. Chase Meridian .
Chris O 'Donnell as Dick Grayson / Robin
Once a circus acrobat , Dick is taken in by Bruce after Two @-@ Face murders his parents and brother at a circus event . Bruce is reminded of when his parents were murdered when he sees the same vengeance in Dick , and decides to take him in as his ward . He eventually discovers the Batcave and learns Bruce 's secret identity . In his wake , he becomes the crime fighting partner , Robin .
Nicole Kidman as Dr. Chase Meridian
A psychologist and love interest of Bruce Wayne . Chase is fascinated by the dual nature of Batman . She is held as a damsel in distress in the climax .
Tommy Lee Jones as Harvey Dent / Harvey Two @-@ Face
Formerly the good district attorney of Gotham City , half of Harvey 's face is scarred with acid during the conviction of a crime boss . Driven insane , he becomes the criminal Harvey Two @-@ Face obsessed with killing Batman . He flips a coin to determine if he kills ( tails ) or not ( heads ) .
Jim Carrey as Edward Nygma / The Riddler
A former Wayne Enterprises employee , Edward resigns after his newest invention is personally rejected by Bruce Wayne , with whom he is obsessed . He becomes the villainous Riddler , leaving riddles and puzzles at crime scenes .
Michael Gough as Alfred Pennyworth
The Wayne family 's faithful butler and Bruce 's confidant . Alfred also befriends the young Dick Grayson .
Pat Hingle as James Gordon
The police commissioner of Gotham City .
Drew Barrymore as Sugar
Two @-@ Face 's " good " assistant .
Debi Mazar as Spice
Two @-@ Face 's " bad " assistant .
Elizabeth Sanders as Gossip Gerty
Gotham 's top gossip columnist .
René Auberjonois as Dr. Burton
The head Doctor of Arkham Asylum .
Joe Grifasi as Hawkins , the Bank Guard
Two @-@ Face 's hostage during the opening scene .
Ofer Samra as Two @-@ Face 's thug
Ed Begley , Jr. as Fred Stickley
Edward Nygma 's ill @-@ tempered supervisor at Wayne Enterprises . After Stickley discovers the side effect of Edward 's invention , Edward kills him and makes it look like suicide . Begley was uncredited for this role .
Don " The Dragon " Wilson as the leader of the Neon Gang .
Patrick Leahy in an uncredited cameo
This is the first of five cameo appearances in Batman films by Leahy , a United States Senator and DC Comics fan .
= = Production = =
= = = Development = = =
Even though Batman Returns was a financial success , Warner Bros. felt the film should have made more money and decided to make the film series more mainstream . Tim Burton , who had directed the two previous installments , was asked to restrict himself to the role of producer and signed Joel Schumacher as director . After approving Schumacher as director , Burton met with Lee and Janet Scott @-@ Batchler , who agreed with him that " the key element to Batman is his duality . And it 's not just that Batman is Bruce Wayne " . Burton along with Schumacher hired the Batchlers to write the script which introduced a psychotic Riddler with a pet rat accompanying him . The story elements and much of the dialogue still remained in the finished film , though Schumacher felt it could be " lighte [ ne ] d down " . Schumacher claims he originally had in mind an adaptation of Frank Miller 's Batman : Year One . The studio rejected the idea as they wanted a sequel , not a prequel , though Schumacher was able to include very brief events in Bruce Wayne 's past . He hired Akiva Goldsman — with whom he previously had worked with on The Client — to write the second draft of the script .
Production went on fast track with Rene Russo cast as Dr. Chase Meridian but Michael Keaton decided not to reprise Batman because he did not like the new direction the film series was heading in . Keaton also wanted to pursue " more interesting roles " , turning down $ 15 million to appear in Batman Forever . Val Kilmer was cast days later , and the filmmakers decided that Russo was too old for Kilmer , replacing her with a different actress . Schumacher became interested in Kilmer for Batman after seeing him in Tombstone , and the actor accepted the role without even reading the script or knowing who the new director was . Before Val Kilmer was cast , Daniel Day @-@ Lewis , Ralph Fiennes , William Baldwin and Johnny Depp were all under consideration to replace Michael Keaton . Ethan Hawke turned down the role over fear of typecasting , but later regretted the decision .
Robin Wright , Jeanne Tripplehorn and Linda Hamilton were in competition for Dr. Chase Meridian , with Wright appearing as the favorable choice . Nicole Kidman was eventually cast . Billy Dee Williams took on the role of Harvey Dent in Batman on the possibility of portraying Two @-@ Face in a sequel , but Schumacher cast Tommy Lee Jones in the role . Jones was always Schumacher 's first choice , after having worked with him on The Client . Jones claims he was sent the script and was very cautious to accept , but did so after his son 's insistence . Robin Williams was in discussions to be the Riddler at one point . In a 2003 interview , Schumacher stated Michael Jackson lobbied hard for the role , but was turned down before Jim Carrey was cast . Robin appeared in the shooting script of Batman Returns but was deleted due to too many characters . Marlon Wayans had been cast in the role , and signed for Batman Forever . It was decided to replace Wayans with a white actor . Leonardo DiCaprio was considered , but decided not to go the role after a meeting with Schumacher . Chris O 'Donnell was cast and Mitchell Gaylord served as his stunt double . Schumacher attempted to create a cameo role for Bono as his MacPhisto character , but both came to agree it was not suitable for the film .
= = = Filming = = =
Filming started in September 1994 . Schumacher hired Barbara Ling for production design , claiming that the film needed a " force " and felt Ling could " advance on it " . Schumacher wanted a design that was not to be in any way connected to the previous films , and instead was to be inspired by the images from the Batman comic books seen in the 1940s / early 1950s and taken from that of New York City architecture in the 1930s , with a combination of modern Tokyo . He also wanted a " city with personality " , with more statues , as well as various amounts of neon .
Schumacher had problems filming with Kilmer , whom he described as " childish and impossible " , reporting that he fought with various crewmen , and refused to speak to Schumacher during two weeks after the director told him to stop behaving in a rude way . Schumacher also mentioned Tommy Lee Jones as a source of trouble : " Jim Carrey was a gentleman , and Tommy Lee was threatened by him . I 'm tired of defending overpaid , overprivileged actors . I pray I don 't work with them again . " Carrey later acknowledged Jones was not friendly to him , telling him once off @-@ set during the production , " I hate you . I really don 't like you ... I cannot sanction your buffoonery . "
= = = Design and effects = = =
Rick Baker designed the prosthetic makeup . John Dykstra , Andrew Adamson and Jim Rygiel served as visual effects supervisors , with Pacific Data Images also contributing to visual effects work . PDI provided a computer @-@ generated Batman for complicated stunts . For the costume design , producer Peter MacGregor @-@ Scott claimed that 146 workers were at one point working together . Batman 's costume was redesigned along the lines of a more " MTV organic , and edgier feel " to the suit . Sound editing and mixing was co @-@ supervised by Bruce Stambler and John Levesque , which included trips to caves to record bat sounds . A new Batmobile was designed for Batman Forever , with two cars being constructed , one for stunt purposes and one for close @-@ ups with both showcasing a V8 engine . Swiss surrealist painter H.R. Giger provided his version for the Batmobile but it was considered too sinister for the film .
= = = Music = = =
Elliot Goldenthal was hired by Schumacher to compose the film score before the screenplay was written , whereas most composers are hired during production . In discussions with Schumacher , the director wanted Goldenthal to avoid taking inspiration from Danny Elfman , and requested an original composition . The film 's promotional teaser trailer used the main title theme from Elfman 's score of 1989 's Batman .
The soundtrack was commercially successful , selling almost as many copies as Prince 's soundtrack to the 1989 Batman film . Only five of the songs on the soundtrack are actually featured in the movie ' . Hit singles from the soundtrack include " Hold Me , Thrill Me , Kiss Me , Kill Me " by U2 and " Kiss from a Rose " by Seal , both of which were nominated for MTV Movie Awards . " Kiss from a Rose " ( whose video was also directed by Joel Schumacher ) reached No. 1 in the U.S. charts as well . The soundtrack itself , featuring additional songs by The Flaming Lips , Brandy ( both songs also included in the film ) , Method Man , Nick Cave , Michael Hutchence ( of INXS ) , PJ Harvey , and Massive Attack , was an attempt to ( in producer Peter MacGregor @-@ Scott 's words ) make the film more " pop " .
= = Deleted scenes = =
Batman Forever went through a few major edits before its release . Originally darker than the final product , the movie 's original length was closer to 2 hours and 40 minutes according to director Joel Schumacher . There was talk of an extended cut being released to DVD for the film 's 10th anniversary in 2005 . While all four previous Batman films were given special edition DVD releases on the same day as the Batman Begins DVD release , none of them were given extended cuts , although some of the following scenes were in a deleted scenes section in the special features .
There was an undercurrent theme involving Bruce having repressed memories of an aspect of his parents death that he hadn 't faced which was finding his father 's diary on the night of his parents wake and reading that Bruce insisted his parents go to the theater so he could watch one of the shows , meaning the reason he became Batman was out of the guilt that he killed them .
Many scenes were filmed but deleted from the film , other scenes had footage removed . These included :
The escape of Two @-@ Face from Arkham Asylum . René Auberjonois had another scene filmed here in the role of Doctor Burton , but his role was reduced in the final film . He discovers Two @-@ Face 's escape , encountering his psychologist hanged in Two @-@ Face 's cell with " The Bat Must Die " written in blood on the wall . This was supposed to be the film 's opening scene , but producers decided this was far too dark for a family audience .
When Two @-@ Face addresses the crowd from the helicopter in the opening action scene , the speech was truncated and several lines that appeared in the Theatrical Trailer were removed , including the line " If the Bat wants to play , we 'll play ! "
There was a sequence that contained an extended fight scene between Two @-@ Face and Batman , where they both struggle for control of the helicopter . In this scene , Two @-@ Face accuses Batman of being " a killer too " , a direct continuity reference to the first two Batman films in which Batman killed the Joker , the Penguin and several of their respective goons . Two @-@ face then manages to escape by the parachute , after Batman realizes he has locked the steering wheel into position . This sequence is included in rough form on the special edition DVD .
A scene right before Edward Nygma arrived at Wayne Manor . It featured Bruce Wayne watching a local Gotham talk show with Chase Meridian as a guest , talking about Batman .
One scene right before Riddler and Two @-@ face team up featured a little conversation with Dick and Bruce in the gym of the manor . This would explain why Dick suddenly has martial arts training . This scene appears in a rough edit on the Special Edition DVD .
The scene where the Riddler fails to punch a security guard out . The guard is then brutally beaten by the Riddler using his cane .
One sequence came directly after the casino robbery , where Batman follows a robbery signal on a tracking device in the Batmobile . He shows up at the crime scene and finds he is at the wrong place ( a beauty salon ) , in which a room full of girls laugh at him . The Riddler had been throwing Batman off the track by messing with the Batmobile 's tracking device . This would explain why in the theatrical version Batman seems to give Riddler and Two @-@ Face moments of free rein over the city . This scene appears in a rough edit on the Special Edition DVD .
The construction of NygmaTech was after Batman solves the third riddle and was more in @-@ depth . There were scenes shot that appear in publicity stills of Edward Nygma with a hard hat helping with the construction of his headquarters on Claw Island .
Sugar and Spice , played by Drew Barrymore and Debi Mazar , try out the Riddler 's device during the montage when it goes on sale . They are seated with the Riddler and Two @-@ Face on the couch where Chase is handcuffed later in the film . This scene appears in the comic adaptation but not in the final film .
There was originally a scene after the montage of Alfred and Bruce examining the NygmaTech " Box " .
An extended scene established Bruce in the Batcave shortly after having discussed with Dick then that this would have saved his life after the battle with Two @-@ Face in the subway system under construction . In this scene he is appreciated as the GNN news ( Bruce watching in the Batcomputer ) attacking Batman and Two @-@ Face after the battle in the Subway and after that Bruce talking to Alfred turns into the dilemma of continuing to be Batman and try a normal life with Chase . Like the deleted Helicopter fight sequence , this scene also makes reference to Batman himself being " a killer " , and in the original production screenplay , this scene was to contain footage from Batman Returns , specifically taken from the rooftop fight scene with Catwoman . This would explain why in the theatrical version Bruce turns off all the systems in the Batcave telling Dick he gives up being Batman . This scene appears in a rough form on the Special Edition DVD .
Another scene in the Wayne Manor raid sequence was longer , featuring Bruce and Chase fighting Two @-@ Face and his thugs .
The scene involving Chase Meridian on the couch originally included a longer ending where the Riddler injects her with a green sleeping agent so he can easily place her in the small tube with the trap door .
The most well @-@ known deleted scene involved further backstory to the film . It involved Bruce waking up after being shot in the head by Two @-@ Face , temporarily wiping a part of his memory ; he has forgotten his origin and life as the Dark Knight . Alfred takes him to the Batcave , which has been destroyed by the Riddler . They stand on the platform where the Batmobile was , and Alfred says , " Funny they did not know about the cave beneath the cave . " The platform then rotates downward to another level where the sonar @-@ modification equipment is kept , from the special Batsuit to the hi @-@ tech weaponry . Bruce then discovers the cavern where he first saw the image that inspired him to become Batman – a giant bat . Inside he finds his father 's red diary which he had dropped when he first fell into the Batcave after his parents death . He reads the entry that his memories had repressed , about him insisting his parents take him to the theater to see a show the same night they were killed and discovers that he had misread it all those years ago , his father writing ' even though Bruce insists , we wanted to see Zorro so his show will have to wait until next week ' . Bruce realizes his parents death was not his fault after all . The giant bat then appears and Bruce raises his arms to match the wing anatomy of the bat and the shot shows that they are one . Bruce now remembers who he is and goes with Alfred to solve the riddles left throughout the film . This scene makes what Batman tells the Riddler at the end of the theatrical version that he 's Batman now because he chooses to be a little more meaningful . Screenwriter Akiva Goldsman admitted the scene was very theatrical on the special edition DVD and felt it would have made a difference to the final cut . The bat was designed and created by Rick Baker , who was in charge of the make @-@ up of Two @-@ Face . This scene appears in a rough form on the special edition DVD and is briefly mentioned in the comic adaptation .
The fight scene between Two @-@ Face and Robin on Claw Island was originally longer .
The original ending was similar in style to the previous Batman films , which had involved a scene with Alfred in the limousine , the camera tracking upward through the Gotham cityscape , followed by a rooftop shot involving a silhouetted hero ( Batman in the original , Catwoman in Batman Returns ) facing the Bat Signal . When Alfred drives Doctor Chase Meridian back to Gotham she asks him " Does it ever end , Alfred ? " Alfred replies , " No , Doctor Meridian , not in this lifetime ... " The Bat @-@ Signal shines on the night sky and Batman is standing on a pillar looking ahead . Robin then comes into shot and joins his new partner . They both leap off the pillar , towards the camera . A rough edit of the first half of the scene appears on the special edition DVD , but not in its entirety . The sequence with Batman and Robin at the end of this scene is not to be confused with a commercial for the video game , whose appears in a teaser trailer for the video game , which is on the VHS release of this film , released in the UK on December 3 , 1995 .
= = Release = =
= = = Box office = = =
Batman Forever opened in 2 @,@ 842 theaters in the United States on June 16 , 1995 , making $ 52 @.@ 8 million in its opening weekend , breaking Jurassic Park 's record for highest opening weekend gross of all @-@ time ( it was surpassed two years later by The Lost World : Jurassic Park 's $ 72 @.@ 1 million ) . The film went on to gross $ 184 million in North America , and $ 152 @.@ 5 million in other countries , totaling $ 336 @.@ 53 million . The film earned more money than its predecessor Batman Returns , and was the second @-@ highest ( behind Toy Story ) grossing film of 1995 , in the U.S.
= = = Critical reaction = = =
On Rotten Tomatoes , the film received a rating of 41 % , based on 58 reviews , with the site 's critical consensus reading , " Loud , excessively busy , and often boring , Batman Forever nonetheless has the charisma of Jim Carrey and Tommy Lee Jones to offer mild relief . " On Metacritic , the film has a score of 51 out of 100 , based on 23 critics , indicating " mixed or average reviews " .
Peter Travers said " Batman Forever still gets in its licks . There 's no fun machine this summer that packs more surprises . " However , he criticized the film 's excessive commercialism and felt that " the script misses the pain Tim Burton caught in a man tormented by the long @-@ ago murder of his parents . " Brian Lowry of Variety believed " One does have to question the logic behind adding nipples to the hard @-@ rubber batsuit . Whose idea was that supposed to be anyway , Alfred 's ? Some of the computer @-@ generated Gotham cityscapes appear too obviously fake . Elliot Goldenthal 's score , while serviceable , also isn 't as stirring as Danny Elfman 's work in the first two films . "
James Berardinelli enjoyed the film . " It 's lighter , brighter , funnier , faster @-@ paced , and a whole lot more colorful than before . " Scott Beatty felt " Tommy Lee Jones played Harvey Dent as a Joker knock @-@ off rather than a multi @-@ layered rogue . " Lee Bermejo called Batman Forever " unbearable " . Gene Siskel and Roger Ebert both gave the film mixed reviews , but with the former giving it a thumbs up and the latter a thumbs down . In his written review , Ebert wrote : " Is the movie better entertainment ? Well , it 's great bubblegum for the eyes . Younger children will be able to process it more easily ; some kids were led bawling from Batman Returns where the PG @-@ 13 rating was a joke . " Mick LaSalle had a mixed reaction , concluding " a shot of Kilmer 's rubber buns at one point is guaranteed to bring squeals from the audience . "
= = = Accolades = = =
At the 68th Academy Awards , Batman Forever was nominated for Cinematography ( lost to Braveheart ) , Sound ( Donald O. Mitchell , Frank A. Montaño , Michael Herbick and Petur Hliddal ; lost to Apollo 13 ) and Sound Editing ( John Leveque and Bruce Stambler ) ( also lost to Braveheart ) . " Hold Me , Thrill Me , Kiss Me , Kill Me " by U2 was nominated for the Golden Globe Award for Best Original Song ( lost to " Colors of the Wind " from Pocahontas ) , but was also nominated for the Worst Original Song Golden Raspberry Award ( lost to " Walk Into the Wind " from Showgirls ) . At the Saturn Awards , the film was nominated for Best Fantasy Film ( lost to Babe ) , Make @-@ up ( lost to Seven ) , Special Effects ( lost to Jumanji ) and Costume Design ( lost to 12 Monkeys ) . Composer Elliot Goldenthal was given a Grammy Award nomination . Batman Forever received six nominations at the 1996 MTV Movie Awards , four of which were divided between two categories ( Carrey and Lee Jones for Best Villain ; and Seal 's " Kiss from a Rose " and U2 's " Hold Me " in Best Song from a Movie ) . However , it won in just one category — Best Song from a Movie for Seal 's " Kiss from a Rose " .
