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= Papal conclave , 1492 =
The papal conclave of 1492 ( 6 – 11 August 1492 ) was convened after the death of Pope Innocent VIII ( 25 July 1492 ) . It was the first conclave to be held in the Sistine Chapel .
Cardinal Rodrigo Borja was elected unanimously on the 4th ballot as Pope Alexander VI . The election is notorious for allegations that Borja bought the votes of his electors , promising them lucrative appointments and other material gifts — a practice known as simony . Concerns about this conclave led Pope Julius II to create stronger rules against simony in 1503 .
= = Cardinal electors = =
Of the 23 cardinals participating in the conclave , fourteen had been elevated by Pope Sixtus IV . The Cardinals of Sixtus IV , known as the " Sistine Cardinals " and led by Giuliano della Rovere , had controlled the conclave of 1484 , electing one of their own , Giambattista Cibo as Pope Innocent VIII . Since 1431 the composition of the College of Cardinals had been radically transformed , increasing the number of cardinal @-@ nephews ( from 3 to 10 ) , crown @-@ cardinals ( from 2 to 8 ) , and representatives of powerful Roman noble families ( from 2 to 4 ) . With the exception of three curial officials and one pastor , the cardinals were " secularly @-@ minded princes largely unconcerned with the spiritual life of either the Latin church or its members . "
At the time of Innocent VIII 's death , the names of Cardinals Gherardo and Sanseverino ( both created in pectore ) , had not been published , thus making them ineligible to participate in the conclave ; however , both were published as an act of the College in sede vacante , Gherardo having been pushed by Orsini and Sanseverino by Sforza . Gherardo was assigned the title of Santi Nereo e Achilleo , which it was believed Innocent VIII had intended for him ; Sanseverino was given the poor and undesirable diaconate of San Teodoro to ensure that the future pontiff would confirm his assignment .
According to the account of bishop ambassador Giovanni Andrea Boccaccio , at least seven cardinals considered themselves papabile , having dismantled the furnishings of their palaces as a precaution against the traditional pillaging of the pope @-@ elect 's residence by the Roman populace : da Costa , di Campofregoso , Michiel , Piccolomini , Domenico della Rovere , Savelli , and Zeno .
= = = Absent Cardinals = = =
There is no evidence that the 4 absent cardinals made an attempt to reach Rome for the conclave .
= = Procedures = =
As dictated by the prescriptions Ubi periculum and Ne Romani , the conclave should have begun on 4 August , ten days after the death of Innocent VIII ; however , the conclave was delayed to await the slow arrival of the aged Gherardo , bearing a letter from Venice 's Council of Ten urging his acceptance into the College . The cardinals had decided as early as their first meeting on 24 July to use the Sistine Chapel for the balloting and assembly of the conclave .
Johann Burchard , the German papal master of ceremonies , who presided over the conclave , as well as the previous one in 1484 , kept an extensive diary , noting that each cardinal was provided :
The Mass of the Holy Spirit ( celebrated by Giuliano della Rovere rather than Borja who as Dean would traditionally have been the celebrant ) and then a speech by Bernardino Lopez de Carvajal , a Spaniard and the ambassador to Ferdinand and Isabella , on the " evils afflicting the Church " preceded the beginning of the conclave on 6 August 1492 . Another Spaniard , Gonzalo Fernandez de Heredia , archbishop of Tarragona , was appointed prefect of the Vatican . Two important offices during sede vacante were filled with compatriots of Cardinal Borja , and it is believed that they both were chosen by Borja in his capacity as Dean to strengthen his position before the conclave .
The remainder of 6 August was consumed by the drafting and subscription to the conclave capitulation , which — although not extant — is known to have restricted the number of new cardinals which could be created by the new pope .
= = Vote count = =
The first ballot ( " scrutiny " ) , held on 8 August was said to have resulted in nine votes for Carafa , seven for Borja , Costa , and Michiel , and five for Giuliano della Rovere , with Sforza notably receiving zero votes .
The second ballot produced nine for Carafa , eight for Borja , seven for Michiel , and five for Giuliano della Rovere .
According to the Florentine Ambassador , one of the guards of the conclave , as of 10 August there had been three unsuccessful ballots , favoring Costa and Carafa , but in no way indicating Borja might be chosen . According to Sigismondo de ' Conti , papal secretary and chronicler , the vote was unanimous on the fourth ballot , taken early in the morning on 11 August although Borja had only 15 votes prior to the accessus ; other accounts say Borja received all the votes except for his own , which he gave to Carafa .
According to the Catholic Encyclopedia , the election of Rodrigo Borja was " almost entirely due to " Giambattisti Orsini .
= = Allegations of simony = =
The Venetian envoy to Milan informed his confrère in Ferrara : " that by simony and a thousand villanies and indecencies the papacy has been sold , which is a disgraceful and detestable business " , adding that he expected Spain and France to withhold their support from the new pontiff . After the conclave , a ubiquitous epigram within Rome was : " Alexander sells the Keys , the Altar , Christ Himself — he has a right to for he bought them . "
On 10 August after the third ballot , Ascanio Sforza allegedly came to believe his own ambitions of being elected pope were impossible and became susceptible to Borja 's offer : the office of Vice @-@ Chancellor and the associated Palazzo Borgia , the Castle of Nepi , the bishopric of Erlau ( with annual revenue of 10 @,@ 000 ducats ) and other benefices . Sforza was also reputed to have received four mule @-@ loads of silver ( some sources say gold ) , which Borja ordered to be delivered immediately after the deal was struck . The price of the other Cardinals was as follows : Orsini , the fortified towns of Monticelli and Soriano , the legation of the Marches , and the bishopric of Cartagena ( with annual revenue of 5 @,@ 000 ducats ) ; Colonna , the abbey of Subiaco and its environs ( with annual revenue of 3 @,@ 000 ducats ) ; Savelli , Civita Castellana and the bishopric of Majorca ; Pallavicini , the bishopric of Pampeluna ( Pamplona ) ; Michiel , the suburbicarian see of Porto ; Riario , Spanish benefices with annual income of 4 @,@ 000 ducats and the return of a house in the Piazza Navona ( which Sforza had occupied ) to the children of Count Girolamo . Sanseverino 's compensation included Rodrigo Borgia 's house in Milan . Cardinals Sclafenati and Domenico della Rovere were to receive abbacies and / or benefices . Cardinals Andicino della Porta and Conti followed Sforza , whom they had originally supported .
The aforementioned Cardinals plus Borja 's own vote numbered 14 , one short of the required two @-@ third majority . However , Cardinals Carafa , Costa , Piccolomini , Cibò , and Zeno , followed by Medici , were unwilling to be bribed . Cardinal Giuliano della Rovere , followed by Basso , was intractably opposed to Borja 's election . Thus , the ninety @-@ six @-@ year @-@ old Gherardo , the Cardinal Patriarch of Venice , who was paid only 5 @,@ 000 ducats , constituted the deciding vote .
According to Professor Picotti , who extensively researched the conclave and came to the conclusion that simony had occurred , no accounts of papal income and expenditure exist in the registers of Introitus et Exitus for August 1492 , and debts from the Apostolic Camera to Cardinals Campofregoso , Domenico della Rovere , Sanseverino , and Orsini appeared soon afterwards . The Spannocchi bank , which housed much of Borja 's wealth , was said to have nearly crashed after the conclave due to the velocity of transactions .
Some sources say that Charles VIII of France had bankrolled 200 @,@ 000 ducats ( plus 100 @,@ 000 ducats from the Doge of Genoa ) for the election of Giuliano della Rovere , although several otherwise bribable cardinals were hostile to French interference .
Other historians regard politics as a stronger factor within the conclave than pure simony , with the personal rivalvry between Giuliano della Rovere and Ascanio Sforza ( who had met to discuss the upcoming conclave in Castel Gandolfo even before Innocent VII had died ) substituting for the ancient struggle between Naples and Milan , with the intractability between the two parties making Borja a viable candidate .
= = Aftermath = =
When Giuliano della Rovere was elected Pope Julius II in 1503 , he issued a bull annulling any papal election brought about by simony , and defrocking and excommunicating any cardinal who sold his vote . Although the twenty @-@ six day reign of Pope Pius III intervened between Alexander VI and Julius II , the alleged unscrupulousness of the Borgia pope was still firmly in the institutional memory of the Roman Curia . While Cardinal during the reign of Alexander VI , Julius II had been assailed politically and often militarily outside the sturdy wall of his Castle of Ostia .
= = Media = =
The conclave is fictionalized in the 2011 premiere episode of the Showtime series " The Borgias " , with Jeremy Irons as Borja and Colm Feore as della Rovere , and also in the Borgia series of the same year , with John Doman as Rodrigo Borgia , Dejan Cukic as Giuliano Della Rovere , John Bradley as Giovanni De Medici and Predrag Bjelac as Francesco Piccolomini .
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= Adelaide Rams =
The Adelaide Rams were an Australian professional rugby league football club based in Adelaide , South Australia . The team was formed in 1995 for the planned rebel Super League competition , which eventually ran parallel to the rival Australian Rugby League ( ARL ) competition in 1997 . The Rams lasted two seasons , the first in the Super League competition in 1997 and the second in the first season of the National Rugby League ( NRL ) in 1998 . The Rams were not a successful club , winning only 13 out of 42 games . However crowd numbers in the first season were the fifth highest of any first @-@ grade club that year , but dwindled to sixteenth in the second season . The Adelaide club was shut down at the end of the 1998 season as a result of poor on @-@ field performances , dwindling crowd numbers , financial losses and a reduction in the number of teams in the NRL . They remain the only team from the state of South Australia to have participated in top @-@ level rugby league in Australia .
= = History = =
= = = Background = = =
The Australian rules football code , with origins as far back as 1843 , had long dominated sport in the state . South Australia had two teams competing in the national Australian rules competition , the Australian Football League ( AFL ) : the Adelaide Crows and Port Adelaide Power , the latter starting in the AFL in the same year as the Rams first season in Super League while the Crows won their first two AFL premierships in the same two years the Rams played . The new team from Port Adelaide , who already had a large fan base in the local South Australian National Football League ( SANFL ) competition , and the Crows successes in 1997 – 98 made it much harder for the Rams to compete for fan support . They were also competing against the popular Adelaide 36ers who played in the National Basketball League ( NBL ) which at the time ran a winter season . Adelaide , the capital of South Australia , was considered an Aussie rules stronghold , and in the SANFL had the oldest Aussie Rules Football league , and indeed the oldest league of any code , in Australia , as well as a viable Rugby Union competition which had been running since 1932 . The South Australian Rugby League ( SARL ) also had a First Grade Premiership competition in place since 1976 , while league been played competitively in Adelaide since the late 1940s .
The New South Wales Rugby League premiership ( NSWRL ) begun in 1908 , as a rugby league competition mostly for clubs in the Sydney region of Australia ( a team from Newcastle competed in 1908 – 09 ) , a situation that lasted until 1982 . The competition then expanded outside of NSW to Canberra , and to outside of Sydney with a team from Wollongong , and eventually in 1988 to Brisbane and the Gold Coast in Queensland , plus a new team from Newcastle . In 1992 the NSWRL decided to extend the competition further , by admitting four new teams for the 1995 competition , one from Western Australia , one from New Zealand and two from Queensland . The NSWRL also decided to test the viability of a rugby league team from the South Australian capital , and between 1991 and 1995 programmed five matches to be played in Adelaide at the famous Adelaide Oval . In 1991 , the St. George Dragons ( whose primary sponsor since the mid @-@ late 1970 's was Adelaide @-@ based winery Penfolds ) and Balmain Tigers match attracted 28 @,@ 884 people , the largest attendance for any rugby league game in South Australia and the largest of the entire minor round of the 1991 NSWRL season ( it was in fact the 5th highest attendance for the entire season , beating the attendance of two of the six Finals series games ) . Around 20 @,@ 000 attended the two matches in 1992 and 1993 , and around 10 @,@ 000 in 1994 and 1995 . Despite this evidence of popular appeal , the NSWRL , already in the process of setting up a 20 @-@ team competition , could not see their way to admitting a team from Adelaide and their preferred option outside of rugby league strongholds of NSW , Qld and New Zealand was to have a team from Melbourne and another in Perth ( the Melbourne Storm would be formed in 1998 ) . By the end of 1995 , this was apparent as the ARL had already played two international Test matches involving the Australian Kangaroos in Melbourne , as well as three State of Origin games , with Game 2 of the 1994 State of Origin series attracting a then Australian record rugby league crowd of 87 @,@ 161 to the Melbourne Cricket Ground .
= = = Formation = = =
In 1994 , the media company News Limited began developing a rival competition to the long @-@ established NSWRL premiership : the " Super League " premiership . In response to this move the Australian Rugby League ( ARL ) , the governing body of rugby league in Australia , took over the NSWRL . After 8 of the 20 teams in the ARL competition signed with News Limited ( to play in their proposed Super League competition in 1996 ) the organization began looking for further teams to make the new competition viable . In June 1995 the South Australian Rugby League ( SARL ) , which governs the game of rugby league in South Australia , officially signed with Super League , who subsequently gave them a licence to form a franchise which would allow the SARL to create a Super League team . Another leading factor in the SARL 's decision to sign with SL was the promise of greater financial assistance than they were receiving from the ARL .
The team was owned and supported by News Limited . Former Australian representatives Tim Pickup and Rod Reddy were named inaugural CEO and head coach respectively . Pickup played a major role in assembling the playing roster as well as establishing training headquarters , and was the Rams delegate for all of the Super League court hearings . No expense was spared converting a former sanitarium in the suburb of Oakden into a world @-@ class sporting complex , later named Ram Park , that was home to the largest weight @-@ lifting gym in the southern hemisphere .
On 13 December 1995 , the SARL officially launched the ' Adelaide Rams ' , the tenth and final team to join the Super League competition . In early March , the ARL were successful in gaining a federal court injunction , a legal ruling that prevented the Super League from beginning competition in 1996 and the Rams were put on hold causing Tim Pickup to stand down from his post in the ensuing months . In mid @-@ 1996 , News Limited successfully appealed this ruling , which enabled the competition to proceed . Wallaby rugby union halfback George Gregan was approached to switch codes to be the starting halfback for the new team for " seriously more money than " he would earn playing rugby union , though he opted to remain in the 15 @-@ man code ( Gregan would ultimately go on to win the 1999 Rugby World Cup with the Wallabies and would become Wallaby captain in 2001 ) . The first , and only Super League season , was held in 1997 , and the Rams were part of it .
= = = Inaugural season = = =
SARL appointed the former Auckland Warriors marketing manager Liz Dawson as Pickup 's replacement as the Rams ' chief executive – the first female chief executive of any rugby league club in either the ARL or the Super League . The club had appointed St. George Dragons international back rower Rod Reddy to be their inaugural coach , along with two @-@ time NSWRL premiership @-@ winning Hooker Kerrod Walters from the Brisbane Broncos to be the first captain of the team . Most of the junior players were drawn from the SARL 's lower grade competitions in the region .
The club played its first premiership match against the North Queensland Cowboys and , after leading 16 – 4 at half time , eventually lost 24 – 16 .
Their first home match , against the Hunter Mariners , was also the Rams ' first win , and drew their record home attendance of 27 @,@ 435 to the Adelaide Oval , one of only two home wins for the season . The Rams also won four away games with their first being in Round 4 against the Auckland Warriors at the Ericsson Stadium in Auckland , New Zealand , but their overall record of 6 wins , 11 losses and 1 draw placed them second last on the Super League premiership ladder , one win ahead of North Queensland .
The Rams first home game attendance of 27 @,@ 435 was the 4th highest attendance of the entire 1997 season , behind only the Grand Final at the ANZ Stadium in Brisbane ( 58 @,@ 912 ) , the opening game of the season in Brisbane ( 42 @,@ 361 ) and a Round 6 match at the Dairy Farmers Stadium in Townsville ( 30 @,@ 122 ) .
Although the Rams had good home attendances in 1997 , unfortunately for the new club this was the same year that the Port Adelaide Power began to play in the AFL . Port Adelaide were the most successful and well supported club in the local Australian rules competition , the SANFL . This made the Rams job of attracting new fans even harder . This job was made even harder when the Adelaide Crows won their first AFL premiership that year .
Goal kicking utility back Kurt Wrigley was the Rams top point scorer for the season with 81 points from 5 tries , 30 goals and 1 field goal . Wrigley and fullback Rod Maybon were the teams top try scorers with 5 each . Super League 's top point scorer for the season was Penrith Panthers centre Ryan Girdler who scored 197 points from 11 tries , 76 goals and 1 field goal . The competitions top try scorer was Canterbury Bulldogs utility back Matthew Ryan who crossed for 17 tries .
Following the unification of the Super League and ARL competitions after the 1997 season , a new National Rugby League ( NRL ) competition was formed . This meant that three teams would be demised , as part of the rationalisation process aimed at reducing teams to an optimal number . With the introduction of the Melbourne Storm , and an agreement between Super League and the ARL to have a competition limited to 14 teams by 2000 , the future for the Rams looked bleak . However , the Rams ' home ground support , which averaged 15 @,@ 330 fans each week , ensured that they remained in the unified 1998 competition .
= = = = World Club Championship = = = =
In addition to the Telstra Cup , the Adelaide Rams also competed in Super League 's 1997 World Club Championship competition . The Rams were placed in Australasia Pool B along with the Hunter Mariners , North Queensland Cowboys and Perth Reds and would be matched up against teams from Europe Pool B including the Leeds Rhinos , Oldham Bears and Salford City Reds . The competition would see the Rams play three games at home and three in England .
The Rams won their three home games rather easily , but only managed to win one of their games in England leaving them in third place in their pool . As only one team from Australasia Pool B would go on to the Quarter finals , this meant that the Adelaide Rams did not advance past the group stage of the tournament .
= = = Final season = = =
The demise of three clubs from the Super League and ARL ( Western Reds and Hunter Mariners ( SL ) , and South Queensland Crushers ( ARL ) ) saw some player re @-@ shuffling , and brought Noel Goldthorpe , Tony Iro and Matt Daylight to the Adelaide club . However , after the Rams lost nine of their first ten games , coach Reddy and the entire coaching staff were sacked by the Rams ' administration . Reddy was replaced by former Perth Reds coach Dean Lance and mid @-@ season saw the arrival of Canberra Raiders utility back Graham Appo .
In June after numerous financial disagreements with the South Australian Cricket Association ( SACA ) who at the time owned the Adelaide Oval , the club changed home grounds to the smaller , 16 @,@ 000 capacity Hindmarsh Stadium , a soccer specific venue which was better suited to a rugby league field than the Adelaide Oval was . The Rams celebrated the move with a record 52 – 0 win over the Balmain Tigers .
The club went on to win six of their last fourteen games after Lance 's arrival , enough to avoid the wooden spoon awarded to the team finishing lowest on the competition ladder . Their overall results were comparable to those of their first season , coming fourth last in the 20 – team competition . Appo broke several team records in his 14 games with the Rams .
The Adelaide Rams last home game in the penultimate round of the season saw a 36 – 0 thrashing at the hands of the finals bound North Sydney Bears in front of 7 @,@ 035 fans on 15 August 1998 .
Throughout the 1998 season , the Rams attempted to build a stronger supporter base in order to avoid removal from the competition in 1999 or 2000 . However , with the teams lack of on @-@ field success , plus the success of other Adelaide @-@ based sports teams who won national championships in 1997 and / or 1998 including the Adelaide Crows ( AFL ) , Adelaide 36ers ( NBL ) and Adelaide Thunderbirds ( netball ) , saw average home attendances dropped by more than half ( 51 @.@ 3 % ) from the previous years 15 @,@ 330 to just 7 @,@ 472 over the course of the season .
The NRL had planned to continue a 20 – team competition in 1999 , with a reduction to 14 teams in 2000 . The Rams ' management , led by newly named CEO , former dual rugby international and Manly @-@ Warringah 1987 premiership player Michael O 'Connor , had their minds set on a place in the reduced competition , and went on a buying spree , obtaining rights for players that they hoped would be productive enough for the team to survive the cut in 2000 . However , after the merger between rugby league clubs St. George Dragons and Illawarra Steelers , News Limited told the Rams they would no longer receive funding . The club was wound up just days after it had held its 1999 season launch . With little chance of securing a contract with another club just weeks before the start of the 1999 NRL season , the players were then placed in other News Ltd. owned or financed teams including Brisbane , Canberra and Melbourne .
The cost of building and sustaining an uncompetitive rugby league team in an area dominated by another football sport had resulted in News Limited incurring heavy financial losses with the Rams . Subsequent attempts to merge with a Sydney club ( rumoured to be the ARL loyal South Sydney Rabbitohs ) failed , however the Canberra Raiders offered to merge with the club and effectively took over the club on 1 December 1998 .
You cannot expect the Rams to have won over South Australians after just two seasons in such an Aussie Rules stronghold , especially given the extraordinary nature of those seasons .
= = = Future = = =
While the Adelaide Rams cease to no longer exist in their own right , numbers in junior rugby league in Adelaide have risen , and the SARL has begun again to promote the idea of a team based in Adelaide . Due to its efforts , NRL teams have been brought to the city to revive interest ; in 2006 the Penrith Panthers scheduled a home game at Adelaide 's Hindmarsh Stadium while their home ground was under renovation . The NRL helped with the promotion of the match , although the SARL were disappointed with the small crowd of 7 @,@ 017 . In 2008 , Sydney based club the Cronulla Sharks announced they would play three matches over the next three years at Adelaide , with coach Ricky Stuart saying he wanted Adelaide to become the Sharks ' second home . SARL general manager Bruce Walker has suggested that the NRL itself should take more responsibility for scheduling games in Adelaide . The 2009 match against North Queensland Cowboys attracted 8 @,@ 547 people . However , at the end of the 2008 NRL season , the leagues Centenary year , the Sharks decided to concentrate on their home fans and were allowed out of their contract to play in Adelaide after just one game .
In 2010 , the Canterbury @-@ Bankstown Bulldogs took their home match against the Melbourne Storm to Adelaide in which Canterbury @-@ Bankstown Bulldogs defeating the Melbourne Storm 20 – 18 where the game attracted 10 @,@ 350 people at Adelaide Oval .
In 2008 , several NRL club bosses expressed the view that the NRL should be a " national " competition , since it now had teams from all around Australia rather than just on the eastern seaboard , arguing that such a move would increase the competition 's revenue . Peter Parr , the CEO of the North Queensland Cowboys and former assistant coach for the Rams in 1998 , said that if the NRL had stuck with the Adelaide Rams , then rugby league in Adelaide might have flourished , making comparisons with the Melbourne Storm , a team performing successfully on and off the field in the AFL 's heartland .
Early in the 2013 NRL season , the NRL 's official free @-@ to @-@ air broadcast partner the Nine Network , began to show their Friday night and Sunday afternoon games live around Australia , including Adelaide , on their digital channel GEM . This saw games shown during prime time on Friday nights from 7pm , and from 4pm on Sundays ( following the The Sunday Footy Show which prior to 2013 had never been broadcast into Adelaide ) rather than in the post midnight ' graveyard shift ' of previous years . It also saw NRL broadcasts go head @-@ to @-@ head with live AFL telecasts on the Seven Network with predictably lower ratings in Australian rules dominated states South Australia , Western Australia and Victoria . While this agreement is still in place around Australia during 2014 , for unexplained reasons the showing of games in Adelaide only has reverted to the graveyard shift , a move which has angered league fans in Adelaide .
Prior to the start of the 2015 NRL season , ABC news reported that successful Sydney based club the Manly @-@ Warringah Sea Eagles were in talks with the South Australian Government with the view to bring some future Sea Eagles home games to Adelaide .
= = Colours , emblem and stadium = =
The emblem of the team was a ram ( a male sheep ) . The ram was chosen , according to Super League chief executive John Ribot , because it was " readily identifiable with strength and hardness " . This name was considered a better alternative to the first choice , the Adelaide Aces ( through a proposed sponsorship link with the Adelaide Casino ) , which Ribot believed was too soft a name and did not work well as a brand for a Super League team . The main colours of the Adelaide Rams were red and blue , although there was yellow in their emblem to reflect South Australia 's traditional sporting colours . Their jerseys remained red and blue until the last game they played in 1998 , when they used a mainly yellow jersey to avoid a colour clash with the similar jerseys of the Newcastle Knights ( who were the home team ) .
The Rams ' initial home ground was Adelaide Oval , a round park that had been used for cricket and Australian Rules Football for over a century . For their first season they had average home attendances of 15 @,@ 330 , the fourth highest of the Super League teams and fifth highest of all 22 teams in both competitions . In 1998 , however , the Rams ' home attendances diminished , dropping to an average of about 7 @,@ 500 , the fourth lowest of any team in the 20 – team competition .
During 1998 , the South Australian Cricket Association had ongoing problems with the SARL and the Rams ' use of their stadium , Adelaide Oval . The Rams then moved to Hindmarsh Stadium , a rectangular stadium more suited to rugby league and owned by the South Australian Soccer Association . They celebrated with a 52 – 0 defeat over Balmain in their first match at the stadium . However , attendances did not improve after the move , falling below 7 @,@ 500 .
The Rams highest attendance at Adelaide Oval was 27 @,@ 435 set in their inaugural home game against the Hunter Mariners . Their record attendance at Hindmarsh was 7 @,@ 459 for their loss to 1997 ARL Grand Finalists , the Manly @-@ Warringah Sea Eagles . In 1998 , the Rams played their Round 15 home game against the Illawarra Steelers at the Bennett Oval in Whyalla , in part due to Whyalla 's main employer being BHP who were also the Steelers major sponsor . The Steelers won the game 39 – 4 in front of 5 @,@ 153 fans .
= = Records and statistics = =
= = = Most games for club = = =
41 , Kerrod Walters ( 1997 – 1998 )
= = = Most points for club = = =
116 ( 12 tries , 34 goals ) , [ Cailin Elkins ] ( 1998 )
= = = Most tries for club = = =
12 , Graham Appo ( 1998 )
= = = Most goals for club = = =
45 ( 45 / 69 – 65 @.@ 22 % ) , Luke Williamson ( 1997 – 1998 )
= = = Most points in a season = = =
116 ( 12 tries , 34 goals ) , Graham Appo in 1998
= = = Most tries in a season = = =
12 , Graham Appo in 1998
= = = Most goals in a season = = =
34 ( 34 / 52 – 65 @.@ 38 % ) , Graham Appo in 1998
= = = Most points in a match = = =
24 ( 3 tries , 6 goals ) , Graham Appo vs Gold Coast Chargers on 27 June 1998 @ Carrara Stadium
24 ( 2 tries , 8 goals ) , Graham Appo vs Balmain Tigers on 3 July 1998 @ Hindmarsh Stadium
= = = Most tries in a match = = =
3 , Graham Appo against Gold Coast Chargers on 27 June 1998
= = = Most goals in a match = = =
8 ( 8 / 9 – 88 @.@ 9 % ) , Graham Appo vs Balmain Tigers on 3 July 1998
= = = Highest attendance ( home ) = = =
Adelaide Oval : 27 @,@ 435 vs Hunter Mariners on 14 March 1997
Hindmarsh Stadium : 7 @,@ 459 vs Manly @-@ Warringah Sea Eagles on 7 August 1998
Bennett Oval ( Whyalla ) : 5 @,@ 153 vs Illawarra Steelers on 20 June 1998
= = = Highest attendance ( away ) = = =
Stockland Stadium ( Townsville ) : 17 @,@ 738 vs North Queensland Cowboys on 1 March 1997
= = = Lowest attendance ( home ) = = =
Adelaide Oval : 6 @,@ 500 vs Canberra Raiders on 8 May 1998
Hindmarsh Stadium : 7 @,@ 035 vs North Sydney Bears on 15 August 1998
= = = Lowest attendance ( away ) = = =
Topper Stadium ( Newcastle ) : 2 @,@ 345 vs Hunter Mariners on 5 July 1997
= = Club records = =
= = = Biggest wins = = =
= = = Biggest loses = = =
= = = Team performance summary = = =
The Rams did not win any premierships , minor premierships or wooden spoons in their two seasons . Their biggest win was 52 – 0 over the Balmain Tigers in 1998 and their biggest losing margin was 42 points , which occurred twice : against the Canberra Raiders in 1997 and the Penrith Panthers in 1998 . The Rams had a 32 @.@ 14 % win percentage for all of their premiership games , which made them statistically the sixth worst team in first grade rugby league in Australia , out of 33 teams .
Of the Rams 13 wins , 7 of them were at home while 5 were away . The Rams final win came in Round 20 of the 1998 NRL season when they defeated the Auckland Warriors 22 – 20 at Hindmarsh Stadium in front of 7 @,@ 445 fans . The clubs final ever home game in Round 23 of 1998 saw them go down 36 – 0 to the North Sydney Bears in front of 7 @,@ 035 fans , the lowest recorded attendance at Hindmarsh .
= = Players = =
= = = Inaugural team = = =
North Queensland Cowboys 24 def . Adelaide Rams 16
Date : 1 March 1997
Venue : Stockland Stadium ( Townsville )
Attendance : 17 @,@ 738
Referee : Brian Grant
= = Supporters = =
Chubby Checker
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= Acquisition ( Star Trek : Enterprise ) =
" Acquisition " is the nineteenth episode of the first season of the American science fiction television series Star Trek : Enterprise that originally aired on March 27 , 2002 , on UPN . The episode was developed into a teleplay by Maria and Andre Jacquemetton from a story by Rick Berman and Brannon Braga , and was directed by James Whitmore , Jr .. Set in the 22nd century , the series follows the adventures of the first Starfleet starship , Enterprise , registration NX @-@ 01 . In this episode , a group of interstellar alien thieves knock out the Enterprise crew and begin looting the ship . Commander Charles " Trip " Tucker III ( Connor Trinneer ) is the only one left to stop them .
The Ferengi first appeared in the Star Trek : The Next Generation episode " The Last Outpost " , and first contact with the race was described in " The Battle " , which meant that " Acquisition " attempted to not alter that . In addition , a Ferengi language was developed by the writers which was based on French . The episode also had a number of guest stars who had previously appeared in Star Trek ; Clint Howard , Ethan Phillips and Jeffrey Combs . It was poorly received by critics , but according to the Nielsen ratings , it received a 5 @.@ 2 / 6 % audience share during broadcast .
= = Plot = =
As Enterprise drifts in space , an unknown alien cruiser scans the ship , then docks with it . As part of an unconventional and criminal first contact , two Ferengi , Muk and Grish , board wearing breathing filters , and the crew appear to have been knocked unconscious . In Engineering , the two locate and deactivate a gas @-@ machine that the Starfleet crew brought up from the surface of a nearby moon . Unknown to the intruders , Commander Tucker is still conscious and makes his way to Engineering and uses the ship 's sensors to monitor the aliens as they plunder the ship .
Captain Archer is confined in Cargobay , and the aliens are unconvinced that Enterprise carries no currency or valuable materials . They set @-@ off to find the vault themselves , leaving Krem and Archer to transfer the loot . Archer sees Tucker and sends him to the launch @-@ bay to retrieve the Ferengi 's hypospray . Doing so , Tucker revives Sub @-@ Commander T 'Pol , and they try to find a way to stop the Ferengi . She assumes the gas @-@ machine was intentionally placed on the surface as a ' Trojan Horse ' . In Sickbay , three of the four Ferengi search for the non @-@ existent vault , and T 'Pol uses a PADD to distract and then start an argument between them .
In Engineering , Archer tries to negotiate with Krem , who is tempted when Archer says that he will throw in T 'Pol . In Archer 's quarters , Muk and Grish try interrogating Porthos , Archer 's pet Beagle . Muk goes to the launch @-@ bay and finds Tucker , who escapes , but Ulis subdues him with his electro @-@ whip . The Ferengi , Archer and Trip meet in the launch @-@ bay where Archer plays along with Tucker 's deception about " the vault " . T 'Pol assists in subduing the intruders , and the crew oversee the return of the stolen goods . Archer tells the Ferengi not to go within a light year of a human or Vulcan vessel ever again ( and they indeed do not reappear until some 200 years later in episode The Last Outpost ) .
= = Production = =
The writers of " Acquisition " , Maria and Andre Jacquemetton , developed a spoken language for the alien race known as the Ferengi . Although they had been seen previously on screen in previous incarnations of Star Trek , including throughout Star Trek : Deep Space Nine , a spoken language had not been developed . The pair wrote the dialogue initially in English , before translating it into French and then breaking it down into syllables . They described it as " fun to write " . The pair had intended for the Ferengi throughout the episode to speak their new language , but this was reduced to only the first act . This was the third episode written by the duo , after " Breaking the Ice " and " Dear Doctor " .
Story editor André Bormanis explained in a web chat just before the airing of the episode that they had sought to ensure that Jean @-@ Luc Picard was Captain who made first contact with the Ferengi officially ; Bormanis commented that he thought the episode was funny . The Ferengi made their first appearance in the Star Trek : The Next Generation episode " The Last Outpost " , having been created by franchise creator Gene Roddenberry and producer Herbert Wright . The events of the episode " The Battle " established that it was Picard on board the USS Stargazer at the Battle of Maxia that made the official first contact with the race on behalf of the Federation .
The guest cast featured three former Star Trek alumni including Clint Howard who had appeared in the Star Trek : The Original Series episode " The Corbomite Maneuver " as Balok . Ethan Phillips had appeared as Neelix , a main cast character in Star Trek : Voyager , as well as the Ferengi doctor Farek in The Next Generation episode " Ménage à Troi " . The third alumni was Jeffrey Combs who had appeared as several characters such as Weyoun and the Ferengi Brunt in Star Trek : Deep Space Nine . Combs had already previously in Enterprise as the Andorian Shran , and would continue to do so for the rest of the series . He said that being asked to appear as a Ferengi once again took him by surprise , but that Krem was " a world 's away " from the Brunt character , which pleased him .
= = Reception and home media release = =
" Acquisition " originally aired on UPN on March 27 , 2002 . According to Nielsen ratings , it received a 5 @.@ 2 / 6 % share , meaning that it was seen by 5 @.@ 2 percent of all households , and 6 percent of all households watching television at the time of the broadcast .
Herc , in his review for Ain 't It Cool News , compared to the Die Hard inspired episode of Alias entitled " The Box " . He thought that the Enterprise episode wasn 't as good and suggested it might have been a filler episode . He gave it a rating of two and a half out of five . Alasdair Wilkins , at the A.V. Club described the episode as " Star Trek comfort food " , but also that it demonstrated " a show unable to carve out its own identity , content to rehash old stories when the show ’ s very premise demands new storytelling " . He also said that it was a " blatant example " of Enterprise repeating the story mechanics of previous seasons . Chaz Lipp at The Morton Report called " Acquisition " a " goofy " episode , and one of several which were " weak and uninspired " .
The first home media release of the episode was on VHS in the UK on September 23 , 2002 . It was first released in the United States on DVD , having been released as part of the season one box set during May 2005 . The Blu @-@ ray release of Enterprise was released in the United States on March 26 with the UK release following on April 1 .
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= Mobility analogy =
The mobility analogy , also called admittance analogy or Firestone analogy , is a method of representing a mechanical system by an analogous electrical system . The advantage of doing this is that there is a large body of theory and analysis techniques concerning complex electrical systems , especially in the field of filters . By converting to an electrical representation , these tools in the electrical domain can be directly applied to a mechanical system without modification . A further advantage occurs in electromechanical systems : Converting the mechanical part of such a system into the electrical domain allows the entire system to be analysed as a unified whole .
The mathematical behaviour of the simulated electrical system is identical to the mathematical behaviour of the represented mechanical system . Each element in the electrical domain has a corresponding element in the mechanical domain with an analogous constitutive equation . All laws of circuit analysis , such as Kirchhoff 's laws , that apply in the electrical domain also apply to the mechanical mobility analogy .
The mobility analogy is one of the two main mechanical @-@ electrical analogies used for representing mechanical systems in the electrical domain , the other being the impedance analogy . The roles of voltage and current are reversed in these two methods , and the electrical representations produced are the dual circuits of each other . The mobility analogy preserves the topology of the mechanical system when transferred to the electrical domain whereas the impedance analogy does not . On the other hand , the impedance analogy preserves the analogy between electrical impedance and mechanical impedance whereas the mobility analogy does not .
= = Applications = =
The mobility analogy is widely used to model the behaviour of mechanical filters . These are filters that are intended for use in an electronic circuit , but work entirely by mechanical vibrational waves . Transducers are provided at the input and output of the filter to convert between the electrical and mechanical domains .
Another very common use is in the field of audio equipment , such as loudspeakers . Loudspeakers consist of a transducer and mechanical moving parts . Acoustic waves themselves are waves of mechanical motion : of air molecules or some other fluid medium .
= = Elements = =
Before an electrical analogy can be developed for a mechanical system , it must first be described as an abstract mechanical network . The mechanical system is broken down into a number of ideal elements each of which can then be paired with an electrical analogue . The symbols used for these mechanical elements on network diagrams are shown in the following sections on each individual element .
The mechanical analogies of lumped electrical elements are also lumped elements , that is , it is assumed that the mechanical component possessing the element is small enough that the time taken by mechanical waves to propagate from one end of the component to the other can be neglected . Analogies can also be developed for distributed elements such as transmission lines but the greatest benefits are with lumped element circuits . Mechanical analogies are required for the three passive electrical elements , namely , resistance , inductance and capacitance . What these analogies are is determined by what mechanical property is chosen to represent voltage , and what property is chosen to represent current . In the mobility analogy the analogue of voltage is velocity and the analogue of current is force . Mechanical impedance is defined as the ratio of force to velocity , thus it is not analogous to electrical impedance . Rather , it is the analogue of electrical admittance , the inverse of impedance . Mechanical admittance is more commonly called mobility , hence the name of the analogy .
= = = Resistance = = =
The mechanical analogy of electrical resistance is the loss of energy of a moving system through such processes as friction . A mechanical component analogous to a resistor is a shock absorber and the property analogous to inverse resistance ( conductance ) is damping ( inverse , because electrical impedance is the analogy of the inverse of mechanical impedance ) . A resistor is governed by the constitutive equation of Ohm 's law ,
<formula>
The analogous equation in the mechanical domain is ,
<formula>
where ,
G = 1 / R is conductance
R is resistance
v is voltage
i is current
Rm is mechanical resistance , or damping
F is force
u is velocity induced by the force .
Electrical conductance represents the real part of electrical admittance . Likewise , mechanical resistance is the real part of mechanical impedance .
= = = Inductance = = =
The mechanical analogy of inductance in the mobility analogy is compliance . It is more common in mechanics to discuss stiffness , the inverse of compliance . A mechanical component analogous to an inductor is a spring . An inductor is governed by the constitutive equation ,
<formula>
The analogous equation in the mechanical domain is a form of Hooke 's law ,
<formula>
where ,
L is inductance
t is time
Cm = 1 / S is mechanical compliance
S is stiffness
The impedance of an inductor is purely imaginary and is given by ,
<formula>
The analogous mechanical admittance is given by ,
<formula>
where ,
Z is electrical impedance
j is the imaginary unit
ω is angular frequency
Ym is mechanical impedance .
= = = Capacitance = = =
The mechanical analogy of capacitance in the mobility analogy is mass . A mechanical component analogous to a capacitor is a large , rigid weight . A capacitor is governed by the constitutive equation ,
<formula>
The analogous equation in the mechanical domain is Newton 's second law of motion ,
<formula>
where ,
C is capacitance
M is mass
The impedance of a capacitor is purely imaginary and is given by ,
<formula>
The analogous mechanical admittance is given by ,
<formula> .
= = = Inertance = = =
A curious difficulty arises with mass as the analogy of an electrical element . It is connected with the fact that in mechanical systems the velocity of the mass ( and more importantly , its acceleration ) is always measured against some fixed reference frame , usually the earth . Considered as a two @-@ terminal system element , the mass has one terminal at velocity ' ' u ' ' , analogous to electric potential . The other terminal is at zero velocity and is analogous to electric ground potential . Thus , mass cannot be used as the analogue of an ungrounded capacitor .
This led Malcolm C. Smith of the University of Cambridge in 2002 to define a new energy storing element for mechanical networks called inertance . A component that possesses inertance is called an inerter . The two terminals of an inerter , unlike a mass , are allowed to have two different , arbitrary velocities and accelerations . The costitutive equation of an inerter is given by ,
<formula>
where ,
F is an equal and opposite force applied to the two terminals
B is the inertance
u1 and u2 are the velocities at terminals 1 and 2 respectively
Δu = u2 − u1
Inertance has the same units as mass ( kilograms in the SI system ) and the name indicates its relationship to inertia . Smith did not just define a network theoretic element , he also suggested a construction for a real mechanical component and made a small prototype . Smith 's inerter consists of a plunger able to slide in or out of a cylinder . The plunger is connected to a rack and pinion gear which drives a flywheel inside the cylinder . There can be two counter @-@ rotating flywheels in order to prevent a torque developing . Energy provided in pushing the plunger in will be returned when the plunger moves in the opposite direction , hence the device stores energy rather than dissipates it just like a block of mass . However , the actual mass of the inerter can be very small , an ideal inerter has no mass . Two points on the inerter , the plunger and the cylinder case , can be independently connected to other parts of the mechanical system with neither of them necessarily connected to ground .
Smith 's inerter has found an application in Formula One racing where it is known as the J @-@ damper . It is used as an alternative to the now banned tuned mass damper and forms part of the vehicle suspension . It may have been first used secretly by McLaren in 2005 following a collaboration with Smith . Other teams are now believed to be using it . The inerter is much smaller than the tuned mass damper and smoothes out contact patch load variations on the tyres . Smith also suggests using the inerter to reduce machine vibration .
The difficulty with mass in mechanical analogies is not limited to the mobility analogy . A corresponding problem also occurs in the impedance analogy , but in that case it is ungrounded inductors , rather than capacitors , that cannot be represented with the standard elements .
= = = Resonator = = =
A mechanical resonator consists of both a mass element and a compliance element . Mechanical resonators are analogous to electrical LC circuits consisting of inductance and capacitance . Real mechanical components unavoidably have both mass and compliance so it is a practical proposition to make resonators as a single component . In fact , it is more difficult to make a pure mass or pure compliance as a single component . A spring can be made with a certain compliance and mass minimised , or a mass can be made with compliance minimised , but neither can be eliminated altogether . Mechanical resonators are a key component of mechanical filters .
= = = Generators = = =
Analogues exist for the active electrical elements of the voltage source and the current source ( generators ) . The mechanical analogue in the mobility analogy of the constant current generator is the constant force generator . The mechanical analogue of the constant voltage generator is the constant velocity generator .
An example of a constant force generator is the constant @-@ force spring . An example of a practical constant velocity generator is a lightly loaded powerful machine , such as a motor , driving a belt . This is analogous to a real voltage source , such as a battery , which remains near constant @-@ voltage with load provided that the load resistance is much higher than the battery internal resistance .
= = = Transducers = = =
Electromechanical systems require transducers to convert between the electrical and mechanical domains . They are analogous to two @-@ port networks and like those can be described by a pair of simultaneous equations and four arbitrary parameters . There are numerous possible representations , but the form most applicable to the mobility analogy has the arbitrary parameters in units of admittance . In matrix form ( with the electrical side taken as port 1 ) this representation is ,
<formula>
The element <formula> is the short circuit mechanical admittance , that is , the admittance presented by the mechanical side of the transducer when zero voltage ( short circuit ) is applied to the electrical side . The element <formula> , conversely , is the unloaded electrical admittance , that is , the admittance presented to the electrical side when the mechanical side is not driving a load ( zero force ) . The remaining two elements , <formula> and <formula> , describe the transducer forward and reverse transfer functions respectively . They are both analogous to transfer admittances and are hybrid ratios of an electrical and mechanical quantity .
= = = Transformers = = =
The mechanical analogy of a transformer is a simple machine such as a pulley or a lever . The force applied to the load can be greater or less than the input force depending on whether the mechanical advantage of the machine is greater or less than unity respectively . Mechanical advantage is analogous to the inverse of transformer turns ratio in the mobility analogy . A mechanical advantage less than unity is analogous to a step @-@ up transformer and greater than unity is analogous to a step @-@ down transformer .
= = Power and energy equations = =
= = Examples = =
= = = Simple resonant circuit = = =
The figure shows a mechanical arrangement of a platform of mass M that is suspended above the substrate by a spring of stiffness S and a damper of resistance Rm . The mobility analogy equivalent circuit is shown to the right of this arrangement and consists of a parallel resonant circuit . This system has a resonant frequency , and may have a natural frequency of oscillation if not too heavily damped .
= = Advantages and disadvantages = =
The principal advantage of the mobility analogy over its alternative , the impedance analogy , is that it preserves the topology of the mechanical system . Elements that are in series in the mechanical system are in series in the electrical equivalent circuit and elements in parallel in the mechanical system remain in parallel in the electrical equivalent .
The principal disadvantage of the mobility analogy is that it does not maintain the analogy between electrical and mechanical impedance . Mechanical impedance is represented as an electrical admittance and a mechanical resistance is represented as an electrical conductance in the electrical equivalent circuit . Force is not analogous to voltage ( generator voltages are often called electromotive force ) , but rather , it is analogous to current .
= = History = =
Historically , the impedance analogy was in use long before the mobility analogy . Mechanical admittance and the associated mobility analogy were introduced by F. A. Firestone in 1932 to overcome the issue of preserving topologies . W. Hähnle independently had the same idea in Germany . H. M. Trent developed a treatment for analogies in general from a mathematical graph theory perspective and introduced a new analogy of his own .
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= USS Concord ( PG @-@ 3 ) =
USS Concord ( Gunboat No. 3 / PG @-@ 3 ) was a member of the Yorktown class of steel @-@ hulled , twin @-@ screw gunboats in the United States Navy in the late 19th and early 20th centuries . She was the second U.S. Navy ship named in honor of the town of Concord , Massachusetts , site of the Battle of Concord in the American Revolutionary War .
The contract to build Concord was awarded to N. F. Palmer & Co. of Philadelphia in the 1888 fiscal year . Her hull was subcontracted to the Delaware River Iron Shipbuilding & Engine Works which laid down her keel in May 1888 . Concord was launched in March 1890 . She was just over 244 feet ( 74 m ) long and 36 feet ( 11 m ) abeam and displaced 1 @,@ 710 long tons ( 1 @,@ 740 t ) . She was equipped with two steam engines which were supplemented with three schooner @-@ rigged masts . The ship 's main battery consisted of six 6 @-@ inch ( 15 @.@ 2 cm ) guns and was augmented by an assortment of smaller caliber guns .
After her 1891 commissioning , Concord spent the next few years sailing along the East Coast , in the West Indies , and in the Gulf of Mexico . Concord cruised on the Asiatic Station — interrupted only by a short stint on the Alaskan sealing patrol — from 1893 until May 1896 , when she began a year out of commission at San Francisco . In January 1898 , Concord returned to the Asiatic Station , and joined Admiral George Dewey 's fleet for 1 May 1898 Battle of Manila Bay , a decisive American victory over the Spanish Fleet in the Spanish – American War . After the battle , Concord supported United States Army operations in the Philippines in the Philippine – American War . For the rest of her active career , Concord patrolled off the Mexican and Alaskan coasts and served on the Yangtze Patrol . She was decommissioned in 1909 and served as a barracks ship until 1914 , and as a quarantine ship at Astoria , Oregon for the Public Health Service until 1929 , at which time she was returned to the Navy and sold .
= = Design and construction = =
The Yorktown class gunboats — unofficially considered third @-@ class cruisers — were the product of a United States Navy design attempt to produce compact ships with good sea @-@ keeping abilities and , yet , able to carry a heavy battery . Concord was authorized in the 1888 fiscal year , and the contract for her construction was awarded to N. F. Palmer & Co. of Chester , Pennsylvania . The hull for Concord was sublet by Palmer to the Delaware River Iron Shipbuilding & Engine Works and built to the Navy 's Bureau of Construction and Repair design . The mechanical design was patterned after the layout for older sister ship Yorktown developed by William Cramp & Sons .
Concord 's keel was laid down in May 1888 , and the ship was launched on 8 March 1890 , sponsored by Minnie Darlington Coates , the daughter of Major Joseph R. T. Coates , the mayor of Chester . Among those in attendance at the launch ceremony was sculptor Daniel Chester French .
= = = Layout = = =
As built , Concord was 244 feet 5 inches ( 74 @.@ 50 m ) in length and 36 feet ( 11 m ) abeam . Her steel hull had an average draft of 14 feet ( 4 m ) , which was expected to give her the ability to escape from larger ships into shallow water . At the waterline was a turtleback deck of ⅜ -inch ( 9 @.@ 5 mm ) steel that formed a watertight seal over the lower spaces . The deck had a crown at the level of the waterline and curved downwards to 3 feet ( 0 @.@ 91 m ) below the waterline at the sides of the ship . Below this armored deck were twelve compartments separated by watertight bulkheads ; the spaces above were equipped with watertight doors intended to be closed during battle .
Above the armored deck , Concord had forecastle and poop decks with an open gun deck that spanned the length of the ship between them . The conning tower was located forward on the forecastle deck and was oval @-@ shaped to deflect shot . It was outfitted with a steam @-@ powered steering wheel , a telegraph , and speaking tubes ; it was protected by 2 inches ( 51 mm ) of steel armor plate .
= = = Propulsion = = =
Concord was powered by two triple @-@ expansion steam engines which each drove one of the pair of 10 @.@ 5 @-@ foot ( 3 @.@ 2 m ) , three @-@ bladed screw propellers . The cylinders of each engine were 22 , 31 , and 51 inches ( 56 , 79 , and 130 cm ) in diameter and had a 30 @-@ inch ( 76 cm ) stroke . Each engine was rated at 3 @,@ 400 indicated horsepower ( 2 @,@ 500 kW ) and together were designed to move the ship at 16 knots ( 30 km / h ) , though the ship exceeded that in her trials .
The engines , situated in separate watertight compartments , were each fed by a pair of coal @-@ fired boilers . Each boiler was horizontally mounted and was 9 feet 6 inches ( 2 @.@ 90 m ) in diameter and 17 feet 6 inches ( 5 @.@ 33 m ) in length with a total grate area of 220 square inches ( 1 @,@ 400 cm2 ) . Concord 's coal bunkers could carry up to 400 long tons ( 410 t ) of the fuel , and were shielded from " shot and shell " . At a near top @-@ speed of 16 knots , the ship could cover 2 @,@ 800 nautical miles ( 5 @,@ 200 km ) in 6 ½ days ; at the more economical speed of 8 knots ( 15 km / h ) she could cruise 12 @,@ 000 nautical miles ( 22 @,@ 000 km ) over 62 days .
To supplement her steam power plant , Concord was built with three masts that were schooner @-@ rigged . She had a total sail area of 6 @,@ 300 square feet ( 590 m2 ) . The steam and sail combination was expected to allow Concord to remain at sea for months at a time during wartime .
= = = Armament = = =
Concord 's main battery consisted of six 6 @-@ inch ( 152 mm ) / 30 caliber Mark 3 guns , with each gun weighing in excess of 11 @,@ 000 pounds ( 5 @,@ 000 kg ) . Two were mounted on the forecastle deck , two on the poop deck , and the other pair amidships on the gun deck . The two guns on the gun deck were mounted 10 feet ( 3 @.@ 0 m ) above the waterline , while the other four were 18 feet ( 5 @.@ 5 m ) above . The guns fired 105 @-@ pound ( 48 kg ) armor @-@ piercing projectiles with a propellant charge weighing 18 @.@ 8 pounds ( 8 @.@ 5 kg ) at 1 @,@ 950 feet per second ( 590 m / s ) . At an elevation of 30 @.@ 2 ° , the guns had a range of 18 @,@ 000 yards ( 16 @,@ 000 m ) . Each gun was shielded with steel plating 3 inches ( 76 mm ) thick .
Concord 's secondary battery consisted of two 6 @-@ pounder ( 57 mm ( 2 @.@ 24 in ) ) guns , two 3 @-@ pounder ( 47 mm ( 1 @.@ 85 in ) ) guns , and two 1 @-@ pounder ( 37 mm ( 1 @.@ 46 in ) ) guns . All were based on designs of the French arms company Hotchkiss . According to a 1902 Bureau of Ordnance publication , an armor @-@ piercing round fired from a 6 @-@ pounder gun could penetrate 2 inches ( 51 mm ) of armor at a distance of 1 @,@ 000 yards ( 910 m ) .
= = Career = =
USS Concord ( PG @-@ 3 ) was commissioned on 14 February 1891 under the command of Commander O. A. Batcheller . Concord operated on the coast of New England , and sailed from New York City on 17 November 1891 on a cruise to the West Indies and South America with her squadron , then arrived at New Orleans , Louisiana , on 27 April 1892 and cruised up the Mississippi River as far as Cairo , Illinois , visiting various ports en route .
Returning to New York on 13 June 1892 , Concord made another cruise to the West Indies late that year , and arrived back at Norfolk , Virginia , on 5 December . She participated in International Naval Review held at Norfolk and New York in March and April 1893 , and in June sailed from Norfolk for the Far East , calling at the Azores , Gibraltar , Malta , Port Said , Bangkok , and Saigon before arriving at Hong Kong on 30 October . She cruised on the Asiatic Station until 29 May 1894 when she arrived at Unalaska . She cruised on sealing patrol in the North Pacific to carry out the provisions of the treaty between the United States and United Kingdom , which empowered Concord to seize any vessel violating the laws protecting valuable fur seals . She gathered hydrographic information to correct Bering Sea charts and conduct scientific observations of the fur seals .
Concord returned to the Asiatic Station in September 1894 and continued to serve in the Far East until returning to San Francisco on 3 May 1896 . She was placed out of commission for repairs between 27 May 1896 and 22 May 1897 . After a cruise to Alaskan waters 1 July – 29 November , she sailed from Mare Island 8 January 1898 for the Asiatic Station . With the declaration of war between Spain and the United States in April , Concord joined Admiral George Dewey 's squadron at Mirs Bay near Hong Kong on the 24th and sailed for the Philippines . On 1 May , Concord participated in the Battle of Manila Bay that resulted in American control of the Philippines .
Concord resumed her patrol on station in August 1898 , but returned to the Philippines on 19 December to assist in putting down the insurrection . Her duty consisted of patrolling the coast to restrict insurgent movements and shipping ; bombarding various strongholds ; and aiding United States Army operations . Except for a voyage to Guam in March 1900 to deliver stores , and a brief voyage to Hong Kong for repairs , Concord remained in Philippine waters until June 1901 , when she sailed by way of Alaskan waters to San Francisco , arriving 28 September 1901 . She cruised with the Fleet in Mexican waters , then went out of commission on 26 February 1902 at Mare Island .
Recommissioned on 15 June 1903 Concord operated along the North American coast from Alaska to Panama and to Hawaii and Alaska until decommissioned at Bremerton , Washington , on 25 August 1904 . Concord was commissioned again on 16 September 1905 and sailed from Bremerton on 24 December 1905 for operations in the Philippines . Remaining there until March 1906 , Concord sailed to China . Until 1908 she remained in the Far East serving at times on the Yangtze Patrol and as station ship at Shanghai and Canton .
Concord served as station ship at Guam from 2 January to 10 September 1909 , then sailed to Puget Sound Navy Yard where she arrived on 11 October . She was decommissioned for the final time on 4 November 1909 , and assigned as barracks ship for the Washington Naval Militia at Seattle . She was transferred to the Public Health Service of the Treasury Department on 15 June 1914 and served as a stationary quarantine barge at Astoria , Oregon . Returned to naval custody on 19 March 1929 , she was sold on 28 June 1929 .
In August 1915 two of the Concord 's six @-@ inch guns were placed in the War Garden of Woodland Park , Seattle , WA . The Seattle Times of 15 August stated : " Two six @-@ inch guns from the United States cruiser Concord which saw active service at the battle of Manila , yesterday afternoon were brought to Seattle from Bremerton under the direction of the United Spanish War Veterans , to be mounted in Woodland Park in the near future . W. S. F. Quick , chairman of the board of managers of the United Spanish War Veterans Club of Seattle , yesterday signed a receipt for government property valued at $ 18 @,@ 000 , which gives the local veterans practical possession of the pieces from now on . The two guns when mounted will be known as Battery Dewey . " These guns are today near the Woodland Park Zoo in the Phinney Ridge neighborhood of Seattle .
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= Alan Shearer =
Alan Shearer , CBE , DL ( / ˈʃɪərər / ; born 13 August 1970 ) is a retired English footballer . He played as a striker in the top level of English league football for Southampton , Blackburn Rovers , Newcastle United and for the England national team . He is Newcastle 's and the Premier League 's record goalscorer . He was named Football Writers ' Association Player of the Year in 1994 and won the PFA Player of the Year award in 1995 . In 1996 , he was third in the FIFA World Player of the Year awards .
Shearer scored 283 league goals in his career , including a record 260 in the Premier League ( of which 58 were penalties ) with a record 11 Premier League hat @-@ tricks , and a total of 422 in all competitions including international at all levels . Until his retirement from international football 2000 he appeared 63 times for his country and scored 30 goals . Shearer had a goals to game ratio of 0 @.@ 667 throughout his career .
Since retiring as a player in 2006 , Shearer has worked as a television pundit for the BBC . In 2009 , he briefly left his BBC role to become Newcastle United 's manager in the last eight games of their 2008 – 09 season , in an unsuccessful attempt to save them from relegation . Shearer is a Commander of the Order of the British Empire ( CBE ) , a Deputy Lieutenant of Northumberland , a Freeman of Newcastle upon Tyne and an honorary Doctor of Civil Law of Northumbria and Newcastle Universities .
= = Early years = =
Shearer was born in Gosforth , Newcastle in 1970 to working @-@ class parents Alan and Anne Shearer . His father , a sheet @-@ metal worker , encouraged a keen Shearer to play football in his youth , and the young player continued with the sport as he progressed through school . He was educated at Gosforth Central Middle School and Gosforth High School . Growing up playing on the streets of his hometown , he originally played in midfield because " it meant [ he ] could get more involved in the games . " Shearer captained his school team and helped a Newcastle City Schools team win a seven @-@ a @-@ side tournament at St James ' Park , before joining the amateur Wallsend Boys Club as a teenager . It was while playing for the Wallsend club that he was spotted by Southampton 's scout , Jack Hixon , which resulted in Shearer spending his summers training with the club 's youth team , a time he would later refer to as " the making of me " . Shearer had successful trials for First Division clubs West Bromwich Albion , Manchester City and Newcastle United , before being offered a youth contract with Southampton in April 1986 .
= = Club career = =
= = = Southampton ( 1986 – 1992 ) = = =
Shearer was promoted to the first team after spending two years with the youth squad . He made his professional debut for Southampton on 26 March 1988 , coming on as a substitute in a First Division fixture at Chelsea , before prompting national headlines in his full debut at The Dell two weeks later . He scored a hat @-@ trick , helping the team to a 4 – 2 victory against Arsenal , thus becoming the youngest player – at 17 years , 240 days – to score a hat @-@ trick in the top division , breaking Jimmy Greaves ' 30 @-@ year – old record . Shearer ended the 1987 – 88 season with three goals in five games , and was rewarded with his first professional contract .
Despite this auspicious start to his career , Shearer was only eased into the first team gradually and made just ten goalless appearances for the club the following season . Throughout his career Shearer was recognised for his strength , which , during his time at Southampton , enabled him to retain the ball and provide opportunities for team mates . Playing as a lone striker between wide men , Rod Wallace and Matt Le Tissier , Shearer scored three goals in 26 appearances in the 1989 – 90 season , and in the next , four goals in 36 games . His performances in the centre of the Saints attack were soon recognised by the fans , who voted him their Player of the Year for 1991 .
In the middle of 1991 , Shearer was a member of the England national under @-@ 21 football squad in the Toulon Tournament in Toulon , France . Shearer was the star of the tournament where he scored seven goals in four games . It was during the 1991 – 92 season that Shearer rose to national prominence . 13 goals in 41 appearances for the Saints led to an England call @-@ up ; he scored on his debut , and was strongly linked in the press with a summer move to Manchester United . A possible move for Shearer was being mentioned in the media during late autumn of 1991 , but he rejected talk of a transfer ( Leeds United were also linked to Shearer ) and vowed to see out the season with Southampton , resisting the temptation of a possible transfer to the two clubs who headed the title race for most of the season . Speculation of a transfer to Liverpool , who finished the season as FA Cup winners , also came to nothing .
During the middle of 1992 , Southampton 's manager , Ian Branfoot , became " the most popular manager in English football " , as he took telephone calls from clubs " trying to bargain with players they don 't want plus cash " . Although Branfoot accepted that a sale was inevitable , he claimed that " whatever happens , we are in the driving seat " . In July 1992 , Shearer was sold to Blackburn Rovers for a fee of £ 3 @.@ 6 million , with David Speedie reluctantly moving to The Dell as part of the deal . Despite Branfoot 's claim to be " in the driving seat " , Saints failed to include a " sell @-@ on clause " in the contract . Shearer , less than a month off his 22nd birthday , was the most expensive player in British football . In his four years in the Southampton first team , Shearer made a total of 158 appearances in all competitions , scoring 43 goals .
= = = Blackburn Rovers ( 1992 – 1996 ) = = =
Despite making just one goalless appearance as England failed to progress past the Euro 1992 group stages , Shearer was soon subject to an English transfer record @-@ breaking £ 3.6million bid from Blackburn Rovers . Although there was also interest from Manchester United manager Alex Ferguson , Blackburn benefactor Jack Walker 's millions were enough to prise the striker from the Saints , and Shearer moved north to Ewood Park in the middle of 1992 .
His first season with Blackburn was mixed – he missed half of it through injury after snapping his right anterior cruciate ligament in a match against Leeds United in December 1992 , but scored a prolific 16 goals in the 21 games in which he did feature . Shearer also became a regular in the England team this season and scored his second international goal ; it came in a 4 – 0 1994 FIFA World Cup qualifier win over Turkey in November . The season ended sourly , however , as Shearer was forced to miss January through to May due to injury and England 's World Cup qualification chances were hit by a run of poor form .
Returning to fitness for the 1993 – 94 season , he scored 31 goals from 40 games as Blackburn finished runners @-@ up in the Premier League . His performances for the club led to him being named the Football Writers ' Association Footballer of the Year for that season . On the international scene , England had failed to qualify for the 1994 World Cup finals , but Shearer added three more goals to his international tally before embarking on his most successful domestic season as a player to date .
The arrival of Chris Sutton for the 1994 – 95 season established a strong attacking partnership at Blackburn . Shearer 's league @-@ record 34 goals , coupled with Sutton 's 15 , helped the Lancashire club take the Premier League title from arch rivals Manchester United on the final day of the season , and the duo gained the nickname " the SAS " ( Shearer And Sutton ) . After being asked by the press how he planned to celebrate winning the title , Shearer replied , by " creosoting the fence " . Shearer also had his first taste of European football in the UEFA Cup that season , and scored in the second leg as Blackburn went out in the first round , losing to Trelleborgs FF of Sweden . His efforts for the club led to Shearer being awarded the PFA Players ' Player of the Year for 1995 .
Although the club could not retain the title the following year , Shearer again ended the ( now 38 @-@ game ) season as Premier League top scorer , with 31 goals in 35 games , as Blackburn finished seventh in the league . The previous season 's first @-@ place finish also saw the club enter the Champions League . Shearer 's only goal in six full Champions League games was a penalty in a 4 – 1 victory against Rosenborg BK in the final fixture and Blackburn finished third in their group , failing to progress to the next stage .
He passed the 100 @-@ goal milestone for Blackburn in all competitions on 23 September 1995 , scoring a hat @-@ trick in their 5 – 1 home win over Coventry City in the Premier League . On 30 December , he scored his 100th Premier League goal for the club in a 2 – 1 home win over Tottenham Hotspur . His final tally for the club was 112 goals in the Premier League and 130 in all competitions . His final goals for the club came on 17 April 1996 , when he scored twice in a 3 – 2 home league win over Wimbledon .
Shearer 's international strike rate had also dried up , with no goals in the twelve matches leading up to Euro 96 . He missed the final three games of the season for his club due to injury , but recovered in time to play in England 's UEFA European Championship campaign .
= = = Newcastle United ( 1996 – 2006 ) = = =
After Euro 96 , Manchester United again sought to sign Shearer , and attempted to enter the battle for his signature . However Manchester United chairman Martin Edwards stated that Blackburn Rovers refused to let Shearer go to Old Trafford . Ultimately Shearer joined his boyhood club and Manchester United 's title rivals Newcastle United .
On 30 July 1996 , for a world transfer record @-@ breaking £ 15 million ( equivalent to £ 25 @.@ 39 million today ) Shearer joined his hometown club and league runners @-@ up Newcastle United , managed by his hero Keegan . Shearer made his league debut away at Everton , on 17 August 1996 , and maintained his form during the rest of the season , finishing as Premier League top @-@ scorer for the third consecutive season with 25 goals in 31 Premier League games , as well as winning another PFA Player of the Year accolade , despite a groin injury forcing him to miss seven matches . Perhaps his best performance of the season came on 2 February 1997 when Newcastle went into the final 15 minutes of the game 3 – 1 down at home to Leicester City in the league , only for Shearer to win them the game 4 – 3 by scoring a late hat @-@ trick .
However , the league title still eluded the club , who finished second in the league for a consecutive year , with Keegan resigning mid @-@ way through the season .
Another injury problem ; this time an ankle ligament injury sustained in a pre @-@ season match at Goodison Park , restricted Shearer to just two goals in 17 games in the 1997 – 98 season . His injury was reflected in the club 's form , and Newcastle finished just 13th in the Premier League . However , United ( now managed by Shearer 's old boss at Blackburn , Kenny Dalglish ) had a good run in the FA Cup ; Shearer scored the winning goal in a semi @-@ final victory over Sheffield United as the team reached the final . The team were unable to get on the scoresheet at Wembley , and lost the game 2 – 0 to Arsenal .
An incident during a game against Leicester City in the league saw Shearer charged with misconduct by the FA , with media sources claiming that video footage showed him intentionally kicking Neil Lennon in the head following a challenge . The referee of the game took no action against Shearer , and he was then cleared of all charges by the FA , with Lennon giving evidence in the player 's defence . Former Football Association chief Graham Kelly , who brought the charges against the player , later claimed in his autobiography that Shearer had threatened to withdraw himself from the 1998 World Cup squad if the charges were upheld ; a claim strenuously denied by Shearer .
An almost injury @-@ free season helped Shearer improve on his previous year 's tally in 1998 – 99 , the striker converting 14 goals in 30 league games and replacing Rob Lee as Newcastle captain , but Newcastle finished 13th again , with Ruud Gullit having replaced Kenny Dalglish just after the season got underway . He also helped Newcastle to a second consecutive FA Cup final and qualification for the following season 's UEFA Cup , scoring twice in the semi @-@ final against Tottenham Hotspur , but they once again lost ; this time 2 – 0 to treble @-@ chasing Manchester United .
On the opening day of the 1999 – 2000 season , Shearer received the first red card of his career in his 100th appearance for Newcastle . After dropping Shearer to the bench in a Tyne @-@ Wear derby loss against Sunderland , the unpopular Gullit resigned to be replaced by the 66 @-@ year @-@ old Bobby Robson . Despite Gullit giving Shearer the captain 's armband , reports of a rift between club captain and manager were rife , Gullit 's decision to drop Shearer proved deeply unpopular with fans and his departure capped a dismal start to the season . The animosity between Shearer and Gullit was later confirmed by the latter , who reported telling the striker that he was " ... the most overrated player I have ever seen . " Ironically , Robson had tried to sign Shearer for Barcelona in 1997 , making a bid of £ 20million which would have seen Shearer break the world 's transfer fee record for the second time in 12 months . However , then Newcastle manager Kenny Dalglish rejected the offer .
In Robson 's first match in charge , Shearer scored five goals in an 8 – 0 defeat of Sheffield Wednesday . With Robson in charge , the team moved away from the relegation zone , finishing in mid @-@ table and reached the FA Cup semi @-@ finals , but a third consecutive final was beyond them as they were beaten by Chelsea . Shearer missed only one league game and notched up 23 goals .
Shearer suffered an injury @-@ hit and frustrating season in 2000 – 01 , having retired from international football after the UEFA Euro 2000 tournament to focus on club football . He managed only five goals in 19 games in the league . 2001 – 02 was much better though ; Shearer bagged 23 goals in 37 league games as Newcastle finished fourth — their highest standing since 1997 — meaning they would qualify for the following season 's Champions League competition . One of the most memorable incidents of the season saw Roy Keane sent off after a confrontation with Shearer during Newcastle 's 4 – 3 win over the Red Devils in September 2001 . Shearer also saw red for the second time in his career this season , after allegedly elbowing an opposition player in a match against Charlton Athletic . The card was subsequently rescinded by referee Andy D 'Urso after reviewing video replays after the game .
The 2002 – 03 season saw Shearer and Newcastle make their return to the UEFA Champions League . Newcastle lost their first three matches in the opening group stage , but Shearer 's goal against Dynamo Kyiv , coupled with further wins against Juventus and Feyenoord saw the club progress to the second group stage . Shearer 's Champions League hat @-@ trick against Bayer Leverkusen and a brace against Internazionale in the second group stage helped him reach a total of seven Champions League goals , along with his 17 in 35 games in the league , and a total of 25 for the season as the team again improved to finish in third place in the Premier League .
After this , Newcastle would have one more chance to progress in the Champions League in early 2003 , but Shearer was one of those who failed to score as the team were eliminated in a penalty shootout by Partizan Belgrade in the third qualifying round . United progressed well in that season 's UEFA Cup and Shearer 's six goals helped the club reach the semi @-@ finals , where they were beaten by eventual runners up Olympique de Marseille . Domestically he also had a good season , with 22 goals in 37 appearances , however could not prevent the club dropping out of the Champions League places to finish in fifth , qualifying once again for the UEFA Cup .
Announcing that this would be his final season before retirement , Shearer 's form in 2004 – 05 was patchy ; alongside new signing Patrick Kluivert , he scored only seven goals in his 28 games as the club finished the season in 14th place . The club fared better in the cup competitions , however , eventually losing out to Sporting CP in the UEFA Cup quarter @-@ finals and Manchester United in the FA Cup semi @-@ finals . Shearer scored a hat @-@ trick in the first round win against Hapoel Bnei Sakhnin , and ended the season with a haul of 11 European goals , in addition to his one goal in domestic cups .
The middle of 2005 saw Shearer reverse his decision to retire after persuasion from manager Graeme Souness . He decided to continue playing in a player @-@ coach capacity until the end of the following season. and he returned for one more season in 2005 – 06 . This last season saw him break Jackie Milburn 's 49 @-@ year @-@ old record of 200 goals for Newcastle United ( not including his 38 World War II Wartime League goals ) when he netted his 201st strike in a home Premier League fixture against Portsmouth on 4 February 2006 , becoming the club 's highest @-@ ever league and cup competition goalscorer with 206 goals altogether . On 17 April 2006 , with three games remaining in his final season as a player , Shearer suffered a tear to the medial collateral ligament in his left knee after a collision during the 4 – 1 win at Sunderland in which he scored his 206th goal in what was his 395th appearance for the club . The injury caused him to miss those final three games , effectively bringing forward his retirement . Shearer finished his final season with 10 goals in 32 league games .
= = = Tribute and testimonial = = =
In tribute to Shearer 's contribution to Newcastle United over more than ten years , the club erected a large banner of Shearer on the outside of the cantilever superstructure of the Gallowgate End of St James ' Park . The banner measured 25 metres ( 82 ft ) high by 32 metres ( 105 ft ) wide , covering almost half of the Gallowgate End , aptly placed above the club bar , Shearers bar , opened in his honour in 2005 . The banner depicted Shearer as the " Gallowgate Giant " , with one arm aloft in his signature goal celebration , with the message " Thanks for 10 great years " , and was featured in the media coverage reflecting on his career at the club , with the banner being displayed from 19 April 2006 until 11 May 2006 , the day of his testimonial match . The banner could be seen across the city and as far away as Gateshead across the River Tyne , standing taller than the iconic local landmark , the Angel of the North .
Shearer was awarded a testimonial match by the club , against Scottish @-@ side Celtic . All proceeds of the match went to charitable causes . Because of the injury he sustained three games earlier at Sunderland , Shearer was unable to play in the whole match ; however he kicked @-@ off the game and came off the bench to score a penalty , winning the game 3 – 2 . The match was a sell @-@ out , and saw Shearer perform a lap of honour at the end with his family , with his young son notably covering his ears due to the volume of noise produced by the crowd in tribute .
= = International career = =
Shearer 's international career began in 1990 when he was handed a callup to the England under @-@ 21 squad under Dave Sexton . During his time with the squad , he scored 13 times in 11 games ; a record return which is still unbeaten . The striker 's goals at this level , coupled with his club form , meant he was soon promoted to the senior squad by coach Graham Taylor . Marking his debut in the 2 – 0 win against France in February 1992 with a goal , he made his only appearance for the England B team a month later . Due to replace Gary Lineker , who retired from international action after UEFA Euro 1992 , in the England attack , Shearer played only intermittently in the qualifying campaign for the 1994 FIFA World Cup due to injury and the team failed to reach the competition finals .
UEFA Euro 1996 was a more positive experience for both Shearer and England . With England not required to qualify as hosts , Shearer had not scored in 12 games in the 21 months prior , and even his overall goalscoring record for England did not look too impressive so far ; five goals in 23 games .
However , he found the net in the 22nd minute of the first game , against Switzerland . Scoring once in the following game against Scotland and twice in a 4 – 1 win over the Netherlands , Shearer helped England to progress to the next stage in front of their own fans in Wembley .
In the quarter @-@ finals , England were outplayed by Spain but got through to a penalty shootout after a goalless draw . Shearer scored the first England penalty , while the Spaniards failed to score from two of theirs , sending England into the semi @-@ final against Germany . Shearer headed England into the lead after three minutes , but the Germans quickly equalised and the match went to penalties again . This time , Germany won from the spot ; although Shearer scored , his team @-@ mate Gareth Southgate missed his kick and England were eliminated . Shearer 's five goals made him the competition 's top scorer , and together with team mates David Seaman and Steve McManaman , was listed in the official UEFA team of the tournament .
The new England manager Glenn Hoddle appointed Shearer captain for the 1998 FIFA World Cup qualifier against Moldova on 1 September 1996 , and the player held onto the captaincy after scoring once in that match and twice in the following game against Poland . He scored a total of five goals in England 's successful qualification campaign for the World Cup ; adding strikes against Georgia and away to Poland to his tally . Shearer was sidelined for much of the 1997 – 98 season , but recovered to play in the World Cup finals . With Michael Owen replacing Teddy Sheringham as Shearer 's strike partner , Shearer 's return saw him score England 's first goal of the tournament , in a 2 – 0 win over Tunisia , his only goal in the three group matches . England faced long @-@ time rivals Argentina in the second round . Shearer scored a first @-@ half equaliser from the penalty @-@ spot before David Beckham was sent off early in the second half . In the final minutes of the game Sol Campbell headed in what could have been the winning goal only for the referee to disallow it due to Shearer having elbowed goalkeeper Carlos Roa . The scores tied 2 – 2 , the game went to penalties . Shearer scored again , but England were eliminated after David Batty 's shot was saved by the Argentina goalkeeper . This defeat ended England 's participation in what was to be Shearer 's only World Cup tournament .
In September 1999 , Shearer scored his only England hat @-@ trick in a UEFA Euro 2000 qualifier against Luxembourg . This helped England reach a play @-@ off against Scotland ; England won the game over two legs and in doing so qualified for the European Championships . By now , Shearer was approaching his 30th birthday , and he announced that he intended to retire from international football after the Euro 2000 tournament .
Shearer did not score in England 's opening 3 – 2 defeat against Portugal , but did so as England defeated Germany 1 – 0 in Charleroi , ensuring that England beat their European neighbours for the first time since the 1966 World Cup Final . To remain in the tournament , England only required a draw against Romania in the final group match , and Shearer scored a penalty as England went in at half @-@ time 2 – 1 up , but Romania ultimately won 3 – 2 . England 's tournament was over , and so was Shearer 's international career . From his 63 caps , he captained the team 34 times and scored thirty goals ; joint @-@ fifth in the England all @-@ time goalscorers list with Nat Lofthouse and Tom Finney . Shearer remained in international retirement despite speculation of a return during the 2002 World Cup and 2004 European Championship campaigns , and further declined an offer to be assistant manager to Steve McClaren after the 2006 World Cup – a position ultimately filled by Terry Venables .
= = Style of play = =
As a player , Shearer was often styled as a classic English centre @-@ forward , owing to his strength , physical stature , heading ability and strong shot , which enabled him to be highly prolific goalscorer . Of his 206 Newcastle goals , 49 were scored with his head . Earlier in his career , especially at Southampton , Shearer played a more creative role : providing chances for fellow strikers , and making runs into space , owing to his early development as a midfielder . Later on in his career , Shearer played a more forward role ; his age meant that he lost much of the pace which served him on the south coast . Able to hold the ball up well , he also functioned as a target man , providing balls for other players . Although his strength allowed him to hold on to the ball , his playing style sometimes brought him criticism – most commonly that his play was too physical , and that he used his elbows too aggressively . It was this which contributed to both of his sendings off , although one was later rescinded on appeal . As well as the two red cards , Shearer received 59 yellow cards during his career .
Shearer was noted as a proficient penalty taker for both club and country , and he scored 45 times from the spot for Newcastle , where he was the first @-@ choice taker . He also scored five goals from free @-@ kicks for the north @-@ east club .
= = Managerial career = =
= = = Early career = = =
On his retirement as a player Shearer responded to speculation of an immediate move into coaching that he would take some personal time off to " enjoy life " for the next couple of years . He was also quoted as saying that he would eventually like to move into management , " when the time was right " however as of March 2009 he was yet to start the UEFA Pro Licence course , which is required to be permitted to manage a team in the Premier League and European competition .
Reflecting his desire for personal time off to " enjoy life " , in July 2006 he turned down a coaching role with England , citing his BBC commitments and desire to be away from the pressure of a job within football . Despite this , Shearer was often linked in the media with managerial or coaching positions at his three former clubs .
Shearer took a brief role in the dugout for his final three games under Glenn Roeder . Shearer had rejected offers of coaching or assistant roles at Newcastle under both the returning Kevin Keegan in February 2008 and Joe Kinnear in November 2008 . Shearer had previously had talks about , but never been offered , a full @-@ time manager 's role at Newcastle until his appointment on 1 April 2009 .
= = = Newcastle United = = =
In a surprise move , late on 1 April 2009 , it was announced that Shearer would become the manager of his former club Newcastle United for the remaining eight games of the season , taking over from head coach Chris Hughton who was in temporary charge while the permanent manager Joe Kinnear recovered from heart surgery , having taken ill on 7 February . Shearer stated " It 's a club I love and I don 't want them to go down . I 'll do everything I can to stop that . "
Shearer was unveiled at a press conference the following day by club managing director Derek Llambias . In explaining his acceptance of a managerial role at Newcastle at this time , Shearer stated that he would not have done this for any other club in this position , including his two other previous Premier League clubs . Amid persistent questioning regarding the permanency of the appointment , Llambias announced that Shearer was to be manager for the remaining eight games , and after his recovery , Joe Kinnear would return as manager after the end of the season . Shearer confirmed that the BBC had agreed to giving him an 8 @-@ week sabbatical from his Match of the Day role . Llambias also confirmed Dennis Wise had left his executive role at the club and the club had no plans to appoint a replacement , with Shearer stating that " the people that have moved , were moving on anyways , that had nothing to do with me " . Wise 's presence had previously been speculated as being a blockage to any possible appointment of a manager . Shearer accepted the surprise offer on the Monday on the condition that he could bring in Iain Dowie as his assistant . Shearer also brought in Paul Ferris to oversee club medical , physio and dietary matters . Ferris had previously worked with Shearer in his playing days , and had been at the club for 13 years prior to an earlier departure under then manager Glenn Roeder .
His first match in charge ended in a 2 – 0 defeat against Chelsea at St. James ' Park . On 11 April , Newcastle earned their first point under Shearer with a 1 – 1 draw with Stoke City at the Britannia Stadium with Andy Carroll scoring a late equalising goal . After a defeat to Tottenham Hotspur and a draw against Portsmouth , his first win for Newcastle came in a 3 – 1 victory over Middlesbrough that lifted Newcastle from the relegation zone .
On the eve of the final day of the season on 24 May , where all fixtures are played simultaneously , Newcastle faced the prospect of being relegated to the Championship , along with Hull City , Middlesbrough and Sunderland , which would end their 16 @-@ year unbroken spell in the Premier League . After losing 1 – 0 at Aston Villa with Damien Duff scoring an own goal , Newcastle were relegated with local rivals Middlesbrough , joining West Bromwich Albion whose relegation had been confirmed in previous weeks , while Sunderland and Hull City survived . Shearer 's eight games yielded only five points out of a possible twenty @-@ four .
Shearer did not get the manager 's job on permanent basis . Chris Hughton stepped up from the coaching staff to take charge of the quest to get Newcastle back into the Premier League , which was achieved at the first attempt as Newcastle finished top of the Championship in 2009 – 10 .
Cardiff City
On 14 June 2011 , BBC Sport Wales reported the Shearer had held talks with Championship club Cardiff City over the vacant manager job . Shearer commented the next day that , " unfortunately , those talks were unsuccessful on this occasion . "
= = Outside football = =
= = = Personal life = = =
Shearer is married to Lainya , whom he met whilst a Southampton player . The couple lived locally with her parents during Shearer 's second year at the south coast club , and were married on 8 June 1991 at St. James ' Church in the city . In contrast to the portrayal of some WAGs ( wives and girlfriends ) of later players by the media , Lainya is described by Shearer as a quiet and reserved person , not comfortable in the spotlight her husband 's fame sometimes brought . The couple have three children . Shearer cited not wanting to uproot his family as a key reason for remaining in England during his career , having had the chance to move to Juventus or Barcelona when leaving Blackburn . Shearer 's family accompanied him onto the pitch following the striker 's testimonial in May 2006 as he performed a lap of honour at St. James ' Park .
= = = Personal honours = = =
On 6 December 2000 , Shearer was given Honorary Freedom of the City of Newcastle upon Tyne , with the citation " in recognition of his role as captain of Newcastle United Football Club and as former captain of England which have enhanced the reputation of the City " .
Shearer was appointed Officer of the Order of the British Empire ( OBE ) in the 2001 Queen 's Birthday Honours and Commander of the Order of the British Empire ( CBE ) in the 2016 Birthday Honours for charitable services to the community in North East England .
On 4 December 2006 , Shearer was created a Doctor of Civil Law by Northumbria University , at a ceremony at Newcastle City Hall , where the University vice @-@ chancellor declared that " Throughout his career Alan Shearer has been hard @-@ working , committed , disciplined and focused in his endeavours , fighting back from career @-@ threatening injuries with great determination and courage " .
On 1 October 2009 , Shearer was commissioned as Deputy Lieutenant of Northumberland , having been nominated by the Duchess of Northumberland in her capacity as Lord Lieutenant of Northumberland , and approved for the position by the Queen . In this role , Shearer , along with 21 other deputies , is the stand @-@ in for the Duchess when she cannot fulfill her role as the Queen 's official representative in the region at official engagements . Deputies must live within seven miles of the county boundaries , and retain their appointment until age 75 . The Duchess said of the appointment that " You could not find a more iconic person than Alan , not just for what he has done in football but for all the extra work he tirelessly does for charity and communities . I am delighted he has accepted the role of Deputy Lieutenant because he is a real role model . I have promised him he is not going to have to do too much , but even if it is just one occasion a year he is the perfect choice "
On 7 December 2009 Shearer was made a Doctor of Civil Law by Newcastle University . Chancellor Sir Liam Donaldson stated " Newcastle United are my team . Alan Shearer is more than just a local legend , he 's probably one of the greatest footballers of all time " .
= = = Media = = =
After his retirement and following guest appearances , Shearer became a regular pundit for the BBC 's Match of the Day . He also formed part of the team which covered the 2006 World Cup , Euro 2008 , 2010 World Cup , Euro 2012 and FIFA World Cup 2014 for the BBC .
Former Newcastle chairman Freddy Shepherd announced that , after Shearer finished the 2005 – 06 season as Newcastle 's caretaker assistant manager , he would become the club 's " Sporting Ambassador " for 2006 – 07 . However , in September 2008 it was reported that Shearer was removed from this largely honorary position by the club 's owner Mike Ashley despite protests from players such as Steven Taylor and Damien Duff , due to Shearer 's criticism of the way in which the club was being run in the wake of the departure of Kevin Keegan . These reports were denied by the club .
Shearer features in EA Sports ' FIFA video game series ; he was included in the FIFA 15 Ultimate Team Legends .
= = = Philanthropy = = =
During his playing days , Shearer had been involved with the children 's charity the NSPCC , taking part in the organisation 's Full Stop campaign in 1999 . Since retiring from football Shearer has also done work for several charities both nationally and in the Newcastle area .
In his testimonial match , he raised £ 1.64m benefiting fourteen good causes including £ 400 @,@ 000 for the NSPCC and £ 320 @,@ 000 for completion of the " Alan Shearer Centre " , a respite care facility based in West Denton , Newcastle . In October 2006 he became an ambassador for the NSPCC , describing it as " the kick @-@ off to my most important role yet " . He has also worked with the charity the Dream Foundation . In 2006 , Shearer founded the Alan Shearer Academy Scholarship to aid the development of promising young players in the region .
In 2008 , he raised over £ 300 @,@ 000 for Sport Relief in a bike ride with fellow Match of the Day presenter Adrian Chiles , the idea for which emerged in an off the cuff question from cycling fan Chiles to Shearer as to how he kept fit since retirement . Shearer also played and scored twice in Soccer Aid , a game involving celebrities and former players at Wembley Stadium in September 2008 , to raise money for UNICEF .