= = = Merchandising = = =
In addition to a large line of toys and action figures from Kenner , the McDonald 's food chain released several collectibles and mugs to coincide with the release of the film . Peter David and Alan Grant wrote separate novelizations of the film . Dennis O 'Neil authored a comic book adaptation , with art by Michal Dutkiewicz .
Six Flags Great Adventure theme park re @-@ themed their " Axis Chemical " arena , home of the Batman stunt show , to resemble " Batman Forever " , and the new show featured props from the film . Because of the mostly negative critical reaction however , the stunt arena was changed back to its original version after the season . Six Flags Over Texas featured a one @-@ time fireworks show to promote the movie , and replica busts of Batman , Robin , Two @-@ Face , and the Riddler can still be found in the Justice League store in the Looney Tunes U.S.A. section .
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= 1954 Orange Bowl =
The 1954 Orange Bowl was a postseason American college football bowl game between the first @-@ ranked Maryland Terrapins and the fourth @-@ ranked Oklahoma Sooners . It was the twentieth edition of the Orange Bowl and took place at the Orange Bowl stadium in Miami , Florida on January 1 , 1954 .
The game was the first Orange Bowl to feature tie @-@ ins between the Big Seven Conference and the Atlantic Coast Conference ( ACC ) champions . It was the first @-@ ever meeting of the two teams . Maryland and Oklahoma were head coached by former colleagues Jim Tatum and Bud Wilkinson , respectively , who had previously coached together at the United States Navy 's Iowa Pre @-@ Flight School and the University of Oklahoma .
= = Pre @-@ game buildup = =
The game was the first postseason bowl game in which the players were required to play on both the offense and defense . This was a result of the NCAA 's newly instituted " one @-@ platoon " rules that limited player substitutions . It also featured the Orange Bowl 's first conference tie @-@ in between the Big Seven and the ACC .
= = = Maryland = = =
Maryland was helmed by seventh @-@ year head coach Jim Tatum . To that point , he had compiled a record of 56 – 11 – 3 . Before that , he spent one year as the Oklahoma head coach in 1946 , where Bud Wilkinson had served as his assistant coach . The team was ranked first in the nation in the final rankings of both the Associated Press ( AP ) Poll and the United Press Coaches ' Poll . Maryland had finished the regular season with a perfect 10 – 0 record with the narrowest win being a 20 – 6 victory over Don Faurot 's Missouri . They also recorded wins over 11th @-@ ranked Mississippi , 38 – 0 , and 11th @-@ ranked Alabama , 21 – 0 . Tatum said , " this is the greatest team I ever coached . "
During the regular season , the Maryland defense had allowed opponents to score 31 points in ten games and recorded six defensive shut @-@ outs . Only Georgia had been able to score more than seven points . No ACC team has since held opponents to an equal or lesser amount of points . Maryland 's rushing defense ( 83 @.@ 9 yards allowed per game ) and scoring defense ( 3 @.@ 1 points allowed per game ) ranked first in the nation . Maryland had outscored its opponents 298 – 31 . No ACC team scored more total points until 1967 . Maryland 's star quarterback , Bernie Faloney , had been injured midseason and saw limited game action for the remainder of the year . Back @-@ up quarterback Charlie Boxold filled in for the majority of the Orange Bowl .
= = = Oklahoma = = =
Oklahoma was led by seventh @-@ year head coach Bud Wilkinson . He had assumed the position himself after Tatum resigned to leave for Maryland . The two had also both served as assistant coaches in the U.S. Navy for the Iowa Pre @-@ Flight football team under Don Faurot . Faurot had pioneered the split @-@ T offense that both Tatum and Wilkinsons ' teams employed . Since taking over at Oklahoma , Wilkinson had achieved a 62 – 8 – 3 record . Oklahoma entered the game on an eight @-@ game winning streak with a single loss in the season @-@ opener to Notre Dame and a tie in Week 2 against Pittsburgh . Oklahoma also had an injured quarterback , second @-@ stringer Pat O 'Neal had separated his sternum at Miami and would miss the game .
Wilkinson reportedly compiled fake playbooks and had them distributed where they would be discovered by Maryland personnel . Wilkinson later admitted that he had indeed used the ruse on occasion , without specifically stating it was employed before the 1954 Orange Bowl .
= = Game summary = =
In the first quarter , Maryland started with the wind to their backs . Bill Walker kicked a punt that pinned Oklahoma on their own one @-@ foot line . Oklahoma quarterback Gene Calame rushed twice to gain some breathing room before the Sooners punted it away . Maryland took over on the Oklahoma 37 @-@ yard line . Quarterback Charlie Boxold completed a nine @-@ yard pass to Dick Nolan . Halfback Chet Hanulak then connected with Nolan again . That was followed by a first down by fullback Ralph Felton on the Oklahoma four @-@ yard line . Hanulak rushed to pick up two yards . Nolan then ran to the left but was stopped by Oklahoma back Larry Grigg for no gain . Hanulak rushed again to pick up one more yard . Felton rushed from the one @-@ yard line , but was stopped six inches shy of the end zone , and Maryland turned over on downs . Maryland again drove inside the Oklahoma 10 @-@ yard line . Wilkinson sent in the alternate line @-@ up and Oklahoma again stopped Maryland short . The Sooners fumbled at their own 20 @-@ yard line , but the Terrapins again failed to capitalize .
In the second quarter , Maryland advanced to the Oklahoma 20 @-@ yard line , and Tatum elected for a field goal attempt . Now against the wind , the kick failed , with the ball going wide right . The Sooners took over on downs and halfback Jack Ging completed a pass to end Max Boydston for a five @-@ yard gain . Ging then rushed for three yards . On the next play , Calame pitched to Grigg who ran to the left and picked up 12 yards for a first down . Calame then completed a pass to back Bob Burris for six yards . Grigg faked a pass and ran to the right for a gain of 12 yards and a first down on the Maryland 39 @-@ yard line . The Terrapins stopped two Sooner rushing attempts before Calame connected with Burris again for an 11 @-@ yard gain . Burris then rushed for three more yards to advance to the Maryland 25 . Tatum called a time @-@ out . On third down with one yard to go , Calame faked a handoff to Ging and executed an option run to the left . He pitched to Grigg and threw a block . Grigg was tackled at the goal @-@ line but managed to extend his body into the endzone . Buddy Leake made the extra point . Shortly before halftime , Calame suffered a separated collarbone . With back @-@ up Pat O 'Neal also injured , only third @-@ string quarterback Jack Van Pool remained , and he had little game experience .
In the third quarter , Walker attempted to punt for Maryland . Oklahoma tackle Don Brown escaped a block from Stan Jones and closed in on Walker . The punter held onto the ball and attempted to run , but Brown tackled him for a 12 @-@ yard loss . Later , Leake punted and Hanulak returned and threatened to score . Leake , the last man between Hanulak and the endzone , made the tackle .
In the fourth quarter , Boxold threw a long pass into the endzone , but it was intercepted by Grigg for a touchback with four minutes remaining . Van Pool led a 41 @-@ yard drive to the Maryland 39 @-@ yard line before time expired .
= = Statistical summary = =
Oklahoma back Larry Grigg managed to score the only touchdown of the game and Buddy Leake made the extra point . Grigg led the Sooners in rushing with 89 yards on 13 carries . Maryland was led by Felton who gained 51 yards on ten carries .
Quarterback Charlie Boxold led Maryland in passing with three completions on nine attempts for 42 yards . Dick Nolan led in receiving with two receptions for 31 yards . Oklahoma 's passing was led by quarterback Gene Calame before he was put out of the game by injury . He completed four of four pass attempts for 22 yards . Bob Burris was the Sooners ' leading receiver with three receptions for 17 yards .
= = Post @-@ game effects = =
At the time , the final rankings were declared before postseason games . Therefore , Maryland had been declared the national championship team by the Associated Press , United Press , and International News Service , and remained the consensus national champions despite the loss . Some selectors have retroactively named Notre Dame and Oklahoma the national champions . With a 10 – 1 finish , Maryland possessed the best record in the nation . It was the first time Maryland had suffered a shutout in 51 games , the last being in 1948 at the hands of Vanderbilt .
For Oklahoma , it was their ninth @-@ straight win , and the team finished the 1953 season with a 9 – 1 – 1 record . The game was part of a streak that , under head coach Wilkinson , would last 47 games . To date , that winning streak is the longest compiled by any NCAA major college football team .
Oklahoma head coach Wilkinson declined to declare his team the national champions . He addressed his team in the locker room , saying , " It was a helluva ball game . Desire , spirit , effort — anything you want to call it — won for us today . " Maryland head coach Tatum said at the post @-@ game party , " Bud outcoached me . "
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= Hurricane Danielle ( 2010 ) =
Hurricane Danielle was the first of four Category 4 hurricanes during the 2010 Atlantic hurricane season . The sixth tropical depression , fourth named storm , second hurricane , and first major hurricane of the season , Danielle developed as a typical Cape Verde @-@ type hurricane from a tropical wave on August 21 . Quickly intensifying , the new tropical depression became a tropical storm eighteen hours after formation on August 22 , and it reached category 2 on August 24 . Also on August 24 , Hurricane Danielle weakened back to a category 1 hurricane , but it returned to category 2 strength on August 25 . Further intensification occurred and Danielle became a Category 4 hurricane with peak winds of 135 miles per hour ( 217 km / h ) on August 27 . It then weakened , and finally dissipated on August 30 . The hurricane was the first in a rapid succession of eleven named storms , which ended in late September .
= = Meteorological history = =
On August 20 , a tropical wave that had formed two days earlier off Africa 's western coast interacted with a large tropical disturbance in the Intertropical Convergence Zone . This disorganized disturbance covered an area from the southwest of Senegal to the south of the Cape Verde Islands while slowly moving west . The National Hurricane Center ( NHC ) began monitoring the system , initially giving this area of disturbed weather a 20 % chance of development . As it moved through favorable conditions , the system became more organized and began circulating at a low level . On August 20 , 8 : 00 am EDT , the National Hurricane Center gave the disturbance a 40 % chance of becoming a tropical cyclone during the following 48 hours . The NHC stated that a broad area of low pressure had formed , and conditions were favorable for further development . The system continued to organize , and the chance was raised to the " high " category on August 21 at 2 : 00 pm EDT , indicating at least 60 % probability of development into a tropical cyclone within the following 48 hours . The tropical disturbance became banded and the convection became even more organized .
Late that afternoon , the system was designated as Tropical Depression Six . As the depression tracked slowly westward , it quickly intensified . The following day , it was upgraded to Tropical Storm Danielle , the fourth tropical storm of the season . Slow intensification ensued as Danielle headed generally westward and eventually became the second hurricane of the season on August 23 , with hurricane @-@ force winds extending outward for a 10 @-@ mile ( 16 km ) radius . Hurricane Danielle reached an initial peak intensity on August 24 at category 2 with a maximum wind speed of 100 mph ( 160 km / h ; 87 kn ) and hurricane @-@ force winds extending out for 30 miles ( 48 km ) , However , later that day , Danielle began to rapidly weaken as it encountered an area of high wind shear and dry air . Danielle weakened to a category 1 hurricane with 75 mph ( 121 km / h ; 65 kn ) winds late on August 24 . Danielle quickly re @-@ intensified early on the night of August 24 – 25 , and it had hurricane @-@ force winds in a 30 miles ( 48 km ) radius from the center . Further intensification was gradual , and Danielle again reached category 2 strength late on August 25 , and an eye was present on satellite images . It had hurricane @-@ force winds extending outwards 40 miles ( 64 km ) from the center . After a few days of gradual strengthening , Danielle began to rapidly intensify on August 27 , and became the first major hurricane of the season with winds of 120 mph ( 190 km / h ; 100 kn ) . Hurricane @-@ force winds extended out for 50 miles ( 80 km ) , and tropical storm @-@ force winds extended out for 205 miles ( 330 km ) . Continuing the rapid intensification , Hurricane Danielle briefly became a category 4 hurricane on August 27 , when it was situated 545 miles ( 877 km ) southeast of Bermuda , attaining its peak intensity with winds of 135 mph ( 217 km / h ; 117 kn ) and a minimum barometric pressure of 94 @.@ 2 kPa ( 27 @.@ 82 inHg ) . The hurricane @-@ force winds were in a radius of 60 miles ( 97 km ) , and the tropical storm @-@ force winds extended out for 205 miles ( 330 km ) from the center .
However , on August 28 , Danielle encountered a large middle @-@ level to upper @-@ level weather trough moving off the coast of the eastern United States into the Atlantic Ocean . This pushed Danielle north @-@ northeast . The inner of Danielle 's two eye walls eroded as the hurricane weakened . During this time , Hurricane Danielle 's outflow exposed the core of the more southerly Hurricane Earl . However , Hurricane Earl ( then a tropical storm ) retained strong circulation , and the center eventually moved back into the convection flow . The outflow from Danielle kept Earl a tropical storm before Danielle accelerated north and northeastward . As Danielle moved into a region with cooler sea surface temperatures and higher wind shear , it began to weaken at a steady pace and slowly began its extratropical transition . Danielle weakened to a category 1 hurricane on August 29 , and became a tropical storm on the afternoon of August 30 . Accelerating northeastward , Danielle completed the extratropical transition later that day . During the next few days , the extratropical remnants of Hurricane Danielle moved across the northern Atlantic Ocean , and were forecast to move into the area of Greenland and Iceland over the next five days . However , on September 3 , Danielle 's remnants dissipated after 72 hours in the cold waters of the northern Atlantic Ocean .
= = Preparations and impact = =
On August 27 , a tropical storm watch was issued on Bermuda before being canceled during the afternoon of August 28 because Danielle turned sharply east . However , it still triggered an advisory concerning high surf and large waves on Bermuda .
Hurricane Danielle and Hurricane Earl caused strong ocean swells and rip currents on the coasts of New Jersey , Delaware , and Maryland. which swept people out to sea . In Florida , around 250 people from Ocean City were swept out to sea , and at least one person was drowned by the riptides . At least 70 more people had to be rescued off the remaining coast of eastern central Florida . On August 31 , despite being more than 475 miles ( 764 km ) from Newfoundland , Tropical Storm Danielle still caused 10 feet ( 3 @.@ 0 m ) waves on its shores .
Researchers exploring the sunken remnants of the RMS Titanic were forced to leave the area when Danielle approached on August 29 .
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= Hong Kong =
Hong Kong ( Chinese : 香港 ; literally : " Fragrant Harbour " or " Incense Harbour " ) , officially the Hong Kong Special Administrative Region of the People 's Republic of China , is an autonomous territory south of Mainland China at the Pearl River Estuary of the Asia Pacific . With 7 @.@ 2 million residents of various nationalities in a total land and sea area of 2 @,@ 754 km2 , Hong Kong is the world 's fourth most densely populated sovereign state or territory .
After the First Opium War ( 1839 – 42 ) , Hong Kong became a British colony with the perpetual cession of Hong Kong Island , followed by the Kowloon Peninsula in 1860 and a 99 @-@ year lease of the New Territories from 1898 . Hong Kong was later occupied by Japan during the Second World War until British control resumed in 1945 . In the early 1980s , negotiations between the United Kingdom and China resulted in the 1984 Sino @-@ British Joint Declaration , which paved way for the transfer of sovereignty of Hong Kong in 1997 , when it became a Special Administrative Region with a high degree of autonomy .
Under the principle of " one country , two systems " , Hong Kong maintains its own executive , legislative and judiciary powers , including an independent legal system , public security force , monetary system , customs policy , and immigration policy while the State Council of China is responsible for military defence and foreign affairs . In addition , Hong Kong develops relations directly with foreign states and international organisations in a broad range of appropriate fields .
Hong Kong is one of the world 's most significant financial centres , having the highest Financial Development Index score and ranked as the world 's most competitive economy in the World Competitiveness Yearbook . It is also the world 's most visited city . Its service sector dominated economy is characterised by free trade and low taxation , and has consistently been listed as the freest market economy in the world . While Hong Kong ranks within the top 10 in GDP ( PPP ) per capita , it also suffers from the most severe income inequality among developed economies and has the world 's most unaffordable housing . As the 44th @-@ largest economy ( in purchasing power parity terms ) in the world , Hong Kong issues the world 's 13th most traded currency , the Hong Kong dollar .
Hong Kong is known for its skyline and deep natural harbour . The territory has the second largest number of high @-@ rises than any other urban agglomeration in the world . Its highly developed public transportation network covers 90 % of the population , the widest in the world . Air pollution largely from nearby industries in Mainland China , which has loose emissions standards , has resulted in a high level of atmospheric particulates . Furthermore , the territory has also been affected by political issues centred on achieving full democratic suffrage and tensions with the central Chinese government . Nevertheless , Hong Kong people enjoy one of the world 's highest quality of life , with the longest life expectancy , and the highest national IQ estimate .
= = Etymology = =
It is not known who was responsible for the Romanisation of the name " Hong Kong " but it is generally believed to be an early imprecise phonetic rendering of the pronunciation of the spoken Cantonese or Hakka name 香港 , meaning " Fragrant Harbour " or " Incense Harbour . Before 1842 , the name referred to a small inlet — now Aberdeen Harbour ( 香港仔 , Sidney Lau : heung1gong2 jai2 , Jyutping : hoeng1gong2 zai2 , or Hiong1gong3 zai3 in a form of Hakka , literally means " Little Hong Kong " ) — between Aberdeen Island and the south side of Hong Kong Island , which was one of the first points of contact between British sailors and local fishermen . As those early contacts are likely to have been with Hong Kong 's early inhabitants , the Tankas ( 水上人 ) , it is equally probable that the early Romanisation was a faithful execution of their speech , i.e. hong1 , not heung1 . Detailed and accurate Romanisation systems for Cantonese were available and in use at the time .
The reference to fragrance may refer to the sweet taste of the harbour 's fresh water estuarine influx of the Pearl River , or to the incense from factories , lining the coast to the north of Kowloon , which was stored near Aberdeen Harbour for export before the development of the Victoria Harbour .
In 1842 , the Treaty of Nanking was signed and the name , Hong Kong , was first recorded on official documents to encompass the entirety of the island .
The name had often been written as the single word Hongkong until the government adopted the current form in 1926 . Nevertheless , a number of century @-@ old institutions still retain the single @-@ word form , such as the Hongkong Post , Hongkong Electric and the Hongkong and Shanghai Banking Corporation .
The full official name , after 1997 , is " Hong Kong Special Administrative Region of the People 's Republic of China " . This is the official title as mentioned in the Hong Kong Basic Law and the Hong Kong Government 's website ; however , " Hong Kong Special Administrative Region " and " Hong Kong " are widely accepted .
Hong Kong has carried many nicknames : the most famous among those is the " Pearl of the Orient " , which reflected the impressive night @-@ view of the city 's light decorations on the skyscrapers along both sides of the Victoria Harbour . The territory is also known as " Asia 's World City " .
= = History = =
= = = Pre @-@ colonial = = =
Archaeological studies support human presence in the Chek Lap Kok area ( now Hong Kong International Airport ) from 35 @,@ 000 to 39 @,@ 000 years ago and on Sai Kung Peninsula from 6 @,@ 000 years ago .
Wong Tei Tung and Three Fathoms Cove are the earliest sites of human habitation in Hong Kong during the Paleolithic Period . It is believed that the Three Fathom Cove was a river @-@ valley settlement and Wong Tei Tung was a lithic manufacturing site . Excavated Neolithic artefacts suggested cultural differences from the Longshan culture of northern China and settlement by the Che people , prior to the migration of the Baiyue ( Viets ) to Hong Kong . Eight petroglyphs , which dated to the Shang dynasty in China , were discovered on the surrounding islands .
= = = = Ancient China = = = =
In 214 BC , Qin Shi Huang , the first emperor of China , conquered the Baiyue tribes in Jiaozhi ( modern Liangguang region and Vietnam ) and incorporated the territory into imperial China for the first time . Modern Hong Kong was assigned to the Nanhai commandery ( modern Nanhai District ) , near the commandery 's capital city Panyu . In Qin dynasty , the territory was ruled by Panyu County ( 番禺縣 ) up till Jin Dynasty .
The area of Hong Kong was consolidated under the kingdom of Nanyue ( Southern Viet ) , founded by general Zhao Tuo in 204 BC after the collapse of the short @-@ lived Qin dynasty . When the kingdom of Nanyue was conquered by the Han Dynasty in 111 BC , Hong Kong was assigned to the Jiaozhi commandery . Archaeological evidence indicates that the population increased and early salt production flourished in this time period . Lei Cheng Uk Han Tomb on the Kowloon Peninsula is believed to have been built during the Han dynasty .
= = = = Imperial China = = = =
From the Jin dynasty to the early period of Tang dynasty , the territory that now comprises Hong Kong was governed by Bao 'an County ( 寶安縣 ) . In the Tang dynasty , the Guangdong region flourished as an international trading center . The Tuen Mun region in what is now Hong Kong 's New Territories served as a port , naval base , salt production centre and , later , as base for the exploitation of pearls . Lantau Island was also a salt production centre , where the salt smugglers riots broke out against the government .
Under the Tang dynasty , the Guangdong ( Canton ) region flourished as a regional trading centre . In 736 AD , the first Emperor of Tang established a military stronghold in Tuen Mun in western Hong Kong to defend the coastal area of the region . The first village school , Li Ying College , was established around 1075 AD in the modern @-@ day New Territories under the Northern Song dynasty . After their defeat by the Mongols , the Southern Song court briefly moved to modern @-@ day Kowloon City ( the Sung Wong Toi site ) , before its final defeat at the Battle of Yamen .
From the mid @-@ Tang dynasty to early Ming dynasty , the territory that now comprises Hong Kong was governed by Dongguan County ( 東莞縣 / 東官縣 ) . In Ming dynasty , the area was governed by Xin 'an County ( 新安縣 ) before it was colonised by the British government . The indigenous inhabitants of what is now Hong Kong are identified with several ethnicities , including Punti , Hakka , Tanka ) and Hoklo .
The earliest European visitor on record was Jorge Álvares , a Portuguese explorer who arrived in 1513 . Having founded an establishment in Macau by 1557 , Portuguese merchants began trading in southern China . However , subsequent military clashes between China and Portugal led to the expulsion of all Portuguese merchants from the rest of China .
In the mid @-@ 16th century , the Haijin order ( closed @-@ door , isolation policy ) was enforced and it strictly forbade all maritime activities in order to prevent contact from foreigners by sea . From 1661 to 1669 , Hong Kong was directly affected by the Great Clearance of the Kangxi Emperor , who required the evacuation of coastal areas of Guangdong . About 16 @,@ 000 people from Hong Kong and Bao 'an County were forced to emigrate inland ; 1 @,@ 648 of those who evacuated were said to have returned after the evacuation was rescinded in 1669 .
= = = British Crown Colony : 1842 – 1941 = = =
In 1839 , the refusal of Qing authorities to support opium imports caused the outbreak of the First Opium War between the British Empire and the Qing Empire . Qing 's defeat resulted in the occupation of Hong Kong Island by British forces on 20 January 1841 . It was initially ceded under the Convention of Chuenpi , as part of a ceasefire agreement between Captain Charles Elliot and Governor Qishan . While a dispute between high @-@ ranking officials of both countries led to the failure of the treaty 's ratification , on 29 August 1842 , Hong Kong Island was formally ceded in perpetuity to the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland under the Treaty of Nanking . The British officially established a Crown colony and founded the City of Victoria in the following year .
The population of Hong Kong Island was 7 @,@ 450 when the Union Flag raised over Possession Point on 26 January 1841 . It mostly consisted of Tanka fishermen and Hakka charcoal burners , whose settlements scattered along several coastal hamlets . In the 1850s , a large number of Chinese immigrants crossed the then @-@ free border to escape from the Taiping Rebellion . Other natural disasters , such as flooding , typhoons and famine in mainland China would play a role in establishing Hong Kong as a place for safe shelter .
Further conflicts over the opium trade between Britain and Qing quickly escalated into the Second Opium War . Following the Anglo @-@ French victory , the Crown Colony was expanded to include Kowloon Peninsula ( south of Boundary Street ) and Stonecutter 's Island , both of which were ceded to the British in perpetuity under the Convention of Beijing in 1860 .
In 1898 , Britain obtained a 99 @-@ year lease from Qing under the Convention for the Extension of Hong Kong Territory , in which Hong Kong obtained a 99 @-@ year lease of the Lantau Island , the area north of Boundary Street in Kowloon up to Shenzhen River and over 200 other outlying islands .
Hong Kong soon became a major entrepôt thanks to its free port status , attracting new immigrants to settle from both China and Europe alike . The society , however , remained racially segregated and polarised under British colonial policies . Despite the rise of a British @-@ educated Chinese upper @-@ class by the late @-@ 19th century , race laws such as the Peak Reservation Ordinance prevented ethnic Chinese in Hong Kong from acquiring houses in reserved areas , such as the Victoria Peak . At this time , the majority of the Chinese population in Hong Kong had no political representation in the British colonial government . There were , however , a small number of Chinese elites whom the British governors relied on , such as Sir Kai Ho and Robert Hotung , who served as communicators and mediators between the government and local population .
Hong Kong continued to experience modest growth during the first half of the 20th century . The University of Hong Kong was established in 1911 as the territory 's oldest higher education institute . While there was an exodus of 60 @,@ 000 residents for fear of a German attack on the British colony during the First World War , Hong Kong remained peaceful . Its population increased from 530 @,@ 000 in 1916 to 725 @,@ 000 in 1925 and reached 1 @.@ 6 million by 1941 .
In 1925 , Cecil Clementi became the 17th Governor of Hong Kong . Fluent in Cantonese and without a need for translator , Clementi introduced the first ethnic Chinese , Shouson Chow , into the Executive Council as an unofficial member . Under his tenure , Kai Tak Airport entered operation as RAF Kai Tak and several aviation clubs . In 1937 , the Second Sino @-@ Japanese War broke out when the Japanese Empire expanded its territories from northeastern China into the mainland proper . To safeguard Hong Kong as a freeport , Governor Geoffry Northcote declared the Crown Colony as a neutral zone .
= = = Japanese occupation : 1941 – 45 = = =
As part of its military campaign in Southeast Asia during Second World War , the Japanese army moved south from Guangzhou of mainland China and attacked Hong Kong on 8 December 1941 . The Battle of Hong Kong ended with the British and Canadian defenders surrendering control of Hong Kong to Japan on 25 December 1941 in what was regarded by locals as Black Christmas .
During the Japanese occupation of Hong Kong , the Japanese army committed atrocities against civilians and POWs , such as the St. Stephen 's College massacre . Local residents also suffered widespread food shortages , limited rationing and hyper @-@ inflation arising from the forced exchange of currency from Hong Kong Dollars to Japanese military banknotes . The initial ratio of 2 : 1 was gradually devalued to 4 : 1 and ownership of Hong Kong Dollars was declared illegal and punishable by harsh torture . Due to starvation and forced deportation for slave labour to mainland China , the population of Hong Kong had dwindled from 1 @.@ 6 million in 1941 to 600 @,@ 000 in 1945 , when Britain resumed control of the colony on 30 August 1945 .
= = = Resumption of British rule and industrialisation : 1945 – 97 = = =
Hong Kong 's population recovered quickly after the war , as a wave of skilled migrants from China flooded in for refuge from the Chinese Civil War . When the Communists gained control of mainland China in 1949 , even more skilled migrants fled across the open border for fear of persecution . Many newcomers , especially those who had been based in the major port cities of Shanghai and Guangzhou , established corporations and small- to medium @-@ sized businesses and shifted their base operations to British Hong Kong . The Chinese Communist Party 's establishment of a socialist state in China on 1 October 1949 caused the British colonial government to reconsider Hong Kong 's open border to mainland China . In 1951 , a boundary zone was demarked as a buffer zone against potential military attacks from communist China . Border posts in the north of Hong Kong began operation in 1953 to regulate the movement of people and goods into and out of British Hong Kong .
In the 1950s , Hong Kong became the first of the Four Asian Tiger economies under rapid industrialisation driven by textile exports , manufacturing industries and re @-@ exports of goods to China . As the population grew , with labour costs remaining low , living standards began to rise steadily . The construction of the Shek Kip Mei Estate in 1953 marked the beginning of the public housing estate programme to provide shelter for the less privileged and to cope with the influx of immigrants .
Under Sir Murray MacLehose , 25th Governor of Hong Kong ( 1971 – 82 ) , a series of reforms improved the public services , environment , housing , welfare , education and infrastructure of Hong Kong . MacLehose was British Hong Kong 's longest @-@ serving governor and , by the end of his tenure , had become one of the most popular and well @-@ known figures in the Crown Colony . MacLehose laid the foundation for Hong Kong to establish itself as a key global city in the 1980s and early 1990s .
To resolve traffic congestion and to provide a more reliable means of crossing the Victoria Harbour , a rapid transit railway system ( metro ) , the MTR , was planned from the 1970s onwards . The Island Line ( Hong Kong Island ) , Kwun Tong Line ( Kowloon Peninsula and East Kowloon ) and Tsuen Wan Line ( Kowloon and urban New Territories ) opened in the early 1980s .
Hong Kong 's competitiveness in manufacturing gradually declined due to rising labour and property costs , as well as new development in southern China under the Open Door Policy introduced in 1978 which opened up China to foreign business . Nevertheless , towards the early 1990s , Hong Kong had established itself as a global financial centre along with London and New York , a regional hub for logistics and freight , one of the fastest @-@ growing economies in Asia and the world 's exemplar of Laissez @-@ faire market policy .
= = = = The Hong Kong question = = = =
Facing the uncertain future of Hong Kong , Governor MacLehose raised the question in the late 1970s . In 1983 , the United Kingdom reclassifed Hong Kong as a British Dependent Territory ( now British Overseas Territory ) when reorganising global territories of the British Empire . Talks and negotiations began with China and concluded with the 1984 Sino @-@ British Joint Declaration . Both countries agreed to transfer Hong Kong 's sovereignty to the China on 1 July 1997 , when Hong Kong would remain autonomous as a Special Administrative Region and be able to retain its free @-@ market economy , British common law through the Hong Kong Basic Law , independent representation in international organisations ( e.g. WTO and WHO ) , treaty arrangements and policy @-@ making except foreign diplomacy and military defence . It stipulated that Hong Kong would retain its laws and be guaranteed a high degree of autonomy for at least 50 years after the transfer . The Hong Kong Basic Law , based on English law , would serve as the constitutional document after the transfer . It was ratified in 1990 . Nevertheless , the expiry of the 1898 lease on the New Territories in 1997 created problems for business contracts , property leases and confidence among foreign investors .
= = = Handover and Special Administrative Region status = = =
= = = = Transfer of sovereignty = = = =
On 1 July 1997 , the transfer of sovereignty of Hong Kong from the United Kingdom to the People 's Republic of China took place , officially marking the end of Hong Kong 's 156 years under British colonial governance . As what was by far the largest remaining colony of the United Kingdom , the loss of Hong Kong also effectively represented the end of the British Empire . At the same time , Hong Kong switched its country of administration overnight to become China 's first Special Administrative Region . Tung Chee @-@ Hwa , a pro @-@ Beijing business tycoon , was elected Hong Kong 's first Chief Executive by a selected electorate of 800 in a televised ceremony .
= = = = Transition to Chinese rule = = = =
Soon after Hong Kong 's reversion to China , the city suffered an economic double @-@ blow from the Asian financial crisis and the pandemic of H5N1 bird flu ; in December 1997 , officials had to destroy 1 @.@ 4 million chickens and ducks to contain the virus from spreading . Subsequently , mismanagement of Tung 's housing policy disrupted the market supply , sent properties prices in Hong Kong tumbling and caused many homeowners to become bankrupt due to negative equity .
In 2003 , Hong Kong was gravely affected by the outbreak of severe acute respiratory syndrome ( SARS ) . The World Health Organization reported 1 @,@ 755 infected and 299 deaths in Hong Kong . An estimated 380 million Hong Kong dollars ( US $ 48 @.@ 9 million ) in contracts were lost as a result of the epidemic .
Distrust of the Communist Party of China remained strong in the initial years of Chinese rule . A legacy of the democratic reforms by Chris Patten , China refused to recognise the legitimacy of the Legislative Council of Hong Kong after its 1994 direct election . The " Provisional " Legislative Council of Hong Kong ( 1997 – 99 ) , which was unable to draft any new bills or authorise new legislation , completed its five @-@ year term in 1999 . The Legislative Council of Hong Kong ( LegCo ) resumed its full function after the 1999 LegCo election .
Despite the unopposed re @-@ election of Tung in July 2002 , the government 's attempt to complete legislation of the Basic Law 's Article 23 ( National Security ) aroused strong suspicion among Hong Kong citizens . This was due to the Article granting the police force right of access to private property , under the reason of ' safeguarding national security ' , without court warrants . Coupled with years of economic hardships and deflation following the Asian Financial Crisis , a mass demonstration broke out on 1 July 2003 . This hastened the resignations of two government ministers and , eventually , that of Tung on 10 March 2005 .
Sir Donald Tsang , the then @-@ Chief Secretary for Administration and ex @-@ official of the British Hong Kong government , entered the 2005 election uncontested and was appointed by Beijing as the second Chief Executive of Hong Kong on 21 June 2005 . Tsang also won a second term in office following the 2007 Chief Executive election under managed voting . In 2009 , Hong Kong hosted the 5th East Asian Games , in which nine national teams competed . The Games were the first and largest international multi @-@ sport event ever organised and hosted by the city . Major infrastructure and tourist projects also began under Sir Tsang 's second term , including Hong Kong Disneyland , Ngong Ping 360 ( for Tian Tan Buddha and Tseung Kwan O Line ( new metro line ) had their inaugurations and a new cultural complex , the West Kowloon Cultural District .
= = = = Tensions with mainland China = = = =
Since Hong Kong 's reunification with China , there has been increasing social tension between Hong Kong residents and mainland Chinese due to cultural and linguistic differences , as well as accusations of unruly behaviour and spending habits of mainland Chinese visitors to the territory . A 2011 survey ( with a sample base of 541 ) in Hong Kong shows that 17 % respondents considered themselves as " Chinese citizens " , while 38 % considered themselves just " Hong Kong citizens " .
In 2012 Chief Executive elections saw the Beijing backed candidate Leung Chun @-@ Ying elected with 689 votes from a committee panel of 1 @,@ 200 selected representatives , and assumed office on 1 July 2012 .
Social conflicts also influenced the mass protests in 2014 , primarily caused by the Chinese government 's proposal on electoral reform . The debates over China 's vision of granting Hong Kong full democracy have escalated into diplomatic rows between China and the United Kingdom .
= = Governance = =
Hong Kong enjoys a high degree of autonomy , as its political and judicial systems operate independently from those of mainland China . In accordance with the Sino @-@ British Joint Declaration , and the underlying principle of one country , two systems , Hong Kong has a " high degree of autonomy as a special administrative region in all areas except defence and foreign affairs " . The declaration stipulates that the region maintain its capitalist economic system and guarantees the rights and freedoms of its people for at least 50 years after the 1997 handover . The guarantees over the territory 's autonomy and the individual rights and freedoms are enshrined in the Hong Kong Basic Law , the territory 's constitutional document , which outlines the system of governance of the Hong Kong Special Administrative Region , but which is subject to the interpretation of the Standing Committee of the National People 's Congress ( NPCSC ) .