On 26 July 2009 , Shearer played and scored in the Sir Bobby Robson Trophy match , a charity match held at St James ' Park in tribute of Sir Bobby Robson and in aid of his cancer charity the Sir Bobby Robson Foundation . It proved to be Sir Bobby Robson 's last public appearance , as he died five days later . On 15 October 2009 Shearer became the new patron of Sir Bobby 's Foundation .
= = Career statistics = =
= = = Club = = =
= = = International = = =
= = = Managerial statistics = = =
As of 28 November 2015
= = Honours = =
= = = Club = = =
Southampton
Full Members Cup finalist : 1992
Blackburn Rovers
Premier League winner : 1994 – 95
Newcastle United
Premier League runner @-@ up : 1996 – 97
FA Cup finalist : 1998 , 1999
= = = International = = =
England
Tournoi de France : 1997
= = = Individual = = =
UEFA Euro 1996 Golden Boot ( five goals )
UEFA Euro 1996 Team of the Tournament
EMS Team of the Year : 1994 – 95
UEFA Cup top scorer : 2004 – 05
FIFA World Player of the Year – Bronze award : 1996
Ballon d 'Or – Third place : 1996
Premier League Golden Boot : 1994 – 95 , 1995 – 96 , 1996 – 97
PFA Players ' Player of the Year : 1995 , 1997
Football Writers ' Association Player of the Year : 1994
Premier League Player of the Month ( 5 ) : November 1994 , September 1998 , August 2000 , December 2002 , October 2003
Premier League Player of the Season : 1994 – 95
FWA Tribute Award : 2001
English Football Hall of Fame : 2004 .
FIFA 100
Premier League 10 Seasons Awards ( 1992 – 93 to 2001 – 02 ) Domestic and Overall Player of the Decade
Domestic and Overall Team of the Decade
Outstanding Contribution to the FA Premier League
Top Goalscorer ( 204 )
Premier League 20 Seasons Awards ( 1992 – 93 to 2011 – 12 )
Top Goalscorer ( 260 )
PFA Team of the Century ( 1907 – 2007 ) : 2007
= = = Records = = =
England
Top goalscorer in Premier League history : 260 goals
Most Premier League goals in a 42 @-@ game season : 34a
Most Premier League goals in a 38 @-@ game season : 31b
Most Premier League hat @-@ tricks : 11
Newcastle
Top goalscorer in Newcastle United history : 206
Most European goals scored for Newcastle United : 30
^ Held jointly with Andrew Cole . ^ Held jointly with Cristiano Ronaldo and Luis Suárez .
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= Nidhogg ( video game ) =
Nidhogg is a side @-@ scrolling two @-@ player fighting video game by Mark " Messhof " Essen . Players duel with swords in a pixelated environment . The game was commissioned for the New York University Game Center 's annual multiplayer show , and was revised and demoed at private events over the next four years before its final release . It won Indiecade 2013 's Game Design award and the 2011 Independent Games Festival 's Nuovo award . It was released for Microsoft Windows on January 13 , 2014 , and later ported to OS X , PlayStation 4 , and PlayStation Vita . Critics praised the feel of the gameplay and its balance , but considered the single @-@ player mode to be unsatisfying .
= = Gameplay = =
Nidhogg is a fast @-@ paced two @-@ player dueling game where two players sword fight in a side @-@ scrolling environment . Players can run , jump , slide , throw their swords , and fistfight . The player @-@ character 's sword can be held at three different heights : low , medium , and high , and changing the sword 's position to hit the opponent 's sword will disarm the opponent . Players can also dive kick , wall jump , climb ledges , and crawl . The player continually pushes towards one side of the screen , such that they are permitted a few seconds to run towards their opponent 's side while their opponent respawns after dying . The player to reach the end of their opponent 's side first wins and is eaten by the mythological Norse serpent Níðhöggr . Nidhogg has four different levels and single @-@ player , local multiplayer , and online multiplayer two @-@ player modes . The game also has a tournament mode and game variants including " boomerang swords " . It can be played via a shared keyboard , and its art style has a pixelated aesthetic similar to games of the 1980s , with vivid colors and simple graphics .
= = Development = =
The game was made by indie developer Mark " Messhof " Essen over the course of four years . It was commissioned for the New York University Game Center 's first No Quarter annual multiplayer show . It was first exhibited in April 2010 , known as Raging Hadron , and was delayed as Messhof planned a formal release . It was later renamed Nidhogg , after the mythological Norse serpent Níðhöggr , who appears in @-@ game . Messhof worked as the game 's only programmer and his time was divided between development and his other freelance and personal projects , graduate school , and a job teaching at University of Southern California . The game languished until Kristy Norindr made Messhof into an indie studio , joining as a co @-@ founder and working in a business development role . She led the search for the game 's musician . Their list of desired styles always included Daedelus , who they were able to contact through a mutual friend who attended high school with the musician . Daedelus designed some of the procedural elements that trigger the music sequences . Messhof described their process as wanting to " enhance the action " while letting players control the game 's tension . He felt lucky to have Daedelus as his composer . Messhof also asked a former student to help him complete the game 's netcode , which he deemed to be " totally essential " for the game 's future as an eSport . He read about " programming and fighting game structure " over the course of development , which he credited as important towards the game 's progress . It was his first attempt at networked multiplayer .
The core concept did not change over the course of development , though the other content did . Messhof limited the game 's exposure during this time as he wanted the game to be respected in the fighting game genre and wanted to make sure it was ready first . Messhof himself , however , did not have much experience in this genre . He said that he " spent a lot of time " on the gameplay 's feel and designed it to play slowly , where players wait for their opponent to move first , similar to Bushido Blade . He also spent time adding divekicks and cartwheels while improving the melee attacks and spectator experience . Some moves , such as a Yoshi @-@ style " ground pound " and the Karate Kid crane kick , were attempted and removed . In testing , he would observe players and their strategies before attempting to write an artificial intelligence to use similar strategies . Messhof considers the single @-@ player to be training for the online multiplayer , and the online multiplayer training for live matches . He described his process as making " the most fun game " to play with his friends .
Gamasutra 's Mike Rose wrote that the game became " the equivalent of a video game fable " for its appearance at video game shows but lack of public release . It won several awards within a year of its first showing and appeared at " hyper @-@ local indie group " meetups such as the Hand Eye Society of Toronto and Juegos Rancheros . A playable demo of the game was displayed at the 2013 Evolution Championship Series , with upgrades from previous demos of the game . The next year , the game was selected for the July 2014 Evolution Championship Series fighting game tournament 's Indie Showcase . Messhof said that the game works best in live , public settings . Nidhogg was released on January 13 , 2014 , for Microsoft Windows via Steam . The release includes online competition and an eight @-@ person tournament mode . Ports were later released for OS X on May 19 , 2014 , and for PlayStation 4 and PlayStation Vita on October 14 , 2014 . The Fencer later went on to appear as a playable character in the indie fighting game Divekick .
= = Reception = =
Nidhogg received " generally favorable " reviews , according to video game review score aggregator Metacritic . It won Indiecade 2013 's Game Design award and the 2011 Independent Games Festival 's Nuovo Award , where it was also nominated for Excellence in Design and the Seumas McNally Grand Prize . It was IGN 's January 2014 Game of the Month , and Rock , Paper , Shotgun awarded the game their first physical trophy . Reviewers praised the feel of the gameplay and its balance , and thought the single @-@ player mode to be unsatisfying . Some critics found technical issues with the online multiplayer code , while others only had issues finding other players .
Brandon Boyer of Venus Patrol marked the game as part of a " multiplayer renaissance " alongside TowerFall and Samurai Gunn . Polygon 's Russ Frushtick described the game as a tug @-@ of @-@ war closer to the National Football League than to Street Fighter . He commended the game 's originality . Kyle Hilliard of Game Informer did not think the pixelated graphics were sufficiently " distinct " from similar games . He praised the soundtrack but wanted more tracks .
Eurogamer 's Quintin Smith praised the game 's balance , writing that " every single fight is hold @-@ your @-@ breath tense " , that even the shortest fights " take on an air of majesty " , and that kills feel fair . He described the game as multiplayer " theatre " for the impact the game has on those watching and playing it . Rock , Paper , Shotgun 's Alec Meer described the game as a combination of " precision and reckless abandon " . IGN 's Keza MacDonald called it the " most exhilarating competitive game [ she had ] played in years " . Edge put the game alongside Street Fighter II , Super Smash Bros. , and GoldenEye 007 as games " written into history indelibly for their competitive multiplayer " . The game later inspired indie games such as TowerFall and Samurai Gunn . Sean Hollister of The Verge described Nidhogg as " perfect " .
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= Joseph Widney =
Joseph Pomeroy Widney , M.D. D.D. LL.D ( December 26 , 1841 – July 4 , 1938 ) was an American doctor , educator , historian , and religious leader .
After the American Civil War led him to medicine , he followed his brothers to California where he received his medical degree . He saw southern California as a " Garden of Eden . " In Los Angeles he was a founder of the Los Angeles Medical Society . He was a strong proponent of the new University of Southern California , and became its second President and the founding Dean of its School of Medicine . The Los Angeles Public Library was one of his major interests .
His real estate interests in California flourished , and he was an early environmentalist as well as promoter of the new metropolis . He believed deeply in Los Angeles becoming a major city with a seaport . The city would use water from across local mountains , and would recreate Lake Cahuilla .
He was a founder of the Church of the Nazarene in Los Angeles , as well as a Methodist pastor . He published many books , mainly on his views about California and its history , but only Race Life of the Aryan Peoples was commercially published .
He died at 96 , having seen Los Angeles become a major city and seaport . One of the " most conspicuous Southern Californians of his generation " , Widney was a cultural leader in Los Angeles for nearly seventy years .
= = Early life = =
Joseph Pomeroy Widney was born December 26 , 1841 in Piqua , Ohio . The third son of John Wilson Widney and Arabella Maclay Widney , Widney was a nephew of Robert Samuel Maclay , and Charles Maclay . His father died of pneumonia at the age of 42 , when Widney was 15 .
After graduating from Piqua High School , he entered Miami University at Oxford , Ohio where , for five months , he studied Latin , Greek , and the classics . In 1907 , he received an honorary Doctor of Laws ( LL.D. ) degree for his Race Life of the Aryan Peoples .
In 1861 he enlisted in the Union Army in the Civil War ( Ohio Volunteers ) . He served as a medical corpsman on ships on the Ohio and Mississippi rivers . He was discharged in 1862 due to physical and nervous collapse .
With the encouragement of his two older brothers and his uncle , Charles Maclay , in California , Widney sailed to San Francisco via Panama , arriving in November 1862 . He travelled throughout California , visited missions and lived with the Spanish @-@ speaking inhabitants .
He returned to university in 1865 , receiving a Master of Arts degree from the California Wesleyan College ( later the University of the Pacific ) . In January 1866 , he moved to San Francisco . On June 4 , 1866 , he began the third session of the medical course at the Toland Medical College ( later part of the University of California , San Francisco ) , graduating at the head of his class with a Doctor of Medicine ( M.D. ) degree on October 2 , 1866 .
Widney married twice . His first wife was Ida DeGraw Tuthill Widney on May 17 , 1869 in San Jose , California . They lived in the Bunker Hill , Los Angeles , California area , next to his brother Judge Robert M. Widney . Ida died in Los Angeles on February 10 , 1879 and is buried in the Los Angeles City Cemetery .
His second wife was Mary Bray , whome he married on December 27 , 1882 in Santa Clara , California . On February 18 , 1884 , a Los Angeles River flood caused the loss of 43 homes , including his own . Dr. and Mrs. Widney moved to 150 W. Adams Boulevard ( formerly S. 26th Street ) , nearer the new University of Southern California . As founder of the Flower Festival Society , she organized flower festivals to raise money for the Woman 's Home , a home for poor working women . Mary Bray Widney died on March 10 , 1903 at their home at 150 W. Adams Boulevard , Los Angeles . Dr Widney never remarried .
= = Medical career = =
He graduated from Toland Medical College , then the only one in California , on October 2 , 1866 . He re @-@ enlisted in the army as a military surgeon . He was posted to Drum Barracks in Wilmington , California for a month in 1867 , and was named Acting Assistant Surgeon for the Arizona Territory during the Apache Wars .
In 1868 , he was discharged and moved to Los Angeles . He began his medical practice on October 8 , 1868 , sharing offices with Dr. John Strother Griffin ( 1816 – 1898 ) . General William Tecumseh Sherman and Mexican bandido Tiburcio Vasquez were among his patients .
Before the " Anti @-@ Quackery Law " enacted in 1876 , doctors were not licensed . Medical practitioners would advertise their medical skills . On January 31 , 1871 , Dr Widney helped found the Los Angeles County Medical Association , the oldest such association in California .
The founders wanted to establish medical schools and publications , and raise medical standards Widney advocated aid to " the sickly poor " as a facet of public health and civic philanthropy . From 1876 to 1901 , medical licensing was done by the State Medical Society . In 1901 , the State Board of Medical Examiners was created . Widney was one of the first licensed by the medical society . He became its president in 1877 . On May 12 , 1937 , a bust of Dr Widney commissioned by the Los Angeles County Medical Association was placed in the lobby of their headquarters .
He believed in scientific medicine , and opposed faith healing or " mind cure " practitioners . In 1886 , Widney , then professor of the principles and practice of medicine in the college of medicine of the University of Southern California , proposed a structure for the study of medicine . He advocated the creation of the Los Angeles and California Boards of Health , and was Los Angeles ' first public health officer .
In 1884 , he helped re @-@ organize the Southern California Medical Society . In 1886 he helped establish the Southern California Practitioner , the society 's monthly journal , and served as an editor for the first few years .
= = Author = =
In 1872 , He helped found the Los Angeles Library Association , and served on its board of governors for the next six years . With Jonathan T. Warner and Judge Benjamin Hayes , Widney wrote and edited the first history of Los Angeles County , the Centennial History of Los Angeles , published in 1876 . In 1888 , he collaborated with Dr. Walter Lindley ( 1852 – 1922 ) , founder of the California Hospital Medical Center , in producing California of the South , one of the first California tourist guides .
Other than his two @-@ volume magnum opus , Race Life of the Aryan Peoples , published in 1907 by Funk and Wagnall , he published his own works .
Widney said in Civilizations and Their Diseases ( 1937 ) ,
I have never written for money . The sole object has been the carving out of broader lines for the human race . For more than fifty years of careful historical study , I have thought , and planned , and worked to this end . This ultimate purpose has run through all my publications .
While at Drum Barracks and in Arizona , Widney became interested in climatology and conservation . He was chairman of the Los Angeles Meteorological committee for several years . Widney credited white settlement with improvements in the Southern California climate , including less variation in temperature , milder winds , and increased rainfall . He was concerned about water conservation , and warned what is now called smog , identifying it as a concern in 1938 , well before it gained official recognition in Los Angeles .
Widney sought the preservation of three great forest areas for future generations .
In January 1873 , Widney suggested the Colorado Desert be flooded to re @-@ establish Lake Cahuilla .
Horace Bell criticized the proposal in Reminiscences of a Ranger .
In his 1935 book , The Three Americas , Widney said that Atlantis was in the area where the Bahamas are located . He thought it was a semi @-@ tropical island , inhabited by peoples from the Americas rather than from Europe . He also believed that there was a submerged lost continent in the South Pacific Ocean .
= = California development = =
Widney saw the potential of Los Angeles on his first visit in January 1867 while posted to Drum Barracks . His brother , Robert Maclay Widney ( 1838 – 1929 ) , had arrived in Los Angeles in 1868 , and was a lawyer , and later judge , as well as the city 's first real estate agent . Robert Widney was also the publisher of The Real Estate Advertiser . Joseph Widney invested in real estate in the Los Angeles area , which made him financially independent , and allowed him to retire from the practice of medicine at 55 . In 1900 , the Los Angeles Times called him " an extensive property owner in this city " . At one time he owned the Widney Block on First Street , another Widney Block at Sixth and Broadway , and a property at the corner of Ninth and Santee streets , where he erected the Nazarene Methodist Episcopal Church . He also owned a building at 445 – 447 Aliso Street , where the first college of medicine for the University of Southern California was located from 1885 to 1896 .
His investment in land started early . Between April 29 , 1869 and August 28 , 1871 , he bought thirty @-@ four lots in Wilmington near the San Pedro harbor area and another 60 acres ( 240 @,@ 000 m2 ) near the San Gabriel Mission ( Rand 28 ) . He owned the parcel of land where the Los Angeles City Hall now stands , as well as much of Mt . Washington , Los Angeles , California , where his last home ( a Victorian mansion at 3901 Marmion Way ) stood .
During the Los Angeles boom in 1885 , Widney bought 35 @,@ 000 acres ( 142 km2 ) of land ( 75 miles ( 121 km ) northeast of Los Angeles ) comprising the relatively undeveloped township of Hesperia , California . Widney formed the Hesperia Land and Water Company to create a town . Horace Bell , in his On the Old West Coast , a personal reflection on that period , critiqued the boomers , as a " speculative conspiracy against all that was honest . " No houses were built in " Widneyville . "
The Los Angeles Times of June 2 , 1887 said that Widney had purchased a hotel and several bath houses in the town of Iron @-@ Sulphur Springs , once known as Fulton Wells and now as Santa Fe Springs , fifteen miles ( 24 km ) east of downtown Los Angeles . In 1886 the springs were purchased by the Santa Fe Railroad , which renamed the town after itself .
Widney said , " We may look lovingly back on log cabin days , but the looking back must be done over a multi @-@ lane highway , not along a cow track " . He supported the development of Los Angeles even at the age of 95 . In 1937 he wrote " A Plan for the Development of Los Angeles as a Great World Health Center . " To develop Los Angeles , Widney proposed roads and tunnels to cross the Sierra Madre Mountains , linking the city and the interior desert . According to Carl Rand , Widney postulated :
The whole future of the city lies within our own hands . Los Angeles Harbor ( which ought to have been larger and deeper ) ; the great Desert City which may be ; and the Colorado River water system ; these are the three factors which will settle the future of the City of Los Angeles . And the time to strike is now !
Jaher lists Widney as among those Los Angeles entrepreneurs who were the " most avid civic boosters ... [ who ] made sanguine by their triumphs , they expect urban growth to bring further gains ... [ who ] predicted that the city would become a great metropolis " . Widney envisioned Los Angeles " developing into the health capital of the world , a heliopolis of holistic health culture " .
He was a member of the Los Angeles Chamber of Commerce from October 1888 . His first two books promoted California . In California of the South ( 1888 ) , described by David Fine as " one of the earliest booster tracts " Widney and Walter Lindley wrote : " The health @-@ seeker who , after suffering in both mind and body , after vainly trying the cold climate of Minnesota and the warm climate of Florida , after visiting Mentone , Cannes , and Nice , after traveling to Cuba and Algiers , and noticing that he is losing ounce upon ounce of flesh , and his cheeks have grown more sunken , his appetite more capricious , his breath more hurried , that his temperature is no longer normal , ... turns with a gleam of hope toward the Occident " — by which they meant Southern California . Many people followed that gleam and found it something more than hope " .
= = Public service = =
Widney helped define the railroad , maritime and commercial policy of Southern California . He and Robert were entrepreneurial professionals . They were " effective lobbyists for the Southern Pacific [ railroad ] and for harbor improvements " and were " active in transport enterprises and in the development of the San Pedro harbor " .
In 1871 , Widney wanted Los Angeles to have a harbor , and with Phineas Banning successfully lobbied the United States Congress for funding for the harbor at San Pedro , California ( the Port of Los Angeles ) . He was chairman of the Los Angeles Citizens ' Committee on the Wilmington Harbor . He successfully opposed the attempt of the railroad interests of Collis Potter Huntington and his partners from claiming the state tidelands of the harbor for their own purposes , ensuring these lands remained in public hands .
Widney supported dividing the state of California and establishing the commonwealth of Southern California . He was regarded as " one of the ablest and most enthusiastic advocates of the new ' California of the South ' " . For many years Widney advocated the division of the state of California into at least two states , in order to maximize its representation in the U.S. Senate . He indicated in 1880 that " the topography , geography , climatic and commercial laws all work for the separation of California into two distinct civil organizations " . In 1888 , Widney said that " two distinct peoples are growing up in the state , and the time is rapidly drawing near when the separation which the working of natural laws is making in the people must become a separation of civil laws as well " .
In his book The Three Americas ( 1935 ) , Widney suggested that the United States , Canada , the United Kingdom , Australia , New Zealand , and South Africa form an Anglo @-@ Saxon federation with freedom of migration and a common citizenship .
While Republican in general politics , he was " an earnest worker in the cause of temperance " . In an 1886 Los Angeles Times op @-@ ed piece Widney suggested that the liquor question – the restriction of its manufacture and sale – should not only become the subject of a Republican party platform plank but should be the issue around which the party rebuilt itself . He was interested in the progress of prohibition , and served as head of the city 's nonpartisan anti @-@ saloon league .
Widney is regarded as " the outstanding early educator of Los Angeles " .
He was involved in the University of Southern California from its conception in 1879 , and served as a member of the Board of Trustees of USC from 1880 to 1895 .
He was heavily responsible for the creation of the USC College of Medicine in 1885 at the beginning of a three @-@ year " boom " cycle in Los Angeles , and served as founding dean , a responsibility he accepted for the next eleven years until his resignation on September 22 , 1896 . According to Michael Carter , " the University Catalogue for the academic year 1884 – 85 declared that applicants to the medical school , as to the rest of USC , would not be denied admission because of ' race , color , religion or sex . ' "
After the death of USC founding president Marion McKinley Bovard on December 30 , 1891 , the Board of Trustees elected Widney as the second president . After he " recognized a call of the Lord " , he accepted the presidency at a difficult time in the history of the young institution , which had only twenty @-@ five undergraduate students with a focus was on providing secondary education .
The College of Liberal Arts was eighteen thousand dollars in debt . He first set up a separate governing board for the College of Liberal Arts , both to refinance the debt and of tying that branch of the institution more closely to California Methodism . He raised $ 15 @,@ 000 , giving his own personal security to back up the loans , saving USC from bankruptcy . The Southern California Conference of the Methodist Episcopal Church increased its support for USC in 1893 . The Conference " enthusiastically adopted Widney 's new financial program for the institution . Two of the church 's most distinguished and trusted leaders , Widney and Phineas F. Bresee , were at the helm . By the time of the annual conference of 1894 , the university had passed through its financial crisis , and Widney 's principal work was done " . In the spring of 1895 , Widney resigned after " four years of intensive unremunerated service to the university as its president " . He announced his intention to spend a year studying in the East . The board finally accepted the resignation , after their benefactor had turned aside repeated requests that he reconsider his decision .
In addition to his responsibilities at USC , Widney served several years as a member and president of the Los Angeles Board of Education .
In October 1894 at the dedication of the Peniel Hall , Widney announced his intention to organize a Training Institute , in which Bible and practical nursing were to be the principal studies .
= = Religious interests = =
Widney was raised in the Greene Street Methodist Episcopal Church in Piqua , Ohio . His uncle , Robert Samuel Maclay , was the first Methodist missionary to China , and an early Methodist missionary to Japan and Korea .
In the Los Angeles First Methodist Episcopal Church , the Widneys were members of the " District Aid Committee , " an organization devoted to securing better support for underpaid pastors .
He supported the Los Angeles City Mission ( the Peniel Mission ) , founded in 1886 as the Los Angeles Mission and was non @-@ denominational and nonsectarian .
Bresee and Widney wanted a church for the poor . They announced a service for October 6 , 1895 , in Red Men 's Hall near the Peniel Mission . On October 30 , 1895 , Bresee and Widney organised the Church of the Nazarene . Widney suggested the name of the new church .
Widney returned to the Methodist church as a pastor and was appointed to the church 's City Mission of Los Angeles ( formally organized in 1908 ) , where he ministered to thousands over the next several years .
In 1899 , he was the pastor of the Nazarene Methodist Episcopal Church . Growth of the congregation led to the building of a 500 @-@ seat building . He paid the full cost of construction and ministered without compensation . The new building was dedicated on June 3 , 1900 . In 1903 this church was renamed the Beth @-@ El Methodist Episcopal Church . Widney resigned from the Methodist Episcopal church in 1911 .
Widney was influenced by the teachings of preacher David Swing and Thomas Starr King , a broad @-@ minded , religiously inclusive Unitarian minister . Widney described King as " one of the few great and broad @-@ minded spirits of the church " ( Frankiel , p30 . ) [ 18 ] .
= = Racial beliefs = =
Widney lamented the decline in influence and power of the original Hispanic population of California . Widney said , " you could visit the hospitals and almshouses in the late ' eighties and look in vain for the Mexican or the Spaniard . "
Widney in his 1876 History indicates : " In the spring of 1850 , probably three or four colored persons were in the city . In 1875 , they numbered 175 souls , many of whom hold good city property acquired by industry . They are farmers , mechanics , or some other useful occupation , and remarkable for good habits " .
African @-@ American activist W. E. B. Du Bois used Widney 's Race Life of the Aryan Peoples to support his own view of the significance of the contributions of blacks to the development of modern civilization . Widney wrote " They [ the Negroes ] once occupied a much wider territory and wielded a vastly greater influence upon earth than they do now . "
In The Three Americas ( 1935 ) , Widney suggested that the United States buy British Guiana from the United Kingdom and give it to the African Americans as reparations for slavery .
= = Later years = =
Widney attributed his longevity to living simply and keeping busy . At age 94 , Widney advocated " no liquor , no tobacco , no drugs . I 'm not a fanatic on liquor , but to me it is a medicine . I keep it around and take it when I need it . But there is no excuse whatever for tobacco or drugs " . He recommended at least eight hours sleep each night and short naps throughout the day .
He died at 10 : 50 am on July 4 , 1938 in his home in Highland Park , Los Angeles , California , aged 96 . After services held in his home , he was buried at the Evergreen Cemetery at Boyle Heights , Los Angeles , California on July 6 , 1938 .
In March 1939 the new Crippled Children 's High School was renamed the Dr. Joseph Pomeroy Widney High School . This school is for those aged 13 to 22 with special educational needs . The Widney Hall Alumni House at the University of Southern California ) Widney Hall , the university 's original building , was declared a Los Angeles Historic @-@ Cultural Monument ( No. 70 ) on December 16 , 1970 . The University of Southern California honors its distinguished graduates by presenting the Widney Alumni Award . His portrait was painted by American artist Orpha Mae Klinker , and a bust of Widney was sculpted by Emil Seletz .
= = List of works = =
= = = Books ( co @-@ authored ) = = =
Lindley , Walter and Joseph Widney . California of the South : Its Physical Geography , Climate , Resources , Routes of Travel , and Health @-@ Resorts Being a Complete Guide @-@ Book to Southern California.D. Appleton and Company : 1888 ; 3rd edition ; 1896 .
Warner , J.J. ; Benjamin Hayes ; and Joseph Widney . An Historical Sketch of Los Angeles County , California : From the Spanish Occupancy , By the Founding of the Mission San Gabriel Archangel , September 8 , 1771 , to July 4 , 1876 . Prepared by a committee appointed by the Literary Committee of the Los Angeles Centennial Celebration . Louis Lewin & Co . : 1876 ; Reprint ed . O. W. Smith : 1936 .
= = = Books = = =
An Illustrated History of Los Angeles County , California : Containing a history of Los Angeles County from the earliest period of its occupancy to the present time , together with glimpses of its prospective future .. and biographical mention of many of its pioneers and also of prominent citizens of to @-@ day . Chicago , IL ; Lewis Publishing Company ( author ) , 1889 . [ 19 ] See page 200 re : JP Widney .
Apostol , Jane , The Historical Society of Southern California , A Centennial History 1891 – 1991 . Sultana Press , 1991 . Widney was actively involved in this society .
Botkin , Daniel B. No Man 's Garden : Thoreau and a New Vision for Civilization and Nature . Island Press , 2000 . See pages 220 – 221 for details re Widneyville .
Caughey , John Walton and La Ree Caughey . Los Angeles : Biography of a City . Berkeley , CA : University of California Press , 1976 .
Cory , H.T. The Imperial Valley and the Salton Sink . John J. Newbegin , 1915 .
de Stanley , Mildred . The Salton Sea yesterday and today . Los Angeles , CA : Triumph Press , 1966 .
E.T.W. Joseph Pomeroy Widney : A biography of Joseph Pomeroy Widney , M.D. , founder of the Los Angeles County Medical Association and of the College of Medicine of the University of Southern California , Civic Worker , and Author : Some Biographical Notes on a Colleague , who , at the Age of 95 , Still ' Carries On . ( California and Western Medicine ) . San Francisco , CA : 1936 .
Kress , George Henry . A History of the Medical Profession of Southern California . Los Angeles , CA : Times @-@ Mirror , 1910 .
Newmark , Marco . " The Community Builders of Los Angeles – Dr Joseph P. Widney " , pages 89 – 93 . In Jottings in Southern California History . Ward Ritchie Press , 1955 .
Rand , Carl Wheeler . Joseph Pomeroy Widney : Physician and Mystic . Los Angeles , CA : Anderson , Ritchie & Simon , 1970 .
= = = Theses and dissertations = = =
Gay , Leslie F. , Jr . " History of the University of Southern California . " Masters Thesis , 1910 .
Potter , Edward Lawrence . The Widney Family . 1966 ; reprinted Nazarene : 1987 . " First international archives project of the Church of the Nazarene . " . Reprinted by the Church of the Nazarene , 1987 .. Thesis ( M.A. ) --Los Angeles : University of Southern California , 1966 .. Bibliography : leaves [ 125 ] -130 .
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= Battle of the Netherlands =
The Battle of the Netherlands ( Dutch : Slag om Nederland ) was part of Case Yellow ( German : Fall Gelb ) , the German invasion of the Low Countries ( Belgium , Luxembourg , and the Netherlands ) and France during World War II .
The battle lasted from 10 May 1940 until the main Dutch forces surrendered on the 14th . Dutch troops in the province of Zealand continued to resist the Wehrmacht until 17 May when Germany completed its occupation of the whole nation .
The Battle of the Netherlands saw one of the first major uses of paratroopers to occupy crucial targets prior to ground troops reaching the area . The German Luftwaffe utilised paratroopers in the capture of several major airfields in the Netherlands in and around key cities such as Rotterdam and The Hague in order to quickly overrun the nation and immobilise Dutch forces .
The battle ended soon after the devastating bombing of Rotterdam by the German Luftwaffe and the subsequent threat by the Germans to bomb other large Dutch cities if Dutch forces refused to surrender . The Dutch General Staff knew it could not stop the bombers and surrendered in order to prevent other cities from suffering the same fate . The Netherlands remained under German occupation until 1945 , when the last Dutch territory was liberated .
= = Background = =
Britain and France declared war on Germany in 1939 , following the German invasion of Poland , but no major land operations occurred in Western Europe during the period known as the Phoney War in the winter of 1939 – 1940 . During this time , the British and French built up their forces in expectation of a long war , and the Germans completed their conquest of Poland . On 9 October , Adolf Hitler ordered plans to be made for an invasion of the Low Countries , to use them as a base against Great Britain and to pre @-@ empt a similar attack by the Allied forces , which could threaten the vital Ruhr Area .
The Dutch were ill @-@ prepared to resist such an invasion . When Hitler came to power , the Dutch had begun to re @-@ arm , but more slowly than France or Belgium ; only in 1936 did the defence budget start to be gradually increased . Successive Dutch governments tended to avoid openly identifying Germany as an acute military threat . Partly this was caused by a wish not to antagonise a vital trade partner , even to the point of repressing criticism of Nazi policies ; partly it was made inevitable by a policy of strict budgetary limits with which the conservative Dutch governments tried in vain to fight the Great Depression , which hit Dutch society particularly hard . Hendrikus Colijn , prime minister between 1933 and 1939 , was personally convinced Germany would not violate Dutch neutrality ; senior officers made no effort to mobilise public opinion in favour of improving military defence .
International tensions grew in the late 1930s . Crises were caused by the German occupation of the Rhineland in 1936 ; the Anschluss and Sudeten crisis of 1938 ; and the German occupation of Bohemia and Moravia and the Italian invasion of Albania in the spring of 1939 . These events forced the Dutch government to exercise greater vigilance , but they limited their reaction as much as they could . The most important measure was a partial mobilisation of 100 @,@ 000 men in April 1939 .
After the German invasion of Poland in September 1939 and the ensuing outbreak of the Second World War , the Netherlands hoped to remain neutral , as they had done during the First World War 25 years earlier . To ensure this neutrality , the Dutch army was mobilised from 24 August and entrenched . Large sums ( almost 900 million guilders ) were spent on defence . It proved very difficult to obtain new matériel in wartime , however , especially as the Dutch had ordered some of their new equipment from Germany , which deliberately delayed deliveries . Moreover , a considerable part of the funds were intended for the Dutch East Indies ( now Indonesia ) , much of it related to a plan to build three battlecruisers .
The strategic position of the Low Countries , located between France and Germany on the uncovered flanks of their fortification lines , made the area a logical route for an offensive by either side . In a 20 January 1940 radio speech , Winston Churchill tried to convince them not to wait for an inevitable German attack , but to join the Anglo @-@ French Entente . Both the Belgians and Dutch refused , even though the German attack plans had fallen into Belgian hands after a German aircraft crash in January 1940 in what became known as the Mechelen Incident .
The French supreme command considered violating the neutrality of the Low Countries if they had not joined the Anglo @-@ French coalition before the planned large Entente offensive in the summer of 1941 , but the French Cabinet , fearing a negative public reaction , vetoed the idea . Kept into consideration was a plan to invade if Germany attacked the Netherlands alone , necessitating an Entente advance through Belgium , or if the Netherlands assisted the enemy by tolerating a German advance into Belgium through the southern part of their territory , both possibilities discussed as part of the hypothèse Hollande . The Dutch government never officially formulated a policy on how to act in case of either contingency ; the majority of ministers preferred to resist an attack , a minority and Queen Wilhelmina of the Netherlands refused to become a German ally whatever the circumstances . The Dutch tried on several occasions to act as an intermediary to reach a negotiated peace settlement between the Entente and Germany .
After the German invasion of Norway and Denmark , followed by a warning by the new Japanese naval attaché Captain Tadashi Meada that a German attack on the Netherlands was certain , it became clear to the Dutch military that staying out of the conflict might prove impossible . They started to fully prepare for war , both mentally and physically . Dutch border troops were put on greater alert . Reports of the presumed actions of a Fifth Column in Scandinavia caused widespread fears that the Netherlands too had been infiltrated by German agents assisted by traitors . Countermeasures were taken against a possible assault on airfields and ports . On 19 April a state of emergency was declared . However , most civilians still cherished the illusion that their country might be spared , an attitude that after the war has been described as a state of denial . The Dutch hoped that the restrained policy of the Entente and Central Powers during the First World War might be repeated and tried to avoid the attention of the Great Powers and a war in which they feared a loss of human life comparable to that of the previous conflict . On 10 April Britain and France repeated their request that the Dutch enter the war on their side , but were again refused .
= = = Dutch forces = = =
= = = = Royal Dutch Army = = = =
In the Netherlands , all the objective conditions were present for a successful defence : a dense population , wealthy , young , disciplined and well @-@ educated ; a geography favouring the defender ; and a strong technological and industrial base including an armaments industry . However , these had not been exploited : while the Wehrmacht at the time still had many shortcomings in equipment and training , the Dutch army in comparison was like David compared to Goliath . The myth of the general German equipment advantage over the opposing armies in the Battle of France was in fact a reality in the case of the Battle of the Netherlands . On the one hand there was the modern German army with tanks and dive bombers ( such as the Junkers Ju 87 Stuka ) and on the other hand the Dutch army , whose armoured forces comprised only 39 armoured cars and five tankettes , and an air force for a large part consisting of biplanes . The Dutch government 's attitude towards war was reflected in the state of the country 's armed forces , which had not significantly expanded their equipment since before the First World War , and were inadequately armed even by the standards of 1918 . During the 1920s , an economic recession lasting from 1920 until 1927 and the general détente in international relations caused a limitation of the defence budget . In that decade , only 1 @.@ 5 million guilders per annum was spent on equipment . Both in 1931 and 1933 , commissions appointed to economise even further failed , because they concluded that the acceptable minimum had been reached and advised that a spending increase was urgently needed . Only in February 1936 was a bill passed creating a special 53 @.@ 4 million guilder defence fund .
The lack of a trained manpower base , a large professional organisation or a sufficient matériel reserve precluded a swift expansion of Dutch forces . There was just enough artillery to equip the larger units : eight infantry divisions ( combined in four Army Corps ) , one Light ( i.e. motorised ) Division and two independent brigades ( Brigade A and Brigade B ) , each with the strength of half a division or five battalions . All other infantry combat unit troops were raised as light infantry battalions that were dispersed all over the territory to delay enemy movement . They made use of many pillboxes , about two thousand in number , but in lines without any depth . Modern large fortresses like the Belgian stronghold of Eben Emael were nonexistent ; the only modern fortification complex was that at Kornwerderzand , guarding the Afsluitdijk . Total Dutch forces equalled 48 regiments of infantry as well as 22 infantry battalions for strategic border defence . In comparison , Belgium , despite a smaller and more aged male population , fielded 22 full divisions and the equivalent of 30 divisions when smaller units were included .
After September 1939 , desperate efforts were made to improve the situation , but with very little result . Germany , for obvious reasons , delayed its deliveries ; France was hesitant to equip an army that would not unequivocally take its side . The one abundant source of readily available weaponry , the Soviet Union , was inaccessible because the Dutch , contrary to most other nations , did not recognise the communist regime . An attempt in 1940 to procure Soviet armour captured by Finland failed .
On 10 May , the most conspicuous deficiency of the Dutch Army lay in its shortage of armour . Whereas the other major participants all had a considerable armoured force , the Netherlands had not been able to obtain the minimum of 146 modern tanks ( 110 light , 36 medium ) they had already considered necessary in 1937 . A single Renault FT tank , for which just one driver had been trained and which had the sole task of testing antitank obstacles , had remained the only example of its kind and was no longer in service by 1940 . There were two squadrons of armoured cars , each with a dozen Landsverk M36 or M38 vehicles ; another dozen DAF M39 cars were in the process of being taken into service , some still having to be fitted with their main armament . A single platoon of five Carden @-@ Loyd Mark VI tankettes used by the Artillery completed the list of Dutch armour .
The Dutch Artillery had available a total of 676 howitzers and field guns : 310 Krupp 75 mm field guns , partly produced in licence ; 52 105 mm Bofors howitzers , the only really modern pieces ; 144 obsolete Krupp 125 mm guns ; 40 150 mm sFH13 's ; 72 Krupp 150 mm L / 24 howitzers and 28 Vickers 152 mm L / 15 howitzers . As antitank @-@ guns 386 Böhler 47 mm L / 39s were available , which were effective weapons but too few in number , being only at a third of the planned strength ; another three hundred antiquated 6 Veld ( 57 mm ) and 8 Staal ( 84 mm ) field guns performed the same role for the covering forces . Only eight of the 120 modern 105 mm pieces ordered from Germany had been delivered at the time of the invasion . Most artillery was horse @-@ drawn .
The Dutch Infantry used about 2 @,@ 200 7 @.@ 92 mm Schwarzlose M.08 machine guns , partly licence produced , and eight hundred Vickers machine guns . Many of these were fitted in the pillboxes ; each battalion had a heavy machine gun company of twelve . The Dutch infantry squads were equipped with an organic light machine gun , the M.20 Lewis machine gun of which about eight thousand were available . This weapon was prone to jamming and not very suitable for offensive operations . Most Dutch infantry were equipped with the Dutch Mannlicher rifle , a variant of the Mannlicher M1893 . This weapon had been in service with the Dutch military for over 40 years and its obsolescence had become obvious , but the Dutch military did not have the money to replace it . There were but six 80 mm mortars for each regiment . This lack of firepower impaired the fighting performance of the Dutch infantry .
Despite the Netherlands being the seat of Philips , one of Europe 's largest producers of radio equipment , the Dutch army mostly used telephone connections ; only the Artillery had been equipped with the modest number of 225 radio sets .
= = = Dutch Air Forces = = =
The Dutch air force , which was not an independent arm of the Dutch armed forces , but part of the Army , on 10 May operated a fleet of 155 aircraft : 28 Fokker G.1 twin @-@ engine destroyers ; 31 Fokker D.XXI and seven Fokker D.XVII fighters ; ten twin @-@ engined Fokker T.V , fifteen Fokker C.X and 35 Fokker C.V light bombers , twelve Douglas DB @-@ 8 dive bombers ( used as fighters ) and seventeen Koolhoven FK @-@ 51 reconnaissance aircraft — thus 74 of the 155 aircraft were biplanes . Of these aircraft 125 were operational . Of the remainder the air force school used three Fokker D.XXI , six Fokker D.XVII , a single Fokker G.I , a single Fokker T.V and seven Fokker C.V , along with several training airplanes . Another forty operational aircraft served with the marine air service along with about an equal number of reserve and training craft . The production potential of the Dutch military aircraft industry , consisting of Fokker and Koolhoven , was not fully exploited due to budget limitations .
= = = = Training and readiness = = = =
Not only was the Dutch Army poorly equipped , it was also poorly trained . There had especially been little experience gained in the handling of larger units above the battalion level . From 1932 until 1936 , the Dutch Army did not hold summer field manoeuvres in order to conserve military funding . Also , the individual soldier lacked many necessary skills . Before the war only a minority of young men eligible to serve in the military had actually been conscripted . Until 1938 , those who were enlisted only served for 24 weeks , just enough to receive basic infantry training . That same year , service time was increased to eleven months . The low quality of conscripts was not compensated by a large body of professional military personnel . In 1940 there were only 1206 professional officers present ; It had been hoped that when war threatened , these deficiencies could be quickly remedied but following the mobilisation of all Dutch forces on 28 August 1939 ( bringing Army strength to about 280 @,@ 000 men ) readiness only slowly improved : most available time was spent constructing defences . During this period , munition shortages limited live fire training , while unit cohesion remained low . By its own standards the Dutch Army in May 1940 was unfit for battle . It simply could not stage a major offensive , let alone execute manoeuvre warfare .
German generals and tacticians ( along with Hitler himself ) had an equally low opinion of the Dutch military and expected that the core region of Holland proper could be conquered in about three to five days .
= = = Dutch defensive strategy = = =
= = = = Structural elements = = = =
In the 17th century , the Dutch Republic had devised an effective defensive system called the Holland Water Line , which could protect all major cities in the west by flooding part of the countryside . In the early 19th century this line was shifted somewhat to the east , beyond Utrecht , and later modernised with fortresses . This new position was called the New Holland Water Line . The line was reinforced with new pillboxes in 1940 as the fortifications were outdated . The line was located at the extreme eastern edge of the area lying below sea level . This allowed the ground before the fortifications to be easily inundated with a few feet of water , too shallow for boats , but deep enough to turn the soil into an impassable quagmire . The area west of the New Holland Water Line was called Fortress Holland ( Dutch : Vesting Holland ; German : Festung Holland ) , the eastern flank of which was also covered by Lake IJssel and the southern flank protected by the lower course of three broad parallel rivers : two effluents of the Rhine , and the Meuse ( or Maas ) . It functioned as a National Redoubt , which was expected to hold out a prolonged period of time , in the most optimistic predictions as much as three months without any allied assistance , even though the size of the attacking German force was strongly overestimated . Before the war the intention was to fall back to this position almost immediately , after a concentration phase ( the so @-@ called Case Blue ) in the Gelderse Vallei , inspired by the hope that Germany would only travel through the southern provinces on its way to Belgium and leave Holland proper untouched . In 1939 it was understood such an attitude posed an invitation to invasion and made it impossible to negotiate with the Entente about a common defence . Proposals by German diplomats that the Dutch government would secretly assent to an advance into the country were rejected .
From September 1939 a more easterly Main Defence Line ( MDL ) was constructed . This second main defensive position had a northern part formed by the Grebbelinie ( Grebbe line ) , located at the foothills of the Utrechtse Heuvelrug , an Ice Age moraine between Lake IJssel and the Lower Rhine . It was dug on instigation of the commander of the Field Army Lieutenant @-@ General Jan Joseph Godfried baron van Voorst tot Voorst . This line was extended by a southern part : the Peel @-@ Raamstelling ( Peel @-@ Raam Position ) , located between the river Maas and the Belgian border along the Peel Marshes and the Raam rivulet , as ordered by the Dutch Commander in Chief , General Izaak H. Reijnders . In the south the intention was to delay the Germans as much as possible to cover a French advance . Fourth and Second Army Corps were positioned at the Grebbe Line ; Third Army Corps were stationed at the Peel @-@ Raam Position with the Light Division behind it to cover its southern flank . Brigade A and B were positioned between the Lower Rhine and the Maas . First Army Corps was a strategic reserve in the Fortress Holland , the southern perimeter of which was manned by another ten battalions and the eastern by six battalions . All these lines were reinforced by pillboxes .
= = = = Positioning of troops = = = =
In front of this Main Defence Line was the IJssel @-@ Maaslinie , a covering line along the rivers IJssel and Maas , connected by positions in the Betuwe , again with pillboxes and lightly occupied by a screen of fourteen " border battalions " . Late in 1939 General Van Voorst tot Voorst , reviving plans he had already worked out in 1937 , proposed to make use of the excellent defensive opportunities these rivers offered . He proposed a shift to a more mobile strategy by fighting a delaying battle at the plausible crossing sites near Arnhem and Gennep to force the German divisions to spend much of their offensive power before they had reached the MDL , and ideally even defeat them . This was deemed too risky by the Dutch government and General Reijnders . The latter wanted the army to first offer heavy resistance at the Grebbe Line and Peel Raam Position , and then fall back to the Fortress Holland . This also was considered too dangerous by the government , especially in light of German air supremacy , and had the disadvantage of having to fully prepare two lines . Reijnders had already been denied full military authority in the defence zones ; the conflict about strategy further undermined his political position . On 5 February 1940 he was forced to offer his resignation because of these disagreements with his superiors . He was replaced by General Henry G. Winkelman who decided that in the north the Grebbe Line would be the main defence line where the decisive battle was to be waged , partly because it would there be easier to break out with a counteroffensive if the conditions were favourable . However , he took no comparable decision regarding the Peel @-@ Raam Position .
During the Phoney War the Netherlands officially adhered to a policy of strict neutrality . In secret , the Dutch military command , partly acting on its own accord , negotiated with both Belgium and France via the Dutch military attaché in Paris , Lieutenant @-@ Colonel David van Voorst Evekink to coordinate a common defence to a German invasion . This failed because of insurmountable differences of opinion about the question of which strategy to follow .
= = = = Coordinating with Belgium = = = =
Given its obvious strategic importance , Belgium , though in principle neutral , had already made quite detailed arrangements for coordination with Entente troops . This made it difficult for the Dutch to have these plans changed again to suit their wishes . The Dutch desired the Belgians to connect their defences to the Peel @-@ Raam Position , that Reijnders refused to abandon without a fight . He did not approve of a plan by Van Voorst tot Voorst to occupy a so @-@ called " Orange Position " on the much shorter line ' s @-@ Hertogenbosch – Tilburg , to form a continuous front with the Belgian lines near Turnhout as proposed by Belgian General Raoul van Overstraeten .
When Winkelman took over command , he intensified the negotiations , proposing on 21 February that Belgium would man a connecting line with the Peel Raam Position along the Belgian part of the Zuid @-@ Willemsvaart . The Belgians refused to do this unless the Dutch reinforced their presence in Limburg ; the Dutch had no forces available with which to fulfill this request . Repeated Belgian requests to reconsider the Orange Position were refused by Winkelman . Therefore , the Belgians decided to withdraw , in the event of an invasion , all their troops to their main defence line , the Albert Canal . This created a dangerous gap forty kilometres wide . The French were invited to fill it . Now the French Commander in Chief General Maurice Gamelin was more than interested in including the Dutch in his continuous front as , like Major @-@ General Bernard Montgomery four years later , he hoped to circle around the Westwall when the Entente launched its planned 1941 offensive . But he did not dare to stretch his supply lines that far unless the Belgians and Dutch would take the allied side before the German attack . When both nations refused , Gamelin made it clear that he would occupy a connecting position near Breda . The Dutch did not fortify this area . In secret , Winkelman decided on 30 March to abandon the Peel @-@ Raam Position immediately at the onset of a German attack and withdraw his Third Army Corps to the Linge to cover the southern flank of the Grebbe Line , leaving only a covering force behind . This Waal @-@ Linge Position was to be reinforced with pillboxes ; the budget for such structures was increased with a hundred million guilders .
After the German attack on Denmark and Norway in April 1940 , when the Germans used large numbers of airborne troops , the Dutch command became worried about the possibility they too could become the victim of such a strategic assault . To repulse an attack , five infantry battalions were positioned at the main ports and airbases , such as The Hague airfield of Ypenburg and the Rotterdam airfield of Waalhaven . These were reinforced by additional AA @-@ guns , two tankettes and twelve of the 24 operational armoured cars . These specially directed measures were accompanied by more general ones : the Dutch had posted no less than 32 hospital ships throughout the country and fifteen trains to help make troop movements easier .
= = = French strategy = = =
In addition to the Dutch Army and the German 18th Army , a third force , not all that much smaller than either , would operate on Dutch soil : the French 7th Army . It had its own objectives within the larger French strategy , and French planning had long considered the possibility of operations in Dutch territory . The coastal regions of Zealand and Holland were difficult to negotiate because of their many waterways . However , both the French and the Germans saw the possibility of a surprise flanking attack in this region . For the Germans this would have the advantage of bypassing the Antwerp @-@ Namur line . The Zealand Isles were considered to be strategically critical , as they are just opposite the Thames estuary , so their capture would pose a special menace to the safety of England .
Rapid forces , whether for an offensive or defensive purpose , were needed to deny vital locations to the enemy . Long before the Germans did , the French had contemplated using airborne troops to achieve speedy attacks . As early as 1936 the French had commissioned the design of light airborne tanks , but these plans had been abandoned in 1940 , as they possessed no cargo planes large enough to carry them . A naval division and an infantry division were earmarked to depart for Zealand to block the Western Scheldt against a German crossing . These would send forward forces over the Scheldt estuary into the Isles , supplied by overseas shipping .
French Commander in Chief General Maurice Gamelin feared the Dutch would be tempted into a quick capitulation or even an acceptance of German protection . He therefore reassigned the former French strategic reserve , the 7th Army , to operate in front of Antwerp to cover the river 's eastern approaches in order to maintain a connection with the Fortress Holland further to the north and preserve an allied left flank beyond the Rhine . The force assigned to this task consisted of the 16th Army Corps , comprising the 9th Motorised Infantry Division ( also possessing some tracked armoured vehicles ) and the 4th Infantry Division ; and the 1st Army Corps , consisting of the 25th Motorised Infantry Division and the 21st Infantry Division . This army was later reinforced by the 1st Mechanised Light Division , an armoured division of the French Cavalry and a first class powerful unit . Together with the two divisions in Zealand , seven French divisions were dedicated to the operation .
Although the French troops would have a higher proportion of motorised units than their German adversaries , in view of the respective distances to be covered , they could not hope to reach their assigned sector advancing in battle deployment before the enemy did . Their only prospect of beating the Germans to it lay in employing rail transport . This implied they would be vulnerable in the concentration phase , building up their forces near Breda . They needed the Dutch troops in the Peel @-@ Raam Position to delay the Germans for a few extra days to allow a French deployment and entrenchment , but French rapid forces also would provide a security screen . These consisted of the reconnaissance units of the armoured and motorised divisions , equipped with the relatively well @-@ armed Panhard 178 armoured car . These would be concentrated into two task forces named after their commander : the Groupe Beauchesne and the Groupe Lestoquoi .
= = = German strategy and forces = = =
During the many changes in the operational plans for Fall Gelb the idea of leaving the Fortress Holland alone , just as the Dutch hoped for , was at times considered . The first version of 19 October 1939 suggested the possibility of a full occupation if conditions were favourable . In the version of 29 October it was proposed to limit the transgression to a line south of Venlo . In the Holland @-@ Weisung ( Holland Directive ) of 15 November it was decided to conquer the entire south , but in the north to advance no further than the Grebbe Line , and to occupy the Frisian Isles . Hermann Göring insisted on a full conquest as he needed the Dutch airfields against Britain ; also he was afraid the Entente might reinforce Fortress Holland after a partial defeat and use the airfields to bomb German cities and troops . Another rationale for complete conquest was that as the fall of France itself could hardly be taken for granted , it was for political reasons seen as desirable to obtain a Dutch capitulation , because a defeat might well bring less hostile governments to power in Britain and France . A swift defeat would also free troops for other front sectors .
Though it was thus on 17 January 1940 decided to conquer the whole of the Netherlands , few units could be made available for this task . The main effort of Fall Gelb would be made in the centre , between Namur and Sedan , France . The attack at central Belgium was only a feint ; and the attack at Fortress Holland only a side show of this feint . Although both the 6th and 18th Army were deployed at the Dutch border , the first , much larger , force would move south of Venlo to Belgium , leaving just the 18th Army under General Georg von Küchler to defeat the Dutch main force . Of all German armies to take part in the operation this was by far the weakest . It contained only four regular infantry divisions ( the 207th , 227th , 254th and 256th Infantry Division ) , assisted by three reserve divisions ( 208th , 225th , and 526th Infantry Division ) that would not take part in the fighting . Six of these divisions were " Third Wave " units only raised in August 1939 from territorial Landwehr units . They had few professional officers and little fighting experience apart from those who were World War I veterans . Like the Dutch Army , most soldiers ( 88 % ) were insufficiently trained . The seventh division was the 526th Infantry Division , a pure security unit without serious combat training . The German divisions , with a nominal strength of 17 @,@ 807 men , were fifty percent larger than their Dutch counterparts and possessed twice their effective firepower , but even so the necessary numerical superiority for a successful offensive was simply lacking .
To remedy this , assorted odds and ends were used to reinforce 18th Army . The first of these was the only German cavalry division , aptly named 1st Kavalleriedivision . The mounted troops of this unit , accompanied by some infantry , were to occupy the weakly defended provinces east of the river IJssel and then try to cross the Afsluitdijk ( Enclosure Dike ) . A simultaneous landing in Holland near Enkhuizen was to be attempted , using barges to be captured in the small port of Stavoren . As both efforts were unlikely to succeed , the mass of regular divisions was reinforced by the SS @-@ Verfügungsdivision ( including SS @-@ Standarten Der Führer , Deutschland and Germania ) and Leibstandarte Adolf Hitler , which would serve as assault infantry to breach the Dutch fortified positions . Still this added only 11 ⁄ 3 division to the equation .
To ensure a victory the Germans resorted to unconventional means . The Germans had trained two airborne / airlanding assault divisions . The first of these , the 7 . Flieger @-@ Division , consisted of paratroopers ; the second , the 22nd Luftlande @-@ Infanteriedivision , of airborne infantry . Initially the plan was that the main German assault was to take place in Flanders , and it was expected these troops would be used for a crossing attempt over the river Scheldt near Ghent . This operation was cancelled , so it was decided to use them to obtain an easy victory in the Netherlands . The airborne troops would on the first day attempt to secure the airfields around the Dutch seat of government , The Hague , and then capture that government , together with the Dutch High Command and Queen Wilhelmina . German officers actually took lessons on how to address royalty on such occasions . The plan , Fall Festung , had been developed by Hitler personally , embellishing an earlier idea to let an envoy offer " armed protection of the Dutch neutrality " , that is , to become a German protectorate . In the event this did not bring forth the desired immediate collapse , the bridges at Rotterdam , Dordrecht and Moerdijk would simultaneously be secured to allow a mechanised force to relieve the airborne troops from the south . This force was to be the German 9th Panzer Division . This was the only German armoured division having just two tank battalions , one understrength , in its single tank regiment ; the total number of tanks in the unit was 141 . The intention was that it should exploit a breach in the Dutch lines created by the 254th and 256th Infantry Division , and join up with them , forming the XXVI . Armeekorps , on the Gennep – ' s @-@ Hertogenbosch axis . At the same time an offensive would be staged against the Grebbe Line in the east by the 207th and 227th Infantry Division , united to form X. Armeekorps , to engage the main bulk of the Dutch Field Army . The expectation was that in spite of the lack of numerical superiority , they would force the Dutch back to the east front of the Fortress Holland or beyond . If the Dutch did not capitulate on the first day , the Eighteenth Army expected to enter the Fortress Holland on the third day from the south and thereby ensure victory ; there was no strict timetable for the total destruction of the Dutch forces . A peculiar aspect of the command structure was that the airborne attack was solely a Luftwaffe operation ; the airborne forces would initially not be under operational command of the German Army . The attack on Rotterdam was ultimately to be an Army operation and considered by it as the Schwerpunkt ( focal point ) of the campaign in the Netherlands ; 18th Army saw the air landings as primarily subservient to the XXVI . Armeekorps advance .
Of all operations of Fall Gelb this one most strongly embodied the concept of a Blitzkrieg as the term was then understood : a Strategischer Überfall or strategic assault . Also , like Fall Gelb as a whole , it involved a high risk strategy .
= = The Oster affair = =
The German population and troops generally disliked the idea of violating Dutch neutrality . The German propaganda therefore justified the invasion as a reaction to a supposed Entente attempt to occupy the Low Countries , similar to the justification used by the German Empire to invade Belgium in World War I. Some German officers had an aversion against the Nazi regime and were also uneasy about the invasion . One of them , Colonel Hans Oster , an Abwehr ( German military intelligence ) officer , began in March 1939 to pass along information to his friend , the Dutch military attaché in Berlin Major Gijsbertus J. Sas . This information included the attack date of Fall Gelb . Sas informed the Allies via other military attachés . However , both the Dutch government and other nations became insensitive to the series of false alarms , as the date would be changed many times , because the attack was postponed to wait for favourable weather conditions . Sas ' correct prediction of the date of the attack on Denmark and Norway went largely unheeded . Though he indicated a German armoured division would try to attack the Fortress Holland from North Brabant and that there was a plan to capture the Queen , the Dutch defensive strategy was not adapted and it was not understood these were elements of a larger scheme . On 4 May Sas again warned that an attack was imminent ; this time it coincided with a warning from Pope Pius XII . When in the evening of 9 May Oster again phoned his friend saying just " Tomorrow , at dawn " , the Dutch troops were put on alert . Oster was a leading figure of the German resistance from 1938 to 1943 , and was one of those hanged after the 20 July 1944 bomb plot to assassinate Hitler .
= = Battle = =
= = = 10 May = = =
On the morning of 10 May 1940 the Dutch awoke to the sound of aircraft engines roaring in the sky . Germany had commenced operation Fall Gelb and attacked the Netherlands , Belgium , France and Luxembourg , in the case of the Low Countries without a declaration of war given before hostilities ; France was already at war .
In the night the Luftwaffe violated Dutch airspace . One wing , Kampfgeschwader 4 ( KG 4 ) , traversed it and then disappeared to the west , giving the Dutch the illusion that the operation was directed at England . But above the North Sea it turned to the east again to stage a surprise attack on the Dutch airfields , together with the other wings . Led by Oberst ( Colonel ) Martin Fiebig , KG 4 hit the naval airfield at De Kooy , destroying 35 aircraft , most of them trainers . Fiebig himself was shot down and spent five days as a Dutch prisoner of war . KG 4 also hit Amsterdam @-@ Schiphol , where the Dutch lost a third of their medium bombers , and The Hague airfields where I. / KG 4 destroyed half of the 21 defending fighters to assist Kampfgeschwader 30 ( KG 30 ) and Kampfgeschwader 54 ( KG 54 ) in attacks upon ports and communications . KG 4 lost 11 Heinkel He 111 bombers in total on 10 May and three Junkers Ju 88s ; KG 30 and 54 another nine bombers . Jagdgeschwader 26 ( JG 26 ) and Zerstörergeschwader 26 ( ZG 26 ) shot down 25 Dutch aircraft in aerial combat for a loss of nine fighters , with Albert Kesselring 's Luftflotte 2 in total claiming 41 . The Dutch were left with just 70 aircraft by the end of the day . They claimed most of the German aircraft destroyed on 10 May . Spread out over Dutch territory , they continued to engage the Luftwaffe where possible , claiming 13 victories over German fighter aircraft by 14 May .
Immediately after the bombardments , between 04 : 30 and 05 : 00 local time , paratroopers were landed near the airfields . Dutch anti @-@ aircraft batteries shot down numerous Ju 52 transport planes of the Luftwaffe 's Transportgruppen . German Ju 52 losses in the entire battle amounted to about 250 , representing 50 % of the fleet 's strength .
The attack on The Hague ended in operational failure . The paratroopers were unable to capture the main airfield at Ypenburg in time for the airborne infantry to land safely in their Junkers . Though one armoured car had been damaged by a bomb , the other five Landsverks , assisted by machine gun emplacements , destroyed the eighteen Junkers of the first two waves , killing many occupants . When the airstrip was blocked by wrecks the remaining waves aborted the landing and tried to find alternatives , often putting down their teams in meadows or on the beach , thus dispersing the troops . The small auxiliary airfield of Ockenburg was only lightly defended , and fell at once to German attack . The airfield of Valkenburg was likewise quickly occupied , the morale of the defenders shaken by the bombardment . However , the landing strip was still under construction and the ground water level had not yet been lowered : planes landing there sank away in the soft soil . None of the airfields were thus capable of receiving substantial reinforcements . In the end the paratroopers occupied Ypenburg but failed to advance into The Hague , their route blocked by hastily assembled Dutch troops . Early in the afternoon they were dispersed by fire from three Dutch artillery batteries . Dutch batteries likewise drove away the German occupants from the other two fields , the remnant airborne troops taking refuge in nearby villages and mansions .
The attack on Rotterdam was much more successful . Twelve Heinkel He 59 seaplanes , crowded with two platoons of troops , landed in the heart of the city and unloaded assault teams that conquered the Willemsbrug , a bridge over the Nieuwe Maas , to occupy a bridgehead . At the same time the military airfield of Waalhaven , positioned south of the city on the island of IJsselmonde , was attacked by airborne forces . Here an infantry battalion was stationed , but so close to the airfield that the paratroopers landed near its positions . A confused fight followed . The first wave of Junkers suffered no losses and the transports continued to land . In the end the Dutch defenders were overwhelmed . The German troops , steadily growing in numbers , began to move to the east to occupy IJsselmonde and eventually made contact with the paratroopers tasked with occupying the vital bridge at Dordrecht . Although the Royal Netherlands Navy intervened — the torpedo boats Z5 and TM 51 attacked the Willemsbrug and later the destroyer HNLMS Van Galen sailed up the Nieuwe Waterweg to bombard the airfield at short range — this only resulted in the Van Galen foundering after being bombed . A plan to commit the gunboats HNLMS Flores and HNLMS Johan Maurits van Nassau was therefore abandoned . At the Island of Dordrecht the Dordrecht bridge was captured but in the city itself the garrison held out . The long Moerdijk bridges over the broad Hollands Diep estuary connecting the island to North Brabant province were captured and a bridgehead fortified on the southern side .
The Germans , executing a plan approved by Hitler , — though not contrived by him personally — tried to capture the IJssel and Maas bridges intact , using commando teams of Brandenburgers that began to infiltrate over the Dutch border ahead of the main advance , with some troops arriving on the evening of 9 May . During the night of 10 May they approached the bridges : several teams had a few men dressed as Dutch military police pretending to bring in a group of German prisoners , to fool the Dutch detonation teams . Some of these " military policemen " were real Dutchmen , members of the Nationaal @-@ Socialistische Beweging , the Dutch Nazi party . Most of these attempts failed and the bridges were blown , on two occasions with Brandenburgers and all . The main exception was the Gennep railway bridge . Immediately an armoured train crossed it followed by a troop train , both driving right through the Peel @-@ Raam Position at Mill and unloading an infantry battalion behind the defence line .
The Dutch released reports of German soldiers in disguise to the international news agencies . This caused a fifth column scare , especially in Belgium and France . However , unlike the situation later on in those two countries , in the Netherlands there was no mass exodus of civilian refugees , clogging the roads . Generally German soldiers behaved in a civilised manner towards the Dutch population , forming neat queues at the shops to buy goods rationed in Germany , such as chocolate .
After the generally failed assaults on the bridges , the German divisions began crossing attempts over the rivers IJssel and Maas . The first waves typically were destroyed , due to insufficient preparatory fire on the pillboxes . At most places a secondary bombardment destroyed the pillboxes and the infantry divisions crossed the river after building pontoon bridges ; but at some , as Venlo , the attempt was aborted . At Arnhem , Leibstandarte Der Fuehrer led the assault and that day advanced to the Grebbe Line , followed by 207 . Infanteriedivision .
Even before the armoured train arrived , 3rd Army Corps had already been planned to be withdrawn from behind the Peel @-@ Raam Position , taking with it all the artillery apart from 36 8 Staal pieces . Each of its six regiments was to leave a battalion behind to serve as a covering force , together with fourteen " border battalions " . The group was called the " Peel Division " . This withdrawal was originally planned for the first night after the invasion , under cover of darkness , but due to the rapid German advance an immediate retreat was ordered at 06 : 45 , to avoid 3rd Army Corps becoming entangled with enemy troops . The corps joined " Brigade G " , six battalions already occupying the Waal @-@ Linge line , and was thus brought up to strength again . It would see no further fighting .
The Light Division , based at Vught , was the only manoeuvre force the Dutch Army possessed . Its planned withdrawal had been similarly executed a day early . Its regiments had biked over the Maas and Waal bridges and then turned left through the Alblasserwaard when it was decided in the afternoon to let it counterattack the German airborne landing on IJsselmonde . It reached the Noord , the river separating the Alblasserwaard from IJsselmonde , in the evening . There they discovered that the sector near the only bridge , built in 1939 , was not strongly occupied by the airborne troops , as the Germans simply had not known of its existence because of outdated maps . It was decided to postpone a crossing until the next day , to gather sufficient forces . No attempt was made to establish a bridgehead .
Meanwhile , on the evening of the 10th , around 22 : 00 , French reconnaissance elements using Panhard 178 armoured cars had started to arrive at the Dutch border , forming a vanguard for the French 1st Mechanised Light Division . This division operated , with the 25e DIM on its left , on the northern flank of the French 7th Army ; its mission was to ensure contact between the Vesting Holland and Antwerp . Attempts to coordinate the French advance with Colonel Leonard Johannes Schmidt , the military commander of the Dutch troops on Noord @-@ Brabant , were largely unsuccessful as , apart from the fact he could not be reached that day , Dutch defences there were already collapsing . At Mill , 256 . Infanteriedivision at first could not exploit the opportunity offered by having a battalion in the back of the defenders because it failed to locate it . When a first attack by forward elements had been repulsed , a full assault at the Main Defense Line was initially postponed to the next day because most artillery had not yet passed the single pontoon bridge over the Meuse , which had caused a traffic jam after having been damaged by an incident . In the early evening in a sudden change of plans it was decided to attack even though artillery support was absent apart from one 105 mm battery . An unrequested Stuka attack that also happened to hit the Mill sector just prior to the advance routed some Dutch defenders , creating a weak section in the line from which the Dutch troops were dislodged . Though the Germans were slow to exploit the breakthrough , Colonel Schmidt at 20 : 30 ordered the Peel @-@ Raam Position to be abandoned and his troops to fall back to the west improvising a new line at the Zuid @-@ Willemsvaart canal .
In the North , by the end of the day , 1 . Kavalleriedivision had reached the line Meppel – Groningen , delayed by logistical problems and Dutch demolition teams blowing up 236 bridges . Dutch troop strength in that area was weak .
In the extreme south , the six border battalions in the province of Limburg only slightly delayed the advance of the German Sixth Army ; before noon the area had been overrun and the strategic city of Maastricht had surrendered , opening the way for the German feint offensive into Central Belgium . The Germans however , failed to capture the main bridge intact , forcing them to delay the crossing by the 4th Panzer Division until the next day .
= = = 11 May = = =
On 11 May the Dutch commander General Winkelman was faced with two priorities . First of all he wanted to eliminate the German airborne troops . Though the strategic assault had failed , he feared a further enemy build @-@ up via Waalhaven and saw the German possession of the Moerdijk bridges as a serious impediment to the movement of allied reinforcements to the Fortress Holland . The second priority was closely related to the first : enabling the French army to build up a strong defensive line in North Brabant , to connect the Fortress Holland with the Allied main force in Belgium . As he had withdrawn most of his troops from the area , Winkelman had only limited means available to influence this process , largely leaving this task to local commanders .
In both respects , little was achieved this day . The planned counterattack by the Light Division against the airborne troops on IJsselmonde failed . In the nick of time the bridge over the river Noord had been prepared for defence by the German paratroopers , and it proved impossible to force it . Several attempts to cross the river by boats only managed to establish some isolated bridgeheads , and at 10 : 15 , the Light Division was given permission to break off the crossing at this point and ordered to shift its axis of attack by reinforcing the Dutch troops on the Island of Dordrecht , where it arrived that night . After having cleared the Island of Dordrecht of enemy troops the division was to advance into IJsselmonde over the Dordrecht bridge in order to reach Rotterdam .
Earlier during the day , two attempts were made by Dutch battalions to carry out an attack against the western flank of the German perimeter . The first battalion , withdrawn from the Belgian border , partly crossed the Oude Maas at two points ( Oud @-@ Beijerland and Puttershoek ) and tried to storm the bridge at Barendrecht into IJsselmonde ; the second battalion , taken from the Fortress Holland forces positioned at the Hoekse Waard , had already crossed the Dordtse Kil into the Island of Dordrecht the previous day , using the ferry at Wieldrecht and now tried to expand its bridgehead . Although its crossings were successful , the advance of the first battalion was executed only hesitantly ; the troops were surprised by German counterattacks and dispersed . The second battalion was likewise surprised with many men being taken prisoner . In the afternoon a French reconnaissance unit , the 5e Groupe de Reconnaissance de Division d 'Infanterie , with the assistance of another Dutch border battalion attempted an attack on the southern Moerdijk bridgehead , but the armoured cars of 6e Cuirassiers with which it was reinforced were heavily bombed by German Stukas and had to retreat .
In Rotterdam , though reinforced by an infantry regiment , the Dutch failed to completely dislodge the German airborne troops from their bridgehead on the northern bank of the Maas . Despite permission by General Kurt Student , the German commander in Rotterdam refused to evacuate this bridgehead and the few German defenders held fast in a single office building , protected by a canal in front of them and covered by fire from the south bank . The two remaining Dutch bombers failed to destroy the Willemsbrug . The German forces involved in the attack of the previous day on The Hague also held out , none of the attempts to eliminate the isolated groups of in total about 1600 paratroopers and airlanded forces met with success .
In North Brabant , the situation swiftly deteriorated . The French commanders of the 7th Army had expected that Dutch resistance at the Meuse and the Peel @-@ Raam Position , by a force about five divisions strong , would have gained them at least four days to build up a defensive line near Breda . They were unpleasantly surprised to learn that the best three divisions had been moved to the north and that the remaining forces were already in full retreat . The withdrawal of the Peel Division from the Peel @-@ Raam Position to the Zuid @-@ Willemsvaart , a canal some 10 to 30 kilometres ( 6 @.@ 2 to 18 @.@ 6 mi ) to the west , meant leaving behind their well @-@ entrenched positions and the little artillery available in exchange for a totally unprepared line . Moreover , the eastern bank of the canal was higher than the western bank , providing excellent cover for the attackers . Finally , the order to withdraw never reached the troops at Mill ; this caused one sector of the canal , near Heeswijk , to be left undefended ; as this sector contained a bridge which was not demolished , the Germans were effortlessly able to cross the canal around 13 : 00 . A second crossing at Erp , against opposition , led to a general collapse of the line . By the end of the 11th , the Germans had crossed the Zuid @-@ Willemsvaart at most places and the Peel Division had largely disintegrated . Plans by Colonel Schmidt to concentrate his forces on the line Tilburg- ' s @-@ Hertogenbosch thus came to nothing . As the French refused to advance further to the northeast than Tilburg , apart from some reconnoitering armoured cars that went as far as Berlicum , this created a dangerous gap . Winkelman , sensitive to the general Dutch weakness in the region , requested the British government to send an Army Corps to reinforce allied positions in the area and bomb Waalhaven airfield .
All the efforts in the south were made on the assumption the Grebbe Line would be able to beat off attacks on its own ; its reserves had even been partly shifted to the counterattack against the airborne forces . However , there were some indications that a problem was developing in this sector . Motorised elements of SS Standarte " Der Fuehrer " , preceding 207 . Infanteriedivision , had reached the southernmost part of the Grebbe Line , in front of the Grebbeberg , on the evening of the 10th . This Main Defense Line sector had no inundations in front of it and had therefore been chosen as the main attack axis of the division . It was protected by a line of outposts ( voorpostenlinie ) , manned by two companies of infantry . At about half past three in the morning of the 11th , German artillery started shelling the outposts , followed at dawn by an attack by two battalions of Der Fuehrer . As the German shelling had cut the telephone lines , no artillery support could be requested by the Dutch defenders . Defence was further hampered by the fact that the terrain had not yet been cleared of vegetation , which offered good cover for the attackers . At noon a breakthrough was accomplished at the extreme north of the outpost line and the Dutch positions were then slowly rolled up from behind . The outnumbered and inferiorly armed companies resisted as well as they could , but by evening , all outposts were in German hands . The commander of 2nd Army Corps , Major @-@ General Jacob Harberts , failed to react adequately . He did not realise that motorised SS troops had been involved in the attack , and thought that the outposts had been surrendered to a small probing German force through the cowardice of the defenders . He ordered a night counterattack by the single reserve battalion of 4th Division . This attack was abandoned ; on its approach the battalion was fired upon by Dutch troops manning the main line that had not been notified of its approach , leading to much confusion , and an engineer bridge necessary to cross the Grift rivulet failed to be brought forward in time . However , heavy preparatory Dutch artillery fire had the unintended effect of causing the Germans to abandon their plans for a night attack .
Meanwhile , in the North , 1 . Kavalleriedivision advanced through the province of Friesland towards the final Dutch fall @-@ back line , the Wonsstelling , reaching Sneek in the evening . Most Dutch troops had been evacuated from the north over the Enclosure Dike .
= = = 12 May = = =
On the morning of 12 May General Winkelman remained moderately optimistic . He still assumed a firm defence line could eventually be established in North Brabant with the help of the French and expected good progress could be made in eliminating the airborne forces , while not being aware of any special danger to the Grebbe Line . During the day his hopes would be dashed .
In the two previous days , 9 . Panzerdivision had seen little action . It crossed the Meuse in the early morning of 11 May and during that day was unable to advance quickly over roads that were congested by supply trains of the infantry divisions . The armoured division was under orders to link up with the airborne troops as soon as the Peel @-@ Raam Position had been breached by the infantry forces . As the entire Dutch front had dissolved , the conditions were favourable for such an attempt . In this it would not be hindered by the French forces . Because the German 6th Army was threatening its right flank and there was no time to prepare a defence line , Gamelin ordered the 7th Army to withdraw its left flank . 2e Brigade Légère Mécanique , part of 1e Division Légère Mécanique , that had arrived at Tilburg , retreated to the south . Also the 25e Division d 'Infanterie Motorisée at Breda , progressed no further to the north than the river Mark . As the initial order to occupy the Geertruidenberg sector had not been followed upon , the route to the Moerdijk bridges would not be blocked and the German armoured division would not be engaged by its stronger French mechanised counterpart . The reconnaissance elements of the 9th Panzer Division effectively exploited this opportunity : at dawn they surprised north of Tilburg , near Loon op Zand , Colonel Schmidt and took him prisoner . The Dutch troops in the province hereby lost all unified command . Shortly after noon the German armoured cars had penetrated thirty kilometres more to the west and made contact with the southern Moerdijk bridgehead , cutting off the Fortress Holland from the Allied main force ; at 16 : 45 they had reached the bridges themselves . The northern part of that force would not long remain in the region : at 13 : 35 Gamelin ordered a complete withdrawal to Antwerp of all French troops in North @-@ Brabant , who would now limit themselves to rear @-@ guard actions .
The Light Division tried to systematically reconquer the Island of Dordrecht by advancing on a broad front , using four battalions with little artillery support . On its left flank , where there was almost no enemy presence , the advance went according to plan . The battalion on the right flank however , ran into an attacking German force of battalion strength that had been ordered by General Student to circle around the outskirts of the city to relieve the pressure being placed on his troops holding the Dort bridges . In confused street fighting the German troops were successful in blocking the battalion ; the other Dutch units then halted their advance around noon . Though higher command soon ordered a better concentration of forces instead of some mopping @-@ up action , due to a lack of clear lines of command , no subsequent attack materialised that day .
In Rotterdam and around The Hague again little was done against the paratroopers . Most Dutch commanders , still afraid of a presumed Fifth Column , limited themselves to security measures ; they had been ordered not to stage any attacks above company level .
While the situation in the south was becoming critical , in the east the Germans made a first successful effort in dislodging the Dutch defenders on the Grebbeberg . After preparatory artillery bombardment in the morning , at around noon a battalion of Der Fuehrer attacked an eight hundred metres wide sector of the main line , occupied by a Dutch company . Exploiting the many dead angles in the Dutch field of fire , it soon breached the Dutch positions , which had little depth . A second German battalion then expanded the breach to the north . Dutch artillery , though equal in strength to the German , failed to bring sufficient fire on the enemy concentration of infantry , largely limiting itself to interdiction . Eight hundred metres to the west was a Stop Line , a continuous trench system from which the defenders were supposed to wage an active defence , staging local counterattacks . However , due to a lack of numbers , training , and heavy weapons the attacks failed against the well @-@ trained SS troops . By the evening the Germans had brought the heavily forested area between the two lines under their control . Spotting a weak point , one of the SS battalion commanders , Obersturmbannführer Hilmar Wäckerle , suddenly attacked with a hastily assembled force of about company strength . In a , for this battle , rare instance of infiltration tactics he broke through the Stop Line , quickly advancing 1 @.@ 6 km ( 1 mi ) to the west until being halted by a fall @-@ back line along the Rhenen railroad . The breakthrough caused a panic among the defenders , who largely abandoned the Stop Line at this point ; but as Wäckerle had had no time to coordinate his action with other units , it was not further exploited . Order was restored at the Stop Line and the SS company became isolated and surrounded . The earlier general German advance later caused the main line to be abandoned for over 3 @.@ 2 km ( 2 mi ) to the north because the troops there feared an attack from behind .
It had been well understood by the Dutch that the forces occupying the Grebbe Line would not be sufficiently strong to repel all attacks by themselves ; they were intended to delay an offensive long enough for reserves to reinforce them . Due to the failure the previous day to understand that the German main assault was imminent however , these reserves would not arrive in time to intervene in the fight at the defence zone between the two trench systems . This was all the more serious as the Stop Line had no depth and lacked large shelters to accommodate enough troops to stage a strong frontal counterattack . In the late evening it was decided to execute a flank attack from the north the next day .
In the North , the Wons Position formed a bridgehead at the eastern end of the Enclosure Dike ; it had a long perimeter of about nine kilometres to envelop enough land to receive a large number of retreating troops without making them too vulnerable to air attack . On 12 May units with a combined strength of only two battalions were still present , so the line was weakly held . This was exploited by the first German unit to arrive , the single bicycle battalion of 1 . Kavalleriedivision . At noon it quickly penetrated the line in a concentrated attack , forcing the defenders to withdraw to the Enclosure Dike . For some the German advance cut off their escape route by land ; they sailed away from the small port of Makkum , taking the last remaining vessels on the eastern side of Lake IJssel . This denied the Germans any craft for a crossing attempt , which plan was now abandoned .
In the afternoon General Winkelman received information about armoured forces advancing in the Langstraat region , on the road between ' s @-@ Hertogenbosch and the Moerdijk bridges . He still fostered hopes that those forces were French , but the announcement by Radio Bremen at 23 : 00 that German tanks had linked up with the paratroopers ended those hopes . At last he began to understand the essence of the German strategy . He ordered the artillery batteries in the Hoekse Waard to try to destroy the Moerdijk bridges and sent a special engineering team to Rotterdam to blow up the Willemsbrug . Pessimistic about the general situation at this point , he also ordered the vast strategic oil reserves of Royal Dutch Shell at Pernis to be set on fire . Having been informed by Winkelman of his concerns earlier in the afternoon , the Dutch government asked Winston Churchill for three British divisions to turn the tide . The new prime minister answered that he simply did not have any reserves ; however , three British torpedo boats were sent to Lake IJssel . Also , 2nd Welsh Guard battalion was prepared to be sent to Hook of Holland though it would not arrive in time .
Contrary to Winkelman , the German command was very satisfied with the day 's events . It had been feared that the third day of the operation might become a " crisis day " , the XXVI Armeekorps having to overcome near Breda the resistance of several French divisions . The Germans had also been concerned that they may face some Belgian or even British divisions . Therefore , von Bock had before the invasion requested to be reinforced in this effort by another Army Corps . When this had been denied by chief of staff Franz Halder , he had arranged the formation of an extra Army Corps headquarters to direct the complex strategic situation of simultaneously fighting the Allies and advancing into the Fortress Holland over the Moerdijk bridges . As on 12 May no actual crisis seemed to materialise , with the French retreating and Belgian and British forces being completely absent , von Bock decided that XXVI Armeekorps would be responsible for pursuing the French south towards Antwerp , while some forces would be directed by the new headquarters , Generalkommando XXXIX under command of Generalleutnant Rudolf Schmidt , to advance north with 254 . Infanteriedivision , most of 9 . Panzerdivision , and SS Leibstandarte Adolf Hitler .
= = = 13 May = = =
In the early morning of 13 May General Winkelman advised the Dutch government that he considered the general situation to be critical . On land the Dutch had been cut off from the Allied front and it had become clear no major Allied landings were to be expected to reinforce the Fortress Holland by sea ; without such support there was no prospect of a prolonged successful resistance . German tanks might quickly pass through Rotterdam ; Winkelman had already ordered all available antitank @-@ guns to be placed in a perimeter around The Hague , to protect the seat of government . However , an immediate collapse of the Dutch defences might still be prevented if the planned counterattacks could seal off the southern front near Dordrecht and restore the eastern line at the Grebbeberg . Therefore , the cabinet decided to continue the fight for the time being , giving the general the mandate to surrender the Army when he saw fit and the instruction to avoid unnecessary sacrifices . Nevertheless , it was also deemed essential that Queen Wilhelmina was to be brought to safety ; she departed around noon from Hoek van Holland , where a British Irish Guards battalion was present , on HMS Hereward , a British destroyer , and when sea mines made it too dangerous to try to reach Zealand , she went to England . The previous evening , the Queen 's only child and heir presumptive Princess Juliana , together with her husband Prince Bernhard of Lippe @-@ Biesterfeld and their children , had departed from IJmuiden on HMS Codrington for Harwich . Arrangements for the departure had already been made before the invasion . As the Queen constitutionally was part of the government , her departure confronted the cabinet with the choice whether to follow her or remain . After heated discussions it was decided to leave also : the ministers sailed at 19 : 20 from Hoek van Holland on HMS Windsor to form a government in exile in London , having conferred all governmental authority over the homeland to Winkelman . Three Dutch merchant ships , escorted by British warships , transferred government bullion and diamond stocks to the United Kingdom .
While two tank companies of 9 . Panzerdivision remained with XXVI Armeekorps to pursue the withdrawing French , the other four began to cross the Moerdijk traffic bridge at 05 : 20 . Two staff companies with tanks also went to the northern side . The Dutch made some attempts to indirectly block the advance of the German armour . At around 06 : 00 the last operational medium bomber , a Fokker T. V , dropped two bombs on the bridge ; one hit a bridge pillar but failed to explode ; the bomber was shot down . Dutch batteries in the Hoekse Waard , despite dive bomber attacks , tried to destroy the bridge by artillery fire , but the massive structure was only slightly damaged . Attempts to inundate the Island of Dordrecht failed , as the inlet sluices could not be opened — and were too small anyway .
The Light Division tried to cut the German corridor by advancing to the west and linking up with a small ferry bridgehead over the Dortse Kil . However , two of the four battalions available were inefficiently deployed in a failed effort to recapture the suburbs of Dordrecht ; when the other two battalions approached the main road , they were met head on by a few dozen German tanks . The vanguard of the Dutch troops , not having been informed of their presence , mistook the red air recognition cloths strapped on top of the German armour for orange flags French vehicles might use to indicate their friendly intentions — orange being seen by the Dutch as their national colour — and ran towards the vehicles to welcome them , only understanding their error when they were gunned down . The battalions , subsequently hit by a Stuka bombardment , fled to the east ; a catastrophe was prevented by 47mm and 75 mm batteries halting with direct AP fire the assault of the German tanks . The left wing of the Light Division despite the heavy losses then completed an ordered withdrawal to the Alblasserwaard at around 13 : 00 . In the early afternoon eight tanks reduced the ferry bridgehead . A tank company also tried to capture the old inner city of Dordrecht without infantry support , audaciously breaching barricades , but was ordered to retreat after heavy street fighting in which at least two Panzerkampfwagen IIs were destroyed and three tanks heavily damaged . All Dutch troops were withdrawn from the island in the night .
German armoured forces advanced north over the Dordrecht bridge into IJsselmonde island . Three tanks , two PzKpfw . IIs and a Panzerkampfwagen III of the staff platoon of the 1st Tank Battalion , stormed the Barendrecht bridge into the Hoekse Waard , but all of them were lost to a single 47 mm antitank @-@ gun . Though the Germans did not follow up their attack , this area too was abandoned by the Dutch troops .
In Rotterdam a last attempt was made to blow up the Willemsbrug . The commander of the 2nd Battalion Irish Guards in Hoek van Holland , 32 km ( 20 mi ) to the west , refused to participate in the attempt as being outside the scope of his orders . Two Dutch companies , mainly composed of Dutch marines , stormed the bridgehead . The bridge was reached and the remaining fifty German defenders in the building in front of it were on the point of surrender when after hours of fighting the attack was abandoned because of heavy flanking fire from the other side of the river .
In the North , the commander of 1 . Kavalleriedivision , Major General Kurt Feldt , faced the unenviable task of having to advance over the Enclosure Dike because of a lack of ships . This dam was blocked by the Kornwerderzand Position , which protected a major sluice complex regulating the water level of Lake IJssel , which had to be sufficiently high to allow many Fortress Holland inundations to be maintained . The main fortifications contained 47 mm antitank @-@ guns . Long channel piers projected in front of and behind the sluices , on both the right and left ; on these pillboxes had been built which could place a heavy enfilading fire on the dam , which did not provide the slightest cover for any attacker . On 13 May the position was reinforced by a 20 mm anti aircraft battery . It had been Feldt 's intention to first destroy the position by a battery of siege mortars , but the train transporting it had been blocked on 10 May by a blown railway bridge at Winschoten . Several air attacks on 13 May had little effect ; in the late afternoon five bicycle sections tried to approach the main bunker complex under cover of an artillery bombardment , but soon fled after being fired upon ; the first was pinned down and could only retreat under cover of darkness , leaving behind some dead .
In the East the Germans tried to overcome the resistance in the Grebbe Line by also deploying the other division of X. AK , 227 . Infanteriedivision . It had to break through a second attack axis near Scherpenzeel , where a dry approach route had been discovered through the inundations . The line was in this area defended by the Dutch 2nd Infantry Division . Two German regiments were to attack simultaneously , in adjacent sectors . However , when the regiment on the right , 366 . Infanterieregiment , had already reached the start position for the attack , the regiment on the left , 412 . Infanterieregiment , became delayed by flanking fire from Dutch outposts , the position of which had not been correctly determined . It allowed itself to get involved in fragmented firefights ; though eventually also the reserve regiment was brought forward , little progress was made against the outpost line . Meanwhile , the waiting 366 . Infanterieregiment was pounded by concentrated Dutch artillery fire and had to withdraw , resulting in a complete failure of the attack by 227 Infanteriedivision .
On the extreme south of the Grebbe Line , the Grebbeberg , the Germans were now deploying three SS battalions including support troops and three fresh infantry battalions of IR.322 ; two of IR.374 laid in immediate reserve . During the evening and night of 12 – 13 May the Dutch had assembled in this sector about a dozen battalions . These forces consisted of the reserve battalions of several army corps , divisions and brigades , and the independent Brigade B , which had been freed when the Main Defence Line in the Land van Maas en Waal had been abandoned as part of the withdrawal of III Army Corps from North Brabant . However , not all of these units would be concentrated into a single effort for a counterattack to retake the main line . Some battalions had been fed immediately into the battle at the Stop Line and others were kept in reserve , mainly behind the fall @-@ back line near the Rhenen railroad . Furthermore , most battalions were a quarter below strength . Four were to be used , under command of Brigade B , for the flanking attack from the north . This attack was delayed for several hours ; when it finally started late in the morning of 13 May , it ran right into a comparable advance by two battalions of Der Fuehrer . This brigade , unaware of Dutch intentions , had shifted its attack axis to the north to roll up the Grebbe Line from behind . A confused encounter fight followed in which the vanguard of the Dutch troops , poorly supported by their artillery , began to give way at around 12 : 30 to the encroaching SS troops . Soon this resulted in a general withdrawal of the brigade , which turned into a rout when the Grebbeberg area was after 13 : 30 bombed by 27 Ju 87 Stukas .
Meanwhile , 207 . Infanteriedivision was for the first time committed to battle at the Grebbeberg itself when two battalions of its 322 . Infanterieregiment attacked the Stop Line . The first wave of German attackers was largely beaten off with serious losses , but a second wave managed to fragment the trench line , which then was taken after heavy fighting . The regiment subsequently proceeded to mop up the area to the west , delayed by resistance by several Dutch command posts . However , it withdrew in the late afternoon , just as the SS battalions further north , to avoid a preparatory artillery bombardment , shifted to a more western position . After redeployment the Germans intended to renew their attack in order to take the Rhenen fall @-@ back line and the village of Achterberg . However , these preparations would prove to be superfluous : the Dutch had already disappeared .
The same Stuka bombardment that made Brigade B rout also broke the morale of the reserves at Rhenen . In the morning these troops had already shown severe discipline problems , with units disintegrating and leaving the battlefield because of German interdiction fire . In the late afternoon most of 4th Infantry Division was fleeing westwards . The Germans had expected that the Dutch would attempt to plug any gaps in the line and indeed it had been planned to shift to the north two regiments of the Dutch 3rd Army Corps for this purpose . But Dutch command now suffered such a loss of control that any thoughts to re @-@ establish a continuous front had to be abandoned . A 8 km ( 5 @.@ 0 mi ) wide gap had appeared in the defences . Fearing that otherwise they would be encircled , at 20 : 30 Van Voorst tot Voorst ordered the three Army Corps to immediately abandon both the Grebbe Line and the Waal @-@ Linge Position and to retreat during the night to the East Front of Fortress Holland at the New Holland Water Line . The Germans however , did not at once exploit their success ; only around 21 : 00 had it become apparent to them that the gap even existed , when the renewed advance had met no enemy resistance .
= = = 14 May = = =
Despite his pessimism expressed to the Dutch government and the mandate he had been given to surrender the Army , General Winkelman awaited the outcome of events , avoiding actually capitulating until it was absolutely necessary . In this he was perhaps motivated by a desire to engage the opposing German troops for as long as possible , to assist the Allied war effort . In the early morning of 14 May , though the situation remained critical , a certain calm was evident in the Dutch Headquarters .
In the North , a German artillery bombardment of the Kornwerderzand Position began at 09 : 00 . However , the German batteries were forced to move away after being surprised by counterfire from the 15 cm. aft cannon of Hr. Ms. Johan Maurits van Nassau that had sailed into the Wadden Sea . Feldt now decided to land on the coast of North @-@ Holland . A few barges were found ; only after the capitulation however , was the crossing actually executed . During this operation one barge foundered and the remainder lost their way . Fears for such a landing had caused Winkelman on 12 May to order the occupation of an improvised " Amsterdam Position " along the North Sea Canal , but only weak forces were available .
In the East , under cover of ground fog the field army successfully withdrew from the Grebbe Line to the East Front without being bombed as had been feared , and disengaged from the gradually pursuing enemy troops . The new position had some severe drawbacks : the inundations were mostly not yet ready and the earthworks and berms needed because trenches would be flooded in the peat soil had not yet been constructed , so defences had to be improvised to accommodate the much larger number of troops .
On IJsselmonde the German forces prepared to cross the Maas in Rotterdam , which was defended by about eight Dutch battalions . Crossings would be attempted in two sectors . The main attack would take place in the centre of the city , with the German 9th Panzer Division advancing over the Willemsbrug . Then SS Leibstandarte Adolf Hitler would cross to operate on its immediate left and east of Rotterdam a battalion of the 16th Infantry Regiment of 22 . Luftlandedivision would cross on boats . These auxiliary attacks might prevent a concentration of Dutch forces , blocking the 9th Panzer Division 's advance through a densely built up urban area intersected by canals . In view of these conditions and the limited means available , there was a major emphasis on air support . Already on 13 May , von Küchler , fearing that the British might reinforce the Fortress Holland , had instructed Schmidt : " Resistance in Rotterdam should be broken with all means , if necessary threaten with and carry out the annihilation [ Vernichtung ] of the city " . In this he was to be supported by the highest command level as Hitler would state in Führer @-@ Weisung Nr. 11 ( Führer @-@ Directive N ° 11 ) : " On the northern wing the power of the Army of Holland to resist has proven stronger than had been assumed . Political as well as military grounds demand to quickly break this resistance . ( ... ) Furthermore the speedy conquest of the Fortress Holland is to be facilitated through a deliberate weakening of the [ air ] power operated by Sixth Army " . Kampfgeschwader 54 , using Heinkel He 111 bombers , was therefore shifted from Sixth to Eighteenth Army .
Generals Kurt Student and Schmidt desired a limited air attack to temporarily paralyse the defences , allowing the tanks to break out of the bridgehead ; severe urban destruction was to be avoided as it would only hamper their advance . However , Luftwaffe commander Hermann Göring , worried about the fate of his surrounded airborne troops , hoped to force an immediate Dutch national capitulation by a much more extensive bombardment . His head of operations , General Otto Hoffmann von Waldau , described this option as a " radical solution " [ Radikallösung ] . Despite misgivings by Albert Kesselring about its scope and necessity , at 11 : 45 ninety Heinkels took off for a carpet bombing of the inner city of Rotterdam .
At 09 : 00 a German messenger crossed the Willemsbrug to bring an ultimatum from Schmidt to Colonel Pieter Scharroo , the Dutch commander of Rotterdam , demanding a capitulation of the city ; if a positive answer had not been received within two hours the " severest means of annihilation " would be employed . However , Scharroo did not receive the message until 10 : 30 . Not feeling inclined to surrender regardless , he asked Winkelman for orders ; the latter , hearing that the document had not been signed nor contained the name of the sender , instructed him to send a Dutch envoy to clarify matters and gain time . At 12 : 15 a Dutch captain handed this request to von Choltitz . On the return of the German envoy at 12 : 00 , Schmidt had already sent a radio message that the bombardment had to be postponed because negotiations had started . Just after the Dutch envoy had received a second ultimatum , now signed by Schmidt and with a new expiry time of 16 : 20 , around 13 : 20 two formations of Heinkels arrived , not having received any recall orders . This was later explained by the Germans as a result of their having already pulled in their tow aerials . Schmidt ordered red flares to be fired to signal that the bombardment was to be broken off , but only the squadron making the bomb run from the southwest abandoned its attack , after their first three planes had dropped their bombs . The other 54 Heinkels , having approached from the east , continued to drop their share of the grand total of 1308 bombs , destroying the inner city and killing 814 civilians . The ensuing fires destroyed about 24 @,@ 000 houses , making almost 80 @,@ 000 inhabitants homeless . At 15 : 50 Scharroo capitulated to Schmidt in person . Meanwhile , Göring had ordered a second bombardment of the city — a group of Heinkels had already left — to be carried out unless a message was received that the whole of Rotterdam was occupied . When Schmidt heard of the order , he hastily sent an uncoded message at 17 : 15 claiming the city was taken , although this had yet to take place . The bombers were recalled just in time .
= = The surrender of the Dutch Army = =
Winkelman at first intended to continue the fight , even though Rotterdam had capitulated and German forces from there might now advance into the heart of the Fortress Holland . The possibility of terror bombings was considered before the invasion and had not been seen as grounds for immediate capitulation ; provisions had been made for the continuation of effective government even after widespread urban destruction . The perimeter around The Hague might still ward off an armoured attack and the New Holland Water Line had some defensive capability ; though it could be attacked from behind , it would take the Germans some time to deploy their forces in the difficult polder landscape . However , he soon received a message from Colonel Cuno Eduard Willem baron van Voorst tot Voorst , the commander of the city of Utrecht , that the Germans demanded its surrender ; leaflets were dropped by propaganda planes announcing that only unconditional surrender could " spare it the fate of Warsaw " . Winkelman concluded that it apparently had become the German policy to devastate any city offering any resistance ; in view of his mandate to avoid unnecessary suffering and the hopelessness of the Dutch military position he decided to surrender . All higher @-@ level army units were informed at 16 : 50 by Telex of his decision and ordered to first destroy their weapons and then offer their surrender to the nearest German units . At 17 : 20 the German envoy in The Hague was informed . At around 19 : 00 Winkelman gave a radio speech informing the Dutch people . This was also how the German command became aware the Dutch had surrendered ; the Dutch troops had generally disengaged from the enemy and had not yet made contact . The Dutch surrender implied that in principle a cease @-@ fire should be observed by both parties .
Winkelman acted both in his capacity of commander of the Dutch Army and of highest executive power of the homeland . This created a somewhat ambiguous situation . On the morning of 14 May the commander of the Royal Dutch Navy , Vice @-@ Admiral Johannes Furstner , had left the country to continue the fight ; Dutch naval vessels were generally not included in the surrender . Eight ships and four unfinished hulks had already departed , some smaller vessels were sunk off , and nine others sailed for England in the evening of 14 May . The Hr. Ms. Johan Maurits van Nassau was sunk by German bombers while crossing . The commander of the main Dutch naval port of Den Helder , Rear @-@ Admiral Hoyte Jolles , concluded that his base , with a naval garrison of 10 @,@ 000 , its own air service , and extensive land defences , should continue to resist also . Only with some difficulty did Winkelman convince him to obey the surrender order . Large parts of the Dutch Army were also reluctant to believe or accept the surrender , especially those units that hardly had seen any fighting , such as 3rd and 4th Army Corps and Brigade A.
At 05 : 00 on 15 May a German messenger reached The Hague , inviting Winkelman to Rijsoord for a meeting with von Küchler to negotiate the articles of a written capitulation document . Both quickly agreed on most conditions , Winkelman declaring to have surrendered army , naval and air forces . When von Küchler demanded that pilots still fighting for the allies should be treated as francs @-@ tireurs — seen by the Germans as guerilla fighters outside the laws of war — Winkelman 's refusal made it clear to the Germans that only the armed forces in the homeland , with the exception of Zealand , would capitulate , not the country itself . On other points a swift agreement was reached and the document was signed at 10 : 15 .
= = The fighting in Zealand = =
The province of Zealand was exempt from the surrender ; fighting continued there in a common allied effort with French troops . The Dutch forces in the province comprised eight full battalions of army and naval troops . They were commanded by Rear @-@ Admiral Hendrik Jan van der Stad , who , being a naval officer , had been directly subordinated to Winkelman . The area was under naval command because of the predominance of the naval port of Flushing on the island of Walcheren which controlled the access to Antwerp via the Western Scheldt . The northern islands of the province were almost undefended apart from some platoons . The defence of Zeeuws @-@ Vlaanderen , the Dutch part of Flanders , was largely left to the Allies . The main Dutch army forces would be thus concentrated in Zuid @-@ Beveland , the peninsula east of Walcheren , to deny the enemy this approach route to Vlissingen . Zuid @-@ Beveland was connected to the coast of North Brabant by an isthmus ; at its eastern and most narrow end the Bath Position had been prepared , occupied by an infantry battalion ; this was mainly intended as a collecting line for possible Dutch troops retreating from the east . At its western end was the longer Zanddijk Position , occupied by three battalions .
After three French GRDIs had arrived on 10 May , motorised units that would subsequently depart for North Brabant , from 11 May the area was reinforced by two French infantry divisions : the 60e Division d 'Infanterie , a B @-@ class division , and the newly formed naval 68e Division d 'Infanterie . Part of their equipment was brought by ship through Flushing harbour . Most troops of these divisions would remain south of the Western Scheldt in Zeeuws @-@ Vlaanderen , where two of the eight Dutch battalions were also present , as were two border companies . Only two French regiments were sent to the northern bank . On 13 May the Dutch troops were placed under French operational command and 68e Division d 'Infanterie was transferred to the 7th Army . The cooperation between the two allies left much to be desired and was plagued by poor communications , misunderstandings and differences regarding strategy . The Dutch considered the Bath and Zanddijk Positions to be very defensible because of the open polder landscape and extensive inundations . However , the French commander General Pierre @-@ Servais Durand was not convinced of their value and positioned his troops at more conspicuous obstacles . On the evening of 13 May one regiment , the 271e of 68e Division d 'Infanterie , occupied the Canal through Zuid @-@ Beveland and the other , the 224e of 60 Division d 'Infanterie , took a position at the Sloe straights separating the island of Walcheren from Zuid @-@ Beveland , even though there was not sufficient time for adequate entrenchment . This prevented an effective concentration of Allied forces , allowing the Germans , despite a numerical inferiority , to defeat them piecemeal .
On 14 May the Germans had occupied almost all of North Brabant . SS @-@ Standarte Deutschland , quickly advancing to the Western Scheldt , reached the Bath Position . This cut off the retreat of 27e Groupe de Reconnaissance de Division d 'Infanterie , which was subsequently destroyed defending Bergen @-@ op @-@ Zoom . The morale of the defenders of the Bath Position , already shaken by stories from Dutch troops fleeing to the west , was severely undermined by the news that Winkelman had surrendered ; many concluded that it was useless that Zealand kept resisting as the last remaining province . A first preparatory artillery bombardment on the position in the evening of 14 May caused the commanding officers to desert their troops , who then also fled .
In the morning of 15 May SS @-@ Standarte Deutschland approached the Zanddijk Position . A first attack around 08 : 00 on outposts of the northern sector was easily repulsed , as the Germans had to advance over a narrow dike through the inundations , despite supporting air strikes by dive bombers . However , the bombardment caused the battalions in the main positions to flee , and the entire line had to be abandoned around 14 : 00 despite the southern part being supported by the French torpedo boat L 'Incomprise .
On 16 May SS @-@ Standarte Deutschland , several kilometres to the west of the Zanddijk Position , approached the Canal through Zuid @-@ Beveland , where the French 271e Régiment d ’ Infanterie was present , only partly dug in and now reinforced by the three retreated Dutch battalions . An aerial bombardment that morning routed the defenders before the ground attack had even started ; the first German crossings around 11 : 00 led to a complete collapse . An attempt in the evening of the same day to force the eight hundred metres long Sloedam , over which most of the French troops had fled to Walcheren , ended in failure . On 16 May the island of Tholen was taken against light opposition ; on 17 May Schouwen @-@ Duiveland fell .
While the commanders of the remaining Dutch troops on South @-@ Beveland refused direct commands by their superior to threaten the German flank , on 17 May a night attack at 03 : 00 across the Sloedam failed . The Germans now demanded the capitulation of the island ; when this was refused they bombed Arnemuiden and Flushing . Middelburg , the province 's capital city , was heavily shelled by artillery , its inner city partially burning down . The heavy bombardment demoralised the largely French defenders and the Germans managed to establish a bridgehead around noon . The few Dutch troops present on Walcheren , about three companies , ceased their resistance . In the evening the encroaching Germans threatened to overrun the French forces that had fled into Flushing , but a gallant delaying action led by brigade @-@ general Marcel Deslaurens in person , in which he was killed , allowed most troops to be evacuated over the Western Scheldt .
After North @-@ Beveland had surrendered on 18 May , Zeeuws @-@ Vlaanderen was the last remaining unoccupied Dutch homeland territory . On orders of the French , all Dutch troops were withdrawn on 19 May to Ostend in Belgium , as their presence would be demoralising and confusing their own forces . On 27 May all of Zeeuws @-@ Vlaanderen had been occupied .
= = Aftermath = =
Following the Dutch defeat , Queen Wilhelmina established a government @-@ in @-@ exile in England . The German occupation officially began on 17 May 1940 . It would be five years before the entire country was liberated , during which time over 210 @,@ 000 Dutchmen became victims of war , amongst whom 104 @,@ 000 Jews and other minorities , who fell victim to genocide . Another 70 @,@ 000 more Dutchmen may have died from indirect consequences , such as poor nutrition or limited medical services .
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= Siward , Earl of Northumbria =
Siward or Sigurd ( / ˈsuːwərd / or more recently / ˈsiːwərd / ; Old English : Sigeweard ) was an important earl of 11th @-@ century northern England . The Old Norse nickname Digri and its Latin translation Grossus ( " the stout " ) are given to him by near @-@ contemporary texts . Siward was probably of Scandinavian origin , perhaps a relative of Earl Ulf , and emerged as a powerful regional strongman in England during the reign of Cnut ( " Canute the Great " , 1016 – 1035 ) . Cnut was a Scandinavian ruler who conquered England in the 1010s , and Siward was one of the many Scandinavians who came to England in the aftermath of that conquest . Siward subsequently rose to become sub @-@ ruler of most of northern England . From 1033 at the latest Siward was in control of southern Northumbria , that is , present @-@ day Yorkshire , governing as earl on Cnut 's behalf .
He entrenched his position in northern England by marrying Ælfflæd , the daughter of Ealdred , Earl of Bamburgh . After killing Ealdred 's successor Eadulf in 1041 , Siward gained control of all Northumbria . He exerted his power in support of Cnut 's successors , kings Harthacnut and Edward , assisting them with vital military aid and counsel . He probably gained control of the middle shires of Northampton and Huntingdon by the 1050s , and there is some evidence that he spread Northumbrian control into Cumberland . In the early 1050s Earl Siward turned against the Scottish ruler Mac Bethad mac Findlaích ( " Macbeth " ) . Despite the death of his son Osbjorn , Siward defeated Mac Bethad in battle in 1054 . More than half a millennium later the Scotland adventure earned him a place in William Shakespeare 's Macbeth . Siward died in 1055 , leaving one son , Waltheof , who would eventually succeed to Northumbria . St Olave 's church in York and nearby Heslington Hill are associated with Siward .
= = Background = =
Siward 's career in northern England spanned the reigns of four different monarchs . It began during the reign of Cnut , and lasted through those of Harold Harefoot and Harthacnut into the early years of Edward the Confessor . Most important was the reign of Cnut , in which so many new political figures rose to power that some historians think it comparable to the Norman conquest five decades later . These " new men " were military figures , usually with weak hereditary links to the West Saxon royal house that Cnut had deposed . As Cnut ruled several Scandinavian kingdoms in addition to England , power at the highest level was delegated to such strongmen . In England , it fell to a handful of newly promoted " ealdormen " or " earls " , who ruled a shire or group of shires on behalf of the king . Siward was , in the words of historian Robin Fleming , " the third man in Cnut 's new triumvirate of earls " , the other two being Godwine , Earl of Wessex and Leofwine , Earl of Mercia .
Northern England in the 11th @-@ century was a region quite distinct from the rest of the country . The former kingdom of Northumbria stretched from the Humber and Mersey estuaries , northward to the Firth of Forth , where , passing the western Kingdom of Strathclyde , it met the Kingdom of Alba ( Scotland ) . Northumbria had been united with the West Saxon English kingdom only in the 950s , by King Eadred , and subsequent control was exerted through the agency of at least two ealdormen , one to the north and one to the south of the River Tees . The former is associated with the stronghold of Bamburgh , while the latter is associated with the great Roman city of York . It was a politically fragmented region . The western part , from Lancashire to Cumberland , was heavily settled by Norse @-@ Gaels , while in the rest of Northumbria English and Anglo @-@ Scandinavian regional magnates — thegns , holds and high @-@ reeves — exercised a considerable degree of independence from the ealdormen . One such example was the magnate Thurbrand , a hold in Yorkshire , probably based in Holderness , whose family were frequently at odds with the ruling earls at Bamburgh .
= = Ancestry = =
Historians generally claim Siward to be of Scandinavian origin , a conclusion supported by the Vita Ædwardi Regis , which states that Siward was " [ called ] Digri in the Danish tongue " ( Danica lingua Digara ) . Legendary material incorporated in the Vita et passio Waldevi comitis ( or simply Vita Waldevi ) , the hagiographic biography of Siward 's son Waltheof , states that Siward was the son of a Scandinavian earl named Bjorn and provides a genealogy claiming that he was the descendant of a polar bear , a commonplace piece of Germanic folklore .
Historian Timothy Bolton has recently argued that the similarities between these genealogies is evidence of a shared family tradition between the descendants of Siward and Thorgil Sprakling . Bolton hypothesized that Siward 's alleged father Bjorn was probably a historical figure , a brother of Thorgil Sprakling . Siward would then have been first cousin to Earl Ulf , the earl of Denmark who married Cnut 's sister Estrith and founded the dynasty of Danish monarchs that eventually succeeded Cnut 's . Bolton argued that the Sprakling family had only recently risen to prominence in Scandinavia , and so Siward 's career in England was another indication of that family 's success in Scandinavian politics .
The Vita Waldevi provides further legendary detail of Siward 's journey from Scandinavia to England . According to the Vita , Siward passed through Orkney , killing a dragon there before moving on to Northumbria . There he encountered another dragon , before meeting an Oðinn @-@ like old man on a hill , who handed him a raven banner and instructed him to proceed to London to receive the patronage of the king of England .
= = Career under Cnut , Harold and Harthacnut = =
The exact date and context of Siward 's arrival in England are unknown , though the Vita Waldevi offers a legendary account . Charters dating to 1019 , 1024 , 1032 , 1033 and 1035 mention a Si [ ge ] ward Minister , " the thegn Siward " , but it is impossible to securely identify any of these names with the man who became Earl of Northumbria . The earliest certain contemporary record of Siward occurs in a charter of King Cnut to Ælfric Puttoc , Archbishop of York , in 1033 . This charter attestation can be identified as Siward the earl because he is styled dux ( " earl " ) .
Although it is clear that Siward was earl by 1033 , he may have attained the position somewhat earlier . His predecessor Erik of Hlathir last appeared in the historical sources in 1023 , leaving a ten @-@ year gap during which Siward could have taken the position . Although William of Malmesbury asserted that Erik was driven back to Scandinavia , Scandinavian tradition firmly maintained he died in England . Historian William Kapelle believed that Erik ceased to be earl in or soon after 1023 , and that Carl son of Thurbrand was appointed hold or high @-@ reeve ( heahgerefa ) for the king in Yorkshire . Carl retained this position , it was argued , even after Siward was installed as earl a few years later , but from then on he acted as a deputy to the earl rather than to the king . Richard Fletcher remained agnostic on the point , although he did argue that Erik must have been dead by 1028 . Timothy Bolton , although rejecting Kapelle 's argument concerning Carl son of Thurbrand , believed Erik died c . 1023 and that the earldom may have remained vacant for a period . Bolton argued that Cnut left the earldom of Northumbria empty and appears to have paid it little attention until the last years of his reign , and another northerner Ealdred son of Uhtred rose to power in the political vacuum .
When Cnut died in 1035 , there were a number of rival claimants for his throne . These included his son Harthacnut , and the nobleman Harold Harefoot , as well as Alfred Ætheling and Edward ( later , King Edward the Confessor ) , the exiled sons of Æthelred the Unready . Isolated in Scandinavia , Harthacnut was unable to prevent Harold Harefoot seizing the crown for himself . Ruling England from 1035 , Harold died in 1040 just as Harthacnut was preparing an invasion . Arriving soon after Harold 's death , Harthacnut reigned in England only two years before his own death in 1042 , a death that led to the peaceful succession of Edward . Frank Barlow speculated on Siward 's political stance , guessing that during these upheavals Siward assumed " a position of benevolent or prudent neutrality " .
Siward is found in 1038 , as Sywardus Comes ( " Earl Siward " ) , witnessing a charter of King Harthacnut to the Abbey of Bury St Edmunds . He witnessed a confirmation granted by Harthacnut to Fécamp Abbey , between 1040 and 1042 , of an earlier grant made by Cnut . In 1042 , he witnessed grants by Harthacnut to Abingdon Abbey and to Ælfwine , Bishop of Winchester .
Siward was , at some stage , married to Ælfflæd , daughter of Ealdred II of Bamburgh , and granddaughter of Uhtred the Bold . The Anglo @-@ Saxon Chronicle asserts that , in 1041 Eadulf , Earl of Bamburgh , was " betrayed " by King Harthacnut . The " betrayal " seems to have been carried out by Siward ; since when the Libellus de Exordio and other sources write about the same event , they say that Siward attacked and killed Eadulf . It was thus that Siward became earl of all Northumbria , perhaps the first person to do so since Uhtred the Bold . It is possible that Siward used Ælfflæd 's lineage to claim the earldom of Bamburgh for himself , although it is unclear whether the marriage took place before or after Siward killed Eadulf . Kapelle has pointed out that no ruler of Bamburgh after Uhtred is attested at the English royal court , which he argued " must mean they were in revolt " against the monarchy , and that Siward 's attack may therefore have been encouraged by a monarch wishing to crush a rebellious or disloyal vassal . Siward however probably had his own interests too . Killing Eadulf eliminated his main rival in the north , and the marriage associated him with the family of Uhtred the Bold , and with Uhtred 's surviving son Gospatric .
There may nonetheless be a connection between the murder of Eadulf and events further south . For the same year the Chronicle of John of Worcester related that , because of an attack on two of Harthacnut 's tax @-@ collectors there , Siward took part in a reprisal on the city and monastery of Worcester . Harthacnut reigned only another year , dying on 8 June 1042 . He was succeeded by the exiled English ætheling Edward . As an ætheling , a royal prince with a present or likely future claim on the throne , Edward appears to have been invited back by Harthacnut in 1041 , fortuitously smoothing over the coming change in ruler . Edward was crowned king on Easter Day , 3 April 1043 .
= = English affairs under Edward the Confessor = =
Relations between Siward and King Edward appear to have been good . Neither Siward nor any associates of Siward were punished by Edward in later years . In fact , Siward appears to have been one of Edward 's most powerful supporters . On 16 November 1043 , Siward , along with Earls Godwine of Wessex and Leofric of Mercia , marched with King Edward against Queen Emma , helping the king to deprive the queen of her huge treasury . Edward then accused Emma of treason and deposed Stigand , Bishop of Elmham from his position " because he was closest to his mother 's counsel " .
The Norman propagandist and historian , William of Poitiers , claimed that Siward was among those who had sworn an oath to uphold Edward the Confessor 's alleged declaration that William , Duke of Normandy ( later King William I ) , was to be his heir . Others said to have made that oath were Earls Godwine of Wessex and Leofric of Mercia , along with Stigand , who had been pardoned in 1044 , and raised to Bishop of Winchester in 1047 . If this did happen , it was probably during or a little before spring 1051 , when Robert , Archbishop of Canterbury , was journeying to Rome for his pallium .
In 1051 Siward , along with Earls Leofric and Ralph the Timid , mobilised forces in defence of the king against a rebellion by Earl Godwine and his sons . The Anglo @-@ Saxon Chronicle relates that although Siward had to call up reinforcements , King Edward was successful and Earl Godwine was temporarily exiled . Earl Godwine remained a threat in exile , and the continued " belligerent support " of Siward and Leofric was thus vital to King Edward 's safety . It was apparently , however , the reluctance of these two earls to fight Earl Godwine that contributed to Godwine 's re @-@ establishment in England in 1052 .
There is evidence to suggest that Siward extended his power southward , bringing the shire of Northampton into his control in the 1040s and the shire of Huntingdon in the 1050s . The evidence comes from royal writs addressed to Siward as earl in these shires . Siward 's predecessors as earl in these areas were other Scandinavians , Thuri and Bjorn son of Earl Ulf ; the former was styled " earl of the Midlanders " ( comes mediterraneorum ) , showing that this earldom represented the earlier polity of the Middle Angles of Mercia . It was this area , rather than Northumbria , to which Siward 's descendants were most attached .
Likewise , it has been argued that Siward brought Cumberland , thought by some historians to have been lost to Strathclyde , back under Northumbrian lordship . The evidence comes from a document known to historians as " Gospatric 's Writ " . This is a written instruction , issued either by the future Gospatric , Earl of Northumbria or Gospatric , son of Earl Uhtred ) that was addressed to all Gospatric 's kindred and to the notables dwelling in the " all the lands that were Cumbrian " ( on eallun þam landann þeo Cōmbres ) ; it ordered that one Thorfinn mac Thore be free in all things ( þ Thorfynn mac Thore beo swa freo in eallan ðynges ) in Allerdale , and that no man is to break the peace which was given by Gospatric and Earl Siward . Historians such as Charles Phythian @-@ Adams believed that such phraseology indicated that Siward conquered the region from its previous rulers , although others , like William Kapelle , believed that the region had come , were it ever lost , back into English power before Siward 's time .
A little can be said about Siward 's relations with the Northumbrian church , in particular with regard to his relations with Durham . As a result of Siward 's marriage to Ælfflæd , Siward gained possession of a group of estates in Teesside claimed by the bishops of Durham . Acquisition of these estates might have brought opposition from the Bishop of Durham , but Æthelric the incumbent had been expelled by the clergy of Durham in either 1045 or 1046 and , according to the Libellus de Exordio , only returned by bribing Siward . According to the Libellus , the clergy were " terrified and overwhelmed by the fearful power of the earl " and " were compelled willy nilly to be reconciled to the bishop , and to admit him into his episcopal see " . Despite this , Siward escaped censure in the writings of later Durham monks , something which suggests relations between Siward and Durham were probably good in general .
Siward can be found witnessing numerous charters during Edward 's reign , though not as many as the Godwinsons ; Siward usually comes third in lists of earls , behind Godwine and Leofric but ahead of Godwine 's sons and the other earls . He witnessed at least seven , possibly nine , extant charters in 1044 , six or seven in 1045 , two in 1046 , one in 1048 and one in 1049 . A Dux ( " earl " ) named Sihroþ and Sihroð witnessed two charters in 1050 , and this may be Siward . There is another attestation in 1050 , and his name appears in two dubious witness lists attached to charters dating to 1052 and 1054 . Possibly Siward 's last historical appearance in English legal documents is in the agreement made — probably at Lincoln — between Wulfwig , Bishop of Dorchester , and Earl Leofric , dating to between 1053 and 1055 .
= = Expedition against the Scots = =
Siward is perhaps most famous for his expedition in 1054 against Macbeth , King of Scotland , an expedition that cost Siward his eldest son , Osbjorn . The origin of Siward 's conflict with the Scots is unclear . According to the Libellus de Exordio , in 1039 or 1040 , the Scottish king Donnchad mac Crínáin attacked northern Northumbria and besieged Durham . Within a year , Mac Bethad had deposed and killed Donnchad . The failed siege occurred a year before Siward attacked and killed Earl Eadulf of Bamburgh , and though no connection between the two events is clear it is likely that they were linked .
The Annals of Lindisfarne and Durham , written in the early 12th @-@ century , relate under the year 1046 that " Earl Siward with a great army came to Scotland , and expelled king Mac Bethad , and appointed another ; but after his departure Mac Bethad recovered his kingdom " . Historian William Kapelle thought that this was a genuine event of the 1040s , related to the Annals of Tigernach entry for 1045 that reported a " battle between the Scots " which led to the death of Crínán of Dunkeld , Donnchad 's father ; Kapelle thought that Siward had tried to place Crínán 's son and Donnchad 's brother Maldred on the Scottish throne . Another historian , Alex Woolf , argued that the Annals of Lindisfarne and Durham entry was probably referring to the invasion of Siward in 1054 , but misplaced under 1046 .
During the invasion of 1054 , a battle was fought somewhere in Scotland north of the Firth of Forth , a battle known variously as the " Battle of the Seven Sleepers " or the " Battle of Dunsinane " . The tradition that the battle actually took place at Dunsinane has its origins in later medieval legend . The earliest mention of Dunsinane as the location of the battle is in the early 15th @-@ century by Andrew of Wyntoun .
The earliest contemporary English account of the battle is found in the Anglo @-@ Saxon Chronicle , recension D :
John of Worcester , using a related version of the Anglo @-@ Saxon Chronicle , adds that Normans named Osbern Pentecost and Hugh , who had joined Mac Bethad earlier after fleeing from England , were killed in the battle . The battle is mentioned in the Irish annals too , briefly in the Annals of Tigernach and more extensively in the Annals of Ulster :
Dolfin is unidentified , but may have been a relation of Mac Bethad 's enemy Crínán of Dunkeld , on the basis that some of Crínán 's descendants may have borne this name .
The purpose of Siward 's invasion is unclear , but it may be related to the identity of the " Máel Coluim " ( Malcolm ) mentioned in the sources . The early 12th @-@ century chronicle attributed to John of Worcester , probably using an earlier source , wrote that Siward defeated Mac Bethad and made " Máel Coluim , son of the king of the Cumbrians " a king ( Malcolmum , regis Cumbrorum filium , ut rex jusserat , regem constituit ) The identity of Máel Coluim and the reasons for Siward 's help are controversial . The traditional historical interpretation was that " Máel Coluim " is Máel Coluim mac Donnchada , known sometimes today as Malcolm III or Malcolm Canmore , and that Siward was attempting to oust Mac Bethad in his favour .
The traditional historical interpretation that " Máel Coluim " is Máel Coluim mac Donnchada derives from the Chronicle attributed to the 14th @-@ century chronicler of Scotland , John of Fordun , as well as from earlier sources such as William of Malmesbury . The latter reported that Mac Bethad was killed in the battle by Siward , but it is known that Mac Bethad outlived Siward by two years . A. A. M. Duncan argued in 2002 that , using the Anglo @-@ Saxon Chronicle entry as their source , later writers innocently misidentified Máel Coluim " son of the king of the Cumbrians " with the later Scottish king of the same name . Duncan 's argument has been supported by several subsequent historians specialising in the era , such as Richard Oram , Dauvit Broun and Alex Woolf . It has also been suggested that Máel Coluim may have been a son of the Strathclyde British king Owen the Bald , perhaps by a daughter of Máel Coluim II , King of Scotland .
Duncan in fact believes that the Battle of the Seven Sleepers did not lead directly to a change of leadership in the Kingdom of Scotland . It has been suggested that the chief consequence of Siward 's expedition was not the overthrow of Mac Bethad , but the transfer of British territory — perhaps previously lying under Scottish suzerainty — to Northumbrian overlordship . Alex Woolf has posited that , in such a context , Máel Coluim might have been a discontented Cumbrian prince who had been forced to " put himself under English protection " . Evidence for Northumbrian control of Strathclyde in this period includes 11th @-@ century Northumbrian masonry found at the site of Glasgow Cathedral as well as early 12th @-@ century claims from the archbishopric of York that Archbishop Cynesige ( 1051 – 1060 ) had consecrated two Bishops of Glasgow .
= = Death and legacy = =
The 12th @-@ century historian , Henry of Huntingdon , in his Historia Anglorum , relates that when Siward was attacked by dysentery , fearing to die " like a cow " and wishing rather to die like a soldier , he clothed himself in armour and took to hand an axe and shield . Ennobled in such a manner , Siward died . This anecdote is of doubtful historicity , and is thought to be derived from the saga devoted to Earl Siward , now lost . The Vita Ædwardi Regis states that Siward died at York and was buried in " the monastery of St Olaf " at Galmanho , a claim confirmed by the Anglo @-@ Saxon Chronicle , John of Worcester , and the Historia Regum .
Material incorporated in two surviving sources is thought by some to attest to the existence of a lost saga or some other kind of literary tradition concerning Siward 's life . The first source is the Vita et Passio Waldevi , a hagiographic history of Siward 's cult @-@ inspiring son Waltheof . This text contains an account of Waltheof 's paternal origin , and in the process recounts certain adventures of his father Siward ( see boxes throughout article ) . The second major witness of the tradition is Henry of Huntingdon 's Historia Anglorum , which contains extracts of saga @-@ like material relating to Siward 's invasion of Scotland ( 1054 ) and his death ( 1055 ) . The Anglo @-@ Saxonist Frank Stenton declared that Siward was " not a statesman , but a Danish warrior of the primitive type " . Writers in the half @-@ century after his death remembered Siward as a strong ruler who brought peace and suppressed brigandage .
Siward died more than a decade before the death of Edward the Confessor , but despite this the Domesday Book recorded 4 manors , 3 in Yorkshire and 1 in Derbyshire , owned directly by Earl Siward in 1066 , all of them subsequently held by Hugh d 'Avranches , Earl of Chester . This land was stated to have been worth £ 212 , while his son Waltheof was said to have held £ 136 worth of land across 9 counties . Domesday records give an incomplete picture of Siward 's holdings . In total it recorded property worth £ 348 for Siward and his son , which on its own would compare poorly with the £ 2493 in value recorded to have been held by the family of the earls of Mercia . Of the latter , however , Morcar of Mercia , Earl of Northumbria on the day of King Edward 's death , possessed land worth £ 968 , while Tostig , exiled earl at the time , had land worth £ 491 ; both may have come into possession of some of Siward 's land in the course of becoming Earls of Northumbria . Moreover , the counties that would become Durham , Northumberland , Cumberland and Westmorland were largely omitted from the survey , while , besides being only very poorly documented , the lands in Yorkshire had been severely devastated and devalued during the Harrying of the North .
Siward is said to have built a church dedicated to St Olaf at Galmanho , York . The record of his burial in this church is the only notice of a non @-@ royal lay burial inside a church in pre @-@ Norman England . Siward 's Howe , i.e. , Heslington Hill near York , was most likely named after Earl Siward , although probably because Siward held popular courts there rather than because it was his burial place .
One of Siward 's sons is known to have survived him , Waltheof , whose mother was Ælfflæd . Waltheof later rose to be an earl in the East Midlands before becoming Earl of Northumbria . When Waltheof rebelled against William the Conqueror , however , the act led to his execution and to his subsequent veneration as a saint at Crowland Abbey . Waltheof 's daughter married David I , King of the Scots , and through this connection Siward became one of the many ancestors of the later Scottish and British monarchs .
Besides Ælfflæd , Siward is known to have been married to a woman named Godgifu , who died before Siward . The marriage is known from a grant she made of territory around Stamford , Lincolnshire , to Peterborough Abbey . Although no surviving children are attested , and no source states the name of Osbjorn 's mother , this marriage has nonetheless raised the possibility that Waltheof and Osbjorn were born to different mothers , and William Kapelle suggested that Siward may have originally intended Osbjorn to inherit his southern territories while Waltheof inherited those territories in the north associated with the family of his mother Ælfflæd .
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= Ursula and Sabina Eriksson =
Ursula and Sabina Eriksson ( born 1967 ) are Swedish twin sisters who came to national attention in the United Kingdom in May 2008 after an apparent episode of folie à deux ( or " shared psychosis " ) , a rare psychiatric disorder in which delusional beliefs are transmitted from one individual to another , which resulted in a series of bizarre incidents on the M6 motorway and the subsequent killing of Glenn Hollinshead of Fenton , Staffordshire . There was no evidence that drugs or alcohol were involved in the incidents on the M6 or the death of Hollinshead .
The twins had been in Ireland before travelling to England and boarding a coach for London at Liverpool . Their odd behaviour after exiting the coach at a service station on the M6 – including not allowing the bags they were clutching to be searched – caused the driver not to allow them back on the coach . The two were later seen on the central reservation of the M6 . When Highways Agency Traffic Officers arrived to assist the women , they ran across the busy motorway . Ursula managed to dodge traffic - Sabina was first struck by a SEAT Leon .
Shortly after police arrived , the women again ran onto the motorway and were struck by oncoming vehicles , a Volkswagen Polo hitting Sabina and a Mercedes @-@ Benz Actros lorry crushing Ursula 's legs . Sabina suffered a serious head injury that left her unconscious for several minutes . When Sabina regained consciousness , she refused medical aid and attacked a police officer , at which point she was arrested . Appearing calm , although a bit " odd " , as she was processed by police in Stoke @-@ on @-@ Trent , she was therefore released from custody . Shortly afterward she was taken in by Hollinshead , whom she later stabbed to death in an unprovoked attack . She was pursued running from the scene and arrested in hospital after jumping from a bridge onto a busy trunk road , later pleading guilty to manslaughter with diminished responsibility . She was sentenced to five years imprisonment and released on parole in 2011 .
= = Background = =
Ursula and Sabina Eriksson , identical twin sisters , grew up in Sunne , Värmland , in western Sweden with their older brother .
= = Incidents in England = =
The sisters left their home in County Cork at 2am on May 16 , 2008 .
= = = Coach journey = = =
In Liverpool , at 8 : 30am on 17 May , Saturday , the twins went into St Anne Street Police Station to report concerns over Sabina 's children . At midday the pair boarded a National Express coach to London . A police report stated that the twins suddenly disembarked from the coach at Keele services , a motorway service station , as they were not feeling well . The driver of the coach , however , said he left them at Keele services after becoming suspicious of their behaviour . He noticed the twins clinging tightly to their bags and did not let them re @-@ board because they refused to let him search their bags for illegal items . The manager of the service station was informed and , also feeling suspicious of the pair , called the police . Officers arrived to talk to them but left after deeming the women harmless .
= = = Running onto the motorway = = =
The pair began to walk down the central reservation of the M6 motorway before attempting to cross the motorway , causing chaos to the traffic and picking up minor injuries in the attempt . Their elder brother claimed in a Swedish newspaper that his sisters were fleeing from maniacs who were chasing them . As seen on closed @-@ circuit television cameras , the police arrived to investigate and paramedics were also at the scene to treat the women . Along with the police came a small television crew who happened to be filming Motorway Cops with one of the officers . Sabina later told an officer at the police station , " We say in Sweden that an accident rarely comes alone . Usually at least one more follows – maybe two . "
Standing on the north direction hard shoulder of the motorway , just north of Three Mile Lane ( 52 ° 59 ' 38 @.@ 84 " N , 2 ° 18 ' 15 @.@ 44 " W ) , the police spoke to the twins when , without warning , Ursula ran into the side of an oncoming Mercedes @-@ Benz Actros 2546 articulated lorry travelling at around 56 mph . Sabina then followed her into the road and was hit by a Volkswagen Polo travelling at high speed ; both survived . Ursula was immobilised as the lorry had crushed her legs . Sabina spent fifteen minutes unconscious .
The pair were treated by paramedics ; however both women resisted medical aid , fighting and screaming at the paramedics and police officers . Sabina shouted " They 're going to steal your organs " and Ursula told the policemen restraining her " I recognise you – I know you 're not real " .
Sabina got to her feet , whereupon a policewoman attempted to persuade her to stay on the ground and receive further medical attention . Sabina instead struck the officer and crossed the central reservation again , running into traffic on the other side of the motorway . Emergency workers and several members of the public caught up with her , restrained her and carried her to a waiting ambulance , at which point she was sedated . Ursula was also taken to hospital where she stayed for weeks . Sabina appeared less deranged and more calm and relaxed in police custody .
= = = The killing of Glenn Hollinshead = = =
On 19 May 2008 , Sabina was released from court without a full psychiatric evaluation having pleaded guilty to trespass on the motorway and hitting a police officer . The court sentenced her to one day in custody which she had been deemed to have served having spent a full night in police custody . Leaving court she began to wander the streets of Stoke @-@ on @-@ Trent , seemingly attempting to reach her sister in hospital , carrying her possessions in a clear plastic bag given to her by police .
At 19 : 00 , two local men spotted Sabina whilst walking a dog on Christchurch Street , Fenton . One of the men was 54 @-@ year @-@ old Glenn Hollinshead – a self @-@ employed welder , qualified paramedic , and former RAF worker . The other man was his friend Peter Molloy . Sabina appeared friendly and stroked the dog as the three people struck up a conversation . Although friendly , Sabina appeared to be behaving oddly and this odd behaviour worried Molloy . Sabina asked the two men for directions to any nearby bed and breakfasts or hotels . Hollinshead took pity upon her and instead offered to take her back to his house at Duke Street , Fenton . Sabina accepted the offer and the three walked to the house , as Sabina told the men how she was trying to locate her hospitalised sister .
Back at the house her odd behaviour continued ; most notably she offered the men cigarettes , only to quickly snatch them out of their mouths as the men smoked them , claiming the cigarettes to be poisoned . She was also carrying multiple mobile phones , as well as a laptop . She appeared to be paranoid and constantly looked out of the windows ; this behaviour caused Molloy to assume that she had run away from an abusive partner . Shortly before midnight Molloy left the two , and Sabina stayed the night in Hollinshead 's home .
The next day , 20 May , Hollinshead called the local hospitals in order to locate Sabina 's sister Ursula . At 19 : 40 , Hollinshead came outside of the house to ask a neighbour , Frank Booth , for tea bags . Frank said he would get the tea bags once he had finished washing his vehicle , and Hollinshead went back to his home . One minute after returning inside he staggered back outside to the neighbour and told him " she stabbed me " , before collapsing to the ground . Sabina had stabbed him five times with a kitchen knife and Hollinshead died from his injuries . Sabina fled the premises and the neighbour dialled 999 .
= = = Sabina 's flight from capture = = =
Sabina ran out of the house with a hammer , periodically hitting herself over the head with it . A passing motorist , Joshua Grattage , saw this extraordinary behaviour and decided to tackle her in an attempt to take control of the hammer . While wrestling with Grattage , Sabina took a roof tile out of her pocket and struck him on the back of the head with it , stunning him temporarily .
By this time paramedics had found her and gave chase . The pursuit was ended at Heron Cross when Sabina jumped from a 12 metre ( 40 ft ) high bridge onto the A50 . Having broken bones in the fall , she was taken to hospital . On 6 June 2008 she was arrested while recovering at University Hospital of North Staffordshire , and was later discharged from hospital on 11 September , at which point she was charged with murder .
Garry Hollinshead , brother of the man killed by Sabina , was critical of the justice system which he viewed as enabling Sabina to kill his brother .
" We don 't hold her responsible , the same as we wouldn 't blame a rabid dog for biting someone . She is ill and to a large degree , not responsible for her actions . But her mental disorder should have been recognized much earlier . "
" I do question the criminal justice system for allowing somebody like this to be let out when she is capable of committing such a crime . Her mental condition should have been properly assessed after what she did on the motorway and the experiences the police had . Her mental disorder should have been picked up prior to her being let out in to the community ... [ Glenn ] saw Eriksson in distress and was just trying to help . He wasn 't slow in coming forward to help somebody in distress . It was in his nature . He was trying to help . He would help anybody . If he saw a fight in the street and a guy was losing he would help . "
= = The trial = =
Sabina Eriksson was charged with murder on 11 September 2008 , the same day she was discharged from hospital in a wheelchair . The trial was scheduled for February 2009 , but was adjourned after the court encountered difficulties in obtaining her medical records from Sweden . The trial was then scheduled to start on 1 September 2009 .
Sabina Eriksson pleaded guilty to manslaughter with diminished responsibility on 2 September 2009 . At no point during her interrogation or during the trial did she explain her actions , only replying " no comment " to extensive police questioning . Both the prosecution and defence claimed that Sabina was insane at the time of the killing , although she was sane at the time of her trial . The defence counsel in the trial claimed that Eriksson was a " secondary " sufferer of folie à deux , influenced by the presence or perceived presence of her twin sister – the " primary " sufferer . The court also heard that she had suffered from a rare psychiatric disorder which made her hear voices , but could not interpret what they said , as well as an alternative theory that she had suffered from acute polymorphic delusional disorder .
The plea of manslaughter on the grounds of diminished responsibility was accepted at Nottingham Crown Court on 2 September 2010 . Sabina was sentenced to five years in prison . Having already spent 439 days in custody before sentencing , this left her first eligible for release in 2011 . In prison she turned to Christianity .
Justice Saunders concluded that Sabina had a " low " level of culpability for her actions .
I understand that this sentence will seem entirely inadequate to the relatives of the deceased . However , I have sentenced on the basis that the reason for the killing was the mental illness and therefore the culpability of the defendant is low and therefore the sentence I have passed is designed to protect the public . It is not designed to reflect the grief the relatives have suffered or to measure the value of Mr Hollinshead 's life . No sentence that I could pass could do that . It is a sentence which I hope fairly measures a truly tragic event .
Justice Saunders also said that :
[ Sabina was ] suffering from delusions which she believed to be true and they dictated her behaviour . It is not one of those cases where the defendant could have done something to avoid the onset .
= = Aftermath = =
Many questions were left unanswered , and Detective Superintendent Dave Garrett stated that " the reasons for the two events may never be truly known or understood but the taking of Glenn 's life was a violent and senseless act " .
Some called for an investigation into the way the criminal justice system handled the matter , including Peter Molloy and MP for Stoke South Robert Flello .
= = Media = =
Madness in the Fast Lane is the BBC documentary , first broadcast on BBC One on 10 August 2010 , which brought the story of Sabina and Ursula Eriksson and the killing of Glen Hollinshead into the public consciousness . The footage on the M6 motorway of the two women jumping into the passing traffic had previously been broadcast on Motorway Cops , but this was the first time the rest of the story had been told .
A Madness Shared By Two 2012 , David Cann ISBN 0956848915
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= Karnan ( film ) =
Karnan is a 1964 Indian Tamil @-@ language epic historical drama film produced and directed by B. R. Panthulu . It features Sivaji Ganesan leading an ensemble cast consisting of N. T. Rama Rao , S. A. Ashokan , R. Muthuraman , Devika , Savitri and M. V. Rajamma . The film is based on the story of Karna , a character from the Hindu epic Mahabharata . He is born to an unmarried mother Kunti who abandons him in the Ganges to avoid embarrassment . The child is discovered and adopted by a charioteer . Karnan does not want to follow his foster father 's profession , and instead , becomes a warrior . He then befriends Duryodhana , the Kaurava prince , eventually setting the initial grounds of the Kurukshetra War , where he will join Duryodhana to fight against his own half @-@ brothers , the Pandavas .
Karnan , which was officially launched in 1963 , was the first Tamil film to be shot in the palaces of Jaipur and the war sequences were filmed in Kurukshetra , which featured several soldiers from the Indian Army . The film 's original soundtrack was composed by M. S. Viswanathan and T. K. Ramamoorthy , while the lyrics were written by Kannadasan . The dialogues were written by Sakthi T. K. Krishnasamy , and the screenplay by A. S. Nagarajan . Karnan was considered a milestone in Tamil cinema as it brought together the then leading actors of South Indian cinema , Ganesan and Rama Rao .
The film was dubbed in Telugu as Karna , and also in Hindi as Dhaan Veer Karna . Karnan was released on 14 January 1964 , during the festival occasion of Pongal , and received critical acclaim , with Ganesan and Rama Rao 's performances being widely lauded . Despite this , it became a commercial failure , but ran for over 100 days in some theatres . The film also won the Certificate of Merit for the Third Best Feature Film at the 11th National Film Awards . A digitised version of Karnan was released in March 2012 to critical and commercial success , eventually establishing a trend of re @-@ releasing digitised versions of old films in Tamil cinema .
= = Plot = =
Unmarried princess Kunti is blessed by the Sun god with a baby boy , which she abandons in the Ganges to avoid embarrassment . The boy is rescued and adopted by charioteer Athirathan , and is named Karnan . Years later , the now @-@ grown up Karnan realises that Athirathan is only his adoptive father and feels heartbroken . He does not want to become a charioteer like Athirathan , and instead chooses to become a warrior . He masters archery and challenges the Pandava prince Arjuna in a contest . Karnan is insulted on account of his lowly birth , but the Kaurava prince and cousin of the Pandavas , Duryodhana , saves his pride , and gives him the kingdom of Anga . Karnan thus becomes the close friend of Duryodhana and his wife Bhanumati .
One day , Indra , the king of the Devas ( celestial deities ) , disguised as a Brahmin , approaches Karnan and asks for his armour and ear rings in donation to weaken and stop him from overpowering Arjuna . Aware of Indra 's intention , Karnan yet donates both the items he was born with and which would make him invincible . Pleased with Karnan 's generosity , Indra gives him a powerful weapon , Nagastra , but states that he can use it only once . Karnan , disguised as a Brahmin , becomes the student of the sage Parasurama to acquire the Brahmastra ; one day , however , Parasurama realises that Karnan is a Kshatriya , a tribe he opposes . Enraged , he renders Karnan incapable of using the Brahmastra when most needed , and banishes him .
Karnan later saves princess Subhangi from an uncontrolled chariot , and they fall in love . Subhangi 's parents initially disapprove of their romance , but eventually they accept , and the couple get married . A few years later , Krishna , a supporter of the Pandavas , learns about Karnan 's true background . He tells Kunti that Karnan is her first son whom she abandoned . Karnan gets to know about his birth later . Kunti meets Karnan and gets two wishes from him , one that he will not attack any of her sons ( the Pandavas ) except Arjuna during the impending Kurukshetra War , and that he will attack Arjuna with the Nagastra weapon only once . Karnan refuses to join his brothers , the Pandavas and remains the friend of their enemy Duryodhana .
Before the start of the Kurukshetra war , Duryodhana ’ s ministry assembles to appoint the generals of the army . Bhishma is appointed the Commander and he starts nominating generals for different battalions . Karnan is insulted on account of his lowly birth and given the command of a low rank infantry . The war begins and in the early days , Bhishma retires and Karnan replaces him . The following day , Karnan goes to war accompanied by his son Vrishasena who fights bravely , but is killed by Arjuna afterwards .
The next day , the vengeful Karnan uses the Nagastra to try killing Arjuna , but Krishna saves Arjuna by preventing the arrow from hurting him . Since Karnan cannot use the Nagastra more than once , he is unable to kill Arjuna . A wheel of his chariot gets stuck in a big hole , and he steps down to relieve it . At that time , Arjuna , under the direction of Krishna , shoots many arrows at Karnan that severely wound him . Krishna tells Arjuna that the Dharma ( noble charity ) that Karnan performed during his lifetime was protecting his life . Krishna disguises as a Brahmin , goes to Karnan and asks him his virtues as donation . Out of generosity , Karnan donates all his virtues to the " Brahmin " . At this juncture , Arjuna shoots a few more arrows at Karnan that kill him . The Pandavas , who realise that Karnan was their eldest brother mourn his death . His mother Kunti also mourns his death , while Subhangi dies due to the trauma of her husband 's death in the war . Arjuna remorses killing Karnan , until Krishna reveals that the curses by Indra and Parasurama were also responsible for his death . The film ends with Karnan meeting his father — the Sun in the other world .
= = Cast = =
Main cast
Sivaji Ganesan as Karnan , the elder half @-@ brother of the five Pandavas
N. T. Rama Rao as Krishna , an avatar of Hindu god Vishnu , who favours the Pandavas and opposes Karnan during the Kurukshetra war
Savithri as Bhanumati , Duryodhana 's wife and the princess of Chitragandha
Devika as Subhangi , a princess rescued by Karnan , who later gets married to him
M. V. Rajamma as Kunti , the mother of Karnan and the Pandavas
K. V. Saroja as Young Kunti
S. A. Ashokan as Duryodhana , Karnan 's best friend and the eldest of the Kauravas
R. Muthuraman as Arjuna , the third of the five Pandavas and Karnan 's direct enemy in the Kurukshetra war
Supporting cast
Master Sridhar as Meghanathan
V. S. Raghavan as Vidhuran
Shanmugasundaram as Salliya Chakravarthy
O. A. K. Thevar as Kanagan
Javar Seetharaman as Bhishma
T. S. Muthaiah as Sakuni
K. Natarajan as Athirathan
Mustafa as Kripacharya
R. Balasubramaniam as Parasurama
Veerasamy as Dronacharya
S. V. Ramadoss as Indra
S. A. G. Samy as Dhritarashtra
Kannan as Sanjayan
Prem Kumar as Dharmar
Thangaraj as Nagulan
Chinnaya as Sahadevan
K. V. Srinivasan as Munivar
Master Suresh as Vrishasena
Master Babu as Young Vrishasena
Prabhakar Reddy as the Sun god
Sobhan Babu as the Moon god
Stunt Somu as Ghatotkatch
Sandhya as Kanagan 's wife
Rukmini as Radha
Jayanthi as Draupadi
= = Production = =
= = = Development = = =
Karnan is based on the life of the character Karna from the Hindu epic Mahabharata , and was officially launched in 1963 at Vijaya Studios in Chennai . B. R. Panthulu , who directed and produced the film under the banner Padmini Pictures , had " based his screen play on traditional sources " and collected most of his information from scholars Kripananda Variar and Anantarama Dikshitar .
The film 's art work , one of the major highlights of the film , was led by Ganga , and the cinematography was handled by V. Ramamurthy . Sakthi T. K. Krishnasamy wrote the dialogues , and A. S. Nagarajan wrote the screenplay . R. Devarajan was the editor .
= = = Casting = = =
Sivaji Ganesan was cast in the title role , Telugu actor N. T. Rama Rao as Krishna , and R. Muthuraman as Arjuna . Actresses Devika and Savitri were cast in the female lead roles , and S. A. Ashokan as Karna 's friend Duryodhana .
The role of Karna 's mother was portrayed by M. V. Rajamma , and actress Sandhya played Karna 's mother @-@ in @-@ law . Other supporting cast members included actor Shanmugasundaram as the charioteer Salliya Chakravarthy , V. S. Raghavan as Vidhuran , actresses Kalpana and Jayanthi , and the then six @-@ year @-@ old Master Sridhar as Meghanathan , an orphan who meets Karnan after being accused of setting fire to a school . Sridhar finished his long scene in one take , and was paid ₹ 1000 ( valued at about US $ 210 in 1964 ) for the performance . Actor K. V. Srinivasan played a minor role as the sage who christens the lead character as Karnan . He also dubbed for the voice of Rama Rao , after Ganesan 's insistence with Panthulu .
= = = Filming = = =
Karnan was filmed with an estimated budget of ₹ 4 million ( valued at about US $ 840 000 @.@ 84 in 1964 ) . The high cost of the film was attributed to the transportation costs incurred to move chariots from Chennai to Kurukshetra , where the war sequences were filmed . Permission from the government was sought , cavalry and infantry from the Indian Army were brought to the locations at Kurukshetra and the first rows of the charging armies on horses and elephants had soldiers from the Indian Army . The battle scenes were shot with troupes of the 61 Cavalry Regiment , using 80 elephants , 400 horses and three cameras . Other scenes were shot at palaces in Jaipur . Shooting for Karnan also took place at the Bangalore Palace in the Cantonment area , making it the first film to be shot there .
In 2012 , Panthulu 's son Ravishankar revealed that a few shots involving Ganesan and Rama Rao took as many as four days to shoot , because of the large number of personnel involved . After the release of Karnan , all the chariots specially made for the war sequences in Kurukshetra , were donated to the Brihadeeswarar Temple in Thanjavur .
= = Soundtrack = =
Viswanathan – Ramamoorthy ( a duo consisting of M. S. Viswanathan and T. K. Ramamoorthy ) composed the music of Karnan , while the lyrics were written by Kannadasan . The soundtrack was released under the label of Saregama . Notable instruments used for recording the songs include Sarangi , Santoor , Shehnai , Dilruba and other such instruments that were rarely used in Tamil films . The entire soundtrack was completed in a span of three days . The songs " En Uyir Thozhi " , " Maharajan " , " Kangal Engey " and " Iravum Nilavum " are based on the Hamir Kalyani , Kharaharapriya , Suddha Dhanyasi and Hamsanadam ragas respectively . The soundtrack was very successful , with the critic Malathi Rangarajan of The Hindu stating that " Musically , Karnan is of a calibre that few have surpassed " and that the " Panthulu @-@ Mellisai Mannar [ M. S. Viswanathan ] combo resulted in songs that will live on forever " .
= = = Reception = = =
The soundtrack received generally positive reviews from critics . Baradwaj Rangan of The Hindu said , " My interest in Karnan ( apart from the critic 's mandate that I see everything ) was primarily the songs " , but noted that Sirkazhi Govindarajan 's " liquid diction and brass @-@ throated conviction makes today 's male singers sound like tentative little boys in a parent 's day recital " . Meera Srinivasan , another critic from The Hindu praised the film for the " music score and songs by the inimitable Viswanathan @-@ Ramamoorthy duo with Kannadasan 's striking lyrics " . Malathi Rangarajan said , " The illustrious composing duo of Viswanathan and Ramamurthy has worked magic with music " . M. Suganth of The Times of India stated " The songs are one too many ( but what songs they are ! ) " . K. N. Vijayan of The New Straits Times said , " Instead of trooping out , the audience sat through the 14 songs composed by the Viswanathan @-@ Ramamoorty pair . They are that famous and many can sing along to the lyrics as the songs have been heard countless times on the radio " .
= = Release = =
Karnan , which was released in 38 screens , was the most expected film during the festival occasion of Pongal on 14 January 1964 , and Shanthi theatre in Chennai , which released the film , had a 60 feet ( 18 m ) tall banner of a chariot to attract the audience . Ganesan promoted the film by distributing sakarai pongal ( sweetened rice ) to those who came to Shanthi to attend the film 's first screening . Karnan was the first of a " mythology series " of films that made a comeback during the 1960s . It was also a trendsetter for mythological films in a period when films with social messages were popular . Karnan was also considered a milestone in Tamil cinema as it brought together the then leading actors of South Indian cinema , Sivaji Ganesan and N. T. Rama Rao . The film was dubbed in Telugu as Karna , and also in Hindi as Dhaan Veer Karna .
= = = Box office = = =
In its theatrical run , Karnan completed 100 days in four theatres , including Madurai Thangam ( noted as the second largest theatre in Asia during 1964 ) , and also completed 105 days at Ganesan 's family @-@ owned Shanthi theatre . In spite of a successful run after completing 80 days , the film was removed from twelve theatres to allow the release of Pachai Vilakku , another Sivaji Ganesan film . At Madurai Thangam , Karnan earned totally ₹ 186 @,@ 805 @.@ 62 after its 14 @-@ week run there . Since most films of the time in the Tamil film industry did not have box office reports , the film 's exact collections are unknown , although critics like Baradwaj Rangan and M. Suganth state that the film was a box office failure during its release .
= = = Critical reception = = =
Reviews for Karnan have been mostly positive . Ayngaran International called the film " One of the all time great Indian classics with a fantastic star cast and great acting " . Meera Srinivasan of The Hindu stated , " Karnan , directed by B.R. Panthulu in 1964 , is considered a classic for many reasons , including the stunning performances of Sivaji as Karnan and N.T. Rama Rao as Lord Krishna " , while highlighting " the powerful battlefield sequences and the music score " . M. Suganth of The Times of India gave the film 4 @.@ 5 out of 5 stars , saying " The pacing is uneven , the complexities of the plot are overtly simplified , " and added that " the narrative isn 't tightly structured " but praised Ganesan 's performance as a " pitch @-@ perfect larger @-@ than @-@ life performance " and Rama Rao 's portrayal of Krishna as " the definitive portrayal of the Lord on screen " , calling it " one of the delights of the film " . Malathi Rangarajan of The Hindu called the film 's artwork " an exercise in aesthetic splendour " and added , " If the technical crew is brilliant , so is the cast that has Sivaji Ganesan at the helm . " Film historian Firoze Rangoonwalla , in his book 75 years of Indian cinema , called the film a " spectacular mythological " .
Rediff.com called it " one of the most significant films in Sivaji Ganesan 's career " . K. N. Vijayan of The New Straits Times said , " The actions of certain characters , like Indra and Krishna may appear perplexing to some . Some reading on the internet is needed to understand their reasons " . He however praised the film 's dialogues by Sakthi Krishnasamy as " classical " and concluded , " Such [ a ] mythological film is important for the younger generation " . Anupama Subramanian of Deccan Chronicle called it " the timeless Mahabharath [ sic ] classic of thespian Sivaji Ganesan " . G. Dhananjayan , in his book The Best of Tamil Cinema : 1931 to 1976 , praised the film for being " the only Tamil film which portrayed the mythological character Karnan in a grand manner . "
The film also received mixed reviews from other critics . Ananda Vikatan said , " Though this effort to improve the quality of Tamil cinema must be appreciated , we do not see the dignity of the epic and only see the dominance of the extravaganza . " In 2012 , Baradwaj Rangan called the film " a historical epic with little so @-@ called relevance to contemporary life ( unless you want to acknowledge the Duryodhana @-@ Karna storyline as the granddaddy of today 's bromances ) " and stated that Ganesan 's performance " isn 't as all @-@ consuming as his performance in , say , [ Thiruvilaiyadal ] ; The Mahabharata , after all , is a tale with an ensemble cast , unlike The Ramayana with its solo hero " , while calling Rama Rao 's performance a " sly , campy take on Krishna " .
Dhananjayan opined that Ganesan 's performance was influenced by Veerapandiya Kattabomman ( 1959 ) and that his excessive emotions in several scenes were not well received by the audience . Nevertheless , at the 11th National Film Awards in 1964 , the film won the Certificate of Merit for the Third Best Feature Film .
= = = Home media = = =
Karnan was released on DVD by Raj Video Vision . A " 5 @.@ 1 Channel EDS Sound " enhanced version was also released by the same company , featuring English subtitles . Karnan is also included alongside various Sivaji Ganesan @-@ starrers in the compilation DVD 8 Ulaga Adhisayam Sivaji , which was released in May 2012 .
= = Legacy = =
Actor Y. G. Mahendra said , " Karnan can never be remade . Nobody can replace any of the actors of the 1964 classic , and it would amount to mockery if it is done . " Actor Rana Daggubati , in an interview with Sangeetha Devi Dundoo of The Hindu , said that Ganesan 's performances as Kattabomman and Karna served as inspirations for his role in Baahubali : The Beginning ( 2015 ) .
= = = Re @-@ release = = =
A digitally restored version of Karnan was released on 16 March 2012 , to commemorate the birth centenary of Panthulu . It is the first Tamil film to be fully digitally restored , costing ₹ 4 million ( US $ 59 @,@ 000 ) and consuming an effort of three years . The effort was undertaken by film distributor Shanthi Chokkalingam , who stated , " The sound negative was totally gone and the five to six reels from the picture negative were damaged to a great extent " . The digital restoration of Karnan took place at Sangeetha Sound Studios in Chennai , after a failed attempt with the Mumbai @-@ based Famous Studios , who earlier restored the 1960 Hindi film Mughal @-@ e @-@ Azam . Visual improvements and audio restoration were excessively worked upon , with Shanthi stating that the " biggest challenge was to restore the background score " . DVDs were also used to get the sound and music in its original form . To create awareness about the restoration of Karnan , a teaser trailer was launched on 21 February 2012 , which received a positive response .
The restored version of Karnan which utilised DTS 5 @.@ 1 surround sound , was released in 72 screens across Tamil Nadu , and was released by Shanthi 's Divya Films . It was well received upon release , although The Times of India 's critic M. Suganth called the restoration process " far from perfect " , and critic Baradwaj Rangan quoted , " The print occasionally judders , leaving the impression of watching the movie on a screen mounted behind the driver 's seat in an auto rickshaw " . Taking a big opening , the film collected roughly ₹ 20 million ( US $ 300 @,@ 000 ) in Chennai within the first few weeks , and was later reported to have collected a total of ₹ 50 million ( US $ 740 @,@ 000 ) . Becoming the first Tamil film to have a theatrical run of over 100 days in its re @-@ release , and having surpassed what it originally managed to collect in its entire 105 day run at Shanthi theatre , the film was officially declared a commercial success . It 's success soon established a trend of digitising and re @-@ releasing films in Tamil cinema .
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= U.S. Route 50 =
U.S. Route 50 ( US 50 ) is a major east – west route of the U.S. Highway system , stretching just over 3 @,@ 000 miles ( 4 @,@ 800 km ) from Ocean City , Maryland on the Atlantic Ocean to West Sacramento , California . Until 1972 , when it was replaced by Interstate Highways west of the Sacramento area , it extended ( by way of Stockton , the Altamont Pass , and the Bay Bridge ) to San Francisco , near the Pacific Ocean . The Interstates were constructed later and are mostly separate from this route . It generally serves a corridor south of Interstates 70 and 80 and north of Interstates 64 and 40 . The route runs through mostly rural desert and mountains in the Western United States , with the section through Nevada known as " The Loneliest Road in America " . In the Midwest , US 50 continues through mostly rural areas of farms as well as a few large cities including Kansas City , Missouri ; St. Louis , Missouri ; and Cincinnati , Ohio . The route continues into the Eastern United States , where it passes through the Appalachian Mountains in West Virginia before heading through Washington , D.C. From there , US 50 continues through Maryland as a high @-@ speed road to Ocean City . Signs at each end give the length as 3 @,@ 073 miles ( 4 @,@ 946 km ) , but the actual distance is slightly less , due to realignments since the former figure was measured . US 50 passes through a total of 12 states ; California , Nevada , Utah , Colorado , Kansas , Missouri , Illinois , Indiana , Ohio , West Virginia , Virginia , and Maryland , as well as the District of Columbia .
US 50 was created in 1926 as part of the original U.S. Highway system . The original route planned in 1925 ran from Wadsworth , Nevada east to Annapolis , Maryland along several auto trails including the Lincoln Highway , Midland Trail , and the National Old Trails Road . The final 1926 plan had US 50 running from Sacramento , California east to Annapolis with a gap in west Utah that was bridged by running the route north via Salt Lake City before rerouting it to U.S. Route 6 in the 1950s . US 50 was extended west from Sacramento to San Francisco in the 1930s , replacing U.S. Route 48 ; this was reversed in 1964 when Interstate 580 replaced much of the route between the two cities . In addition , US 50 was extended east from Annapolis to Ocean City prior in 1949 , replacing a portion of U.S. Route 213 . US 50 had two split configurations into U.S. Route 50N and U.S. Route 50S , one in Kansas and another in Ohio and West Virginia ; both of these instances have been removed .
= = Route description = =
= = = Western U.S. = = =
US 50 begins as a major freeway at its junction with Interstate 80 in West Sacramento and continues into Sacramento . The portion of US 50 west of and including its interchange with California 's State Highway 99 in Sacramento is also designated , but not signed as , Interstate 305 . The signage along this portion of the highway indicates Business Loop I @-@ 80 and a portion of the way ( 2 miles / 3 @.@ 33 km ) as California State Highway 99 . From Sacramento , the highway heads eastward as the William Alexander Leidesdorff , Jr . Memorial Highway , continuing as a freeway to the Gold Country foothills , then following the American River up the Sierra Nevada as a conventional highway , until cresting the Sierras at Echo Summit and descending to Lake Tahoe , where the highway enters Nevada . In Nevada , the highway crosses a series of north – south running mountain ranges that break up the Nevada desert which are called Basin and Range . East of Carson City , the road enters the heart of the Great Basin , passing by few communities and minimal services , giving it the name " Loneliest Road in America " until reaching Utah .
In Utah , US 50 also passes through desolate , remote areas with few inhabitants . After crossing the Confusion Range via Kings Canyon and the House Range , the road traverses the north shore of the endorheic Sevier Lake . In Holden , US 50 shortly overlaps Interstate 15 to cross the Pavant Range . The road begins a much longer overlap with Interstate 70 in Salina crossing the Wasatch Plateau and San Rafael Swell into Colorado . US 50 leaves I @-@ 70 upon entering the state and heads southeast through Grand Junction and into the southern part of Colorado . Once there , the road climbs to its highest elevation of 11 @,@ 312 feet ( 3 @,@ 448 m ) over the Rocky Mountains and in Monarch Pass where it crosses the Continental Divide . After descending from the Rockies , US 50 passes by Royal Gorge near Cañon City then joins U.S. Route 400 in Granada and follows the Arkansas River into Kansas .
= = = Midwestern U.S. = = =
Upon entering Kansas , US 50 , concurrent with US 400 , runs along the Arkansas River to Dodge City where US 50 splits from US 400 and takes a more northerly course . US 50 continues to traverse the farmlands and small towns of the Great Plains mostly as a straight two @-@ lane road until Emporia where it joins Interstate 35 and splits onto Interstate 435 to bypass the center of the Kansas City Area . In Missouri , US 50 leaves I @-@ 435 for Interstate 470 splitting at Lee 's Summit . US 50 runs as a four @-@ lane divided highway across the Western Plain to Sedalia where it continues as a two @-@ lane road until reaching California , MO about 20 miles west of Jefferson City . The road continues as a four @-@ lane divided highway into Jefferson City where it joins US 63 just south of the Missouri River Bridge . It continues 12 miles east of Jefferson City to the Osage River where US 63 splits off to the south . It then continues as a two @-@ lane road as it traverses the northern sections of the Ozark Highlands east to Union where it begins an overlap with Interstate 44 which goes through Pacific . The routes separate in Sunset Hills where US 50 migrates southeast bypassing St Louis by joining Interstate 255 to cross Mississippi River into Illinois .
In that state , US 50 switches to Interstate 64 before splitting onto its own alignment in eastern O 'Fallon . It heads east through Trenton , Breese , Carlyle crossing the Kaskaskia River , Salem , Flora and Lawrenceville to the Wabash River along a corridor between Interstates 64 and 70 . US 50 enters Indiana at the Wabash River , bypassing Vincennes and Washington and passing through Bedford , Seymour , and Versailles . It meets the Ohio River at Aurora , and soon crosses into Ohio , running through downtown Cincinnati via Fort Washington Way ( Interstate 71 ) . The route crosses southern Ohio via Hillsboro , Chillicothe , and Athens , joining the four @-@ lane divided Corridor D ( State Route 32 ) west of Athens . It meets the Ohio River around Belpre , and crosses the newer Blennerhassett Island Bridge ( previously crossing the Parkersburg @-@ Belpre Bridge ) into greater Parkersburg , West Virginia .
= = = Mid @-@ Atlantic states = = =
The portion of US 50 from Parkersburg , West Virginia to Winchester , Virginia follows the historic Northwestern Turnpike , which crosses the southern tip of Garrett County , Maryland . From Parkersburg to Interstate 79 east of Clarksburg , US 50 has been upgraded as part of the four @-@ lane divided Corridor D. US 50 is a curving two @-@ lane mountain road , east of Clarksburg through Grafton , a bit of Maryland , and Romney to Winchester . This portion of the road is so curvy that locals claim " you can meet yourself coming " . The land flattens out after the route crosses the Shenandoah Mountains east of Winchester , and it follows the old Little River Turnpike from Aldie to Fairfax and the newer Arlington Boulevard to Rosslyn , where it crosses the District of Columbia line on the west shore of the Potomac River and joins Interstate 66 on the Roosevelt Bridge .
Within the District , US 50 immediately exits the freeway onto Constitution Avenue along the north side of the National Mall and south of the White House . After turning north on 6th Street Northwest , it exits the city to the northeast on New York Avenue . Upon crossing into Maryland , it passes the south end of the Baltimore @-@ Washington Parkway and becomes the John Hanson Highway , a freeway to Annapolis . The portion of this highway east of the Capital Beltway ( I @-@ 95 / I @-@ 495 ) is also designated , but not signed as , Interstate 595 , and U.S. Route 301 joins from the south at Bowie . The freeway continues beyond Annapolis as the Blue Star Memorial Highway which crosses Chesapeake Bay on the Chesapeake Bay Bridge and continues to Queenstown . There the Blue Star Highway continues northeast as US 301 , while US 50 turns south , passing through Easton to Cambridge , and then east through Salisbury to Ocean City on the four @-@ lane divided Ocean Gateway . US 50 ends near the Atlantic Ocean shore at Baltimore Avenue ( Maryland Route 528 northbound ) ; its westbound beginning is one block to the west , at Philadelphia Avenue ( MD 528 southbound ) .
= = History = =
Before the creation of the Interstate Highway System after World War II , US 50 was a major east – west route . Numbered highways in the United States follow a pattern of odd numbers for north – south routes and even numbers for east – west routes , hence the designation of " 50 " for this route . In the preliminary report , approved by the Joint Board on Interstate Highways in late 1925 , US 50 ran from Wadsworth , Nevada to Annapolis , Maryland , passing through Pueblo , Colorado ; Kansas City , Missouri ; Tipton , Missouri ; St. Louis , Missouri ; Cincinnati , Ohio , and Washington , D.C. The route did not directly replace any auto trail , instead combining portions of many into one continuous route . It followed the historic Northwestern Turnpike across West Virginia , and portions of other historic roads . Major auto trails followed , including the Midland Trail in part of Indiana , Illinois , Missouri , and parts of Utah and Colorado . The National Old Trails Road ( Old Santa Fe Trail ) was designated in Kansas and eastern Colorado , and the Lincoln Highway was constructed in Nevada . In most states that had numbered their state highways , US 50 followed only one or two numbers across the state .
One major controversy related to the preliminary route of US 50 . The through route had been assigned to the Old Santa Fe Trail , while the spur U.S. Route 250 followed the competing New Santa Fe Trail to the south . As a compromise , the Joint Board on Interstate Highways approved a split configuration — U.S. Route 50N and U.S. Route 50S — in January . Another problem was in western Utah , where no improved road existed for US 50 to use . The final numbering plan , approved in November 1926 , left a gap in US 50 between Ely , Nevada and Thistle , Utah . Finally , rather than ending US 50 at Wadsworth , where the Lincoln and Victory Highways merged , it was sent over the Lincoln Highway 's Pioneer Branch , past the south side of Lake Tahoe , to Sacramento , California .
The gap in Utah was soon bypassed by taking US 50 to the north , crossing the Great Salt Lake Desert with U.S. Route 40 to Salt Lake City , and using long portions of U.S. Route 93 in Nevada and U.S. Route 89 in Utah . U.S. Route 6 was marked along the direct , but still partially unimproved , route in 1937 ; it was finally paved in 1952 , and US 50 was moved to it within a few years . Another straightening was made in 1976 , when US 50 in central Utah was moved south onto the new extension of Interstate 70 at the request of the National Highway 50 Federation , a group dedicated to promoting US 50 . Among other things , the group has unsuccessfully pushed for an extension of Interstate 70 west along US 50 to California .
The north – south split in Kansas was eliminated in the late 1950s , with the south route — which was to be US 250 — becoming part of US 50 , and most of US 50N becoming part of a new U.S. Route 56 . Another split was located between Athens , Ohio and Ellenboro , West Virginia from the late 1920s to the mid @-@ 1930s , when US 50 went back to its original southern route ; that U.S. Route 50N is now Ohio State Route 550 and part of West Virginia Route 16 .
At its west end , US 50 was extended south from Sacramento along U.S. Route 99 to Stockton and west to the San Francisco Bay Area , replacing U.S. Route 48 , by the early 1930s . US 50 was officially cut back to Sacramento in the 1964 renumbering , replaced by Interstate 580 , but remained on maps and signs for several more years . US 50 was extended east from Annapolis to Ocean City , Maryland in 1949 , three years prior to the opening of the Chesapeake Bay Bridge in 1952 ; this extension replaced Maryland Route 404 between Annapolis and Wye Mills and U.S. Route 213 between Wye Mills and Ocean City . Prior to the bridge opening , US 50 used a ferry across the Chesapeake Bay between Sandy Point and Matapeake and followed present @-@ day Maryland Route 8 between Matapeake and Stevensville before continuing east .
= = Major intersections = =
California
I ‑ 80 in West Sacramento
I ‑ 5 in Sacramento
Nevada
US 395 in Carson City . The highways travel concurrently through the city .
I ‑ 580 / US 395 in Carson City
US 95 in Fallon . The highways travel concurrently through the city .
US 93 in Ely . The highways travel concurrently to Majors Place .
US 6 in Ely . The highways travel concurrently to Delta , Utah .
Utah
I ‑ 15 north @-@ northeast of Holden . The highways travel concurrently to Scipio .
US 89 in Salina . The highways travel concurrently through the city .
I ‑ 70 / US 89 in Salina . I @-@ 70 / US 50 travels concurrently to south @-@ southwest of Mack , Colorado .
US 6 / US 191 west of Green River . US 6 / US 50 travels concurrently to Grand Junction , Colorado . US 50 / US 191 travels concurrently to west @-@ southwest of Thompson Springs .
Colorado
I ‑ 70 in Grand Junction
US 550 in Montrose
US 285 in Poncha Springs . The highways travel concurrently through the town .
I ‑ 25 / US 85 / US 87 in Pueblo . The highways travel concurrently through the city .
US 350 in La Junta
US 287 south of Wiley . The highways travel concurrently to Lamar .
US 287 / US 385 in Lamar . US 50 / US 385 travels concurrently to Granada .
US 385 / US 400 in Granada . US 50 / US 400 travels concurrently to west of Dodge City , Kansas .
Kansas
US 83 north @-@ northwest of Garden City . The highways travel concurrently to Garden City .
US 56 / US 283 in Dodge City . US 50 / US 56 travels concurrently to Kinsley . US 50 / US 283 travels concurrently to west @-@ southwest of Wright .
US 183 in Kinsley
US 281 south of St. John
I ‑ 135 / US 81 in Newton . The highways travel concurrently through the city .
US 77 in Florence . The highways travel concurrently on a roundabout at the intersection .
I ‑ 35 / I ‑ 335 in Emporia
I ‑ 35 east of Emporia . The highways travel concurrently to Lenexa .
US 75 south @-@ southeast of Olivet
US 59 in Ottawa . The highways travel concurrently to northeast of Ottawa .
US 56 in Gardner . The highways travel concurrently to Lenexa .
US 169 in Olathe . The highways travel concurrently to Lenexa .
I ‑ 35 / I ‑ 435 / US 56 / US 169 in Lenexa . I @-@ 435 / US 50 travels concurrently to Kansas City , Missouri .
US 69 in Overland Park
Missouri
I ‑ 49 / I ‑ 435 / I ‑ 470 / US 71 in Kansas City . I @-@ 470 / US 50 travel concurrently to Lee 's Summit .
US 13 in Warrensburg
US 65 in Sedalia
US 54 / US 63 in Jefferson City . US 50 / US 63 travels concurrently to north of Westphalia .
I ‑ 44 south @-@ southwest of Villa Ridge . The highways travel concurrently to the Sunset Hills – Kirkwood city line .
I ‑ 270 in Sunset Hills
I ‑ 44 / US 61 / US 67 on the Sunset Hills – Kirkwood city line . US 50 / US 61 / US 67 travels concurrently to Mehlville .
I ‑ 255 in Mehlville . The highways travel concurrently to Caseyville , Illinois .
Illinois
I ‑ 64 / I ‑ 255 in Caseyville . I @-@ 64 / US 50 travels concurrently to O 'Fallon .
US 51 in Sandoval . The highways travel concurrently through the village .
I ‑ 57 in Salem
US 45 northwest of Flora . The highways travel concurrently to east of Flora .
Indiana
US 41 / US 150 in Vincennes . US 41 / US 50 travels concurrently through the city . US 50 / US 150 travels concurrently to Shoals .
I ‑ 69 east of Washington
US 231 in Loogootee . The highways travel concurrently through the city .
I ‑ 65 in Seymour
US 31 in Seymour
US 421 in Versailles . The highways travel concurrently through the town .
I ‑ 275 in Greendale .
Ohio
US 27 / US 42 / US 52 / US 127 in Cincinnati
I ‑ 71 / I ‑ 75 in Cincinnati . I @-@ 71 / US 50 travels concurrently through the city .
I ‑ 471 in Cincinnati
US 52 in Cincinnati
US 68 in Fayetteville
US 62 in Hillsboro
US 23 / US 35 in Scioto Township . US 23 / US 50 travels concurrently through the township . US 35 / US 50 travels concurrently to Schrader .
US 33 in Athens . The highways travel concurrently to Athens Township .
West Virginia
I ‑ 77 east of Parkersburg
US 19 in Clarksburg
I ‑ 79 in Clarksburg
US 250 west @-@ southwest of Pruntytown . The highways travel concurrently to Pruntytown .