The primary pillars of government are the Executive Council , the civil service , the Legislative Council , and the Judiciary . The Executive Council is headed by the Chief Executive who is elected by the Election Committee and then appointed by the Central People 's Government . The civil service is a politically neutral body that implements policies and provides government services , where public servants are appointed based on meritocracy . The Legislative Council has 70 members , 40 seats are directly elected by universal suffrage by permanent residents of Hong Kong according to five geographical constituencies and a District Council functional constituency . 30 seats from functional constituencies are directly elected by a smaller electorate , which consists of corporate bodies and persons from various stipulated functional sectors . The entire council is headed by the President of the Legislative Council who serves as the speaker . Judges are appointed by the Chief Executive on the recommendation of an independent commission .
The implementation of the Basic Law , including how and when the universal suffrage promised therein is to be achieved , has been a major issue of political debate since the transfer of sovereignty . In 2002 , the government 's proposed anti @-@ subversion bill pursuant to Article 23 of the Basic Law , which required the enactment of laws prohibiting acts of treason and subversion against the Chinese government , was met with fierce opposition , and eventually shelved . Debate between pro @-@ Beijing groups , which tend to support the Executive branch , and the Pan @-@ democracy camp characterises Hong Kong 's political scene , with the latter supporting a faster pace of democratisation , and the principle of one man , one vote .
In 2004 the government failed to gain pan @-@ democrat support to pass its so @-@ called " district council model " for political reform . In 2009 , the government reissued the proposals as the " Consultation Document on the Methods for Selecting the Chief Executive and for Forming the LegCo in 2012 " . The document proposed the enlargement of the Election Committee , Hong Kong 's electoral college , from 800 members to 1 @,@ 200 in 2012 and expansion of the legislature from 60 to 70 seats . The ten new legislative seats would consist of five geographical constituency seats and five functional constituency seats , to be voted in by elected district council members from among themselves . The proposals were destined for rejection by pan @-@ democrats once again , but a significant breakthrough occurred after the Central Government in Beijing accepted a counter @-@ proposal by the Democratic Party . In particular , the Pan @-@ democracy camp was split when the proposal to directly elect five newly created functional seats was not acceptable to two constituent parties . The Democratic Party sided with the government for the first time since the handover and passed the proposals with a vote of 46 – 12 .
On 31 August 2014 , China disapproved a full democracy in Hong Kong by ruling that three candidates could run for elections as leader in 2017 , and they would be chosen by a nomination committee .
= = = Legal system and judiciary = = =
Hong Kong 's legal system is completely independent from the legal system of mainland China . In contrast to mainland China 's civil law system , Hong Kong continues to follow the English common law tradition established under British rule . The essence of English common law is that it is made by judges sitting in courts , applying legal precedent ( stare decisis ) to the facts before them . For example , murder is a common law crime rather than one established by an Act of Parliament . Common law can be amended or repealed by Parliament ; murder , for example , now carries a mandatory life sentence rather than the death penalty . According to Article 92 of the Basic Law , Hong Kong 's courts may refer to decisions rendered by courts of other common law jurisdictions as precedents , and judges from other common law jurisdictions , most commonly England , Canada and Australia , are allowed to sit as non @-@ permanent judges of the Court of Final Appeal .
Structurally , the court system consists of the Court of Final Appeal , the High Court , which is made up of the Court of Appeal and the Court of First Instance , and the District Court , which includes the Family Court . Other adjudicative bodies include the Lands Tribunal , the Magistrates ' Courts , the Juvenile Court , the Coroner 's Court , the Labour Tribunal , the Small Claims Tribunal , and the Obscene Articles Tribunal . Justices of the Court of Final Appeal are appointed by Hong Kong 's Chief Executive . The Court of Final Appeal has the power of final adjudication with respect to the law of Hong Kong as well as the power of final interpretation over local laws including the power to strike down local ordinances on the grounds of inconsistency with the Basic Law .
The Department of Justice is responsible for handling legal matters for the government . Its responsibilities include providing legal advice , criminal prosecution , civil representation , legal and policy drafting and reform , and international legal co @-@ operation between different jurisdictions . Apart from prosecuting criminal cases , lawyers of the Department of Justice act on behalf of the government in all civil and administrative lawsuits against the government . As protector of the public interest , the department may apply for judicial reviews and may intervene in any cases involving the greater public interest . The Basic Law protects the Department of Justice from any interference by the government when exercising its control over criminal prosecution .
= = = Foreign relations = = =
Hong Kong continues to play an active role in the international arena and maintains close contact with its international partners . Under the Basic Law , Hong Kong is exclusively in charge of its external relations , whilst the Government of the China is responsible for its foreign affairs . According to the Basic Law , Hong Kong may on its own , using the name " Hong Kong , China " , maintain and develop relations and conclude and implement agreements with foreign states and regions and relevant international organisations in the appropriate fields , including the economic , trade , financial and monetary , shipping , communications , tourism , cultural and sports fields .
As a separate customs territory , Hong Kong maintains and develops relations with foreign states and regions , and plays an active role in such international organisations as the World Trade Organization ( WTO ) , the Asia @-@ Pacific Economic Cooperation ( APEC ) , the International Olympic Committee ( IOC ) , the International Federation of Association Football ( FIFA ) , and the International Basketball Federation ( FIBA ) in its own right under the name of Hong Kong , China . Under such special conditions , Hong Kong 's international partners usually exercise particular policies to maintain relations with Hong Kong , such as the United States @-@ Hong Kong Policy Act .
There is a large foreign representation in Hong Kong , including 59 Consulates @-@ General , 62 Consulates and 5 officially recognised international bodies , such as the Office of the European Union . Due to Hong Kong 's special status , some countries ' Consulates @-@ General operate independently of their Embassies in Beijing . For example , the US Consulate General to Hong Kong is not under the jurisdiction of the Embassy in Beijing , and reports directly to the US Department of State . Similarly , the British Consulate @-@ General reports directly to the Foreign and Commonwealth Office , instead of the British Ambassador in Beijing .
= = = Human rights = = =
The Hong Kong government generally respects the human rights of its citizens , and members of the Legislative Council of Hong Kong and the District Council of Hong Kong are elected into office by Hong Kong citizens . However , there are 27 ex officio members of the district council ( the Rural Committee Chairmen in the New Territories ) as of the fifth District Council Assembly , and roughly half of the legislative council seats are elected by 3 % of the people in Hong Kong through the functional constituency . The imbalance of voting power in the LegCo has led to widespread criticism of its inability to represent Hongkongers ' socio @-@ economic needs . In addition , the Chief Executive of Hong Kong is elected by 1 @,@ 200 members based on their contributions to four different sectors of Hong Kong 's society . This policy has received criticism from various political figures in Hong Kong , and led to the Umbrella Revolution . Plans to expand the voting population had begun to appear in the 2000s , and political figures liaised with the government to provide universal suffrage .
There are restrictions on freedom of the press and freedom of assembly . 200 @,@ 000 migrant workers cannot make complaints against their employers since they face deportation if dismissed from their jobs . A 2008 law against racial discrimination does not cover mainlanders , immigrants or migrant workers . The police have been accused of using heavy @-@ handed tactics toward protesters in public rallies , and there is controversy regarding the extensive powers of the police . Covert surveillance is another major concern .
Hong Kong has a higher age @-@ of @-@ consent and harsher punishments for illegal homosexual acts .
Internet censorship in Hong Kong operates under different principles and regulations from those of mainland China . In November 2015 , the newly established Innovation and Technology Bureau pushed for the legislation of the Copyright ( Amendment ) Bill 2014 , more popularly known as the Internet Article 23 , which would severely limit the legality of derivative works and other activities previously permitted on the Internet . Supporters of the bill point to the fact that Hong Kong is lagging behind in the protection of intellectual property rights , but detractors state that creative work on the Internet should be exempt from legislation , and the ordinance would severely violate human rights .
= = = Regions and Districts = = =
Hong Kong consists of three regions : Hong Kong Island , Kowloon , and the New Territories . The regions are subdivided into 18 geographic districts , each represented by a district council which advises the government on local matters such as public facilities , community programmes , cultural activities , and environmental improvements .
There are a total of 541 district council seats , 412 of which are elected ; the rest are appointed by the Chief Executive and 27 ex officio chairmen of rural committees . The Home Affairs Department communicates government policies and plans to the public through the district offices . Hong Kong has a unitary system of government ; no local government has existed since the two municipal councils were abolished in 2000 . As such there is no formal definition for its cities and towns .
= = = Military = = =
When Hong Kong 's sovereignty transferred to People 's Republic of China on 1 July 1997 , the British barracks were replaced by a garrison of the People 's Liberation Army , comprising ground , naval , and air forces , who come under the command of the Chinese Central Military Commission .
The Basic Law of Hong Kong protects local civil affairs against any interference by the garrison ; members of the garrison are subject to Hong Kong laws . The Hong Kong Government remains responsible for the maintenance of public order ; however , it may ask the PRC government for assistance from the garrison in maintaining public order and in disaster relief . The PRC government is now responsible for the costs of maintaining the garrison .
In January 2015 , Hong Kong Army Cadets Association was formed for Hong Kong children over 6 years old . The inauguration ceremony was held at a PLA naval base in Hong Kong ; only pro @-@ Beijing press was invited into the venue .
= = Geography and climate = =
Hong Kong is located on China 's south coast , 60 km ( 37 mi ) east of Macau on the opposite side of the Pearl River Delta . It is surrounded by the South China Sea on the east , south , and west , and borders the Guangdong city of Shenzhen to the north over the Shenzhen River . The territory 's 2 @,@ 755 km2 ( 1 @,@ 064 sq mi ) area consists of Hong Kong Island , the Kowloon Peninsula , the New Territories , and over 200 offshore islands , of which the largest is Lantau Island . Of the total area , 1 @,@ 106 km2 ( 427 sq mi ) is land and 1 @,@ 649 km2 ( 637 sq mi ) is water . Hong Kong claims territorial waters to a distance of 3 nautical miles ( 5 @.@ 6 km ) . Its land area makes Hong Kong the 167th largest inhabited territory in the world .
As much of Hong Kong 's terrain is hilly to mountainous with steep slopes , less than 25 % of the territory 's landmass is developed , and about 40 % of the remaining land area is reserved as country parks and nature reserves . Low altitude vegetation in Hong Kong is dominated by secondary rainforests , as the primary forest was mostly cleared during the Second World War , and higher altitudes are dominated by grasslands . Most of the territory 's urban development exists on Kowloon peninsula , along the northern edge of Hong Kong Island , and in scattered settlements throughout the New Territories . The highest elevation in the territory is at Tai Mo Shan , 957 metres ( 3 @,@ 140 ft ) above sea level . Hong Kong 's long and irregular coast provides it with many bays , rivers and beaches . On 18 September 2011 , UNESCO listed the Hong Kong National Geopark as part of its Global Geoparks Network . Hong Kong Geopark is made up of eight Geo @-@ Areas distributed across the Sai Kung Volcanic Rock Region and Northeast New Territories Sedimentary Rock Region .
Despite Hong Kong 's reputation of being intensely urbanised , the territory has tried to promote a green environment , and recent growing public concern has prompted the severe restriction of further land reclamation from Victoria Harbour . Awareness of the environment is growing as Hong Kong suffers from increasing pollution compounded by its geography and tall buildings . Approximately 80 % of the city 's smog originates from other parts of the Pearl River Delta .
Though it is situated just south of the Tropic of Cancer , Hong Kong has a humid subtropical climate ( Köppen Cwa ) . Summer is hot and humid with occasional showers and thunderstorms , and warm air coming from the southwest . Typhoons most often occur in summer . They sometimes result in flooding or landslides . Winters are mild and usually start sunny , becoming cloudier towards February ; the occasional cold front brings strong , cooling winds from the north . The most temperate seasons are spring , which can be changeable , and autumn , which is generally sunny and dry . Snowfall is extremely rare , and usually occurs in areas of high elevation . Hong Kong averages 1 @,@ 948 hours of sunshine per year , while the highest and lowest ever recorded temperatures at the Hong Kong Observatory are 36 @.@ 3 ° C ( 97 @.@ 3 ° F ) on 8 August 2015 and 0 @.@ 0 ° C ( 32 @.@ 0 ° F ) on 18 January 1893 , respectively . The highest and lowest ever recorded temperatures across all of Hong Kong , on the other hand , are 37 @.@ 9 ° C ( 100 @.@ 2 ° F ) at Happy Valley on 8 August 2015 and − 6 @.@ 0 ° C ( 21 @.@ 2 ° F ) at Tai Mo Shan on 24 January 2016 , respectively . With data beginning in 1998 , the highest and lowest temperatures ever recorded at the Hong Kong International Airport are 37 @.@ 7 ° C ( 99 @.@ 9 ° F ) on 9 August 2015 and 2 @.@ 9 ° C ( 37 @.@ 2 ° F ) on 24 January 2016 , respectively .
= = Economy = =
As one of the world 's leading international financial centres , Hong Kong has a major capitalist service economy characterised by low taxation and free trade . The currency , Hong Kong dollar , is the eighth most traded currency in the world as of 2010 . Hong Kong was once described by Milton Friedman as the world 's greatest experiment in laissez @-@ faire capitalism , but has since instituted a regime of regulations including a minimum wage . It maintains a highly developed capitalist economy , ranked the freest in the world by the Index of Economic Freedom every year since 1995 . It is an important centre for international finance and trade , with one of the greatest concentrations of corporate headquarters in the Asia @-@ Pacific region , and is known as one of the Four Asian Tigers for its high growth rates and rapid development from the 1960s to the 1990s . Between 1961 and 1997 Hong Kong 's gross domestic product grew 180 times while per @-@ capita GDP increased 87 times over .
The Hong Kong Stock Exchange is the seventh largest in the world and has a market capitalisation of US $ 2 @.@ 3 trillion as of December 2009 . In that year , Hong Kong raised 22 percent of worldwide initial public offering ( IPO ) capital , making it the largest centre of IPOs in the world and the easiest place to raise capital . The Hong Kong dollar has been pegged to the US dollar since 1983 .
The Hong Kong Government has traditionally played a mostly passive role in the economy , with little by way of industrial policy and almost no import or export controls . Market forces and the private sector were allowed to determine practical development . Under the official policy of " positive non @-@ interventionism " , Hong Kong is often cited as an example of laissez @-@ faire capitalism . Following the Second World War , Hong Kong industrialised rapidly as a manufacturing centre driven by exports , and then underwent a rapid transition to a service @-@ based economy in the 1980s . Since then , it has grown to become a leading centre for management , financial , IT , business consultation and professional services .
Hong Kong matured to become a financial centre in the 1990s , but was greatly affected by the Asian financial crisis in 1998 , and again in 2003 by the SARS outbreak . A revival of external and domestic demand has led to a strong recovery , as cost decreases strengthened the competitiveness of Hong Kong exports and a long deflationary period ended . Government intervention , initiated by the later colonial governments and continued since 1997 , has steadily increased , with the introduction of export credit guarantees , a compulsory pension scheme , a minimum wage , anti @-@ discrimination laws , and a state mortgage backer .
The territory has little arable land and few natural resources , so it imports most of its food and raw materials . Imports account for more than 90 % of Hong Kong 's food supply , including nearly all of the meat and rice available there . Agricultural activity — relatively unimportant to Hong Kong 's economy and contributing just 0 @.@ 1 % of its GDP — primarily consists of growing premium food and flower varieties . Hong Kong is the world 's eleventh largest trading entity , with the total value of imports and exports exceeding its gross domestic product . It is the world 's largest re @-@ export centre . Much of Hong Kong 's exports consist of re @-@ exports , which are products made outside of the territory , especially in mainland China , and distributed via Hong Kong . Its physical location has allowed the city to establish a transportation and logistics infrastructure that includes the world 's second busiest container port and the world 's busiest airport for international cargo . Even before the transfer of sovereignty , Hong Kong had established extensive trade and investment ties with the mainland , which now enable it to serve as a point of entry for investment flowing into the mainland . At the end of 2007 , there were 3 @.@ 46 million people employed full @-@ time , with the unemployment rate averaging 4 @.@ 1 % for the fourth straight year of decline . Hong Kong 's economy is dominated by the service sector , which accounts for over 90 % of its GDP , while industry constitutes 9 % . Inflation was at 2 @.@ 5 % in 2007 . Hong Kong 's largest export markets are mainland China , the United States , and Japan .
As of 2010 Hong Kong is the eighth most expensive city for expatriates , falling from fifth position in the previous year . Hong Kong is ranked fourth in terms of the highest percentage of millionaire households , behind Switzerland , Qatar , and Singapore with 8 @.@ 5 percent of all households owning at least one million US dollars . Hong Kong is also ranked second in the world by the most billionaires per capita ( one per 132 @,@ 075 people ) , behind Monaco . In 2011 , Hong Kong was ranked second in the Ease of Doing Business Index , behind Singapore .
Hong Kong is ranked No. 1 in the world in the Crony Capitalism Index by the Economist .
In 2014 , Hong Kong was the eleventh most popular destination for international tourists among countries and territories worldwide , with a total of 27 @.@ 8 million visitors contributing a total of US $ 38 @,@ 376 million in international tourism receipts . Hong Kong is also the most popular city for tourists , nearly two times of its nearest competitor Macau .
= = = Infrastructure = = =
Hong Kong 's transportation network is highly developed . Over 90 % of daily travels ( 11 million ) are on public transport , the highest such percentage in the world . Payment can be made using the Octopus card , a stored value system introduced by the MTR ( Mass Transit Railway ) , which is widely accepted on railways , buses and ferries , and accepted like cash at other outlets .
The city 's main railway company ( KCRC ) was merged with MTR in 2007 , creating a comprehensive rail network for the whole territory ( also called MTR ) . The MTR rapid transit system has 152 stations which serve 3 @.@ 4 million people a day . Hong Kong Tramways , which has served the territory since 1904 , covers the northern parts of Hong Kong Island .
Hong Kong 's bus service is franchised and run by private operators . Five privately owned companies provide franchised bus service across the territory , together operating more than 700 routes as of 2014 . The largest are Kowloon Motor Bus , providing 402 routes in Kowloon and New Territories , and Citybus , operating 154 routes on Hong Kong Island ; both run cross @-@ harbour services . Double @-@ decker buses were introduced to Hong Kong in 1949 , and are now almost exclusively used ; single @-@ decker buses remain in use for routes with lower demand or roads with lower load capacity . Public light buses serve most parts of Hong Kong , particularly areas where standard bus lines cannot reach or do not reach as frequently , quickly , or directly .