US 119 in Grafton
Maryland
US 219 in Red House
West Virginia
US 220 southeast of New Creek . The highways travel concurrently to Junction .
Virginia
US 11 / US 17 / US 522 in Winchester . US 11 / US 50 travels concurrently through the city . US 17 / US 50 travels concurrently to Paris . US 50 / US 522 travels concurrently to southeast of Winchester .
I ‑ 81 in Winchester
US 340 in Waterloo
US 15 in Gilberts Corner
I ‑ 66 in Fair Oaks
US 29 in Fairfax . The highways travel concurrently through the city .
I ‑ 495 on the Annandale – Merrifield – West Falls Church line
District of Columbia
I ‑ 66 in Washington . The highways travel concurrently through the city , to the Foggy Bottom neighborhood .
US 1 in Washington , in the National Mall . The highways travel concurrently to Mount Vernon Square .
I ‑ 395 in Washington , in Mount Vernon Square
Maryland
I ‑ 95 / I ‑ 495 in Lanham . The unsigned I @-@ 595 is entirely concurrent with US 50 from here to Annapolis .
US 301 in Bowie . The highways travel concurrently to southwest of Queenstown .
I ‑ 97 in Parole
US 13 in Salisbury . The highways travel concurrently around the northeastern corner of the city .
US 113 in Berlin
MD 528 in Ocean City
= = = Related U.S. Routes = = =
U.S. Route 150
U.S. Route 250
U.S. Route 350
U.S. Route 450
U.S. Route 550
U.S. Route 650
= = = Bannered routes = = =
U.S. Route 50 Alternate in Nevada
U.S. Route 50 Business in Pueblo , Colorado
U.S. Route 50 Business in Garden City , Kansas
U.S. Route 50 Business in Lawrenceville , Illinois
U.S. Route 50 Business in Belpre , Ohio
U.S. Route 50 Business in Salisbury , Maryland
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= X @-@ Men Legends II : Rise of Apocalypse =
X @-@ Men Legends II : Rise of Apocalypse is an action role @-@ playing game developed primarily by Raven Software and published by Activision . It is the follow up to 2004 's X @-@ Men Legends . It was first released in September 2005 for the GameCube , Microsoft Windows , N @-@ Gage , PlayStation 2 , PlayStation Portable and Xbox video game platforms . It is set after the events of X @-@ Men Legends and features the mutant supervillain Apocalypse as the primary antagonist .
The developers intended the game to have a greater sense of scale than its predecessor , and writers created a story where the villains known as the Brotherhood of Mutants would need to ally themselves with the heroic X @-@ Men to defeat a greater threat . High quality cinematics were created by Blur Studio . Online multiplayer was also added .
The game was well received by gaming critics on all platforms . Critics felt that the inclusion of online play , additional mutant powers , and a larger cast made the game an improvement over its predecessor . Some reviewers were critical of the game 's voice acting and felt that the gameplay was repetitive . It sold enough copies to be added to the budget line known as PlayStation 2 's Greatest Hits .
= = Gameplay = =
X @-@ Men Legends II is an action role @-@ playing game . It unites two Marvel Comics superhero teams , the heroic X @-@ Men and the villainous Brotherhood of Mutants as they together face the mutant supervillain Apocalypse and his minions . Players can choose up to four characters to use at once from a larger roster . Players unlock additional characters as they proceed through the game . Four players can play on one machine cooperatively , and players can join or leave at any time . The game also features online play for up to four players , a first for the series . A new game plus mode is included that allows players to play through the game a second time while retaining all character stats .
As characters gain experience points their mutant superpowers and unique abilities can be upgraded . Items found during gameplay can also be equipped to further enhance a character 's abilities . Characters can combine attacks to create a combo , in which two or more players punch or kick a single enemy at the same time . The character 's special abilities can also be used in the same manner to create a Super Combo which inflicts massive damage on enemies . Each character has several mutant powers that players can assign to controller buttons . The game also features a skirmish mode , which allows players to fight against each other or waves of computer @-@ controlled enemies .
X @-@ Men Legends II : Rise of Apocalypse features a central hub that players return to between missions . It is a designated area free from enemies , and its setting changes to coincide with the current act of the game . Here players can view loading screen art , cinematics , and comic book covers acquired during gameplay . Biographies of the X @-@ Men and their enemies can be accessed here . Players can also participate in an X @-@ Men trivia game which awards experience points for correct answers . Additionally , players can access the a virtual combat environment known as the Danger Room to play additional missions unlocked during gameplay .
The mobile phone version of the game is primarily a beat ' em up with role @-@ playing elements . Unlike the console versions the game plays as a side @-@ scroller in the same vein as the 1992 X @-@ Men arcade game . There are five selectable characters , and players upgrade each through experience points earned . Players control one character at a time , and can switch to another at the press of a button .
= = Synopsis = =
= = = Setting = = =
X @-@ Men Legends II : Rise of Apocalypse is not set in any particular Marvel Comics universe . The game takes place some time after the events of X @-@ Men Legends . The mutant supervillain Apocalypse , having witnessed the X @-@ Men 's defeat of Magneto remotely , declares that the Age of Apocalypse is nigh . Prior to the game 's campaign he kidnaps Professor X and Polaris for unknown purposes . Locations include a military prison in Greenland , the fictional mutant sanctuary of Genosha , the Savage Land and Egypt .
= = = Plot = = =
The game begins with the X @-@ Men and Brotherhood of Mutants uniting forces to save Professor X and Polaris . Cyclops , Storm , and Wolverine meet up with Magneto , Mystique , and Sabretooth at a military prison outpost in Greenland to free Professor X. Upon freeing him , the teams relocate to the fictional mutant haven of Genosha . They find the island ravaged by Apocalypse 's forces , and work through the wreckage and find out what he was searching for . They learn that Quicksilver was kidnapped by Apocalypse , who also kidnaps Beast from the X @-@ Mansion . Beast manages to point the team in the direction of the Savage Land , a secret prehistoric preserve in Antarctica .
The teams work their way through the Savage Land , temporarily hindering Apocalypse 's plans . Apocalypse then travels to conquer New York . The teams work at sabotaging his army and resources , but Emma Frost and Angel are kidnapped as well . Angel is unwillingly transformed by Apocalypse and Mister Sinister into Archangel , a Horsemen of Apocalypse . He is assigned as a sentry to Apocalypse 's tower . The teams defeat Archangel and infiltrate the tower where they find Beast , now under the control of Mister Sinister ; he kidnaps Sabretooth and escapes with Apocalypse and Mister Sinister to Egypt .
They learn that Apocalypse 's plan is to use Polaris , Quicksilver , Emma Frost , and Sabretooth — four mutants with what he refers to as Harmonic DNA — as part of a machine to fuel an experiment to grant him massive amounts of power . The teams then follow Apocalypse to Egypt where they defeat Mister Sinister , freeing Beast from Sinister 's control . After besting the final guard , the Living Monolith , the teams battle Apocalypse and defeat him by stealing the powers from his machine . In the final cutscene , Magneto and Professor X part once again as adversaries , noting that Apocalypse was defeated but not destroyed . Beast ponders why the machine did not work properly , wondering if sabotage was a factor . As the X @-@ Jet flies away , Sinister is seen on top of the pyramid , laughing , hinting that he sabotaged the machine .
= = = Characters = = =
Several playable characters return from X @-@ Men Legends , a and select members of the Brotherhood of Mutants are also playable . Some non @-@ playable X @-@ Men and Brotherhood characters appear during levels . In some instances dialogue throughout the game can be character @-@ to @-@ character specific , depending on the player character 's alignment and relationship with the non @-@ player character .
^ a Jubilee , Magma , and Psylocke do not appear in X @-@ Men Legends II . Beast and Emma Frost appear , but are not playable . ^ b Playable in the mobile version of the game ^ c Only appeared on PSP 's extra mission
= = Development and marketing = =
X @-@ Men Legends II : Rise of Apocalypse was announced on October 21 , 2004 , exactly one month after the release of X @-@ Men Legends . It was shown at Electronic Entertainment Expo ( E3 ) and San Diego Comic @-@ Con in 2005 . It was first released in North America on September 20 , 2005 for the Gamecube , PlayStation 2 , Xbox and Windows platforms . The PlayStation Portable version was released approximately one month later on October 19 , 2005 . It was released on the first @-@ generation N @-@ Gage handheld platform on October 31 , 2005 . A mobile phone version was launched on December 19 , 2005 . A playable demo was released for the Windows version of the game on November 3 , 2005 .
Developer Raven Software sought to expand on the preceding game 's scale . As such , characters were given additional powers to choose from . Locations were also made more diverse . " With the environments we tried to create [ something ] more exotic and organic " stated Dan Vondrak , Project Lead on X @-@ Men Legends II . Locations span from the fictional mutant haven of Genosha , to the Marvel Comics jungle known as the Savage Land , to ancient temples in Egypt . Raven Software collaborated directly with Marvel to write the game 's story . Man of Action , a group of former Marvel writers who were responsible for the previous game 's story , were not involved . The music was composed by Gregor Narholz . Gameplay and story aspects were adjusted to ensure that four players can play continuously , whereas in the previous game certain missions were limited to one player . The CGI cinematics were created by Blur Studio , who would go on to create cinematics for games such as Marvel : Ultimate Alliance and Star Wars : The Force Unleashed II .
Vicarious Visions 's engine powers Rise of Apocalypse and its predecessor . They also were responsible for the PlayStation Portable version of the game . Karthik Bala , CEO of Vicarious Visions felt strongly that the PSP version should have the same gameplay as the consoles . " One of our main goals [ ... ] was to really bring the depth and detail of the console game over to portable form on the PSP . " Four new exclusive characters were added to the PSP version along with nine new side missions . The control system had to be modified to accommodate the PSP 's fewer buttons . Online play is available on the PSP , both in ad @-@ hoc and infrastructure modes . Bala stated that it was a priority for his team . SuperVillain Studios was brought on to the project to focus on the online component of the game . Beenox ported X @-@ Men Legends II to Microsoft Windows .
= = Reception = =
X @-@ Men Legends II : Rise of Apocalypse received generally favorable reviews . All platforms hold aggregate scores in the 80 – 85 % range at aggregate review websites GameRankings and Metacritic . Reported scores at Metacritic ranged from 59 % to 100 % approval . According to the NPD Group , Rise of Apocalypse sold over 63 @,@ 000 units on the Xbox during the month of its release . It sold enough copies to be added to the budget line known as PlayStation 2 's Greatest Hits . PALGN 's Jeremy Jastrzab felt that Rise of Apocalypse " caters for X @-@ Men fans and if you can gather three others , you ’ re going to have a great time . " Tom Byron of 1UP.com praised several aspects of the game , and felt that amidst the The Incredible Hulk : Ultimate Destruction , Ultimate Spider @-@ Man and Fantastic Four game releases in 2005 X @-@ Men Legends II was the best release from Marvel that year .
Commentary on gameplay was generally positive . G4TV 's reviewer lauded the destructible environments , but felt that the gameplay lacked variation . The reviewer from VideoGamer.com noted that the co @-@ operative gameplay was strong , and that the addition of online play " opens the [ gameplay ] up to a wider range of people . " PALGN 's Jeremy Jastrzab felt that the game 's menus were convoluted and difficult to navigate , and also felt that the game began to drag near the end of the story . GameTrailers 's reviewer The inclusion of additional mutant powers and online gameplay were points of praise . GameSpot 's Greg Mueller praised the game 's vast cast of characters , destructible environments and unlockable content , but felt that the user interface was awkward . Mueller also felt that the game loaded content far too frequently . GamesRadar 's Raymond Padilla had similar complaints about the frequency and length of the game 's load times . Padilla praised the addition of online play and the automatic upgrade system .
Reviewers have high marks on the game 's cast of characters , but were divided in their opinions of the choice of voice actors . GameTrailers 's reviewer disliked that several famous X @-@ Men and Brotherhood characters were not playable , but appeared only as side characters . They also cited issues with voice acting and a convoluted story . Unlike the critic from GameTrailers , G4 's reviewer praised the overall story , and further praised the selection of characters for the cast . Greg Mueller of GameSpot also praised the game 's vast cast of characters .
Critics were split on their assessment of the game 's visuals . The reviewer from GameTrailers noted that the game 's visuals had improved greatly , citing the effects , environments and cinematics as some of the largest upgrades . Inversely GamesRadar 's Raymond Padilla felt that the game 's graphics felt dated . Steve Steinberg of GameSpy conceded that while the visuals were generally improved over the game 's predecessor , it still lacked in quality and variation . Steinberg stated that the characters now felt like " a part of the environments , as opposed to cut @-@ outs floating on top of it . " He noted that even with the improvements that players may lose their character amidst the environment , causing confusion .
The success of the X @-@ Men Legends series led Raven Software , Marvel , and Activision to create the video game Marvel : Ultimate Alliance , which was released on several consoles , handheld devices and Microsoft Windows in 2007 . Barking Lizards , Vicarious Visions and Beenox handled the ports for different platforms . Marvel : Ultimate Alliance was followed by Marvel : Ultimate Alliance 2 , jointly developed by Vicarious Visions , n @-@ Space and Savage Entertainment . Marvel Ultimate Alliance 2 was released on several consoles and handhelds in the fall of 2009 . Vicarious Visions developed the PS3 and Xbox 360 versions , while n @-@ Space developed the Nintendo DS , PSP and Wii versions . Savage Entertainment ported the version developed by n @-@ Space to the PSP .
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= Hurricane Nina ( 1957 ) =
Hurricane Nina was the final tropical storm and hurricane of the 1957 Pacific hurricane season and the last storm to form during the active Central Pacific hurricane season this year . This storm was named " Nina " because during this time , hurricanes in this basin were given names from the typhoon naming lists . This storm was the last to form during a series of typhoons to form in the Pacific in November .
Nina never made landfall while active , although some forecasts called for Nina to be the first hurricane to make landfall on Hawaii , but the hurricane veered west before hitting land . However , it came close enough to Hawaii to cause light damage and prompt evacuations . Nina was the first hurricane to affect the island of Kauai at that intensity . This storm was preceded by a winter storm that caused damaging surf along the north coast of Kauai and was both preceded and proceeded by cold fronts sweeping over Hawaii .
= = Meteorological history = =
On November 29 a disturbance in the ITCZ began gaining organization near Palmyra Island , which the ITCZ had been near for a week prior . The weather station on the island reported southwestern surface winds of 50 mph and a pressure of 1002 @.@ 7 mbar and that during the night , the wind velocity peaked at 70 mph . Because of an irregular schedule for reporting , the last report received from the weather station , obtained eighteen hours earlier , had reported only small winds and 1004 @.@ 7 mb pressure . Most noteworthy about this report was the 3 @-@ hour pressure tendency , which reported -3.2 mbar . Post @-@ analysis revealed that this tendency was an indication of tropical cyclone development .
After receiving the second report on the 29th , warnings were immediately put out on the cyclone , which was given the name " Nina " from the typhoon list . For 24 hours , the center of the storm was reported to be stationary as the weather on Palmyra was continuously abnormal , but the next day , an aircraft from the Air Force showed that the storm was 500 miles north of the island and that it had intensified to hurricane strength . After six more hours , Nina 's forward speed had quickly slowed 16 mph while the storm began a northward track , heading towards Kauai , but before reaching the island , the storm turned first to the north @-@ northwest on December 2 and then sharply to the west later that day .
On December 4 Nina had reached its peak intensity of 85 mph . At this time , a polar high pressure system moved off the coast of Japan . The system reached Nina on December 6 and forced the hurricane into a southward path . Twenty hours after the turn , the cold air from the system got trapped inside the circulation of Nina and caused the storm to rapidly dissipate . The last advisory on the system was issued early on December 7 while Nina was at depression strength south of Midway Atoll .
= = Preparations = =
Despite never moving onto land , Nina 's proximity to Hawaii and the forecasts for an imminent landfall resulted in massive evacuations . An estimated 300 people living in Hanapepe and Hanalei were forced to evacuate when the Hanalei River overflowed its banks . An estimated 1 @,@ 500 people on Kauai were evacuated to higher ground , where the Red Cross had established seven evacuation centers for these people to evacuate to . In addition , thirteen members of the United States Coast Guard were evacuated from low @-@ lying islands and harbors when they were threatened by rising tides triggered by the hurricane and the threat of flooding forced 420 military personnel and families in Waikiki 's Ft . Derussy and Ft . Armstrong as well as those living in Ft . Kamehameha , near Pearl Harbor to leave for higher ground . 270 were housed in Tripler Army Hospital and a temporary shelter was opened in Ft . Shafter , both of which were on high ground . In anticipation of Nina , 85 planes were flown away from Barber 's Point Naval Air Base to Midway and several commercial flights were cancelled until the storm had passed . There was also concern for the residents of the privately owned Niihau , the closest landmass to the center of Nina and 20 miles closer than Kauai . The island 's only communications was by boat and most attempts at reaching the island failed due to high surf .
= = Impact = =
Despite the evacuations , Nina 's closest approach to Hawaii was 120 miles away . However , it came close enough to bring winds and heavy rain to the islands . There were four deaths reported in connection to the storm . The first reported was on Oahu when Herman Palepana , a lineman in the Honolulu street department , was killed when he was electrocuted by a power line downed during Nina 's passing . Soon after , a sampan called the Setsu Maru sent a distress call reporting that the boat was sinking 10 miles east of Niihau . Even though the Navy sent the submarine rescue vessel Couchal and conducted an air @-@ seas search for the vessel , no trace of the sampan or the wreckage had been found . All three people aboard the boat were reported dead as a result . Another person in Hanapepe was injured when a tree came through a window in his house , causing minor forehead cuts . The phone lines to the county seat of Kauai County , Lihue , were broken during the hurricane . The Aloha Theater in Hanapepe had been flooded by up to three feet of water . Reports from the five major islands indicated that less than 50 homes had been damaged during the storm and roughly 12 of them being destroyed on Kauai alone . Another ship disaster occurred when the Greek freighter Margarita Chandris got caught in the storm 's winds while heading to Honolulu from Kobe . A distress call from the ship described the ship as " out of control " . The initial fears were that the winds from Nina would pull the ship closer to its center . These fears were made worse when the ship was found to be cargoless , making it easier to be moved by the waves . A later call said that the crew was unable to steer the ship . Three ships , the Rainier , the United States Coast Guard cutter Winnebago and the cargoliner President Monroe , were sent out to find and guide the Chandris to port . The Monroe finally found the freighter and guided it toward land until the Winnebago caught up . The cutter finally caught up to the Margarita Chandris and relieved the President Monroe and started planning to board and make repairs . Afterward , it was decided that the Margarita Chandris had enough fuel to drift into Honolulu alone . Nina 's proximity also caused heavy rains , with 20 @.@ 42 inches falling in Wainiha in 14 hours . Overall , Hurricane Nina was responsible for $ 100 @,@ 000 in damages ( 1957 USD ) , mostly from heavy surf , some of which measured 35 feet high .
= = = Records and naming = = =
While Nina was near Honolulu , it caused unusually high winds . When wind gusts of 82 mph were recorded at Honolulu airport during the storm , it set the record for highest wind gust ever recorded in that city . This was the first and last time a Central Pacific hurricane was named " Nina " . The name was not retired , but because of the use of a current naming list using the Hawaiian language , the name " Nina " will likely not be used again .
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= Tobruk ( video game ) =
Tobruk : The Clash of Armour is a turn @-@ based strategy video game developed by Data Design Systems and published by Personal Software Services . It was exclusively released in the United Kingdom for the Commodore 64 , ZX Spectrum and Amstrad CPC in 1987 . It is the eleventh instalment of the Strategic Wargames series . The game is set during the 1941 Siege of Tobruk of the Western Desert Campaign in World War II and revolves around the Allied forces attempts to overthrow German field marshal Erwin Rommel from the city .
The game is a turn @-@ based strategy which focuses mainly on tank combat and contains elements of arcade gameplay . In the game , the player controls the Axis powers and must capture and hold various Allied bases in both Italian Libya and British Egypt , with the city of Tobruk being the ultimate goal . The game received mixed reviews upon release ; critics were divided over the gameplay and were largely negative over its interface and tank mechanics .
= = Gameplay = =
The game is a top @-@ down turn @-@ based strategy which contains elements of arcade gameplay and focuses mainly on tank combat . It is a simulation of the 1941 Siege of Tobruk , a part of the Western Desert Campaign of World War II . The battle revolves around Australian and British ( collectively referred to Allied forces ) attempts to oust German field marshal Erwin Rommel from the city . If playing alone , the player controls the Axis powers and is not able to play on the side of the Allies unless a second player is involved . The main objective of the game is to capture and hold as many fortifications in Italian Libya as possible , with the city of Tobruk and the defence of Rommel being the ultimate goals .
The main display map of the game is focused on Cyrenaica , a representation of the Allied minefield that was laid in the Gazala Line between Gazala and Bir Hachieim . The Axis troops begin the game on the western side of the line , whilst Allied forces begin the offensive in British Egypt . A command box in the game provides the player with an instant report of a unit or landscape once hovered over ; data given on units includes their strength in terms of supply of infantry , provisions , artillery , and the number of moves that unit can make on one turn . Every two turns lasts one in @-@ game day and units are available to enter combat phases once a day is finished .
In a combat phase , the game shifts to an " arcade sequence " , which allows the player to control a tank in the Sahara Desert . The arcade sequence presents a menu of tank functions ; a gun turret , shell loading , firing and navigational buttons . Only one function can be used at a time ; in order to drive the tank , the player has to use the navigational buttons to manoeuvre . If the tank becomes under attack , the gun turret or shell @-@ firing mode must be activated for self @-@ defence . Both the arcade sequence and tank controlling is optional , however , and is not required to finish the game .
= = Background = =
Personal Software Services was founded in Coventry , England , by Gary Mays and Richard Cockayne in 1981 . The company were known for creating games that revolved around historic war battles and conflicts , such as Theatre Europe , Iwo Jima and Falklands ' 82 . The company had a partnership with French video game developer ERE Informatique , and published localised versions of their products to the United Kingdom . In 1986 , Cockayne took a decision to alter their products for release on 16 @-@ bit consoles , as he found that smaller 8 @-@ bit consoles such as the ZX Spectrum lacked the processing power for larger strategy games . The decision was falsely interpreted as " pull @-@ out " from the Spectrum market by a video game journalist . Following years of successful sales throughout the mid 1980s , Personal Software Services experienced financial difficulties , during a period where Cockayne later admitted that he " took his eye off the ball " . The company was acquired by Mirrorsoft in February 1987 , and was later dispossessed by the company due to strains of debt .
= = Reception = =
The game received mixed reviews upon release . Richard Blaine of Your Sinclair praised the game 's playability and value for money , stating that it provides an " interesting challenge " . Philippa Irving of Crash , however , criticised the playability and tank mechanics as " stunningly badly designed " and " unplayable " , whilst also stating that it was " rather unatmospheric " . Gary Rook of Sinclair User summarised that Tobruk was " pretty disappointing " and " nowhere near as successful " as its direct predecessor , Bismarck . Rook criticised the interface of the game as " clumsily " executed and not " half as good " as that of other strategy games at the time of release . Regarding the arcade sequences of the game , Michael Sandford of ZX Computing recommended any player to avoid them , as its difficulty would affect gameplay . However , Sandford praised the overall experience of the game , stating that it was " one of the best " wargames and endorsed it to anybody interested in the genre .
Mark Reed of Computer Gamer asserted that Tobruk was " undoubtedly one of the most enjoyable wargames ever " and heralded its originality and playability . Irving , however , criticised its authenticity ; stating that the game was lacking in both " elusive quality " and atmosphere . Rook found that the developers ' intention of attempting to " marry strategy gaming with arcade gaming " was unsuccessful and produced negative results . A 1993 Computer Gaming World survey of wargames agreed while giving the game one @-@ plus stars out of five , stating that " the simulation and arcade aspects denigrate each other 's appeal " .
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= Cyclone Kalunde =
Intense Tropical Cyclone Kalunde was the strongest storm of the 2002 – 03 South @-@ West Indian Ocean cyclone season . The eleventh named storm and sixth cyclone of the season , Kalunde formed on March 4 from an area of disturbed weather east @-@ southeast of Diego Garcia . The storm steadily strengthened and attained severe tropical storm intensity on March 6 . After starting a phase of rapid deepening , Kalunde attained cyclone intensity the next day . Kalunde attained its peak intensity on March 8 , as an intense tropical cyclone . It maintained its peak strength for a day ; shortly thereafter , the system began to weaken . After undergoing an eyewall replacement cycle , the storm brushed Rodrigues . Shortly after doing so , Kalunde weakened into a tropical cyclone and later a severe tropical storm . Two days later , on March 16 , the cyclone transitioned into an extratropical cyclone and dissipated the next day .
Cyclone Kalunde brought US $ 3 @.@ 15 million in damage to Rodrigues Island . A total of 1 @,@ 600 homes and 40 boats were damaged . Severe coastal damage took place across the island ; many roads were washed out . Power outages also occurred across the island , delaying residents access to information pertaining to Kalunde . About 80 percent of the drinking water was contaminated and the entire food crop was destroyed . However , no deaths were reported .
= = Meteorological history = =
An area of convection developed on March 3 several hundred miles to the east @-@ southeast of Diego Garcia . That day , Météo @-@ France ( MFR ) issued the first bulletin on Tropical Disturbance 14 while located 580 mi ( 930 km ) east @-@ southeast of Diego Garcia . In an environment of weak to moderate wind shear , MFR upgraded the system to tropical depression status . Later on March 4 , the Joint Typhoon Warning Center ( JTWC ) issued a Tropical Cyclone Formation Alert ( TCFA ) for the disturbance as shower activity increased , though it initially concentrated west @-@ southwest of the atmospheric circulation . MFR upgraded the depression to moderate tropical storm status at 0600 UTC on March 5 ; subsequently , the Meteorological Service of Mauritius assigned the system the name Kalunde . Moving west @-@ northwest , the JTWC issued their first warning on the system . Initially , Kalunde did not become much better organized even though deep convection was still increasing . Cyclone Kalunde steadily intensified over the next couple of days while performing a small clockwise loop . MFR upgraded Kalunde to severe tropical storm status at 1200 UTC on March 6 . At 1800 UTC , JTWC reported 1 @-@ minute sustained winds of 100 km / h ( 60 mph ) . On March 7 , Kalunde began to undergo rapid intensification , and at 0600 UTC the MFR upgraded it to a tropical cyclone . At the same time , JTWC also estimated winds of 120 km / h ( 75 mph ) , the equivalent of a Category 1 hurricane on the Saffir – Simpson hurricane wind scale ( SSHWS ) .
After the formation of an eye , Kalunde continued to intensify rapidly and at 1800 UTC March 7 MFR declared the system an intense cyclone . Simultaneously , JTWC estimated that Kalunde had attained winds of 215 km / h ( 135 mph ) while located several hundred miles south @-@ southwest of Diego Garcia . Continuing to trek southwest by a mid @-@ level ridge to the southeast , the rapid intensification trend continued until it leveled off early on March 8 . At this time , the JTWC reported winds of 255 km / h ( 160 mph ) , equivalent to Category 5 intensity on the SSHWS . Subsequently , MFR remarked that the system had reached its peak wind speed of 215 km / h ( 135 mph ) , as an intense tropical cyclone . After attaining peak intensity , MFR and the JTWC began to lower their intensity estimates as thunderstorms began to erode in the northwestern quadrant of the eyewall .
Moving slowly southwest , Intense Tropical Cyclone Kalunde underwent an eyewall replacement cyclone late on March 9 . The next day , the JTWC notes that Kalunde re @-@ intensified somewhat ; however , this is not supported by MFR ’ s estimates . While slowly approaching the small island of Rodrigues , Kalunde was estimated ( according to MFR ) to have winds of 140 km / h ( 85 mph ) . On March 12 , Kalunde passed 55 km ( 35 mi ) away from Rodrigues , and around that time the JTWC reported winds of 100 km / h ( 60 mph ) . MFR downgraded Kalunde to severe tropical storm status at 0000 UTC on March 14 . Twelve hours later , the center of circulation became exposed from the convection . Kalunde continued trekking south @-@ southeastward on the March 15 as it underwent extratropical transition . The JTWC stopped monitoring the low at 1200 UTC while estimating winds of 55 km / h ( 35 mph ) . At 1800 UTC on March 15 , MFR declared the system extratropical , located approximately 690 mi ( 1 @,@ 110 km ) south @-@ southeast of Rodrigues . The agency officially stopped tracking the system at 1200 UTC the next day though the storm finally dissipated on March 17 .
= = Preparations , impact , and aftermath = =
Prior to the storm 's arrival , a class four cyclone alert was issued for Rodrigues Island . Between March 11 and 13 , flights to and from Rodrigues were canceled due to high winds . In addition , Cyclone Kalunde briefly posed a threat to Mauritius .
Severe coastal damage took place across Rodrigues . Many roads were washed out , isolating many communities . Wind gusts estimated up to 210 km / h ( 130 mph ) destroyed the island 's power and telecommunications grid , leaving the entire populous without power . Communication lines between Rodrigues and nearby Mauritius were also cut . Hospitals were also without electricity ; one operation had to be done using a torch light . Because communication was lost during Kalunde 's passage , residents lacked information about the storm for several hours . About 80 percent of the drinking water was contaminated and food crop on the island was washed away . During the storm 's three @-@ day passage of the island , 329 @.@ 1 mm ( 12 @.@ 96 in ) of rain fell . A total of 1 @,@ 600 homes and 40 boats were damaged and losses across the island amounted to € 3 @.@ 4 million ( US $ 3 @.@ 15 million ) .
In the wake of the storm , the French Red Cross supplied 1 @.@ 5 tons of supplies to approximately 10 @,@ 000 people victims of Kalunde . Mauritius Deputy Prime Minister Paul Berenger visited the island Friday to assess the damage while another official called on Mauritius officials to contribute to a cyclone relief fund for the island group . Twenty technicians were also sent to the area in wake of the storm . Officials estimated that it would take five weeks for power to be fully restored across Rodrigues . They also stated that if a similar situation took place and people were in need of emergency services , no one would be able to receive them . Furthermore , they proposed that bridges would to be built in order to forestall roads from being washed out again .
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= L 'Orfeo =
L 'Orfeo ( SV 318 ) ( Italian pronunciation : [ lorˈfɛːo ] ) , sometimes called La favola d 'Orfeo [ la ˈfaːvola dorˈfɛːo ] , is a late Renaissance / early Baroque favola in musica , or opera , by Claudio Monteverdi , with a libretto by Alessandro Striggio . It is based on the Greek legend of Orpheus , and tells the story of his descent to Hades and his fruitless attempt to bring his dead bride Eurydice back to the living world . It was written in 1607 for a court performance during the annual Carnival at Mantua . While Jacopo Peri 's Dafne is generally recognised as the first work in the opera genre , and the earliest surviving opera is Peri 's Euridice , L 'Orfeo is the earliest that is still regularly performed .
By the early 17th century the traditional intermedio — a musical sequence between the acts of a straight play — was evolving into the form of a complete musical drama or " opera " . Monteverdi 's L 'Orfeo moved this process out of its experimental era and provided the first fully developed example of the new genre . After its initial performance the work was staged again in Mantua , and possibly in other Italian centres in the next few years . Its score was published by Monteverdi in 1609 and again in 1615 . After the composer 's death in 1643 the opera went unperformed for many years , and was largely forgotten until a revival of interest in the late 19th century led to a spate of modern editions and performances . At first these performances tended to be concert ( unstaged ) versions within institutes and music societies , but following the first modern dramatised performance in Paris , in 1911 , the work began to be seen in theatres . After the Second World War many recordings were issued , and the opera was increasingly staged in opera houses , although some leading venues resisted it . In 2007 the quatercentenary of the premiere was celebrated by performances throughout the world .
In his published score Monteverdi lists around 41 instruments to be deployed , with distinct groups of instruments used to depict particular scenes and characters . Thus strings , harpsichords and recorders represent the pastoral fields of Thrace with their nymphs and shepherds , while heavy brass illustrates the underworld and its denizens . Composed at the point of transition from the Renaissance era to the Baroque , L 'Orfeo employs all the resources then known within the art of music , with particularly daring use of polyphony . The work is not orchestrated as such ; in the Renaissance tradition instrumentalists followed the composer 's general instructions but were given considerable freedom to improvise .
= = Historical background = =
Claudio Monteverdi , born in Cremona in 1567 , was a musical prodigy who studied under Marc 'Antonio Ingegneri , the maestro di cappella ( head of music ) at Cremona Cathedral . After training in singing , strings playing and composition , Monteverdi worked as a musician in Verona and Milan until , in 1590 or 1591 , he secured a post as suonatore di vivuola ( viola player ) at Duke Vincenzo Gonzaga 's court at Mantua . Through ability and hard work Monteverdi rose to become Gonzaga 's maestro della musica ( master of music ) in 1601 .
Vincenzo Gonzaga 's particular passion for musical theatre and spectacle grew from his family connections with the court of Florence . Towards the end of the 16th century innovative Florentine musicians were developing the intermedio — a long @-@ established form of musical interlude inserted between the acts of spoken dramas — into increasingly elaborate forms . Led by Jacopo Corsi , these successors to the renowned Camerata were responsible for the first work generally recognised as belonging to the genre of opera : Dafne , composed by Corsi and Jacopo Peri and performed in Florence in 1598 . This work combined elements of madrigal singing and monody with dancing and instrumental passages to form a dramatic whole . Only fragments of its music still exist , but several other Florentine works of the same period — Rappresentatione di Anima , et di Corpo by Emilio de ' Cavalieri , Peri 's Euridice and Giulio Caccini 's identically titled Euridice — survive complete . These last two works were the first of many musical representations of the Orpheus myth as recounted in Ovid 's Metamorphoses , and as such were direct precursors of Monteverdi 's L 'Orfeo .
The Gonzaga court had a long history of promoting dramatic entertainment . A century before Duke Vincenzo 's time the court had staged Angelo Poliziano 's lyrical drama La favola di Orfeo , at least half of which was sung rather than spoken . More recently , in 1598 Monteverdi had helped the court 's musical establishment produce Giovanni Battista Guarini 's play Il pastor fido , described by theatre historian Mark Ringer as a " watershed theatrical work " which inspired the Italian craze for pastoral drama . On 6 October 1600 , while visiting Florence for the wedding of Maria de ' Medici to King Henry IV of France , Duke Vincenzo attended a production of Peri 's Euridice . It is likely that his principal musicians , including Monteverdi , were also present at this performance . The Duke quickly recognised the novelty of this new form of dramatic entertainment , and its potential for bringing prestige to those prepared to sponsor it .
= = Creation = =
= = = Libretto = = =
Among those present at the Euridice performance in October 1600 was a young lawyer and career diplomat from Gonzaga 's court , Alessandro Striggio , son of a well @-@ known composer of the same name . The younger Striggio was himself a talented musician ; as a 16 @-@ year @-@ old , he had played the viol at the wedding festivities of Duke Ferdinando of Tuscany in 1589 . Together with Duke Vincent 's two young sons , Francesco and Fernandino , he was a member of Mantua 's exclusive intellectual society , the Accademia degli Invaghiti , which provided the chief outlet for the city 's theatrical works . It is not clear at what point Striggio began his libretto for L 'Orfeo , but work was evidently under way in January 1607 . In a letter written on 5 January , Francesco Gonzago asks his brother , then attached to the Florentine court , to obtain the services of a high quality castrato from the Grand Duke 's establishment , for a " play in music " being prepared for the Mantuan Carnival .
Striggio 's main sources for his libretto were Books 10 and 11 of Ovid 's Metamorphoses and Book Four of Virgil 's Georgics . These provided him with the basic material , but not the structure for a staged drama ; the events of Acts 1 and 2 of the libretto are covered by a mere 13 lines in the Metamorphoses . For help in creating a dramatic form , Striggio drew on other sources — Poliziano 's 1480 play , Guarini 's Il pastor fido , and Ottavio Rinuccini 's libretto for Peri 's Euridice . Musicologist Gary Tomlinson remarks on the many similarities between Striggio 's and Rinuccini 's texts , noting that some of the speeches in L 'Orfeo " correspond closely in content and even in locution to their counterparts in L 'Euridice " . The critic Barbara Russano Hanning writes that Striggio 's verses are less subtle than those of Rinuccini , although the structure of Striggio 's libretto is more interesting . Rinuccini , whose work had been written for the festivities accompanying a Medici wedding , was obliged to alter the myth to provide a " happy ending " suitable for the occasion . By contrast , because Striggio was not writing for a formal court celebration he could be more faithful to the spirit of the myth 's conclusion , in which Orfeo is killed and dismembered by deranged maenads or " Bacchantes " . He chose , in fact , to write a somewhat muted version of this bloody finale , in which the Bacchantes threaten Orfeo 's destruction but his actual fate is left in doubt .
The libretto was published in Mantua in 1607 to coincide with the premiere incorporates Striggio 's ambiguous ending . However , Monteverdi 's score published in Venice in 1609 by Ricciardo Amadino shows an entirely different resolution , with Orpheus transported to the heavens through the intervention of Apollo . According to Ringer , Striggio 's original ending was almost certainly used at the opera 's premiere , but there is no doubt that Monteverdi believed the revised ending was aesthetically correct . The musicologist Nino Pirrotta argues that the Apollo ending was part of the original plan for the work , but was not staged at the premiere because the small room which hosted the event could not contain the theatrical machinery that this ending required . The Bacchantes scene was a substitution ; Monteverdi 's intentions were restored when this constraint was removed .
= = = Composition = = =
When Monteverdi composed L 'Orfeo he had a thorough grounding in theatrical music . He had been employed at the Gonzaga court for 16 years , much of it as a performer or arranger of stage music , and in 1604 he had written the ballo Gli amori di Diane ed Endimone for the 1604 – 05 Mantua Carnival . The elements from which Monteverdi constructed his first opera score — the aria , the strophic song , recitative , choruses , dances , dramatic musical interludes — were , as conductor Nikolaus Harnoncourt has pointed out , not created by him , but " he blended the entire stock of newest and older possibilities into a unity that was indeed new " . Musicologist Robert Donington writes similarly : " [ The score ] contains no element which was not based on precedent , but it reaches complete maturity in that recently @-@ developed form ... Here are words as directly expressed in music as [ the pioneers of opera ] wanted them expressed ; here is music expressing them ... with the full inspiration of genius . "
Monteverdi states the orchestral requirements at the beginning of his published score , but in accordance with the practice of the day he does not specify their exact usage . At that time it was usual to allow each interpreter of the work freedom to make local decisions , based on the orchestral forces at their disposal . These could differ sharply from place to place . Furthermore , as Harnoncourt points out , the instrumentalists would all have been composers and would have expected to collaborate creatively at each performance , rather than playing a set text . Another practice of the time was to allow singers to embellish their arias . Monteverdi wrote plain and embellished versions of some arias , such as Orfeo 's " Possente spirto " , but according to Harnoncourt " it is obvious that where he did not write any embellishments he did not want any sung " .
Each act of the opera deals with a single element of the story , and each ends with a chorus . Despite the five @-@ act structure , with two sets of scene changes , it is likely that L 'Orfeo conformed to the standard practice for court entertainments of that time and was played as a continuous entity , without intervals or curtain descents between acts . It was the contemporary custom for scene shifts to take place in sight of the audience , these changes being reflected musically by changes in instrumentation , key and style .
= = = Instrumentation = = =
For the purpose of analysis the music scholar Jane Glover has divided Monteverdi 's list of instruments into three main groups : strings , brass and continuo , with a few further items not easily classifiable . The strings grouping is formed from ten members of the violin family ( viole da brazzo ) , two double basses ( contrabassi de viola ) , and two small violins ( violini piccoli alla francese ) . The viole da brazzo are in two five @-@ part ensembles , each comprising two violins , two violas and a cello . The brass group contains four or five trombones ( sackbuts ) , three trumpets and two cornetts . The continuo forces include two harpsichords ( duoi gravicembani ) , a double harp ( arpa doppia ) , two or three chitarroni , two pipe organs ( organi di legno ) , three bass viola da gamba , and a regal or small reed organ . Outside of these groupings are two recorders ( flautini alla vigesima secunda ) , and possibly one or more citterns — unlisted by Monteverdi , but included in instructions relating to the end of Act 4 .
Instrumentally , the two worlds represented within the opera are distinctively portrayed . The pastoral world of the fields of Thrace is represented by the strings , harpsichords , harp , organs , recorders and chitarroni . The remaining instruments , mainly brass , are associated with the Underworld , though there is not an absolute distinction ; strings appear on several occasions in the Hades scenes . Within this general ordering , specific instruments or combinations are used to accompany some of the main characters — Orpheus by harp and organ , shepherds by harpsichord and chitarrone , the Underworld gods by trombones and regal . All of these musical distinctions and characterisations were in accordance with the longstanding traditions of the Renaissance orchestra , of which the large L 'Orfeo ensemble is typical .
Monteverdi instructs his players generally to " [ play ] the work as simply and correctly as possible , and not with many florid passages or runs " . Those playing ornamentation instruments such as strings and flutes are advised to " play nobly , with much invention and variety " , but are warned against overdoing it , whereby " nothing is heard but chaos and confusion , offensive to the listener . " Since at no time are all the instruments played together , the number of players needed is less than the number of instruments . Harnoncourt indicates that in Monteverdi 's day the numbers of players and singers together , and the small rooms in which performances were held , often meant that the audience barely numbered more than the performers .
= = Roles = =
In his personaggi listed in the 1609 score , Monteverdi unaccountably omits La messaggera ( the Messenger ) , and indicates that the final chorus of shepherds who perform the moresca ( Moorish dance ) at the opera 's end are a separate group ( che fecero la moresca nel fine ) . Little information is available about who sang the various roles in the first performance . A letter published at Mantua in 1612 records that the distinguished tenor and composer Francesco Rasi took part , and it is generally assumed that he sang the title role . Rasi could sing in both the tenor and bass ranges " with exquisite style ... and extraordinary feeling " . The involvement in the premiere of a Florentine castrato , Giovanni Gualberto Magli , is confirmed by correspondence between the Gonzaga princes . Magli sang the prologue , Proserpina and possibly one other role , either La messaggera or Speranza . The musicologist and historian Hans Redlich mistakenly allocates Magli to the role of Orfeo .
A clue about who played Euridice is contained in a 1608 letter to Duke Vincenzo . It refers to " that little priest who performed the role of Euridice in the Most Serene Prince 's Orfeo " . This priest was possibly Padre Girolamo Bacchini , a castrato known to have had connections to the Mantuan court in the early 17th century . The Monteverdi scholar Tim Carter speculates that two prominent Mantuan tenors , Pandolfo Grande and Francesco Campagnola may have sung minor roles in the premiere .
There are solo parts for four shepherds and three spirits . Carter calculates that through the doubling of roles that the text allows , a total of ten singers — three sopranos , two altos , three tenors and two basses — is required for a performance , with the soloists ( except Orfeo ) also forming the chorus . Carter 's suggested role @-@ doublings include La musica with Euridice , Ninfa with Proserpina and La messaggera with Speranza .
= = Synopsis = =
The action takes place in two contrasting locations : the fields of Thrace ( Acts 1 , 2 and 5 ) and the Underworld ( Acts 3 and 4 ) . An instrumental toccata ( English : " tucket " , meaning a flourish on trumpets ) precedes the entrance of La musica , representing the " spirit of music " , who sings a prologue of five stanzas of verse . After a gracious welcome to the audience she announces that she can , through sweet sounds , " calm every troubled heart . " She sings a further paean to the power of music , before introducing the drama 's main protagonist , Orfeo , who " held the wild beasts spellbound with his song " .
= = = Act 1 = = =
After La musica 's final request for silence , the curtain rises on Act 1 to reveal a pastoral scene . Orfeo and Euridice enter together with a chorus of nymphs and shepherds , who act in the manner of a Greek chorus , commenting on the action both as a group and as individuals . A shepherd announces that this is the couple 's wedding day ; the chorus responds , first in a stately invocation ( " Come , Hymen , O come " ) and then in a joyful dance ( " Leave the mountains , leave the fountains " ) . Orfeo and Euridice sing of their love for each other before leaving with most of the group for the wedding ceremony in the temple . Those left on stage sing a brief chorus , commenting on how Orfeo used to be one " for whom sighs were food and weeping was drink " before love brought him to a state of sublime happiness .
= = = Act 2 = = =
Orfeo returns with the main chorus , and sings with them of the beauties of nature . Orfeo then muses on his former unhappiness , but proclaims : " After grief one is more content , after pain one is happier " . The mood of contentment is abruptly ended when La messaggera enters , bringing the news that , while gathering flowers , Euridice has received a fatal snakebite . The chorus expresses its anguish : " Ah , bitter happening , ah , impious and cruel fate ! " , while the Messaggera castigates herself as the bearing of bad tidings ( " For ever I will flee , and in a lonely cavern lead a life in keeping with my sorrow " ) . Orfeo , after venting his grief and incredulity ( " Thou art dead , my life , and I am breathing ? " ) , declares his intention to descend into the Underworld and persuade its ruler to allow Euridice to return to life . Otherwise , he says , " I shall remain with thee in the company of death " . He departs , and the chorus resumes its lament .
= = = Act 3 = = =
Orfeo is guided by Speranza to the gates of Hades . Having pointed out the words inscribed on the gate ( " Abandon hope , all ye who enter here " ) , Speranza leaves . Orfeo is now confronted with the ferryman Caronte , who addresses Orfeo harshly and refuses to take him across the river Styx . Orfeo attempts to persuade Caronte by singing a flattering song to him ( " Mighty spirit and powerful divinity " ) , but the ferryman is unmoved . However , when Orfeo takes up his lyre and plays , Caronte is soothed into sleep . Seizing his chance , Orfeo steals the ferryman 's boat and crosses the river , entering the Underworld while a chorus of spirits reflects that nature cannot defend herself against man : " He has tamed the sea with fragile wood , and disdained the rage of the winds . "
= = = Act 4 = = =
In the Underworld , Proserpina , Queen of Hades , who has been deeply affected by Orfeo 's singing , petitions King Plutone , her husband , for Euridice 's release . Moved by her pleas , Plutone agrees on the condition that , as he leads Euridice towards the world , Orfeo must not look back . If he does , " a single glance will condemn him to eternal loss " . Orfeo enters , leading Euridice and singing confidently that on that day he will rest on his wife 's white bosom . But as he sings a note of doubt creeps in : " Who will assure me that she is following ? " . Perhaps , he thinks , Plutone , driven by envy , has imposed the condition through spite ? Suddenly distracted by an off @-@ stage commotion , Orfeo looks round ; immediately , the image of Euridice begins to fade . She sings , despairingly : " Losest thou me through too much love ? " and disappears . Orfeo attempts to follow her but is drawn away by an unseen force . The chorus of spirits sings that Orfeo , having overcome Hades , was in turn overcome by his passions .
= = = Act 5 = = =
Back in the fields of Thrace , Orfeo has a long soliloquy in which he laments his loss , praises Euridice 's beauty and resolves that his heart will never again be pierced by Cupid 's arrow . An off @-@ stage echo repeats his final phrases . Suddenly , in a cloud , Apollo descends from the heavens and chastises him : " Why dost thou give thyself up as prey to rage and grief ? " He invites Orfeo to leave the world and join him in the heavens , where he will recognise Euridice 's likeness in the stars . Orfeo replies that it would be unworthy not to follow the counsel of such a wise father , and together they ascend . A shepherds ' chorus concludes that " he who sows in suffering shall reap the fruit of every grace " , before the opera ends with a vigorous moresca .
= = = Original libretto ending = = =
In Striggio 's 1607 libretto , Orfeo 's Act 5 soliloquy is interrupted , not by Apollo 's appearance but by a chorus of maenads or Bacchantes — wild , drunken women — who sing of the " divine fury " of their master , the god Bacchus . The cause of their wrath is Orfeo and his renunciation of women ; he will not escape their heavenly anger , and the longer he evades them the more severe his fate will be . Orfeo leaves the scene and his destiny is left uncertain , as the Bacchantes devote themselves for the rest of the opera to wild singing and dancing in praise of Bacchus . The early music authority Claude Palisca believes that the two endings are not incompatible ; Orfeo might evade the fury of the Bacchantes and be rescued by Apollo .
= = Reception and performance history = =
= = = Premiere and early performances = = =
The date for the first performance of L 'Orfeo , 24 February 1607 , is evidenced by two letters , both dated 23 February . In the first , Francesco Gonzaga informs his brother that the " musical play " will be performed tomorrow ; it is clear from earlier correspondence that this refers to L 'Orfeo . The second letter is from a Gonzaga court official , Carlo Magno , and gives more details : " Tomorrow evening the Most Serene Lord the Prince is to sponsor a [ play ] in a room in the apartments which the Most Serene Lady had the use of ... it should be most unusual , as all the actors are to sing their parts . " The " Serene Lady " is Duke Vincenzo 's widowed sister Margherita Gonzaga d 'Este , who lived within the Ducal Palace . The room of the premiere cannot be identified with certainty ; according to Ringer , it may have been the Galleria dei Fiumi , which has the dimensions to accommodate a stage and orchestra with space for a small audience .
There is no detailed account of the premiere , although Francesco wrote on 1 March that the work had " been to the great satisfaction of all who heard it " , and had particularly pleased the Duke . The Mantuan court theologian and poet , Cherubino Ferrari wrote that : " Both poet and musician have depicted the inclinations of the heart so skilfully that it could not have been done better ... The music , observing due propriety , serves the poetry so well that nothing more beautiful is to be heard anywhere " . After the premiere Duke Vincenzo ordered a second performance for 1 March ; a third performance was planned to coincide with a proposed state visit to Mantua by the Duke of Savoy . Francesco wrote to the Duke of Tuscany on 8 March , asking if he could retain the services of the castrato Magli for a little longer . However , the visit was cancelled , as was the celebratory performance .
There are suggestions that in the years following the premiere , L 'Orfeo may have been staged in Florence , Cremona , Milan and Turin , though firmer evidence suggests that the work attracted limited interest beyond the Mantuan court . Francesco may have mounted a production in Casale Monferrato , where he was governor , for the 1609 – 10 Carnival , and there are indications that the work was performed on several occasions in Salzburg between 1614 and 1619 , under the direction of Francesco Rasi . Years later , during the first flourish of Venetian opera in 1637 – 43 , Monteverdi chose to revive his second opera , L 'Arianna there , but not L 'Orfeo . There is some evidence of performances shortly after Monteverdi 's death : in Geneva in 1643 , and in Paris , at the Louvre , in 1647 . Although according to Carter the work was still admired across Italy in the 1650s , it was subsequently forgotten , as largely was Monteverdi , until the revival of interest in his works in the late 19th century .
= = = 20th @-@ century revivals = = =
After years of neglect , Monteverdi 's music began to attract the interest of pioneer music historians in the late 18th and early 19th centuries , and from the second quarter of the 19th century onwards he is discussed increasingly in scholarly works . In 1881 a truncated version of the L 'Orfeo score , intended for study rather than performance , was published in Berlin by Robert Eitner . In 1904 the composer Vincent d 'Indy produced an edition in French , which comprised only Act 2 , a shortened Act 3 and Act 4 . This edition was the basis of the first public performance of the work in two @-@ and @-@ a @-@ half centuries , a concert performance at d 'Indy 's Schola Cantorum on 25 February 1904 . The distinguished writer Romain Rolland , who was present , commended d 'Indy for bringing the opera to life and returning it " to the beauty it once had , freeing it from the clumsy restorations which have disfigured it " — presumably a reference to Eitner 's edition . The d 'Indy edition was also the basis of the first modern staged performance of the work , at the Théâtre Réjane , Paris , on 2 May 1911 .
An edition of the score by the minor Italian composer Giovanni Orefice received several concert performances in Italy and elsewhere before and after the First World War . This edition was the basis of the opera 's United States debut , another concert performance at the New York Met in April 1912 . The opera was introduced to London , in d 'Indy 's edition , when it was sung to piano accompaniment at the Institut Français on 8 March 1924 . The first British staged performance , with only small cuts , was given by the Oxford University Operatic Society on 7 December 1925 , using an edition prepared for the event by Jack Westrup . In the London Saturday Review , music critic Dyneley Hussey called the occasion " one of the most important events of recent years " ; the production had " indicated at once Monteverdi 's claim to rank among the great geniuses who have written dramatic music " . Westrup 's edition was revived in London at the Scala Theatre in December 1929 , the same year in which the opera received its first US staged performance , at Smith College , Northampton , Massachusetts . The three Scala performances resulted in a financial disaster , and the opera was not seen again in Britain for 35 years .
Among a flurry of revivals after 1945 was Paul Hindemith 's edition , a full period reconstruction of the work prepared in 1943 , which was staged and recorded at the Vienna Festival in 1954 . This performance had a great impact on the young Nikolaus Harnoncourt , and was hailed as a masterpiece of scholarship and integrity . The first staged New York performance , by the New York City Opera under Leopold Stokowski on 29 September 1960 , saw the American operatic debut of Gérard Souzay , one of several baritones who have sung the role of Orfeo . The theatre was criticised by New York Times critic Harold C. Schonberg because , to accommodate a performance of Luigi Dallapiccola 's contemporary opera Il prigioniero , about a third of L 'Orfeo was cut . Schonberg wrote : " Even the biggest aria in the opera , " Possente spirito " , has a good @-@ sized slash in the middle ... [ L 'Orfeo ] is long enough , and important enough , not to mention beautiful enough , to have been the entire evening 's opera . "
By the latter part of the 20th century the opera was being shown all over the world . In 1965 , Sadler 's Wells , forerunner of English National Opera ( ENO ) , staged the first of many ENO presentations which would continue into the 21st century . Among various celebrations marking the opera 's 400th anniversary in 2007 were a semi @-@ staged performance at the Teatro Bibiena in Mantua , a full @-@ scale production by the English Bach Festival ( EBF ) at the Whitehall Banqueting House in London on 7 February , and an unconventional production by Glimmerglass Opera in Cooperstown , New York , conducted by Antony Walker and directed by Christopher Alden . On 6 May 2010 the BBC broadcast a performance of the opera from La Scala , Milan . Despite the reluctance of some major opera houses to stage L 'Orfeo , it is a popular work with the leading Baroque ensembles . During the period 2008 – 10 the French @-@ based Les Arts Florissants , under its director William Christie , has presented the Monteverdi trilogy of operas ( L 'Orfeo , Il ritorno d 'Ulisse and L 'incoronazione di Poppea ) in a series of performances at the Teatro Real in Madrid .
= = Music = =
L 'Orfeo is , in Redlich 's analysis , the product of two musical epochs . It combines elements of the traditional madrigal style of the 16th century with those of the emerging Florentine mode , in particular the use of recitative and monodic singing as developed by the Camerata and their successors . In this new style , the text dominates the music ; while sinfonias and instrumental ritornelli illustrate the action , the audience 's attention is always drawn primarily to the words . The singers are required to do more than produce pleasant vocal sounds ; they must represent their characters in depth and convey appropriate emotions .
Monterverdi 's recitative style was influenced by Peri 's , in Euridice , although in L 'Orfeo recitative is less preponderant than was usual in dramatic music at this time . It accounts for less than a quarter of the first act 's music , around a third of the second and third acts , and a little under half in the final two acts .
The importance of L 'Orfeo is not that it was the first work of its kind , but that it was the first attempt to apply the full resources of the art of music , as then evolved , to the nascent genre of opera . In particular , Monteverdi made daring innovations in the use of polyphony , of which Palestrina had been the principal exponent . In L 'Orfeo , Monteverdi extends the rules , beyond the conventions which polyphonic composers , faithful to Palestrina , had previously considered as sacrosanct . Monteverdi was not in the generally understood sense an orchestrator ; Ringer finds that it is the element of instrumental improvisation that makes each performance of a Monteverdi opera a " unique experience , and separates his work from the later operatic canon . "
The opera begins with a martial @-@ sounding toccata for trumpets which is repeated twice . When played on period wind instruments the sound can be startling to modern audiences ; Redlich calls it " shattering " . Such flourishes were the standard signal for the commencement of performances at the Mantuan court ; the opening chorus of Monteverdi 's 1610 Vespers , also composed for Gonzaga 's court , employs the same fanfare . The toccata acted as a salute to the Duke ; according to Donington , if it had not been written , precedent would have required it to be improvised . As the brass sound of the toccata fades , it is replaced by the gentler tone of the strings ritornello which introduces La musica 's prologue . The ritornello is repeated in shortened form between each of the prologue 's five verses , and in full after the final verse . Its function within the opera as a whole is to represent the " power of music " ; as such it is heard at the end of Act 2 , and again at the beginning of Act 5 , one of the earliest examples of an operatic leitmotiv . It is temporally structured as a palindrome and its form of strophic variations allows Monteverdi to carefully shape musical time for expressive and structural purposes in the context of seconda prattica .
After the Prologue , Act 1 follows in the form of a pastoral idyll . Two choruses , one solemn and one jovial are repeated in reverse order around the central love @-@ song " Rosa del ciel " ( " Rose of the heavens " ) , followed by the shepherds ' songs of praise . The buoyant mood continues into Act 2 , with song and dance music influenced , according to Harnoncourt , by Monteverdi 's experience of French music . The sudden entrance of La messaggera with the doleful news of Euridice 's death , and the confusion and grief which follow , are musically reflected by harsh dissonances and the juxtaposition of keys . The music remains in this vein until the act ends with La musica 's ritornello , a hint that the " power of music " may yet bring about a triumph over death . Monteverdi 's instructions as the act concludes are that the violins , the organ and harpsichord become silent and that the music is taken up by the trombones , the cornetts and the regal , as the scene changes to the Underworld .
The centrepiece of Act 3 , perhaps of the entire opera , is Orfeo 's extended aria " Possente spirto e formidabil nume " ( " Mighty spirit and powerful divinity " ) , by which he attempts to persuade Caronte to allow him to enter Hades . Monteverdi 's vocal embellishments and virtuoso accompaniment provide what Carter describes as " one of the most compelling visual and aural representations " in early opera . Instrumental colour is provided by a chitarrone , a pipe @-@ organ , two violins , two cornetts and a double @-@ harp . This array , according to music historian and analyst John Whenham , is intended to suggest that Orfeo is harnessing all the available forces of music to support his plea . In Act 4 the impersonal coldness of the Underworld is broken by the warmth of Proserpina 's singing on behalf of Orfeo , a warmth that is retained until the dramatic moment at which Orfeo " looks back " . The cold sounds of the sinfonia from the beginning of Act 3 then remind us that the Underworld is , after all , entirely devoid of human feeling . The brief final act , which sees Orfeo 's rescue and metamorphosis , is framed by the final appearance of La musica 's ritornello and the lively moresca that ends the opera . This dance , says Ringer , recalls the jigs danced at the end of Shakespeare 's tragedies , and provides a means of bringing the audience back to their everyday world , " just as the toccata had led them into another realm some two hours before . The toccata and the moresca unite courtly reality with operatic illusion . "
= = Recording history = =
The first recording of L 'Orfeo was issued in 1939 , a freely adapted version of Monteverdi 's music by Giacomo Benvenuti , given by the orchestra of La Scala Milan conducted by Ferrucio Calusio . In 1949 , for the recording of the complete opera by the Berlin Radio Orchestra under Helmut Koch , the new medium of long @-@ playing records ( LPs ) was used . The advent of LP recordings was , as Harold C. Schonberg later wrote , an important factor in the postwar revival of interest in Renaissance and Baroque music , and from the mid @-@ 1950s recordings of L 'Orfeo have been issued on many labels . The 1969 recording by Nikolaus Harnoncourt and the Vienna Concentus Musicus , using Harnoncourt 's edition based on period instruments , was praised for " making Monteverdi 's music sound something like the way he imagined " . In 1981 Siegfried Heinrich , with the Early Music Studio of the Hesse Chamber Orchestra , recorded a version which re @-@ created the original Striggio libretto ending , adding music from Monteverdi 's 1616 ballet Tirsi e Clori for the Bacchante scenes . Among more recent recordings , that of Emmanuelle Haïm in 2004 has been praised for its dramatic effect .
= = Editions = =
After the publication of the L 'Orfeo score in 1609 , the same publisher ( Ricciardo Amadino of Venice ) brought it out again in 1615 . Facsimiles of these editions were printed in 1927 and 1972 respectively . Since Eitner 's first " modern " edition of L 'Orfeo in 1884 , and d 'Indy 's performing edition 20 years later — both of which were abridged and adapted versions of the 1609 score — there have been many attempts to edit and present the work , not all of them published . Most of the editions that followed d 'Indy up to the time of the Second World War were arrangements , usually heavily truncated , that provided a basis for performances in the modern opera idiom . Many of these were the work of composers , including Carl Orff ( 1923 and 1939 ) and Ottorino Respighi in 1935 . Orff 's 1923 score , using a German text , included some period instrumentation , an experiment he abandoned when producing his later version .
In the post @-@ war period , editions have moved increasingly to reflect the performance conventions of Monteverdi 's day . This tendency was initiated by two earlier editions , that of Jack Westrup used in the 1925 Oxford performances , and Gian Francesco Malipiero 's 1930 complete edition which sticks closely to Monteverdi 's 1609 original . After the war , Hindemith 's attempted period reconstruction of the work was followed in 1955 by an edition from August Wenzinger that remained in use for many years . The next 30 years saw numerous editions , mostly prepared by scholar @-@ performers rather than by composers , generally aiming towards authenticity if not always the complete re @-@ creation of the original instrumentation . These included versions by Raymond Leppard ( 1965 ) , Denis Stevens ( 1967 ) , Nikolaus Harnoncourt ( 1969 ) , Jane Glover ( 1975 ) , Roger Norrington ( 1976 ) and John Eliot Gardiner . Only the composers Valentino Bucchi ( 1967 ) , Bruno Maderna ( 1967 ) and Luciano Berio ( 1984 ) produced editions based on the convention of a large modern orchestra . In the 21st century editions continue to be produced , often for use in conjunction with a particular performance or recording .
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= Drowned World Tour 2001 =
Drowned World Tour 2001 is the fifth video album by American singer and songwriter Madonna . It was released on November 13 , 2001 , by Warner Music Vision , Warner Reprise Video , and Maverick Records to accompany Madonna 's second greatest hits album GHV2 . The video chronicles a live date from Madonna 's Drowned World Tour , which visited Europe and North America , grossing over US $ 76 @.@ 8 million ( $ 102 @.@ 64 million in 2016 dollars ) in total . It was recorded at The Palace of Auburn Hills in Auburn Hills , Michigan on August 26 , 2001 and was originally broadcast live on HBO as Madonna Live ! Drowned World Tour 2001 .
Drowned World Tour 2001 was captured with a 14 @-@ camera High Definition shoot . It is presented in an aspect ratio of 1 @.@ 33 : 1 on the single @-@ sided , double @-@ layered DVD ; due to those dimensions , the image was not enhanced for 16 : 9 televisions . The set list for the show consisted mainly of songs from her studio albums Ray of Light and Music . Among her pre @-@ 1990s hits , only " Holiday " and " La Isla Bonita " were added to the set list . Following its release , the video received mixed response from critics , who praised the sound quality but criticized the poor image . Drowned World Tour 2001 became Madonna 's fifth number @-@ one release on the Billboard Top Music Videos chart , and achieved platinum certification there , as well as Australia , Brazil , France , and the United Kingdom .
= = Background = =
The Drowned World Tour was the fifth concert tour by Madonna . It supported her seventh and eighth studio albums Ray of Light and Music respectively , and visited Europe and North America . It was also her first tour in eight years , following The Girlie Show World Tour in 1993 . The tour was supposed to start in 1999 , but was delayed until 2001 as Madonna gave birth to her son Rocco , got married to Guy Ritchie , was working on Music , and was busy filming The Next Best Thing . When the tour was decided , Madonna appointed Jamie King as choreographer and the tour was planned in a short timespan of three months , including signing up the dancers , musicians , and technicians . Designer Jean Paul Gaultier developed the costumes in such way that they indicated different phases of Madonna 's career . The tour garnered positive reception from contemporary critics .
Tour dates were limited to cities in Europe and United States and it became the first and only Madonna tour to skip over Canada completely . After the tour was over , industry reports presented that it earned US $ 76 @.@ 8 million ( $ 102 @.@ 64 million in 2016 dollars ) in total , from forty @-@ seven summer sold @-@ out shows and eventually played in front of 730 @,@ 000 people throughout North America and Europe , averaging at $ 1 @.@ 6 million ( $ 2 @.@ 14 million in 2016 dollars ) per show . Drowned World Tour became the highest @-@ grossing concert tour of 2001 by a solo artist , as well as the fourth highest @-@ grossing among all , behind U2 , NSYNC , and the Backstreet Boys . Drowned World received the Major Tour of the Year and Most Creative Stage Production awards nominations at the 2001 Pollstar Awards , but lost them to U2 .
= = Development = =
The concert was recorded on August 26 , 2001 , and broadcast live on HBO from The Palace of Auburn Hills in Auburn Hills , Michigan , watched by a crowd of 17 @,@ 000 . Known as Madonna Live ! – Drowned World Tour 2001 , the broadcast was announced by Nancy Geller , senior vice president of HBO Original Programming . She commented , " It 's a thrill for us to have Madonna back , because we know it is going to be a spectacular show , with that combination of her amazing talent and extravagant style which only Madonna can bring . " The broadcast was produced by Marty Callner and directed by Hamish Hamilton . The broadcast was Madonna 's first since 1993 , when Madonna Live Down Under : The Girlie Show from Sydney , Australia became HBO 's most @-@ watched original program of the year .
Three months later , a video titled Drowned World Tour 2001 was released in all regions on November 13 , 2001 , the same day her second compilation album , GHV2 , was released . Drowned World Tour 2001 was captured with a 14 @-@ camera High Definition shoot . It is presented in an aspect ratio of 1 @.@ 33 : 1 on the single @-@ sided , double @-@ layered DVD ; due to those dimensions , the image was not enhanced for 16 : 9 televisions . Three audio tracks were made available — a DTS track , a Dolby Digital 5 @.@ 1 track , and a Dolby Digital 2 @.@ 0 Stereo track . A photo gallery was included as a bonus feature . The photographs used on the DVD packaging were taken by Madonna 's friend Rosie O 'Donnell . Manhattan group Effanel Music , a mobile and portable multitrack remote recording company and its sub @-@ division , L7 Group , did the recording and post @-@ production works on the DVD .
= = Synopsis = =
The set list for the show consisted mainly of songs from Madonna 's albums Ray of Light and Music . Among her pre @-@ 1990s hits , only " Holiday " and " La Isla Bonita " were added to the set list . The show was divided into five sections : Cyber @-@ Punk , Geisha , Cowgirl , Spanish , and Ghetto . It began with a performance of " Drowned World / Substitute For Love " ; Madonna entered the stage as dry ice smoke billowed . She sang the song standing on the middle platform of the stage . Afterwards a chaotic cyberpunk @-@ themed performance of " Impressive Instant " started , with dancers in gas masks and headlights . She then played guitar for " Candy Perfume Girl " , leading to the performance of " Beautiful Stranger " featuring a lost stage technician . Backdrops displayed scenes from the movie Austin Powers : The Spy Who Shagged Me . The first section finished with " Ray of Light " where Madonna danced energetically across the stage .
The second segment opened with a video interlude of " Paradise ( Not for Me ) " and had nearly naked dancers hanging upside down from the ceiling . As the video ended , the dancers stood in front of the stage opening their mouth which was lit from inside . Madonna appeared on the stage wearing a short black wig and a hand @-@ painted kimono with fifty @-@ two @-@ feet long sleeves , to sing " Frozen " . The backdrops displayed silhouettes of burning trees against blood @-@ red clouds . A short intro of " Open Your Heart " lead to " Nobody 's Perfect " where Madonna enacted being sacrificed for her sins . This was followed by " Mer Girl " which turned into the fast @-@ action , ninja @-@ samurai martial arts battle performance of " Sky Fits Heaven " , changing back into the slow @-@ tempo " Mer Girl " . This section was inspired by the Chinese film Crouching Tiger , Hidden Dragon ( 2000 ) . Madonna 's battered and bruised face was shown in the backdrops as she emerged with a shotgun from the battle on stage and shot her dancer . Madonna disappeared into the floor and a dance remix interlude of " What It Feels Like for a Girl " was shown , featuring footage from the violent , sexually explicit Japanese Anime Film Perfect Blue .
For the third segment , Madonna appeared as a cowgirl , wearing a stars @-@ and @-@ stripes vest , for an acoustic guitar performance of " I Deserve It " and dedicated it to her then @-@ husband , Ritchie . This was followed by line dancing with her dancers dressed as cowboys for " Don 't Tell Me " . For " Human Nature " , Madonna rode a mechanical bull . After the performance , she addressed the audience in a mocking southern accent and sang a macabre themed song titled " The Funny Song " . " Secret " featured scenes of riverside baptism , Sufi dervish ceremonies , and Buddhist prayers in the backdrops . She finished off the segment with " Gone " . Dancers started the Evita tango interlude of " Don 't Cry for Me , Argentina " and Madonna appeared and performed the Spanish version of " What it Feels Like For a Girl " , titled " Lo Que Siente La Mujer " . She finished the segment with an acoustic version of " La Isla Bonita " accompanied by flamenco dancing . For the finale , Madonna appeared on stage , in a halter D & G T @-@ shirt that read " Mother " on the front and " F * cker " on the back and a fur coat , singing a mash @-@ up of Stardust 's " Music Sounds Better With You " and " Holiday " . She and her entourage finished the show with a ghetto @-@ themed " Music " , introduced by Ali G , as her music video images flashed behind her .
= = Critical response = =
The Drowned World Tour 2001 received mixed response from critics . Darryl Sterdan from Jam ! commented that " even though the gig isn 't exactly mind @-@ blowing — the Matrix @-@ style wire @-@ work probably looked way cooler in person than it does on TV ... the set has enough hits to make it a decent historical document " . According to Orlando Sentinel 's Ben Wener , Drowned World Tour 2001 was " the same eye @-@ popping show aired this past summer on HBO , only with vastly superior sound and sparkling picture " . A reviewer from DVD.net gave the video a rating of six on ten , and the audio a nine on ten . The reviewer praised the DVD saying that " this is a quality release that highlights a performer well and truly on top of her game and for what it 's worth , she is probably among the best at what she does . "
Colin Jacobson from the DVD Movie Guide website complained about its lack of sharpness and commented , " Frankly , I 'm at a loss to understand how such an unattractive video hit the shelves " . He also criticized the lack of extra content , but complimented the DVD 's sound . Jacobson gave the release 's image , sound and extras ratings of D + , A- , D , respectively . Aaron Beriele from DVD Talk website shared Jacobson 's views , saying that it was " a wonderful show from Madonna and I can only imagine what it was like to actually be there . As for the DVD , it offers outstanding audio quality , but only so @-@ so image quality . Still , it 's a terrific show and the DVD still certainly gets a recommendation . "
The HBO broadcast won the Best TV Concert category at the 2002 AOL TV Viewer Awards . In January 2002 , it was reported by Billboard that Drowned World Tour 2001 was deemed " too explicit " for Singapore and banned from release there . The Singapore Board of Film Censors , known as Media Development Authority ( MDA ) , took offence with two scenes during the " What It Feels Like for a Girl " interlude , in particular Japanese @-@ inspired animation sequences that depicted a monster fondling and raping an Asian girl . Madonna 's management debated whether to release an edited version of the video album in the region .
= = Commercial performance = =
In the United States , the release debuted atop the Billboard Top Music Videos chart . It was Madonna 's fifth release to reach number one on the chart . The next week it dropped to number two being replaced from the top by Britney Spears ' video , Britney : The Videos . Drowned World Tour 2001 was present for a total of 20 weeks on the chart and was certified platinum by the Recording Industry Association of America ( RIAA ) for shipment of more than 100 @,@ 000 copies of the release . As of September 2010 , it has sold 144 @,@ 000 copies in United States , according to Nielsen SoundScan .
On December 24 , 2001 , the video album debuted at number six on the DVD chart in Australia and was present for three weeks . It was certified platinum in the region by the Australian Recording Industry Association ( ARIA ) for shipment of 15 @,@ 000 copies . Drowned World Tour 2001 debuted at number three on the Swedish DVD Chart , becoming its peak position , while in Denmark it reached a peak of number five . The DVD was also certified platinum in Brazil and the United Kingdom by the Associação Brasileira dos Produtores de Discos ( ABPD ) and British Phonographic Industry ( BPI ) respectively for shipment of 50 @,@ 000 copies .
= = Track listing = =
Track list as per the back casing of the Drowned World Tour 2001 US DVD release .
= = Credits and personnel = =
Credits adapted from Drowned World Tour 2001 DVD liner notes .
= = Charts and certifications = =
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= 2010 Summer Youth Olympics =
The 2010 Summer Youth Olympics ( Chinese : 第一届夏季青年奥林匹克运动会 ; pinyin : Dì Yī Jiè Xiàjì Qīngnián Àolínpǐkè Yùndònghuì Tamil : 2010 கோடைக ் கால இளையோர ் ஒலிம ் பிக ் விளையாட ் டுக ் கள ் 2010 Kōṭaikkāla Iḷaiyōr Olimpik Viḷaiyāṭṭukkaḷ Malay : Sukan Olimpik Belia Musim Panas 2010 ) were the first edition of the Youth Olympic Games ( YOG ) , an international multi @-@ sport and cultural event for youths based on the tradition of the Olympic Games . Held in Singapore from 14 to 26 August 2010 , the Games featured about 3 @,@ 600 athletes aged 14 – 18 from 205 nations , who competed in 201 events in 26 sports . No official medal tables were published , but the most successful nation was China , followed by Russia ; hosts Singapore did not win any gold medals . Most unique features of the YOG , such as mixed @-@ NOCs teams ( comprising youths from different countries ) and the Culture and Education Programme ( CEP ) , made their debut at the 2010 Games .
Although the concept dates back to 1998 , formal plans for the YOG were only announced at the 119th IOC session on 6 July 2007 . On 21 February 2008 , Singapore was selected as the host city after defeating Moscow 53 @-@ 44 in a postal vote by 105 International Olympic Committee ( IOC ) members . The Singapore Youth Olympic Games Organising Committee ( SYOGOC ) prepared eighteen competition venues and twelve training venues . The Float @ Marina Bay hosted the opening and closing ceremonies and the Youth Olympic Village was located at Nanyang Technological University ( NTU ) . The committee also selected Games mascots Lyo and Merly ( a lion and a female merlion ) , the Spirit of Youth emblem ( through a design competition ) and the theme song " Everyone " ( performed by five singers , each representing a major continent ( combining North and South America ) ) .
Online media , Asian newspapers and 166 television broadcasters provided extensive coverage of the Games . The torch relay , which began on 23 July 2010 , comprised a thirteen @-@ day world tour of five cities , each representing a continent , and a six @-@ day domestic leg . Highlights of the opening and closing ceremonies include performances about Singaporean history and culture , a 32 @-@ metre ( 35 yd ) Olympic cauldron , flags being brought onto stage and items featuring YOG symbols . The Games were marred by discrepancies in the budget and attendance figures , two wrestlers caught doping , a walkover in the taekwondo final and allegations that Bolivian footballers were overage .
= = Bid = =
The concept of the YOG was developed in 1998 by Johann Rosenzopf in response to concerns over childhood obesity and declining youth participation in sports . IOC President Jacques Rogge formally announced plans for the YOG at the 119th IOC session in Guatemala City on 6 July 2007 . Singapore , which had hosted the 117th session , made its first formal bid to host a multi @-@ disciplinary sporting event of this magnitude . Positive factors in its bid included its high connectivity with the world , its youthfulness as an independent country , and its positive reputation for excellence and multiracial harmony . The city @-@ state rolled out a high @-@ publicity campaign which included being amongst the first to launch its official website , bid logo ( despite IOC rules against bid logos ) and a bid tagline " Blazing the Trail " on 16 October 2007 . It also got the local population to support its bid , including an effort by students to collect 1 million signatures .
Eleven cities expressed interest in hosting the Games , nine of which ultimately applied . Five cities amongst the nine were selected for the shortlist : Athens ( Greece ) , Bangkok ( Thailand ) , Moscow ( Russia ) , Singapore , and Turin ( Italy ) . The list was further shortened to two finalists , Singapore and Moscow . On 21 February 2008 , Rogge announced that Singapore had won the postal vote 53 @-@ 44 and was thus selected as the host for the Games .
There were concerns over whether two new venues that had been planned – a Youth Olympic Village and an equestrian complex – would be ready in time for the Games . A construction expert believed the US $ 423 million plan for an Olympic Village at the National University of Singapore ( NUS ) was feasible , and that the equestrian venue could be delivered on time . In spite of the expert 's findings , the Youth Olympic Village at the NUS 's University Town did run into difficulties owing to increasing construction costs . It was subsequently decided that existing student halls of residence at Nanyang Technological University in Jurong West would be used for the Olympic Village .
= = Organisation = =
The Singapore Youth Olympic Games Organising Committee ( SYOGOC ) was tasked with organising the inaugural Games . It was aided by a panel of advisors composed of Cabinet ministers and Senior Parliamentary Secretary Teo Ser Luck . In addition , an Inter @-@ Ministry Committee was established with Niam Chiang Meng , Permanent Secretary , Ministry of Community Development , Youth and Sports as its chairman . Singapore also received some international support for the Games preparations . The People 's Republic of China , host of the 2008 Summer Olympics , expressed its desire to assist Singapore in its preparations . Sebastian Coe , Lord Coe , Chairman of the London Organising Committee for the 2012 Summer Olympics , announced that members of his organising team , including coaches and administrators , planned to attend the event . The Bid Committee secured 4 @,@ 310 guaranteed rooms in 36 hotels . The official hotel partner for the Games was the Fairmont Singapore .
= = = Costs = = =
The IOC initially projected in 2007 the Youth Olympic Games would cost US $ 30 million to stage . Singapore won its bid in 2008 with a budget of US $ 75 @.@ 5 million ( S $ 105 million ) with strong government support . The budget was later increased to U $ 284 million ( S $ 387 million ) , thrice the original amount , which the organisers attributed to major revisions in the scope and scale of the Games . Costs were increased for logistics and transport , security , and upgrades of various sports venues and technology . Financially , local companies received about 70 % , or S $ 260 million , worth of contracts from the Games . Concerns over cost overruns were dismissed by SYOGOC Chairman Ng Ser Miang . The cost overruns was to become an issue that was raised by opposition parties during Singapore 's 2011 general elections .
= = = Venues = = =
Eighteen competition venues were used at the Games . Events took place at 11 pre @-@ existing venues , one new venue ( the Singapore Turf Club Riding Centre ) , and six temporary venues that will be removed following the Games . Twelve venues were also set aside for training purposes . Certain venues such as the Singapore Indoor Stadium and The Float @ Marina Bay were temporarily converted to host sports events , while Kallang Field was upgraded to be able to host the archery competition . The Float @ Marina Bay , a floating stage , was the main stadium for the Games . Capable of seating 25 @,@ 000 spectators , it hosted the opening ceremony on 14 August , was a venue for the cycling event , and also hosted the closing ceremony held on 26 August 2010 .
All competition and non @-@ competition venues were within 30 minutes of the Youth Olympic Village , the Main Media Centre ( MMC ) and the Olympic Family Hotels ( OFH ) . An Event Transport Operations Centre ( ETOC ) managed all transport matters relating to the YOG , providing real @-@ time travel information . A shuttle service linked all YOG venues for all accredited persons , who were also entitled to complimentary travel on public buses and the Mass Rapid Transit system . Youth Olympic Lanes were designated along key routes for faster access to all YOG venues .
The Youth Olympic Village ( YOV ) of the Games housed over 5 @,@ 000 athletes and team officials for 18 days from 10 to 28 August 2010 . Located in Nanyang Technological University ( NTU ) , the YOV served as accommodation and a preparation point for the Games , and also hosted specially designed cultural and educational activities for athletes . On 7 June , it was announced that Parliamentary Secretary and SYOGOC advisor Teo Ser Luck , former national sprinter Canagasabai Kunalan and former national swimmer Joscelin Yeo had been appointed as the Village Mayor and Deputy Village Mayors respectively .
= = = Marketing = = =
The SYOGOC launched an international emblem design competition on 29 July 2008 through 29 August 2008 through its official website , requiring that the emblem incorporate the three themes of the Singapore identity , the Olympic ideals , and a youthful spirit . The emblem competition for the Games attracted 1 @,@ 500 participants , and the winning design entitled " Spirit of Youth " was unveiled on 10 January 2010 . A contest to choose the official medal design for the first Youth Olympics was launched by the IOC in 2009 . From November to December almost a hundred entries from 34 countries were received . Online voting ended on 22 January 2010 .
The mascots of the Games were Lyo and Merly , a fire @-@ themed lion and a water @-@ themed female merlion respectively . The official theme song of the Games was " Everyone " . It was performed by five singers representing six continents of the world , namely , Jody Williams ( Africa ) , Sean Kingston ( Americas ) , Tabitha Nauser ( Asia ) , Steve Appleton ( Europe ) and Jessica Mauboy ( Oceania ) . The executive producer of the song was local music producer Ken Lim .
= = Torch relay = =
Plans for the Youth Olympic torch relay , dubbed the Journey of the Youth Olympic Flame ( JYOF ) , were unveiled on 26 January 2010 . The torch used was 60 cm ( 24 in ) high , 5 to 8 centimetres ( 2 @.@ 0 to 3 @.@ 1 in ) wide , and weighed 0 @.@ 74 kg ( 1 @.@ 6 lb ) . The flame was lit at Olympia in Greece on 23 July 2010 and travelled to five cities representing the continents Asia , Africa , Europe , Oceania and the Americas . The relay travelled through the following cities , dubbed the " Celebration Cities " :
Berlin , Germany
Dakar , Senegal
Mexico City , Mexico
Auckland , New Zealand
Seoul , South Korea
After spending 13 days on its world tour , the torch relay continued for another six days in Singapore . A portable cauldron at the Marina Bay Promenade was lit by Minister Mentor Lee Kuan Yew on 13 August at the end of the torch relay in Singapore .
= = Calendar = =
The calendar of the Games was as follows :
= = Opening ceremony = =
The opening ceremony of the Games was held on 14 August at The Float @ Marina Bay , a floating stage near downtown Singapore . Approximately 27 @,@ 000 spectators attended the event , which took place against a backdrop of the city 's skyline . Event tickets cost between S $ 30 and S $ 200 . The show , the largest ever held by the city , involved over 750 hours of rehearsals . Over 7 @,@ 000 performers , mostly under the age of 18 , took part in the ceremony . At the centre of the stage was the 32 @-@ metre ( 35 yd ) tall Olympic cauldron designed by Randy Chan as a lighthouse . It was flanked by six giant LED displays , which stood behind a reflecting pool containing 200 t ( 7 @,@ 100 @,@ 000 oz ) of water . Prime Minister of Singapore Lee Hsien Loong was present at the event .
Following pre @-@ show warm @-@ up and a countdown led by children and young drummers , the show began proper at 20 : 10 hrs ( UTC + 8 ) — a reference to the year of the event — with a fireworks show , followed by a cultural segment titled " Selamat Datang " that featured Chinese , Malay and Indian performers . The segment ended with performances by homegrown artistes of Eurasian and Peranakan heritage , symbolising the mixture of tradition and modernity in Singapore . Audience members were greeted with pre @-@ recorded messages from several Olympic ambassadors : Olympians Usain Bolt , Michael Phelps and Yelena Isinbayeva , members of the band Thirty Seconds to Mars , and actors Jackie Chan and Jet Li . The flag of Singapore entered the stage with the Deyi Military Band , who had won the Display Band of the Year Award and Best Drum Major of the Year Award in the Singapore Youth Festival Central Judging Display Band Competition 2010 , performing " Five Stars Arising " , and the national anthem while the flag was raised .
During the " Origins " segment on the city 's history , performers entered the stage in freight containers to depict the arrival of the earliest immigrants . The ceremony continued with a dance performance featuring popular songs from the 1940s to the present era . A segment entitled " Monster " told the story of a young boxer who had to fight a giant monster . He summons his Silat warriors to fight against the monster , but they failed , as well as when he summons his Kalari warriors and Wushu warriors . But soon he overcome his inner fears and defeat the giant monster . Singer Seah Wei Wen then performed " Across The Finish Line " composed by Mayuni Omar & Mathilda D Silva , in the centre of the reflecting pool . It was followed by " Playing with Fire " , which featured the dragon as a symbol of courage , strength and wisdom . In this segment , 500 youth from Soka Gakkai participate to form from many fishes into a dragon . Reflecting the theme of global co @-@ operation , members of the World Youth Orchestra of the Singapore Games performed an orchestral piece featuring various instruments from around the world . The orchestra was led by Darrell Ang , the young associate conductor of the Singapore Symphony Orchestra . The following segment , titled " Bud " , depicted rain as a symbol of hope and rejuvenation . Ending the show segment of the ceremony were singers Marcus Lee of Ex @-@ Dee and Lian Kim Selby , performing the song " A New Story " , which was commissioned for the event . Their performance was accompanied by a fashion show organized by students from LASALLE College of the Arts .
Each flag of the National Olympic Committees represented was brought on stage by an athlete representative . Following Olympic tradition , the flag of Greece entered first as the originator of the games , and the flag of Singapore entered last as the host nation . The flag ceremony was followed by the singing of the Games theme song and remarks by Ng Ser Miang , Chairman of the Singapore Youth Olympic Games Organising Committee , and Jacques Rogge , President of the International Olympic Committee . The Singapore Games were then officially declared opened by S.R. Nathan , the President of Singapore . The Olympic flag was brought on stage by eight Olympians — Tan Howe Liang , Yelena Isinbayeva , Yang Yang , Tan Eng Liang , Frankie Fredericks , Patricia Chan , Tao Li and Sergey Bubka — and handed to eight Singaporean youth athletes before it was raised with the singing of the Olympic Hymn in Greek by the Singaporean singers . The Olympic Oath was taken on behalf of all athletes by Caroline Pei Jia Chew , on behalf of all judges by Syed Abdul Kadir , and on behalf of all coaches by David Lim Fong Jock . Finally , a boat in the shape of a phoenix carried the Youth Olympic Flame across Marina Bay and was passed between six Singaporean youth athletes in a relay . Sailor Darren Choy was the final torchbearer and lit the cauldron .