The Star Ferry service , founded in 1888 , operates two lines across Victoria Harbour and provides scenic views of Hong Kong 's skyline for its 53 @,@ 000 daily passengers . It acquired iconic status following its use as a setting on The World of Suzie Wong . Travel writer Ryan Levitt considered the main Tsim Sha Tsui to Central route one of the most picturesque in the world . Other ferry services are provided by operators serving outlying islands , new towns , Macau , and cities in mainland China . Hong Kong is famous for its junks traversing the harbour , and small kai @-@ to ferries that serve remote coastal settlements . The Port of Hong Kong is a busy deepwater port , specialising in container shipping .
Hong Kong Island 's steep , hilly terrain was initially served by sedan chairs . The Peak Tram , the first public transport system in Hong Kong , has provided vertical rail transport between Central and Victoria Peak since 1888 . In Central and Western district , there is an extensive system of escalators and moving pavements , including the longest outdoor covered escalator system in the world , the Mid @-@ Levels escalator .
Hong Kong International Airport is a leading air passenger gateway and logistics hub in Asia and one of the world 's busiest airports in terms of international passenger and cargo movement , serving more than 47 million passengers and handling 3 @.@ 74 million tonnes ( 4 @.@ 12 million tons ) of cargo in 2007 . It replaced the overcrowded Kai Tak Airport in Kowloon in 1998 , and has been rated as the world 's best airport in a number of surveys . Over 85 airlines operate at the two @-@ terminal airport and it is the primary hub of Cathay Pacific , Dragonair , Air Hong Kong , Hong Kong Airlines , and Hong Kong Express .
Providing an adequate water supply for Hong Kong has always been difficult because the region has few natural lakes and rivers , inadequate groundwater sources ( inaccessible in most cases due to the hard granite bedrock found in most areas in the territory ) , a high population density , and extreme seasonable variations in rainfall . Thus about 70 percent of water demand is met by importing water from the Dongjiang River in neighbouring Guangdong province . In addition , freshwater demand is curtailed by the use of seawater for toilet flushing , using a separate distribution system .
= = Demographics = =
The territory 's population in mid @-@ 2015 is 7 @.@ 30 million , with an average annual growth rate of 0 @.@ 8 % over the previous 5 years . The current population of Hong Kong comprises 91 % ethnic Chinese . A major part of Hong Kong 's Cantonese @-@ speaking majority originated from the neighbouring Guangdong province , from where many fled during the Second Sino @-@ Japanese War , the Chinese Civil War , and the communist rule in China .
Residents of the Mainland do not automatically receive the Right of Abode , and many may not enter the territory freely . Like other non @-@ natives , they may apply for the Right of Abode after seven years of continuous residency . Some of the rights may also be acquired by marriage ( e.g. , the right to work ) , but these do not include the right to vote or stand for office . However , the influx of immigrants from mainland China , approximating 45 @,@ 000 per year , is a significant contributor to its population growth – a daily quota of 150 Mainland Chinese with family ties in Hong Kong are granted a " one way permit " . Life expectancy in Hong Kong is 81 @.@ 2 years for males and 86 @.@ 9 years for females as of 2014 , making it the highest life expectancy in the world .
About 91 % of the people of Hong Kong are of Chinese descent , the majority of whom are Taishanese , Chiu Chow , other Cantonese people , and Hakka . Hong Kong 's Han majority originate mainly from the Guangzhou and Taishan regions in Guangdong province . The remaining 6 @.@ 9 % of the population is composed of non @-@ ethnic Chinese . There is a South Asian population of Indians , Pakistanis and Nepalese ; some Vietnamese refugees have become permanent residents of Hong Kong . There are also Britons , Americans , Canadians , Japanese , and Koreans working in the city 's commercial and financial sector . In 2011 , 133 @,@ 377 foreign domestic helpers from Indonesia and 132 @,@ 935 from the Philippines were working in Hong Kong .
Hong Kong 's de facto official language is Cantonese , a variety of Chinese originating from Guangdong province to the north of Hong Kong . English is also an official language , and according to a 1996 by @-@ census is spoken by 3 @.@ 1 percent of the population as an everyday language and by 34 @.@ 9 percent of the population as a second language . Signs displaying both Chinese and English are common throughout the territory . Since the 1997 Handover , an increase in immigrants from mainland China and greater interaction with the mainland 's economy have brought an increasing number of Mandarin speakers to Hong Kong .
= = = Religion = = =
A majority of residents of Hong Kong have no religious affiliation , professing a form of agnosticism or atheism . According to the US Department of State 43 percent of the population practices some form of religion . Some figures put it higher , according to a Gallup poll , 64 % of Hong Kong residents do not believe in any religion , and possibly 80 % of Hong Kong claim no religion . In Hong Kong teaching evolution won out in curriculum dispute about whether to teach other explanations , and that creationism and intelligent design will form no part of the senior secondary biology curriculum .
Hong Kong enjoys a high degree of religious freedom , guaranteed by the Basic Law . Hong Kong 's main religions are Buddhism , Taoism and Confucianism ; a local religious scholar in contact with major denominations estimates there are approximately 1 @.@ 5 million Buddhists and Taoists . A Christian community of around 833 @,@ 000 forms about 11 @.@ 7 % of the total population ; Protestants forms a larger number than Roman Catholics at a rate of 4 : 3 , although smaller Christian communities exist , including the Latter @-@ day Saints and Jehovah 's Witnesses . The Anglican and Roman Catholic churches each freely appoint their own bishops , unlike in mainland China . There are also Sikh , Muslim , Jewish , Hindu and Bahá 'í communities . The practice of Falun Gong is tolerated .
= = = Personal income = = =
Statistically Hong Kong 's income gap is the largest in Asia Pacific . According to a report by the United Nations Human Settlements Programme in 2008 , Hong Kong 's Gini coefficient , at 0 @.@ 53 , was the highest in Asia and " relatively high by international standards " . However , the government has stressed that income disparity does not equate to worsening of the poverty situation , and that the Gini coefficient is not strictly comparable between regions . The government has named economic restructuring , changes in household sizes , and the increase of high @-@ income jobs as factors that have skewed the Gini coefficient .
= = = Education = = =
Hong Kong 's education system used to roughly follow the system in England , although international systems exist . The government maintains a policy of " mother tongue instruction " ( Chinese : 母語教學 ) in which the medium of instruction is Cantonese , with written Chinese and English , while some of the schools are using English as the teaching language . In secondary schools , ' biliterate and trilingual ' proficiency is emphasised , and Mandarin @-@ language education has been increasing . The Programme for International Student Assessment ranked Hong Kong 's education system as the second best in the world .
Hong Kong 's public schools are operated by the Education Bureau . The system features a non @-@ compulsory three @-@ year kindergarten , followed by a compulsory six @-@ year primary education , a compulsory three @-@ year junior secondary education , a non @-@ compulsory two @-@ year senior secondary education leading to the Hong Kong Certificate of Education Examinations and a two @-@ year matriculation course leading to the Hong Kong Advanced Level Examinations . The New Senior Secondary academic structure and curriculum was implemented in September 2009 , which provides for all students to receive three years of compulsory junior and three years of compulsory senior secondary education . Under the new curriculum , there is only one public examination , namely the Hong Kong Diploma of Secondary Education .
Most comprehensive schools in Hong Kong fall under three categories : the rarer public schools ; the more common subsidised schools , including government aids @-@ and @-@ grant schools ; and private schools , often run by Christian organisations and having admissions based on academic merit rather than on financial resources . Outside this system are the schools under the Direct Subsidy Scheme and private international schools .
There are eight public and one private universities in Hong Kong , the oldest being the University of Hong Kong ( HKU ) , established in 1910 – 1912 . The Chinese University of Hong Kong was founded in 1963 to fulfill the need for a university with a medium of instruction of Chinese . Competition among students to receive an offer for an undergraduate programme is fierce as the annual number of intakes is limited , especially when some disciplines are offered by select tertiary institutions , like medicine which is provided by merely two medical schools in the territory , the Li Ka Shing Faculty of Medicine at the University of Hong Kong and the Faculty of Medicine of the Chinese University of Hong Kong . In addition to the public post @-@ secondary institutions there are also a number of private higher institutions which offer higher diplomas and associate degree courses for those who fail to enter a college for a degree study so as to boost their qualification of education , some of whom can have a second chance of getting into a university if they have a good performance in these sub @-@ degree courses .
= = = Health = = =
There are 13 private hospitals and more than 40 public hospitals in Hong Kong . There is little interaction between public and private healthcare . The hospitals offer a wide range of healthcare services , and some of the territory 's private hospitals are considered to be world class . According to UN estimates , Hong Kong has one of the longest life expectancies of any country or territory in the world . As of 2012 , Hong Kong women are the longest living demographic group in the world .
There are two medical schools in the territory , one based at the Chinese University of Hong Kong and the other at the University of Hong Kong . Both have links with public sector hospitals . With respect to postgraduate education , traditionally many doctors in Hong Kong have looked overseas for further training , and many took British Royal College exams such as the MRCP ( UK ) and the MRCS ( UK ) . However , Hong Kong has been developing its own postgraduate medical institutions , in particular the Hong Kong Academy of Medicine , and this is gradually taking over the responsibility for all postgraduate medical training in the territory .
Since 2011 , there have been growing concerns that mothers @-@ to @-@ be from mainland China , in a bid to obtain the right of abode in Hong Kong and the benefits that come with it , have saturated the neonatal wards of the city 's hospitals both public and private . This has led to protest from local pregnant women for the government to remedy the issue , as they have found difficulty in securing a bed space for giving birth and routine check @-@ ups . Other concerns in the decade of 2001 – 2010 relate to the workload medical staff experience ; and medical errors and mishaps , which are frequently highlighted in local news .
= = Culture = =
Hong Kong is frequently described as a place where " East meets West " , reflecting the culture 's mix of the territory 's Chinese roots with influences from its time as a British colony . Concepts like feng shui are taken very seriously , with expensive construction projects often hiring expert consultants , and are often believed to make or break a business . Other objects like Ba gua mirrors are still regularly used to deflect evil spirits , and buildings often lack any floor number that has a 4 in it , due to its similarity to the word for " die " in Cantonese . The fusion of east and west also characterises Hong Kong 's cuisine , where dim sum , hot pot , and fast food restaurants coexist with haute cuisine .
Hong Kong is a recognised global centre of trade and calls itself an " entertainment hub " . Its martial arts film genre gained a high level of popularity in the late 1960s and 1970s . Several Hollywood performers , notable actors and martial artists have originated from Hong Kong cinema , notably Bruce Lee , Jackie Chan , Chow Yun @-@ fat , Michelle Yeoh , Maggie Cheung and Jet Li . A number of Hong Kong film @-@ makers have achieved widespread fame in Hollywood , such as John Woo , Wong Kar @-@ wai , and Stephen Chow . Homegrown films such as Chungking Express , Infernal Affairs , Shaolin Soccer , Rumble in the Bronx , In the Mood for Love and Echoes of the Rainbow have gained international recognition . Hong Kong is the centre for Cantopop music , which draws its influence from other forms of Chinese music and Western genres , and has a multinational fanbase .
The Hong Kong government supports cultural institutions such as the Hong Kong Heritage Museum , the Hong Kong Museum of Art , the Hong Kong Academy for Performing Arts , and the Hong Kong Philharmonic Orchestra . The government 's Leisure and Cultural Services Department subsidises and sponsors international performers brought to Hong Kong . Many international cultural activities are organised by the government , consulates , and privately .
Hong Kong has two licensed terrestrial broadcasters – ATV and TVB . There are three local and a number of foreign suppliers of cable and satellite services . The production of Hong Kong 's soap dramas , comedy series , and variety shows reach audiences throughout the Chinese @-@ speaking world . Magazine and newspaper publishers in Hong Kong distribute and print in both Chinese and English , with a focus on sensationalism and celebrity gossip . The media in Hong Kong is relatively free from official interference compared to Mainland China , although the Far Eastern Economic Review points to signs of self @-@ censorship by media whose owners have close ties to or business interests in the People 's Republic of China and states that even Western media outlets are not immune to growing Chinese economic power .
Hong Kong offers wide recreational and competitive sport opportunities despite its limited land area . It sends delegates to international competitions such as the Olympic Games and Asian Games , and played host to the equestrian events during the 2008 Summer Olympics . There are major multipurpose venues like Hong Kong Coliseum and MacPherson Stadium . Hong Kong 's steep terrain and extensive trail network with expansive views attracts hikers , and its rugged coastline provides many beaches for swimming .
= = = Sport = = =
Sports in Hong Kong are a significant part of its culture . Due mainly to British influence going as far back as the late 19th century , Hong Kong had an earlier introduction to Western athletics compared to other Asia regions . Football , cricket , basketball , swimming , badminton , table tennis , cycling and running have the most participants and spectators . In 2009 , Hong Kong successfully organised the V East Asian Games . Other major international sporting events including the Equestrian at the 2008 Summer Olympics , Hong Kong Sevens , Hong Kong Marathon , AFC Asian Cup , EAFF East Asian Cup , Hong Kong Tennis Classic , Premier League Asia Trophy , and Lunar New Year Cup are also held in the territory . As of 2010 , there were 32 Hong Kong athletes from seven sports ranking in world 's Top 20 , 29 athletes in six sports in Asia top 10 ranking . Moreover , Hong Kong athletes with disabilities are equally impressive in their performance as of 2009 , having won four world championships and two Asian Championships .
= = = Architecture = = =
According to Emporis , there are 1 @,@ 223 skyscrapers in Hong Kong , which puts the city at the top of world rankings . It has more buildings taller than 500 feet ( 150 m ) than any other city . The high density and tall skyline of Hong Kong 's urban area is due to a lack of available sprawl space , with the average distance from the harbour front to the steep hills of Hong Kong Island at 1 @.@ 3 km ( 0 @.@ 81 mi ) , much of it reclaimed land . This lack of space causes demand for dense , high @-@ rise offices and housing . Thirty @-@ six of the world 's 100 tallest residential buildings are in Hong Kong . More people in Hong Kong live or work above the 14th floor than anywhere else on Earth , making it the world 's most vertical city .
As a result of the lack of space and demand for construction , few older buildings remain , and the city is becoming a centre for modern architecture . The International Commerce Centre ( ICC ) , at 484 m ( 1 @,@ 588 ft ) high , is the tallest building in Hong Kong and the third tallest in the world , by height to roof measurement . The tallest building prior to the ICC is Two International Finance Centre , at 415 m ( 1 @,@ 362 ft ) high . Other recognisable skyline features include the HSBC Headquarters Building , the triangular @-@ topped Central Plaza with its pyramid @-@ shaped spire , The Center with its night @-@ time multi @-@ coloured neon light show ; A Symphony of Lights and I. M. Pei 's Bank of China Tower with its sharp , angular façade . According to the Emporis website , the city skyline has the biggest visual impact of all world cities . Also , Hong Kong 's skyline is often regarded to be the best in the world , with the surrounding mountains and Victoria Harbour complementing the skyscrapers . Most of the oldest remaining historic structures , including the Tsim Sha Tsui Clock Tower , the Central Police Station , and the remains of Kowloon Walled City were constructed during the 19th and early 20th centuries .
There are many development plans in place , including the construction of new government buildings , waterfront redevelopment in Central , and a series of projects in West Kowloon . More high @-@ rise development is set to take place on the other side of Victoria Harbour in Kowloon , as the 1998 closure of the nearby Kai Tak Airport lifted strict height restrictions . The Urban Renewal Authority is highly active in demolishing older areas , including the razing and redevelopment of Kwun Tong town centre , an approach which has been criticised for its impact on the cultural identity of the city and on lower @-@ income residents .
= = = Cityscape = = =
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= Small Victories =
" Small Victories " is the first episode from season four of the science fiction television series Stargate SG @-@ 1 . Penned by Robert C. Cooper and directed by Martin Wood , the episode first aired on the American subscription channel Showtime on June 30 , 2000 . " Small Victories " resumes the story of the season 3 finale , " Nemesis " , in which the SG @-@ 1 team encountered the Replicators for the first time . As the Replicators threaten Earth and the Asgard home galaxy , the team must split to master their job .
" Small Victories " was another visual effects milestone for the series . The Replicators and the Asgard character Thor were computer @-@ animated for parts of the episode . Some scenes were filmed in and outside of a Russian Foxtrot class submarine . " Small Victories " was nominated for Best Special Effects in 2001 for an Emmy , a Gemini Award and a Leo Award .
= = Plot = =
Confident that the destruction of Thor 's starship has ended the Replicator threat to Earth ( " Nemesis " ) , the SG @-@ 1 team returns home through the second Stargate that has been put up at Stargate Command . Shortly after they learn that a Russian Foxtrot class submarine has been hijacked by creatures whose descriptions match the Replicators , Thor arrives at Stargate Command and asks SG @-@ 1 for help against the Replicators in the Asgard galaxy . As Colonel O 'Neill ( Richard Dean Anderson ) , Daniel Jackson ( Michael Shanks ) and Teal 'c ( Christopher Judge ) go to deal with the hijacked submarine , Major Carter ( Amanda Tapping ) goes with Thor .
O 'Neill , Daniel , and Teal 'c try to obtain intelligence on the little self @-@ replicating robotic invaders in the submarine , but they are forced to fall back . With Daniel 's new theory that the Replicators are made up of the same materials they consume , the Replicators may be eliminated through sinking the iron submarine as long as the surviving Replicator from Thor 's advanced ship is destroyed beforehand . Meanwhile , Carter witnesses a short battle against the Replicators in the Asgard galaxy during which five Asgard ships are lost . Carter notices the Replicators ' attraction to new technology and proposes to use the O 'Neill , an incomplete Asgard ship originally designed to fight the Replicators , as a lure to draw the Replicators into hyperspace and destroy them in the O 'Neill 's self @-@ destruct . Thor eventually accepts the plan , the Replicators take the bait and are destroyed .
Back on Earth , O 'Neill and Teal 'c penetrate the submarine and find and destroy the original Replicator . When the other Replicators take full control of the submarine , O 'Neill orders the forces outside to destroy the submarine and prepares for the end , but Thor beams the team onto his ship before the explosion occurs . With the imminent Replicator threat over , Thor promises that when the Asgard defeat the Replicators , he will come to assist Earth in the war against the Goa 'uld .
= = Production = =
= = = Writing and pre @-@ production = = =
Visual effects supervisor James Tichenor approached producer Robert C. Cooper after the completion of the season 3 finale , " Nemesis " , and stated his confidence in his team 's ability to create effects for a water @-@ based episode . By that time , Cooper had already written the outline of " Small Victories " as the season 4 opener . " Small Victories " resumes the cliffhanger ending of " Nemesis " and alludes to events of that episode several times . The episode begins aboard a Russian submarine where one Russian says in his mother tongue that the noise in the torpedo tube might be caused by " one of the bugs from the other episode " , an in @-@ joke that the producers intentionally left without subtitles . Daniel Jackson 's appendicitis attack from " Nemesis " is picked up , which was originally based on Michael Shanks ' real @-@ life appendicitis attack during the filming of the penultimate season 3 episode . " Small Victories " also continues building the relationship of O 'Neill and Carter in mirroring a similar scene from " Nemesis " . However , Christopher Judge , who in previous seasons sported a bald @-@ shaven head as the alien Teal 'c , returned to the set with a small blond chin beard after the hiatus , as the producers had not allowed his character to have scalp hair ( until season 8 ) . Judge shaved off the beard several episodes later after acknowledging its look as silly . The official Showtime website initially caused some confusion by listing Jay Acovone ( Kawalsky ) as a guest @-@ star in this episode , which later turned out to be untrue .
= = = Filming = = =
" Small Victories " was filmed over the course of seven days like most SG @-@ 1 episodes . After the first three seasons of Stargate SG @-@ 1 had been filmed on 16 mm film ( except for shots incorporating visual effects , where experience had shown 35 mm to work better ) , " Nemesis " was filmed entirely on 35 mm film as a test run , and season 4 switched to the new gauge for all filming purposes .
Martin Wood directed " Small Victories " and made a short cameo appearance with Sergeant Siler ( stunt coordinator Dan Shea ) in an SGC corridor . Andy Mikita served as the second unit director and filmed the coverage of the practical Thor puppet after Amanda Tapping 's coverage had been shot . Michael Shanks , who provided the voice of Thor in post @-@ production ADR , read some of Thor 's lines for Tapping on @-@ set . The top lip of the Thor puppet , which was visibly broken during the filming , proved a challenge . One anecdotal blooper moment that Amanda Tapping often tells at conventions and which producer Joseph Mallozzi named one of his favorites in the first five years of Stargate SG @-@ 1 , is that of the puppeteers raising Thor 's hand to touch Tapping 's behind during filming . Tapping instinctively slapped the expensive prop , then she kneeled down and apologized to the puppet in all seriousness before realizing the silliness of her reaction .
" Small Victories " is split into two parallel storylines , and several space shots of the B story onboard Thor 's spaceship were cut at the script stage to allot more money to the A story submarine scenes . " Small Victories " was originally written to set on a fishing trawler until the producers got access to a real Russian Foxtrot class submarine , which was brought from Vladivostok to Vancouver , Canada , where Stargate SG @-@ 1 was filmed . Several scenes were filmed in and outside of the submarine for two days . A matching set with removable walls was built later on because only three film crew members could fit into the real 25 @-@ feet @-@ wide submarine . To enhance the submarine 's narrowness , Martin Wood lit the ship with the actors ' helmet lights and chose an agitated shooting style , holding the shots tight and handholding some of the cameras himself . The logistics of the submarine filming proved difficult and time @-@ consuming , since the computer @-@ generated Replicators needed to appear on Daniel 's playback monitors in advance of filming . One scripted scene in which a Replicator piece is removed from Teal 'c's shoulder was trimmed on @-@ set because the actors felt it to be redundant .
= = = Effects = = =
" Small Victories " surpassed " Nemesis " as the biggest visual @-@ effects @-@ heavy Stargate SG @-@ 1 episode and remained one of biggest visual effects works of the season . Nevertheless , the limited budget required the major Computer @-@ generated imagery ( CGI ) moments to be chosen well . The opening sequence of the Asgard ship flying over the ocean until its crash into the water was completely computer @-@ generated , as was the Asgard homeworld at a later point in the episode . The finetuning of the lighting of the Asgard homeworld , which was blended with a matte painting of Asgard space ships in the sky , was the most difficult job . To save costs , the moments before Thor 's entry to the SGC were stockshots of the Stargate , and the illusion of a Stargate event horizon behind Thor in the following scenes was created with an LCD projection . Although a computer @-@ generated version of Thor was built around the puppet for independent movements , the CGI version 's walking down the Stargate ramp was intercut with filmed shots of the puppet put on a trike .
Visual effects producer James Tichenor claimed that visual effects work better when not highlighted , and that a major part of effective visual effects are the actors ' reactions to nonexistent things . Replicator models were used to give the actors an idea at what they were looking and to match their eyelines . One model was mounted on a plexiglass rod and shown on @-@ screen , giving the impression of an organic Replicator hologram . The computer @-@ generated Replicators on board the submarine were tracked with small lights , some of which post @-@ production left in for good looks . The reflections of the green screen on the floor aboard Thor 's ship ( " green spill " , usually an undesired side effect ) were used to key selective patches for the reflection of the big spaceship screen .
= = Reception = =
" Small Victories " was first broadcast on June 30 , 2000 on Showtime . SG @-@ 1 visual effects producer James Tichenor considered the few episodes with big visual effects budgets the most likely works to contain visual cues that impress Academy of Television Arts & Sciences ( Emmy Awards ) voters , but he feared that the 2000 submarine feature film U @-@ 571 might spoil expectations . " Small Victories " and the SG @-@ 1 season 4 finale " Exodus " were nominated for a 2001 Emmy in the category " Outstanding Special Visual Effects for a Series " , but they lost to Star Trek : Voyager 's " Endgame " . " Small Victories " was also nominated for a Gemini Award and a Leo Award in the respective " Best Visual Effects " categories , but failed to win either .
In his book Approaching the Possible , Jo Storm considered " Small Victories " " one of the most enthralling episodes " that makes the audience forget that it used nearly the same premise that was used in " Nemesis " . He thought the episode was " especially big on the Sam / Jack dynamic " as the characters " toe the line between fraternal teasing and downright chemistry " . He saluted Amanda Tapping 's comedic opportunities and called her character 's reaction to Asgard food " priceless " . He also noted the character development of Daniel Jackson in a military environment , contrasting it with the character 's attitude in the season 1 episode " Thor 's Hammer " where his military mind was less developed .
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= Magnavox Odyssey =
The Magnavox Odyssey is the first commercial home video game console . It was developed by a small team led by Ralph H. Baer at Sanders Associates and released by Magnavox in the United States in September 1972 and overseas the following year . The Odyssey consists of a white , black , and brown box which connects to a television set and two rectangular controllers attached by wires . It is capable of displaying three square dots on the screen in monochrome black and white , with different behavior of the dots depending on the game played , and has no sound capabilities . Players place plastic overlays on the screen to create visuals , and the one or two players for each game control their dots with the three knobs and one button on the controller in accordance with the rules given for the game . The Odyssey console came packaged with dice , paper money , and other board game paraphernalia to go along with the games , and a peripheral controller — the first video game light gun — was sold separately .
The idea for a video game console was thought up by Baer in August 1966 , and over the next three years he , along with Bill Harrison and Bill Rusch , created seven successive prototype consoles . The seventh , known as the Brown Box , was shown to several manufacturers before Magnavox agreed to produce it in January 1971 . After releasing the console in September 1972 through their dealerships , Magnavox sold between 69 @,@ 000 and 100 @,@ 000 units by the end of the year , and 350 @,@ 000 by the time the console was discontinued in 1975 . The console spawned the Magnavox Odyssey series of dedicated consoles , as well as the 1978 Magnavox Odyssey ² . One of the 28 games made for the system , a ping pong game , was an inspiration for Atari 's successful Pong arcade game , in turn driving sales of the console . Baer 's patents for the console and the games , including what was termed by a judge as " the pioneering patent of the video game art " , formed the basis of a series of lawsuits over 20 years , earning Sanders and Magnavox over US $ 100 million . The release of the Odyssey marked the end of the early history of video games , and the rise of the commercial video game industry along with the start of the first generation of video game consoles .
= = Design = =
The Odyssey consists of a black , white , and brown oblong box connected by wires to two rectangular controllers . The primary console box connects to the television set through an included switchbox , which allows the player to switch the television input between the Odyssey and the regular television input cable , and presents itself like a television channel . The controllers , which are designed to sit on a flat surface , contain one button marked Reset on the top of the controller and three knobs : one on the right side of the controller , and two on the left with one extending from the other . The reset button does not reset the game , but instead is used by different games to reset individual elements , such as making a player 's dot visible after it is turned off during a game . The system can be powered by six C batteries , which were included . An optional AC power supply was sold separately . The Odyssey lacks sound capability and can only display monochrome white shapes on a blank black screen .
Internally , the Odyssey architecture is composed of digital computing parts . The circuitry is implemented in diode – transistor logic using discrete transistors and diodes , rather than the newly emerging transistor – transistor logic integrated circuits , due to cost concerns . The games themselves do not use cartridges like later consoles , but instead use " game cards " composed of printed circuit boards that plug into the console . These cards modify the internal circuitry like a set of switches or jumpers , causing the Odyssey to display different components and react to inputs differently . Multiple games use the same cards , with different instructions given to the player to change the style of game .
The Odyssey is capable of displaying three square dots and a vertical line on the screen . Two of the dots are controlled by the two players , and the third by the console . The main console has two dials , one of which moves the vertical line across the screen , and one which adjusts the speed of the computer @-@ controlled dot . Different games directed the player to adjust the dials to different positions , for example to change the center line of a tennis game into the side wall of a handball game . The games include plastic overlays which would stick to the television via static cling , to create visuals for the game . Different games that use the same game card can have different overlays , which could change a game with the same controls from , for example , a mountain ski path to a movement @-@ based Simon Says game .
In addition to the overlays , the Odyssey came with dice , poker chips , score sheets , play money , and game boards much like a traditional board game . One peripheral controller was released for the Odyssey , the first video game light gun . Named the Shooting Gallery , the rifle @-@ shaped device registered a hit when pointed at a light source such as a dot on the television screen . Four shooting @-@ based games were included with the light gun .
= = Development = =
In 1951 , while working for military contractor Loral Electronics , engineer Ralph H. Baer was assigned to build a television set ; while doing so , he had the idea to build something into a television set that the owner could control , rather than only hooking it up to a remote television station . Baer did not pursue the idea , but it returned to him in August 1966 while waiting for a bus . Baer , then the head of the Equipment Design Division at military contractor Sanders Associates , came up with the concept of using a television to play games , and the next morning wrote up a four @-@ page proposal for a US $ 20 " game box " that would plug into a television screen and play games on it . While the commercial video game industry did not yet exist at that point , the very first electronic computer games had been developed at the start of the 1950s , and by 1966 several early mainframe games had been developed for mainframe computers , which were typically only found in large academic or research institutions . In the proposal , Baer began by referring to the project using military terminology , but by the time he finished it he was referring to it as Channel LP , short for " let 's play " . The proposed device would transmit a signal that the television set could tune into as if it were a television channel , and Baer described several games that could be played on it .
As Channel LP had little to do with the typical military contracts Sanders worked on , rather than bring the idea to his bosses Baer instead commandeered an empty room and assigned one of his technicians , Bob Tremblay , to work on it with him . By December 1966 an initial prototype later christened " TV Game # 1 " was completed , which could display and move a vertical line on a television screen . Baer demonstrated the prototype to the Sanders director of research and development , Herbert Campman , who hesitantly agreed to fund it for US $ 2 @,@ 000 of labor and US $ 500 for materials , making it an official project .
Baer spent the next few months designing further prototypes , and in February 1967 assigned technician Bill Harrison to begin building the project . Harrison spent the next few months in between other projects building out successive modifications to the prototype . Baer , meanwhile , collaborated with engineer Bill Rusch on the design of the console , including developing the basis of many games for the system . The first game was developed by May , a two @-@ player gamer where the players repeatedly press a button in competition to fill or empty a bucket of water , and by June multiple games were completed for what was then a second prototype box . These included a game where players controlled dots chasing each other and a light gun shooter game with a plastic rifle . Baer demonstrated the new prototype to Campman , who enjoyed the shooting game , increased funding , and recommended Baer demonstrate the project to senior management . Baer demonstrated the console to the board , who were largely uninterested , though a couple members were enthusiastic ; nevertheless , CEO Royden Sanders authorized the project to be continued with the aim of selling or licensing the console as a commercial product .
By August 1967 , Baer and Harrison had completed a third prototype machine , but had found that to even come near to Baer 's initial aim of a US $ 20 or $ 25 console would require so much to be excluded that the resulting console would not be very enjoyable . Baer additionally felt that he was not proving successful at designing fun games for the system ; to make up for this he formally added Bill Rusch , who had helped him come up with the initial games for the system , to the project . Though the pair found Rusch difficult to work with , he soon proved his value to the team by coming up with a way to display three spots on the screen at once rather than the previous two , and proposing the development of a ping pong game . By November the team , now on their fourth prototype machine , had a ping pong game , a chasing game , a light gun game , and three types of controllers : joysticks for the chase game , a rifle for the light gun game , and a three dial controller for the ping pong game . Campman felt that the system was advanced enough to begin trying to find a manufacturer to buy it ; they had decided to aim for selling the rights to produce the console , as Sanders was not in the business of making and selling commercial electronics .
The team first approached the cable television industry , and the prototype attracted the attention of TelePrompter Corporation , who had seen it during a visit . After a few months of talks , cash @-@ flow problems forced TelePrompter to back out in April 1968 . The same economic downturn that caused TelePrompter 's problems caused financial difficulties at Sanders as well , which put the project on hold after the fifth prototype was developed while simultaneously undergoing large @-@ scale layoffs . It was picked up again in September , this time without Rusch , and went through two more iterations resulting in January 1969 in the seventh prototype , known as the " Brown Box " due to the wood @-@ grain stickers on the casing . With the system now largely complete , Baer and Harrison were unsure who to approach to sell it until a Sanders patent attorney recommended contacting television manufacturers . Baer demonstrated the system to several companies , who all expressed enthusiasm ; only RCA was willing to purchase the device , however , and an agreement could not be reached . Soon afterwards , though , RCA executive Bill Enders left RCA for Magnavox and convinced them to look at the console again . The three creators of the Brown Box again demonstrated the device to Magnavox in July 1969 ; they received a tepid reaction from most of the executives , but Vice President of Marketing Gerry Martin was in favor and Magnavox agreed to produce the console . After a long period of negotiations the two companies finally signed an agreement in January 1971 .
Magnavox designed the exterior of the machine , and re @-@ engineered the internals with some consultation from Baer and Harrison ; they removed the ability to display color , used only the three dial controller , and changed the system of selecting games from a dial to separate game cards that modified the console 's circuitry when plugged into the console . At the time , color televisions were still seen as a luxury item , and the ability to show color would have added additional expense and time spent dealing with FCC testing and regulations . The internal circuitry had been designed with discrete components rather than integrated circuits due to cost concerns ; these concerns were no longer valid by 1971 , but Magnavox did not have enough time to redesign every internal component of the machine prior to the planned production start date . Magnavox named the console first as the Skill @-@ O @-@ Vision while testing , and then released it as the Odyssey . The rifle game was turned into a separately sold add @-@ on game , Shooting Gallery , and Magnavox added paper money , playing cards , and poker chips to the console , to go along with the plastic overlays for the games that enhanced the primitive visuals . The new additions helped raise the price of the console to US $ 99 @.@ 95 . Baer was upset with the board game additions , which he felt were pointless add @-@ ons that would go unused by players . Magnavox announced the game for a launch date of September 1972 , and demonstrated it for months prior to Magnavox dealerships and media .
= = Reception and legacy = =
The Odyssey was released by Magnavox in September 1972 . After initially ordering a production run of 50 @,@ 000 units , prior to release Magnavox increased its production capabilities and built up a large stock of the systems , as market testing had shown an enthusiastic response to the console . The Odyssey was sold only through Magnavox dealers and not through general retailers ; Magnavox felt that as the first video game console it would draw consumers into its stores . The device retailed for US $ 99 @.@ 99 , or US $ 50 when purchased along with a Magnavox television . There are conflicting reports between Baer and Magnavox employees as to whether Magnavox produced 120 @,@ 000 or 140 @,@ 000 consoles in 1972 ; additionally , Odyssey product manager Bob Fritsche recalls selling 69 @,@ 000 units that year , while Baer recalls sales being closer to 100 @,@ 000 . Baer has stated that he felt the low initial sales were due to the high price — US $ 100 being the equivalent of US $ 569 in 2015 — and because of Magnavox restricting sales to their dealerships and implying that the device only worked with Magnavox televisions . Other sources have stated that dealership salespeople would try to mislead customers to that effect in order to try to sell more television sets . Magnavox assistant product planner Don Emry has noted that the sales were in line with the original projections , if not with the production run .
According to Baer , after the initial holiday season Magnavox considered dropping the console , but the modest continuing demand the following year convinced them to manufacture an additional 27 @,@ 000 units for the 1973 holiday season , selling 20 @,@ 000 of them . The console was also released in 12 other countries : Australia , Belgium , France , Germany , Greece , Israel , Italy , the Soviet Union , Spain , Switzerland , the United Kingdom , and Venezuela , with different games . The international release was focused in the United Kingdom , with some non @-@ English versions not released until 1974 . Late in 1973 , Magnavox ran a large advertising campaign for all of their 1974 products , with the result that they sold 129 @,@ 000 Odyssey units in 1974 , or 150 @,@ 000 according to Baer . Magnavox discontinued the console after 1975 ; according to Baer it sold 350 @,@ 000 units in total worldwide , though statements by Fritsche indicate it may have been higher . The light gun peripheral sold 20 @,@ 000 units . As the Odyssey was discontinued Magnavox released the first successive dedicated consoles — consoles that could only play games built into the system — in the Magnavox Odyssey series , the Odyssey 100 and Odyssey 200 , as part of the first generation of video game consoles ; the Odyssey 100 was only capable of playing the ping pong and hockey games from the original Odyssey . Eleven dedicated Odyssey consoles were produced before a true follow @-@ up console in 1978 , the Magnavox Odyssey ² .