The 32 @-@ metre ( 105 ft ) tall cauldron was designed by Dr. Tsai Her @-@ Mann , a fellow and resident inventor of the Singapore Science Centre . Designed to look like a lighthouse , its distinctive feature was a swirling 8 m ( 26 ft ) column of fire dubbed the " vortex flame " or " fire tornado " inside a tube with an opening at the top end . Hot air that could reach 300 ° C ( 572 ° F ) created around the flame rose , drawing cool air upwards from openings in the base of the tower . Just below the glass @-@ panelled portion of the tower , the cool air was driven through angled guide vanes , thus creating the spiralling movement travelling upwards at 20 m / s ( 66 ft / s ) . The cauldron , which had been patented in Singapore and the United States , consumed about 2 MW ( 2 @,@ 700 hp ) of fuel , less than half the amount used by conventional Olympic cauldrons . Dr. Tsai said he hoped his design could be used for other Olympic events in future . The cauldron was secretly tested at 4 : 00 am during the two months leading up to the opening ceremony .
= = Sports = =
The Games featured 26 sports with a total of 31 disciplines and 201 events . These included two disciplines under the IOC classification of aquatics ( diving and swimming ) , and three under gymnastics ( artistic , rhythmic and trampoline ) . Each sport in the Games was represented by a pictogram inspired by the official " Spirit of Youth " emblem consisting of a red flame , a blue star and a green crescent , which was depicted participating in each of the 26 sports of the Youth Olympic Games . The sport pictograms had a distinctive , contemporary graphic style that was intended to make them a highly recognisable feature of the Games . The list of sports is as follows :
About 3 @,@ 600 athletes , aged 14 to 18 , participated in the Games . All 205 National Olympic Committees ( NOCs ) were represented , except Kuwait , which was suspended in January 2010 due to alleged government interference ; however , three Kuwaiti athletes competed under the Olympic flag . A unique feature of the YOG was the creation of the mixed @-@ NOCs team event . To foster friendship among participants , teams were formed by athletes from different countries to compete on an intercontinental basis . Mixed @-@ NOC sports included equestrian @-@ jumping , fencing , judo , modern pentathlon , and triathlon . There were eight events which composed entirely of mixed @-@ NOCs teams , and as such all 25 medals in these events , including two bronzes in judo , were swept by mixed @-@ NOCs teams .
The first gold medal of the Games was awarded to 18 @-@ year @-@ old Japanese triathlete Yuka Sato , who won the girls ' event on 15 August . Host nation Singapore 's first medal was a bronze in taekwondo for Daryl Tan on 16 August . The first gold medal for a mixed @-@ NOC event was awarded to team Europe 1 , consisting of Yana Egoryan of Russia and Italians Marco Fichera Marco , Camilla Mancini , Leonardo Affede , Alberta Santuccio Alberta and Eduardo Luperi , which won the team competition in fencing .
Although the SYOGOC did not keep an official medal tally , news outlets , such as xinmsn , kept unofficial medal tables , where medals won by mixed @-@ NOCs teams are credited to the NOCs that the athletes belong to . The following table lists the top ten ranked NOCs and the host nation . See 2010 Summer Youth Olympics medal table for more details and a full table with medals won by mixed @-@ NOCs teams counted separately .
Host nation ( Singapore )
= = Culture and Education Programme = =
The IOC set a vision for the YOG to be an event comprising a balance of sports , culture and education . The objective of the Culture and Education Programme ( CEP ) that athletes participated in was to educate , engage and influence the athletes to develop true sportsmanship and to live by the Olympic values of excellence , respect and friendship , while having fun at the same time .
To promote cultural education among the participating youths , the YOG programme incorporated live youth performances , art installations and festivals revolving around the Olympics spirit and cultural diversity . A wide range of activities took place , such as hands @-@ on workshops , talks by Olympians , outdoor activities , community projects and exhibition booths , all based on five themes :
Olympism – the origins , philosophy , structure and evolution of the modern Olympics .
Skills development – the different aspects of a professional athletic career , such as personal development , career options and management of transitions in life .
Well @-@ being and healthy lifestyle – healthy eating , stress management and risks in sport such as doping .
Social responsibility – being a responsible global citizen by caring for the environment and promoting sustainable development and community relations .
Expression – interacting with and learning from fellow athletes through digital media and evening festivals at the Youth Olympic Village .
Singapore 's Youth Olympic Games Learning Centre is located at the SYOGOC headquarters along Kay Siang Road . It was officially opened by the SNOC President Teo Chee Hean and former pole vaulting champion Sergei Bubka on 30 October 2008 . The two @-@ storey , 600 @-@ square @-@ metre ( 6 @,@ 500 sq ft ) facility was open to the public for free allow visitors to discover and experience the spirit of the Olympics and trace Singapore 's Games journey from winning the bid to host the first YOG in 2010 . It featured several sections aimed at educating the public about different sports , as well as the history of Olympic records and the events lined up for the YOG . The public could also try their hand at table tennis , fencing and basketball at interactive sections . It subsequently closed for renovations from 18 August till the end of 2010 .
= = Closing ceremony = =
The closing ceremony of the Games was held on 26 August at The Float @ Marina Bay . The show began proper at 8pm Singapore time with youths , cheerleaders and the YOG mascots Lyo and Merly dancing to a medley of " Fame " and " Fight for This Love " . Following the arrival of IOC President Jacques Rogge and Prime Minister of Singapore Lee Hsien Loong , 12 @-@ year @-@ old Nathania Ong led the choir and the audience in singing the national anthem of Singapore . In the next segment " Blazing the Trail " , 5 young singers performed an upbeat song while students dressed to resemble the " Spirit of Youth " , the Singapore 2010 emblem , performed a mass display item . Following the item , the athletes and the flags representing all competing nations made their way onto the floating platform . A short clip showing the highlights of the games was then shown on the LED screens on the stage , accompanied by singer Heleyana @-@ Ann Lachica Fernandez and a trio of musicians performing " A New Story " .
The Protocol segment followed the performances . A tribute was made to the 20 @,@ 000 volunteers who participated in the Games , with Singapore swimmer Rainer Ng making a short speech thanking the volunteers and eight other athletes presenting bouquets to eight representative volunteers . This was then followed by speeches from Ng Ser Miang , Chairman of the Singapore Youth Olympic Games Organising Committee , and Jacques Rogge , IOC President , with Mr. Rogge officially declaring the Games closed in accordance with tradition . The Olympic flag was then lowered with the singing of the Olympic Anthem . In the handover ceremony , the Olympic flag was handed over from Teo Ser Luck , acting as the Mayor of Singapore , through Jacques Rogge , to Ji Jianye , Mayor of Nanjing , China , the host city of the 2014 Summer Youth Olympics . The national anthem of China was then played with the raising of China 's flag , and a short video presentation showcasing Nanjing followed . The Youth Olympic Flame was then finally extinguished to the sounds of a flugelhorn . A Celebration Concert marked the end of the show with songs and performances from local artistes .
= = Media coverage = =
The Games organisers used online media to market the event , including Friendster , Facebook , Twitter , WordPress and the official Youth.sg 2010 discussion forum . Contracts were signed with 166 broadcasters to provide worldwide television broadcasts for the Games . These include China Central Television , which telecast the opening ceremony live and has been screening nine hours of coverage each day on its CCTV @-@ 5 sports channel , and the Universal Sports television network in the United States . Most print media coverage was by Asian newspapers and news agencies such as the China Youth Daily , Guangzhou Daily , Nanjing Daily and People 's Daily and the Xinhua News Agency from China ; the Asahi Shimbun and Yomiuri Shimbun from Japan ; and the China Times and United Daily News and the Central News Agency from Taiwan ; though Australian newspapers ran brief news items , results and pictures , and the British press followed events due to interest generated by the forthcoming 2012 Summer Olympics in London . In Canada , the games were broadcast by Canada 's Olympic Broadcast Media Consortium , a joint venture between CTVglobemedia and Rogers Media . Coverage of those games was limited to a one @-@ hour daily highlights package on Sportsnet and TSN2 ( rebroadcast several weeks later on TSN ) . The consortium does not , however , own rights to the 2012 Winter Youth Olympics in Innsbruck .
= = Concerns and controversies = =
= = = Attendance = = =
The International Herald Tribune claimed in a 16 August 2010 article that ticket sales to events had been " sluggish " despite an expensive government campaign featuring billboards around Singapore to encourage neighbourhoods to celebrate the event , and that there had been reports that children had been " forced " to attend pre @-@ Games events . The latter was denied by organisers , SYOGOC Chairman Ng Ser Miang saying : " [ J ] ust look at the faces of the children that are there , the sparkle in their eyes and the smiles on their faces . Those are not things you can force . "
Members of the public commented that although some events were sold out , there appeared to be many unoccupied seats at venues , and claimed that this was because the Ministry of Education ( MOE ) made a block purchase of 87 @,@ 000 passes to be given to schools . However , students usually did not stay for the full duration of sessions , which can be up to seven hours long . The MOE denied that students were to blame , stating that more than 95 % of students allocated tickets had attended events , and that some schools had asked to purchase additional tickets due to overwhelming demand . The SYOGOC announced that once sessions had begun , unoccupied seats would be resold to people who turned up in person at venues . To enable venue managers to gauge the number of seats available for resale , teachers escorting students to events were instructed to inform venue managers if they intended to leave before sessions ended and the number of seats occupied by students . On 20 August , the organisers reported that tickets were sold out for all 26 sports except girls ' football .
Controversy also arose from the YOG attendance policy in Kuo Chuan Presbyterian Primary School , a local primary school . The school stated that a S $ 5 refundable deposit was required from students who attend the YOG events on a non @-@ school day . The principal , Clifford Chua , said that it was to " ensure that our children learn the value of responsibility and not take this rare opportunity for granted , by wasting the ticket and depriving others of the chance " . Also , the deposit was returned even if the child did not attend the event . However , the move garnered mixed reactions from parents , who either supported the idea or felt it was not the right way to do things . Some other schools such as Nanyang Girls High School , Bukit View Primary School and Park View Primary School gave free tickets to their students while Anglo @-@ Chinese School ( Primary ) encouraged co @-@ pay of $ 1 to $ 2 by the students to teach them to treasure their tickets .
= = = Iranian withdrawal from taekwondo final = = =
On 16 August 2010 , Iranian officials withdrew Mohammed Soleimani from the men 's under @-@ 48 @-@ kilogram category taekwondo final against Israel 's Gili Haimovitz , citing an ankle injury . According to the officials , Soleimani had first hurt his ankle at the World Junior Championships in Mexico earlier in the year , and the injury had flared up again during his semifinal contest against the US 's Gregory English . Soleimani was sent to hospital for an X @-@ ray , and his ankle was put into a cast . Haimovitz was awarded the gold medal by default at a victory ceremony at the Suntec International Convention Centre from which Soleimani , the silver medallist , was absent . Interviewed later on , Soleimani said he was " very sad " to have missed the bout as he was " sure [ he ] was going to get the gold medal " . Israel 's chef @-@ de @-@ mission Daniel Oren claimed that the pullout had been politically motivated . He said : " It 's not the first time this has happened at the Olympics . But this is a first for a medal match . To be honest , once our boy got into the final , we knew that this is going to happen . I spoke to our boy after the final and he , of course , was disappointed that he did not have a chance to win his gold through an actual fight . I feel more sorry for the Iranian boy . He must have trained hard to get to this stage and was not given a chance to fight . We are dealing with sports here , youth sports , in fact . It 's a pity that politics got involved . " However , IOC spokesman Mark Adams said : " As far as the IOC is concerned , there is no sinister intent here . What we know factually is that the athlete injured his ankle and was sent to the hospital for an X @-@ ray . Tests revealed he did not suffer anything broken , and he is all right now . So unless more factual information is available , it [ the controversy ] is mere speculation . " This was reiterated by IOC President Jacques Rogge on 17 August : " He [ Soleimani ] was driven to the hospital , was examined by a Singaporean doctor , totally independent , not belonging to the organisation and he diagnosed an ankle sprain . For us , that 's the end of the story . " Previously , Iran has stated that since its existing government does not recognize Israel as a state , its policy is to withdraw from competing against the country .
= = = Bolivian footballers alleged to be overaged = = =
Arturo Garcia , chairman of the Coaches Association of Santa Cruz in Bolivia , told the Bolivian newspaper La Razón he had proof that at least five players in the Bolivian boys ' football team had been over the age limit of 15 years . Bolivia beat Haiti 5 – 0 to take the gold medal in the finals of the boys ' football tournament on 25 August 2010 . Bolivian Deputy Sports Minister Miguel Angel Rimba ordered an investigation into the claim .
Montenegro coach Sava Kovačević , whose team was knocked out by Bolivia in the semifinals , said that Montenegro would ask football governing body FIFA to look into the matter . However , FIFA announced they would not be doing so as complaints concerning the eligibility of players should have been submitted in writing to FIFA 's headquarters in Singapore at the Youth Olympic Games no later than five days before the first match , that is , by 8 August . FIFA also said that its staff had met all footballers individually at the Olympic Village and had checked their passports against their dates of birth provided by their respective National Olympic Committees .
= = = Doping = = =
Two wrestlers , Greco @-@ Roman 50 kg silver medallist Nurbek Hakkulov of Uzbekistan and 63 kg freestyle wrestler Johnny Pilay of Ecuador , were disqualified on 15 October after testing positive for the banned diuretic furosemide .
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= Key Sounds Label =
Key Sounds Label is a Japanese independent record label formed in 2001 as a brand of the publishing company VisualArt 's . Key Sounds Label was formed to catalog and release music related to visual novels produced by the brand Key , also under VisualArt 's , known for developing such titles as Kanon and Air . Excluding two albums and one single that were released by Key and VisualArt 's before the label 's formation , the majority of releases on the label all have a basis from one of Key 's titles . There are other albums and singles on the label not directly related to the visual novels , such as two singles by Lia and one album by Riya . Unlike typical record labels , Key Sounds Label does not license any of the artists featured on albums and singles released on the label .
When Key Sounds Label formed , Jun Maeda , Shinji Orito , and Magome Togoshi were Key 's signature composers and have continued to produce the majority of the music on the label , though Togoshi is no longer affiliated with Key or VisualArt 's . Key often sells albums and singles on this label at the convention Comiket . Key Sounds Label is not under contract with JASRAC , or any other Japanese copyright collecting agency . As such , the releases on the label are not sold in Japanese stores with other music albums and singles , but are still widely available for online purchase .
= = History = =
Key Sounds Label has its origins in 1999 , two years before the first album on the label was released . When the visual novel company Key , under the publisher VisualArt 's , was about to release their debut title Kanon , Key produced the arrange album Anemoscope and bundled it with the first @-@ print release of Kanon released in June 1999 . The second music release , a single , occurred in November 1999 . The third release , another arrange album , followed in September 2000 bundled with the first @-@ print release of Key 's second title Air , and was the first music release by Key to bear a catalog number , KYCD @-@ 0303 . Each of these three were released in limited editions , and thus were not widely sold .
In 2001 , VisualArt 's and Key decided to form Key Sounds Label and start cataloging the albums and singles released by Key with the tag " KSLA – " followed by the four @-@ digit label number . For example , the first release bears the catalog number KSLA @-@ 0001 . The first two releases on the label were an album and a single released at the convention Comiket 60 in August 2001 , and were sold by Key . Since then , Key has regularly sold singles and albums under Key Sounds Label at subsequent Comiket conventions . Following the convention established with Kanon and Air , Key has released three more arrange albums bundled with the first @-@ print releases of Key 's later titles Clannad , Little Busters ! , and Little Busters ! Ecstasy . These three albums were never re @-@ released for general sale . In early 2008 , three of the albums on the label became available through the iTunes Store — partial albums of -Memento- and Recollections , and the complete album Ma @-@ Na — under the name Key Sound Team . Later , -Memento- was removed , and the full Recollections album became available .
Most of the releases on the label contain music directly related to Key 's visual novels , whether they be original soundtracks , remix albums , or image song singles and albums . There are other music singles and albums produced by members of Key not related to Key 's titles . For example , the first album released on the label , Humanity ... , is the only album released by Work @-@ S , a band produced by Shinji Orito . Two maxi singles containing songs sung by Lia were released on the label in December 2002 and August 2003 . An album entitled Love Song was released in August 2005 containing songs sung by Riya of Eufonius . In December 2006 , Key Sounds Label produced the first drama CD on the label , and two more followed in July 2007 . In December 2006 , the first anime music single to commemorate the second anime TV series adaptation of Kanon was produced on the label , and an anime single for the Clannad anime TV series followed in October 2007 . A third anime music single , this time for the Clannad After Story anime TV series , was released in November 2008 . A short remix album for Clannad After Story was released in December 2008 . Music singles and albums for the anime Angel Beats ! were released between April and December 2010 . A single for the Little Busters ! anime TV series was released in October 2012 . Two singles for the Little Busters ! Refrain anime TV series were released : the first in October 2013 and the second in November 2013 .
The first EP on Key Sounds Label contained songs from Air and was only released during the first concert of the Japanese trance music group OTSU held in May 2006 . The second EP contained songs from Little Busters ! and was only released during the second OTSU concert held in May 2008 . Both concerts were sponsored by Key Sounds Label , and both EPs were released on gramophone records . The first OTSU Club Music Compilation album primarily containing remixed music from Key 's visual novels was released in June 2006 . The second OTSU Club Music Compilation album was released in February 2008 as a promotion for the second concert , and contains remixed music from Little Busters ! . The third OTSU release , OTSU : Blasterhead , contains remixed music from Key 's visual novels and was released in February 2009 .
= = = Concerts = = =
Key hosted a concert as a part of Key 's tenth anniversary commemoration called KSL Live World 2008 : Way to the Little Busters ! EX which was held on May 10 , 2008 in Tokyo , Japan , and again on May 17 , 2008 in Osaka , Japan . Each time , the concert lasted for two and a half hours and featured songs sung by Lia , Rita , Chata , and Tomoe Tamiyasu who have previously sung songs for singles and albums released under Key Sounds Label . Tickets for the event were first available through mail order online on March 26 , 2008 . A two @-@ CD remix album entitled KSL Live World 2008 : Pamphlet and Memorial Disc was sold at both concert showings bearing the catalog numbers KSLC @-@ 0001 — 0002 and contains six remixed vocal versions of Kanon 's opening theme " Last regrets " on the album 's A @-@ side ; two of the tracks appeared on previous Key Sounds Label releases , and one is from the 1999 I 've Sound compilation album Regret . The B @-@ side of the album contains a recording of a group talk of the live performers from the concert . A live album containing the recording of the second concert held in Osaka was released in December 2008 entitled KSL Live World 2008 : Way to the Little Busters ! EX .
Another concert called KSL Live World 2010 : Way to the Kud @-@ Wafter was held in Tokyo on May 21 , 2010 and again twice more on May 22 , 2010 . The concert featured songs sung by Keiko Suzuki , Miyako Suzuta , Aoi Tada , Tomoe Tamiyasu , Chata , Marina , Lia , LiSA , Rita and Eufonius ; however , Eufonius only appeared at the May 22 concerts . The MCs at the concerts were Shinji Orito and Rita ; Jun Maeda also made appearances at the concerts . Tickets for the event were first available through mail order online on March 30 , 2010 . A live album containing the recording of one of the May 22 concerts was released in December 2010 titled KSL Live World 2010 : Way to the Kud Wafter .
A third concert called KSL Live World 2013 : Way to the Little Busters ! Refrain was held in Koto , Tokyo on September 16 , 2013 . The concert featured songs sung by Tomoe Tamiyasu , Keiko Suzuki , Rita , Suzuyu , Ayaka Kitazawa and Lia . Jun Maeda and Shinji Orito once again made appearances at the concert . A fourth concert called KSL Live World : Way to the Angel Beats ! -1st- was held in Akihabara , Tokyo on April 11 and April 12 , 2015 . A fifth concert called KSL Live World 2016 : The Animation Charlotte & Rewrite was held in Toyosu , Tokyo on April 30 , 2016 .
= = Artists = =
Unlike typical record labels , Key Sounds Label does not license any of the artists featured on albums and singles released on the label . When Key Sounds Label formed , Jun Maeda , Shinji Orito , and Magome Togoshi were Key 's signature composers and have continued to produce the majority of the music on Key Sounds Label . In October 2006 , however , Togoshi left Key and is no longer affiliated with either Key or VisualArt 's . One of the founding members of Key , OdiakeS , left Key before Key Sounds Label formed , but did contribute on the Kanon Original Soundtrack and the remixing of a song on Clannad 's remix album -Memento- . Key Sounds Label 's roster features Japanese bands and singers , several of which originated from the I 've Sound techno / trance music production group under VisualArt 's , such as Ayana , Kotoko , Lia , Mell , Mami Kawada and Eiko Shimamiya . Other artists including Annabel , Chata , Karuta , Ayaka Kitazawa , LiSA , Marina , Runa Mizutani , Psychic Lover , Rita , Riya , Harumi Sakurai , Haruka Shimotsuki , Keiko Suzuki , Miyako Suzuta , Suzuyu , Aoi Tada , Tomoe Tamiyasu , and Nagi Yanagi have also been released on records through the label . The musical units Work @-@ S , Eufonius , OTSU , PMMK , and MintJam have also produced music on Key Sounds Label . Musicians from I 've Sound have been working with Key Sounds Label on the arrangement of songs , as have many others .
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= Poison dart frog =
Poison dart frog ( also known as dart @-@ poison frog , poison frog or formerly known as poison arrow frog ) is the common name of a group of frogs in the family Dendrobatidae which are native to tropical Central and South America . These species are diurnal and often have brightly colored bodies . This bright coloration is correlated with the toxicity of the brightly colored species , making these species aposematic . Some species of the Dendrobatidae family exhibit extremely bright coloration along with high toxicity , while others have cryptic coloration with minimal to no amount of observed toxicity . The species that have great toxicity , derive this from their diet of ants , mites and termites . Other species however , that exhibit cryptic coloration and low to no amounts of toxicity , eat a much larger variety of prey . Many species of this family are threatened due to human infrastructure encroaching the places they inhabit .
These amphibians are often called " dart frogs " due to the Amerindians ' indigenous use of their toxic secretions to poison the tips of blowdarts . However , of over 170 species , only four have been documented as being used for this purpose ( curare plants are more commonly used ) , all of which come from the genus Phyllobates , which is characterized by the relatively large size and high levels of toxicity of its members .
= = Characteristics = =
Most species of poison dart frogs are small , sometimes less than 1 @.@ 5 cm ( 0 @.@ 59 in ) in adult length , although a few grow up to 6 cm ( 2 @.@ 4 in ) in length . They weigh 1 oz. on average . Most poison dart frogs are brightly colored , displaying aposematic patterns to warn potential predators . Their bright coloration is associated with their toxicity and levels of alkaloids . For example , frogs of the genus Dendrobates have high levels of alkaloids , whereas Colostethus species are cryptically colored and are not toxic .
Poison dart frogs are an example of an aposematic organism . Their bright coloration advertises unpalatability to potential predators . Aposematism is currently thought to have originated at least four times within the poison dart family according to phylogenetic trees , and dendrobatid frogs have since undergone dramatic divergences – both interspecific and intraspecific – in their aposematic coloration . This is surprising given the frequency @-@ dependent nature of this type of defense mechanism .
Adult frogs lay their eggs in moist places , including on leaves , in plants , among exposed roots , and elsewhere . Once the eggs hatch , the adult piggybacks the tadpoles , one at a time , to suitable water , either a pool , or the water gathered in the throat of bromeliads or other plants . The tadpoles remain there until they metamorphose , fed by unfertilized eggs laid at regular intervals by the mother .
= = Habitat = =
Poison dart frogs are endemic to humid , tropical environments of Central and South America . These frogs are generally found in tropical rainforests , including in Bolivia , Costa Rica , Brazil , Colombia , Ecuador , Venezuela , Suriname , French Guiana , Peru , Panama , Guyana , Nicaragua , and Hawaii ( introduced ) .
Natural habitats include subtropical and tropical , moist , lowland forests , subtropical or tropical high @-@ altitude shrubland , subtropical or tropical , moist , montanes and rivers , freshwater marshes , intermittent freshwater marshes , lakes and swamps . Other species can be found in seasonally wet or flooded lowland grassland , arable land , pastureland , rural gardens , plantations , moist savanna and heavily degraded former forest . Premontane forests and rocky areas have also been known to hold frogs . Dendrobatids tend to live on or close to the ground , but also in trees as much as 10 m ( 33 ft ) from the ground .
= = Reproduction = =
Many species of poison dart frogs are dedicated parents . Many poison dart frogs in the genera Oophaga and Ranitomeya carry their newly hatched tadpoles into the canopy ; the tadpoles stick to the mucus on the backs of their parents . Once in the upper reaches of the rainforest trees , the parents deposit their young in the pools of water that accumulate in epiphytic plants , such as bromeliads . The tadpoles feed on invertebrates in their nursery , and their mother will even supplement their diet by depositing eggs into the water . Other poison frogs lay their eggs on the forest floor , hidden beneath the leaf litter . Poison frogs fertilize their eggs externally ; the female lays a cluster of eggs and a male fertilizes them afterward , in the same manner as most fish . Poison frogs can often be observed clutching each other , similar to the manner most frogs copulate . However , these demonstrations are actually territorial wrestling matches . Both males and females frequently engage in disputes over territory . A male will fight for the most prominent roosts from which to broadcast his mating call ; females fight over desirable nests , and even invade the nests of other females to devour competitor 's eggs .
The operational sex ratio in the poison dart frog family is mostly female biased . This leads to a few characteristic behaviors and traits found in organisms with an uneven sex ratio . In general , females have a choice of mate . In turn , males show brighter coloration , are territorial , and are aggressive toward other males . Females select mates based on coloration ( mainly dorsal ) , calling perch location , and territory .
= = Taxonomy = =
Dart frogs are the focus of major phylogenetic studies , and undergo taxonomic changes frequently . The family Dendrobatidae was revised taxonomically in 2006 and contains 13 genera , with about 170 species .
= = = Color morphs = = =
Some poison dart frogs species include a number of conspecific color morphs that emerged as recently as 6 @,@ 000 years ago . Therefore , species such as Dendrobates tinctorius , Oophaga pumilio , and Oophaga granulifera can include color pattern morphs that can be interbred ( colors are under polygenic control , while the actual patterns are probably controlled by a single locus ) . Differing coloration has historically misidentified single species as separate , and there is still controversy among taxonomists over classification .
Variation in predation regimens may have influenced the evolution of polymorphism in Oophaga granulifera , while sexual selection appears to have contributed to differentiation among the Bocas del Toro populations of Oophaga pumilio .
= = Toxicity and medicine = =
Many poison dart frogs secrete lipophilic alkaloid toxins such as allopumiliotoxin 267A , batrachotoxin , epibatidine , histrionicotoxin , and pumiliotoxin 251D through their skin . Alkaloids in the skin glands of poison frogs serve as a chemical defense against predation , and they are therefore able to be active alongside potential predators during the day . About 28 structural classes of alkaloids are known in poison frogs . The most toxic of poison dart frog species is Phyllobates terribilis . It is argued that dart frogs do not synthesize their poisons , but sequester the chemicals from arthropod prey items , such as ants , centipedes and mites – the diet @-@ toxicity hypothesis . Because of this , captive @-@ bred animals do not possess significant levels of toxins as they are reared on diets that do not contain the alkaloids sequestered by wild populations . In fact , new studies suggest that the maternal frogs of some species lay unfertilized eggs , which are laced with trace amounts of alkaloids , to feed the tadpoles . This behavior shows that the poisons are introduced from a very young age . Nonetheless , the captive @-@ bred frogs retain the ability to accumulate alkaloids when they are once again provided an alkaloid @-@ containing diet . Despite the toxins used by some poison dart frogs , some predators have developed the ability to withstand them . One is the snake Leimadophis epinephelus , which has developed immunity to the poison .
Chemicals extracted from the skin of Epipedobates tricolor may be shown to have medicinal value . Scientists use this poison to make a painkiller . One such chemical is a painkiller 200 times as potent as morphine , called epibatidine ; however , the therapeutic dose is very close to the fatal dose . A derivative ABT @-@ 594 developed by Abbott Laboratories , called Tebanicline got as far as Phase II trials in humans , but was dropped from further development due to unacceptable incidence of gastrointestinal side effects . Secretions from dendrobatids are also showing promise as muscle relaxants , heart stimulants and appetite suppressants . The most poisonous of these frogs , the golden poison frog ( Phyllobates terribilis ) , has enough toxin on average to kill ten to twenty men or about ten thousand mice . Most other dendrobatids , while colorful and toxic enough to discourage predation , pose far less risk to humans or other large animals .
= = Evolution of skin coloration and toxicity = =
An early study by Summers and Clough ( 2000 ) on the evolution of skin coloration and toxicity in the family Dendrobatidae indicated that evolution of skin toxicity correlated significantly with the evolution of bright coloration . Adding to this research , a study by Santos and Cannatella ( 2011 ) went on to explain that conspicuous coloration correlated with diet specialization , body mass , aerobic capacity , and chemical defense in poison frogs . Santos and Cannatella ( 2011 ) offer two evolutionary scenarios that explain these correlations . One possibility is that aposematism and aerobic capacity preceded greater resource gathering , making it easier for frogs to go out and gather the ants and mites required for diet specialization . This is counter to classical aposematic theory , which assumes toxicity from diet arises before signaling . Their second hypothesis suggests that diet specialization preceded higher aerobic capacity and that aposematism evolved in order to allow dendrobatids to gather resources without predation .
Other evidence suggests conspicuousness and toxicity may be inversely related . A recently published study by Wang and Shaffer ( 2011 ) supports this idea . This study found that polymorphic poison dart frogs that are less conspicuous are more toxic in comparison to the brightest and most conspicuous species . Energetic costs of producing toxins and bright color pigments lead to potential trade @-@ offs between toxicity and bright coloration . Prey with strong secondary defenses ( like the toxic frogs in the Wang and Shaffer 2011 study ) have less to gain from costly signaling . Therefore , prey populations that are more toxic are predicted to manifest less bright signals . This theory challenges the tenet that increased conspicuousness always evolves with increased toxicity .
Prey mobility could also explain the initial development of aposematic signaling . If prey have characteristics that make them more exposed to predators , such as size or habitat , then they have ample reason to develop aposematism . An example of this is the shift from nocturnal behavior to diurnal behavior in some dendrobatids . After the switch to diurnal behavior , the frogs had greater ecological opportunities and as a result dietary specialization arose . Thus , aposematism is not merely a signaling system , but a way for organisms to gain greater access to resources and increase their reproductive success .
Marples et al . , however , showed that dietary conservationism ( long @-@ term neophobia ) in predators could facilitate the evolution of warning coloration if predators avoid novel morphs for a long enough period of time . Another rarely acknowledged avenue of the evolution of aposematism is the gradual @-@ change hypothesis . Lindström et al. found that the gradual @-@ change hypothesis did not provide an easy solution to the beginnings of aposematism , but that “ cost @-@ free stepwise mutations over the range of weak signals could accumulate under neutral selection to produce effective strong signals ” .
Many studies have suggested that sexual selection plays a role in the diversification of skin color and pattern in poison frogs . With female preferences in play , the coloration of males would change more rapidly . Sexual selection is influenced by many things . The parental investment may shed some light on the evolution of coloration in relation to female choice . In the species Oophaga pumilio parental investment is not equal . The female makes the eggs and provides care for the offspring for several weeks whereas the males makes the sperm ( less energy ) and only provides care for a few days . This differential in parental investment indicates that there will be a strong female preference . Sexual selection makes the phenotypic variation in a species increase drastically . Tazzyman and Iwasa ( 2010 ) found that there were populations of O. pumilio that participated in sexual selection and populations that did not . In the populations that did use sexual selection , the phenotypic polymorphism was evident .
The lack of sexual dimorphism in some dendrobatid populations suggests that sexual selection is not a valid hypothesis of the changing coloration . This could be because the main protective measure in aposematic frog populations is their ability to warn predators of their toxicity . Rudh et al . ( 2011 ) predicted that female preference for brighter males would increase the coloration in both sexes and thus increase the fitness of both of the sexes . If there were a sexual dimorphism between males and females within an aposematic population there would be a difference in the predation of males and females that would cause an imbalance in the number of males and females , which would affect mating strategies and ultimately change the mating behavior of the species .
= = Captive care = =
All species of poison dart frogs are neotropical in origin . Wild @-@ caught specimens can maintain toxicity for some time ( this can be obtained through a form of bio accumulation ) , so appropriate care should be taken when handling such animals . While scientific study on the lifespan of poison dart frogs is scant , retagging frequencies indicate it can range from one to three years in the wild . However , these frogs typically live for much longer than that in captivity , having been reported to live as long as 25 years . These claims also seem to be questionable , since many of the larger species take a year or more to mature , and Phyllobates species can take more than two years . In captivity , most species thrive where the humidity is kept constant at 80 to 100 % and where the temperature is around 72 ° F ( 22 ° C ) to 80 ° F ( 27 ° C ) during the day and no lower than 60 ° F ( 16 ° C ) to 65 ° F ( 18 ° C ) at night . Some species tolerate lower temperatures better than others .
= = Conservation status = =
Many species of poison dart frogs have recently experienced habitat loss , chytrid diseases , and collection for the pet trade . Some are listed as threatened or endangered as a result . Zoos have tried to counteract this disease by treating captive frogs with an antifungal agent that is used to cure athlete 's foot in humans .
= = = Media = = =
Dendrobatidae at CalPhotos
Terrarium.tv
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= Look Mickey =
Look Mickey ( also known as Look Mickey ! ) is a 1961 oil on canvas painting by Roy Lichtenstein . Widely regarded as the bridge between his abstract expressionism and pop art works , it is notable for its ironic humor and aesthetic value as well as being the first example of the artist 's employment of Ben @-@ Day dots , speech balloons and comic imagery as a source for a painting . The painting was bequeathed to the Washington , D.C. , National Gallery of Art upon Lichtenstein 's death .
Building on his late 1950s drawings of comic strips characters , Look Mickey marks Lichtenstein 's first full employment of painterly techniques to reproduce almost faithful representations of pop culture and so satirize and comment upon the then developing process of mass production of visual imagery . In this , Lichtenstein pioneered a motif that became influential not only in 1960s pop art but continuing to the work of artists today . Lichtenstein borrows from a Donald Duck illustrated story book , showing Mickey Mouse and Donald Duck during a fishing mishap . However , he makes significant alterations to the original source , including modifying the color scheme and perspective , while seeming to make statements about himself .
The work dates from Lichtenstein 's first solo exhibition , and is regarded by art critics as revolutionary both as a progression of pop art and as a work of modern art in general . It was later reproduced in his 1973 painting , Artist 's Studio — Look Mickey , which shows the painting hanging prominently on a facing wall of Lichtenstein 's studio .
= = Background = =
During the late 1950s and early 1960s a number of American painters began to adapt the imagery and motifs of comic strips into their work . Lichtenstein was among them , and in 1958 began to make drawings of comic strip characters . Andy Warhol produced his earliest paintings in the style in 1960 . Lichtenstein , unaware of Warhol 's work , produced Look Mickey and Popeye in 1961 . Lichtenstein 's 1961 works , especially Look Mickey , are considered a minor step from his earlier comic strip pop art .
According to the Lichtenstein Foundation , Look Mickey was based on the Little Golden Book series . The National Gallery of Art notes that the source is entitled Donald Duck Lost and Found , written in 1960 by Carl Buettner and published through Disney Enterprises . The image was illustrated by Bob Grant and Bob Totten . An alternative theory suggests that Look Mickey and Popeye were enlargements of bubble gum wrappers . This image marked the first of numerous works in which Lichtenstein cropped his source to bring the viewer closer to the scene .
A number of stories purport to tell of the moment of inspiration for Look Mickey . Critic Alice Goldfarb Marquis writes that the artist recalled one of his sons pointing to a comic book and challenging ; " I bet you can 't paint as good as that " . Another says that the painting resulted from an effort to prove his abilities to both his son and his son 's classmates who mocked Lichtenstein 's hard @-@ to @-@ fathom abstracts . American painter Allan Kaprow once stated , in reference to a Bazooka Dubble Bubble Gum wrapper , to Lichtenstein , " You can 't teach color from Cézanne , you can only teach it from something like this . " Lichtenstein then showed him one of his Donald Duck images .
During the comic book phase of his career , Lichtenstein often slightly altered the colorization of the original source . According to Marco Livingstone , his early comic subjects comprise a " loose and improvised style clearly derived from de Kooning . " Art historian Jonathan Fineberg describes a Lichtenstein painting of 1960 as an " ... abstract expressionist picture with Mickey Mouse in it , related stylistically to the de Kooning Women " . When Leo Castelli saw both Lichtenstein 's and Warhol 's large comic strip @-@ based works , he elected to show only Lichtenstein 's , causing Warhol to create the Campbell 's Soup Cans series to avoid competing with the more refined style of comics Lichtenstein was then producing . He once said " I 've got to do something that really will have a lot of impact that will be different enough from Lichtenstein and James Rosenquist , that will be very personal , that won 't look like I 'm doing exactly what they 're doing . " Lichtenstein 's foray into comics led to the abandonment of the topic by Warhol . Although Lichtenstein continued to work with comic sources , after 1961 he avoided the easily identified sources like Popeye and Mickey Mouse .
During autumn 1961 , Allan Kaprow , a fellow teacher at Rutgers University , introduced Lichenstein to art dealer Ivan Karp , the director of the Leo Castelli Gallery . Lichtenstein showed Karp several paintings , but not Look Mickey . He instead impressed him with Girl with Ball , and Karp decided to represent Lichtenstein a few weeks later .
= = Description = =
The painting is one of Lichtenstein 's first non @-@ expressionist works , and marks his initial employment of Ben @-@ Day dots which he used to give it an " industrial " half @-@ tone effect . The painting is his first use both of a speech balloon and comics as source material . The work has visible pencil marks and was produced using a plastic @-@ bristle dog brush to apply the oil paint onto the canvas . By the time of his death , Look Mickey was regarded as Lichtenstein 's breakthrough work .
In reproducing a mass @-@ produced illustration in a painterly style , Lichtenstein simplifies by reducing the composition to primary colors , which serves to accentuates its mass appeal and largely gives it the " pop " look . Typically , Ben @-@ Day dots enable an artist to produce a variety of colors by using dots of a few colors to give the illusion of a broader pallet . By mixing dots of different colors , like an ink jet printer , just a few colors can create a broad spectrum using only a limited number of primary hues . Lichtenstein as a painter and not a mass production printer is able to avoid this , achieving his individual color tones without blending existing hues . Instead , for each color that he wanted to include in a work , he used that color paint .
Lichtenstein made several alterations to the original work : he eliminated various non @-@ essential figures and rotated the dock so that Donald looks off the side rather than the end . At the same time , he kept Donald and Mickey in almost the same positions as they were in the original . Lichtenstein not only redesigned the space , but also altered the position of Donald 's body and fishing rod for better balance and eliminated signs of stress and exertion to form a meticulous composition . Walt Disney said about Donald Duck : " He 's got a big mouth , a big belligerent eye , a twistable neck and a substantial backside that 's highly flexible . The duck comes near being the animator 's ideal subject . " Lichtenstein 's painting reflects many of these physical features .
Compared to the original source , Donald leans further forward towards the water , and Mickey less so . Mickey 's face is more flushed , seemingly less from exertion , than embarrassment for and perhaps schadenfreude towards Donald . The composition incorporates some of the foibles of comic book printing , including misaligning the joining of the contours of the waves with the yellow sky to give rise to an area of white space .
= = Interpretation = =
The large scale reproduction of a comic strip frame was considered radical and revolutionary at the time . Critics applauded the work 's playfulness , inherent humor and irreverence . According to Diane Waldman of the Solomon R. Guggenheim Museum , " Look Mickey is broad comedy and falls into the category of slapstick ... " In Lichtenstein 's obituary , Los Angeles Times critic Christopher Knight described the work as " a slyly hilarious riff on Abstract Expressionism " . Lichtenstein 's slight alterations to its " linear clarity and colour " , the critic writes , add to its aesthetic value and grandeur , reinforced by his choice of scale . A common misconception about Lichtenstein comes from the fact that in his best known works , his meticulous approach to painting is purposely disguised because he superficially seeks his paintings to appear as if facsimiles of industrial produced pop culture icons . Graham Bader wrote that " Lichtenstein 's painting in fact appears more the product of industrial manufacture than the very pulp image on which it is based . " Look Mickey is considered self @-@ referential in the sense that the artist is painting something through which the viewer may see elements of the artist .
Bader observes that Look Mickey is concerned both with the artistic process and Lichtenstein 's new painting techniques . He believes it can be considered a self @-@ portrait in the sense that it " explicitly situates the painting 's maker himself within the self @-@ enclosed narcissistic circuit at its center " . The painting shows Donald looking into the reflective water at Lichtenstein 's blue ' rfl ' signature " as a kind of surrogate for the image 's creator " , in a manner that is reminiscent of Caravaggio 's Narcissus , in which the subject gazes at his own reflection on the water . This is viewed as an allegory of Lichtenstein 's position as an artist trained to develop his realist instincts despite the prominence of abstract expressionism . When viewed this way , Mickey serves as the " vanguard modernist " superego towering over Lichtenstein and laughing at his retrograde efforts .
Lichtenstein uses red Ben @-@ Day dots to color Mickey 's face . According to some art critics , this gives the character the appearance of blushing . Other interpretations are that the coloration is merely skin pigmentation or that it is the hue associated with a " healthy glow , " since Mickey has historically been viewed as a creature with skin rather than fur . Another interpretation – supported by the original source in which Mickey says that if Donald can land the fish he can have it for lunch – is that Mickey 's face is red due to the exertion necessary to contain his disbelief and laughter while he experiences his amused superiority . Those adhering to the blushing interpretation are bolstered by the uneven blotchiness of the red dots , but others are quick to point out that Lichtenstein 's Ben @-@ Day dot technique was still in a primitive stage . He did not develop the use of a stencil ( i.e. the technique of pressing the liquid paint onto the surface through a screen of dots ) to present uniformly distributed dots until 1963 .
Graham Bader , describing it as the engine of the painting 's narrative , notes the intrigue created by the juxtaposition of Donald 's heightened sense of visual perception as it relates to his anticipated catch , and his deadened sense of tactile perception as it relates to having a fishing hook in the back of his own shirt . In this sense , Lichtenstein has chosen to depict a source that has as its subject a divide between raised visual awareness and an absent sense of touch :
Donald is an explicitly divided subject , all sensory experience on one end and , literally , numbness on the other ( and , visually , all depth and all flatness – for Donald 's face is by far the painting 's most spatially illusionistic element , while his caught jacket , merged with the schematic waves behind it , emphatically one of its flattest ) . Indeed , Donald is a portrait of precisely the separation of sight and feeling , vision and touch … What divides vision and touch in Look Mickey , what marks this shift between them , is text : the words that Donald ( and Lichtenstein ) introduces to the scene , and which the duck 's pole @-@ cum @-@ brush passes through before snagging his own back end .
Lichtenstein frequently explored vision @-@ related themes after he began to work in the pop art genre ; early examples include I Can See the Whole Room ... and There 's Nobody in It ! and Look Mickey . In this painting , Donald 's large eyes indicate his belief that he has caught something big while Mickey 's small eyes indicate his disbelief that Donald has caught anything significant . Like Lichenstein 's works with subjects looking through a periscope ( Torpedo ... Los ! ) , a mirror ( Girl in Mirror ) or a peephole ( I Can See the Whole Room ... and There 's Nobody in It ! ) , Look Mickey , with a subject looking at his reflection in the water , is a prominent example of the theme of vision . He uses narrative to emphasize this motif , while presenting several visual elements .
= = Legacy = =
The painting was included in Lichtenstein 's first solo exhibition at The Leo Castelli Gallery , a show in which all the works had pre @-@ sold before its opening in February 1962 . The exhibition , which ran from February 10 through March 3 , 1962 , included Engagement Ring , Blam and The Refrigerator . He included the painting in his Artist 's Studio — Look Mickey ( 1973 ) , showing it hanging prominently on the wall of the pictorial space intended to depict his studio as the ideal studio , and implying that his popularity with critic and public ratifies his choice of popular culture subject matter . Reflecting on Look Mickey many years later , he said :
The idea of doing [ a cartoon painting ] without apparent alteration just occurred to me ... and I did one really almost half seriously to get an idea of what it might look like . And as I was painting this painting I kind of got interested in organizing it as a painting and brought it to some kind of conclusion as an aesthetic statement , which I hadn 't really intended to do to begin with . And then I really went back to my other kind of painting , which was pretty abstract . Or tried to . But I had this cartoon painting in my studio , and it was a little too formidable . I couldn 't keep my eyes off it , and it sort of prevented me from painting in any other way , and then I decided this stuff was really serious ... I would say I had it on my easel for a week . I would just want to see what it looked like . I tried to make it a work of art . I wasn 't trying just to copy . I realized that this was just so much more compelling .
The painting was bequeathed to the Washington National Gallery of Art after Lichtenstein 's death in 1997 , following a 1990 pledge in honor of the institution 's 50th Anniversary . It remains in the gallery 's collection , where , as of November 2012 , it is on permanent view .
Harold Rosenberg once described Lichtensteins reworking of the comics source as follows : " ... the difference between a comic strip of Mickey Mouse and a Lichtenstein painting of the same was art history , or the fact that Lichtenstein paints with the idea of the museum in mind . "
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= 1930 FIFA World Cup =
The 1930 FIFA World Cup was the inaugural FIFA World Cup , the world championship for men 's national association football teams . It took place in Uruguay from 13 July to 30 July 1930 . FIFA , football 's international governing body , selected Uruguay as host nation , as the country would be celebrating the centenary of its first constitution , and the Uruguay national football team had successfully retained their football title at the 1928 Summer Olympics . All matches were played in the Uruguayan capital , Montevideo , the majority at the Estadio Centenario , which was built for the tournament .
Thirteen teams ( seven from South America , four from Europe , and two from North America ) entered the tournament . Few European teams chose to participate because of the difficulty of travelling to South America . The teams were divided into four groups , with the winner of each group progressing to the semi @-@ finals . The first two World Cup matches took place simultaneously , and were won by France and the United States , who defeated Mexico 4 – 1 and Belgium 3 – 0 , respectively . Lucien Laurent of France scored the first goal in World Cup history , while American goalkeeper Jimmy Douglas posted the first official " clean sheet " in the tournament .
Argentina , Uruguay , the United States and Yugoslavia each won their respective groups to qualify for the semi @-@ finals . In the final , hosts and pre @-@ tournament favourites Uruguay defeated Argentina 4 – 2 in front of a crowd of 93 @,@ 000 people , and became the first nation to win the World Cup .
= = Host selection = =
Italy , Sweden , the Netherlands , Spain , Hungary and Uruguay all lodged applications to host the event . Uruguay 's bid became the clear selection after all the other countries withdrew their bids .
= = Participants = =
The first World Cup was the only one without qualification . Every country affiliated with FIFA was invited to compete , and given a deadline of 28 February 1930 to accept . Plenty of interest was shown by nations in the Americas ; Argentina , Brazil , Bolivia , Chile , Mexico , Paraguay , Peru and the United States all entered . A total of seven South American teams participated , more than in any subsequent World Cup Finals . However , because of the long and costly trip by ship across the Atlantic Ocean , and the length of absence required for players , very few European teams were inclined to take part . Some refused to countenance travel to South America in any circumstances , and no European entries were received before the February deadline . In an attempt to gain some European participation , the Uruguayan Football Association sent a letter of invitation to The Football Association , even though the British Home Nations were not members of FIFA at the time . This was rejected by the FA Committee on 18 November 1929 . Two months before the start of the tournament , no team from Europe had officially entered .
FIFA president Jules Rimet intervened , and eventually four European teams made the trip by sea : Belgium , France , Romania , and Yugoslavia . The Romanians , managed by Constantin Rădulescu and coached by their captain Rudolf Wetzer and Octav Luchide , entered the competition following the intervention of newly crowned King Carol II . He selected the squad personally , and negotiated with employers to ensure that the players would still have jobs upon their return . The French entered at the personal intervention of Rimet , but neither France 's star defender Manuel Anatol nor the team 's regular coach Gaston Barreau could be persuaded to make the trip . The Belgians participated at the instigation of German @-@ Belgian FIFA vice @-@ president Rodolphe Seeldrayers .
The Romanians boarded the SS Conte Verde at Genoa , the French were picked up at Villefranche @-@ sur @-@ Mer on 21 June 1930 ; and the Belgians embarked at Barcelona . The Conte Verde carried Rimet , the trophy and the three designated European referees : the Belgians Jean Langenus and Henri Christophe , along with Thomas Balway , a Parisian who may have been English . The Brazilian team were picked up when the boat docked in Rio de Janeiro on 29 June before arriving in Uruguay on 4 July . Yugoslavia travelled via the mail steamship Florida from Marseille .
In the Kingdom of Yugoslavia there were doubts about their participation at first . Since the Croatians decided to boycott the national team , King Alexander I did not want to finance the whole idea , but in the end they found a solution . Belgrade football association officials decided to round up only domestic ( Serbian ) star players , mainly from two rival Belgrade clubs , BSK and SK Jugoslavija , with an additional three Serbs who played for French clubs ( Ivan Bek among them ) . Therefore , the Yugoslavia team was exclusively made up of Serbian players ; and with the two biggest stars of the team , Blagoje Marjanović ( " Moša " ) and Aleksandar Tirnanić ( " Tirke " ) , both from BSK , they were ready for a trip to South America to represent Yugoslavia in the World Cup . The Yugoslavians were the youngest team in the World Cup ; with an average age of 21 years and 258 days . After their first match , against Brazil , they received a new nickname " The Ich @-@ es " or " Ichachos " ( in Spanish ) by the Uruguayan press ; referring to most of the player 's surnames that ended up with the " -ić " or " -vić " suffix , which is quite common for Serbian last names . They achieved the biggest success in both Yugoslav and Serbian subsequent World Cup footballing history , by earning third place ( according to their sources ) .
= = Venues = =
All matches took place in Montevideo . Three stadiums were used : Estadio Centenario , Estadio Pocitos , and Estadio Parque Central . The Estadio Centenario was built both for the tournament and as a celebration of the centenary of Uruguayan independence . Designed by Juan Scasso , it was the primary stadium for the tournament , referred to by Rimet as a " temple of football " . With a capacity of 90 @,@ 000 , it was the largest football stadium outside the British Isles . The stadium hosted 10 of the 18 matches , including both semi @-@ finals and the final . However , a rushed construction schedule and delays caused by the rainy season meant the Centenario was not ready for use until five days into the tournament . Early matches were played at smaller stadiums usually used by Montevideo football clubs Nacional and Peñarol , the 20 @,@ 000 capacity Parque Central and the Pocitos .
= = Squads = =
For a list of all squads that appeared in the final tournament , see 1930 FIFA World Cup squads .
= = Match officials = =
Fifteen referees participated in the tournament : four Europeans – two Belgians ( Henri Christophe and John Langenus ) , a Frenchman , and a Romanian ( Constantin Rădulescu being the Romanian coach ) , and eleven from the Americas – among them six Uruguayans . In order to eliminate differences in the application of the Laws of the Game , the referees were invited to one short meeting in which to iron out the most conflicting issues arising from the game .
Of all the refereeing appointments , the two that attracted most attention was that of Gilberto de Almeida Rêgo in the match between Argentina and France , in which the Brazilian referee blew for full @-@ time six minutes early , and that of the Bolivian Ulises Saucedo 's in the Argentina and Mexico encounter , which Argentina won 6 – 3 . During the game Saucedo , who was also the coach of Bolivia , awarded three penalties .
The following is the list of officials to serve as referees and linesmen . Officials in italics were only employed as linesmen during the tournament .
= = Format = =
The 13 teams were drawn into four groups , with Group 1 containing four teams , and the others containing only three . Each group played a round @-@ robin format , with two points awarded for a win and one point for a draw . If two teams had tied on points to win a group , a play @-@ off would have been used to decide the group winner ; however , this was not necessary . The four group winners progressed to the knockout semi @-@ final stage . Extra time was available in the knockout matches if the two teams were level after ninety minutes , but it was not required .
= = Draw = =
Uruguay , Argentina , Brazil , and the United States were seeded , and were kept apart in the draw , which took place in Montevideo once all the teams arrived .
Since there were no qualifying games , the opening two matches of the tournament were the first World Cup games ever played , taking place simultaneously on 13 July 1930 ; France beat Mexico 4 – 1 at the Estadio Pocitos , while the United States defeated Belgium 3 – 0 at the same time at the Estadio Gran Parque Central . France 's Lucien Laurent was the scorer of the first World Cup goal .
= = Tournament summary = =
= = = Group 1 = = =
The first group was the only one to contain four teams : Argentina , Chile , France and Mexico . Two days after France 's victory over Mexico , they faced group favourites Argentina . Injuries hindered France ; goalkeeper Alex Thépot had to leave the field after 20 minutes , and Laurent , after a fierce tackle by Luis Monti , spent most of the match limping . However , they held out for most of the match , only succumbing to an 81st @-@ minute goal scored from a Monti free kick . The game featured an officiating controversy when referee Almeida Rêgo erroneously blew the final whistle six minutes early , with Frenchman Marcel Langiller clear on goal ; play only resumed after protests from the French players . Though France had played twice in 48 hours , Chile had yet to play their first match . They faced Mexico the following day , gaining a comfortable 3 – 0 win .
France 's final match , against Chile , featured the first penalty kick of the tournament and World Cup history . The first goalkeeper to save a penalty was Alex Thépot of France on 19 July 1930 , saving from Chile 's Carlos Vidal in the 30th minute of the match . In Argentina 's second match , against Mexico , three penalty kicks were awarded . During the same match on 19 July 1930 Mexico 's Oscar Bonfiglio Martínez saved another penalty at the 23rd minute of the match against Argentina 's Fernando Paternoster . Guillermo Stábile scored a hat @-@ trick in his international debut as Argentina won 6 – 3 , despite the absence of their captain Manuel Ferreira , who had returned to Buenos Aires to take a law exam . Qualification was decided by the group 's final match , contested by Argentina and Chile , who had beaten France and Mexico , respectively . The game was marred by a brawl sparked by a foul on Arturo Torres by Monti . Argentina won 3 – 1 against their neighbours and advanced to the semi @-@ finals .
= = = Group 2 = = =
The second group contained Brazil , Bolivia and Yugoslavia . Brazil , the group seeds , were expected to progress , but in the group 's opening match , unexpectedly lost 2 – 1 to Yugoslavia . Going into the tournament Bolivia had never previously won an international match . For their opener they paid tribute to the hosts by wearing shirts each emblazoned with a single letter , spelling " Viva Uruguay " as the team lined up . Both of Bolivia 's matches followed a similar pattern , a promising start gradually transforming into heavy defeat . Against Yugoslavia , they held out for an hour before conceding , but were four goals down by the final whistle . Misfortune played its part ; several Bolivian goals were disallowed . Against Brazil , when both teams had only pride to play for , the score was 1 – 0 to Brazil at half @-@ time . Brazil added three more in the second half , two of them scored by the multi @-@ sportsman Preguinho . Yugoslavia qualified for the semi @-@ finals .
= = = Group 3 = = =
Hosts Uruguay were in a group with Peru and Romania . The opening match in this group saw the first player expulsion in the competition , when Plácido Galindo of Peru was dismissed against Romania . The Romanians made their man advantage pay ; their 3 – 1 win included two late goals . This match had the smallest crowd of any in World Cup history . The official attendance was 2 @,@ 459 , but the actual figure is generally accepted to be around 300 .
Because of construction delays at Estadio Centenario , Uruguay 's first match was not played until five days into the tournament . The first to be held at the Centenario , it was preceded by a ceremony in honour of the Uruguayan centenary celebrations . The Uruguayan team spent the four weeks preceding the match in a training camp , at which strict discipline was exercised . Goalkeeper Andrés Mazali was dropped from the squad for breaking a curfew to visit his wife . One hundred years to the day of the creation of Uruguay 's first constitution , the hosts won a tight match against Peru 1 – 0 . Spectators praised Peru 's defense , and this turned out to be the only tournament match in which Uruguay scored only one goal . The result was viewed as a poor performance by the Uruguayan press , but lauded in Peru . Uruguay subsequently defeated Romania with ease , scoring four first half goals to win 4 – 0 .
= = = Group 4 = = =
The United States dominated the fourth group . The American team , which contained a significant number of new caps , were reputedly nicknamed " the shot @-@ putters " by an unnamed source in the French contingent . They beat their first opponents , Belgium , 3 – 0 . The ease of the victory was unexpected ; Uruguayan newspaper Imparcial wrote that " the large score of the American victory has really surprised the experts " . Belgian reports bemoaned the state of the pitch and refereeing decisions , claiming that the second goal was offside . The group 's second match , played in windy conditions , witnessed the first tournament hat @-@ trick , scored by Bert Patenaude of the United States against Paraguay . Until 10 November 2006 , the first hat @-@ trick that FIFA acknowledged had been scored by Guillermo Stábile of Argentina , two days after Patenaude ; however , in 2006 FIFA announced that Patenaude 's claim to being the first hat @-@ trick scorer was valid , as a goal previously assigned to teammate Tom Florie was reattributed to Patenaude . With the United States having secured qualification , the final match in the group was a dead rubber . Paraguay beat Belgium by a 1 – 0 margin .
= = = Semi @-@ finals = = =
The four group winners , Argentina , Yugoslavia , Uruguay and the United States , moved to the semi @-@ finals . The two semi @-@ final matches saw identical scores . The first semi @-@ final was played between the USA and Argentina on a rain @-@ drenched pitch . The United States team , which featured six British @-@ born players , lost midfielder Raphael Tracy after ten minutes to a broken leg as the match became violent . A Monti goal halfway through the first half gave Argentina a 1 – 0 half @-@ time lead . In the second half , the strength of the United States team was overwhelmed by the pace of the Argentinian attacks , the match finishing 6 – 1 to Argentina .
In the second semi @-@ final there were shades of the 1924 Summer Olympics match between Yugoslavia and Uruguay . Here , though , Yugoslavia took a surprise lead through Vujadinović . Uruguay then took a 2 – 1 lead . Then shortly before half @-@ time Yugoslavia had a goal disallowed by a controversial offside decision . The hosts scored three more in the second half to win 6 – 1 , Pedro Cea completing a hat @-@ trick .
= = = Third and fourth place = = =
The now @-@ traditional third place play @-@ off was not established until 1934 , so the format of the 1930 World Cup is unique in not distinguishing between the third and fourth placed teams . Occasional sources , notably a FIFA Bulletin from 1984 , incorrectly imply that a third @-@ place match occurred and was won 3 – 1 by Yugoslavia . Accounts differ as to whether a third @-@ place match was originally scheduled . According to a 2009 book by Hyder Jawad , Yugoslavia refused to play a third @-@ place match because they were upset with the refereeing in their semi @-@ final against Uruguay .
At the end of the championship , the captains of the United States team ( Tom Florie ) and Yugoslavia ( Milutin Ivković ) both received bronze medals . Yet a FIFA technical committee report on the 1986 World Cup included full retrospective rankings of all teams at all previous World Cup finals ; this report ranked the United States third and Yugoslavia fourth , a practice since continued by FIFA . In 2010 , the son of Kosta Hadži , the chief of Yugoslav delegation at the 1930 World Cup and the vice @-@ president of the Football Association of Yugoslavia at the time , claimed that Yugoslavia , as a team , has been awarded one bronze medal , which has been kept by Hadži himself and his family for the following 80 years . According to this source , Yugoslavia was placed third because of the semi @-@ finals loss to the eventual champions , Uruguay .
= = = Final = = =
The resounding wins for Uruguay and Argentina in the semi @-@ finals meant the final was a repeat of the matchup in the 1928 Olympic final , which Uruguay had won 2 – 1 after a replay .
The final was played at the Estadio Centenario on 30 July . Feelings ran high around the La Plata Basin as the Argentine supporters crossed the river with the war cry Victoria o muerte ( " victory or death " ) , dispelling any uncertainty as to whether the tournament had captured the imagination of the public . The ten boats earmarked to carry Argentine fans from Buenos Aires to Montevideo proved inadequate , and any number of assorted craft attempted the crossing . An estimated 10 – 15 @,@ 000 Argentinians made the trip , but the port at Montevideo was so overwhelmed that many did not even make landfall before kick @-@ off , let alone reach the stadium . At the stadium , supporters were searched for weapons . The gates were opened at eight o 'clock , six hours before kick @-@ off , and at noon the ground was full , the official attendance 93 @,@ 000 . A disagreement overshadowed the build @-@ up to the match as the teams failed to agree on who should provide the match ball , forcing FIFA to intervene and decree that the Argentine team would provide the ball for the first half and the Uruguayans would provide their own for the second . Uruguay made one change from their semi @-@ final line @-@ up . Castro replaced Anselmo , who missed out due to illness . Monti played for Argentina despite receiving death threats on the eve of the match . The referee was Belgian John Langenus , who only agreed to officiate a few hours before the game , having sought assurances for his safety . One of his requests was for a boat to be ready at the harbour within one hour of the final whistle , in case he needed to make a quick escape .
The hosts scored the opening goal through Pablo Dorado , a low shot from a position on the right . Argentina , displaying superior passing ability , responded strongly . Within eight minutes they were back on level terms ; Carlos Peucelle received a Ferreira through @-@ ball , beat his marker and equalised . Shortly before half @-@ time leading tournament goalscorer Guillermo Stábile gave Argentina a 2 – 1 lead . Uruguay captain Nasazzi protested , maintaining that Stábile was offside , but to no avail . In the second half Uruguay gradually became ascendant . Shortly after Monti missed a chance to make the score 3 – 1 , Uruguay attacked in numbers , and Pedro Cea scored an equaliser . Ten minutes later a goal by Santos Iriarte gave Uruguay the lead , and just before full @-@ time Castro made it 4 – 2 to seal the win . Langenus ended the match a minute later , and Uruguay thus added the title World Cup winners to their mantle of Olympic champions . Jules Rimet presented the World Cup Trophy , which was later named for him , to the head of the Uruguayan Football Association , Raúl Jude . The following day was declared a national holiday in Uruguay ; in the Argentinian capital , Buenos Aires , a mob threw stones at the Uruguayan consulate . Francisco Varallo ( who played as a forward for Argentina ) was the last player of the final to die , on 30 August 2010 .
France , Yugoslavia and the United States all played friendlies in South America following the competition . Brazil played France on 1 August , Yugoslavia on 10 August and the United States on 17 August , while Argentina hosted Yugoslavia on 3 August .
Uruguay 's aggregate goal difference of + 12 over four games , at an average of + 3 per match , remains the highest average goal difference per match of any World Cup champion , and the second highest of any World Cup Finals participant , after Hungary in 1954 .
= = Results = =
= = = Group stage = = =
= = = = Group 1 = = = =
= = = = Group 2 = = = =
= = = = Group 3 = = = =
= = = = Group 4 = = = =
= = = Knockout stage = = =
= = = = Semi @-@ finals = = = =
= = = = Final = = = =
= = Goalscorers = =
With eight goals , Guillermo Stábile was the top scorer in the tournament . In total , 70 goals were scored by 37 different players , with only one of them credited as own goal .
8 goals
Guillermo Stábile
2 goals
1 goal
Own goals
Manuel Rosas ( against Chile )
= = FIFA retrospective ranking = =
In 1986 , FIFA published a report that ranked all teams in each World Cup up to and including 1986 , based on progress in the competition , overall results and quality of the opposition . The rankings for the 1930 tournament were as follows :
= = Last surviving players = =
The last surviving player from Uruguay 's World Cup @-@ winning side was Ernesto Mascheroni , who died on 3 July 1984 at the age of 76 . He was outlived by reserve defender Emilio Recoba who died on 12 September 1992 ( aged 87 ) , but did not play any matches in the tournament . However , many other players who participated in the tournament were still alive by this stage and the last surviving player from the tournament was Argentina 's Francisco Varallo , who died on 30 August 2010 at the age of 100 – eighty years after the tournament .
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= Olympic Games =
The modern Olympic Games or Olympics ( French : Jeux olympiques ) are the leading international sporting event featuring summer and winter sports competitions in which thousands of athletes from around the world participate in a variety of competitions . The Olympic Games are considered to be the world 's foremost sports competition with more than 200 nations participating . The Olympic Games are held every four years , with the Summer and Winter Games alternating by occurring every four years but two years apart .
Their creation was inspired by the ancient Olympic Games , which were held in Olympia , Greece , from the 8th century BC to the 4th century AD . Baron Pierre de Coubertin founded the International Olympic Committee ( IOC ) in 1894 . The IOC is the governing body of the Olympic Movement , with the Olympic Charter defining its structure and authority .
The evolution of the Olympic Movement during the 20th and 21st centuries has resulted in several changes to the Olympic Games . Some of these adjustments include the creation of the Winter Olympic Games for ice and winter sports , the Paralympic Games for athletes with a disability , and the Youth Olympic Games for teenage athletes . The IOC has had to adapt to a variety of economic , political , and technological advancements . As a result , the Olympics has shifted away from pure amateurism , as envisioned by Coubertin , to allowing participation of professional athletes . The growing importance of mass media created the issue of corporate sponsorship and commercialization of the Games . World wars led to the cancellation of the 1916 , 1940 , and 1944 Games . Large boycotts during the Cold War limited participation in the 1980 and 1984 Games .
The Olympic Movement consists of international sports federations ( IFs ) , National Olympic Committees ( NOCs ) , and organizing committees for each specific Olympic Games . As the decision @-@ making body , the IOC is responsible for choosing the host city for each Games , and organizes and funds the Games according to the Olympic Charter . The IOC also determines the Olympic program , consisting of the sports to be contested at the Games . There are several Olympic rituals and symbols , such as the Olympic flag and torch , as well as the opening and closing ceremonies . Over 13 @,@ 000 athletes compete at the Summer and Winter Olympic Games in 33 different sports and nearly 400 events . The first , second , and third @-@ place finishers in each event receive Olympic medals : gold , silver , and bronze , respectively .
The Games have grown so much that nearly every nation is now represented . This growth has created numerous challenges and controversies , including boycotts , doping , bribery , and a terrorist attack in 1972 . Every two years the Olympics and its media exposure provide unknown athletes with the chance to attain national and sometimes international fame . The Games also constitute an opportunity for the host city and country to showcase themselves to the world .
= = Ancient Olympics = =
The Ancient Olympic Games were religious and athletic festivals held every four years at the sanctuary of Zeus in Olympia , Greece . Competition was among representatives of several city @-@ states and kingdoms of Ancient Greece . These Games featured mainly athletic but also combat sports such as wrestling and the pankration , horse and chariot racing events . It has been widely written that during the Games , all conflicts among the participating city @-@ states were postponed until the Games were finished . This cessation of hostilities was known as the Olympic peace or truce . This idea is a modern myth because the Greeks never suspended their wars . The truce did allow those religious pilgrims who were traveling to Olympia to pass through warring territories unmolested because they were protected by Zeus . The origin of the Olympics is shrouded in mystery and legend ; one of the most popular myths identifies Heracles and his father Zeus as the progenitors of the Games . According to legend , it was Heracles who first called the Games " Olympic " and established the custom of holding them every four years . The myth continues that after Heracles completed his twelve labors , he built the Olympic Stadium as an honor to Zeus . Following its completion , he walked in a straight line for 200 steps and called this distance a " stadion " ( Greek : στάδιον , Latin : stadium , " stage " ) , which later became a unit of distance . The most widely accepted inception date for the Ancient Olympics is 776 BC ; this is based on inscriptions , found at Olympia , listing the winners of a footrace held every four years starting in 776 BC . The Ancient Games featured running events , a pentathlon ( consisting of a jumping event , discus and javelin throws , a foot race , and wrestling ) , boxing , wrestling , pankration , and equestrian events . Tradition has it that Coroebus , a cook from the city of Elis , was the first Olympic champion .
The Olympics were of fundamental religious importance , featuring sporting events alongside ritual sacrifices honoring both Zeus ( whose famous statue by Phidias stood in his temple at Olympia ) and Pelops , divine hero and mythical king of Olympia . Pelops was famous for his chariot race with King Oenomaus of Pisatis . The winners of the events were admired and immortalized in poems and statues . The Games were held every four years , and this period , known as an Olympiad , was used by Greeks as one of their units of time measurement . The Games were part of a cycle known as the Panhellenic Games , which included the Pythian Games , the Nemean Games , and the Isthmian Games .
The Olympic Games reached their zenith in the 6th and 5th centuries BC , but then gradually declined in importance as the Romans gained power and influence in Greece . While there is no scholarly consensus as to when the Games officially ended , the most commonly held date is 393 AD , when the emperor Theodosius I decreed that all pagan cults and practices be eliminated . Another date commonly cited is 426 AD , when his successor , Theodosius II , ordered the destruction of all Greek temples .
= = Modern Games = =
= = = Forerunners = = =
Various uses of the term " Olympic " to describe athletic events in the modern era have been documented since the 17th century . The first such event was the Cotswold Games or " Cotswold Olimpick Games " , an annual meeting near Chipping Campden , England , involving various sports . It was first organized by the lawyer Robert Dover between 1612 and 1642 , with several later celebrations leading up to the present day . The British Olympic Association , in its bid for the 2012 Olympic Games in London , mentioned these games as " the first stirrings of Britain 's Olympic beginnings " .
L 'Olympiade de la République , a national Olympic festival held annually from 1796 to 1798 in Revolutionary France also attempted to emulate the ancient Olympic Games . The competition included several disciplines from the ancient Greek Olympics . The 1796 Games also marked the introduction of the metric system into sport .
In 1850 an Olympian Class was started by Dr. William Penny Brookes at Much Wenlock , in Shropshire , England . In 1859 , Dr. Brookes changed the name to the Wenlock Olympian Games . This annual sports festival continues to this day . The Wenlock Olympian Society was founded by Dr. Brookes on 15 November 1860 .
Between 1862 and 1867 , Liverpool held an annual Grand Olympic Festival . Devised by John Hulley and Charles Melly , these games were the first to be wholly amateur in nature and international in outlook , although only ' gentlemen amateurs ' could compete . The programme of the first modern Olympiad in Athens in 1896 was almost identical to that of the Liverpool Olympics . In 1865 Hulley , Dr. Brookes and E.G. Ravenstein founded the National Olympian Association in Liverpool , a forerunner of the British Olympic Association . Its articles of foundation provided the framework for the International Olympic Charter . In 1866 , a national Olympic Games in Great Britain was organized at London 's Crystal Palace .
= = = Revival = = =
Greek interest in reviving the Olympic Games began with the Greek War of Independence from the Ottoman Empire in 1821 . It was first proposed by poet and newspaper editor Panagiotis Soutsos in his poem " Dialogue of the Dead " , published in 1833 . Evangelos Zappas , a wealthy Greek @-@ Romanian philanthropist , first wrote to King Otto of Greece , in 1856 , offering to fund a permanent revival of the Olympic Games . Zappas sponsored the first Olympic Games in 1859 , which was held in an Athens city square . Athletes participated from Greece and the Ottoman Empire . Zappas funded the restoration of the ancient Panathenaic Stadium so that it could host all future Olympic Games .
The stadium hosted Olympics in 1870 and 1875 . Thirty thousand spectators attended that Games in 1870 , though no official attendance records are available for the 1875 Games . In 1890 , after attending the Olympian Games of the Wenlock Olympian Society , Baron Pierre de Coubertin was inspired to found the International Olympic Committee ( IOC ) . Coubertin built on the ideas and work of Brookes and Zappas with the aim of establishing internationally rotating Olympic Games that would occur every four years . He presented these ideas during the first Olympic Congress of the newly created International Olympic Committee . This meeting was held from 16 to 23 June 1894 , at the University of Paris . On the last day of the Congress , it was decided that the first Olympic Games to come under the auspices of the IOC would take place in Athens in 1896 . The IOC elected the Greek writer Demetrius Vikelas as its first president .
= = = 1896 Games = = =
The first Games held under the auspices of the IOC was hosted in the Panathenaic stadium in Athens in 1896 . The Games brought together 14 nations and 241 athletes who competed in 43 events . Zappas and his cousin Konstantinos Zappas had left the Greek government a trust to fund future Olympic Games . This trust was used to help finance the 1896 Games . George Averoff contributed generously for the refurbishment of the stadium in preparation for the Games . The Greek government also provided funding , which was expected to be recouped through the sale of tickets and from the sale of the first Olympic commemorative stamp set .
Greek officials and the public were enthusiastic about the experience of hosting an Olympic Games . This feeling was shared by many of the athletes , who even demanded that Athens be the permanent Olympic host city . The IOC intended for subsequent Games to be rotated to various host cities around the world . The second Olympics was held in Paris .
= = = Changes and adaptations = = =
After the success of the 1896 Games , the Olympics entered a period of stagnation that threatened their survival . The Olympic Games held at the Paris Exposition in 1900 and the World 's fair at St. Louis in 1904 were side shows . The Games in Paris did not have a stadium , but were notable for being the first time women took part in the Games . When the St. Louis Games were celebrated roughly 650 athletes participated , but 580 were from the United States . The homogeneous nature of these celebrations was a low point for the Olympic Movement . The Games rebounded when the 1906 Intercalated Games ( so @-@ called because they were the second Games held within the third Olympiad ) were held in Athens . These Games were , but are not now , officially recognized by the IOC and no Intercalated Games have been held since . The Games attracted a broad international field of participants and generated great public interest . This marked the beginning of a rise in both the popularity and the size of the Olympics .
= = = = Winter Games = = = =
The Winter Olympics was created to feature snow and ice sports that were logistically impossible to hold during the Summer Games . Figure skating ( in 1908 and 1920 ) and ice hockey ( in 1920 ) were featured as Olympic events at the Summer Olympics . The IOC desired to expand this list of sports to encompass other winter activities . At the 1921 Olympic Congress in Lausanne , it was decided to hold a winter version of the Olympic Games . A winter sports week ( it was actually 11 days ) was held in 1924 in Chamonix , France , in connection with the Paris Games held three months later ; this event became the first Winter Olympic Games . Although it was intended that the same country host both the Winter and Summer Games in a given year , this idea was quickly abandoned . The IOC mandated that the Winter Games be celebrated every four years on the same year as their summer counterpart . This tradition was upheld until the 1992 Games in Albertville , France ; after that , beginning with the 1994 Games , the Winter Olympics were held every four years , two years after each Summer Olympics .
= = = = Paralympics = = = =
In 1948 , Sir Ludwig Guttmann , determined to promote the rehabitation of soldiers after World War II , organized a multi @-@ sport event between several hospitals to coincide with the 1948 London Olympics . Guttmann 's event , known then as the Stoke Mandeville Games , became an annual sports festival . Over the next twelve years , Guttmann and others continued their efforts to use sports as an avenue to healing . For the 1960 Olympic Games , in Rome , Guttmann brought 400 athletes to compete in the " Parallel Olympics " , which became known as the first Paralympics . Since then , the Paralympics have been held in every Olympic year . Since the 1988 Summer Olympics in Seoul , South Korea , the host city for the Olympics has also played host to the Paralympics . In 2001 the International Olympic Committee ( IOC ) and the International Paralympic Committee ( IPC ) signed an agreement guaranteeing that host cities would be contracted to manage both the Olympic and Paralympic Games . The agreement came into effect at the 2008 Summer Games in Beijing , and the 2010 Winter Games in Vancouver . Chairman of the London organising committee , Lord Coe , said about the 2012 Summer Paralympics and Olympics in London that ,
We want to change public attitudes towards disability , celebrate the excellence of Paralympic sport and to enshrine from the very outset that the two Games are an integrated whole .
= = = = Youth Games = = = =
In 2010 , the Olympic Games were complemented by the Youth Games , which give athletes between the ages of 14 and 18 the chance to compete . The Youth Olympic Games were conceived by IOC president Jacques Rogge in 2001 and approved during the 119th Congress of the IOC . The first Summer Youth Games were held in Singapore from 14 – 26 August 2010 , while the inaugural Winter Games were hosted in Innsbruck , Austria , two years later . These Games will be shorter than the senior Games ; the summer version will last twelve days , while the winter version will last nine days . The IOC allows 3 @,@ 500 athletes and 875 officials to participate at the Summer Youth Games , and 970 athletes and 580 officials at the Winter Youth Games . The sports to be contested will coincide with those scheduled for the senior Games , however there will be variations on the sports including mixed NOC and mixed gender teams as well as a reduced number of disciplines and events .
= = = 21st @-@ century games = = =
From 241 participants representing 14 nations in 1896 , the Games have grown to about 10 @,@ 500 competitors from 204 nations at the 2012 Summer Olympics . The scope and scale of the Winter Olympics is smaller . For example , Sochi hosted 2 @,@ 873 athletes from 88 nations competing in 98 events during the 2014 Winter Olympics . During the Games most athletes and officials are housed in the Olympic Village . This village is intended to be a self @-@ contained home for all the Olympic participants , and is furnished with cafeterias , health clinics , and locations for religious expression .
The IOC allowed the formation of National Olympic Committees representing nations that did not meet the strict requirements for political sovereignty that other international organizations demand . As a result , colonies and dependencies are permitted to compete at Olympic Games . Examples of this include territories such as Puerto Rico , Bermuda , and Hong Kong , all of which compete as separate nations despite being legally a part of another country . The current version of the Charter allows for the establishment of new National Olympic Committees to represent nation which qualify as " an independent State recognized by the international community " . Therefore , it did not allow the formation of National Olympic Committees for Sint Maarten and Curaçao when they gained the same constitutional status as Aruba in 2010 , although the IOC had recognized the Aruban Olympic Committee in 1986 . After 2012 , Netherlands Antilles athletes can choose to represent either the Netherlands or Aruba .
= = = Economic and social impact on host cities and countries = = =
Many economists are skeptical about the economic benefits of hosting the Olympic Games , emphasizing that such " mega @-@ events " often have large costs while yielding relatively few tangible benefits in the long run . Conversely hosting ( or even bidding for ) the Olympics appears to increase the host country 's exports , as the host or candidate country sends a signal about trade openness when bidding to host the Games . Moreover , research suggests that hosting the Summer Olympics has a strong positive effect on the philanthropic contributions of corporations headquartered in the host city , which seems to benefit the local nonprofit sector . This positive effect begins in the years leading up to the Games and might persist for several years afterwards , although not permanently . This finding suggests that hosting the Olympics might create opportunities for cities to influence local corporations in ways that benefit the local nonprofit sector and civil society .
The Games have also had significant negative effects on host communities ; for example , the Centre on Housing Rights and Evictions reports that the Olympics displaced more than two million people over two decades , often disproportionately affecting disadvantaged groups . The 2014 Winter Olympics in Sochi were the most expensive Olympic Games in history , costing in excess of US $ 50 billion . According to a report by the European Bank for Reconstruction and Development that was released at the time of the games , this cost will not boost Russia 's national economy , but may attract business to Sochi and the southern Krasnodar region of Russia in the future as a result of improved services . But by December 2014 , The Guardian stated that Sochi " now feels like a ghost town " , citing the spread @-@ out nature of the stadiums and arenas , the still @-@ unfinished construction , and the overall effects Russia 's political and economic turmoil . Furthermore , at least four cities withdrew their bids for the 2022 Winter Olympics , citing the costs to host the games .
= = International Olympic Committee = =
The Olympic Movement encompasses a large number of national and international sporting organizations and federations , recognized media partners , as well as athletes , officials , judges , and every other person and institution that agrees to abide by the rules of the Olympic Charter . As the umbrella organization of the Olympic Movement , the International Olympic Committee ( IOC ) is responsible for selecting the host city , overseeing the planning of the Olympic Games , updating and approving the sports program , and negotiating sponsorship and broadcasting rights .
The Olympic Movement is made of three major elements :
International Federations ( IFs ) are the governing bodies that supervise a sport at an international level . For example , the International Federation of Association Football ( FIFA ) is the IF for association football , and the Fédération Internationale de Volleyball is the international governing body for volleyball . There are currently 35 IFs in the Olympic Movement , representing each of the Olympic sports .
National Olympic Committees ( NOCs ) represent and regulate the Olympic Movement within each country . For example , the United States Olympic Committee ( USOC ) is the NOC of the United States . There are currently 205 NOCs recognized by the IOC .
Organizing Committees for the Olympic Games ( OCOGs ) are temporary committees responsible for the organization of each Olympic Games . OCOGs are dissolved after each Games once the final report is delivered to the IOC .
French and English are the official languages of the Olympic Movement . The other language used at each Olympic Games is the language of the host country ( or languages , if a country has more than one official language apart from French or English ) . Every proclamation ( such as the announcement of each country during the parade of nations in the opening ceremony ) is spoken in these three ( or more ) languages , or the main two depending on whether the host country is an English or French speaking country .
= = = Criticism = = =
The IOC has often been criticized for being an intractable organization , with several members on the committee for life . The presidential terms of Avery Brundage and Juan Antonio Samaranch were especially controversial . Brundage was president for over 20 years , and during his tenure he protected the Olympics from political involvement and the influence of advertising . He was accused of both racism , for his handling of the apartheid issue with the South African delegation , and antisemitism . Under the Samaranch presidency , the office was accused of both nepotism and corruption . Samaranch 's ties with the Franco regime in Spain were also a source of criticism .
In 1998 , it was uncovered that several IOC members had taken bribes from members of the Salt Lake City bid committee for the hosting of the 2002 Winter Olympics . The IOC pursued an investigation which led to the resignation of four members and expulsion of six others . The scandal set off further reforms that changed the way host cities were selected , to avoid similar cases in the future .
A BBC documentary entitled Panorama : Buying the Games , aired in August 2004 , investigated the taking of bribes in the bidding process for the 2012 Summer Olympics . The documentary claimed it was possible to bribe IOC members into voting for a particular candidate city . After being narrowly defeated in their bid for the 2012 Summer Games , Parisian mayor Bertrand Delanoë specifically accused the British prime minister Tony Blair and the London Bid Committee ( headed by former Olympic champion Sebastian Coe ) of breaking the bid rules . He cited French president Jacques Chirac as a witness ; Chirac gave guarded interviews regarding his involvement . The allegation was never fully explored . The Turin bid for the 2006 Winter Olympics was also shrouded in controversy . A prominent IOC member , Marc Hodler , strongly connected with the rival bid of Sion , Switzerland , alleged bribery of IOC officials by members of the Turin Organizing Committee . These accusations led to a wide @-@ ranging investigation . The allegations also served to sour many IOC members against Sion 's bid and potentially helped Turin to capture the host city nomination .
In July 2012 , the Anti @-@ Defamation League called the continued refusal by the International Olympic Committee to hold a moment of silence at the opening ceremony for the eleven Israeli athletes killed by Palestinian terrorists at the 1972 Munich Olympics , " a continuing stubborn insensitivity and callousness to the memory of the murdered Israeli athletes . "
= = Commercialization = =
= = = Under national organizing committees = = =
The Olympics have been commercialized to various degrees since the initial 1896 Summer Olympics in Athens , when a number of companies paid for advertizing , including Kodak . In 1908 , Oxo , Odol mouthwash and Indian Foot Powder became official sponsors of the London Olympic Games .
Coca Cola sponsored of the 1928 Summer Olympics , and has subsequently remained a sponsor to the current time .
Before the IOC took control of sponsorship , national organizing committees were responsible for negotiating their own contracts for sponsorship and the use of the Olympic symbols .
= = = Under IOC control = = =
The IOC originally resisted funding by corporate sponsors . It was not until the retirement of IOC president Avery Brundage , in 1972 , that the IOC began to explore the potential of the television medium and the lucrative advertising markets available to them . Under the leadership of Juan Antonio Samaranch the Games began to shift toward international sponsors who sought to link their products to the Olympic brand .
= = = Budget = = =
During the first half of the 20th century the IOC ran on a small budget . As president of the IOC from 1952 to 1972 , Avery Brundage rejected all attempts to link the Olympics with commercial interest . Brundage believed the lobby of corporate interests would unduly impact the IOC 's decision @-@ making . Brundage 's resistance to this revenue stream meant the IOC left organizing committees to negotiate their own sponsorship contracts and use the Olympic symbols . When Brundage retired the IOC had US $ 2 million in assets ; eight years later the IOC coffers had swelled to US $ 45 million . This was primarily due to a shift in ideology toward expansion of the Games through corporate sponsorship and the sale of television rights . When Juan Antonio Samaranch was elected IOC president in 1980 his desire was to make the IOC financially independent .
The 1984 Summer Olympics became a watershed moment in Olympic history . The Los Angeles @-@ based organizing committee , led by Peter Ueberroth , was able to generate a surplus of US $ 225 million , which was an unprecedented amount at that time . The organizing committee had been able to create such a surplus in part by selling exclusive sponsorship rights to select companies . The IOC sought to gain control of these sponsorship rights . Samaranch helped to establish The Olympic Program ( TOP ) in 1985 , in order to create an Olympic brand . Membership in TOP was , and is , very exclusive and expensive . Fees cost US $ 50 million for a four @-@ year membership . Members of TOP received exclusive global advertising rights for their product category , and use of the Olympic symbol , the interlocking rings , in their publications and advertisements .