While it showed the potential of video game consoles and marked the end of the early history of video games and the beginning of the commercial video game industry , the Odyssey is not generally considered a major commercial success . Magnavox produced no more games for the console after 1973 and rejected Baer 's proposals for an add @-@ on that would add sound to games , a putting controller and associated golf game , and console variants that would have been cheaper or supported up to four players . While a few clone systems were produced in limited quantities , and multiple dedicated consoles — generally focused on ping pong game variants — were created by several companies , no other true home video video consoles were produced until the 1976 Fairchild Semiconductor Channel F.
In 2004 Ralph Baer was awarded the National Medal of Technology for " his groundbreaking and pioneering creation , development and commercialization of interactive video games , which spawned related uses , applications , and mega @-@ industries in both the entertainment and education realms " . In June 2013 , the Museum of Modern Art ( MoMA ) added the Magnavox Odyssey to its permanent collection of video games . MoMA 's Paul Galloway described the console as " a masterpiece of engineering and industrial design " and stated that it was " hard to overstate the importance of [ Ralph Baer 's ] place in the birth of the industry " . The Brown Box prototype and the TV Game # 1 prototype are located at the Smithsonian Institution 's National Museum of American History in Washington , D.C ..
= = = Lawsuits = = =
In May 1972 , Nutting Associates chief engineer Nolan Bushnell , designer of the first commercial arcade video game , Computer Space , saw a demonstration of the Odyssey at a dealership . Inspired , when he quit Nutting to start his own company , Atari , he assigned Allan Alcorn to create a cheap ping pong arcade game as a training exercise , though he did not tell Alcorn that it was for training nor that the idea was based on the Odyssey Table Tennis game . Alcorn soon developed Pong , which Bushnell recognized as a potential hit , and it became the company 's first game . Pong was very successful , and in turn helped drive sales of the Odyssey ; Baer once noted that customers bought the console because of Table Tennis , in turn because of Pong , and joked that they may as well have stopped designing games after that game card . In 1974 , however , Magnavox sued Atari along with several competitors including Nutting , Allied Leisure , Bally Midway , and Williams Electronics for infringing on Baer 's patents for video games played on a television screen . Baer has stated that the lawsuits were not filed right away because Magnavox and Sanders needed to wait until they could expect to be awarded more money than it would cost to pursue the suits . The root of the conflict was a pair of patents by Baer — one which described how the Odyssey showed player @-@ controlled objects , or dots , on a video monitor and described a number of games that could be played with the system , and an earlier one that went into detail about how the Odyssey used that system to have two dots collide with each other and have one bounce off , specifically using a game of ping pong as an example .
The judge ruled that Baer 's more general patent for the Odyssey constituted " the pioneering patent of the video game art " , and held the defendants ' games as infringing the patents . Atari settled early on in the court case with Magnavox , and in return were granted a license in exchange for US $ 1 @.@ 5 million and access granted to Magnavox to all technology produced by Atari from June 1976 to June 1977 , while the other defendants paid higher penalties . Over the next twenty years Sanders and Magnavox sued several other companies over the issue , focusing on " paddle @-@ and @-@ ball " type games like Pong and Table Tennis that were more clearly related to the ping pong game patent ; the final lawsuits ended in the mid 1990s . Defendants included Coleco , Mattel , Seeburg , and Activision ; Sanders and Magnavox won or settled every lawsuit . Many of the defendants unsuccessfully attempted to claim that the patents only applied to the specific hardware implementations that Baer had used , or that they were invalidated by prior computer or electronic games . In 1985 , Nintendo sued and tried to invalidate Baer 's patents , claiming as prior art the 1958 Tennis for Two game built by William Higinbotham . The court , however , ruled that the oscilloscope @-@ based game did not use video signals and therefore did not qualify as a video game , and ruled again in favor of Magnavox and Sanders . Magnavox won more than US $ 100 million in the various patent lawsuits and settlements involving the Odyssey related patents . In addition , they had a large number of licensees of their patents , with over one hundred already by the mid 1970s .
= = List of games = =
A total of 28 games distributed on 11 different game cards were released for the Magnavox Odyssey . 13 games were included with the console — a set of 12 in America and a different set of 10 in other countries — with 6 others available for purchase either individually for US $ 5 @.@ 49 or in a pack for US $ 24 @.@ 99 ; the additional games primarily used the same game cards with different screen overlays and instructions . Another game , Percepts , was available for free to players that sent in a survey card . A light gun accessory , Shooting Gallery , was available for purchase , and included four games on two cards that used the rifle . A final four games were released for sale in 1973 , designed wholly or in part by Don Emry . The games do not enforce game rules or keep track of score ; that is left up to the players .
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= Nethermost Pike =
Nethermost Pike is a fell in Cumbria , England , and a part of the Lake District . At 891 metres ( 2 @,@ 923 ft ) it is the second highest Wainwright in the Helvellyn range , the highest of which is Helvellyn itself . It is located close to the southern end of the ridge , with Helvellyn to the north , and High Crag and Dollywaggon Pike to the south . Nethermost Pike , along with many of the Eastern Fells , lies between Thirlmere in the west and the Ullswater catchment in the east . The closest villages are Glenridding and Patterdale on the shores of Ullswater , over 8 kilometres ( 5 mi ) away .
Like most fells in the Helvellyn range , Nethermost Pike has grassy western slopes and rocky outcrops on the eastern side . Geologically , Nethermost Pike belongs to the Borrowdale Volcanic Group . Lead was once mined on its eastern slopes , resulting in open workings and underground mines . The eastern slopes are protected as part of a Site of Special Scientific Interest because of the Pike 's geological and biological features , which include some of England 's best arctic @-@ alpine and tall @-@ herb vegetation .
= = Classification = =
Mountains are often classified according to their heights . At 891 m ( 2 @,@ 922 ft ) Nethermost Pike is listed as a Nuttall , which requires an elevation of 610 m ( 2 @,@ 000 ft ) . However with a prominence of 22 metres ( 72 ft ) it is not counted as a Hewitt or Marilyn which require prominences of 30 metres ( 98 ft ) and 150 metres ( 492 ft ) respectively . Nethermost Pike is also counted as a Wainwright because it was given a chapter in Alfred Wainwright 's Pictorial Guide to the Lakeland Fells . It is the second highest of the Eastern Fells , and the ninth highest of all the Wainwrights . South of Nethermost Pike is High Crag 884 metres ( 2 @,@ 900 ft ) , which is separated from Nethermost Pike by a very limited depression . Most guidebooks follow Alfred Wainwright in considering High Crag to be a part of Nethermost Pike . This convention is not universally followed however , with author Bill Birkett preferring to differentiate between the two fells .
= = Topography = =
The Helvellyn range runs broadly north @-@ south for about 11 kilometres ( 7 mi ) , remaining above 600 m ( 1 @,@ 970 ft ) throughout its length . Nethermost Pike is toward the southern end of this ridge , with Helvellyn itself to the north and Dollywaggon Pike to the south . In common with much of the Helvellyn range there is a marked contrast between the western and eastern slopes of Nethermost Pike . In Wainwright 's words : " The grassy western slope trodden by the multitudes is of little interest , but the fell should not be judged accordingly : it is made of sterner stuff . From the east , Nethermost Pike is magnificent , hardly less so than Helvellyn . "
The western slopes fall smoothly to the head of Thirlmere reservoir , and the tiny church at Wythburn . There are rougher areas , High and Comb Crags in particular , but these do little to change the overall impression of high moorland . The lower slopes have been planted with conifers as part of the Thirlmere Forest , but above this is a sense of wide open space . Nethermost Pike 's toehold on the valley is shifted a little to the south , relative to its position on the ridge . This is because Whelpside and Birkside Gills , its boundary streams , both run south @-@ west , rather than flowing straight down the slope .
On the east , the first impression is all of rock . The long strath of Grisedale runs north eastward to Ullswater , cutting off a series of hanging valleys which fall from the Helvellyn range . To the south east of Nethermost Pike , below the summit of High Crag , is Ruthwaite Cove . Surrounded by crag on three sides , this corrie contains Hard Tarn , a small pool on a rock shelf . This is one of the most difficult mountain tarns to locate , and its black algal bed and clear water combine to give the false impression of great depth . Ruthwaite Cove is now the site of Ruthwaite Lodge , a climbing hut . It was formerly the setting for more industrial activity , with the remains of several underground mines and some shallow open workings visible near the Lodge .
Between Ruthwaite and Nethermost Coves , Nethermost Pike sends out a fine rocky ridge . This arête , although not as imposing as Striding Edge across Nethermost Cove , ascends by a series of rocky steps for three quarters of a mile , making straight for the summit . It is from this angle , rather than from the west , that the fell earns the sobriquet of " Pike " , meaning peaked mountain . At the bottom of the ridge is Eagle Crag , standing above Grisedale Beck and forcing walkers to take a detour from the ridgeline .
North from Nethermost Pike is the depression of Swallow Scarth , above the head of Nethermost Cove . From here the ridge climbs again , turning to the west as the long plateau of Helvellyn top is reached . Southwards the ridge steps down over High Crag , and narrows as it swings east around Ruthwaite Cove to Dollywaggon Pike . A heavily eroded path runs along the ridge , but actually bypasses the top of Nethermost Pike to the west , as it leads to Helvellyn .
The summit area is triangular in plan with ridges running to the north , south and east . The actual top is toward the northern corner and set back a little from the drop to Nethermost Cove . There is a rash of stones on the summit although the surroundings are mostly covered in rough grass , and several small cairns have been built . Other than northward , where the bulk of Helvellyn intervenes , the view is extensive , with much of the Lake District visible . Further ground is brought into view from the summit of High Crag .
= = Ascents = =
The Lake District receives over 12 million visitors a year , many of whom come to climb the mountains . The closest villages to Nethermost pike are Glenridding and Patterdale , 8 kilometres ( 5 mi ) to the east , close to the shores of Ullswater . Both are common starting points for climbing Nethermost Pike or other fells in the Helvellyn range . The best ascents from the east is the east ridge , reached either from the path to Eagle Crag Mine , or via Ruthwaite Lodge and Hard Tarn . There are no settlements of note close to Nethermost Pike to the west , and many walkers start from a car park at Wythburn , close to Wythburn Church . This is a popular route which follows a wide track to Helvellyn before branching off right at Swallow Scarth . Alternatives are possible on the smooth flanks of the fell , but all are pathless .
Because of its close proximity to the higher Helvellyn , Nethermost Pike receives fewer visitors . When climbing from the west many people traverse the western slopes on their way to Helvellyn . Despite this the summit does still receive a large number of walkers , who use a large number of footpaths . The large number of footpaths causes significant disturbance to the summit vegetation , which could be greatly reduced by using fewer footpaths .
= = Geology = =
Geologically the summit of the fell forms part of the Deepdale Formation , ( principally volcaniclastic sandstone ) underlain by the dacitic lapilli @-@ tuff of the Helvellyn Formation . The geology of much of the Lake District is the Borrowdale Volcanic Group , of which Nethermost Pike is part , and is late Ordovician in age . The eastern cliffs of the range , including those of Nethermost Pike , are rich in base minerals . When these rocks weather they form areas of fertile soil , which together with the area 's inaccessibility and climate provide suitable conditions for plants of biological importance .
Mining was carried out in Ruthwaite Cove , and the remains of several levels and some shallow open workings are visible near Ruthwaite Lodge . These excavations were made in a search for lead @-@ bearing galena , and are believed to have been worked in the 16th century . Further leases were taken out in 1784 and 1862 ; the last known operation was in 1880 .
North east of the summit the scene is repeated in Nethermost Cove , where the Eagle Crag Mine was mined for its lead and zinc . The vein which was exploited forms a visible gully on Eagle Crag , and was worked both above and below ground over an altitude of 300 metres ( 980 ft ) . The vein is surrounded by rocks from the Borrowdale Volcanic Group , which dates from the Ordovician . Large dumps of veinstone are found in the area as a result of the mining . They contain , among other minerals , crystallised tetrahedrite , which is not believed to be able to be seen or collected anywhere else in Britain . Eagle Crag Mine has a history of working similar to that of Ruthwaite Lodge .
= = Biological interest = =
The summit and surrounding areas of Nethermost Pike contain many species and communities which are of biological interest . North east of the summit is Nethermost Cove which contains some of England 's best arctic @-@ alpine and tall @-@ herb vegetation , including one third of the English population of Downy Willow ( Salix lapponum ) . Similarly Ruthwaite Cove contains Arctic @-@ alpine and tall @-@ herb communities , and it is believed that the cove may contain very rare species of plants in very small , and therefore precarious , populations . The lower eastern slopes form Grisedale Common , a large expanse of dwarf shrub heath . The lower slopes are grazed by sheep , which has a significant effect on the type of vegetation which grows . Certain areas , such as Eagle Crag , are inaccessible to sheep due to their steep slopes .
The summit and eastern slopes of Nethermost Pike are part of the Helvellyn and Fairfield Site of Special Scientific Interest ( SSSI ) . This SSSI covers 2 @,@ 418 @.@ 8 hectares ( 5 @,@ 977 acres ) centred on the Helvellyn range and Fairfield , and was designated in 1975 because of the area 's geological and biological features . Natural England , which is responsible for choosing SSSIs , tries to ensure that the management and use of the area is sustainable .
Overgrazing by sheep in Grisedale Common has damaged the vegetation to the extent that it has needed careful management . Since 2003 grazing has been limited to one ewe per hectare ( 2 @.@ 5 acres ) in summer and 0 @.@ 6 ewe in winter . In summer sheep are also flushed from the coves , ( Nethermost and Ruthwaite ) as they contain vegetation which is susceptible to damage from summer grazing . The vegetation structure has started to improve , however recovery is slowest on the higher land and the summit is still heavily grazed . The summit suffers erosion from the large number of walkers who climb Nethermost Pike . The use of fewer footpaths would help reduce the disturbance to the summit species .
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= Final Fantasy VII ( NES video game ) =
Final Fantasy VII ( simplified Chinese : 最终幻想7 ; traditional Chinese : 最終幻想7 ; pinyin : Zuì Zhōng Huànxiǎng Qī ) , also called Core Crisis ( Chinese : 核心危机 ; pinyin : Héxīn Wēijī ) , is a Chinese unofficial , unlicensed " Shanzhai " demake of the 1997 role @-@ playing video game Final Fantasy VII , originally developed by Square for the PlayStation . The two @-@ dimensional " port " was developed and published by the Chinese company ShenZhen Nanjing Technology for the SUBOR entertainment system , a clone of Nintendo 's Family Computer console ( known internationally as the Nintendo Entertainment System ) . The cartridge itself is unique , as it is structurally different from licensed Famicom cartridges in terms of hardware and programming .
The game features many gameplay elements of the original Final Fantasy VII , including a three @-@ member party structure and adaptations of the game 's subsystems . The items , spells and equipment available to the player are based upon those in the original game , and although a large number have been omitted along with optional characters and some side quests , the original story was reproduced in very minute detail . The game was received with mixed reception , cited as an impressive achievement but at the same time criticized for its difficulty and choice of a target console .
= = Gameplay = =
In Final Fantasy VII , the player directs the protagonist throughout the game world with a group of three interchangeable party members , exploring areas and interacting with non @-@ player characters . Most of Final Fantasy VII occurs within the city of Midgar for the first act , later expanding to towns , dungeons , caves , and similar areas for the rest of the game . Players can save their game at any time when not in combat to the game 's single save slot for later playing .
Starting from the second act , players can journey between field screen locations via the world map , a downsized representation of Final Fantasy VII 's world . Players can freely navigate the world map screen unless restricted by geographical obstacles , such as water or mountains . To overcome this , players can ride emu @-@ like chocobos and various vehicles available to them , though usage is limited . As in other Final Fantasy @-@ related games , travel across the world map screen and hostile areas is frequently interrupted by random enemy encounters .
= = = Combat = = =
Whenever the protagonist encounters an enemy , the map changes to the " battle screen " . On this , the enemy appears opposite to the three characters in the party ; each battle uses a turn @-@ based battle system similar to that featured in Final Fantasy III . All characters can physically attack the enemy , use spells from equipped materia , or use an item in one turn . Combat ends when the player either defeats all enemies and the game returns to the area map , or all party members are defeated in which case the game ends and returns to the title screen . If one of the party members successfully flees , the battle also ends .
A character 's performance in battle is determined by numerical values for categories such as speed , strength , and magical power . Character statistics are driven by experience — players are awarded " experience points " for winning battles , which accumulate until characters gain " experience levels " . When characters " level up " , the statistics for their attributes increase permanently , which can also be amplified by the types of equipment the character is wearing . Winning battles may reward the player money ( Gil ) and items .
= = = Equipment and abilities = = =
Each character brings one materia into the party when they join , carrying one spell that can be used in combat . Materia have a limited number of uses before they must be recharged at one of the game 's magic shops . Like party members , materia gain experience when used , and can be leveled up to a maximum level of nine . Characters can swap materia among themselves , with unequipped materia being used mid @-@ battle for such things as healing party members , compensating for the limited amount of healing items .
Weapons follow the same principle as materia in terms of attack power , gaining experience and levelling up . Unlike materia , they cannot be swapped or replaced , and have unlimited usage . In addition to weapons , each has four types of armor that can be equipped for defense , which can be purchased at armor shops or found in chests scattered throughout the game . Armor directly affects the vitality statistic , which will in turn affect the amount of health gained when leveling up . Also available in the game are curative items , which can be purchased at designated shops or found in chests . These items can be used in or out of combat to restore health ( HP ) , materia usage ( CP ) , or revive fallen party members .
= = Development = =
The official and authorized Final Fantasy VII game was developed by Square and released worldwide in 1997 for the PlayStation . At an unknown date , ShenZhen Nanjing Technology developed an unauthorized remake of the game , for the Famicom . The game was released in 2005 , and both the box and manual make reference to Final Fantasy VII Advent Children as the game 's full title , a statement supported by the game 's manual . Despite the name on the box and cartridge , the title screen simply states " Final Fantasy VII , " and the game itself includes no content or plot elements from the film . The game was developed for the SUBOR entertainment system , a clone of the Famicom , though can also be played on Famicom and NES consoles through the use of an adapter .
Due to the Famicom 's restricted hardware capabilities , the remake is entirely two @-@ dimensional . Special compensation was made for some of the in @-@ battle sprites such as Cloud Strife 's , combining two 16x24 pixel sprites side @-@ by @-@ side instead of the usual single sprite to account for weapons such as Cloud 's sword or Barret 's gun . While most Japanese games use only 8x8 @-@ pixel hiragana or katakana fonts , and most Chinese games use 4 @-@ color 16x16 @-@ pixel tiles stored in dedicated CHR ROM pages , this game uses its own several @-@ hundred 16x16 @-@ pixel monochrome font instead . The script itself is strewn in chunks across the code ; at the beginning of each piece of text for dialog boxes is a three digit number preceded by an @ -symbol , signifying which character portrait to display .
The cartridge 's circuit board layout is unique compared to most Famicom games , using a single two megabyte PRG ( program ) ROM chips . A RAM chip is used instead of a ROM for the character graphics data , similar to the " UNROM " method used in some Nintendo games . As a result , the data is strewn across the PRG ROM in various banks . The cartridge features one 8 @-@ kilobyte battery @-@ backed RAM chip , used for the game 's single save slot . Many of the game 's graphics are borrowed from other games , mostly other Final Fantasy titles and including Super NES graphics converted to four @-@ color palettes used by the Famicom 's hardware . Much of the game 's music is borrowed from other games as well , in many cases shortened significantly to a few repeating notes .
= = Reception = =
While the game has received praise for covering the entire story within the game , it has been described as extremely difficult , with an inconsistent battle rate and fights that take a long time to complete . The game 's limited healing options and slow growth rate for abilities and weapons compound this , with one reviewer recommending " play it — but cheat " . Despite these issues , interest has been shown regarding the release of a patch to translate the game into English . Final Fantasy VII has additionally gained mention on several major gaming websites , including Gameworld Network , and Japan @-@ based Gpara.com.
Another project , which aims to overhaul the game and improve upon the gameplay and graphics to better resemble the original PlayStation version , was released in 2013 by members of the Romhacking.net community . The patch , which took four years to develop , first started off as a graphics hack , but has since evolved into an extensive revamp .
The game has received praise from various sources . Journalist Derrick Sobodash stated that while the game would not be an entirely new experience for those that played the original Final Fantasy VII , he added that " ... this title can hold its own against the other NES Final Fantasy games " , further calling the effort " surprisingly professional " . Kotaku editor Luke Plunkett cited the Famicom game as " ... an achievement I have no hesitation in labeling Herculean " , further calling it " ... a triumph of the human spirit " . Boing Boing Gadgets and Wired News writer Joel Johnson described the game as " more than just a knock @-@ off — it 's an act of true skill and commitment by an unknown team of Chinese coders " . GamePro named it one of the thirteen best fan @-@ made video game remakes , placing first on their list and described as " the video game equivalent of the Human Genome Project " , despite its flaws .
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= Holly Holliday =
Holly Holliday is a recurring fictional character from the Fox musical comedy @-@ drama series Glee . Portrayed by actress Gwyneth Paltrow , the character appeared in three episodes during the show 's second season , and two episodes during the fifth season , and was Paltrow 's first @-@ ever role in a scripted television show . Holly was developed by Glee co @-@ creator Ryan Murphy , a personal friend of Paltrow 's , who suggested that she showcase her vocal and dancing abilities ahead of the release of her film Country Strong , in which she played a country singer . Introduced as a substitute teacher who takes the place of glee club director Will Schuester ( Matthew Morrison ) while he is ill , she forms a romantic bond with Will , but decides to break up with him and takes a teaching job in another town after realizing that he is still in love with Emma Pillsbury ( Jayma Mays ) .
Paltrow 's debut performance attracted positive commentary and earned her the 2011 Emmy Award for Outstanding Guest Actress in a Comedy Series . Many reviewers praised her subsequent portrayal of Holly in the " Sexy " episode , preferring it to her first appearance in " The Substitute " installment , though they disagreed over how Paltrow was used . Her final appearance in the " A Night of Neglect " episode was met with divergent reactions . She performed several musical numbers during her appearances , which include critically acclaimed renditions of " Forget You " by Cee Lo Green and " Landslide " by Fleetwood Mac . Paltrow was additionally featured in the 2011 concert film Glee : The 3D Concert Movie .
= = Storylines = =
Holly is a substitute teacher who makes her first appearance on Glee in the second season 's seventh episode , " The Substitute " . She is filling in at McKinley High School for the ailing Spanish teacher Will ( Matthew Morrison ) , who is also director of the glee club , New Directions . Club member Kurt ( Chris Colfer ) , who had seen her perform " Conjunction Junction " when she subbed for his English class , asks her to also take over Will 's glee club rehearsals . Instead of assigning songs , Holly asks the club members what kind of music they would like to perform , and when Puck ( Mark Salling ) suggests " Forget You " , she sings the song and they all join in , except for Rachel ( Lea Michele ) . Holly later wins her over by asking Rachel what she would like to sing that she hasn 't been able to , and they perform a number from Chicago together . Holly bonds with Sue ( Jane Lynch ) , who is the acting principal with Principal Figgins ( Iqbal Theba ) also out sick , and Sue fires the still @-@ ailing Will , making Holly the full @-@ time director of the glee club . When he recovers , Will confronts Holly at school , but she is unwilling to give up her new position . She later discovers she is in over her head when Mercedes ( Amber Riley ) gets in trouble , and Holly turns to Will for help . She reveals that she was once a more serious teacher like Will until a student punched her in the face , at which point she became far more free spirited . Holly ultimately returns to substitute teaching and Will is reinstated . He assigns the glee club to perform " Singin ' in the Rain " on his return , but faced with their dismay at being given another old song , he asks for Holly 's help to modernize it , and they all perform a mash @-@ up of it with Rihanna 's " Umbrella " .
Holly later returns to McKinley High as a substitute sex education teacher in the season 's fifteenth episode , " Sexy " . She informs Will that the members of New Directions are woefully ignorant about sex . He invites her to teach the glee club about safe sex , and she performs a rendition of Joan Jett 's " Do You Wanna Touch Me ( Oh Yeah ) " , much to the chagrin of the new head of the celibacy club , guidance counselor Emma ( Jayma Mays ) . Holly advises Puck and Lauren ( Ashley Fink ) that the sex tape they plan to make is illegal , as both are minors , and helps Brittany ( Heather Morris ) and Santana ( Naya Rivera ) start to come to terms with their true feelings for each other , later performing " Landslide " with them in front of the club . When Emma 's choice of " Afternoon Delight " as an abstinence song reveals her sexual naivete , her husband Carl ( John Stamos ) asks Holly for an appointment for him and Emma to work out issues in their sex life . During the counseling session , he reveals that Emma is still a virgin , and in answer to a question from Holly , Emma admits that she may still have feelings for Will . At the end of the episode , Holly begins a relationship with Will .
Holly makes her final second @-@ season appearance two episodes later in " A Night of Neglect " . She is still dating Will , and suggests to him that in order to help raise funds for the academic decathlon team , the glee club should present a benefit concert at the school that will feature songs by " neglected " artists . Her contribution to the benefit is a performance of Adele 's " Turning Tables " . At the end of the episode , realizing that he is still in love with Emma , Holly breaks up with Will and takes a several @-@ month substitute teaching job in another town .
= = Development = =
The role of Holly was created by series co @-@ creator Ryan Murphy specifically for Paltrow , a personal friend . Murphy suggested that she showcase her vocal and dancing talent ahead of the December 2010 release of the film Country Strong , in which Paltrow plays a country singer . Murphy said of Paltrow , " Gwyneth is a great singer . She 's done it a little bit but I really want to show it off and show everyone how great she is . " It was not the first time Paltrow had sung on screen : she played a karaoke singer in the movie Duets in 2000 , and had a number one hit in Australia for her duet of " Cruisin ' " from its soundtrack .
The character was originally set to appear for two episodes , as a love interest for Will Schuester in a love quadrangle with Will , Emma and Carl . Her debut was subsequently reduced to a single episode , and the relationship plot removed . After " The Substitute " episode aired , Murphy expressed interest in having Paltrow return with the right storyline . A few months later , she confirmed she would be seen again on the series , and was initially supposed to appear in episodes fifteen and sixteen , but instead appeared in episodes fifteen and seventeen , " Sexy " and " A Night of Neglect " , the second of these being her final appearance .
Paltrow initially said about a possible return to Glee in its third season : " No , I don 't think so . I don 't think I should . Though it 's honestly been one of the best jobs I 've ever had . " She did later state that she would love to come back , and said that Holly was " probably the most fun character I 've ever gotten to play " . Murphy stated before the second season ended that he had plans for Paltrow to return in season three , though nothing specific has been mentioned since the beginning of the third season . Paltrow , however , was featured in Glee : The 3D Concert Movie after being filmed while she performed " Forget You " as Holly in the 2011 Glee Live ! In Concert ! tour performances of June 16 and 17 , 2011 .
= = Critical reception = =
Paltrow 's performance in the " The Substitute " episode earned her an Primetime Emmy Award for Outstanding Guest Actress in a Comedy Series and attracted critical praise . Indeed , at the time , Entertainment Weekly 's Tim Stack and E ! Online 's Kristin dos Santos called her appearance Emmy @-@ worthy , with the former rating it among her best performances , and the latter stating that Holly received " some of Glee 's best @-@ ever one @-@ liners . VanDerWerff wrote that Holly injected an effortless sense of fun , despite much of her plot being nonsensical . The Atlantic 's Meghan Brown commented that Paltrow " brought a massive spark to what could have been a one @-@ note role " , and her co @-@ author Kevin Fallon wrote that her energetic performance saved an episode that might have been " in shambles without her presence " . Robert Canning of IGN noted that Paltrow 's casting could have been distracting , but instead she fit the role " seamlessly " . Brett Berk of Vanity Fair found her " surprisingly great " , and James Poniewozik of Time stated that while her casting was somewhat distracting , she was able to make Holly a sympathetic character without overdoing her neediness and commitment @-@ phobia . However , the National Alliance on Mental Illness ( NAMI ) took exception Paltrow 's history classroom scene where she role @-@ plays as Mary Todd Lincoln , which it stated " mocked and trivialized bipolar disorder " .
Several critics preferred Paltrow 's return in the " Sexy " installment to her initial appearance . The Washington Post 's Emily Yahr felt that she was better integrated into this episode , and Raymund Flandez of the Wall Street Journal called her return " infinitely better " than her first appearance : " Back then , she was a puzzle , a loony bin . Here , she 's sly and quick @-@ witted , appropriately adult and seductively saucy in an episode that showcased more of her comedic timing , than her stiff dance skills . All the better for us . " Fallon wrote that Paltrow was " if possible , even sassier and sultrier " than before , and felt that she served to anchor a busy episode . In contrast , Sandra Gonzalez of Entertainment Weekly had mixed feelings about Holly and believed that she dominated screen time . VanDerWerff liked Paltrow 's acting , but disliked Holly 's interaction with Will , saying they lacked " chemistry " . Soraya Roberts of the Daily News disliked her return for prolonging Will and Emma 's separation , branding Holly a home @-@ wrecker . She commented that while Paltrow 's appearance in " The Substitute " was " relatively fresh " , in " Sexy " she was " acting almost like a cardboard cutout version of her former self , overly enunciating her lines [ and ] treading carefully around her choreography " . Poniewozik found all of Paltrow 's scenes " labored and ridiculous " , and wrote that the actress failed to bring an element of realism to her character . Canning said that " the moment she came on screen the whole episode lit up " , and the episode was a " fun and funny showcase for everybody 's favorite recurring character " , and Futterman echoed him when she called Paltrow " our new favorite cast member " .
Paltrow 's final appearance in the " A Night of Neglect " episode was met with divergent reactions . Both MTV journalist Aly Semigran and Gonzalez approved of Holly 's departure , the latter of whom stating that Glee writers gave the character an appropriate ending and rounded out her arc . In contrast , CNN writer Lisa Respers France was dismayed by the character 's exit and favored Holly 's " memorable " characterization in the episode . The Washington Post 's Lisa de Moraes expressed interest in a season three return , and Canning described Holly as " charming as ever " in the episode . Myles McNutt , writing for The A.V. Club , felt the installment " captured the occasional awkwardness of Paltrow 's presence on the show " , and wrote that casting such a prominent actress " has its disadvantages when you know that she 's only around on a temporary basis " . TVLine correspondent Michael Slezak noted that Will and Emma 's romance — and that Paltrow probably was not ready to commit to the series full @-@ time — led to Holly 's adieu . Slezak concluded that what he liked about Holly , was that she did not succumb to Will , which , according to Slezak , made him less annoying .
= = Musical performances = =
Paltrow 's rendition of Cee Lo Green 's " Fuck You " , sanitized and retitled " Forget You " and featured on the soundtrack album Glee : The Music , Volume 4 , garnered positive critical reception . Anthony Benigno , an editor for the Daily News , and Time 's James Poniewozik criticized the show for sanitizing the song , but while the latter found it inferior to the original version , the former preferred Paltrow 's deeper voice and awarded it an " A " . Rolling Stone 's Erica Futterman felt the censorship of the song did not adversely affect its success , and deemed the performance " charming and sassy " . Megan Vick of Billboard favored it as " the most exciting number " of the episode , and Entertainment Weekly 's Tim Stack went further in his praise : he bestowed a grade of " A + " and lauded it as " one of the most memorable and energetic Glee performances ever , thanks in no small part to Paltrow " . Green expressed approval of the rendition . Benigno gave her short performance of " Conjunction Junction " an " A " , and described it as " a glorious ten seconds " , and granted the installment 's mash @-@ up of " Singin ' In The Rain / Umbrella " a " B " . Stack said that he loved the mash @-@ up and gave it an " A − " . Amy Reiter of the Los Angeles Times appreciated the mash @-@ up 's choreography and the manner in which " Paltrow 's sassiness undercuts [ Morrison 's ] overripe sweetness " , and named it potentially her favorite group number of the second season . " Forget You " reached number eleven on the Billboard Hot 100 and twelve on the Canadian Hot 100 , and the " Singing in the Rain / Umbrella " peaked at number ten on the Irish Singles Chart . Green 's " Fuck You ! " entered the top ten of the Hot 100 for the first time following the Glee cover , with sales rising 94 % in a week .
Most reviewers agreed that the performance of " Do You Wanna Touch Me ( Oh Yeah ) " was sexy . Benigno was one of these and was entertained by the number , but he thought Holly 's " vocals seem oddly subdued trying to imitate Joan Jett 's voice " and gave it a " B " grade . Gonzalez gave the same grade and also took issue with the vocals , though she enjoyed the energy . Futterman had a different view of the singing , and said that " Holly can 't quite muster Jett 's vocal power " . Berk gave the song four stars out of five and noted the " amazing hairography " , while Roberts called the performance a " leather @-@ clad , hair @-@ whipping mess " . Slezak gave the performance an " A " and wrote that Paltrow " completely captured the track 's naughty spirit " . " Do You Wanna Touch Me ( Oh Yeah ) " entered the Hot 100 at number fifty @-@ seven , and the Canadian Hot 100 at number sixty @-@ three .
There was not much enthusiasm for Morrison and Paltrow 's performance of Prince 's " Kiss " . BuddyTV 's Jen Harper noted that " Holly saved the song " for her . Futterman did not " feel the chemistry " until the final kiss . Benigno , on the other hand , said that the chemistry between them was " palpable " , called the cover " pretty great " , and gave it a " B + " . Roberts deemed Paltrow 's tango rigid , and The Atlantic author Patrick Burns commented that white people ought to be deterred from performing Prince . He called the music " uninteresting and soulless " , and was dismayed that the tango was " just white with white people tango dancing " . Flandez , however , enjoyed their dancing and wrote , " The strong holds , the slow cuts , the perfect swivel of hips and the lean @-@ to 's were mesmerizingly seductive . " " Kiss " charted at number eighty @-@ three on Hot 100 , and also made number eighty on the Canadian Hot 100 .
Paltrow 's performance of Fleetwood Mac 's " Landslide " received the most praise of the songs in the " Sexy " installment ; indeed , both VanDerWerff and Harper named it the episode 's best number . Harper noted the " great harmonies " and added , " I got goose bumps . " Houston Chronicle contributor Bobby Hankinson called the rendition " gorgeous " and Berk used " perfection " ; Berk went above his five star maximum to give the performance six stars . Roberts found the performance " pretty but uninspired " , though Flandez called it " a dreamy , perfectly pitched power song of lesbian love " and Poniewozik " surprisingly poignant " . Benigno and Slezak both noted that the cover was based on the version by the Dixie Chicks , and gave grades of " A − " and " B + " respectively . The " B + " from Gonzalez came with a caveat : she wished that Rivera , rather than Paltrow , had sung the lead vocal because of the meaning the song held for Santana . Stevie Nicks welcomed the cover of " Landslide " , and hoped it would bring the Fleetwood Mac 's songs to a new generation . She approved of the performance , and said that Paltrow " sang it beautifully " . On the Hot 100 , the rendition of " Landslide " debuted at number twenty @-@ three ; it was at number thirty @-@ five on the Canadian Hot 100 .
Paltrow 's performance of Adele 's " Turning Tables " was considered inferior to the original . While Flandez called it a " scene @-@ stealing turn " and commended it visually and vocally , he noted that Paltrow lacks Adele 's veracity . Futterman named it her least @-@ favorite of Paltrow 's covers to date and said that her vocals " lacked the texture that made Adele 's version so heartbreaking . " Gonzalez gave the performance her lowest grade of the episode , a " B – " , and Semigran opined that while Paltrow is " a nice enough singer , " she " in no way has the chops " the piece requires . McNutt characterized the decision to have Paltrow cover " Turning Tables " unfair in comparison to Adele 's original , " given that Paltrow 's singing is only passable " . Slezak , however , said that Paltrow delivered a controlled , understated performance and CNN 's Lisa Respers France simply deemed the performance memorable . The version reached number sixty @-@ six in the US and Canada .
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