= = = Effect of television = = =
The 1936 Summer Olympics in Berlin were the first Games to be broadcast on television , though only to local audiences . The 1956 Winter Olympics were the first internationally televised Olympic Games , and the following Winter Games had their broadcasting rights sold for the first time to specialized television broadcasting networks — CBS paid US $ 394 @,@ 000 for the American rights , and the European Broadcasting Union ( EBU ) allocated US $ 660 @,@ 000 . In the following decades the Olympics became one of the ideological fronts of the Cold War . Superpowers jockeyed for political supremacy , and the IOC wanted to take advantage of this heightened interest via the broadcast medium . The sale of broadcast rights enabled the IOC to increase the exposure of the Olympic Games , thereby generating more interest , which in turn created more appeal to advertisers time on television . This cycle allowed the IOC to charge ever @-@ increasing fees for those rights . For example , CBS paid US $ 375 million for the rights of the 1998 Nagano Games , while NBC spent US $ 3 @.@ 5 billion for the broadcast rights of all the Olympic Games from 2000 to 2012 .
Viewership increased exponentially from the 1960s until the end of the century . This was due to the use of satellites to broadcast live television worldwide in 1964 , and the introduction of color television in 1968 . Global audience estimates for the 1968 Mexico City Games was 600 million , whereas at the Los Angeles Games of 1984 , the audience numbers had increased to 900 million ; that number swelled to 3 @.@ 5 billion by the 1992 Summer Olympics in Barcelona . However , at the 2000 Summer Games in Sydney , NBC drew the lowest ratings for any Summer or Winter Olympics since 1968 . This was attributed to two factors : one was the increased competition from cable channels , the second was the internet , which was able to display results and video in real time . Television companies were still relying on tape @-@ delayed content , which was becoming outdated in the information era . A drop in ratings meant that television studios had to give away free advertising time . With such high costs charged to broadcast the Games , the added pressure of the internet , and increased competition from cable , the television lobby demanded concessions from the IOC to boost ratings . The IOC responded by making a number of changes to the Olympic program . At the Summer Games , the gymnastics competition was expanded from seven to nine nights , and a Champions Gala was added to draw greater interest . The IOC also expanded the swimming and diving programs , both popular sports with a broad base of television viewers . Finally , the American television lobby was able to dictate when certain events were held so that they could be broadcast live during prime time in the United States . The results of these efforts were mixed : ratings for the 2006 Winter Games were significantly lower than those for the 2002 Games , while there was a sharp increase in viewership for the 2008 Summer Olympics , and the 2012 Summer Games became the most watched event in US television history .
The sale of the Olympic brand has been controversial . The argument is that the Games have become indistinguishable from any other commercialized sporting spectacle . Specific criticism was levelled at the IOC for market saturation during the 1996 Atlanta and 2000 Sydney Games . The cities were awash in corporations and merchants attempting to sell Olympic @-@ related wares . The IOC indicated that they would address this to prevent spectacles of over @-@ marketing at future Games . Another criticism is that the Games are funded by host cities and national governments ; the IOC incurs none of the cost , yet controls all the rights and profits from the Olympic symbols . The IOC also takes a percentage of all sponsorship and broadcast income . Host cities continue to compete ardently for the right to host the Games , even though there is no certainty that they will earn back their investments . Research has shown that trade is around 30 percent higher for countries that have hosted the Olympics .
= = Symbols = =
The Olympic Movement uses symbols to represent the ideals embodied in the Olympic Charter . The Olympic symbol , better known as the Olympic rings , consists of five intertwined rings and represents the unity of the five inhabited continents ( Africa , America , Asia , Oceania , Europe ) . The colored version of the rings — blue , yellow , black , green , and red — over a white field forms the Olympic flag . These colors were chosen because every nation had at least one of them on its national flag . The flag was adopted in 1914 but flown for the first time only at the 1920 Summer Olympics in Antwerp , Belgium . It has since been hoisted during each celebration of the Games .
The Olympic motto , Citius , Altius , Fortius , a Latin expression meaning " Faster , Higher , Stronger " was proposed by Pierre de Coubertin in 1894 and has been official since 1924 . The motto was coined by Coubertin 's friend the Dominican priest Henri Didon OP , for a Paris youth gathering of 1891 .
Coubertin 's Olympic ideals are expressed in the Olympic creed :
The most important thing in the Olympic Games is not to win but to take part , just as the most important thing in life is not the triumph but the struggle . The essential thing is not to have conquered but to have fought well .
Months before each Games , the Olympic Flame is lit in Olympia in a ceremony that reflects ancient Greek rituals . A female performer , acting as a priestess , ignites a torch by placing it inside a parabolic mirror which focuses the sun 's rays ; she then lights the torch of the first relay bearer , thus initiating the Olympic torch relay that will carry the flame to the host city 's Olympic stadium , where it plays an important role in the opening ceremony . Though the flame has been an Olympic symbol since 1928 , the torch relay was only introduced at the 1936 Summer Games .
The Olympic mascot , an animal or human figure representing the cultural heritage of the host country , was introduced in 1968 . It has played an important part on the Games identity promotion since the 1980 Summer Olympics , when the Russian bear cub Misha reached international stardom . The mascot of the Summer Olympics in London was named Wenlock after the town of Much Wenlock in Shropshire . Much Wenlock still hosts the Wenlock Olympian Games , which were an inspiration to Pierre de Coubertin for the Olympic Games .
= = Ceremonies = =
= = = Opening = = =
As mandated by the Olympic Charter , various elements frame the opening ceremony of the Olympic Games . This ceremony takes place before the events have occurred . Most of these rituals were established at the 1920 Summer Olympics in Antwerp . The ceremony typically starts with the hoisting of the host country 's flag and a performance of its national anthem . The host nation then presents artistic displays of music , singing , dance , and theater representative of its culture . The artistic presentations have grown in scale and complexity as successive hosts attempt to provide a ceremony that outlasts its predecessor 's in terms of memorability . The opening ceremony of the Beijing Games reportedly cost $ 100 million , with much of the cost incurred in the artistic segment .
After the artistic portion of the ceremony , the athletes parade into the stadium grouped by nation . Greece is traditionally the first nation to enter in order to honor the origins of the Olympics . Nations then enter the stadium alphabetically according to the host country 's chosen language , with the host country 's athletes being the last to enter . During the 2004 Summer Olympics , which was hosted in Athens , Greece , the Greek flag entered the stadium first , while the Greek delegation entered last . Speeches are given , formally opening the Games . Finally , the Olympic torch is brought into the stadium and passed on until it reaches the final torch carrier , often a successful Olympic athlete from the host nation , who lights the Olympic flame in the stadium 's cauldron .
= = = Closing = = =
The closing ceremony of the Olympic Games takes place after all sporting events have concluded . Flag @-@ bearers from each participating country enter the stadium , followed by the athletes who enter together , without any national distinction . Three national flags are hoisted while the corresponding national anthems are played : the flag of the current host country ; the flag of Greece , to honor the birthplace of the Olympic Games ; and the flag of the country hosting the next Summer or Winter Olympic Games . The president of the organizing committee and the IOC president make their closing speeches , the Games are officially closed , and the Olympic flame is extinguished . In what is known as the Antwerp Ceremony , the mayor of the city that organized the Games transfers a special Olympic flag to the president of the IOC , who then passes it on to the mayor of the city hosting the next Olympic Games . The next host nation then also briefly introduces itself with artistic displays of dance and theater representative of its culture .
As is customary , the men 's marathon medals ( at the Summer Olympics ) or the men 's 50 km cross @-@ country skiing freestyle mass start medals ( at the Winter Olympics ) are presented as part of the Closing Ceremony , which take place later that day , in the Olympic Stadium , and are thus the last medal presentation of the Games .
= = = Medal presentation = = =
A medal ceremony is held after each Olympic event is concluded . The winner , second and third @-@ place competitors or teams stand on top of a three @-@ tiered rostrum to be awarded their respective medals . After the medals are given out by an IOC member , the national flags of the three medalists are raised while the national anthem of the gold medalist 's country plays . Volunteering citizens of the host country also act as hosts during the medal ceremonies , as they aid the officials who present the medals and act as flag @-@ bearers .
As is customary , the men 's marathon medals are presented as part of the Summer Closing Ceremony , which take place later that day , in the Olympic Stadium - thus , they are the final medal presentation of the Games .
= = Sports = =
The Olympic Games program consists of 35 sports , 30 disciplines and 408 events . For example , wrestling is a Summer Olympic sport , comprising two disciplines : Greco @-@ Roman and Freestyle . It is further broken down into fourteen events for men and four events for women , each representing a different weight class . The Summer Olympics program includes 26 sports , while the Winter Olympics program features 15 sports . Athletics , swimming , fencing , and artistic gymnastics are the only summer sports that have never been absent from the Olympic program . Cross @-@ country skiing , figure skating , ice hockey , Nordic combined , ski jumping , and speed skating have been featured at every Winter Olympics program since its inception in 1924 . Current Olympic sports , like badminton , basketball , and volleyball , first appeared on the program as demonstration sports , and were later promoted to full Olympic sports . Some sports that were featured in earlier Games were later dropped from the program .
Olympic sports are governed by international sports federations ( IFs ) recognized by the IOC as the global supervisors of those sports . There are 35 federations represented at the IOC . There are sports recognized by the IOC that are not included on the Olympic program . These sports are not considered Olympic sports , but they can be promoted to this status during a program revision that occurs in the first IOC session following a celebration of the Olympic Games . During such revisions , sports can be excluded or included in the program on the basis of a two @-@ thirds majority vote of the members of the IOC . There are recognized sports that have never been on an Olympic program in any capacity , including chess and surfing .
In October and November 2004 , the IOC established an Olympic Programme Commission , which was tasked with reviewing the sports on the Olympic program and all non @-@ Olympic recognized sports . The goal was to apply a systematic approach to establishing the Olympic program for each celebration of the Games . The commission formulated seven criteria to judge whether a sport should be included on the Olympic program . These criteria are history and tradition of the sport , universality , popularity of the sport , image , athletes ' health , development of the International Federation that governs the sport , and costs of holding the sport . From this study five recognized sports emerged as candidates for inclusion at the 2012 Summer Olympics : golf , karate , rugby union , roller sports and squash . These sports were reviewed by the IOC Executive Board and then referred to the General Session in Singapore in July 2005 . Of the five sports recommended for inclusion only two were selected as finalists : karate and squash . Neither sport attained the required two @-@ thirds vote and consequently they were not promoted to the Olympic program . In October 2009 the IOC voted to instate golf and rugby union as Olympic sports for the 2016 and 2020 Summer Olympic Games .
The 114th IOC Session , in 2002 , limited the Summer Games program to a maximum of 28 sports , 301 events , and 10 @,@ 500 athletes . Three years later , at the 117th IOC Session , the first major program revision was performed , which resulted in the exclusion of baseball and softball from the official program of the 2012 London Games . Since there was no agreement in the promotion of two other sports , the 2012 program featured just 26 sports . The 2016 and 2020 Games will return to the maximum of 28 sports given the addition of rugby and golf .
= = = Amateurism and professionalism = = =
The ethos of the aristocracy as exemplified in the English public school greatly influenced Pierre de Coubertin . The public schools subscribed to the belief that sport formed an important part of education , an attitude summed up in the saying mens sana in corpore sano , a sound mind in a sound body . In this ethos , a gentleman was one who became an all @-@ rounder , not the best at one specific thing . There was also a prevailing concept of fairness , in which practicing or training was considered tantamount to cheating . Those who practiced a sport professionally were considered to have an unfair advantage over those who practiced it merely as a hobby .
The exclusion of professionals caused several controversies throughout the history of the modern Olympics . The 1912 Olympic pentathlon and decathlon champion Jim Thorpe was stripped of his medals when it was discovered that he had played semi @-@ professional baseball before the Olympics . His medals were posthumously restored by the IOC in 1983 on compassionate grounds . Swiss and Austrian skiers boycotted the 1936 Winter Olympics in support of their skiing teachers , who were not allowed to compete because they earned money with their sport and were thus considered professionals .
As class structure evolved through the 20th century , the definition of the amateur athlete as an aristocratic gentleman became outdated . The advent of the state @-@ sponsored " full @-@ time amateur athlete " of the Eastern Bloc countries further eroded the ideology of the pure amateur , as it put the self @-@ financed amateurs of the Western countries at a disadvantage . Nevertheless , the IOC held to the traditional rules regarding amateurism . Beginning in the 1970s , amateurism requirements were gradually phased out of the Olympic Charter . After the 1988 Games , the IOC decided to make all professional athletes eligible for the Olympics , subject to the approval of the IFs . As of 2012 , the only sports in which no professionals compete is boxing and wrestling , although even this requires a definition of amateurism based on fight rules rather than on payment , as some boxers and wrestlers receive cash prizes from their National Olympic Committees .
= = Controversies = =
= = = Boycotts = = =
Greece , Australia , France , Great Britain , and Switzerland are the only countries to be represented at every Olympic Games since their inception in 1896 . While countries sometimes miss an Olympics due to a lack of qualified athletes , some choose to boycott a celebration of the Games for various reasons . The Olympic Council of Ireland boycotted the 1936 Berlin Games , because the IOC insisted its team needed to be restricted to the Irish Free State rather than representing the entire island of Ireland .
There were three boycotts of the 1956 Melbourne Olympics : the Netherlands , Spain , and Switzerland refused to attend because of the repression of the Hungarian uprising by the Soviet Union , but did send an equestrian delegation to Stockholm ; Cambodia , Egypt , Iraq , and Lebanon boycotted the Games because of the Suez Crisis ; and China ( the " People 's Republic of China " ) boycotted the Games because Taiwan was allowed to compete in the Games as the " Republic of China " .
In 1972 and 1976 a large number of African countries threatened the IOC with a boycott to force them to ban South Africa and Rhodesia , because of their segregationist regimes . New Zealand was also one of the African boycott targets , because its national rugby union team had toured apartheid @-@ ruled South Africa . The IOC conceded in the first two cases , but refused to ban New Zealand on the grounds that rugby was not an Olympic sport . Fulfilling their threat , twenty African countries were joined by Guyana and Iraq in a withdrawal from the Montreal Games , after a few of their athletes had already competed .
Taiwan also decided to boycott these Games because the People 's Republic of China ( PRC ) exerted pressure on the Montreal organizing committee to keep the delegation from the Republic of China ( ROC ) from competing under that name . The ROC refused a proposed compromise that would have still allowed them to use the ROC flag and anthem as long as the name was changed . Taiwan did not participate again until 1984 , when it returned under the name of Chinese Taipei and with a special flag and anthem .
In 1980 and 1984 , the Cold War opponents boycotted each other 's Games . The United States and sixty @-@ four other countries boycotted the Moscow Olympics in 1980 because of the Soviet invasion of Afghanistan . This boycott reduced the number of nations participating to 81 , the lowest number since 1956 . The Soviet Union and 15 other nations countered by boycotting the Los Angeles Olympics of 1984 , contending that they could not guarantee the safety of their athletes . Soviet officials defended their decision to withdraw from the Games by saying that " chauvinistic sentiments and an anti @-@ Soviet hysteria are being whipped up in the United States " . The boycotting nations of the Eastern Bloc staged their own alternate event , the Friendship Games , in July and August .
There had been growing calls for boycotts of Chinese goods and the 2008 Olympics in Beijing in protest of China 's human rights record , and in response to Tibetan disturbances . Ultimately , no nation supported a boycott . In August 2008 , the government of Georgia called for a boycott of the 2014 Winter Olympics , set to be held in Sochi , Russia , in response to Russia 's participation in the 2008 South Ossetia war .
= = = Politics = = =
The Olympic Games have been used as a platform to promote political ideologies almost from its inception . Nazi Germany wished to portray the National Socialist Party as benevolent and peace @-@ loving when they hosted the 1936 Games , though they used the Games to display Aryan superiority . Germany was the most successful nation at the Games , which did much to support their allegations of Aryan supremacy , but notable victories by African American Jesse Owens , who won four gold medals , and Hungarian Jew Ibolya Csák , blunted the message . The Soviet Union did not participate until the 1952 Summer Olympics in Helsinki . Instead , starting in 1928 , the Soviets organized an international sports event called Spartakiads . During the interwar period of the 1920s and 1930s , communist and socialist organizations in several countries , including the United States , attempted to counter what they called the " bourgeois " Olympics with the Workers Olympics . It was not until the 1956 Summer Games that the Soviets emerged as a sporting superpower and , in doing so , took full advantage of the publicity that came with winning at the Olympics . Individual athletes have also used the Olympic stage to promote their own political agenda . At the 1968 Summer Olympics in Mexico City , two American track and field athletes , Tommie Smith and John Carlos , who finished first and third in the 200 meters , performed the Black Power salute on the victory stand . The second @-@ place finisher , Peter Norman of Australia , wore an Olympic Project for human rights badge in support of Smith and Carlos . In response to the protest , IOC president Avery Brundage told the United States Olympic Committee ( USOC ) to either send the two athletes home or withdraw the track and field team . The USOC opted for the former . During the same Olympics , Czechoslovakian gymnast Věra Čáslavská announced her protest to the Soviet @-@ led invasion of her home country after controversially receiving Silver on the Beam and a shared Gold on the Floor . During the Soviet anthem , Čáslavská turned her head down and to the right of the Soviet flag in order to make a statement over the invasion and the Soviet influence of the sport of Gymnastics . Returning home , Čáslavská was made an outcast by the Soviet government and was banned from competition and travelling .
Currently , the government of Iran has taken steps to avoid any competition between its athletes and those from Israel . An Iranian judoka , Arash Miresmaeili , did not compete in a match against an Israeli during the 2004 Summer Olympics . Although he was officially disqualified for being overweight , Miresmaeli was awarded US $ 125 @,@ 000 in prize money by the Iranian government , an amount paid to all Iranian gold medal winners . He was officially cleared of intentionally avoiding the bout , but his receipt of the prize money raised suspicion .
= = = Use of performance @-@ enhancing drugs = = =
In the early 20th century , many Olympic athletes began using drugs to improve their athletic abilities . For example , in 1904 , Thomas Hicks , a gold medalist in the marathon , was given strychnine by his coach . The only Olympic death linked to performance enhancing occurred at the 1960 Rome games . A Danish cyclist , Knud Enemark Jensen , fell from his bicycle and later died . A coroner 's inquiry found that he was under the influence of amphetamines . By the mid @-@ 1960s , sports federations started to ban the use of performance @-@ enhancing drugs ; in 1967 the IOC followed suit .
The first Olympic athlete to test positive for the use of performance @-@ enhancing drugs was Hans @-@ Gunnar Liljenwall , a Swedish pentathlete at the 1968 Summer Olympics , who lost his bronze medal for alcohol use . One of the most publicized doping @-@ related disqualification occurred after the 1988 Summer Olympics where Canadian sprinter , Ben Johnson ( who won the 100 @-@ metre dash ) tested positive for stanozolol . His gold medal was later stripped and awarded to the American runner @-@ up Carl Lewis , who himself had tested positive for banned substances prior to the Olympics .
In 1999 the IOC formed the World Anti @-@ Doping Agency ( WADA ) in an effort to systematize the research and detection of performance @-@ enhancing drugs . There was a sharp increase in positive drug tests at the 2000 Summer Olympics and 2002 Winter Olympics . Several medalists in weightlifting and cross @-@ country skiing were disqualified because of doping offenses . During the 2006 Winter Olympics , only one athlete failed a drug test and had a medal revoked . The IOC @-@ established drug testing regimen ( now known as the Olympic Standard ) has set the worldwide benchmark that other sporting federations attempt to emulate . During the Beijing games , 3 @,@ 667 athletes were tested by the IOC under the auspices of the World Anti @-@ Doping Agency . Both urine and blood tests were used to detect banned substances . Several athletes were barred from competition by their National Olympic Committees prior to the Games ; only three athletes failed drug tests while in competition in Beijing . In London over 6 @,@ 000 Olympic and Paralympic athletes were tested . Prior to the Games 107 athletes tested positive for banned substances and were not allowed to compete . During and after the Games eight athletes tested positive for a banned substance and were suspended , including shot putter Nadzeya Ostapchuk who was stripped of her gold medal .
= = = Sex discrimination = = =
Women were first allowed to compete at the 1900 Summer Olympics in Paris , but at the 1992 Summer Olympics thirty @-@ five countries were still fielding all @-@ male delegations . This number dropped rapidly over the following years . In 2000 , Bahrain sent two women competitors for the first time : Fatema Hameed Gerashi and Mariam Mohamed Hadi Al Hilli . In 2004 , Robina Muqimyar and Fariba Rezayee became the first women to compete for Afghanistan at the Olympics . In 2008 , the United Arab Emirates sent female athletes ( Maitha Al Maktoum competed in taekwondo , and Latifa Al Maktoum in equestrian ) to the Olympic Games for the first time . Both athletes were from Dubai 's ruling family .
By 2010 , only three countries had never sent female athletes to the Games : Brunei , Saudi Arabia , and Qatar . Brunei had taken part in only three celebrations of the Games , sending a single athlete on each occasion , but Saudi Arabia and Qatar had been competing regularly with all @-@ male teams . In 2010 , the International Olympic Committee announced it would " press " these countries to enable and facilitate the participation of women for the 2012 Summer Olympics . Anita DeFrantz , chair of the IOC 's Women and Sports Commission , suggested that countries be barred if they prevented women from competing . Shortly thereafter , the Qatar Olympic Committee announced that it " hoped to send up to four female athletes in shooting and fencing " to the 2012 Summer Games in London .
In 2008 , Ali Al @-@ Ahmed , director of the Institute for Gulf Affairs , likewise called for Saudi Arabia to be barred from the Games , describing its ban on women athletes as a violation of the International Olympic Committee charter . He noted : " For the last 15 years , many international nongovernmental organizations worldwide have been trying to lobby the IOC for better enforcement of its own laws banning gender discrimination . [ ... ] While their efforts did result in increasing numbers of women Olympians , the IOC has been reluctant to take a strong position and threaten the discriminating countries with suspension or expulsion . " In July 2010 , The Independent reported : " Pressure is growing on the International Olympic Committee to kick out Saudi Arabia , who are likely to be the only major nation not to include women in their Olympic team for 2012 . [ ... ] Should Saudi Arabia [ ... ] send a male @-@ only team to London , we understand they will face protests from equal rights and women 's groups which threaten to disrupt the Games " .
At the 2012 Olympic Games in London , Great Britain , for the first time in Olympic history , every country competing included female athletes . Saudi Arabia included two female athletes in its delegation ; Qatar , four ; and Brunei , one ( Maziah Mahusin , in the 400m hurdles ) . Qatar made one of its first female Olympians , Bahiya al @-@ Hamad ( shooting ) , its flagbearer at the 2012 Games , and runner Maryam Yusuf Jamal of Bahrain became the first Gulf female athlete to win a medal when she won a bronze for her showing in the 1500 m race .
The only sport on the Olympic programme that features men and women competing together is the equestrian disciplines . There is no " Women 's Eventing " , or ' Men 's Dressage ' . As of 2008 , there were still more medal events for men than women . With the addition of women 's boxing to the program in the 2012 Summer Olympics , however , female athletes were able to compete in all the same sports as men . In the winter Olympics , women are still unable to compete in the Nordic Combined . There are currently two Olympic events in which male athletes may not compete : synchronized swimming and rhythmic gymnastics .
= = = Terrorism and violence = = =
Three Olympiads had to pass without a celebration of the Games because of war : the 1916 Games were cancelled because of World War I , and the summer and winter games of 1940 and 1944 were cancelled because of World War II . The Russo @-@ Georgian War between Georgia and Russia erupted on the opening day of the 2008 Summer Olympics in Beijing . Both President Bush and Prime Minister Putin were attending the Olympics at that time and spoke together about the conflict at a luncheon hosted by Chinese president Hu Jintao . When Nino Salukvadze of Georgia won the bronze medal in the 10 metre air pistol competition , she stood on the medal podium with Natalia Paderina , a Russian shooter who had won the silver . In what became a much @-@ publicized event from the Beijing Games , Salukvadze and Paderina embraced on the podium after the ceremony had ended .
Terrorism most directly affected the Olympic Games in 1972 . When the Summer Games were held in Munich , Germany , eleven members of the Israeli Olympic team were taken hostage by the Palestinian terrorist group Black September in what is now known as the Munich massacre . The terrorists killed two of the athletes soon after they had taken them hostage and killed the other nine during a failed liberation attempt . A German police officer and 5 terrorists also perished .
Terrorism affected the last two Olympic Games held in the United States . During the Summer Olympics in 1996 in Atlanta , Georgia , a bomb was detonated at the Centennial Olympic Park , which killed two and injured 111 others . The bomb was set by Eric Rudolph , an American domestic terrorist , who is currently serving a life sentence for the bombing . The 2002 Winter Olympics in Salt Lake City , Utah , took place just five months after the September 11 attacks , which meant a higher level of security than ever before provided for an Olympic Games . The opening ceremonies of the Games featured symbols of the day 's events . They included the flag that flew at Ground Zero , NYPD officer Daniel Rodríguez singing " God Bless America " , and honor guards of NYPD and FDNY members . The events of that day have made security at the Olympic Games an increasing concern for Olympic planners .
= = = Colonialism = = =
The Olympic Games have been criticized as upholding ( and in some cases increasing ) the colonial policies and practices of some host nations and cities either in the name of the Olympics by associated parties or directly by official Olympic bodies , such as the International Olympic Committee , host organizing committees and official sponsors . Critics have argued that the Olympics have engaged in or caused : erroneous anthropological and colonial knowledge production ; erasure ; commodification and appropriation of indigenous ceremonies and symbolism ; theft and inappropriate display of indigenous objects ; further encroachment on and support of the theft of indigenous lands ; and neglect and / or intensification of poor social conditions for indigenous peoples . Such practices have been observed at : the 1904 Summer Olympics in St. Louis , Missouri ; the 1976 Summer Olympics in Montreal , Quebec ; the 1988 Winter Olympics in Calgary , Alberta ; and the 2010 Winter Olympics in Vancouver , British Columbia .
= = Citizenship = =
= = = IOC rules for citizenship = = =
The Olympic Charter requires that an athlete be a national of the country for which they compete . Dual nationals may compete for either country , as long as three years have passed since the competitor competed for the former country . However , if the NOCs and IF involved agree , then the IOC Executive Board may reduce or cancel this period . This waiting period exists only for athletes who previously competed for one nation and want to compete for another . If an athlete gains a new or second nationality , then they do not need to wait any designated amount of time before participating for the new or second nation . The IOC is only concerned with issues of citizenship and nationality after individual nations have granted citizenship to athletes .
= = = Reasons for changing citizenship = = =
Athletes will sometimes become citizens of a different nation so they are able to compete in the Olympics . This is often because they are drawn to sponsorships or training facilities in such places as the United States . It could also be because an athlete is unable to qualify from within their original country . The athlete may not qualify because there are already qualified athletes in the athlete 's home country . Between 1992 and 2008 , about fifty athletes emigrated to the United States to compete on the US Olympic team after having previously competed for another nation .
= = = Citizenship changes and disputes = = =
One of the most famous cases of changing nationality for the Olympics was Zola Budd , a South African runner who emigrated to the United Kingdom because there was an apartheid @-@ era ban on the Olympics in South Africa . Budd was eligible for British citizenship because her grandfather was born in Britain , but British citizens accused the government of expediting the citizenship process for her .
Other notable examples include Kenyan runner Bernard Lagat , who became a United States citizen in May 2004 . The Kenyan constitution requires that one renounce their Kenyan citizenship when they become a citizen of another nation . Lagat competed for Kenya in the 2004 Athens Olympics even though he had already become a United States citizen . According to Kenya , he was no longer a Kenyan citizen , jeopardizing his silver medal . Lagat said he started the citizenship process in late 2003 and did not expect to become an American citizen until after the Athens games . Basketball player Becky Hammon was not being considered for the United States Olympic team but wanted to play in an Olympic Games , so she emigrated to Russia , where she already played in a domestic league during the WNBA offseason . Hammon received criticism from some Americans , including the US national team coach , even being called unpatriotic .
= = Champions and medalists = =
The athletes or teams who place first , second , or third in each event receive medals . The winners receive gold medals , which were solid gold until 1912 , then made of gilded silver and now gold @-@ plated silver . Every gold medal however must contain at least six grams of pure gold . The runners @-@ up receive silver medals and the third @-@ place athletes are awarded bronze medals . In events contested by a single @-@ elimination tournament ( most notably boxing ) , third place might not be determined and both semifinal losers receive bronze medals . At the 1896 Olympics only the first two received a medal ; silver for first and bronze for second . The current three @-@ medal format was introduced at the 1904 Olympics . From 1948 onward athletes placing fourth , fifth , and sixth have received certificates , which became officially known as victory diplomas ; in 1984 victory diplomas for seventh- and eighth @-@ place finishers were added . At the 2004 Summer Olympics in Athens , the gold , silver , and bronze medal winners were also given olive wreaths . The IOC does not keep statistics of medals won , but National Olympic Committees and the media record medal statistics as a measure of success .
= = Nations = =
= = = Nations at the Summer Olympics = = =
As of the 2012 Games in London , all of the current 204 NOCs have participated in at least one edition of the Olympic Summer Olympics , and athletes from Australia , France , Great Britain , Greece , and Switzerland have competed in all twenty @-@ seven Summer Olympic Games .
= = = Nations at the Winter Olympics = = =
119 NOCs ( 110 of the current 204 NOCs and 9 obsolete NOCs ) have participated in at least one Winter Games , and twelve nations ( Austria , Canada , Finland , France , Great Britain , Hungary , Italy , Norway , Poland , Sweden , Switzerland , and the United States ) have participated in all twenty @-@ two Winter Games to date . Including continuity from Czechoslovakia , the Czech Republic and Slovakia have also been represented in every edition .
= = = Host nations and cities = = =
The host city for an Olympic Games is usually chosen seven to eight years ahead of their celebration . The process of selection is carried out in two phases that span a two @-@ year period . The prospective host city applies to its country 's National Olympic Committee ; if more than one city from the same country submits a proposal to its NOC , the national committee typically holds an internal selection , since only one city per NOC can be presented to the International Olympic Committee for consideration . Once the deadline for submission of proposals by the NOCs is reached , the first phase ( Application ) begins with the applicant cities asked to complete a questionnaire regarding several key criteria related to the organization of the Olympic Games . In this form , the applicants must give assurances that they will comply with the Olympic Charter and with any other regulations established by the IOC Executive Committee . The evaluation of the filled questionnaires by a specialized group provides the IOC with an overview of each applicant 's project and their potential to host the Games . On the basis of this technical evaluation , the IOC Executive Board selects the applicants that will proceed to the candidature stage .
Once the candidate cities are selected , they must submit to the IOC a bigger and more detailed presentation of their project as part of a candidature file . Each city is thoroughly analyzed by an evaluation commission . This commission will also visit the candidate cities , interviewing local officials and inspecting prospective venue sites , and submit a report on its findings one month prior to the IOC 's final decision . During the interview process the candidate city must also guarantee that it will be able to fund the Games . After the work of the evaluation commission , a list of candidates is presented to the General Session of the IOC , which must assemble in a country that does not have a candidate city in the running . The IOC members gathered in the Session have the final vote on the host city . Once elected , the host city bid committee ( together with the NOC of the respective country ) signs a Host City Contract with the IOC , officially becoming an Olympic host nation and host city .
By 2016 , the Olympic Games will have been hosted by 44 cities in 23 countries , but by cities outside Europe and North America on only eight occasions . Since the 1988 Summer Olympics in Seoul , South Korea , the Olympics have been held in Asia or Oceania four times , a sharp increase compared to the previous 92 years of modern Olympic history . The 2016 Games in Rio de Janeiro will be the first Olympics for a South American country . No bids from countries in Africa have succeeded .
The United States has hosted eight Olympic Games , four Summer and four Winter , more than any other nation . The British capital London holds the distinction of hosting three Olympic Games , all Summer , more than any other city . The other nations hosting the Summer Games twice are Germany , Australia , France and Greece . The other cities hosting the Summer Games twice are Los Angeles , Paris and Athens . With the 2020 Summer Olympic Games , Japan and Tokyo , respectively , will hold these statuses .
In addition to the United States , nations hosting multiple Winter Games are France with three , while Switzerland , Austria , Norway , Japan , Canada and Italy have hosted twice . Among host cities , Lake Placid , Innsbruck and St. Moritz have played host to the Winter Olympic Games more than once , each holding that honor twice . The most recent Winter Games were held in Sochi in 2014 , Russia 's first Winter Olympics and second Olympics overall .
= = Participation notes = =
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= Hurricane Paul ( 2012 ) =
Hurricane Paul was a tropical cyclone that threatened the Baja California peninsula during October 2012 . The sixteenth tropical cyclone , tenth hurricane , and fifth major hurricane of the season , Paul originated from a trough of low pressure west of the coastline of Mexico on October 13 . While turning towards the north , the system quickly organized , reaching hurricane status on the afternoon of October 15 . By that afternoon , Paul had reached its peak intensity as a Category 3 hurricane on the Saffir @-@ Simpson hurricane wind scale ( SSHWS ) with maximum sustained winds of 120 mph ( 195 km / h ) , but began to weaken rapidly thereafter due to land interaction and strong wind shear . Late on October 17 , Paul degenerated into a remnant low . The remnants of Paul later moved ashore along the central Baja California Peninsula
Prior to the storm 's arrival in Baja California Sur , hurricane watches and warnings were issued for coastal locations . Hundreds of homes were damaged across the region and damage to infrastructure was significant . Power outages also occurred across the region as a result of Hurricane Paul . A total of 400 homes were destroyed , and 300 others were flooded . Damage totaled $ 15 @.@ 5 million ( 2012 USD ) .
= = Meteorological history = =
On September 28 , a tropical wave emerged off the western coast of Africa . Tracking westward , the northern portion of this wave axis led to the formation of Tropical Storm Oscar on October 3 while the southern portion of the wave continued across the central Atlantic . While approaching the Lesser Antilles the following day , the disturbance lost most of its thunderstorm activity and remained poorly organized across the remainder of its trek through the Caribbean Sea and Central America . On October 10 , the wave emerged into the East Pacific basin , at which time the National Hurricane Center ( NHC ) began monitoring the system .
Characterized with disorganized convection , a broad surface trough formed in association with the wave the same day and environmental conditions were expected to favor gradual development . Initially , upper @-@ level winds were only marginally favorable , and although the thunderstorms remained disorganized , the NHC estimated a 50 % chance for development by early on October 12 . The next day , the system became better defined , and , the NHC noted that the system was on the verge of becoming a tropical cyclone . Although operationally not classified until 2100 UTC on October 13 , a post @-@ season analysis conducted on the system revealed that it attained enough organization to be considered a tropical depression at 1200 UTC , while positioned about 645 mi ( 1040 km ) south @-@ southwest of Cabo San Lucas .
Tracking westward around the southern periphery of a subtropical ridge , the depression steadily strengthened , intensifying into Tropical Storm Paul six hours after designation . On October 14 , an upper @-@ level low positioned west of the Baja California peninsula led to a break in the ridge which subsequently caused the tropical cyclone to slow and turn northward . During this change in direction , favorable atmospheric conditions allowed for a quick rate of intensification . Convective bands in association with Paul gained curvature and a central dense overcast feature became visible on satellite imagery . In addition , a series of microwave passes late in evening revealed a nearly closed eyewall . At 0600 UTC on October 15 , Paul was upgraded to a Category 1 hurricane on he SSHWS while located approximately 595 mi ( 960 km ) southwest of Cabo San Lucas . Banding features continued to become better defined to the south and east of the center while convection in the eyewall cooled to − 85 ° C ( − 121 ° F ) . The cloud pattern became increasingly symmetrical , and an eye became intermittently visible on satellite imagery later that morning . Following an abrupt increase in satellite intensity estimates , Paul was upgraded to a major hurricane , Category 3 on the SSHWS , the fifth of the season , at 1800 UTC on October 15 . Simultaneously , the hurricane also estimated to have attained its peak intensity of 120 miles per hour ( 195 km / h ) .
Upon reaching its peak intensity , the hurricane began to steadily weaken . The cold ring of thunderstorm activity surrounding the eye warmed significantly while the eye became cloud @-@ filled and cool . The circulation became tilted north @-@ northeast with height , likely a byproduct of south @-@ southwesterly wind shear , and the system was downgraded to a Category 2 hurricane at 1200 UTC on October 16 . Accelerating northwestward within deep southwesterly flow , continued unfavorable upper @-@ level winds caused the low @-@ level center to rapidly separate from the convective mass . At 1800 UTC , Paul was downgraded to a Category 1 hurricane ; by this time , little deep thunderstorm activity remained near the center . Six hours later , the system was downgraded to a tropical storm while it passed 50 mi ( 80 km ) west of Baja California Sur . The remainder of shower and thunderstorm activity dissipated early on October 17 and Paul was declared a post @-@ tropical cyclone at 0600 UTC . Following declassification , the system moved ashore Baja California Sur near Bahía Asunción while maintaining gale @-@ force winds . Late that evening , the remnant low @-@ level circulation dissipated about 70 mi ( 110 km ) northwest of Punta Eugenia , Mexico .
= = Preparations = =
When the system first posed a threat to Mexico at 0900 UTC on October 15 , a tropical storm watch was posted for a portion of the central Baja California Peninsula . Six hours later , the watch was upgraded into a tropical storm warning , while tropical storm watches were issued to the north and south of the warning , respectively . At 2100 UTC on October 15 , the tropical storm warnings was upgraded into a hurricane warning , while a tropical storm warning was declared along the eastern side of the peninsula . Early the next day , the tropical storm warning was extended southward , to include the capital of La Paz . On the afternoon of October 16 , when the threat to the area increased , a hurricane warnings was posted for the eastern side of the state . Early the next day , all hurricane warnings were dropped , as Paul had deteriorated into a tropical storm . By 1500 UTC , all watches and warnings had been discontinued .
Prior to the arrival of Paul , activities were suspended for small craft in the ports of Cabo San Lucas , La Paz , San Carlos , Maria Magdalena , and Puerto Lopez Mateos . Moreover , all activities were closed in the port of Mazatlan . Twelve municipalities in Sonora were placed under a " green " alert , though this was quickly upgraded to a " yellow " alert , and later into an " orange " alert . A " blue " alert also declared for Colima , Jalisco , and Nayarit .
On October 16 , a " yellow " alert ( moderate risk ) was activated for Baja California Sur . State civil protection authorities brought teams from the federal electricity and water commissions to help maintain services during the storm . In addition , the state government opened 143 shelters , including 11 in the towns of Cabo San Lucas , La Paz , Ciudad Constitución , and Loreto , which had a capacity of 30 @,@ 617 persons . Furthermore , 125 cranes and 75 automobiles were mobilized . Statewide , 400 soldiers were deployed . Roughly 500 residents in Comondú were evacuated to shelter .
= = Impact and aftermath = =
During its formative stages , Paul passed near Clarion Island , where winds of 58 mph ( 93 km / h ) and gusts of 77 mph ( 124 km / h ) were recorded . On nearby Socorro Island , 1 @.@ 98 in ( 50 mm ) of rain fell during the storm 's passage .
Even though there were no reports of hurricane @-@ force winds onshore the Baja California Peninsula ( the storm weakened to a tropical sotrm when it made its closet approach to the region ) , hurricane @-@ force winds did approach the peninsula , and there were widespread reports of gale @-@ force winds . In Puerto Cortes , peak winds of 51 mph ( 82 km / h ) and gusts up to 72 mph ( 116 km / h ) were observed , as well as a peak rainfall total over 6 @.@ 02 in ( 153 mm ) . Furthermore , a minimum barometric pressure of 973 @.@ 4 millibars ( 28 @.@ 74 inHg ) was observed in Cabo San Lucas .
The outer rainbands of the system first brought rains to Baja California Sur on October 15 , resulting in flooding . Around 30 % of Baja California Sur residents were without power at the height of Paul . Across the northern portion of the state , numerous roads were destroyed , especially near Loreto , where flooding caused a 45 ft ( 14 m ) sinkhole to form . In addition , Mexican Federal Highway 11 was damaged in five locations from La Paz to Ciudad Constitucion . In Loreto , significant destruction occurred and many residents were rendered homeless . Two creeks overflowed their banks , destroying several homes . In Mulege , 300 homes were inundated , displacing 60 individuals to shelter . Thirty light poles were downed . The Puerto San Carlos area sustained the worst flooding from the storm , due to a combination of nearly a year 's worth of rainfall and storm surge , which toppled a dike . There , about 400 homes collapsed and around 40 % of the town 's houses received damage , forcing 300 people to seek shelter . In San Ignacio , 30 automobiles were swept away and power was lost to the city .
Across the city of La Paz , damage to roads was estimated at MX $ 200 million ( US $ 15 @.@ 5 million ) . In all , approximately 1 @,@ 000 dwellings were damaged in relation to Hurricane Paul ; many other homes across the region were left without electricity and running water . A total of 495 people were taken to shelters , including 93 in Ciudad Insurgentes and 300 in San Carlos . Overall , 5 @,@ 000 families or 16 @,@ 000 people were directly affected by the hurricane .
Elsewhere , in Sonora light rain was recorded . In the aftermath of the storm , the Mexican navy activated a plan to provide aid . A total of 130 troops toured the damaged areas via six vehicles . A state of emergency was declared for four municipalities in Baja California Sur . By October 18 , 95 % of all water , power , and road services had been restored . Roughly MX $ 2 million ( $ 150 @,@ 000 2012 USD ) was spent into to help rebuild businesses lost due to the storm .
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= Camas pocket gopher =
The camas pocket gopher ( Thomomys bulbivorus ) , also known as the camas rat or Willamette Valley gopher , is a rodent , the largest member in the genus Thomomys , of the family Geomyidae . First described in 1829 , it is endemic to the Willamette Valley of northwestern Oregon in the United States . The herbivorous gopher forages for vegetable and plant matter , which it collects in large , fur @-@ lined , external cheek pouches . Surplus food is hoarded in an extensive system of underground tunnels . The dull @-@ brown @-@ to @-@ lead @-@ gray coat changes color and texture over the year . The mammal 's characteristically large , protuberant incisors are well adapted for use in tunnel construction , particularly in the hard clay soils of the Willamette Valley . The gophers make chattering sounds with their teeth ; males and females make purring ( or crooning ) sounds when they are together , and the young make twittering sounds . Born toothless , blind and hairless , the young grow rapidly before being weaned at about six weeks of age .
Although the camas pocket gopher is fiercely defensive when cornered , it may become tame in captivity . While population trends are generally stable , threats to the species ' survival include urbanization , habitat conversion for agricultural use and active attempts at eradication with trapping and poisons . It is prey for raptors and carnivorous mammals , and host to several parasitic arthropods and worms . Scientists believe that the gopher 's evolutionary history was disrupted when the Missoula Floods washed over the Willamette Valley at the end of the last ice age . The floods almost completely inundated its geographic range , which may have caused a genetic bottleneck as survivors repopulated the region after the waters receded .
= = Taxonomy = =
There are six genera of North American pocket gophers : Cratogeomys , Geomys , Orthogeomys , Pappogeomys , Thomomys , and Zygogeomys . The camas pocket gopher is a smooth @-@ toothed pocket gopher of the genus Thomomys , within the pocket @-@ gopher family Geomyidae . The incisors of gophers in the genus Thomomys have characteristically smooth anterior surfaces , while those of Geomys have two deep grooves per tooth and those of Cratogeomys have a single groove . The camas pocket gopher is a member of the subgenus Megascapheus , established in 1903 , at that time for the camas pocket gopher alone . Taxonomists subsequently assigned other gophers to the same subgenus . The name Thomomys derives from the Greek σωρός ( heap ) + μῦς ( mouse ) , probably describing the mounds of excavated soil produced by the burrowing gopher . Bulbus translates as " bulb " in Latin , and the word for " devour " is voro . Naturalist David Douglas reported that the gopher consumed bulbs of the camas lily , and Vernon Bailey later attributed the lack of camas lilies in areas inhabited by the gopher to the bulbs being eaten . However , naturalist H. M. Wight observed that the gopher ate primarily dandelion greens , and was skeptical that it was a large consumer of bulbs .
= = = Early history = = =
The taxonomy of the camas pocket gopher and its genus , Thomomys , have a convoluted history . According to a review article published by the American Society of Mammalogists in 1987 , Johann Friedrich von Brandt was the first to refer to the camas pocket gopher as Thomomys bulbivorus in an 1855 article published by the Imperial Academy of Sciences . In the 1855 article , Brandt refers to Tomomys bulbivora without the " h " and ending with an " a " . He writes parenthetically " ( man schreibe nicht Thomomys ) " . The authors of the 1987 review note that they did not see Brandt 's actual article , but source the textbook The mammals of North America published in 1981 .
Early confusion arose from writings by John Richardson between 1828 and 1839 . Although he describes six species in the genus , according to later critics he was unfamiliar with all specimens . Richardson 's descriptions of the animals and the figures in the text were also criticized . His 1829 Fauna boreali @-@ americana describes a type specimen of camas pocket gopher obtained from the " banks of the Columbia River , Oregon " , the northern limit of the gopher 's geographic range . This was probably Portland , at the confluence of the Willamette and Columbia Rivers , the only place on the Columbia where subsequent specimens have been found . The present location of this initial specimen is uncertain ; reportedly stored at the Hudson Bay Museum , it could not be located in 1915 . When Richardson made his first examination , the specimen was apparently incomplete ; although Joel Asaph Allen wrote in 1893 that it consisted only of the skin , Richardson described the skull and facial features in detail .
In Fauna boreali @-@ americana , Richardson assigns the mammal to the now @-@ defunct genus Diplostoma described by Rafinesque in 1817 . He named it Diplostoma ? bulbivorum . Illustration @-@ labeling errors in Richardson 's book further confounded subsequent taxonomists ; the plate was labeled Diplostoma douglasii .
There is a specimen of a quadruped in the Hudson 's Bay Museum , which Mr David Douglas informs me is the animal known on the banks of the Columbia by the name of the camas @-@ rat , because the bulbous root of the Quamash or Camas plant ( Scilla esculenta ) forms its favourite food . The scull is wanting , and the animal , therefore , cannot be with certainty referred to a genus , but the form of its exterior cheek @-@ pouches leads me to think that it may belong to the diplostoma of M Rafinesque @-@ Schmaltz .
The confusion around the species ' taxonomy and identification amplified when naturalist Spencer Fullerton Baird interpreted Richardson 's reports . The camas pocket gopher 's large size led Baird to conclude that the animal 's measurements ( reported by Richardson ) were an artifact of its taxidermy preparation . Baird was also apparently in error about the location from which the specimen was taken , attributing the name Thomomys bulbivorus to a set of previously collected specimens later known as the California Gopher . This confusion was echoed by subsequent authors . The article on gophers in the 1879 edition of the American Cyclopædia has an illustration captioned " California Gopher ( Thomomys bulbivorus ) " . The ninth edition of the Encyclopædia Britannica ( published during the late 19th century ) mistakenly reports Thomomys bulbivorus as abundant along the central California coast .
= = = Clarifications = = =
Although Baird and Elliott Coues were involved in early assessments of the genus , according to Allen neither ever saw a specimen of the camas pocket gopher ( T. bulbivorus ) . Allen obtained and examined two large adults ( male and female ) collected in Beaverton , Oregon in May 1890 which were considerably larger and darker than previously examined specimens . Skull features and white markings around the mouth and anus also differed . His findings and the specimen @-@ collection location helped identify the camas pocket gopher as a species separate from California gophers . The California specimens were classified by Eydoux and Gervais as Oryctomys bottae , now known as Thomomys bottae ( Botta 's pocket gopher ) . They were found near Monterey , California , over 1 @,@ 000 kilometers ( 620 mi ) south of the now @-@ recognized range of the Camas pocket gopher .
The distribution of Elliot 's " great pocket gopher " ( as it was known ) extended along the California coast " north of San Francisco . " James Audubon and John Bachman reassesed the taxonomy on the camas pocket gopher in the late 1800s . They referred it as the " camas rat " . They reclassified the gopher as Pseudostoma borealis . They rejected Diplostoma as a genus , and assigned Diplostoma bulbivorum as synonymous with P. borealis . They attributed any differences described by Richardson to artifact , from a specimen that was " twisted and disfigured " in preparation . Based on observations of taxidermy specimens in Europe , they suggested that Townsend 's pocket gopher ( Geomys ( Thomomys ) townsendii ) belonged to the same species . In 1875 the camas pocket gopher was reported as a sub @-@ species of the northern pocket gopher ( Thomomys talpoides ) , . During the 1920s H. M. Wight referred to it colloquially as the " Willamette Valley gopher " .
= = = Current phylogeny = = =
In 2008 , a team of biologists from University of California , Berkeley and Harvard University published multilocus phylogenetic analysis results of the genus Thomomys . The camas pocket gopher was found to be well separated from other taxa in the subgenus Megascapheus . These findings suggested that the camas pocket gopher was a sister to the other taxa in the subgenus , but the relationships between those other animals was less clear . Only one camas pocket gopher was included in this study , which limited the ability to distinguish features such as monophyly . The following cladogram was presented showing the placement of the camas pocket gopher among its closest relatives :
Patterns of genetic variation in the camas pocket gopher have been studied . Although there are no subspecies , there is substantial genetic diversity within the species . Its genetic patterns are consistent with limited inbreeding within specific populations . This is similar to patterns described in Botta 's pocket gopher and the southern pocket gopher , both of which are members of the same genus . However , it contrasts with patterns noted in Baird 's pocket gopher and the plains pocket gopher , members of a separate genus , Geomys , which showed a higher degree of inbreeding .
The species ' genetic diversity is similar to that of other pocket gophers occupying a larger geographic range and diversity of habitat . Compared to Townsend 's pocket gopher , which is distributed across a much larger area , but less diverse habitat , it is more genetically heterogeneous . Although there is considerable differentiation between separate populations of camas pocket gophers , their genetic variability does not affect the mammal 's appearance . Study of the effects of genetic change over time revealed a pattern affected by a cataclysmic event across the species ' entire geographic area about 13 @,@ 000 years ago . Such an event would cause a population bottleneck , leading to scattered , isolated populations .
= = Description = =
The camas pocket gopher is , by a small margin , the largest member of its genus ( Thomomys ) . The fur is a dull brown above and dark , leaden gray beneath . There are often patches of white on the chin , throat and around the anus , and it has blackish ear and nose markings . The external ear is a thickened rim of tissue . During the summer , the gopher 's coat is short and coarse ; winter pelage is longer and furrier . The coat of the young is similar to the adult summer coat , but with more sparsely distributed fur ; the abdominal skin may be visible .
Like other gophers , it has small eyes and ears and a nearly hairless tail . Its shoulders are broader than its hips . It is pentadactyl , with five claws on each foot . The claws on its forefeet are longer than those on its hind feet , and its middle claws are longest . The front claws of the camas pocket gopher are short and weak relative to its size . It employs plantigrade locomotion . The male is larger than the female , measuring an average 300 mm ( 12 in ) in length . A large male weighs about 500 g ( 18 oz ) . One male specimen was 321 mm ( 12 @.@ 6 in ) long and weighed 633 @.@ 8 g ( 22 @.@ 36 oz ) . Females are about 271 mm ( 10 @.@ 7 in ) long . The tail measures 90 mm ( 3 @.@ 5 in ) in the male and 81 mm ( 3 @.@ 2 in ) in the female . An adult male 's hind feet measure 40 – 43 mm ( 1 @.@ 6 – 1 @.@ 7 in ) , and an average female 's hind feet measure 39 mm ( 1 @.@ 5 in ) . There are four mammary glands : two in the inguinal region and two in the pectoral region , each supplying a pair of nipples . Morphologically , it most closely resembles Botta 's pocket gopher ; differentiation can be made based on the concavity of the inner surface of the pterygoids , small claws , more uniform fur coloring and exoccipital groove of the camas pocket gopher .
= = = Skull and dentition = = =
The skull of the camas pocket gopher is sturdily proportioned . The camas pocket gopher and other smooth @-@ toothed pocket gophers with robust snouts are included in the subgenus Megascapheus . Male skulls measure 52 mm ( 2 @.@ 0 in ) in length across the base and 57 mm ( 2 @.@ 2 in ) if the incisors are included . The short , wide skull has a relatively short nasal passage . In width , the skull measures 19 mm ( 0 @.@ 75 in ) across the nasal passages , 30 @.@ 5 mm ( 1 @.@ 20 in ) across the mastoids and 36 @.@ 5 mm ( 1 @.@ 44 in ) at the zygomatic arches . The external auditory meatus is broad and open , although the auditory bullae are confined .
The dentition of the camas pocket gopher is symmetric , with one set of incisors , one set of premolars , and three sets of molars above and below . This gives a dental formula of 1 @.@ 0 @.@ 1 @.@ 31 @.@ 0 @.@ 1 @.@ 3 , for a total of 20 teeth . The slender incisors are prominent and distinctive , smooth with yellow surface enamel and white tips due to soil abrasion . These distinctive , large , protuberant upper incisors give the gopher a buck @-@ toothed appearance . The lips do not cover the incisors , but close behind them . There are faintly visible grooves on the inner aspect of the upper incisors , which are more pronounced in other members of the genus ( such as the Mazama pocket gopher , T. mazama ) . The upper molars have an alveolar length of 10 mm ( 0 @.@ 39 in ) .
= = = Cheek pouches = = =
Gophers are burrowing rodents of the family Geomyidae , characterized by fur @-@ lined , external cheek pouches used to gather and transport food . The cheek pouches of geomyids such as the camas pocket gopher are controlled by a set of muscles , with a sphincter controlling the opening and closing of the pouch . A pair of muscles attached to the premaxilla pull the pouches forward , and paired retractor muscles pull the pouches back . These retractor muscles extend back and up from the cheek surfaces , forming a band 7 – 10 cm ( 2 @.@ 8 – 3 @.@ 9 in ) long and about 2 cm ( 0 @.@ 79 in ) wide attached to aponeurosis of the latissimus dorsi muscle .
= = = Male genitalia = = =
Like many mammals the penis of the camas pocket gopher contains a bone , the baculum . Although its baculum was initially reported as smaller than that of other gophers — 1 @.@ 5 mm ( 0 @.@ 059 in ) high , 1 @.@ 8 mm ( 0 @.@ 071 in ) wide at the base and 8 @.@ 5 mm ( 0 @.@ 33 in ) long — the examiner did not know if the specimen had reached full maturity . Subsequent reports averaged about 2 @.@ 1 mm ( 0 @.@ 083 in ) high , 2 @.@ 2 mm ( 0 @.@ 087 in ) wide at the base and 10 @.@ 1 mm ( 0 @.@ 40 in ) long . The phallus ' total length averaged 13 @.@ 5 mm ( 0 @.@ 53 in ) , with the glans covering more than half its length .
= = Distribution and habitat = =
The camas pocket gopher is found in the Willamette Valley and the drainage areas of the Yamhill River and other tributaries of the Willamette River . Its range extends north from Eugene to Portland and Forest Grove and west to Grand Ronde . A 1920 report of a Pleistocene fossil in Fort Rock , Oregon has been questioned , since it is far outside the species ' current geographic range ; as of 1987 , the specimen could not be located for further evaluation .
The clay @-@ rich Willamette Valley soils are hard in the dry season , and the gopher 's protuberant incisors are well adapted to these conditions . Adequate soil drainage and suitable plant food are essential components of the gopher 's ideal habitat . Not typically found in wetland areas ( where its tunnels would flood ) , the species is found in seral communities of grasses and shrubs . They are also established in agricultural fields in the Willamette Valley , including fields of alfalfa , wheat and oats . The species has also been found in areas of ecological disturbance with similar terrain features .
On a geologic timescale , the Willamette Valley has been the site of massive floods . During the late Wisconsin glaciation , a series of floods ( known as the Missoula or Bretz Floods ) occurred . The last flood in the series , a massive flood with an estimated 1 @,@ 693 km3 ( 406 cu mi ) of water flowing at a rate of 42 km3 per hour ( 412 million ft3 per second ) over a 40 @-@ hour period , occurred about 13 @,@ 000 years ago . The flood filled the Willamette Valley to a depth of about 122 m ( 400 ft ) , in a near @-@ perfect overlay of the camas pocket gopher 's range . Although the species has been collected above this elevation , such finds are uncommon . A temporary lake , Lake Allison , formed . Although it is assumed that the gopher lived in the valley before the flood , no fossils have been recovered . The Chehalem Mountains , with a peak elevation of 497 m ( 1 @,@ 631 ft ) , probably provided refuge for survivor populations and survivors would have repopulated in isolated pockets when the waters receded . Before and since the floods , the mountains are thought to have limited gene flow between populations . The relatively narrow , sluggish Willamette River does not appear to obstruct genetic flow in gopher populations .
= = Behavior = =
The gopher has been credited with being one of the most vicious animals known for its size . It has a great deal of courage and fights a man savagely until an opportunity for escape is offered , then it turns and runs as rapidly as possible , attempting to hide from its pursuer .
The camas pocket gopher is a mostly solitary herbivore which is active throughout the year and does not hibernate . The gopher spends most of its time excavating tunnels in search of food , and the hard clay soils of the Willamette Valley pose a challenge . Although the gopher 's front claws are too weak to dig through the clay ( particularly during dry seasons ) , its large incisors and strongly protuberant orientation are well @-@ adapted for this purpose . Tunnel systems constructed by the camas pocket gopher can be complex , with some tunnels exceeding 240 m ( 260 yd ) in length . About 90 mm ( 3 @.@ 5 in ) in diameter , the tunnels are up to 0 @.@ 91 m ( 3 @.@ 0 ft ) deep . When soils are damp the gopher constructs ventilation ducts or chimney mounds ( possibly unique to the species ) , to increase ventilation . The chimney mounds rise vertically 15 – 25 cm ( 6 – 10 in ) , are open at the top and are thought to ventilate the burrows in accordance with Bernoulli 's principle . It is not known if adjacent gopher burrowing systems interconnect . Reports differ about whether or not the ranges of the camas pocket gopher and the Mazama pocket gopher overlap ; if so , this refutes the previous belief that Oregon gopher ranges do not overlap .
Although the species is primarily fossorial , it occasionally gathers food near the entrance of a tunnel . Dandelions seem to be its favorite food , and are also used as nesting material . During breeding season males will enter the tunnels of females , and males and females may make purring ( or cooing ) sounds when they are together . Mothers seem to comfort the young by softly vocalizing , with the young twittering in response .
The camas pocket gopher may behave aggressively when on the defensive , with mammalogist Vernon Orlando Bailey describing the species as " morose and savage . " However , it may be easily tamed in captivity ; the female is more readily tamed than the male . Another small rodent endemic to the Willamette Valley , the gray @-@ tailed vole ( Microtus canicaudus ) , also uses camas pocket gopher tunnels . Other mammals sharing the range of the camas pocket gopher ( and , possibly , its tunnels ) include the vagrant shrew , Townsend 's mole , the brush rabbit , the eastern cottontail rabbit , Townsend 's chipmunk , the California ground squirrel , the dusky @-@ footed woodrat , the North American deermouse , the creeping vole , Townsend 's vole , the Pacific jumping mouse , the long @-@ tailed weasel and the striped skunk .
= = Ecology = =
Varying onset times and duration of the camas pocket gopher breeding season have been reported . Early reports suggested an early @-@ April onset , with the season extending through June . Other reports cited " evidently pregnant " females seen in late March . In heavily irrigated areas the breeding season may be longer , extending into early September . About four young are born in a litter , although litters as large as nine have been reported . The blind , hairless , toothless offspring weigh about 6 @.@ 1 g ( 0 @.@ 22 oz ) and are 50 mm ( 2 @.@ 0 in ) in length . During their first six weeks they will begin to crawl , develop cheek pouches , open their eyes and wean from milk to solid food . The young then weigh about 86 g ( 3 @.@ 0 oz ) and measure 164 mm ( 6 @.@ 5 in ) in length . At weeks 8 , 10 and 17 they will weigh 101 g ( 3 @.@ 6 oz ) , 160 g ( 5 @.@ 6 oz ) and 167 g ( 5 @.@ 9 oz ) . Some reports indicate that more than one litter may be born in a season . Sexual maturity probably develops by the following year 's breeding season . Although males are fully grown by that time , females may continue to increase in size .
There is little data on the longevity and mortality of the camas pocket gopher . It is presumably prey for carnivorous mammals , and its bones have been identified in regurgitated pellets of raptors such as the great horned owl . Parasites include mites , lice , fleas , roundworms and flatworms . The species ' tougher skin may protect it from some fleas known to infest Botta 's pocket gopher and the Mazama pocket gopher . Mites known to parasitize the camas pocket gopher include Androlaelaps geomys and Echinonyssus femuralis . Some authorities report Androlaelaps fahrenholzi as another parasitic mite , but a later publication did not report it . The chewing louse Geomydoecus oregonus has also been reported .
Two parasitic worms first discovered in the gastrointestinal tract of camas pocket gophers are the nematode Heligmosomoides thomomyos and the cestode Hymenolepis tualatinensis . Other worms include two nematodes and the cestode Hymenolepis horrida .
= = Human interactions = =
Camas pocket gophers cause significant economic losses , so may be treated as an agricultural pest . Crops damaged include clover , alfalfa and vetch . The gophers may eat these crops or damage the roots while burrowing . This can injure the roots and expose them to air , causing them to dry out . Subterranean activity can also damage the roots of fruit trees . Root crops are particularly susceptible to damage and consumption ; potatoes , carrots , parsnips and other crops may be eaten on site or dragged off by the gopher for caching in the burrow . Excavated soil can cover grass and limit lifestock grazing ; freshly sprouted grains may be similarly damaged . An estimate of impact from camas pocket gopher activities in the Willamette Valley in 1918 amounted to $ 1 @.@ 5 million annual losses . Gopher activities can provide a benefit of soil aeration , enhancing water retention after rain or snowmelt . Buried vegetation can also compost , enhancing organic soil content to provide additional benefits .
Proposed methods for controlling gopher populations in agricultural areas include poisoning dandelions , clover , carrots , sweet potatoes and parsnips . Camas pocket gophers are larger than other gophers , so conventional gopher traps may fail to capture them . Toxic baits and fumigants may also fail , since the gophers will sometimes wall off a segment of the burrow . Gophers may also cause local flooding if their tunneling activities damage levees .
In an effort to mitigate damage by camas pocket gophers to sensitive habitat , the Oregon Department of Transportation and the Institute for Applied Ecology trap and relocate the animals . At a site south of Philomath , Oregon , the IAE is working to protect a small but viable population of Kincaid 's lupine ( Lupinus sulphureus ) . This threatened flower is the primary host plant for the endangered Fender 's blue butterfly ( Icaricia icarioides fenderi ) , which is endemic to the Willamette Valley . The gophers are relocated to a nearby location distant from the lupines .
= = = Conservation status = = =
Citing concerns of urbanization , habitat loss and active attempts at eradication , NatureServe assesses the camas pocket gophers ' conservation status as vulnerable . The conservation status of the camas pocket gopher is classified as " least concern " by the IUCN ( International Union for Conservation of Nature ) Species Programme , with a stable population trend . The IUCN notes that the gopher is common in its range ; studies indicate that populations can recover rapidly after traps are removed from an area , and the species may adapt well to environmental changes .
The IUCN and others express concern about degradation of the species ' habitat due to urbanization and agricultural expansion . The total area occupied by the camas pocket gopher is less than 20 @,@ 000 km2 ( 7 @,@ 700 sq mi ) . This area , the Willamette Valley contains 70 percent of Oregon 's human population . Although this range probably contains a few protected areas , many preserves in the valley are primarily waterfowl protection for hunters . Wetland areas are not suited to the camas pocket gopher , since tunnels are flood @-@ prone . In areas better suited to the gopher ( disturbed habitats and pastoral farmland ) , it may be considered a pest and subject to eradication by poisoning and trapping .
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= Maia Estianty =
Maia Estianty ( born 27 January 1976 ) , known as Maia Ahmad during her marriage to Dewa 19 frontman Ahmad Dhani , is an Indonesian songwriter , music producer , singer , dancer and actress .
Estianty was born in Surabaya , East Java , and showed interest in music at an early age , winning a marching band competition while still in elementary school . She began training as a disc jockey while still in junior high school ; it was around this time that she first met Dhani . After studying at the University of Indonesia , Estianty joined Dewa 19 as a backing vocalist . In 1999 , she and Dhani came up with the idea for the musical duo Ratu . Estianty played the music , while other women – first Pinkan Mambo , then Mulan Jameela – sang . Ratu was highly successful . After the dissolution of the band in 2007 and a bitter divorce in September 2008 , Estianty formed Duo Maia with Mey Chan . She is currently focusing on producing music with her label , Le Moesik .
= = Early life = =
Estianty was born in Surabaya , East Java , on 27 January 1976 . She was the fifth of six children born to Harjono Sigit and his wife Kusthini . She is the great @-@ granddaughter of Tjokroaminoto , a nationalist Muslim leader and National Hero , through her father 's side .
As a child , Estianty often fought with her classmates ; in an interview with the weekly entertainment magazine Tabloid Nova , she recalled that , while at Yohanes Gabriel Catholic Elementary School in Surabaya , she once hit a classmate with an object so hard that the classmate began to bleed profusely . She also took up music during this time , leading her marching band to win a national championship ; she also took up the piano .
As a student at State Junior High School 1 in Surabaya , Estianty took up modelling ; in 1990 she won the Yess Modelling Competition for Teenagers , which provoked a number of modelling offers . She also began working part @-@ time at a radio station and learned how to be a disc jockey . At a birthday party while in junior high school , a friend introduced her to Ahmad Dhani ; Estianty and Dhani began writing songs for the piano together . Having received good marks in elementary school and junior high school , while in senior high school she began dating , first with a classmate then with Dhani , and her scores dropped drastically .
Towards the end of senior high school , Estianty and her father began arguing about her work and poor performance at school . Estianty threatened to move out ; in response , Sigit said he would support her , on the condition she continue her studies at a state university . Estianty enrolled at the University of Indonesia , first in the Dutch literature programme then in the communications programme . During this time she became a backing vocalist for Dhani 's band Dewa 19 ; the two married in the late 1990s .
= = Personal life = =
Estianty and Dhani divorced on September 23 , 2008 . The separation of the couple , who had been married for twelve years and had three sons together , was not amicable ; Estianty filed a police complaint accusing Dhani of abuse , and Dhani refused to give Estianty custody of their children , appealing to the Supreme Court of Indonesia after several lower courts ruled that the children were Estianty 's . In 2011 Dhani was reportedly in a relationship with Mulan and had a child with her , and Dhani gave Estianty visitation rights in 2012 . Maia submitted an appeal to the Supreme Court , because Maia could not easily meet her children . On May 14 , 2013 the Supreme Court decided that the children could choose themselves since the children were considered capable to make a decision . Dhani agreed with it .
= = Ratu = =
In 1999 Estianty and Dhani agreed to establish a musical duo consisting of a singer and musician , based on concepts pioneered by international bands like Roxette and Savage Garden . Pinkan Mambo , a café singer , was chosen to be the second member of the newly formed group , named Ratu , meaning Queen . After three years of training , Ratu released its first album , Bersama ( Together ) , in 2003 , which was influenced by R & B. Maia wrote seven songs on the album , while Dhani did the other three . The album was a commercial success , selling 250 @,@ 000 copies .
Although Mambo and Estianty began work on another album , Mambo withdrew from the group in 2004 after widespread coverage of her being pregnant and unmarried . Maia and Dhani began looking for a replacement . They agreed on Mulan Jameela , a café singer from Bandung who took the stage name Mulan Kwok ; her appointment was announced on 7 April 2005 . That August , Ratu released the album Ratu and Friends in collaboration with numerous other artists . The album , which featured two songs by Ratu , sold more than 400 @,@ 000 copies and was certified double platinum in Indonesia . The title of the single " Teman Tapi Mesra " , often abbreviated TTM and released to promote Ratu and Friends , became widely used to describe those in a physical relationship without an emotional one .
The following year Maia garnered a role in the Trans TV @-@ funded comedy programme Extravanganza , where she was the only non @-@ Sundanese cast member . Also in 2006 , Ratu released Nomor Satu ( Number One ) , with pop @-@ rock influences ; Maia wrote most of the songs . The album was a commercial success ; it sold 200 @,@ 000 copies nationally on the day of its release , a record for a work by a female Indonesian group . However , conflicts between Dhani and Estianty , as well as concerns over Jameela 's payment , led Ratu to disband in 2007 .
= = Duo Maia and acting = =
Estianty with Mey Chan made Duo Maia . Together they released the album Maia and Friends in 2008 ; the album was in direct competition with Jameela 's album Makluk Tuhan Paling Sexy ( God 's Sexiest Creature ) . The songs on Maia and Friends were all written by Estianty . It featured duets with artists such as Gita Gutawa , Gigi , and Glenn Fredly . That year she was one of ten women honoured at the Tribute To Women ceremony held by the Antara News Agency ; other honourees included author Ayu Utami and economist Sri Mulyani Indrawati .
Estianty played in Kata Maaf Terakhir ( The Last Apology ) in 2009 as Dania , the ex @-@ wife to whom Darma ( Tio Pakusadewo ) must apologise before he dies . Marcel Thee , writing in The Jakarta Globe , described her acting as well done . That same year she released Sang Juara ( The Champion ) as part of Duo Maia . In an interview with The Jakarta Post , she explained that she had written the titular song after hearing Queen 's power ballad " We Are the Champions " at a basketball match ; she realised that there were no Indonesian songs which could be used in the same situation . Along with Dewiq and Agus Wisman , she was a judge of the Global TV @-@ sponsored musical talent show Dream Girls , which was open exclusively to mothers .
In early 2010 Estianty established the recording studio Le Moesiek ; several established artists , including Krisdayanti and Julia Perez , signed on quickly . At the time she owned five other business ventures , including a steakhouse , an outsourcing company , and a cafe . Estianty was reported in October 2010 to be working on a cover album which featured works originally sung by Nike Ardilla , Hetty Koes Endang , and Atiek CB . Later that year she was chosen as Ambassador on Domestic Violence by the Indonesian Ministry for Women 's Issues . Dhani objected to the appointment and threatened to sue the ministry , as he took offence to suggestions that he had abused Estianty .
In April 2012 Estianty announced that , although Duo Maia would continue to perform , she intended to focus on her work as a producer ; she had spent the previous several months focusing on her managerial duties at Le Moesik . Meanwhile , Chan would begin a solo career .
= = Other carriers = =
= = = Commercials = = =
Honda BeAT ( 2008 )
Permen Tolak Angin with Duo Maia ( 2010 @-@ 2011 )
Ale @-@ Ale bersama Duo Maia ( 2008 @-@ 2011 )
Dove ( 2009 )
Toyota Kijang Innova with Chelsea Rezky ( 2010 )
Nutrafor White Beauty ( 2012 @-@ 2013 )
TVC Telkom Speedy with Al , El , Dul , dan Ahmad Dhani ( 2012 @-@ 2013 )
ColaMill with Al and Judika ( 2013 @-@ sekarang )
Asiafone SF933 with Duo Maia l ( 2013 @-@ sekarang )
So Klin Higinis Putih
KOBE : Bumbu Nasi Goreng
= = = Filmography = = =
Lantai 13 ( 2007 ) - Starring
Oh My God ( 2008 ) - Supporter actor
Kata Maaf Terakhir ( 2009 ) - Main actor
Guru Bangsa : Tjokroaminoto ( 2015 )
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= You Don 't Know Jack ( 2011 video game ) =
You Don 't Know Jack is the 2011 release of the trivia @-@ based party game series You Don 't Know Jack . The game was developed by Jellyvision Games and published by THQ , and was released in North America on February 8 , 2011 , for Microsoft Windows , Nintendo DS , PlayStation 3 , Wii and Xbox 360 platforms . It is the first title in the series released by Jellyvision after an eight @-@ year hiatus , taking advantage of online connectivity and other features of modern gaming consoles . A single player iOS port was released about two months later , but was later pulled in anticipation of a more robust client based on the Facebook version of the game .
The game is structured around a fictional game show emceed by Cookie Masterson ( voiced by Tom Gottlieb ) , in which the players answer ten multiple @-@ choice questions , and then compete in a final " Jack Attack " round . Answering quickly and correctly earns virtual money to track the players ' scores , while incorrect answers are penalized . As per the game 's motto , " the irreverent trivia party game " , the questions often combine general knowledge with popular culture references and verbal wordplay to determine the correct answer . Unlike the earlier releases which randomly presented questions , the 2011 game provides more than 73 episodes with a predefined set of questions , and with further episodes to be made available as downloadable content which is currently only available on the Xbox 360 and PlayStation 3 through both consoles ' respective online stores .
The game , on consoles , supports both offline and online play ( with the exception of the Wii which lacks online multiplayer ) with up to four players , while the Windows and Nintendo DS versions only support two local players and lack features such as online play and access to downloadable content . You Don 't Know Jack was generally well @-@ received , seen as a humorous return to form for the series , though the lack of online play or additional content for the Windows version was criticized .
= = Gameplay = =
You Don 't Know Jack is played out as a fictional trivia game show for one to four players , with the goal to win the most virtual money at the end of the game . Each game uses a pre @-@ defined set of ten questions from over seventy episodes , titled by the name of the show 's fictional sponsor . Most questions are multiple choice , providing one correct and three incorrect answers , along with a short timer that starts once the question has been completely presented . All players play at the same time , entering their choice of answer before the 20 second timer runs out . If a player is correct , they get a base dollar amount plus a bonus defined by how quickly they answered , while if they miss the question , they lose a similar amount of money . Failing to answer does not cost the player any money .
Each player in multiplayer games is also given a single opportunity to " screw " another player , forcing them to answer the question in a much shorter time period . If the selected player answers incorrectly or fails to answer the question , they lose money which is gained by the player using the screw . However , if the selected player answers correctly , they gain additional money taken from the player using the screw .
The game 's trivia is based on general knowledge from several fields including science , history , and geography , combined with contemporary entertainment , celebrities , and other news items ; the game , as well as the series , is often described as " high culture meets pop culture " . For example , one question asks the players to identify which Jennifer Aniston film title would most likely have been suited for a hypothetical romantic comedy penned by Albert Einstein about the interactions between neutrons and electrons , the answer being " He 's Just Not That Into You " . In addition to the usual questions , each episode typically features a " Dis or Dat " question . This question gives the players seven words or phrases which they have to identify as one of two possible classifications , or in some cases , both . For example , one Dis or Dat series asks the players to identify terms that would be features of a Nexus One phone , Nexxus shampoo , or both . In offline play , only one player participates , while other players try to steal by getting it right if the main player gets it wrong . In online play , all players play the Dis Or Dat simultaneously . Players are also urged to look for the " Wrong Answer of the Game " , which is hinted at by the show 's sponsor ; for example , in an episode sponsored by a baby crib company , the answer " Cat 's Cradle " is the Wrong Answer of the Game . Choosing the correct Wrong Answer does not penalize the player but instead rewards them with a large monetary bonus . Other questions are presented in the standard multiple choice format but use recurring concepts , such as questions based on a fortune cookie message , or ones read through Cookie 's ventriloquist dummy incorporating a speech impediment that may make the question harder to understand .
After ten questions are completed , the final round of the game is the " Jack Attack " where all players compete against each other . Prior to the round , a brief clue is shown to the players to describe a relationship that they must match , for example " BFF " ( Best friends forever ) . The game then shows one word or phrase , and then cycles through other phrases which the players must match . If players respond to the wrong phrase , they lose money ; only the first player to buzz in at the correct time wins and earns money . After seven such phrases , the total scores are added and the winner is determined .
= = Development = =
You Don 't Know Jack was developed by Chicago @-@ based company Jellyvision . The You Don 't Know Jack ( YDKJ ) series , though popular in the 1990s during the rise of gaming on personal computers , had not had an official full release since 1998 with YDKJ : The Ride . Though Jellyvision offered some web @-@ based YDKJ games in the interim years , the developers left the gaming market after seeing the rise of home gaming consoles in the early 2000s . Though they had considered adapting the game for consoles , and had produced two titles for the original PlayStation , they could only realize YDKJ games with players at the same keyboard for input . During this time , Jellyvision reinvented itself as Jellyvision Labs , offering its services in business @-@ to @-@ business communication including for tax software from H & R Block and interviews for Equifax .
Around 2008 , the company saw that gaming consoles had developed features for connectivity and social play . They also recognized that the market for such trivia games was slim at the time and saw a possible opportunity to revitalize the series . Near this time , Jellyvision Labs was spun out to its own company , Jellyvision Games , LLC , which would later be reincorporated in 2011 as Jellyvision Games , Inc . Harry Gottlieb , the founder of Jellyvision , recognized that many of the same people that worked on the original games were still in the company , and proposed the idea of a new YDKJ title to publishers . After securing THQ as a publisher , full @-@ time development for the game started in February 2010 . Steve Heinrich , the game 's producer , said the development process was " insanely quick " , allowing them to work concurrently on writing , art , sound , and programming , and had the flexibility to make design decisions to keep the game simple and funny . However , the question writing staff found some of the deadlines to be too short , preventing them for doing extensive audience feedback .
Jellyvision Games did not want to change much of the older games for the 2011 version . They sought to keep as many of the old game question types , such as the Jack Attack and Dis Or Dat questions , updating the games to support online play . To counterbalance other types that would not be playable on consoles , such as Gibberish Questions that required players to type in a phrase , the developers added new features to the game , such as the Wrong Answer of the Game . The developers took advantage of other features of the newer consoles : they were able to use rumble features of console controllers to emphasize the effect of Screwing other players , and wrote several humorous titles for the in @-@ game achievements .
Allard Laban of Jellyvision Games noted that compared to 1995 , where the pop culture was " fragmented " , the onset of the Internet and social media made it easier to develop questions for the game . At the same time , with more information and entertainment available , the writers had to be selective about what parts of culture would remain relevant ; an example given by Heinrich was that while questions about Seinfeld were okay , questions about Mad About You were not . Jellyvision Games sought comedy writers , including from local comedy clubs such as Second City and I.O. , narrowing down the pool of applicants from hundreds to six , including Second City comedian Tim Sniffen , who had worked on previous iterations of the YDKJ series . A weekly training process was employed to bring the new writers up to speed and review previously written dialog for possible improvements . Heinrich also assured that material was not repeated throughout the game 's script . Heinrich estimates that each question in the game was a result of about two hours of work .
The majority of the game 's dialogue is provided by Tom Gottlieb , brother of Harry , who had voiced the emcee " Cookie " Masterson in the earlier games , and had been considered one of the more popular emcees by players . Lacking any professional studio , most of the 100 @-@ 200 hrs of game dialog were recorded in a makeshift soundproofed closet . Tom Gottlieb was also involved in the writing process , as Jellyvision Games credits much of the " Cookie " persona to his own performance of the character . Other sound effects include fake commercials that are heard before and after a game ; some of these include commercials used in previous iterations of the YDKJ series . Prior to each questions , the game includes short musical interstitials with animated numbers to introduce the question via its number . These were designed as to get the music for these stuck in the players ' heads as something they would remember throughout the day ; to avoid making these become too routine , certain episodes featured variations on the interstitial that would be unexpected , keeping players on their toes throughout playing the game .
The game was released in North America on February 8 , 2011 . Jellyvision Games has stated they considered further international releases , but these would be too expensive at the present time . The company does not rule out future iterations of the game being released to a wider market based on the success of this title .
An initial version of this version of You Don 't Know Jack was released for iOS systems in April 2011 . It featured twenty 10 @-@ question episodes , but was limited to a single @-@ player mode . Jellyvision Games later pulled the application , in anticipation of release of a more robust client for both iOS and Android that will mimic the Facebook application , featuring cross @-@ platform multiplayer between iOS , Android , and Facebook versions , and downloadable episodes from the Facebook game .
= = Reception = =
You Don 't Know Jack was positively received by critics who were delighted not only with a new entry in the series , but one that kept the same humor and wit as the earlier games . Seth Schiesel of The New York Times praised the " triumphant , hilarious and even enlightening return " of the series , citing the creativity of the writing and voice work . John Teti of The A.V. Club called the title an " astonishingly good game " , and was impressed that the writing of the game was as witty as the previous games in the series despite the years of dormancy . Though Teti lamented about the lack of keyboard @-@ bases questions , he praised the new question types and gameplay as the overall change " minimizes blowouts and keeps the pace brisk " . Greg Miller of IGN considered the game a great value , attributing it to the game 's " great sense of humor , clever rounds and enough questions to keep you busy for a while " .
Kevin Kelly of G4 TV praised the voice work , particularly that for " Cookie " , as " Without Cookie , this game would quickly be just another forgettable trivia game " . Jeff Cork of Game Informer considered the game " proof that games don ’ t need to be excessively complex in order to be fun " , complimenting the " top @-@ notch " writing . Chris Watters of Gamespot commented that the structure of each episode can become repetitive , and that commonly the Jack Attack round would decide the winner of the game , negating the previous questions , but still considered the " large amount of legitimately clever and surprisingly funny writing " a key aspect of making You Don 't Know Jack as " one of the most entertaining trivia games on the market " . Gamepro 's Nathan Grayson was more critical of the game 's lack of features , considering the number of questions " painfully short " compared to the Buzz ! trivia game series , the " absolute bare @-@ bones basics " presentation , and the game 's somewhat juvenile sense of humor . Though the Toronto Sun 's Steve Tilley generally praised the game 's humor , he noted the lack of variety of gameplay modes , and that playing with people online may be spoiled by those that had already run through all the game 's episodes .
Both the Microsoft Windows and Nintendo DS versions were criticized for limiting the number of players to two . The Windows version was particularly criticized as it did not allow for online play , a feature available on the Xbox 360 and PlayStation 3 releases , nor would receive the downloadable content for the game . The lack of multiplayer in the pulled iOS version was lamented though the other facets of the game 's humor remained .
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= A Star Is Burns =
" A Star Is Burns " is the eighteenth episode of The Simpsons ' sixth season . It first aired on the Fox network in the United States on March 5 , 1995 . In the episode , Springfield decides to hold a film festival , and famed critic Jay Sherman is invited to be a judge . Homer , feeling that Marge does not respect him , asks that he be put on the jury panel and ends up voting for the stupidest movie .
The story involves a crossover with the short @-@ lived animated series The Critic . Jay Sherman was the main character on the show . The Critic was created by Al Jean and Mike Reiss , who had previously written for The Simpsons but left following the fourth season , and produced by James L. Brooks , who was also a producer for The Simpsons . The show had premiered on the American Broadcasting Company ( ABC ) network in January 1994 but was canceled despite positive critical reception . The series was switched over to Fox , and put in the timeslot directly after The Simpsons . Brooks pitched a crossover episode as a way to promote The Critic and decided that a film festival would be a good way to introduce Sherman .
Matt Groening , creator of The Simpsons , reacted negatively when he heard about this episode , feeling that it was just an advertisement for The Critic , and that people would incorrectly associate the show with him . When he was unsuccessful in getting the program pulled , he had his name removed from the credits and went public with his concerns , openly criticizing James L. Brooks and saying the episode " violates the Simpsons ' universe . " In response , Brooks said " I am furious with Matt , [ ... ] he 's allowed his opinion , but airing this publicly in the press is going too far . [ ... ] his behavior right now is rotten . "
The episode was directed by Susie Dietter and was the first episode to be written by Ken Keeler . Jon Lovitz , the star of The Critic , guest stars as Jay Sherman , while Maurice LaMarche ( who was also a regular on The Critic ) has a few minor roles . Sherman later became an infrequently recurring character on The Simpsons . The episode received mixed reviews from critics , many of whom felt the crossover was out of place on the show although Barney 's film festival entry was well received .
= = Plot = =
News anchor Kent Brockman reports that Springfield is the least cultural city in the United States . In response , a town meeting is held to decide a course of action , where Marge proposes that Springfield host a film festival showcasing films made by the townspeople . Marge is made the head of the festival 's judging panel , and invites New York film critic Jay Sherman to be a special guest critic . Upon his arrival , Jay stays with the Simpson family , which becomes problematic as his popularity with the family makes Homer feel inadequate and overshadowed . Homer fears that nobody respects his intelligence by voicing his concerns . Marge tries to convince him that everyone does respect him , but his crude behaviour is the only thing they do not respect . Unconvinced by it , Homer persuades Marge to put him on the festival 's judging panel to try to prove himself to others that he is more than unintelligent . Meanwhile , when Mr. Burns learns that his profits have dropped due to his bad image , Waylon Smithers informs him of the film festival . Burns decides that an epic biographical film will endear him to the people , so he hires Steven Spielberg 's " non @-@ union , Mexican equivalent , " Señor Spielbergo to direct and deciding to play himself in the film after the auditions to have an actor portray him fail screen test .
The film festival commences at the Aztec Theatre , with entries including Apu Nahasapeemapetilon 's Bright Lights , Beef Jerky ( security footage from the Kwik @-@ E @-@ Mart ) , Moe Szyslak 's musical number , Moe Better Booze ( little more than a song @-@ and @-@ dance advertisement for Moe 's Tavern ) , Bart 's The Eternal Struggle ( a home video of Homer attempting to squeeze into a pair of undersized pants ) , Ned Flanders ' film about Moses ( in which Todd , playing baby Moses , is dragged down a river until God saves him ) , and Hans Moleman 's , Man Getting Hit by Football , which only features Moleman getting hit in the groin by a football . Moleman 's movie makes Homer laugh , but Marge is displeased with him when she hears him announce that he should get the grand prize . Jay reminds Homer that he cannot quickly judge on one movie . Festival attendees are particularly touched by Barney Gumble 's artistic introspective film about alcoholism , Pukahontas , which Jay ( later a victim of football in the groin ) foresees to be the eventual winner . Burns ' film , A Burns for All Seasons , is screened last , and is met with a negative audience reaction . The audience jeers at Mr. Burns for it , because it is nothing more than ego driven and poorly made to try to portray him in a more positive light .
In the judge 's room , Jay and Marge vote for Barney 's film , while Mayor Quimby and Krusty the Clown vote for Burns ' movie after many bribes and also due to being ego @-@ driven themselves . Left with the tie @-@ breaking vote , Homer quickly and enthusiastically votes for Man Getting Hit by Football . Marge confronts him for voting for the worst movie , even after he joined the judging panel . Homer tries to defend himself , but Jay points out there is more to life than seeing someone being hit with a football . Finally convinced to change his vote , Homer asks Marge to let him view the films again in private and she agrees . Later on , he views Pukahontas again while reflecting on the two films ' qualities . Eventually , Homer sees the soul of Barney 's film and makes his decision . At the awards ceremony , Jay announces that Barney is the grand prize winner , and Marge is proud of Homer for voting for the right film . During his acceptance speech Barney announces he 's giving up drinking , but immediately relapses when he discovers his prize is a one year 's supply of Duff beer .
Flashing forward six months , Burns is at the Academy Awards , where despite having bribed everyone in Hollywood , he loses out on an Oscar to George C. Scott in a remake of Man Getting Hit by Football . Marge laments that now is the time that Mr. Burns learn his lesson that he should not bribe everyone .
= = Production = =
The Critic was a short @-@ lived animated series that revolved around the life of movie critic Jay Sherman . It was created by Al Jean and Mike Reiss , who had previously written for The Simpsons but left after the fourth season , and executive produced by James L. Brooks . Jon Lovitz ( who had previously guest starred in several episodes of The Simpsons ) starred as Jay Sherman , and it also featured the voices of The Simpsons regulars Nancy Cartwright , Doris Grau and Russi Taylor . It was first broadcast on ABC in January 1994 and was well received by critics , but did not catch on with viewers and was put on hiatus after six weeks . It returned in June 1994 and completed airing its initial production run .
For the second season of The Critic , James L. Brooks cut a deal with the Fox network to have the series switch over . The episode was pitched by Brooks , who had wanted a crossover that would help launch The Critic on Fox , and he thought having a film festival in Springfield would be a good way to introduce Sherman . After Brooks pitched the episode , the script was written by Ken Keeler . Although David Mirkin was executive producer for most of the sixth season , the episode was executive produced by Al Jean and Mike Reiss . Jay Sherman 's appearance was Simpsonized : he was made yellow and given an overbite .
The episode contains a meta @-@ reference to the fact that it is a crossover episode in a conversation Bart has with Sherman :
[ Bart is watching television ] Announcer : Coming up next , The Flintstones meet The Jetsons .
Bart : Uh oh . I smell another cheap cartoon crossover .
[ Homer enters the room with Jay ] Homer : Bart Simpson , meet Jay Sherman , the critic .
Jay : Hello .
Bart : Hey man , I really love your show . I think all kids should watch it ! [ turns away ] Ew , I suddenly feel so dirty .
The joke was pitched by Al Jean .
Alongside Jon Lovitz , the episode guest stars Maurice LaMarche , a regular on The Critic , who voices George C. Scott as well as Jay Sherman 's belch . Phil Hartman also makes a brief appearance as Charlton Heston . Rainier Wolfcastle 's line " on closer inspection , these are loafers " was ad @-@ libbed by Dan Castellaneta who was providing the voice of the character on a temporary track . It was later re @-@ recorded by Wolfcastle 's normal voice actor , Harry Shearer .
= = Cultural references = =
The Imperial March from The Empire Strikes Back is played as Mr. Burns is introduced . The song the " Rappin ' Rabbis " play in the opening moments of the episode is a parody of " U Can 't Touch This " by MC Hammer . The opening of Bart 's film The Eternal Struggle is a reference to The Amazing Criswell 's narration in Plan 9 from Outer Space . Barney 's film contains references to Koyaanisqatsi , and the music of the film , which was composed by Philip Glass . Barney 's film also features musical selections from the aria " Un bel di vedremo " from Act II , pt . 1 of Puccini 's opera " Madama Butterfly " .
= = Reception = =
In its original American broadcast , " A Star Is Burns " finished 57th in the ratings for the week of February 27 to March 5 , 1995 . The episode was the third highest rated show on the Fox network that week , beaten only by Melrose Place and Beverly Hills , 90210 . The Critic finished 64th . On March 12 , 2002 , the episode was released in the United States on a DVD collection titled The Simpsons Film Festival , along with the season eleven episode " Beyond Blunderdome " , the season four episode " Itchy & Scratchy : The Movie " , and the season seven episode " 22 Short Films About Springfield " .
The authors of the book I Can 't Believe It 's a Bigger and Better Updated Unofficial Simpsons Guide , Warren Martyn and Adrian Wood , wrote , " Jay Sherman perhaps proves here , even more so than in The Critic , just why that show failed . He 's too flawed to be likeable . " They added , " Barney 's film is magnificent , but it 's easy to see why Homer wants Hans Moleman to be the winner . " Adam Finley of TV Squad wrote " the episode , even if I didn 't care for it as a whole , does have moments that are still very Simpson @-@ y , and still very funny . Jay 's appearance , however , casts a shadow over everything that tends to leave a bad taste in my mouth . " Todd Gilchrist of IGN listed Barney 's film as one of the best moments of the sixth season .
The A.V. Club named Hans Moleman 's line " I was saying ' Boo @-@ urns ' " , and Mr Burns ' " Then get me his non @-@ union , Mexican equivalent ! " as two quotations from The Simpsons that can be used in everyday situations . IGN ranked Jon Lovitz as the eighth best guest star in the show 's history .
= = = Controversy = = =
Matt Groening , creator of The Simpsons , was a critic of the episode when it was first released . He felt that the crossover was a thirty @-@ minute advertisement and blamed James L. Brooks , calling it an attempt to get attention for one of his unsuccessful shows . After he was unable to get the episode pulled , he decided to go public with his concerns shortly before the episode aired . He stated that his reasons for doing so were that he hoped Brooks would have a change of heart and pull the episode , and that " articles began to appear in several newspapers around the country saying that [ Groening ] created ' The Critic . ' " Groening had his name removed from the credits , so he does not receive his normal " created by " and " developed by " credits that air at the end of the opening sequence .
In response , James L. Brooks said " I am furious with Matt , he 's been going to everybody who wears a suit at Fox and complaining about this . When he voiced his concerns about how to draw The Critic into the Simpsons ' universe he was right and we agreed to his changes . Certainly he 's allowed his opinion , but airing this publicly in the press is going too far . [ ... ] He is a gifted , adorable , cuddly ingrate . But his behavior right now is rotten . "
Al Jean and Mike Reiss , creators of The Critic , had previously worked on The Simpsons and had executive produced the third and fourth seasons . Brooks said , " for years , Al and Mike were two guys who worked their hearts out on this show , staying up until 4 in the morning to get it right . The point is , Matt 's name has been on Mike 's and Al 's scripts and he has taken plenty of credit for a lot of their great work . In fact , he is the direct beneficiary of their work . The Critic is their shot and he should be giving them his support . " Reiss stated that he was a " little upset " by Groening 's actions and that " this taints everything at the last minute . [ ... ] This episode doesn 't say ' Watch The Critic ' all over it . " Jean added " What bothers me about all of this , is that now people may get the impression that this Simpsons episode is less than good . It stands on its own even if The Critic never existed . "
Groening was criticized for going public with his complaints . Ray Richmond of the Los Angeles Daily News wrote " who 's right ? Well , Groening is probably correct in judging this an integrity issue . It 's a fairly tacky bit of promotion , the kind generally beneath The Simpsons . But it 's also true that little is accomplished by taking a gripe like this public . Quietly erasing his name from the credits would have been sufficient . [ ... ] I admire the man 's standing up for his creative rights . But I question the way he 's gone about it . "
As a result , Groening was absent from the episode 's commentary for The Complete Sixth Season DVD boxset .
= = = Legacy = = =
In the end , The Critic was short @-@ lived , broadcasting ten episodes on Fox before its cancellation . A total of only 23 episodes were produced , and it returned briefly in 2000 with a series of ten internet broadcast webisodes . The series has since developed a cult following thanks to reruns on Comedy Central and its complete series release on DVD .
Jay Sherman has since become an infrequently recurring character on The Simpsons , appearing in speaking roles in " Hurricane Neddy " and " The Ziff Who Came to Dinner . "
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= No Mercy ( 2007 ) =
No Mercy ( 2007 ) was a professional wrestling pay @-@ per @-@ view event produced by World Wrestling Entertainment ( WWE ) and presented by AT & T , which took place on October 7 , 2007 , at the Allstate Arena in Rosemont , Illinois . It was the 10th annual No Mercy event and starred wrestlers from the Raw , SmackDown ! and ECW brands .
Nine professional wrestling matches were scheduled on the event 's card , which featured a supercard , a scheduling of more than one main event . The first main event featured wrestlers from the Raw brand in a Last Man Standing match — a match where the first person unable to respond to a ten count by the referee lost — between WWE Champion Triple H and Randy Orton . Orton won the match and became the WWE Champion . The other main event featured wrestlers from the SmackDown ! brand , in which defending World Heavyweight Champion Batista defeated challenger The Great Khali in a match in which a large wooden structure known as a Punjabi Prison surrounded the ring . Two featured bouts were scheduled on the undercard . In a standard wrestling match between wrestlers from the Raw brand , WWE Champion Triple H defeated Umaga to retain his title . The other was a standard match between wrestlers from the SmackDown ! brand in which Finlay and Rey Mysterio fought to a no contest .
The 2007 No Mercy event had an approximate attendance of 12 @,@ 500 and received approximately 271 @,@ 000 pay @-@ per @-@ view buys . This event helped WWE obtain a pay @-@ per @-@ view revenue of $ 19 @.@ 9 million . When the event was released on DVD , it reached a peak position of nineteenth on Billboard 's DVD Sales Chart .
= = Background = =
Eight professional wrestling matches were featured on the event 's card . Matches were planned with predetermined outcomes by WWE 's creative staff and featured wrestlers playing characters for the entertainment of the audience . All wrestlers were from either Raw , SmackDown , or ECW — the three brand divisions to which WWE assigned its employees .
The main leading rivalry scripted into the event on the Raw brand was between John Cena and Randy Orton over the WWE Championship . At WWE 's August pay @-@ per @-@ view event SummerSlam , Cena successfully defended the championship against Orton , and the following night on Raw , one of WWE 's primary television programs , Orton interfered in Cena 's match with King Booker and cost him the match . After the match ended , Orton attacked Cena 's real @-@ life father , in storyline , by kicking him in the head . As a result of Orton 's actions , the two met in a championship match at WWE 's September pay @-@ per @-@ view event Unforgiven , in which Cena was disqualified for ignoring the referee 's commands ; as per WWE rules , a title can only change hands via pinfall or submission , Orton was not awarded the title . Following their match , Cena 's father gained revenge on Orton by kicking him in the head the same way Orton had done to him earlier . Later in the night after the event went off the air , authority figure Jonathan Coachman made a rematch between the two at No Mercy in a Last Man Standing match , which involves two competitors fighting until one can not stand up on his feet before the referee counts to ten . On the October 1 episode of Raw , Cena legitimately tore his right pectoral muscle during a match with Mr. Kennedy , though the injury was blamed on television on a post @-@ match attack by Orton . Due to the severity of his injury , Cena was forced to vacate the title . Although Cena 's match against Orton was canceled , World Wrestling Entertainment Chairman Vince McMahon stated that there would be " a new WWE Champion crowned at No Mercy " .
The main storyline on the SmackDown ! brand was between Batista and The Great Khali over the World Heavyweight Championship . Their rivalry began in July when Khali issued a challenge to the SmackDown roster , which Batista answered . Khali won the World Heavyweight Championship , he interfered in a match pitting Batista against Kane for the chance to fight Khali at The Great American Bash for the championship , which caused the match to end in a no @-@ contest . As a result of Khali 's actions , Long announced that at The Great American Bash , Khali would defend the championship against Batista and Kane in a Triple Threat match , in which Khali was victorious and retained the championship . At SummerSlam , Batista defeated Khali by disqualification , however , as per WWE rules , he did not win the title . The following month at Unforgiven , Khali faced off against Batista and Rey Mysterio in another Triple Threat match in which Batista pinned Khali to win the championship . The same week on SmackDown ! , Khali announced that his rematch for the World Heavyweight Championship would take place at No Mercy in two giant wooden structures that make up what is known as a Punjabi Prison ; the winner in the match is the first to climb out of the structures .
Another staged rivalry was on the ECW brand between CM Punk and Big Daddy V over the ECW Championship . This rivalry began when ECW authority figure Armando Estrada announced an " Elimination Chase to No Mercy " , involving Elijah Burke , Tommy Dreamer , Kevin Thorn , and Stevie Richards . Over a three @-@ week period , Richards , Thorn , and Burke were eliminated , with Dreamer winning the number one contendership . Estrada , however , revealed that Big Daddy V was also a contender , and he quickly defeated Dreamer to earn the chance to fight Punk for the title .
The Women 's rivalry on the Raw brand was between Candice Michelle and Beth Phoenix over the WWE Women 's Championship . Shortly after returning to WWE as a villainess , Phoenix won a battle royal to become the # 1 Contender for Candice 's Women 's Championship . Phoenix received her title opportunity at Unforgiven , but she was defeated by Candice . However , on the September 24 edition of Raw , Phoenix pinned Candice in a mixed tag team match , and as a result , she earned her another shot at the Women 's Championship , which would take place at No Mercy .
= = Event = =
Before the event began and aired live on pay @-@ per @-@ view , a dark match was contested between Hardcore Holly and Cody Rhodes . Holly defeated Rhodes via pinfall to win the match .
= = = Preliminary matches = = =
After the dark match , the pay @-@ per @-@ view event began with an in @-@ ring segment featuring Raw General Manager William Regal and WWE Chairman Vince McMahon , who awarded the WWE Championship to Randy Orton due to John Cena 's injury , which had caused Cena to vacate the title . McMahon informed Orton that he would have to defend the title that night ; Triple H then came to the ring and challenged Orton to a match for the title , which Orton rejected . McMahon , however , relented to Triple H 's request and made the match , which became the opening contest of the event . The first match of the night , therefore , featured WWE Champion Randy Orton defending his title against Triple H. During the match , Orton attempted to perform the RKO , but the move was countered by Triple H into the Pedigree . This move was countered by Orton , who used a back body drop . The match ended shortly after when Orton placed Triple H in the ring turnbuckle and missed an attempt to tackle him , which allowed Triple H to perform a roll up for the win . As a result , Triple H won the WWE Championship .
The following bout was a six @-@ man tag team match between Jeff Hardy , Brian Kendrick , and Paul London and Mr. Kennedy , Lance Cade and Trevor Murdoch . In the early stages of the match , both teams wrestled inconclusively until Kennedy put London on his shoulders and executed a second rope rolling fireman 's carry slam , a move referred to as a Green Bay Plunge . Kennedy then covered London for a pinfall , winning the match for his team .
A backstage segment then occurred , where Vince McMahon announced that as Triple H had previously been booked for a match against Umaga , the match would still take place that night , with the added stipulation of being for the WWE Championship .
The third contest was a standard match for the ECW Championship in which the champion , CM Punk defended against Big Daddy V , who was accompanied by Matt Striker . Soon after the match began , Punk dropkicked Big Daddy V with the soles of both feet , which knocked Big Daddy V down . Striker then jumped in the ring and attacked Punk , which caused a disqualification victory for Punk , by which he retained his championship . Following the disqualification , Big Daddy V attacked CM Punk before leaving the ring .
An in @-@ ring segment then took place — a pizza eating contest between WWE Tag Team Champions Matt Hardy and Montel Vontavious Porter ( MVP ) . The competition was hosted by Tazz and judged by Maria and Melina . In order to win the competition , one competitor had to eat more slices of pizza than the opponent in a two @-@ minute time limit . Hardy finished two slices in the time limit and then proceeded to vomit on MVP , who did not finish any , which won Hardy the competition .
= = = Main event matches = = =
The next match was the featured preliminary match from the Raw brand : a standard match for the WWE Championship , where Triple H defended the title against Umaga . The match saw both men perform a variety of wrestling maneuvers , including a DDT from Triple H onto Umaga , and a Fireman 's carry drop from Umaga onto Triple H. Umaga attacked Triple H 's ribs throughout the match , but Triple H gained an advantage when Umaga missed a hip attack . Umaga attempted to jump belly first on Triple H , but Triple H moved and Umaga was sent into the ring post . Triple H then performed a Pedigree on him , which allowed him to cover Umaga for a pinfall , thereby retaining his championship .
The fifth contest was the featured preliminary match from the SmackDown brand , which saw Finlay versus Rey Mysterio . Both men performed many offensive maneuvers through the match , but Mysterio gained the advantage when he kicked Finlay as he hung from the ropes , followed by jumping and landing his leg across Finlay 's face , a move called a leg drop , sending Finlay to ringside area and striking his head . As a result of a staged injury , Finlay was placed on a stretcher and brought away from the ring , and Mysterio followed . Finlay , however , got up and attacked Mysterio , ending the match in a no contest .
A backstage segment took place , with Triple H seen having his ribs iced . Vince McMahon then made the announcement that Randy Orton was using his rematch clause to allow him a rematch for the WWE Championship that night . He also added that it would be a Last Man Standing match , a match in which the goal is to incapacitate the opponent long enough for a full 10 @-@ count .
The next bout was for the WWE Women 's Championship , in which the champion , Candice Michelle , defended against Beth Phoenix . The match ended when Phoenix slammed Michelle to the mat , followed by a cover for the pinfall , winning Phoenix the Women 's Championship .
The seventh match was the main event from the SmackDown brand , a Punjabi Prison match for the World Heavyweight Championship , in which the champion , Batista , defended his title against The Great Khali . In the match , two giant wooden cages surrounded the ring , and , in order to win , a competitor had to escape both structures . After both men prevented the other from escaping , Khali utilized a leather strap as a weapon . Batista later used the leather strap and attempted to climb over the first cage structure , but Khali stopped him and squeezed Batista 's head with both hands , known as a Vise Grip . The Great Khali then called for a door to be opened but was stopped from going through when Batista struck him with a low blow . The match ended when Khali climbed over the first structure and began climbing the second . Batista then climbed the first structure , and as Khali climbed the outer cage , Batista jumped from the first cage to the second . Batista then climbed over the outer cage to the ground below and retained the championship .
The main event from the Raw brand was a Last Man Standing match for the WWE Championship , in which the champion , Triple H , defended his title against Randy Orton in his third match of the night . The two men fought extensively on the outside of the ring , both taking advantage of the stipulations regarding the Last Man Standing match , in which there are no countouts or disqualifications . At one point , the two men were positioned on top of one of the announcer 's tables , where Orton attempted to execute an RKO on Triple H , who countered the move and sent Orton through another of the announcers ' tables . Triple H followed this by striking Orton with the steel ring steps . The men returned to the ring , and Orton performed a DDT and an RKO on Triple H , both of the moves involved Triple H 's head striking a steel chair . The competitors returned to the outside of the ring again , and Triple H struck Orton with a steel chair . They returned to the top of the announcer 's table , and Triple H attempted to perform a Pedigree through the table on Orton . Orton countered this into an RKO onto the table . The referee began a count and reached ten before Triple H could rise ; as a result Orton won the match and subsequently regained the WWE Championship .
= = Aftermath = =
The next night on Raw , during an appreciation ceremony held by Vince McMahon for Randy Orton , Shawn Michaels returned from a five @-@ month hiatus and superkicked Orton in the face to end the show . At Survivor Series in November , Orton defeated Michaels in a match to retain his WWE Championship . That same month , on the November 16 edition of SmackDown ! , Montel Vontavious Porter ( MVP ) and Matt Hardy lost the WWE Tag Team Championship in a match against John Morrison and The Miz .
Umaga lost the WWE Intercontinental Championship to Jeff Hardy on the September 3 edition of Raw . Afterward , Umaga started a feud with Triple H , and they faced off in a Street Fight a month later at Cyber Sunday . At Cyber Sunday , CM Punk retained his title after defeating The Miz . The following month , at Survivor Series , Punk defeated Morrison and The Miz in a Triple Threat match to retain the ECW Championship .
Batista resumed his feud with The Undertaker , which led to a match against Batista at Cyber Sunday , with Steve Austin winning a fan poll to become the special guest referee . Batista won the match and retained the title . After Cyber Sunday , The Undertaker challenged Batista to a Hell in a Cell match at Survivor Series . Batista won the match following interference from Edge . As a result , Edge then became part of the rivalry , and the three men faced each other in a match at Armageddon . Edge won the match , and the championship , to end the feud .
Candice Michelle used her rematch clause for the Women 's Championship on the October 22 edition of Raw in a two out of three falls match against Beth Phoenix . After Phoenix won the first pinfall , Candice failed to execute a move correctly from the top rope , causing her to fall on her neck , shoulder and face . As a result , Candice suffered a legitimate cracked clavicle , and Phoenix retained the title .
= = = Reception = = =
The event had an approximate attendance of 12 @,@ 500 , the maximum allowed . The event resulted in 271 @,@ 000 pay @-@ per @-@ view buys , higher than the previous year 's event . Canadian Online Explorer 's professional wrestling section rated the entire event 7 @.@ 5 out of 10 stars . The rating was higher than the No Mercy event in 2004 , which was rated a 6 out of 10 stars . The Last Man Standing main event match from the Raw brand was rated a 9 out of 10 stars . The SmackDown ! brand 's main event , a Punjabi Prison match for the World Heavyweight Championship , was rated a 6 out of 10 stars .
The event was released on DVD on November 6 , 2007 . The DVD reached a peak position of nineteenth on Billboard 's DVD sales chart for recreational sports on January 19 , 2008 . The average customer rating for the DVD from Amazon.com was four out of five stars .
= = Results = =
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= Wonder Boy III : The Dragon 's Trap =
Not to be confused with the 1988 arcade game Wonder Boy III : Monster Lair .
Wonder Boy III : The Dragon 's Trap is a platforming and action @-@ adventure video game developed by Westone . It was published by Sega and released for the Sega Master System in 1989 and for the Game Gear in 1992 under the title Monster World II : The Dragon 's Trap ( モンスターワールドＩＩ ドラゴンの罠 , Monsutā Wārudo Tsū : Doragon no Wana ) . It was ported by Hudson Soft in 1991 and was released for the PC Engine in Japan under the title Adventure Island ( アドベンチャーアイランド , Adobenchā Airando ) and for the TurboGrafx @-@ 16 in North America under the title Dragon 's Curse . It was also ported in 1993 by Brazilian company Tec Toy under the title Turma da Mônica em o Resgate , with the game retooled to include characters from Brazilian comic book series Monica 's Gang ( Turma da Mônica ) . A remake developed by Lizardcube and published by DotEmu is currently in development .
The game takes place immediately after the events of Wonder Boy in Monster Land , which Wonder Boy has been cursed by the Mecha Dragon and must locate the Salamander Cross to lift it . The game is nonlinear and features varying landscapes in which players must navigate . Players find items and clues needed to access different parts of Monster Land , and they can transform into other forms and gain different abilities .
Wonder Boy III : The Dragon 's Trap received extensive coverage worldwide in gaming magazines upon its release . It was praised for its colorful and cartoon @-@ like graphics , rich sound and diverse sound effects , and varied and addictive gameplay . Criticisms include sprite flickering in the Master System version as well as slippery controls . The game has been compared to the Castlevania and Metroid series , while one review called it " a straightforward and simple ' Metroidvania ' adventure " . It won Electronic Gaming Monthly 's " Best Game of the Year " award for the Master System in 1989 . Reviews from gaming magazines have described the game as one of the best Master System and 8 @-@ bit titles of all time .
= = Overview = =
Wonder Boy III : The Dragon 's Trap takes place immediately after the events of Wonder Boy in Monster Land , Wonder Boy travels into the Mecha Dragon 's lair in order to slay him . ( Some sources refer to this creature as the " MEKA dragon " . ) However , upon doing so , he is inflicted by a curse that transforms him into " Lizard @-@ Man " . In the game , the player controls Wonder Boy as he tries to undo this curse by journeying across the land , defeating other dragons , and defeating finally the Vampire Dragon to obtain the Salamander Cross – the only object that can remove his curse .
After completing the first level in the game ( a simplified version of the final level from the preceding game Wonder Boy in Monster Land ) , the player begins as Lizard @-@ Man from Alsedo , a town in Monster Land , and the gameplay becomes nonlinear . From there , the player explores and finds items and clues needed for Wonder Boy to access different parts of Monster Land . Gold and additional secondary items can be found by defeating enemies and opening treasure chests . With gold , players can buy additional items and better equipment in shops and restore their life meter in hospitals . Shops are normally designated as doors with windows on them , located in town or in caves . Items with question marks displayed cannot be bought unless the player has " charm " , which can be increased by collecting collect Charm Stones or by equipping certain items . The Status Screen shows how much attack and defense power , and charm Wonder Boy has , all of which depend on what items are currently equipped .
In the game , the player uses the directional pad to move Wonder Boy left or right , crouch down ( only possible as Hu @-@ Man or Lizard @-@ Man ) , or to enter doors . The buttons on the controller are used to attack enemies and to jump . Wonder Boy can attack with his main weapon or with secondary weapons by holding down on the directional pad and pressing the attack button . Pressing the pause button brings up the Status Screen ( and pauses the game if Wonder Boy is fighting a dragon ) . Wonder Boy has a life meter shown on the top of the gameplay area by a series of hearts , which turn from red to black when taking damage from enemy attacks . When all hearts turn black , Wonder Boy dies and the game ends , but if he has a life potion ( " medicine vial " in Dragon 's Curse ) remaining , he will revive with some of the hearts refilled . After the game ends , the player is taken to a " continue screen " ; there the player has an opportunity to win a free life potion before restarting the game at the town . Players can visit the town 's church to receive a password in order to continue the game at a later time . The password saves the current player 's form , equipment , and amount of gold ; but it does not save any secondary weapons or life potions in stock . Dragon 's Curse has a " file cabinet " which allows players to store passwords into the game 's memory ; the player may access these stored passwords and continue the game without needing to manually input them .
Throughout the game , players will go through differently @-@ themed levels : underwater , desert , jungle , cave , and sky . At the end of each level is a different dragon . After defeating a dragon , Wonder Boy changes form , and his abilities change . Wonder Boy begins the game as Hu @-@ Man , equipped with all eight hearts and the strongest equipment . He turns into Lizard @-@ Man after defeating and being cursed by the Mecha Dragon in the first level . At that point , he loses all equipment and all hearts except one . Lizard @-@ Man attacks enemies by breathing fire at them , and he can duck . He can assume other different forms throughout the game : Mouse @-@ Man can walk on walls and ceilings designated by checkered " mouse blocks " , Piranha @-@ Man can swim freely underwater and can access underwater places ( such as the ship ) which the other forms cannot , Lion @-@ Man attacks enemies with his sword by swinging from directly above to directly below him , and Hawk @-@ Man can fly freely in the air but takes damage if he enters water .
= = Development and release = =
Wonder Boy III : The Dragon 's Trap was developed by Westone and was published by Sega ; it is the sequel to Wonder Boy in Monster Land . It was first released for the Sega Master System in 1989 in North America and Europe . The game was then ported to the PC Engine in Japan April 19 , 1991 ( 1991 @-@ 04 @-@ 19 ) under the title Adventure Island ( not to be confused with the Adventure Island series of games for the Nintendo Entertainment System ) ; it was released for the TurboGrafx @-@ 16 that same year by NEC under the title Dragon 's Curse . Westone allowed Hudson Soft to publish the game provided they made no reference to the Wonder Boy series . Sega then released the game for the Game Gear in 1992 in Europe under the game 's original title and in Japan under the title Monster World II : Dragon no Wana . In 1993 , Tec Toy released the game in Brazil for the Master System under the title Turma da Mônica em o Resgate . Tec Toy replaced the sprites with characters from Brazilian comic book series Monica 's Gang ( Turma da Mônica ) , so instead of the player character turning into different creatures , he gets turned into different characters from the comics , relaying between them in order to rescue Monica , who disappeared after the previous game . In 2007 , Sega released the game in Japan for the PlayStation 2 as part of a compilation of all the Wonder Boy games titled Sega Ages 2500 Vol . 29 : Monster World Complete Collection . During the same year , Dragon 's Curse / Adventure Island was released for the Wii 's Virtual Console service worldwide . The Master System version of Wonder Boy III : The Dragon 's Trap was released in Europe on September 10 , 2009 ( 2009 @-@ 09 @-@ 10 ) and in North America on November 9 , 2009 ( 2009 @-@ 11 @-@ 09 ) .
= = Reception = =
Wonder Boy III : The Dragon 's Trap received coverage in the September 1989 issue of Electronic Gaming Monthly , where they provided a brief overview of the game and a summary of the events in Wonder Boy in Monster Land leading up to the game 's plot . Two months later , in its December 1989 issue in its " Best and Worst of 1989 " , the game won an award for " Best Game of the Year " for the Sega Master System . GamePro gave a brief overview of the game in its September – October 1989 issue , adding that " it 's truly an adventure worthy of Wonder Boy " . It received extensive coverage in both the January and February 1990 issues of VideoGames & Computer Entertainment , featuring an overview and a walkthrough of the game . The magazine praised the game for its challenge and overall look , which it says " will have you manipulating your control pad for days on end " .
Various UK @-@ based video gaming magazines gave Wonder Boy III : The Dragon 's Trap significant coverage . The Games Machine complimented the game 's colorful backgrounds and sprites with " the [ Wonder ] Boy himself being particularly well @-@ drawn " , while they criticized the weak animation on some of the characters as well as its choppy scrolling . They called it one of the best games by Sega but complained that it was expensive , saying " do you really want to spend 28 quid on it ? " The magazine 's successor , Raze , reviewed the PC Engine version titled Adventure Island . The magazine praised the game 's simplistic and addictive platforming gameplay and its smooth @-@ scrolling graphics , though they said they were " a little blocky " . They noted that the game had excellent music which was " worth listening through some headphones " . Zero , along with praising the game 's graphics and music , called it " enormously addictive " ; the review said the ability to transform into different forms and hence being able to progress into new areas kept the game fresh .
UK magazines Computer and Video Games and its spin @-@ off Mean Machines – in the latter 's premiere issue – gave the game positive reviews . Computer and Video Games praised the animation in particular and called it the best game of its type on that platform , using phrases such as " familiar air of polish and ingenuity " and " piles of addiction guaranteed " . Mean Machines ' Matt Regan said it " ranks as one of the greatest Sega Master System games ever ! " ; he compared the gameplay to the Mario series of video games and praised the game 's depth , saying that " there 's always something new to discover , be it a key to a previously locked door or even a secret room ! " Julian Rignall praised the game 's graphics and the huge world players can explore , which he says contributes to the game 's addictiveness . He said that " the combination of adventuring , shooting and platform action results in one of the best games of its type available on any console " . Collectively , they praised the game overall presentation and graphics , saying that the sprites complement the background . While they additionally praised its playability for being " accessible from the word go " and longevity , they criticized its sound , saying that it " could have been much better " .
German magazine Video Games gave Wonder Boy III : The Dragon 's Trap a positive review , saying that the game gave more weight to strategy and tactics , that it " stands out clearly from the two predecessors " , and that its graphics became less childlike but more " spectacular " . The review continued , saying that its gameplay is a good example of what makes action @-@ adventure games addictive to play . It complimented the game 's depth and wide array of equipment , saying that it " provides an additional touch , which makes [ it ] the best thought @-@ out game [ at the time ] " .
Upon the release of the TurboGrafx @-@ 16 version Dragon 's Curse to the Virtual Console in 2007 , IGN 's Lucas Thomas reviewed the game , comparing the opening sequence of the game to the opening sequence of Castlevania : Symphony of the Night ; he proceeded to add that the game parallels with games in the Castlevania series , calling the game " a straightforward and simple ' Metroidvania ' adventure " but with " several layers of unexpected depth " . Thomas noted the game 's popularity among fans and that it plays almost exactly the same as the Master System version despite graphics and sound improvements ; at the time , there were no Master System games on the Virtual Console . He praised the game 's rich sound , gameplay depth , and " colorful and cartoony " graphics , which " was perfectly suited to the TurboGrafx platform " .
IGN 's Travis Fahs , in discussing the SMS version , offered another opinion , praising the game as " not only the crowning achievement of the series , but perhaps one the best games of the 8 @-@ bit era " , drawing comparisons to both Mario and Zelda . Thomas again reviewed the Master System version of Wonder Boy III : The Dragon 's Trap when it was released two years later for the Virtual Console . In this review , he compares the gameplay to Metroid – more specifically the need to gather additional equipment and abilities to advance in the game . While he acknowledged that this version from one of the best Master System games as well as for any 8 @-@ bit system , he felt that the Master System 's Virtual Console release had a reduced appeal . He said that the TurboGrafx @-@ 16 version Dragon 's Curse had already been out for two years and that there was no difference in gameplay between the two versions , but there were improvements in graphics and sound in the TurboGrafx @-@ 16 version because of the system 's superior capabilities . He also noted that the Master System version suffers from sprite flickering – something the TurboGrafx @-@ 16 version did not have . Despite the small differences in the two versions , he decided to give the Master System version the same rating as the TurboGrafx @-@ 16 version .
Allgame 's review of the Master System version praised the non @-@ linear gameplay and the ability to change into different forms , saying that it " keeps things interesting and fun " and " keeps the game from getting repetitive " . It lauded its visuals and sound effects , saying the " graphics are very colorful and have a cartoon look to them " . Criticisms included slippery controls and the difficulty of getting into doors ; it said the controls kept the game from obtaining a perfect rating , and the gameplay was still not as good as Wonder Boy in Monster Land . The editing staff from magazine Retro Gamer listed Wonder Boy III : The Dragon 's Trap as one of the " Perfect Ten Games " for the Master System , calling it " the best in a long and highly convoluted myriad of multi @-@ titled games " and " a great adventure that every Master System fan needs to own " . The review praised the game 's brisk pace and gameplay , despite the length of the game .
= = Remake = =
In June 2016 , indie developer Lizardcube and publisher DotEmu announced a remake of Wonder Boy III : The Dragon 's Trap , simply titled Wonder Boy : The Dragon 's Trap , for consoles and PC . The game supports a different , modern visual style , but retains the same gameplay , level design and story . Original series creator , Ryuichi Nishizawa , is involved in a consulting role .
This comes 9 years after the release of the wildly popular " Dragon 's Curse " remake by user Vile2013 , who greatly expanded upon the original version by adding significantly larger levels , newer zones , more secret areas , an additional playable character , and " Golden " enemies , which are tougher than the standard hard Blue enemies .
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= Pennsylvania Route 222 =
Pennsylvania Route 222 ( PA 222 ) is a 4 @.@ 482 mi ( 7 @.@ 213 km ) -long state highway contained entirely in Allentown , Lehigh County , Pennsylvania and its immediate suburbs mostly along Hamilton Boulevard . The route , in center city Allentown , is aligned along West Hamilton , West Linden , and West Walnut Streets . The southern terminus of the route is at Interstate 78 ( I @-@ 78 ) and PA 309 in Dorneyville , where the roadway changes designation from PA 222 to U.S. Route 222 ( US 222 ) . The northern terminus is PA 145 in Allentown .
Hamilton Street has served as the main street in Allentown since the community was founded in the 18th century . Hamilton Street and Hamilton Boulevard became part of the William Penn Highway in 1916 , PA 3 in 1924 , and US 22 in 1926 . In 1931 , US 22 was routed to a new alignment to the north , and Hamilton Boulevard and Hamilton Street west of 15th Street became a part of US 222 . In the 1950s , US 222 was rerouted to bypass Allentown , leaving Hamilton Boulevard and Hamilton Street through the city unnumbered . In 1984 , the Pennsylvania Department of Transportation proposed extending US 222 from I @-@ 78 / PA 309 to downtown Allentown , where it would end at PA 145 . The American Association of State Highway and Transportation Officials ( AASHTO ) rejected extending US 222 into Allentown , and PA 222 was instead designated to run between I @-@ 78 / PA 309 and US 222 and PA 145 in 1991 .
= = Route description = =
PA 222 begins at an interchange with I @-@ 78 / PA 309 in the community of Dorneyville in South Whitehall Township in Lehigh County , where the road continues southwest as US 222 towards Reading . From this interchange , PA 222 heads northeast on four @-@ lane divided Hamilton Boulevard , passing between Dorney Park & Wildwater Kingdom to the north and businesses to the south . Direct access to Dorney Park is limited to PA 222 southbound , as northbound traffic must make a left turn onto Lincoln Avenue to access the park . After passing the amusement park , the route splits into two carriageways , with PA 222 north remaining on Hamilton Boulevard and PA 222 south following the newer Hamilton Boulevard Bypass to the north . A short distance to the east , the road intersects Cedar Crest Boulevard , a major north – south arterial in the Allentown metropolitan area .
Northeast of Cedar Crest Boulevard , the two carriageways merge onto Hamilton Boulevard as it passes to the south of Cedar Crest College . At this point , PA 222 leaves South Whitehall Township for the city of Allentown . The route becomes a four @-@ lane undivided road and passes through residential areas . At the intersection with Ott Street , PA 222 curves east onto Hamilton Street and runs along the southern edge of Cedar Creek Park , where it intersects 24th Street . The road continues east through residential and commercial areas , narrowing to three lanes with two northbound lanes and one southbound lane at the 20th Street intersection . The route passes to the north of St. Luke 's Hospital between 18th and 17th streets and comes to an intersection with 15th Street .
PA 222 heads into downtown Allentown , where it splits into a one @-@ way pair at 12th Street . Northbound PA 222 turns south onto 12th Street and east onto Walnut Street while southbound PA 222 runs west along Linden Street to 12th Street , following 12th Street south to Hamilton Street . Walnut Street is two lanes and two @-@ way until 10th Street , where it becomes one @-@ way with two northbound lanes heading east , while Linden Street is one way southbound with two lanes heading west . The one @-@ way paring continues east past homes and businesses in the downtown area . Southbound PA 222 passes to the north of the PPL Center sports arena between 8th and 7th streets . PA 222 intersects 7th Street , which carries southbound PA 145 , before it reaches its northern terminus at 6th Street , which carries northbound PA 145 .
= = History = =
From the establishment of Allentown in the 18th century to the modern age , Hamilton Street has been the main arterial of the municipality . Similar to many other Allentown @-@ area streets at the time ; Hamilton , Linden , and Walnut Streets were used for trolley car and horse transportation . Following an economic depression the city suffered in the late 19th century , it rebounded in the 20th century with the establishment of many shopping stores on Hamilton Street ; the commercial center of the city , that hosted the annual Workhorse Parade , a popular attraction in the 1910s .
When the Sproul Road Bill was signed on May 31 , 1911 , the state began maintenance over state highways . One of those highways was Legislative Route 157 , the modern Hamilton Boulevard section of PA 222 , west of Allentown . Another state highway was Legislative Route 159 , aligned east of Allentown to downtown Bethlehem along Hanover Avenue and Broad Street . No routes had a designation within the city of Allentown .
In 1916 , the William Penn Highway was organized as an alternative to the Lincoln Highway . The roadway traversed downtown Allentown via Hamilton Street and Hamilton Boulevard . The Pennsylvania Department of Highways gave the road the PA 3 numbering in 1924 and when the United States Highway System was formed , US 22 became part of it . The William Penn Highway served New York City ; the road became problematic for motorists in Lebanon along the current US 422 ; Reading via current US 422 and US 222 ; and Allentown on Hamilton Street . PA 43 was aligned as a bypass , north of the Pennsylvania Dutch Country , between Allentown and Harrisburg . On June 8 , 1931 , the American Association of State Highway Officials came to a resolution to the traffic problem , by replacing the PA 43 corridor with US 22 and the William Penn Highway name to match . The state truncated PA 43 to Susquehanna Street from Allentown to Bethlehem . US 222 replaced the former US 22 alignment from Reading to Allentown . Hamilton Street was numbered as US 222 , west of downtown Allentown , where it turned north onto 15th Street . This portion of US 222 was seven @-@ blocks long which ended at Tilghman Street ( then US 22 ) . Signs were changed to reflect the new designations on May 31 , 1932 , with the new route designations officially in place on June 1 , 1932 .
In the late 1950s , US 222 was realigned to a newly constructed bypass carrying US 309 and PA 29 , west of Allentown . From the south , US 222 left Hamilton Boulevard and turned north onto the freeway . US 222 terminated at an interchange with US 22 , US 309 , and PA 29 in South Whitehall Township . By 1970 , what was the US 309 / PA 29 / US 222 freeway had the PA 29 designation removed , US 309 downgraded to PA 309 and US 222 was truncated to end at its current northern terminus . By the 1980s , I @-@ 78 became part of the freeway that occupied PA 309 .
In 1984 , the Pennsylvania Department of Transportation was planning to extend PA 145 and US 222 . Traffic engineer Samuel D. Darrohh said that Allentown is one of few Pennsylvania cities without a traffic route going through it . After the plan was introduced , he said that motorists might be aided if US 222 is extended along Hamilton Boulevard to connect with the proposed PA 145 corridor . PennDOT originally planned the road as US 222 but AASHTO denied the extension , stating that the route " is not the shortest or best available route between major control points on the system , and therefore , does not adhere to the policies established under AASHTO 's ' Purpose and Policy Statement for U.S. Numbered Highways ' " . In addition , the route did not meet the criteria for a business route . In 1991 , it was commissioned as PA 222 . PA 145 was extended south of the US 22 freeway to the I @-@ 78 / PA 309 overlap near Lanark .
= = Major intersections = =
The entire route is in Lehigh County .
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= Johannes Rebmann =
Johannes Rebmann ( January 16 , 1820 – October 4 , 1876 ) was a German missionary and explorer credited with feats including being the first European , along with his colleague Johann Ludwig Krapf , to enter Africa from the Indian Ocean coast . In addition , he was the first European to find Kilimanjaro . News of Rebmann 's discovery was published in the Church Missionary Intelligencer in May 1849 , but disregarded as mere fantasy for the next twelve years . The Geographical Society of London held that snow could not possibly occur let alone persist in such latitudes and considered the report to be the hallucination of a malaria @-@ stricken missionary . It was only in 1861 that researchers began their efforts to measure Kilimanjaro . Expeditions to Tanzania between 1861 and 1865 , led by the German Baron Karl Klaus von der Decken , confirmed Rebmann ’ s report . Together with his colleague Johann Ludwig Krapf he also discovered Mt . Kenya . Their work there is also thought to have had effects on future African expeditions by Europeans , including the exploits of Sir Richard Burton , John Hanning Speke , and David Livingstone . After losing most of his eyesight and entering into a brief marriage , he died of pneumonia .
= = Early life = =
Rebmann was born to a Swabian farmer and winegrower on January 16 , 1820 in Gerlingen , Württemberg . The village he lived in was very small , with about 1 @,@ 500 inhabitants . Even at an early age , he aspired to be a " preacher and canvasser of the gospel " .
Later , when Rebmann became a young man , he chose to devote himself to being a missionary , and was trained in Basel . In 1844 he attended the Church Missionary Society College , Islington . The following year he was ordained as a priest by the Bishop of London and he became a member of the Church Missionary Society . Together with fellow missionary Johann Ludwig Krapf , Rebmann traveled in 1846 by a ship called " Arrow " to East Africa , where he worked in what is now Kenya , as well as at various other locations .
Their work was hard , and they had much trouble convincing tribal chiefs to let them speak to the people . Krapf noted ( what he called ) the " surge of Islam " that was going through Africa , and wanted to make some sort of Christian standing against its religious influence on the people of the continent . As the radius of the two missionaries work expanded , plans for Christian missionary outposts in the area began to develop .
During his time in Africa , Rebmann kept a diary from 1848 until the end of his life . In the diary , Rebmann writes of the way his trust in his Christianity kept him stable in the continent of Africa , where only very few Europeans had ventured before him . An extract from the diary , which Rebmann in turn took from the Bible ( Psalm : 51 , 12 ) reflects Rebmann 's belief in his faith : " Restore to me joy of your salvation and grant me a willing spirit , to sustain me . "
= = Stumbling upon Kilimanjaro and Mt . Kenya = =
In 1848 , Rebmann was the first European to see Kilimanjaro . The following year , he saw Mt . Kenya together with his colleague Krapf .
On the October 16 , 1847 , the two men set out for the mountain of Kasigau . With them came eight tribesmen and a local caravan leader named Bwana Kheri . This expedition was designed with the goal of establishing some of the first mission posts in the region . The journey was successful , and the group of tribesmen and the missionaries returned to Mombasa on October 27 .
Sometime during their journey or their stay in the region , Rebmann and Krapf learned of a great mountain referred to as ' Kilimansharo ' , which reached the clouds and which was ' capped in silver ' . The two men , like most Europeans at the time , were under the impression that snow and ice could not exist so close to the equator , and failed to realize the significance of the mountain being ' topped with silver ' .
However , the two missionaries , who had become just as much explorers as they were missionaries , became quite interested in Kilimanjaro , and Krapf sought permission of the Mombasa governor for an expedition to the land of the Jagga , a people now known as the Chaga , who lived and live on the actual slopes of Kilimanjaro . Krapf told the governor that this journey would be work @-@ based . Despite this , Krapf actually did not accompany Rebmann on the journey , so only Bwana Kheri and Rebmann left for Kilimanjaro on April 27 , 1848 .
Within two weeks , Rebmann and his guide were within sight of the mountain . He noted in his journal the strange white on the summit of Kilimanjaro , and he questioned his guide on what he thought it was . According to Rebmann 's log , the guide ' did not know what it was , but supposed it was coldness ' . It was then that Rebmann realised that Kilimanjaro , even though it was located in a region that was thought impossible to bear snow or ' coldness ' , as the guide referred to it , was in fact capped in it . In 1849 , these observations were published , but the findings were not truly accepted by most of the scientific community at the time . On November 10 , 1848 , Rebmann recorded an entry in his log about the mountain :
This morning we discerned the Mountains of Jagga more distinctly than ever ; and about ten o 'clock I fancied I saw a dazzlingly white cloud . My Guide called the white which I saw merely ' Baridi , ' cold ; it was perfectly clear to me , however , that it could be nothing else but snow .
Mt . Kenya was discovered by Krapf in the next year , on December 3 , 1849 . The finding of this mountain was also met with disbelief in Europe , but the effect of these discoveries was enough to trigger further investigation into other areas of Africa , thereby stimulating a growth of scientific ( among other fields ) knowledge of the regions , people , history , and geography of the African continent .
= = Other work in Africa = =
Rebmann stayed in Africa for almost thirty consecutive years . He kept to a policy that , in order to truly affect the African people , and to complete his task as a missionary , much patience was needed . It appears that this policy was the driving force behind his many years of work on the continent .
As well as visiting Kilimanjaro , Rebmann and Krapf visited other areas of Africa , including the African Great Lakes and Mount Meru . He even became married to a fellow missionary , Anna Maria , née Maisch , with whom he spent fifteen years doing missionary work in Africa before her death in 1866 , and with whom he had a child ( who died only days after his birth ) .
Also during his time in Africa , after his expeditions to Kilimanjaro and around the Great lakes , he learned to speak several native languages , and wrote the first dictionary of the ( Chichewa ) ( Kiniassa ) language , as well as completing a dictionary ( started by his colleague Ludwig Krapf ) of the Nika ( Mijikenda ) language , and a dictionary of Swahili ( now lost , but of which some material may have been incorporated into Krapf 's Dictionary of the Suaheli Language ( 1882 ) ) . He also translated the Gospel of Luke into Swahili .
= = = Slug map = = =
During their time in Africa , Krapf and Rebmann worked their way into the interior of the continent . They traveled to several areas in the regions of Central and Eastern Africa , including to what is now known as the African Great Lakes . The finding of one especially large lake ( Uniamési ) is depicted in a map known as the ' Slug ' map . It was known by this name because the layout of the water body suggested a shape similar to that of a slug .
The basis for the map was prepared by the missionary Jakob Erhardt from the reports of his companions Krapf and Rebmann , and from verbal information that he had acquired from local people . Erhardt was struck by the fact that travelers who had gone inland from different points on the coast had all come to an inland sea . In November 1854 , while talking about the problem to Rebmann , " at one and the same moment , the problem flashed on both of us solved by the simple supposition that where geographical hypothesis had hitherto supposed an enormous mountain @-@ land , we must now look for an enormous valley and an inland sea . " On the map that he and Rebmann drew the three lakes of Nyasa , Tanganyika and Victoria are shown as one very large S @-@ shaped lake .
On the map , several subtle but interesting things can be discovered , including , in the northeast section of the cartograph , a reference to a stream flowing through Lake Victoria , then known by the missionaries as " the Ukerewa " . A note is present describing how the waters of the stream were very sweet , but stained the teeth a sickly yellow . This note is probably the first known text referring to the drinking water , found primarily around and of Mount Meru , which has a high content of fluorine and causes a yellow @-@ brown stain to the incisors which cannot be removed . Among other things , another piece of writing on the Slug Map - " From where the Magad [ soda ] is bought " - provides evidence that the soda trade , the soda originating in Lake Natron ( obviously not known by that name then ) , was active at that time in those regions of Africa in which the map depicts .
In 1855 Erhardt was repatriated due to poor health , and took his map with him . It was first published in the Calwer Missionsblatt in 1855 , and then in the Church Missionary intelligencer in 1856 . The Slug Map based on Erhardt 's map has never been published . It is now in the care of the Royal Geographical Society in London . The map is described by the society as :
Sketch of a Map from 1 ° N. to 15 ° S. Latitude and from 23 ° to 43 ° E. Longitude delineating the probably position and extent of the Sea of Uniamesi as being the continuation of the Lake Niasa and exhibiting the numerous heathen @-@ tribes situated to the East and West of that great Inland @-@ sea together with the Caravan routes leading to it and into the interior in general . In true accordance with the information received from natives - Representatives of various inland tribes - and Mahomidan inland traders . By the Revd . Messrs. Erhardt and F. Rebmann Missionaries of the Church Miss . Society in East Africa Kisaludini March 14 , 1855 .
= = Later life and death = =
Having almost lost his eyesight for unknown reasons , Rebmann went back to Europe in September 1875 . He returned to Germany for the first time in 29 years after being persuaded to do so by a fellow missionary who was working in the area . He then proceeded to take up residence in Korntal near Stuttgart , where he was close to his old friend Krapf . In spring 1876 , upon the advice of Krapf , he married the widow of another missionary from India , Louise Rebmann née Däuble . The marriage did not last long , as on October 4 , 1876 , Rebmann died of pneumonia . Engraved on Rebmann 's tombstone in the cemetery of Korntal are the words " Saved in Jesus ' Arms " .
The legacy that he left behind him is preserved by the Johannes Rebmann Foundation , a religious society devoted to Rebmann and his memory . Rebmann 's work in Africa , both as a missionary and as an explorer , allowed other Europeans to follow in his footsteps .
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= Sum 41 =
Sum 41 is a Canadian rock band from Ajax , Ontario , Canada . Originally called Kaspir , the band was formed in 1996 and , as of 2015 , the band 's current lineup consists of lead vocalist / rhythm guitarist Deryck Whibley , lead guitarist / backing vocalist Dave Baksh , co @-@ lead guitarist / backing vocalist Tom Thacker , bassist / backing vocalist Jason McCaslin and drummer Frank Zummo .
In 1999 , the band signed an international record deal with Island Records . The band released its EP Half Hour of Power in 2000 . Although often considered to be the group 's debut album , the band members consider their next release , All Killer , No Filler , the group 's debut album . The band released its debut album , All Killer , No Filler in 2001 . The band achieved mainstream success with the first single from the album , " Fat Lip " , which reached number @-@ one on the Billboard Modern Rock Tracks chart and remains the band 's most successful single to date . All Killer No Filler was certified platinum in the United States , Canada and in the United Kingdom .
The band later released Does This Look Infected ? in 2002 to a commercial and critical success . The singles " The Hell Song " and " Still Waiting " both charted highly on the modern rock charts . The band released its next album , Chuck , in 2004 , led by singles " We 're All to Blame " and " Pieces " . The album proved successful , peaking at No. 10 on the Billboard 200 and sold five million copies worldwide . In 2007 , the band released Underclass Hero , which was released to a mixed reception , but gained some commercial success , becoming the band 's highest charting album to date . It was also the last album on Aquarius Records . The band released Screaming Bloody Murder , the group 's last album on Island Records , in 2011 to a mixed to positive reception , though it fell short of its predecessors ' commercial success . The band 's sixth studio album , titled 13 Voices is set for release on October 7 , 2016 .
The band often performs more than 300 times each year and holds long global tours , most of which last more than a year . The group has been nominated for seven Juno Awards and have won twice ( Group of the Year in 2002 and Rock Album of the Year for Chuck in 2005 ) . Sum 41 was nominated for a Grammy Award for Best Hard Rock / Metal Performance for the song " Blood In My Eyes " ; however , the band lost to the Foo Fighters .
= = History = =
= = = 1996 – 98 : Formative years = = =
Sum 41 was formed by lead guitarist and backing vocalist Deryck Whibley and drummer Steve Jocz , under the name Kaspir after Whibley convinced Jocz to join his band . Jocz was a drummer in another band and Whibley was convinced that " he was the best drummer around " . After having several rhythm guitarists and lead vocalists try out for the band , the duo added Dave Baksh as lead guitarist and backing vocalist in order for Whibley to take over as lead vocalist and rhythm guitarist . The group went through several bassists , until ultimately settling on Jason McCaslin , thus completing the band 's mainstay lineup . The group members decided to change the band 's name for a Supernova show on September 28 , 1996 , which happened to be the 41st day of their summer vacation .
= = = 1998 – 2000 : Half Hour of Power = = =
In 1998 , the band recorded a demo tape on Compact Cassette which the group sent to record companies in the hope of getting a recording contract . These demo tapes are rare and are the only recordings known that are with the original bassist , Richard Roy and original keyboardist , John Nicosia .
From 1999 to 2000 , the band recorded several new songs . The Introduction to Destruction and later the Cross The T 's and Gouge Your I 's DVDs both contained the self @-@ recorded footage , which saw them band performing a dance to " Makes No Difference " in front of a theater .
Sum 41 's first EP , Half Hour of Power , was released on June 27 , 2000 . The first single released by the band was " Makes No Difference " , which had two different music videos . The first video was put together using the video clips sent to the record label and the second showed the band performing at a house party . The album was certified gold in Canada . Following the success of the EP , the band began working on its first full @-@ length album .
= = = 2001 – 03 : All Killer No Filler and Does This Look Infected ? = = =
Sum 41 's first full @-@ length album , All Killer , No Filler , was released on May 8 , 2001 . " Fat Lip " , the album 's first single , achieved significant chart and commercial success ; it topped the U.S. Billboard Modern Rock Tracks chart as well as many other charts around the world . The song remains the band 's most successful song to date . After " Fat Lip " , two more singles were released from the album : " In Too Deep " and " Motivation " . " In Too Deep " peaked at No. 10 on the Modern Rock Tracks chart , while " Motivation " peaked at No. 24 on the same chart . The album peaked at No. 13 on the Billboard 200 chart and at No. 9 on the Top Canadian Albums chart . The album was a commercial success , and was certified platinum in the United States , Canada and in the UK .
The success of the album brought the band touring offers with mainstream bands such as Blink @-@ 182 and The Offspring . The band spent much of 2001 touring ; the group played over 300 concerts that year before returning to the studio to record another album .
On November 26 , 2002 , the group released its second album , Does This Look Infected ? . The special edition came with a DVD , Cross The T 's and Gouge Your I 's . Whibley said of the album : " We don 't want to make another record that sounds like the last record , I hate when bands repeat albums . " The album featured a harder and edgier sound , and the lyrics featured a more serious outlook . The album peaked at No. 32 on the Billboard 200 chart and at No. 8 on the Top Canadian Albums chart . The album was certified platinum in Canada and gold in the United States , but was not as successful as its predecessor .
The first single released from the album was " Still Waiting " , which peaked at No. 7 on the Modern Rock Tracks chart . The second single , " The Hell Song " peaked at No. 13 on the chart . " The Hell Song " ' s music video depicted the band members using dolls with their pictures on them and others , such as Ozzy Osbourne and Pamela Anderson . The third single , " Over My Head ( Better Off Dead ) " , had a video released exclusively in Canada and on the band 's website , featuring live shots of the band . The video also appeared on the group 's live DVD , Sake Bombs And Happy Endings ( 2003 ) , as a bonus feature . The band again commenced on a long tour to promote the album before recording the group 's third studio album .
= = = 2004 – 05 : Chuck = = =
In late May 2004 , the band traveled to the Democratic Republic of Congo with War Child Canada , a branch of the British charity organization War Child , to document the civil war in the country . Days after arriving , fighting broke out in Bukavu near the hotel the band was staying at .
The band waited for the fighting to die down , but it did not . During that time , a U.N. peacekeeper , Charles " Chuck " Pelletier , called for armored carriers to take the hotel 's occupants out of the hot zone . After nearly six hours , the carriers arrived , and the band and the forty other civilians were taken to safety .
In honor of Pelletier , Sum 41 named its next album Chuck ; it was released on October 12 , 2004 . The album is the band 's heaviest and most serious album to date , and charted at No. 10 on the Billboard 200 chart and on the Top Internet Albums chart . It also peaked at No. 2 on the Canadian Albums chart and was the band 's highest @-@ charting album until it was surpassed by Underclass Hero . The album received positive reviews and was certified platinum in Canada and gold in the United States .
The first single from the album was " We 're All To Blame " , which peaked at No. 10 on the Modern Rock Tracks chart . It was followed by " Pieces " , a relatively soft song which reached the top of the charts in Canada . The next single was " Some Say " , released only in Canada and Japan . The last single off the record was " No Reason " , released at the same time as " Some Say " , but with no music video and was only released in Europe and the USA , where it reached No. 16 on the Billboard Modern Rock chart .
A documentary of the band 's experience in Congo was made into a film called Rocked : Sum 41 in Congo and later aired on MTV . War Child released it on DVD on November 29 , 2005 , in the United States and Canada .
Following the album 's release , the band went on a tour with Good Charlotte until 2006 . On December 21 , 2005 , Sum 41 released a live album , Happy Live Surprise , in Japan . The CD contained a full concert recorded live from London , Ontario and was produced by Whibley . The same CD was released March 7 , 2006 , in Canada under the name Go Chuck Yourself .
= = = 2006 – 09 : Underclass Hero , All the Good Shit and Baksh 's departure = = =
On May 10 , 2006 , Dave Baksh announced in a statement through his management company that he was leaving Sum 41 to work with his new band , Brown Brigade , which has a more " classic metal " sound . Baksh cited " creative differences " as the reason for his departure but claimed that he was still on good terms with the band . The next day , Whibley confirmed Baksh 's departure and announced that the band would only replace Dave with a touring guitarist , who would not have any decision @-@ making power in the band or be in videos , photo shoots , or albums .
Recording of the band 's fourth studio album , Underclass Hero , began on November 8 , 2006 and finished on March 14 , 2007 . The album , backed by the first single and title track , " Underclass Hero " , was released on July 24 , 2007 . Despite mixed reviews , the album was a commercial success , debuting at No. 7 on the Billboard 200 and at No. 1 on the Billboard Rock Albums chart , the band 's highest U.S. chart position to date . The album sold over 1 million copies worldwide . It also peaked at No. 1 on the Canadian Albums chart and on the Alternative Albums chart , a first for the band on both the charts .
On April 17 , 2007 , the band released a song on iTunes , " March of the Dogs " . Although not a single , the band released it early because , according to Whibley , " the record [ wouldn 't ] be out until the summer " . Whibley was threatened with deportation for the song , because he metaphorically " killed the president " in it . Two more singles were released from the album , " Walking Disaster " and " With Me " . " With Me " especially found radio success by 2008 . Underclass Hero was certified platinum in Canada .
In October 2007 , the band began the Strength In Numbers Tour , a tour of Canada with Canadian band Finger Eleven ; Die Mannequin opened each of Sum 41 's shows . During the tour , Whibley sustained a herniated disk . As a result , the group canceled the rest of its shows . After Whibley recovered from his injury , the band recommenced the Underclass Hero tour in March 2008 . The band toured until early July , when the group began preparation for its next album .
On August 7 , 2008 , McCaslin announced in a journal entry on the band 's site that the band was currently taking time off from touring to do other things . Afterward , the group began working on the band 's next studio album . McCaslin worked on the second album by his side @-@ project , The Operation M.D .. Jocz toured as a drummer for The Vandals , and Whibley toured with his ( then ) wife , Avril Lavigne .
On November 26 , 2008 , Sum 41 released a greatest hits album in Japan titled 8 Years of Blood , Sake and Tears . The album included a previously unreleased song , " Always " , and a DVD , which contains each of the band 's music videos . On March 17 , the band released the worldwide version of the album titled All the Good Shit .
= = = 2009 – 12 : Screaming Bloody Murder and Thacker 's arrival = = =
Drummer Steve Jocz confirmed that Gob frontman Tom Thacker will take part in the writing and recording and will also be part of the band . On November 5 , 2009 , Deryck posted a blog on the band 's MySpace page announcing Gil Norton as the producer of the band 's upcoming album , also saying that 20 songs were already written for the album . In an interview with Tom Thacker , some working titles for songs for the new album were confirmed , including " Panic Attack " , " Jessica Kill " and " Like Everyone Else " . Pre @-@ production for the new album took 13 days in December 2009 , with the band officially entering the studio to begin recording at Perfect Sound Studios on January 26 , 2010 . The new studio album , titled Screaming Bloody Murder , was expected for a late 2010 release , until it was delayed again until early 2011 . The band finished recording on June 24 , 2010 , just before joining the 2010 Warped Tour , and while the group was on the tour , the new album entered the post @-@ production stages of mixing and mastering . A new song called " Skumfuk " was leaked online on July 6 , 2010 . The song is not a single of the new album , and was hoped to be included as part of a Warped Tour compilation album . In an interview with Canoe.ca , Steve Jocz stated that while producer Gill Norton was originally hired to engineer the new album , he was only around for a week and Sum 41 self @-@ produced the record .
On January 8 , 2011 , it was announced that the band will release the radio single " Screaming Bloody Murder " on February 7 , 2011 in the United States . The song had its worldwide premiere on January 14 , 2011 , on the Windsor radio station 89X . Universal Japan has confirmed on the official Japanese Sum 41 website , that Screaming Bloody Murder will be released in Japan on March 23 , 2011 , after which it was confirmed on the band 's official website that the album be released on March 29 , 2011 , in the US , though the Japanese release date was since then postponed to April 6 following the 2011 Tōhoku earthquake and tsunami . On February 28 , 2011 , a stream of " Blood In My Eyes " , another new song from the album , was released for free listening on Alternative Press . On May 28 , 2011 , Sum 41 performed a live set for " Guitar Center Sessions " on DirecTV . The episode included an interview with program host , Nic Harcourt . On June 14 , 2011 , it was announced that " Baby , You Don 't Wanna Know " will be released as the second single of the album . On June 28 , 2011 , it was confirmed that the band shot a music video for the song during a day off in Germany . In July 2011 , Matt Whibley has confirmed that the music video for the first single " Screaming Bloody Murder " will be left unreleased due to its content and difficulties with the label , but the video for " Baby , You Don 't Wanna Know " will be released soon instead .
In May 2011 , during the band 's 10th anniversary Japanese tour , the band debuted for the first time some new songs from Screaming Bloody Murder , including " Reason to Believe " , " Blood in My Eyes " , " Sick of Everyone " and " Back Where I Belong " . During the same tour , Deryck Whibley 's cousin , Matt , who served as the band 's assistant as well as video photographer , has joined the band on stage as an unofficial member to play the keyboards . He then continued to play keyboards during the band 's European summer tour in June – July 2011 .
On August 9 , 2011 , Sum 41 released the live album Live at the House of Blues , Cleveland 9 @.@ 15 @.@ 07 - a live recording of a show that took place on September 15 , 2007 , in Cleveland , Ohio , while the band was touring its previous album Underclass Hero .
On August 13 , 2011 , while the band was touring the US as part of the Vans Warped Tour , making up for dates the group had to cancel on its 2010 stint on the tour ; the band was forced once again to cancel all remaining dates in the US and Canada after playing only 3 shows , after Deryck re @-@ injured his back . On August 23 , 2011 , it was announced on the band 's official website that following Deryck Whibley 's back injury on August 13 , which forced the band to already cancel its US and Canadian dates in August , the band would be indefinitely postponing all upcoming tour dates for 2011 , due to Deryck undergoing a treatment for his medical condition . It was confirmed that the band 's first ever South American tour as well as the group 's first ever Asian tour ( excluding Japan ) , would all be cancelled , and rescheduled for some time in 2012 . In an interview with Jason McCaslin that took place in Oppikoppi , McCaslin has said that " it 's safe to say Sum 41 won 't have another album out for at least the next two years . " On November 30 , 2011 , Sum 41 was nominated for a Grammy Award for Best Hard Rock / Metal Performance for the song Blood In My Eyes , however on February 12 , 2012 , the Foo Fighters won . On February 24 , 2012 , it was announced on the band 's Twitter that this week the band will be shooting a music video for the song " Blood In My Eyes " with director Michael Maxxis in Los Angeles , confirming that it 'll be the third single of the album . Shooting of the video took place on February 29 , 2012 , at the desert around the Los Angeles area . On March 19 , 2012 , it was announced on the band 's Twitter that the 1st cut of the music video was ready , and that the video will be shortly released and some changes will be made . The video was finally released on the 10th of September .
It was announced in September that the band was planning a Does This Look Infected ? 10th Anniversary Tour to celebrate the album 's release in 2002 . The tour consisted of North American dates that spanned from November into December .
= = = 2012 – 15 : Jocz 's departure and Zummo 's arrival = = =
On November 26 , 2012 , the band members revealed that they were taking a break from touring in 2013 to begin work on a new record . On April 18 , 2013 , drummer Jocz announced he would be leaving the band via his official Facebook page , leaving Whibley as the sole founding member of the band . In an interview on February 7 , 2014 , Deryck revealed that the band has possibly found a new drummer and would be premiering new music " soon " . The expected sixth album would have been the band 's first with Whibley and McCaslin as the only two band members from the group 's original release left , until Baksh 's return in 2015 , which will also be his first album with band since 2004 's Chuck . The album will also be the band 's first without founding drummer Steve Jocz , and the first to feature drummer Frank Zummo .
On May 16 , 2014 , Deryck Whibley posted on his personal website , explaining that he had a liver and kidney failure due to extensive drinking . He also stated that he had some ideas for new songs , and that the band would be soon starting to make a new album . On June 9 , 2014 , Deryck Whibley has stated on his personal Facebook page that he was working on new Sum 41 music out of his home studio to get ready to record some new tunes . On March 19 , 2015 , a short video was posted on the band 's Facebook page , showing only a speaker and showcasing a song snippet not belonging to any previous recording of the band , hinting new music is about to be finished .
= = = 2015 – present : Baksh 's return and 13 Voices = = =
On July 9 , 2015 , The band launched a PledgeMusic campaign for its comeback album On July 23 , 2015 , the band played its comeback show at the Alternate Press Awards , which featured former lead guitarist Dave Baksh , joining the band on stage 9 years after officially leaving the band . The band 's set also featured DMC as guest . Since the performance , rumors speculated that Dave had returned to the band rather than being just a guest . On August 14 , 2015 , Sum 41 announced through Alternative Press that Baksh had made his official return to the group , and will appear on the group 's sixth album . On December 26 , 2015 , Sum 41 teased two new songs on Instagram 's account . On January 1 , 2016 , Deryck Whibley published on the Facebook page that the new album is almost finished .
The band is set to perform on the 2016 Warped Tour . On May 11 , 2016 , the group announced its signing to Hopeless Records . On June 1 , 2016 , the band announced that an album was set to be released in the fall of 2016 . On June 6 , 2016 , the group announced that the album would be titled 13 Voices and that it is scheduled for release on October 7 , 2016 .
= = Side projects and collaborations = =
Before the release of Half Hour of Power and up until the departure of Dave Baksh , Sum 41 occasionally played as an alter @-@ ego 1980s heavy metal band called Pain for Pleasure during shows . The band appeared in Sum 41 's music videos for " Fat Lip " and " We 're All to Blame " and had at least one song on each of the band 's first three releases . The group 's best known song under the Pain for Pleasure moniker is the song of the same name from All Killer No Filler , a track that remains the band 's staple during live shows .
Sum 41 has collaborated with many other artists , both live and in the studio , among whom are Tenacious D , Ludacris , Iggy Pop , Pennywise , Bowling for Soup , Unwritten Law , Treble Charger , Nelly , Gob , Tommy Lee , Rob Halford , Kerry King , Metallica , and Ja Rule .
Shortly after touring for Does This Look Infected ? , Sum 41 was recruited by Iggy Pop for his album , Skull Ring . Deryck co @-@ wrote the first single from the album , " Little Know It All " , and joined Iggy on the Late Show with David Letterman to promote the song . Following the band 's September 11 , 2005 show in Quebec City , Quebec , the band went on a touring hiatus , although on April 17 , 2006 , Sum 41 played at a tribute to Iggy Pop , joining Iggy on stage for " Little Know It All " and " Lust For Life " .
During the band 's 2006 touring hiatus , Whibley focused on his producing career : he produced two songs for Avril Lavigne 's album The Best Damn Thing . Jocz recorded his first video as director for a Canadian band , The Midway State , and McCaslin started a side project with Todd Morse of H2O and Juliette and the Licks . McCaslin 's two @-@ person band , named The Operation M.D. , released its debut album , We Have an Emergency , in early 2007 . As well as playing bass , keyboards , and acoustic guitar , McCaslin contributed backing vocals as well as leading vocals on three songs . The album was co @-@ produced and mixed by Whibley . The group 's video for its first single , " Sayonara " , was directed by Jocz .
In December 2007 , McCaslin interviewed Slash of Velvet Revolver . They talked about Slash 's experiences while in Guns N ' Roses and his part in Velvet Revolver . The interview was part of a MySpace project and was posted on the site in three parts .
The 2010 video game Vancouver 2010 features Sum 41 's " Open Your Eyes " from Chuck as one of the game 's songs .
= = Musical style and influences = =
Sum 41 have been described as pop punk , skate punk , punk rock , nu metal , melodic hardcore , alternative rock and alternative metal .
The band 's style has been disputed by fans because of the complex combination of different musical styles and the more mature , serious , and heavy sound in later albums . The band 's EP Half Hour of Power is described as punk rock , skate punk and pop punk . All Killer , No Filler was described as pop punk and skate punk . Does This Look Infected ? has been described as punk rock , pop punk and melodic hardcore . Chuck was getting heavier opting out the original pop punk sound with strong metal influences and an alternative rock sound , but the band kept in touch with its punk rock and melodic hardcore roots , which created an even more mature side than the group 's previous effort . Critics have described Underclass Hero as a revival of the band 's pop punk style . Some of the band 's songs contain political @-@ social commentary ; " The Jester " is an " anti @-@ Bush screed " , " Underclass Hero " is a song about class struggle , and " Dear Father " is about Deryck 's absent father . The band 's most recent effort , Screaming Bloody Murder , marks a return to the direction of Chuck , with songs such as the title track or the Grammy @-@ nominated Blood in my Eyes featuring heavier guitar riffs . Opposite to the heavier direction , there are also tracks such as the second single Baby You Don 't Wanna Know whose style leans more towards a garage rock approach . The album furthermore features more experimental song structures , mostly evident in the piece A Dark Road Out Of Hell consisting of three tracks of the record .
Sum 41 have been influenced by bands like NOFX , Pennywise , The Vandals , Gob , Bad Religion , Rancid , Green Day , Metallica , Iron Maiden , Blink @-@ 182 , The Offspring , Megadeth , Slayer , Nirvana and The Beatles .
= = Internet videos = =
Touring in support of Chuck , the band played videos before its set which were deemed " unsuitable for children " . Controversy arose over some of the videos ' violent content . The group made several other videos , including Basketball Butcher and 1 @-@ 800 @-@ Justice , which were originally available exclusively on Sum 41 's now @-@ defunct fan club , The Goon Platoon .
Sum 41 's most recent internet video project is a " weekly series , " SUM 41 - Road to Ruin . The trailer was posted on January 8 , 2007 on the Sum 41 web page . The first episode debuted on January 21 ; it followed the band members ' exploits on the group 's Singapore 2003 tour . Since then , the episodes have included footage of drunkenness in New Orleans , setting off a fire alarm in a hotel , and a feature about the band 's first tour manager . So far , the group has released ten episodes , with the group 's latest and as the group stated , its ' last ' for now being an episode that features the band 's guitar technician . The group also created a series of cartoons based on superhero " Stickman Moss " , who saved the world from anti @-@ punk figures who endangered the world of punk rock .
In December 2009 , the band launched a new daily update series from the pre @-@ production of the group 's upcoming fifth studio album . It was announced on the band 's Myspace page that the daily updates will run for the 2 – 3 weeks of pre @-@ production . 13 video updates from the pre @-@ production were made and posted on the band 's official Myspace page .
= = Awards and nominations = =
Sum 41 has been nominated for seven Juno Awards and has won twice . In 2001 , the group was nominated for " Best New Group " at the Juno awards , but lost to Nickelback . The band was nominated for " Best Group " in the Juno Awards of 2002 but again lost to Nickelback . Also in 2001 , The album All Killer No Filler was nominated for " Best Album ; however , it lost to The Look of Love by Diana Krall . In 2003 , Sum 41 won a Juno Award for " Group Of The Year " . In 2004 , the group was nominated again , this time with Does This Look Infected ? for " Rock Album of the Year " , but lost to Sam Roberts 's We Were Born in a Flame . In 2005 , the album Chuck won " Rock Album of the Year " ; the group was also nominated for " Group of The Year " , but lost to Billy Talent . In 2008 , the band 's album Underclass Hero was nominated for the Juno Award " Rock Album of the Year " ; however , the album lost to Finger Eleven 's Them vs. You vs. Me . The group also has been nominated for three different Canadian Independent Music Awards . In 2004 , the band won a Woodie Award for " The Good Woodie ( Greatest Social Impact ) " . The band was also nominated for a Kerrang ! Award in 2003 for " Best Live Act " . On November 30 , 2011 , Sum 41 was nominated for a Grammy Award for Best Hard Rock / Metal Performance for the song Blood In My Eyes , however on February 12 , 2012 , the Foo Fighters won .
= = = Awards = = =
A select list of Sum 41 's awards and nominations .
= = Band members = =
Timeline
= = Discography = =
Studio albums
All Killer , No Filler ( 2001 )
Does This Look Infected ? ( 2002 )
Chuck ( 2004 )
Underclass Hero ( 2007 )
Screaming Bloody Murder ( 2011 )
13 Voices ( 2016 )
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= History of Northwest Territories capital cities =
The history of Northwest Territories capital cities begins with the purchase of the Territories by Canada from the Hudson 's Bay Company in 1869 , and includes a varied and often difficult evolution . Northwest Territories is unique amongst the other provinces and territories of Canada in that it has had seven capital cities in its history . The territory has changed the seat of government for numerous reasons , including civil conflict , development of infrastructure , and a history of significant revisions to its territorial boundaries .
The result of these changes has been a long and complex road to responsible government . Effectively providing services and representation for the population has been a particular challenge for the Territories ' government , a task often complicated by the region 's vast and changing geographic area . A small number of communities in Northwest Territories have unsuccessfully tried to become the capital over the years . The territory has had the seat of government outside of its territorial boundaries twice in its history . The only other political division in Canada without a seat of government inside its own boundaries was the defunct District of Keewatin that existed from 1876 until 1905 .
The term " capital " refers to cities that have served as home for the Legislative Assembly of Northwest Territories , the legislative branch of Northwest Territories government . In Canada , it is customary for provincial and territorial level government to have the administrative centre of the civil service in the same city as the legislative branch . The Northwest Territories , however , had separate administrative and legislative capitals officially exist between 1911 and 1967 . This is the only province or territory in Canadian history to have had such an arrangement .
= = Fort Garry , Manitoba ( 1870 – 1876 ) = =
The Government of Canada purchased the North @-@ Western Territory and Rupert 's Land from the Hudson 's Bay Company in 1868 , under the terms of the Rupert 's Land Act 1868 for £ 300 @,@ 000 British pounds . Both purchased territories were largely uninhabited , consisting mostly of uncharted wilderness . After the purchase , the Government decided to merge both of the properties into a single jurisdiction and appoint a single territorial government to run both . The purchase of the two territories added a sizable portion of the current Canadian landmass .
In 1869 , Ontario Member of Parliament William McDougall was appointed as the first Lieutenant Governor of the Northwest Territories and sent to Fort Garry to establish formal governance for Canada . Before his party arrived at the settlement , a small group led by Louis Riel intercepted him near the Ontario border and forced him to turn back because they opposed the transfer to the Canadian government . The inhabitants of the Red River Valley began the Red River Rebellion , delaying formal governance until their demands for provincial status were met .
The rebellion resulted in the creation of the Province of Manitoba ( inclusive of Fort Garry ) and a delay in establishing governance in the Territories . In 1870 , the Northwest Territories and Manitoba formally entered the Canadian confederation . The two jurisdictions remained partially conjoined : under the Temporary Government Act , 1870 . The Temporary North @-@ West Council was appointed in 1872 , mainly from members of the new Manitoba Legislative Assembly , with the Lieutenant Governor of Manitoba serving as the leader of the territorial government . The Governor and Council were mandated to govern the Territories through the Manitoba Act and did so from outside of the Northwest Territories . Fort Garry served as the first seat of government for both jurisdictions .
The temporary government sat for the first time in 1872 . It was renewed by federal legislation each year until a permanent solution for governance was decided upon . The federal government renewed the Temporary Council for the last time in 1875 and chose a new location , within the boundaries of the Northwest Territories , to form a new government . Along with the new seat of power , a new council greatly reduced in size was appointed along with a new Lieutenant Governor to specifically lead the Territories without also governing Manitoba .
In the 1870s , Fort Garry consisted of two distinct settlements . The first site was named Upper Fort Garry , and the secondary site was named Lower Fort Garry , 32 kilometres ( 20 mi ) downstream on the Red River . After the territorial government moved , Fort Garry continued to be the seat of government for Manitoba , and for the now defunct District of Keewatin territory between 1876 and 1905 . Fort Garry evolved to become modern @-@ day Winnipeg , still the capital of Manitoba , with Lower Fort Garry being declared a national historical site .
= = Fort Livingstone , North @-@ West Territories ( 1876 – 1877 ) = =
The North @-@ West Territories Act , 1875 dissolved the Temporary North @-@ West Council and appointed a permanent government to take effect on October 7 , 1876 . The new council governed from Fort Livingstone , an outpost constructed west of the Manitoba border , in modern @-@ day Saskatchewan . Fort Livingstone served as a small frontier outpost and not as a bona fide capital city . The location was chosen by the federal government as a temporary site to establish the new territorial government until the route of the railway was determined .
Fort Livingstone was founded in 1875 by the newly created North @-@ West Mounted Police , the predecessor of the Royal Canadian Mounted Police , Canada 's national police force . The Swan River North @-@ West Mounted Police Barracks , inside Fort Livingstone , became the temporary assembly building for legislative @-@ council sessions as well as the office for the Lieutenant Governor .
The bulk of the police forces moved out to Fort Macleod in 1876 , to crack down on the whisky trade . A year later , Lieutenant Governor David Laird moved the seat of government to Battleford . The decision was based upon the original plans of constructing the Canadian Pacific Railway ( CPR ) through Battleford .
Fort Livingstone continued to serve as a small outpost until being totally destroyed by a prairie grass fire in 1884 . The nearest modern settlement to the original Fort Livingstone site is Pelly , Saskatchewan , four kilometres ( 2 @.@ 5 mi ) to the south . The fort is sometimes referred to as Fort Pelly or Swan River . The Fort Livingstone site is marked with a plaque as was declared a Saskatchewan provincial heritage site and contains no resident population .
= = Battleford , North @-@ West Territories ( 1877 – 1883 ) = =
The Northwest Territories government moved to Battleford in 1877 on the order of the Lieutenant Governor . Battleford was supposed to be the permanent capital of the Territories . The town was chosen because it was expected to be linked with the Canadian Pacific Railway .
The government in Battleford would see significant milestones towards attaining responsible government for the Northwest Territories . For the first time , the territory had democratically elected members join the appointed members in the assembly . Elections in the territory became a reality after the passage of the Northwest Territories election ordinance 1880 . The first election took place in 1881 , after electoral districts were created by royal proclamations , issued the order of the Lieutenant Governor . Battleford hosted the first official royal visit in western Canada , when the Marquis of Lorne and Princess Louise Caroline Alberta toured the territories in 1881 .
The first Northwest Territories legislature building , and residence for the Lieutenant Governor named " NWT Government House " , was completed and used by the territorial government until 1883 . After the government moved the building stood as a historical site until it was destroyed in a fire in 2003 .
After consultation with Canadian Pacific Railway officials , Lieutenant Governor Edgar Dewdney made the decision to move the capital to Regina , also in present @-@ day Saskatchewan , in June 1882 . The decision to move the capital was controversial with the public because Edgar Dewdney owned real estate in Regina . He was accused of having conflicted interests between his private affairs and the needs of the government .
= = Regina , North @-@ West Territories ( 1883 – 1905 ) = =
After Edgar Dewdney ordered that the government be moved south to meet the railway in Regina , it was confirmed as the new territorial capital on March 27 , 1883 . Construction of a new legislature began . In Regina , the government continued to grow as the size of the settlement increased rapidly . The legislature had the most sitting members in Northwest Territories history after the fifth general election in 1902 .
The government in Regina struggled to deliver services to the vast territory . The influx of settlers and responsibility for the Klondike , as well as constant fighting with the federal government over limited legislative powers and minimal revenue collection , hampered the effectiveness of government . The government during this period slowly released powers to the elected members . In 1897 , after control of the executive council was ceded to elected members from the Lieutenant @-@ Governors , a short @-@ lived period of party politics evolved that challenged the consensus model of government that had been used since 1870 .
The territorial government under the leadership of Premier Frederick Haultain struck a deal with the federal Government of Canada in early 1905 to bring provincial powers to the territories . This led to the creation of the provinces of Saskatchewan and Alberta from the southernmost and most populous areas of the territory . The Northwest Territories , reduced to its northern , lightly populated hinterland , continued to exist under the 1870s constitutional status under control of the federal government . A new council was convened in Ottawa , Ontario to deal with the region .
The Territorial Administration Building was declared a historical site by the Saskatchewan government after it was restored by the Saskatchewan Government in 1979 , the building remains standing to this day . The territorial government would not have another permanent legislature of its own design until 1993 . After 1905 , Regina continued to serve as capital for the province of Saskatchewan .
= = Ottawa , Ontario as legislative capital ( 1905 – 1967 ) = =
In 1905 , under the direction of Wilfrid Laurier , the Northwest Territories seat of government was moved to Ottawa , Ontario , the capital of Canada . This change was made when Northwest Territories defaulted back to the 1870 constitutional status after Alberta and Saskatchewan were sectioned off from the territory on September 1 , 1905 . After the populated regions of the territory were made into their own jurisdictions , there were very few settlements left in the territory with any significant population or infrastructure . The non @-@ Inuit population was estimated to total around 1 @,@ 000 . Inuit were not counted at the time because they had no status under Canadian law , and were not yet settled in towns or villages .
In the period without a sitting council from 1905 to 1921 , the government of the Territories was small but still active . A small civil service force was sent to Fort Smith to set the town up as the new administrative capital in 1911 . A budget to provide minimal services was still given by the federal government . Commissioner Frederick D. White administered the territories day @-@ to @-@ day operations during that period . During this 16 @-@ year lapse in legislative government , no new laws were created , and the Territories and its population were severely neglected even with the services provided at the time .
The first session of the new council was called to order in 1921 , a full 16 years after the government was dissolved in Regina . This new government contained no serving member who was resident in the Territories . The council during this period was primarily composed of high @-@ level civil servants who lived and worked in Ottawa . The first person to sit on the council since 1905 who actually resided from within the Territories was John G. McNiven who was appointed in 1947 .
The Ottawa @-@ based council eventually grew sensitive to the needs of the territory residents . Democracy returned to the territories in the sixth general election in 1951 . After the election , the council was something of a vagabond body , with alternating sittings in Ottawa , and various communities in Northwest Territories . The council held meetings in school gymnasiums , community halls , board rooms , or any suitable infrastructure . The council even transported ceremonial implements to conduct meetings with such as the speakers chair and mace . Both are traditional artifacts common to Westminster style parliaments .
Legislative sessions held in Ottawa were conducted in an office building on Sparks Street . The Northwest Territories government continues to hold an office in Ottawa on Sparks Street to this day . In 1965 , a federal government commission was set up to determine a new home for the government and the future of the territory . The seat of government was moved back inside the territories to Yellowknife , after it was selected capital in 1967 .
= = Fort Smith , Northwest Territories as administrative capital ( 1911 – 1967 ) = =
Fort Smith became the official administration and transportation hub for the Northwest Territories in 1911 . This marked the first services provided by the territorial government in six years . The first services included an agent from the Department of Indian Affairs , a medical doctor , and a Royal Canadian Mounted Police station .
Fort Smith was chosen to house the civil service because of its geographical location and state of development . The community was one of the few that had steamboat service from the railheads in Alberta and access to the vast waterways in the territory . The community was the easiest for the government to access , and the most well developed community , closest to Ottawa .
Fort Smith housed the civil service working in the Territories officially until 1967 . The town continued to host the civil service for many years after Yellowknife was picked as capital , because the infrastructure was not yet in place in the new capital city at the time .
= = Carrothers Commission examines Self @-@ government for the North ( 1965 @-@ 1967 ) = =
The " Advisory Commission on the Development of Government in the Northwest Territories " , commonly called the Carrothers Commission for its chair , Alfred Carrothers , was struck by the Government of Canada in 1965 . The Carrothers Commission marked a significant turning point in modern Northwest Territories history . The Carrothers Commission was tasked to evaluate and recommend changes to the Northwest Territories to deal with an array of outstanding issues regarding self @-@ government in the north . One of the more visible and lasting effects of the Carrothers Commission was to choose a new capital city for the territorial government .
The Carrothers Commission , for the first time , gave some voice to residents in the Northwest Territories through extensive consultations with the territorial population . In prior years , the decision to change the seat of government had always been made without consulting Northwest Territories residents . Edgar Dewdney , for example , who made the decision to change the capital from Battleford to Regina , faced controversy because he owned property in Regina . After the territorial government moved to Ottawa , the government was often resented for being so far away .
The Carrothers Commission spent two years visiting nearly every community in the territory and consulting with residents , community leaders , business people , and territorial politicians . The Carrothers Commission investigated and considered five communities for the capital : Hay River , Fort Simpson , Fort Smith , Inuvik and Yellowknife .
Many people in the Northwest Territories believed that Fort Smith would win since it already housed the Territories ' civil service .
= = Yellowknife , Northwest Territories , current capital ( 1967 – present ) = =
Yellowknife officially became the capital on September 18 , 1967 , after the Carrothers commission chose it for its central location , transportation links , industrial base and residents ' preferences .
Yellowknife , in 1967 , was not yet ready to serve as home for the government . During the years that it took for the capital 's infrastructure to slowly develop , most of the civil service remained in Fort Smith for many years and the governing Council continued its practice of holding legislative sessions all over the territory for a number of years .
The Northwest Territories marked a new era when the legislative council moved into a newly constructed legislature building on November 17 , 1993 . The new legislature was the first building built specifically for the Northwest Territories government since the government sat in Regina 88 years earlier . The legislature building was constructed to feature themes derived from the Inuit culture , which signaled that the government was sensitive to the ethnicity of the resident population .
The modern day territorial government has matured in Yellowknife to become effective and responsible . The government in Yellowknife had largely gained back its powers on par with the pre @-@ 1905 government that was dissolved during creation of Alberta and Saskatchewan . The civil service has been effectively consolidated into the city of Yellowknife ; and has gained control over administering its own elections from Elections Canada . Education is now under the jurisdiction of the territorial government and the territory has most powers afforded to the rest of the provinces . There has even talk by the Federal government of the territories gaining provincial status in the future .
= = Lessons learned for Nunavut capital ( 1995 vote ) = =
As chronicled above , all seven capitals throughout the history of the Northwest Territories were chosen by some form of external government decision , though the Carrothers Commission did consult with the territorial population to guide its decision .
After the selection of Yellowknife as the capital in 1967 , many residents in the eastern Arctic continued to feel unrepresented by the territorial government , and many movements and groups were formed to remedy the situation . Lessons had been learned from the historical changes in the Northwest Territories ' seat of power , resulting in a number of territorial democratic processes leading to the creation of the new territory of Nunavut in 1999 , formed from the eastern half of the Northwest Territories .
In 1976 , as part of the land claims negotiations between the Inuit Tapiriit Kanatami population and the Government of Canada , the parties discussed division of the Northwest Territories to provide a separate territory for the Inuit . In 1982 , a plebiscite on division was held throughout the Northwest Territories , in which a majority of the residents voted in favour of division .
The land claims agreement was completed in September 1992 and ratified by a majority of voters . On July 9 , 1993 , the Nunavut Land Claims Agreement Act and the Nunavut Act were passed by the Canadian Parliament .
In December , 1995 , the Nunavut capital plebiscite was held , and the voters in the future Nunavut territory chose Iqaluit as their capital city , defeating Rankin Inlet . Iqaluit became the official capital on April 1 , 1999 , when Nunavut separated from the Northwest Territories .
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= The Boat Race 1982 =
The 128th Boat Race took place on 27 March 1982 . Held annually , the Boat Race is a side @-@ by @-@ side rowing race between crews from the Universities of Oxford and Cambridge along the River Thames . Oxford won by three @-@ and @-@ a @-@ quarter lengths , securing their seventh consecutive victory . Their number five , Boris Rankov , won a record fifth Boat Race as a rower , and Oxford 's Clay brothers became the first twins to win the event .
In the reserve race , Oxford 's Isis beat Cambridge 's Goldie by one @-@ and @-@ a @-@ quarter lengths , and in the Women 's Boat Race , Cambridge were victorious .
= = Background = =
The Boat Race is a side @-@ by @-@ side rowing competition between the University of Oxford ( sometimes referred to as the " Dark Blues " ) and the University of Cambridge ( sometimes referred to as the " Light Blues " ) . First held in 1829 , the race takes place on the 4 @.@ 2 @-@ mile ( 6 @.@ 8 km ) Championship Course on the River Thames in southwest London . The rivalry is a major point of honour between the two universities and followed throughout the United Kingdom and broadcast worldwide . Oxford went into the race as reigning champions , having beaten Cambridge by eight lengths in the previous year 's race . However Cambridge held the overall lead , with 68 victories to Oxford 's 58 .
The first Women 's Boat Race took place in 1927 , but did not become an annual fixture until the 1960s . Up until 2014 , the contest was conducted as part of the Henley Boat Races , but as of the 2015 race , it is held on the River Thames , on the same day as the men 's main and reserve races . The reserve race , contested between Oxford 's Isis boat and Cambridge 's Goldie boat has been held since 1965 . It usually takes place on the Tideway , prior to the main Boat Race .
During the pre @-@ race preparations , the Cambridge crew struck a floating railway sleeper near Chiswick Eyot , damaging their boat which needed repair before the race . Oxford 's crew suffered illness in the days leading up the race , in particular the president Nick Conington who was moved from stroke to bow to reduce the chances of a possible recurrence of glandular fever .
= = Crews = =
The Oxford crew weighed an average of just below 14 st ( 88 @.@ 7 kg ) per rower , and had a 10 pounds ( 4 @.@ 5 kg ) per man advantage over Cambridge . Oxford saw four former Blues return , including the first female cox in Sue Brown . Cambridge 's crew contained a single Blue in boat club president Roger Stephens . Despite retiring from rowing , Boris Rankov , a junior fellow at St Hugh 's was persuaded back into the crew by the Oxford boat club president Nick Conington . Rankov was rowing in his fifth consecutive Boat Race , alongside Steve Foster whom he supervised in classics . Oxford 's crew also contained the Clay twins , Robert and Hugh .
= = Race = =
River conditions were calm : Jim Railton of The Times described the course as " a smooth and flat Queen 's highway from Putney to Mortlake . " Michael Muir @-@ Smith was the umpire for the race , for which Oxford were " heavily favoured " . They won the toss and elected to start from the Surrey station . A good start from the Light Blues saw them a length ahead by Craven Cottage and passing the Mile Post one second ahead of Oxford . From Harrods Furniture Depository , Oxford fought their way back into contention with cox Brown forcing her counterpart Bernstein to steer towards the centre of the river . Both crews shot Hammersmith Bridge a second apart , with Oxford quickly gaining a length 's lead and a clear water advantage . Cambridge were nine seconds down by Chiswick Steps and a further second behind at Barnes Bridge . Oxford passed the finishing post eleven seconds and three @-@ and @-@ a @-@ quarter lengths ahead of Cambridge , in a time of 18 minutes 21 seconds , to record their seventh consecutive victory .
In the reserve race , Isis beat Goldie by one @-@ and @-@ a @-@ quarter lengths and five seconds in a time of 18 minutes 43 seconds to record their third consecutive victory . In the 37th running of the Women 's Boat Race , Cambridge triumphed , their first win in three years .
= = Reaction = =
Rankov , who became the first rower to win five consecutive Boat Races ( C. R. W. Tottenham had won five as a cox in the 1860s ) , admitted , " The beginning was all right . We expected them to be up on us before Hammersmith . But the burn we did there was exhausting . It was really hard just to keep in front for the rest of the way . " Defeated Cambridge cox Bernstein said , " I can 't wait to get back at them next year " , while his stroke Simon Harris stated , " we will have six of this crew left next year . That 's a good base " . The Clays became the first twins to win a Boat Race .
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= Action of 10 November 1808 =
The Action of 10 November 1808 was a minor naval engagement of the Napoleonic Wars , in which a British frigate defeated and captured a French frigate in the Bay of Biscay . The action formed part of the blockade of the French Biscay ports during the war by the British Royal Navy , a strategy designed to prevent ships from entering or leaving French harbours , thus eliminating foreign trade with France and damaging the French economy as well as cutting France off from her overseas colonies . The French ship in the action , Thétis , was destined for the French held West Indian island of Martinique with a cargo of flour and military supplies , including over 100 soldiers to reinforce the island 's garrison .
Thétis had not even cleared the French coast when she was discovered by a patrolling British frigate of the inshore squadron , a unit tasked with watching the entrance to the French Biscay ports , principally Brest , and intercepting any ships seeking to enter or leave the harbours . This frigate , HMS Amethyst chased Thétis and brought her to battle , closing with the French ship but preventing the soldiers aboard Thétis from boarding the British ship and using their superior numbers to overwhelm her with heavy and accurate gunfire . The battle lasted more than six hours and the French suffered over 130 men killed , including the captain and many of the soldiers aboard , before the crew of Amethyst was able to storm and capture Thétis . Within minutes two additional British vessels arrived , attracted by the sound of gunfire , and helped secure the badly damaged Thétis for the journey to Britain .
The battle was a blow for the French defenders of Martinique , who were isolated from France and suffering from shortages of military and food supplies . Although another supply frigate broke through the blockade and arrived in December 1808 , the island was surrounded by British bases and was invaded and captured in January 1809 . Other French colonies were seized over the next two years as the blockade cut off French communications with their overseas territories . Amethyst and her captain Michael Seymour were active in this campaign , capturing a second French frigate , Niémen , at the Action of 6 April 1809 .
= = Background = =
By November 1808 , the Napoleonic Wars had lasted five years . Although the French had conquered large swathes of mainland Europe , they were unable to exert any significant influence at sea , where the British Royal Navy had been dominant since the Battle of Trafalgar in October 1805 . A vital part of Royal Navy strategy was the implementation of a close blockade of the major French seaports by squadrons of frigates and ships of the line , intended to intercept and capture any ships attempting to enter or leave French harbours . The greatest French Atlantic seaport , and consequently the most important target for the Royal Navy , was Brest , situated on the Northern Biscay coast . Watching Brest were a large number of warships , divided into the inshore squadron designed to watch the coast directly and formed principally of frigates and small fast vessels , and the offshore squadron formed from heavy ships of the line and tasked with intercepting French fleets and battle squadrons spotted by the inshore squadron .
The efficiency of the British blockade was such that communication and reinforcement between France and her colonies was dangerous for the ships involved and so was severely limited . This led to shortages and disaffection among the French colonists , especially in the Caribbean , where they were surrounded by hostile British harbours and constantly raided and blockaded by British ships . The island of Martinique was one of the more important French islands in the West Indies , but by late 1808 the island 's economy had been crippled by the British blockade , and food stocks , military supplies and morale were all running low . In the summer a French dispatch vessel was intercepted by British warships , warning of the desperate state of the island 's defences ; similar messages that did reach France safely prompted an urgent response by the French Navy .
The frigate Thétis , stationed to the south of Brest at Lorient , was selected to carry supplies to Martinique and given a full complement of 330 men , 40 cannon and a new captain , Jacques Pinsum . Supplies were loaded , including over 1 @,@ 000 barrels of flour and 106 soldiers to reinforce the garrison at Martinique . Secrecy was tight : to prevent the British discovering Thétis ' mission , even the local shore defences were not informed of the frigate 's departure early on 10 November 1808 .
The French efforts to hide the frigate 's mission and departure were initially successful : the British ships in the area were unaware of Thétis 's intentions before she sailed . They were however prepared for any French movement and were launching regular patrols , in particular two ships under the command of captains Michael Seymour and Frederick Lewis Maitland , HMS Amethyst and HMS Emerald respectively . Both captains were experienced and veteran officers : Seymour had lost an arm at the Glorious First of June 15 years earlier , and they had agreed to hunt together , communicating regularly and with an understanding that all prize money won would be shared equally across both crews . After several weeks sailing in tandem , the frigates separated in early November .
= = Battle = =
At 18 : 42 on 10 November 1808 , the garrison of a French defensive gun battery on the island of Groix saw a frigate moving rapidly westwards . As they had not been informed of any French movements at that time , the battery fired two warning shots at the ship to establish her identity . The frigate , Thétis , replied with her recognition signal and the firing stopped , but the sound had attracted the attention of HMS Amethyst , then approaching Groix from the west . Within a few minutes , Seymour 's lookouts had spotted the French frigate and Amethyst immediately gave chase . Pinsum followed his orders to avoid combat and made all sail south @-@ west , intending to escape into the Atlantic . By 21 : 00 , Amethyst was close enough to fire her bow @-@ chasers , small guns positioned at the front of the ship , at the French frigate and was attacked in turn from the French stern chasers . Certain that his quarry was an enemy , Seymour launched signal rockets in the hope of attracting attention from other ships of the inshore squadron that might intercept the French ship , and he received answering flashes from the north @-@ east as Captain Sir Thomas Hardy joined the chase in HMS Triumph .
By 21 : 15 , Pinsum realised that his heavily laden ship could not outrun Amethyst and reduced his speed , turning sharply in front of the British ship in an attempt to rake her . Seymour was prepared for the manoeuvre and countered it by turning sharply away from Thétis so that the French broadside fell harmlessly into the sea and both frigates performed a complete circle before returning to their previous course . Seymour then swung back towards the French ship , bringing Amethyst alongside and pouring a heavy fire into Thétis , which replied in kind . For 25 minutes , the frigates continued firing on one another from close range as they sailed westwards . At 21 : 40 , Pinsum again attempted to rake Amethyst , trying to cross the British ship 's stern as she pulled ahead . Seymour countered by slowing his ship and the French rigging became tangled in the British , the firing continuing as the crews worked to free their ships from one another . Separating a few minutes later , the frigates continued their close @-@ range duel . Amethyst again pulled ahead at 22 : 05 , Seymour successfully crossing the bow of the French ship from port and raking her before swinging back along the starboard side to resume the close range exchange of broadsides .
French fire was taking its toll on the British ship , and at 22 : 20 , Amethyst 's mizzenmast was shot through and collapsed on the quarterdeck , smashing the wheel and impeding Seymour 's command of his ship . Thétis began to pull ahead and Pinsum attempted to rake Amethyst in her disorganised state , turning sharply to starboard but coming to a sudden halt as her own mizzenmast collapsed . With their ability to manoeuvre severely hindered , Amethyst and Thétis gradually closed on one another , Pinsum ordering the soldiers on his frigate to board the British vessel and capture her , while Seymour prepared for the eventuality by loading his cannon with two roundshot and his carronades with double loads of grapeshot . At 23 : 00 , Pinsum suddenly swung his frigate towards Amethyst , the bows colliding and rebounding and the French stern swinging towards the British . At his signal , the soldiers and sailors crowded onto the deck and railings , ready to leap onto the British ship and engage her crew in hand @-@ to @-@ hand combat . With seconds remaining , Seymour ordered his gunners to fire . The double @-@ shotted broadside , fired at point @-@ blank range , killed or wounded over 100 men , including most of the officers . Only four guns were still serviceable on Thétis , which was set alight in three places due to the proximity of the British muzzle flashes .
= = Aftermath = =
Amethyst continued firing on Thétis for the next 80 minutes , almost without reply , until 12 : 20 , when the British were able to board and seize Thétis unopposed , the two frigates tangled together by their rigging . Seymour 's most immediate problem was to secure his prize . Many of the unwounded prisoners were transferred to Amethyst under guard and at 01 : 05 , the frigates were cut apart by severing the tangled rigging . Ten minutes later , the 74 @-@ gun HMS Triumph appeared out of the darkness and at 01 : 30 a second frigate , HMS Shannon under Captain Philip Broke , arrived , drawn by the gunfire . Together , the three British ships removed the prisoners from Thétis and affected improvised repairs : Thétis had lost her remaining masts shortly after she had been boarded and Amethyst 's were in immediate danger of collapse . British casualties in the engagement were severe , with 19 killed and 51 wounded , but French losses were several times larger , with 135 dead , including Pinsum , and 102 wounded .
In Britain , Seymour 's victory was rewarded : Seymour himself was presented with a commemorative medal , £ 100 ( with £ 625 to share among the wounded ) and the freedoms of Cork and Limerick , although there were suggestions that he should receive a knighthood . In addition , first lieutenant Goddard Blennerhasset was promoted to commander , the junior officers were advanced and Thétis was purchased by the Royal Navy as HMS Brune , the crews of Emerald and Amethyst profiting from the prize money . Four decades later the battle was among the actions recognised by a clasp attached to the Naval General Service Medal , awarded upon application to all British participants still living in 1847 . Amethyst had been severely damaged in the engagement and repairs took 71 days to complete at Plymouth . Five months later , Seymour and Maitland were specially selected to hunt the Niémen , en route to Île de France , in the Bay of Biscay . Again , Emerald was absent when the frigate was brought to action and again Seymour was able to capture his opponent after a fierce encounter in the Action of 6 April 1809 . Although Seymour praised the bravery of Thétis ' surviving French officer , Lieutenant Joseph Dedé , Dedé later swore in court that Thétis had not surrendered until after Triumph and Shannon arrived , a statement that contradicts not only British testimony , but also Dedé 's own insistence on the night of the battle that he had not seen any other ships during the action . Historian William James suggests that this was a deliberate attempt to appeal to the French naval authorities to avoid responsibility for the defeat .
The failure of the supplies and reinforcements carried on Thétis to reach the Caribbean may have had an effect on the outcome of the subsequent invasion of Martinique in January 1809 . Except for one reinforcement frigate , Amphitrite , none of the subsequent French efforts to transport supplies or soldiers to Martinique were successful , and a large British expeditionary force was able to overwhelm the island 's poorly @-@ supplied defenders in a brief campaign . The tightening blockade also affected other French colonies , preventing the despatch of food and military supplies and contributing to the captures of both Île de France and Guadeloupe in 1810 .
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= 2000 Sri Lanka cyclone =
The 2000 Sri Lanka cyclone ( IMD designation : BOB 06 JTWC designation : 04B ) was the strongest tropical cyclone to strike Sri Lanka since 1978 . The fourth tropical storm and the second severe cyclonic storm of the 2000 North Indian Ocean cyclone season , it developed from an area of disturbed weather on December 25 , 2000 . It moved westward , and quickly strengthened under favorable conditions to reach top wind speeds of 75 mph ( 120 km / h ) . The cyclone hit eastern Sri Lanka at peak strength , then weakened slightly while crossing the island before hitting and dissipating over southern India on December 28 .
The storm was the first cyclone over Sri Lanka with winds of at least hurricane strength since a 110 mph ( 175 km / h ) cyclone hit in the 1978 season , as well as the first tropical storm to hit the island since 1992 . The storm was also the first December tropical cyclone of hurricane intensity in the Bay of Bengal since 1996 . It produced heavy rainfall and strong winds , damaging or destroying tens of thousands of houses and leaving up to 500 @,@ 000 homeless . At least nine people died as a result of the cyclone .
= = Meteorological history = =
An area of atmospheric convection developed and persisted on December 21 in the central Bay of Bengal forming within an active near @-@ equatorial trough . Located within an area of weak vertical wind shear , the system steadily organized , and after initially remaining nearly stationary it began to move slowly westward . Deep convection continued to develop , and on December 23 a mid @-@ level circulation began to form . Later that day , the Joint Typhoon Warning Center ( JTWC ) issued a Tropical Cyclone Formation Alert . By the night of the December 23 , a low @-@ level circulation developed in the system , located to the south of the deep convection . The disturbance continued to organize , with the India Meteorological Department ( IMD ) classifying it as a deep depression early on December 24 . Later that day , the organization of the system degraded slightly , though it quickly reorganized . On December 25 , the Joint Typhoon Warning Center initiated advisories on Tropical Cyclone 04B while it was located about 155 miles ( 250 km ) east of Sri Lanka . On the center 's first advisory , the tropical storm was drifting west @-@ northwest at 3 mph ( 5 km / h ) with maximum sustained winds of 45 mph ( 70 km / h ) . Shortly thereafter , the IMD upgraded the deep depression to a cyclonic storm as a central dense overcast developed over the center .
A subtropical ridge to the north of the cyclone resulted in it continuing generally westward . Deep convection continued to develop over the center of circulation , and the storm steadily strengthened as outflow improved throughout the circulation . By late on December 25 , a rainband wrapped tightly into the center , and it intensified into a severe cyclonic storm as it approached the coast of Sri Lanka . The next day the cyclone developed an eye as it turned west @-@ southwestward . On December 26 , the cyclone made landfall on near Trincomalee , Sri Lanka . The JTWC assessed the cyclone as attaining peak winds of 75 mph ( 120 km / h ) . However , the IMD estimated the cyclone reached a maximum intensity of 105 mph ( 165 km / h ) , making it a very severe cyclonic storm . It weakened slightly over land and emerged into the Gulf of Mannar early on December 27 as a tropical storm . Initially , forecasters predicted it to slowly re @-@ intensify ; instead it weakened as its convection degraded in organization and intensity . After turning west @-@ northwestward , the storm struck southern India near Kanyakumari on December 28 with winds of 45 mph ( 70 km / h ) , with minimal convection due to land interaction and increased wind shear . It rapidly weakened to tropical depression status over land , and its remnants degenerated into a low pressure area after emerging into the eastern Arabian Sea early on December 29 .
= = Impact = =
Government officials in Sri Lanka issued a last @-@ minute evacuation order for potentially affected areas , though few received the evacuation order . The cyclone hit the eastern and western coastlines with powerful waves , wrecking 25 fishing boats in eastern coastal towns and washing away 109 boats near Puttalam . Eight people were left missing and feared dead . The cyclone was accompanied with a storm surge as made landfall that flooded areas up to 330 feet ( 100 m ) inland . While crossing the country , the cyclone dropped between 4 and 8 inches ( 100 to 200 mm ) of precipitation , compounding the effects of severe monsoonal flooding from the previous month . Wind gusts from the cyclone reached 110 mph ( 175 km / h ) near where it made landfall .
The area most affected by the cyclone was in and around Trincomalee : 57 people checked into the local hospital as a result of falling trees or debris , with one person killed due to a falling tree . An entire fishing village was completely destroyed , and heavy rainfall flooded rivers , lakes , and canals , covering roads and crops with floodwaters . The flooding destroyed about 77 square miles ( 200 km ² ) of rice fields , and an additional 19 square miles ( 50 km ² ) of other crops . Strong winds damaged or destroyed around 83 @,@ 000 houses across the country , including 2 @,@ 000 houses destroyed in Kinnia and 6 @,@ 600 in Trincomalee . The passage of the cyclone left up to 500 @,@ 000 temporarily homeless on the island , most of whom fled to churches , schools , temples , and shopping centers . The winds blew off the roofs of several police stations and military camps , and flooded several refugee camps . The winds damaged electrical systems and disrupted about 3 @,@ 000 telephone systems , and many roads were left impassable . Large areas remained without power for several days . No damage reports exist for regions under control of the Liberation Tigers of Tamil Eelam , despite the fact the storm made landfall there . Throughout the country , at least nine people died as a result of the cyclone , and over 48 @,@ 000 families were affected .
Prior to the arrival of the storm in India , government officials there issued a severe storm warning for Thoothukudi District , and also warned fishermen not to go out to sea . Thousands were evacuated to emergency shelters prior to the storm 's arrival . The cyclone produced rough surf along the southern Indian coast , and heavy rainfall in and around Thoothukudi , causing flooding in a few low @-@ lying areas . The rainfall caused some damage to banana crops , uprooted several trees , and left some roads impassable , but was largely beneficial in alleviating drought conditions . Across southern India , the cyclone damaged 749 houses and destroyed 81 more , but no deaths were reported in the country .
= = Aftermath = =
Sri Lanka governmental aid was slow at first , with the media criticizing the government for its initial response . A street protest occurred in Trincomalee due to lack of aid . Prime Minister Ratnasiri Wickremanayake organized a meeting of government officials to propose an increase in relief funds . A family of five or more received $ 5 @.@ 50 a week ( 2000 USD , ( $ 7 @.@ 56 2016 USD ) , 500 in 2000 LKR ) for dry rations , while the families of those who died received $ 183 ( 2000 USD , $ 251 @.@ 46 2016 USD , 15 thousand 2000 LKR ) in compensation . The government also gave $ 122 ( 2000 USD , ( $ 167 @.@ 64 2016 USD , 10 thousand 2000 LKR ) ) to those whose houses were damaged or destroyed , and delivered rice rations to those stranded , while state @-@ organized radio broadcasts appealed for donations .
Within two days of the cyclone striking , the Sri Lankan Red Cross began an operation with 4 @,@ 000 volunteers to help those most badly affected . The International Federation of Red Cross and Red Crescent Societies issued a preliminary appeal for $ 323 @,@ 000 2000 USD ( $ 519 thousand 2016 USD , $ 525 thousand in 2000 CHF ) to assist about 10 @,@ 000 people by making blankets , shelter , food , and kitchen utensils available . To kick @-@ start the operation , the Federation released about $ 61 @,@ 000 ( 2000 USD ( $ 83 @.@ 8 thousand 2016 USD , $ 100 thousand in 2000 CHF ) ) within a few hours of the cyclone making landfall . After about a month , the Red Cross distributed 10 roofing sheets each to 1 @,@ 720 families , and also sent a set of cooking utensils , bed sheets , and sleeping mats to 3 @,@ 000 families . Relief ended on November 7 , 2001 , roughly 40 weeks after the cyclone struck .
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= Ste Hay =
Steven ' Ste ' McQueen ( also Hay ) is a fictional character from the British Channel 4 soap opera Hollyoaks , played by Kieron Richardson . He debuted on @-@ screen during the episode airing on 17 February 2006 . Ste was created by David Hanson and was originally intended to be a short @-@ term character for seven episodes . The following series producer Bryan Kirkwood decided to bring the character back on a permanent basis . As of 2010 , Richardson has revealed that he is committed to staying in the serial .
Ste has been at the centre of several storylines including joyriding , domestic abuse , a baby kidnapping plot , drug dealing , HIV and a gay relationship . He was initially portrayed as a " bad boy " type character . Although he changed producer Lucy Allan wanted him to revert . The issue of domestic violence has been portrayed through the character on two occasions : the first was his violence towards girlfriend Amy Barnes ( Ashley Slanina @-@ Davies ) , and the second when he suffered abuse from his boyfriend Brendan Brady ( Emmett J. Scanlan ) . Richardson and co @-@ star Slanina @-@ Davies both fronted an anti @-@ domestic abuse campaign called " Expect Respect " for Women 's Aid . He has subsequent relationships with Rae Wilson ( Alice Barlow ) and Noah Baxter ( Law Thompson ) which become subject to love " triangle " storylines involving Brendan . Ste 's gay storyline prompted Richardson to come out as gay . Its aim was to raise awareness of domestic abuse in a homosexual relationship . Whilst Ste and his storylines have received a mixed reaction from critics , Richardson has been nominated for various awards for his portrayal .
= = Character creation and casting = =
The character of Ste was originally a background character , who was cast by David Hanson for only seven episodes . Upon completion of his initial short stint , new producer Bryan Kirkwood decided to bring the character back for another handful of episodes in October 2006 in which Ste fled the scene of a car accident involving Amy Barnes ( Ashley Slanina @-@ Davies ) . Following positive viewer feedback after this second stint , Kirkwood asked Richardson to reprise the role on a permanent basis beginning 26 September 2007 .
In 2010 , speculation arose that Richardson would leave the show , due to his participation in ITV ice skating competition Dancing on Ice . Richardson said " I 'm not leaving , I 'm staying put " . He added his participation in the reality television series was for " fun " , and stating : " I still want to stay at Hollyoaks and progress in my career there " because he did not think he was a good enough actor to pursue other projects . However , he later revealed he was not sure executive producer Paul Marquess would renew his contract . In November 2010 , Richardson commented on his future with the show , branding it a new era and thankful to be part of it . Richardson stated : " Marquess loved everything I 've been doing and wanted to keep me on . I 'm hoping to stick with the show no matter what . "
= = Development = =
= = = Characterisation = = =
When Ste was introduced on Hollyoaks , he was introduced as a violent and rebellious teenager who was often in trouble . He bullied several of his peers , including Josh Ashworth ( Sonny Flood ) , Jamie " Fletch " Fletcher ( Sam Darbyshire ) and Nicole Owen ( Ciara Janson ) . His troublesome personality continued as he became a drug dealer , stole money and began hitting Amy . During 2009 , Ste 's persona improved when he became a single father to Lucas Hay ( Jude ) and Amy 's daughter to a previous relationship , Leah ( Jessica Croft @-@ Lane ) after she developed post @-@ natal depression . Ste began working in restaurant Il Gnosh to earn money for his children , showing that the character had matured .
In 2010 , Richardson revealed that executive producer Lucy Allan was going to return Ste to his " bad " ways . Richardson said that Ste had portrayed the whole " bad thing " and mellowed . He felt Ste was emulating fellow character Tony Hutchinson ( Nick Pickard ) , because Ste was " running a restaurant , camping it up like him and talking like him " . Allan wanted to change that and see him regain some old habits . These changes did not happen because Allan quit her position soon after .
Richardson later told Inside Soap that he hated Ste when he first joined the show , adding : " When he came into the show Ste was a bit of a skater boy , and I hated that . " Richardson would recite his lines in " a sinister way and do under @-@ the @-@ eyebrows stuff " , which Richardson felt inspired the writers to develop Ste 's character more deeply .
= = = Domestic violence and fatherhood = = =
Returning later in 2007 , Ste and Amy eventually got back together . The pair moved into their own flat , to the dismay of Amy 's father Mike Barnes ( Tony Hirst ) . Despite this , Ste became increasingly violent and started to hit Amy , on one occasion even cutting off her ponytail . Slanina @-@ Davis raised money from hair cut during the scene in aid the cancer charity CLIC Sargant . At this time , Amy became pregnant , but was unsure whether to keep the baby . Speaking about 2008 as a whole for Ste and Amy , producer Bryan Kirkwood said he was proud of the way Richardson had portrayed Ste in a sympathetic manner so viewers could understand - but not condone his behaviour . He thought he and Slanina @-@ Davies delivered brilliant performances portraying the " reality of so many 16 @-@ 17 @-@ year @-@ olds " , struggling to make a life for themselves . He felt some of their scenes were " downright shocking " . Eventually , Amy decides to accept the help of her friends and family and leaves Ste for abusing her .
Whilst the storyline aired , Richardson and Slanina @-@ Davies fronted a charity campaign called " Expect Respect " in order to combat domestic violence . At the time Richardson released a statement opining domestic violence affects many young people in any form of life . He stated he could imagine " how frightening it would be to have him as a boyfriend " and condemned his " violence and bullying " because it is always unacceptable . "
During April 2009 , Amy gave birth to Lucas , and subsequently left due to post @-@ natal depression . Ste was left looking after both Lucas , and Amy 's daughter Leah . A couple , Abi Raven ( Elaine Glover ) and Daniel Raven ( Chris Hargreaves ) befriended Ste and tried to convince him that he was a good father , and that he did not need Amy in their lives . However , Abi and Daniel planned to kidnap Lucas , at first in order to keep him and then later on to give him to another family . Richardson expressed to Digital Spy his pleasure with this storyline , saying , " It 's getting quite dark . " He was also shocked with its entertaining and unexpected ending . " When the storyline came to its climax , Abi and Daniel tried to take Lucas , but they were stopped .
Ste told Amy 's father Mike to look after Lucas and Leah in the aftermath of the baby plot because he didn 't think he was a good father . Richardson reported that he enjoyed working with Jude and Jessica Croft @-@ Lane , the young actors who played Lucas and Leah . He reported that Jude was camera shy and liked to play with camera equipment during filming and that he told Croft @-@ Lane that his name was actually Ste . Richardson concluded the storyline was different and he felt it gave him a chance to showcase his acting abilities .
= = = Homosexual domestic violence = = =
During an interview on This Morning , Kieron Richardson revealed he was gay , and that Ste would explore his sexuality and come out as gay after embarking on a dangerous affair with his boss Brendan Brady ( Emmett J. Scanlan ) . Ste saw a nicer side to Brendan and they formed an " unusual friendship , " which eventually lead to having a wild lads night out and a drunken kiss . Brendan rejected Ste , giving into passion later , they kiss again . But the storyline took a dark twist when Ste was beaten badly .
During an interview , series producer Paul Marquess , he described it as a long running storyline , adding : " It is dark to begin with , the lessons that Ste learns are ultimately positive and life affirming . " He also felt it was about not " being afraid of who you are " and Ste was " refreshingly accepting " of his feelings towards a man . Richardson revealed he was shocked to discover the details of the plot . He felt it was interesting to see how Ste coped with the being the victim of domestic violence .
Ste comes out to ex @-@ girlfriend Amy first . During their conversation Ste reveales Amy was the only girl he really hade feelings for and that his confusion over his sexuality was not the reason for him abusing her during their relation ship . Ste is very relieved by Amy 's good reaction . Amy is the one who discovers that Brendan is hitting Ste and she tells Ste to break it off , reminding him of how it was when he was hitting her .
Richard admitted his initial fears of the portrayal because he felt it was a taboo subject . He had difficulties portraying it initially , this was because he was not familiar with the subject . " The storyline had not been tackled in British soap opera before and Richardson felt Ste was " making television history " . He then explained how the storyline differs from other soap operas because " Ste doesn 't question his sexuality and it 's not about a struggle — it 's about domestic abuse in a gay relationship . " Richardson also stated because of the plots dark nature , he hoped viewers would be " drawn into it " . He branded the storyline as unpredictable because viewers never know if Brendan was going kiss or hit Ste .
A spokesperson for Hollyoaks confirmed that Ste didn 't realise " how much power and control Brendan was wielding over him " . This was because Ste was still coming to terms with his sexuality . Ste felt a connection he never felt before because he hadn 't had another male partner . Brendan manipulated Ste into believing he was to blame for Brendan 's anger . The representative said this was why he ended up apologising . The storyline also aimed to shock viewers with the " dark depths " Brendan would go to in order to control Ste . Marquess later stated that Brendan 's past would be explained and that everyone should remember it was Ste who used to hit Amy first , adding : " So it 's a dark and interwoven story made all the more complicated by the introduction of a new love interest for Ste " .
= = = Relationship with Noah Baxter = = =
In early 2011 Marquess revealed that Ste would have a new boyfriend . This would help create another " classic triangle " storyline . It was then revealed that new gay character Noah Baxter ( Law Thompson ) would befriend Ste . Noah 's friend Cindy Cunningham ( Stephanie Waring ) decides to help the pair start a relationship . Waring said Cindy does not care about Ste and Noah and she sees them as " the only gays in the village " . Waring concluded that she thrives off the attention and gossip their romance generates for her . However Richardson said that despite his new relationship he is still " madly " in love with Brendan . Ultimately he stated " He may care for Noah , but he will always run back to Brendan " .
= = Storylines = =
= = = Backstory = = =
Ste was originally portrayed as being a smart loner who kept to himself , with a cool older brother who taught him how to drive cars . It was later shown that his loneliness was just an act to get girls to sleep with him and that he was not really intelligent . In later episodes , his " brother " was never mentioned , possibly insinuating that Ste had lied about him . Ste was shown to have come from a broken home : raised by his alcoholic mother Pauline Hay ( Julie Hogarth ) and his abusive stepfather Terry Hay ( Conor Ryan ) , with no contact with his biological father . Ste was regularly beaten by Terry , who was defended by Pauline . This led to Ste 's violent nature and resentment of his mother .
= = = 2006 — = = =
Ste first appears as a friend of Wayne Tunnicliffe ( Joe Marsden ) . Ste eventually begins a relationship with Amy and pressures her to have sex with him . Ste begins a feud with Josh and his cousin Fletch after they both defend Amy , who does not want to have sex . Ste and Wayne push Josh and Fletch into rebelling , which they go along with in order to impress them . Amy becomes pregnant by a stranger , but does not tell Ste . Afterward , Ste confides in Amy about the abuse he had to deal with from his stepfather . Ste takes Fletch , Amy , Josh and Michaela McQueen ( Hollie @-@ Jay Bowes ) joyriding and causes a car accident , after which he flees . Following a confession to the police from Fletch , Ste is sent to a young offender 's institute .
Months later , Ste returns and seeks Amy 's help . After convincing her he has changed , Amy gives Ste a second chance . Amy 's father Mike attacks Ste , but is told by Amy that Ste is her daughter Leah 's father . Ste and Amy become a couple again and move into a flat of their own . Mike contacts Ste 's stepfather Terry , who arrives and beats up Ste . Amy then throws Mike out . To help with their money worries , Ste steals Warren Fox 's ( Jamie Lomas ) credit card . With this , he buys expensive belongings for the flat . When Warren finds out , he takes the belongings and threatens Ste , who later breaks into Warren 's business , Evissa and sets a fire , which almost kills Warren 's fiancée Louise Summers ( Roxanne McKee ) . After this , Warren beats up Ste . Ste then turns to dealing drugs for money with his friend Nige Foster ( Sam Townend ) and influences Fletch to begin smoking marijuana . Amy lets Ste 's mother Pauline see Leah , causing an angry Ste to end up hitting Amy . However , they reconcile . After Ste fails to find a job , Ste steals Carmel McQueen 's ( Gemma Merna ) handbag , but is stopped . To defend himself , Ste lies that Leah has been diagnosed with leukaemia . Amy is angry , but also lies after they receive money . Ste and Amy 's relationship turns violent , with his lashing out on several occasions . The lie about Leah 's health is revealed and Amy has no other option but to stay with Ste . Amy discovers she is pregnant , so Ste agrees that he will change . Despite his promise , Ste steals a karaoke machine , which causes Amy to walk out and tell Mike of her abuse , after which he beats Ste up . A drunken Ste climbs onto scaffolding and threatens to commit suicide . Kieron Hobbs ( Jake Hendriks ) tries to talk him down as Amy , Sarah Barnes ( Loui Batley ) and Mike leave , believing Ste is attention @-@ seeking . As they turn away , Ste falls and breaks his leg . After this , Ste and Justin Burton ( Chris Fountain ) become friends and move in together . For the sake of his unborn child , Ste gets a job in Il Gnosh restaurant and begins taking anger management classes .
Ste becomes friends with Natty , Daniel and Abi and begins a short @-@ lived relationship with Theresa McQueen ( Jorgie Porter ) , which he ends to focus on getting Amy back . Amy gives birth to her and Ste 's son Lucas Hay , helped by Ste , Daniel and Abi . Amy , however , suffers from post @-@ natal depression , and leaves to live with her grandmother , leaving Lucas and Leah with Mike , who later leaves them in Ste 's care . Abi and Daniel begin to help Ste with looking after Lucas , with plans of taking Lucas to replace their own son who died . Abi starts drugging Ste as Daniel turns him against Natty , who grows suspicious of Daniel and Abi 's interests . Mike finds Ste asleep whilst looking after Lucas , so takes him . However , Ste takes Lucas back and stops Mike from seeing him . Ste almost shakes Lucas , so Daniel convinces him to give his son up . The truth is revealed , Daniel is arrested and later released , he and Abi leave the village . Amy returns and slowly begins to bond with her children again . They move into their old flat together .
When Tony fires him , Ste starts working at Chez Chez nightclub as a barman . Ste grows suspicious of Brendan Brady after he uses Carmel to smuggle drugs . Ste 's former co @-@ worker and love interest Rae Wilson ( Alice Barlow ) returns following a stay with her ill grandmother . Brendan is jealous of their relationship , so gets Veronica ( Lynsey McLaren ) to kiss Ste , which Rae witnesses . They later make up after Ste convinces Rae that the kiss meant nothing . Following a drunken night , Ste kisses Brendan , who then throws him out . The next day , Brendan corners Ste and kisses him again . In the club a further day later , Ste follows Brendan to a cellar and moves to kiss him . However , Brendan punches Ste , who falls to the ground . Brendan then makes Ste tell Cheryl Brady ( Bronagh Waugh ) he was mugged . Ste avoids Brendan , still shaken by his actions . They resume their relationship and Ste tells Amy of his relationship . This prompts Brendan to attack Ste again . Amy realises that Ste is being abused . To hide their relationship , Brendan tells Ste to go out on a date with Rae . When Rae and Ste finally sleep together , Amy is hospitalised after being involved in a fire . Ste suspects Brendan started the fire . However , he denies it . Ste discovers Brendan 's former lover Macca ( Drew Dillon ) is in hospital after being beaten up by Brendan . Macca and Ste end up kissing . Ste later confides in Dominic Reilly ( John Pickard ) about Brendan and the fire , however Dom is later charged .
Ste starts a relationship with Rae . Ste is angered when he sees Brendan has assaulted Trev Costello ( Scott Neal ) , who he thinks is gay , leading him to believe that Brendan 's denial of his sexuality is leading him to gay @-@ bash , ending their relationship . Ste later decides to give Brendan a second chance . Brendan reluctantly agrees to a date with Ste and the pair go to a gay bar , but Brendan bails . Rae reveals to Ste that she is pregnant . Amy convinces Brendan to end his affair with Ste . Whilst sharing a goodbye kiss , Brendan and Ste are caught by Mitzeee Minniver ( Rachel Shenton ) . Ste becomes jealous when Brendan and Mitzeee agree to pretend to be a couple . Rae catches them kissing , she suffers a miscarriage . Ste ends his affair with Brendan when he attacks him again . Ste gets revenge on Brendan by hitting him with a cricket bat . Brendan says they are even , he reveals the truth to Cheryl . Cindy helps Ste and Noah start a relationship and Noah convinces him to come out everyone . When Brendan comes back he kisses Ste and Noah sees . They fight and Ste sleeps with Brendan but leaves beaten up . Ste and Noah reconcile . Brendan later seduces Noah in an attempt to split the pair up . Ste forgives Noah realising Brendan 's intentions . Noah secures a job in Newcastle upon Tyne and Ste agrees to move away with him . Brendan is angered by this and sets Noah up once again . Ste catches Noah sharing a kiss with Sean ( Matt Kennedy ) , Ste ends their relationship which forces Noah to leave alone . Brendan confesses love for Ste and they sleep together and Brendan 's wife Eileen Brady ( Rachel Doherty ) walks in on them . Eileen tells Brendan he cannot see his son Declan Brady ( Jay Duffy ) unless he does not see Ste . Brendan tells Ste they have to pretend until Declan returns to Ireland.Ste and Brendan break it off because of this , Ste leaving to go on vacation with his kids . When he returns he sees Declan and happens to mention his sexuality . This causes Brendan to panic and give Ste a black eye . Ste goes to the police but Brendan convinces him to not tell for the sake of Declan .
Brendan fires Ste to get him out of his life , and Ste starts a business with Doug . Ste meets Adam on online dating . Ste has dates with Adam which Doug , who has feelings for Ste , is jealous about . When Ste went on his first date with Adam , Doug 's feelings were worked out by Adam . On one date , in the SU Bar , when Ste and Adam are about to kiss Doug makes a pass at Texas , which makes a scene and interrups Ste and Adam . When Ste and Adam kiss at the end of the date Doug expresses jealousy , which Ste mistakely believes is due to Ste being taken away from Doug as a mate by Adam . During an argument Ste finds out that Doug may be in love with him . After trying to forget about the incident , things get more awkward between the two . Adam dumps Ste , claiming that Ste has feelings for someone else . After Doug finds out , they have yet another argument which results in them kissing . Ste insists Doug must figure out who he is and come out before they can have a relationship . Doug then leaves Ste at his own at the Deli while Doug tries to " figure out who he is . " During this time , Ste is approached many times by ex - boyfriend Brendan . After a few weeks , Doug comes out to his friends and then rushes to the Del . He tells Ste exactly how he feels and kisses Ste . He then kisses Ste again , and he kisses back - not knowing Brendan has seen the entire exchange .
After being pressured , Doug tells Ste that the loan he got to buy the deli was actually from Brendan.Ste does not take the news well and tells him it 's over . Brendan proposes to be a silent partner of the deli . Ste signs a contract in agreement , but is still not satisfied as Brendan is still a part of it . Ste comes up with a plan . Ste kisses Brendan and asks for an equal relationship , and gets the Deli totally signed over to him . After , Ste leaves a note for Brendan telling him he has been fooled , and he wants Doug and the deli , not him.Ste finds Doug and kisses him .
Since he conned Brendan into signing the deli over to him , he has experienced many ups and downs in his relationship with Doug . Doug 's insecurities over Brendan and Ste growing closer caused Doug to propose to Ste . Ste accepted , and went to the hospital after the explosion at the Brady 's holiday home , to break the news to Brendan . When he gets out of the hospital Ste helps him out which upsets Doug . But the engaged couple book a place for their wedding . Ste is unsure if his kids will understand that he is marrying a man but they are excited as well . Ste agrees to take the kids for 6 months and they will get to be at the oncoming wedding . Ste discovers Doug has been trying to find evidence on Brendan 's past crimes so he will be imprisoned and will leave stay alone . Ste decides not to marry Doug but later changes his mind and goes through with the wedding . Ste disocvers a recording of Brendan admitting to the murder of Danny Houston ( Darren Day ) to protect Ste . Ste declares the wedding is over . Ste goes outside to find Leah in the road . Maddie Morrison ( Scarlett Bowman ) swerves to avoid Leah but hits Ste . She then crashes in to the wedding venue .
Ste begins a relationship with Harry Thompson , but his father , Tony , does not approve , but later accepts it .
= = Reception = =
Richardson has been nominated for several awards for his portrayal of Ste . During the 2009 British Soap Awards , he was nominated for " Villain of the Year " . He was nominated for the same award in 2008 and at the 2011 awards he was nominated for " Best Actor " . Richardson was a nominee for the " Best Actor " award at the Inside Soap Awards during 2010 , and was nominated for ' Best Serial Drama Performance ' in the 2011 National Television Awards . At the 2011 All About Soap Bubble Awards Ste , Brendan and Rae won the award for " Best Love Triangle " . At the 2011 Inside Soap Awards he was nominated for " Best Actor " and " Best Dramatic Performance " . He was again nominated in the category of " Serial Drama Performance " at the 2012 National Television Awards . At the 2012 Inside Soap Awards Richardson was nominated for " Best Actor " .
Holy Soap opined Ste 's most memorable moment stating : " Sadly , it 's beating up girlfriend Amy . " The fatherhood and baby snatch storyline received mixed reviews from viewers . Digital Spy posted a poll asking readers whether they thought the plot was anti @-@ climactic . 76 @.@ 6 % of voters thought it was truly anti @-@ climactic , whilst the rest thought otherwise .
After Richardson came out on This Morning , Dennis Ayers , writing for gay men 's news website AfterElton.com , criticised the revelation , believing it to be for promotional purposes only . Whilst acknowledging Ste as being a " violent bully , a domestic abuser , and a single father " , Ayers could see nothing in Ste 's " dark past hinted that he might be gay . " In spite of his criticism , he praised Richardson for coming out as gay . Anthony D. Langford , also writing for AfterElton , who avidly followed the plot , felt shocked when he witnessed Brendan attacking Ste . He moped there was worse to come and found it compelling viewing . He also did not perceive it as a romantic story stating : " Ste and Brendan 's scenes do have an element of sexual allure since the actors have chemistry , but there 's too much darkness and manipulation on the edges of every scene to make real romance even possible " . He also gave credit to the show for its slow build up over a few months . After Rae became pregnant All About Soap said : " Crikey , at this rate Mr Hay will soon be giving Walford 's Jack Branning a run for his money for the Most fertile Man in Soapland award ! "
When Theresa " had her eye on Ste " for a potential boyfriend , Jaci Stephen writing for the Daily Mail quipped " Given his history of violence towards women , that might be realised more literally than she would like . " When he kissed Brendan , Stephen said Ste had joined the ranks of " very confused young men " that have featured in Hollyoaks . She added he had " banged about wanting to be a good boyfriend and dad for aeons " and being the victim of domestic violence was ironic for him . She later said the serial was brave for tackling gay domestic violence . She opined that Richardson gave an " incredible performance " and felt she was not alone in perceiving the storyline to be " deeply disturbing " and " deeply moving " . She later expressed her view that " Ste hasn ’ t experienced much normality in his young life " . She concluded that Ste never seemed to have a trouble free day . The Liverpool Daily Post said " You know you 're not flavour of the month when even Ste Hay looks down his nose at you . "
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= USS Iowa ( BB @-@ 61 ) =
USS Iowa ( BB @-@ 61 ) is the lead ship of her class of battleship and the fourth in the United States Navy to be named in honor of the state of Iowa . Owing to the cancellation of the Montana @-@ class battleships , Iowa is the last lead ship of any class of United States battleships and was the only ship of her class to have served in the Atlantic Ocean during World War II .
During World War II , she carried President Franklin D. Roosevelt across the Atlantic to Mers El Kébir , Algeria , en route to a crucial 1943 meeting in Tehran with Prime Minister Winston Churchill of Britain and Josef Stalin , leader of the Soviet Union . She has a bathtub — an amenity installed for Roosevelt , along with an elevator to shuttle him between decks . When transferred to the Pacific Fleet in 1944 , Iowa shelled beachheads at Kwajalein and Eniwetok in advance of Allied amphibious landings and screened aircraft carriers operating in the Marshall Islands . She also served as the Third Fleet flagship , flying Adm. William F. Halsey 's flag at the Japanese surrender in Tokyo Bay . During the Korean War , Iowa was involved in raids on the North Korean coast , after which she was decommissioned into the United States Navy reserve fleets , better known as the " mothball fleet . " She was reactivated in 1984 as part of the 600 @-@ ship Navy plan and operated in both the Atlantic and Pacific Fleets to counter the recently expanded Soviet Navy . In April 1989 , an explosion of undetermined origin wrecked her No. 2 gun turret , killing 47 sailors .
The Iowa was decommissioned for the last time in the year 1990 , and was initially stricken from the Naval Vessel Register in 1995 . She was reinstated from 1999 to 2006 to comply with federal laws that required retention and maintenance of two Iowa @-@ class battleships . In 2011 USS Iowa was donated to the Los Angeles – based non @-@ profit Pacific Battleship Center and was permanently moved to Berth 87 at the Port of Los Angeles in 2012 , where she was opened to the public as the USS Iowa Museum .
= = Construction = =
USS Iowa was the lead ship of her class of " fast battleship " designs planned in 1938 by the Preliminary Design Branch at the Bureau of Construction and Repair . She was launched on 27 August 1942 which First Lady Eleanor Roosevelt attended and was sponsored by native Iowan Ilo Wallace ( wife of Vice President Henry Wallace ) , and commissioned on 22 February 1943 with Captain John L. McCrea in command . She was the first ship of her class of battleship to be commissioned .
USS Iowa 's main battery consisted of nine 16 in ( 406 mm ) / 50 caliber Mark 7 guns , which could fire 2 @,@ 700 lb ( 1 @,@ 200 kg ) armor @-@ piercing shells 20 nmi ( 23 mi ; 37 km ) . Her secondary battery consisted of twenty 5 in ( 130 mm ) / 38 cal guns in twin mounts , which could fire at targets up to 12 nmi ( 14 mi ; 22 km ) away . With the advent of air power and the need to gain and maintain air superiority came a need to protect the growing fleet of Allied aircraft carriers ; to this end , Iowa was fitted with an array of Oerlikon 20 mm and Bofors 40 mm anti @-@ aircraft guns to defend Allied carriers from enemy airstrikes .
= = World War II ( 1943 – 45 ) = =
= = = Shakedown and service with the Atlantic Fleet = = =
On 24 February 1943 , Iowa put to sea for a shakedown in the Chesapeake Bay and along the Atlantic coast . She got underway on 27 August for Argentia , Newfoundland , to counter the threat of the German battleship Tirpitz which was reportedly operating in Norwegian waters , before returning to the United States on 25 October for two weeks of maintenance at the Norfolk Navy Yard .
After refueling and gathering her escorts , Iowa carried President Roosevelt , Secretary of State Cordell Hull , Chief of Staff Admiral William D. Leahy , Chief of Staff of the Army General George C. Marshall , Chief of Naval Operations Ernest King , Commanding General of the U.S. Army Air Forces Henry " Hap " Arnold , Harry Hopkins , and other World War II military brass to Mers El Kébir , Algeria , on the first leg of the journey to the Tehran Conference . Among the vessels escorting Iowa on this trip was the destroyer William D. Porter which was involved in several mishaps , the most serious of which involved a torpedo drill which went awry when a torpedo from William D. Porter discharged from its tube and headed toward Iowa . On being warned , Iowa turned hard to avoid being hit by the torpedo and the torpedo detonated in the ship 's wake . Iowa was unhurt and trained her main guns on William D. Porter , concerned that the smaller ship may have been involved in some sort of assassination plot .
Iowa completed her presidential escort mission on 16 December by returning the President to the United States . Roosevelt addressed the crew of Iowa prior to leaving by stating , " ... from all I have seen and all I have heard , the Iowa is a ' happy ship , ' and having served with the Navy for many years , I know — and you know — what that means . " He also touched on the progress made at the conference before concluding his address with " ... good luck , and remember that I am with you in spirit , each and every one of you . "
= = = Service with Battleship Division 7 , Admiral Lee = = =
As flagship of Battleship Division 7 ( BatDiv 7 ) , Iowa departed the United States on 2 January 1944 for the Pacific Ocean , transiting the Panama Canal on 7 January in advance of her combat debut in the campaign for the Marshall Islands . From 29 January to 3 February , she supported carrier air strikes made by Rear Admiral Frederick C. Sherman 's Task Group 38 @.@ 3 ( TG 38 @.@ 3 ) against Kwajalein and Eniwetok atolls . Her next assignment was to support air strikes against the major Japanese naval and logistics base at Truk , Caroline Islands . Iowa , in company with other ships , was detached from the support group on 16 February 1944 to conduct an anti @-@ shipping sweep around Truk , with the objective of destroying enemy naval vessels escaping to the north . On 21 February , she was underway with the Fast Carrier Task Force ( TF 58 or TF 38 , depending on whether it was part of the 5th Fleet or 3rd Fleet ) while it conducted the first strikes against Saipan , Tinian , Rota , and Guam in the Mariana Islands . During this action , Iowa , along with her sister New Jersey , sank the Japanese light cruiser Katori , the cruiser having escaped Truk the day before following Operation Hailstone , the US air attack on Truk .
On 18 March 1944 , Iowa , flying the flag of Vice Admiral Willis A. Lee ( Commander Battleships , Pacific ) , joined in the bombardment of Mili Atoll in the Marshall Islands . Although struck by two Japanese 4 @.@ 7 in ( 120 mm ) projectiles , Iowa suffered negligible damage . She then rejoined TF 58 on 30 March , and supported air strikes against the Palau Islands and Woleai of the Carolines for several days .
From 22 – 28 April , Iowa supported air raids on Hollandia ( now known as Jayapura ) , Aitape , and Wake Islands to support Army forces on Aitape and at Tanahmerah and Humboldt Bays in New Guinea . She then joined the Task Force 's second strike on Truk , on 29 and 30 April , and bombarded Japanese facilities on Ponape in the Carolines on 1 May .
In the opening phases of the Mariana and Palau Islands campaign , Iowa protected the American carriers during air strikes on the islands of Saipan , Tinian , Guam , Rota , and Pagan Island on 12 June . Iowa was then detached to bombard enemy installations on Saipan and Tinian on 13 – 14 June , which resulted in the destruction of a Japanese ammunition dump . On 19 June , in an engagement known as the Battle of the Philippine Sea , Iowa , as part of the battle line of TF 58 , helped repel four massive air raids launched by the Japanese Middle Fleet . This resulted in the almost complete destruction of Japanese carrier @-@ based air @-@ forces , with Iowa claiming the destruction of three enemy aircraft . Iowa then joined in the pursuit of the fleeing enemy fleet , shooting down one torpedo plane and assisting in splashing another .
Throughout July , Iowa remained off the Marianas supporting air strikes on the Palaus and landings on Guam . After a month 's rest , Iowa sailed from Eniwetok as part of the Third Fleet , and helped support the landings on Peleliu on 17 September . She then protected the carriers during air strikes against the Central Philippines to neutralize enemy air power for the long awaited invasion of the Philippines . On 10 October , Iowa arrived off Okinawa for a series of air strikes on the Ryukyu Islands and Formosa . She then supported air strikes against Luzon on 18 October and continued this duty during General Douglas MacArthur 's landing on Leyte on 20 October .
In a last @-@ ditch attempt to halt the United States campaign to recapture the Philippines , the Imperial Japanese Navy struck back with Shō @-@ Gō 1 , a three @-@ pronged attack aimed at the destruction of American amphibious forces in Leyte Gulf . The plan called for Vice @-@ Admiral Jisaburō Ozawa to use the surviving Japanese carriers as bait to draw US carriers of TF 38 away from the Philippine beachheads , allowing Imperial Japanese Admirals Takeo Kurita , Kiyohide Shima , and Shōji Nishimura to take surface task forces through the San Bernardino Strait and Surigao Strait , where they would rendezvous and attack the US beachheads . Iowa accompanied TF 38 during attacks against the Japanese Central Force under the command of Admiral Kurita as it steamed through the Sibuyan Sea toward San Bernardino Strait . The reported results of these attacks and the apparent retreat of the Japanese Central Force led Admiral William " Bull " Halsey to believe that this force had been ruined as an effective fighting group ; as a result , Iowa , with TF 38 , steamed after the Japanese Northern Force off Cape Engaño , Luzon . On 25 October 1944 , when the ships of the Northern Force were almost within range of Iowa 's guns , word arrived that the Japanese Central Force was attacking a group of American escort carriers off Samar . This threat to the American beachheads forced TF 38 to reverse course and steam to support the vulnerable escort carrier fleet . However , the fierce resistance put up by the 7th Fleet in the Battle off Samar had already caused the Japanese to retire and Iowa was denied a surface action . Following the Battle of Leyte Gulf , Iowa remained in the waters off the Philippines screening carriers during strikes against Luzon and Formosa . She sailed for the West Coast late in December 1944 .
On 18 December , the ships of TF 38 unexpectedly found themselves in a fight for their lives when Typhoon Cobra overtook the force — seven fleet carriers , six light carriers , eight battleships , 15 cruisers , and about 50 destroyers — during their attempt to refuel at sea . At the time , the ships were operating about 300 mi ( 480 km ) east of Luzon in the Philippine Sea . The carriers had just completed three days of heavy raids against Japanese airfields , suppressing enemy aircraft during the American amphibious operations against Mindoro in the Philippines . The task force rendezvoused with Captain Jasper T. Acuff and his fueling group on 17 December with the intention of refueling all ships in the task force and replacing lost aircraft . Although the sea had been growing rougher all day , the nearby cyclonic disturbance gave relatively little warning of its approach . On 18 December , the small but violent typhoon overtook the task force while many of the ships were attempting to refuel . Many of the vessels were caught near the center of the storm and buffeted by extreme seas and hurricane @-@ force winds . Three destroyers – Hull , Monaghan , and Spence – capsized and sank with nearly all hands , while a cruiser , five aircraft carriers , and three destroyers suffered serious damage . Approximately 790 officers and men were lost or killed , with another 80 injured . Fires occurred in three carriers when planes broke loose in their hangars , and some 146 planes on various ships were swept overboard or damaged beyond economical repair by fires or impacts . Iowa reported zero injured sailors as a result of the typhoon , but suffered a loss of one of her float planes , and damage to one of her shafts . The damaged shaft required Iowa to return to the US , and she arrived at San Francisco on 15 January 1945 , for repairs . During the course of the overhaul Iowa had her bridge area enclosed , and was outfitted with new search radars and fire @-@ control systems .
= = = Bombardment of Japan = = =
Iowa sailed on 19 March 1945 for Okinawa , arriving on 15 April to relieve her sister ship New Jersey . From 24 April , Iowa supported carrier operations which aimed to establish and maintain air superiority for ground forces during their struggle for the island . She then supported air strikes off southern Kyūshū from 25 May to 13 June . Afterward , she sailed toward northern Honshū and Hokkaidō , and participated in strikes on the Japanese home islands on 14 – 15 July by bombarding Muroran , Hokkaidō , destroying steel mills and other targets . The city of Hitachi on Honshū was shelled beginning the night of 17 July and lasting to 18 July . On 29 and 30 July , Iowa trained her guns on Kahoolawe for a bombardment and continued to support fast carrier strikes until the cessation of hostilities on 15 August as a result of the atomic bombings of Hiroshima and Nagasaki .
On 27 August , Iowa and her sister ship Missouri entered Sagami Bay to oversee the surrender of the Yokosuka Naval Arsenal . Two days later , she entered Tokyo Bay with the occupation forces . Here , a number of sailors from the Missouri were temporarily stationed on Iowa for the duration of the surrender ceremony which took place aboard the Missouri . After serving as Admiral Halsey 's flagship for the surrender ceremony on 2 September , Iowa remained in the bay as part of the occupying force . As part of the ongoing Operation Magic Carpet , she received homeward bound GIs and liberated US prisoners of war before departing Tokyo Bay on 20 September , bound for the United States .
= = Post @-@ World War II ( 1945 – 49 ) = =
Iowa arrived in Seattle , Washington , on 15 October 1945 , then sailed for Long Beach , California , where she engaged in training operations until returning to Japan in 1946 to serve as flagship for the 5th Fleet . She returned to the United States on 25 March 1946 and resumed her role as a training ship . During her usual routine of drills and maneuvers she also embarked Naval Reserve elements and midshipmen for training . In October , Iowa underwent a period of overhaul and modernization , which resulted in the addition of the SK @-@ 2 Radar and the loss of a number of 20 mm and 40 mm gun mounts . In July , following the Bikini atomic experiments , the old battleship Nevada was selected as a target for a live fire exercise to be carried out by Iowa and other sea and air assets of the navy . The exercise began with separate shellings from a destroyer , heavy cruiser , and Iowa , but this did not sink the ship , and so Nevada was finished off with one aerial torpedo hit amidships , sinking her 65 mi ( 105 km ) from Pearl Harbor on 31 July 1948 . In September 1948 , as part of the post World War II draw down of the armed forces , Iowa was inactivated at San Francisco and formally decommissioned into the United States Navy reserve fleets on 24 March 1949 .
= = Korean War ( 1951 – 52 ) = =
In 1950 , North Korea invaded South Korea , prompting NATO members , including the United States , to intervene in the name of the United Nations . President Harry S. Truman was caught off guard when the invasion struck , but he quickly ordered US forces stationed in Japan to transfer to South Korea . Truman also sent US based troops , tanks , fighter and bomber aircraft , and a strong naval force to the area to support South Korea . As part of the naval mobilization , Iowa was reactivated on 14 July 1951 , and formally recommissioned on 25 August , with Captain William R. Smedberg , III , in command . Iowa sailed for Korean waters in March 1952 . On 1 April she relieved her sister ship USS Wisconsin ( BB @-@ 64 ) and became the flagship of Vice Admiral Robert P. Briscoe , Commander of the Seventh Fleet . In her first combat operation of the Korean War , Iowa fired her main guns near Wonsan @-@ Sŏngjin on 8 April 1952 , with the goal of striking North Korean supply lines . In the company of other naval vessels Iowa again engaged North Korean forces the following day , this time against enemy troop concentrations , supply areas , and suspected gun positions in and around Suwon Dan and Kojo . In support of South Korea 's I Corps , Iowa shelled enemy positions on 13 April , killing 100 enemy soldiers , destroying six gun emplacements , and wrecking a division headquarters . The next day she entered Wonsan Harbor and shelled warehouses , observation posts and railroad marshaling yards before moving out to rejoin the UN flotilla aiding ground forces around Kosong . On 20 April , in her first combat action above the 38th parallel , Iowa shelled railroad lines at Tanchon , where four railroad tunnels were destroyed , before sailing to Chindong and Kosong for a two @-@ day bombardment of North Korean positions .
On 25 May Iowa , following her sister ship Missouri 's example , arrived in the waters off Chongjin , a North Korean industrial center approximately 48 nmi ( 55 mi ; 89 km ) from the Russian border . Upon arrival , Iowa proceeded to shell the industrial and rail transportation centers in Chongjin , after which she moved south to aid the US X Corps . En route to US positions , Iowa again bombarded Sŏngjin , destroying several railroad tunnels and bridges in the area . On 28 May , Iowa rejoined the main body of the US fleet supporting the X Corps , heavily shelling several islands in Wonsan Harbor .
Throughout June , Iowa trained her guns on targets at Mayang @-@ do , Tanchon , Chongjin , Chodo @-@ Sokcho and the ports of Hŭngnam and Wonsan in support of the UN and South Korean forces . On 9 June , a helicopter from Iowa rescued a downed pilot from the carrier Princeton . At the time , Princeton was operating with TF 77 , and with other carriers in the task force who were involved in a bombing campaign against North Korean supply lines , troop concentrations , and infrastructure ; additionally , the carriers were flying close air support missions for ground forces fighting against the North Korean forces . In July , Iowa received a new skipper , Captain Joshua W. Cooper , who assumed command of the battleship for the remainder of her Korean War tour .
On 20 August , Iowa took aboard nine wounded men from the destroyer Thompson after Thompson was hit by a Chinese artillery battery while shelling enemy positions at Sŏngjin . At the time , Iowa was operating 16 mi ( 26 km ) south of Sŏngjin , and after receiving the wounded destroyer crewmen , Iowa covered Thompson as she retreated into safer waters .
On 23 September , General Mark W. Clark , the Commander @-@ In @-@ Chief of United Nations Forces in Korea , came aboard Iowa . Clark observed Iowa in action as her guns shelled the Wonsan area for a third time , accounting for the destruction of a major enemy ammunition dump . On 25 September , Iowa fired her guns at an enemy railroad and 30 @-@ car train . The following month , Iowa was part of the force involved in Operation Decoy , a feint to draw enemy troops into Kojo and bring them within striking distance of the battleships ' big guns . During the operation , Iowa provided anti @-@ aircraft support to Mount McKinley , an amphibious force command ship .
= = = Post @-@ Korean War ( 1953 – 57 ) = = =
Iowa embarked midshipmen for at @-@ sea training to Northern Europe in July 1953 , and shortly afterwards took part in Operation Mariner , a major NATO exercise , serving as flagship of Vice Admiral Edmund T. Wooldridge , commander of the 2nd Fleet . Upon completion of this exercise , Iowa operated in the Virginia Capes area . Later , in September 1954 , she became the flagship of Rear Admiral R. E. Libby , Commander , Battleship Cruiser Force , United States Atlantic Fleet .
From January – April 1955 , Iowa made an extended cruise to the Mediterranean Sea as the flagship of the Commander , 6th Fleet . She departed on a midshipman training cruise on 1 June , and upon her return entered Norfolk for a four @-@ month overhaul . Afterward , Iowa continued intermittent training cruises and operational exercises , until 4 January 1957 when she departed Norfolk for duty with the 6th Fleet in the Mediterranean . Upon completion , Iowa embarked midshipmen for a South American training cruise and joined in the International Naval Review off Hampton Roads , Virginia on 13 June .
On 3 September , Iowa sailed for Scotland for NATO 's Operation Strikeback . She returned to Norfolk on 28 September , and departed Hampton Roads for the Philadelphia Naval Shipyard on 22 October . She was decommissioned on 24 February 1958 and entered the Atlantic Reserve Fleet at Philadelphia .
= = Reactivation ( 1982 – 84 ) = =
As part of President Ronald Reagan 's and Secretary of the Navy John F. Lehman 's effort to create an expanded 600 @-@ ship Navy , Iowa was reactivated and moved under tow to Avondale Shipyard near New Orleans , Louisiana , for refitting and equipment modernization in advance of her planned recommissioning . During the refit , Iowa had all of her remaining Oerlikon 20 mm and Bofors 40 mm anti @-@ aircraft guns removed , due to their ineffectiveness against modern fighter jets and anti @-@ ship missiles . Additionally , the two 5 in ( 130 mm ) gun mounts located at mid @-@ ship and in the aft on the port and starboard sides of the battleship were removed .
Iowa was then towed to Ingalls Shipbuilding , Pascagoula , Mississippi , where over the next several months the battleship was upgraded with the most advanced weaponry available . Among the new weapons systems installed were four MK 141 quad cell launchers for 16 AGM @-@ 84 Harpoon anti @-@ ship missiles , eight Armored Box Launcher mounts for 32 BGM @-@ 109 Tomahawk missiles , and a quartet of Phalanx Close @-@ in weapon system Gatling guns for defense against enemy anti @-@ ship missiles and enemy aircraft . Iowa was the first battleship to receive the RQ @-@ 2 Pioneer Unmanned Aerial Vehicle . She could carry up to eight of the remotely controlled drones , which replaced the helicopters previously used to spot for her nine 16 inch ( 410 mm ) / 50 cal Mark 7 guns . Also included in her modernization were upgrades to radar and fire @-@ control systems for her guns and missiles , and improved electronic warfare capabilities . Armed as such , Iowa was formally recommissioned on 28 April 1984 , ahead of schedule , within her budget at a cost of $ 500 million , and under the command of Captain Gerald E. Gneckow . In order to expedite the schedule , many necessary repairs to Iowa 's engines and guns were not completed and the mandatory Navy Board of Inspection and Survey ( InSurv ) inspection was skipped .
= = = Shakedown and NATO exercises ( 1984 – 89 ) = = =
From April – August 1984 , Iowa underwent refresher training and naval gunfire support qualifications in the Atlantic Ocean . She spent the rest of 1984 on a shakedown cruise in the area around Central America . During this cruise she aided in several humanitarian operations , including in Costa Rica and Honduras , before returning to the United States in April 1985 for a period of routine maintenance .
In August 1985 , Iowa joined 160 other ships for Exercise Ocean Safari , a NATO naval exercise aimed at testing NATO 's ability to control sea lanes and maintain free passage of shipping . Owing to bad weather , Iowa and the other ships were forced to ride out rough seas , but Iowa made use of the time to practice hiding herself from enemy forces . While serving with the exercise force , Iowa crossed the Arctic Circle . In October , she took part in Baltic operations , and fired her phalanx guns , 5 in ( 130 mm ) guns , and 16 in ( 410 mm ) guns in the Baltic Sea on 17 October while operating with US and other allied ships . After these operations she returned to the United States .
Beginning on 17 March 1986 , Iowa underwent her overdue InSurv inspection . The inspection , which Iowa ultimately failed , was conducted under the supervision of Rear Admiral John D. Bulkeley . Bulkeley found that the ship was unable to achieve her top speed of 33 kn ( 38 mph ; 61 km / h ) during a full @-@ power engine run , and recommended to the Chief of Naval Operations and Lehman that Iowa be taken out of service immediately . Rejecting this advice , Lehman instead instructed the leaders of the Atlantic Fleet to ensure that Iowa 's deficiencies were corrected .
Afterward , Iowa returned to the waters around Central America and conducted drills and exercises while providing a military presence to friendly nations . On 4 July , President Ronald Reagan and First Lady Nancy Reagan boarded Iowa for the International Naval Review , which was held in the Hudson River . On 25 April , CAPT Larry Ray Seaquist assumed command of the battleship and her crew .
On 17 August , Iowa set sail for the North Atlantic , and in September she participated in Exercise Northern Wedding by ferrying Marines ashore and assisting helicopter gunships . During the exercise Iowa fired her main guns at Cape Wrath range in Scotland in support of a simulated amphibious assault on 5 – 6 September , firing a total of 19 16 @-@ inch ( 410 mm ) shells and 32 5 @-@ inch ( 130 mm ) shells during a 10 @-@ hour period and operating in rough seas . During the live fire exercise , a small number of Iowa marines were put ashore to monitor the fall of shot and advise the battleship of gunnery corrections . Afterward , Iowa visited ports in England and Germany before returning to the United States in October .
In December , the ship became the testbed for the Navy 's RQ @-@ 2 Pioneer Unmanned Aerial Vehicle ( UAV ) . The drone was designed to serve as an aerial spotter for the battleship 's guns , thereby allowing the guns to be used against an enemy without the need for an airplane or helicopter spotter . Pioneer passed its tests and made its first deployment that same month aboard Iowa .
From January – September 1987 Iowa operated in the waters in and around Central America and participated in several exercises until sailing for the Mediterranean Sea on 10 September to join the 6th Fleet based there . She remained in the Mediterranean until 22 October , when she was detached from the 6th Fleet and departed for operations in the North Sea . On 25 November , as part of Operation Earnest Will , Iowa transited the Suez Canal and set sail for the Persian Gulf , which at the time was one of the battlefields of the first Gulf War ( also referred to as the Iran – Iraq War ) . The presence of US naval vessels in the gulf was in response to a formal petition from Kuwait , whose ships were being raided by Iranian forces who were attempting to cut off weapons shipments from the United States and Europe to Saddam Hussein 's regime in Iraq , via Kuwaiti territory . This phase of the war would later be called the " Tanker War " phase of the Iran @-@ Iraq War . Iowa and other vessels operating in the gulf were assigned to escort Kuwaiti tankers from Kuwaiti ports to the open sea , but because US law forbade military escorts for civilian ships flying a foreign flag , the tankers escorted by the United States were reflagged as US merchant vessels and assigned American names . For the remainder of the year Iowa escorted Kuwaiti gas and oil tankers reflagged as US merchant ships from the Persian Gulf through the Strait of Hormuz .
On 20 February 1988 , Iowa departed from the Persian Gulf , transited the Suez Canal , and set sail for the United States , arriving at Norfolk on 10 March for routine maintenance . In April , she participated in the annual Fleet Week celebrations before returning to Norfolk for an overhaul . On 26 May , Fred Moosally replaced Larry Seaquist as Captain of the Iowa . After the overhaul , Moosally took Iowa on a shakedown cruise around Chesapeake Bay on 25 August . Encountering difficulty in conning the ship through shallow water , Moosally narrowly missed colliding with the frigate Moinester , destroyer Farragut , and the cruiser South Carolina before running aground in soft mud outside the bay 's main ship channel near the Thimble Shoals . After one hour , Iowa was able to extricate herself without damage and return to port . Iowa continued with sea trials throughout August and September , then began refresher training in the waters around Florida and Puerto Rico in October , during which the ship passed an Operation Propulsion Program Evaluation .
On 20 January 1989 , during an improperly authorized gunnery experiment off Vieques Island , Iowa fired a 16 @-@ inch ( 410 mm ) shell 23 @.@ 4 nmi ( 26 @.@ 9 mi ; 43 @.@ 3 km ) , setting a record for the longest @-@ ranged 16 in ( 410 mm ) shell ever fired . In February , the battleship sailed for New Orleans for a port visit before departing for Norfolk . On 10 April , the battleship was visited by the commander of the 2nd Fleet , and on 13 April she sailed to participate in a fleet exercise .
= = = 1989 turret explosion = = =
During a gunnery exercise , at 0955 on 19 April 1989 , an explosion ripped through the Number Two 16 @-@ inch ( 410 mm ) gun turret , killing 47 crewmen . A gunner 's mate in the powder magazine room quickly flooded the No. 2 powder magazine , likely preventing catastrophic damage to the ship . At first , Naval Investigative Service ( N.I.S. , later renamed Naval Criminal Investigative Service or NCIS ) investigators theorized that one of the dead crewmen , Clayton Hartwig , had detonated an explosive device in a suicide attempt after the end of an alleged affair with another sailor . To support this claim , naval officials pointed to several different factors , including Hartwig 's life insurance policy , which named Kendall Truitt as the sole beneficiary in the event of his death , the presence of unexplained materials inside Turret II , and his mental state , which was alleged to be unstable .
Although the Navy was satisfied with the investigation and its results , others were unconvinced , and in October 1991 , amid increasing criticism , Congress forced the Navy to reopen the investigation . This second investigation , handled by independent investigators , was hampered by the fact that most of the original debris from Iowa had been cleaned up or otherwise disposed of by the Navy before and after the first investigation , but it did uncover evidence pointing to an accidental powder explosion rather than an intentional act of sabotage .
While Iowa was undergoing modernization in the early 1980s , her sister ship New Jersey had been dispatched to Lebanon to provide offshore fire support . At the time , New Jersey was the only commissioned battleship anywhere in the world , and it was found that , in an effort to get another battleship commissioned to relieve New Jersey , the modernization of Iowa was stepped up , leaving her in poor condition when she recommissioned in 1984 . It was also determined that Captain Fred Moosally was more concerned with the maintenance of the missiles than the training and manning of guns .
Powder from the same lot as the one under investigation was tested at the Naval Surface Warfare Center Dahlgren Division . Spontaneous combustion was achieved with the powder , which had been originally milled in the 1930s and improperly stored in a barge at the Navy 's Yorktown , Virginia Naval Weapons Station during a 1988 dry @-@ docking of Iowa . As it degrades , gunpowder gives off ether gas , which is highly flammable and could be ignited by a spark . This revelation resulted in a shift in the Navy 's position on the incident , and Admiral Frank Kelso , the Chief of Naval Operations at the time , publicly apologized to the Hartwig family , concluding that there was no real evidence to support the claim that he had intentionally killed the other sailors . Iowa captain Fred Moosally was severely criticized for his handling of the matter , and as a result of the incident the Navy changed the powder @-@ handling procedures for its battleships . The incident remains one of the surface Navy 's worst losses of life during peacetime operations , surpassing the loss of life incurred from the attack of an Iraqi Air Force jet on the guided missile frigate USS Stark .
= = Reserve Fleet and museum ship ( from 1990 ) = =
With the collapse of the Soviet Union in the early 1990s and the lack of a perceived threat against the United States came drastic cuts to the defense budget and the battleships were deemed uneconomical ; as a result , Iowa was decommissioned for the last time on 26 October 1990 , after a total of 19 years of commissioned service . She was the first of the reactivated battleships to be decommissioned , and this was done earlier than originally planned as a result of the damaged turret . Iowa was berthed at the Naval Education and Training Center in Newport from 24 September 1998 to 8 March 2001 , when the ship began her journey under tow to California . The ship arrived in Suisun Bay near San Francisco on 21 April 2001 and joined the reserve fleet there , where she remained in reserve until struck again from the Naval Vessel Register in March 2006 . She and her sister ships had been struck previously in 1995 . She remained at the Suisun Bay anchorage until November 2011 .
Section 1011 of the National Defense Authorization Act of 1996 required the United States Navy to reinstate to the Naval Vessel Register two of the Iowa @-@ class battleships that had been struck by the Navy in 1995 ; these ships were to be maintained in the United States Navy reserve fleets ( or " mothball fleet " ) . The Navy was to ensure that both of the reinstated battleships were in good condition and could be reactivated for use in the Marine Corps ' amphibious operations . Due to Iowa ’ s damaged turret , the Navy selected New Jersey for placement into the mothball fleet , even though the training mechanisms on New Jersey 's 16 @-@ inch ( 406 mm ) guns had been welded down . The cost to fix New Jersey was considered less than the cost to fix Iowa ; as a result , New Jersey and Wisconsin were reinstated to the Naval Vessel Register and placed back in the reserve fleet .
New Jersey remained there until the Strom Thurmond National Defense Authorization Act of 1999 required the United States Secretary of the Navy to list and maintain Iowa and Wisconsin on the Naval Vessel Register . The Act also required the Secretary of the Navy to strike New Jersey from the Naval Vessel Register and transfer the battleship to a not @-@ for @-@ profit entity in accordance with section 7306 of Title 10 , United States Code . It also required the transferee to locate the battleship in the State of New Jersey . The Navy made the switch in January 1999 , allowing New Jersey to open as a museum ship in her namesake state .
On 17 March 2006 , the Secretary of the Navy exercised his authority to strike Iowa and Wisconsin from the NVR , which cleared the way for both ships to be donated for use as museum ships , but the United States Congress remained " deeply concerned " over the loss of the naval surface gunfire support that the battleships provided , and noted that " navy efforts to improve upon , much less replace , this capability have been highly problematic . " As a partial consequence , Congress passed Pub.L. 109 – 163 , the National Defense Authorization Act 2006 , requiring that the battleships be kept and maintained in a state of readiness should they ever be needed again . Congress ordered that measures be implemented to ensure that , if need be , Iowa could be returned to active duty . These measures closely mirrored the original three conditions that the National Defense Authorization Act of 1996 laid out for the maintenance of Iowa while she was in the " mothball fleet " .
In March 2007 , the Historic Ships Memorial at Pacific Square ( HSMPS ) of Vallejo , site of the former Mare Island Naval Shipyard , and a Stockton group submitted proposals . The HSMPS , which had attempted to place the ship in San Francisco , supported the Mare Island — Vallejo site . In October 2007 the Navy informed HSMPS that they were the only viable candidate to acquire Iowa , and their application would be further reviewed after evidence was presented that financing was in place , and when the Stockton and San Francisco groups withdrew or failed to submit a final application respectively . On 25 April 2009 , Iowa Senate Resolution No. 19 was approved , endorsing HSMPS as USS Iowa 's custodian and supporting the battleship 's placement at Mare Island .
In February 2010 , the Pacific Battleship Center ( PBC ) was behind efforts to have the ship berthed in San Pedro , Los Angeles , California . In late February the Port of Los Angeles ( which includes the San Pedro area ) rejected a proposal by the PBC to berth the battleship at its facilities because the battleship was not yet available . On 12 April 2010 , the Governor of Iowa signed into law Bill SJR2007 , which officially formed a 10 @-@ member committee to raise about $ 5 million for the group awarded the USS Iowa . The statement supporting the Vallejo group in the original Iowa State Senate 's version SR19 was struck in favor of supporting any group actually awarded the battleship .
On 13 May 2010 , the Navy announced it would reopen the bidding process , citing HSMPS 's lack of progress as the reason . On 24 May 2010 the Federal Register officially reopened the bidding process for the USS Iowa to a California @-@ based city or non @-@ profit organization .
On 18 November 2010 , the Port of Los Angeles Harbor Commissioners voted unanimously on a resolution to support Berth 87 as the future home of the USS Iowa , clearing the way for The Pacific Battleship Center to send its completed application to the Navy . On 6 September 2011 , the USS Iowa was awarded to Pacific Battleship Center for placement at the Port of Los Angeles . After rehabilitation at the Port of Richmond , California , ( beginning in October 2011 ) , the ship was designated to be towed to and berthed in the Port of Los Angeles .
Starting 10 December 2011 , the USS Iowa was open for weekend tours . The Battleship Expo at the Port of Richmond included shipboard access and other exhibits such as 16 @-@ inch shells , a short film about the battleship , and other exhibits . On 30 April 2012 , the USS Iowa was officially donated to the Pacific Battleship Center in Los Angeles by the United States Navy .
Iowa began her journey to the Port of Los Angeles on 26 May 2012 under tow by tugboats . After being anchored off the Southern California coast to have her hull scrubbed to remove any invasive species or contaminants , she was permanently anchored on 9 June 2012 in San Pedro at Berth 87 , along the Main Channel , directly south of the World Cruise Center . The museum opened to the public on 7 July , under the direction and control of Pacific Battleship Center .
= = Awards = =
Iowa earned nine battle stars for World War II service and two for Korean War service . She has also earned the following awards :
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= Neville Chamberlain =
Arthur Neville Chamberlain FRS ( 18 March 1869 – 9 November 1940 ) was a British Conservative politician who served as Prime Minister of the United Kingdom from May 1937 to May 1940 . Chamberlain is best known for his appeasement foreign policy , and in particular for his signing of the Munich Agreement in 1938 , conceding the German @-@ speaking Sudetenland region of Czechoslovakia to Germany . However , when Adolf Hitler later invaded Poland , the UK declared war on Germany on 3 September 1939 , and Chamberlain led Britain through the first eight months of World War II .
After working in business and local government and after a short spell as Director of National Service in 1916 and 1917 , Chamberlain followed his father , Joseph Chamberlain , and older half @-@ brother , Austen Chamberlain , in becoming a member of parliament in the 1918 general election at age 49 . He declined a junior ministerial position , remaining a backbencher until 1922 . He was rapidly promoted in 1923 to Minister of Health and then Chancellor of the Exchequer . After a short Labour @-@ led government , he returned as Minister of Health , introducing a range of reform measures from 1924 to 1929 . He was appointed Chancellor of the Exchequer in the National Government in 1931 .
When Stanley Baldwin retired in May 1937 , Chamberlain took his place as Prime Minister . His premiership was dominated by the question of policy toward the increasingly aggressive Germany , and his actions at Munich were widely popular among Britons at the time . When Hitler continued his aggression , Chamberlain pledged Britain to defend Poland 's independence if the latter were attacked , an alliance that brought Britain into war when Germany attacked Poland in 1939 . Chamberlain resigned the premiership on 10 May 1940 after the Allies were forced to retreat from Norway , as he believed a government supported by all parties was essential , and the Labour and Liberal parties would not join a government headed by him . He was succeeded by Winston Churchill but remained very well regarded in Parliament , especially among Conservatives . Before ill health forced him to resign he was an important member of Churchill 's War Cabinet , heading it in the new premier 's absence . Chamberlain died of cancer six months after leaving the premiership .
Chamberlain 's reputation remains controversial among historians , with the initial high regard for him being entirely eroded by books such as Guilty Men , published in July 1940 , which blamed Chamberlain and his associates for the Munich accord and for allegedly failing to prepare the country for war . Most historians in the generation following Chamberlain 's death held similar views , led by Churchill in The Gathering Storm . Some recent historians have taken a more favourable perspective of Chamberlain and his policies , citing government papers released under the Thirty Year Rule and arguing that going to war with Germany in 1938 would have been disastrous as the UK was not ready . Nevertheless , Chamberlain is still unfavourably ranked amongst British Prime Ministers .
= = Early life and political career ( 1869 – 1918 ) = =
= = = Childhood and businessman = = =
Chamberlain was born on 18 March 1869 in a house called Southbourne in the Edgbaston district of Birmingham . He was the only son of the second marriage of Joseph Chamberlain , who later became Mayor of Birmingham and a Cabinet minister . His mother was Florence Kenrick , cousin to William Kenrick MP ; she died when he was a small boy . Joseph Chamberlain had had another son , Austen Chamberlain , by his first marriage . Neville Chamberlain was educated at Rugby School . Joseph Chamberlain then sent Neville to Mason College ( the future University of Birmingham ) . Neville Chamberlain had little interest in his studies there , and in 1889 his father apprenticed him to a firm of accountants . Within six months he became a salaried employee .
In an effort to recoup diminished family fortunes , Joseph Chamberlain sent his younger son to establish a sisal plantation on Andros Island in the Bahamas . Neville Chamberlain spent six years there but the plantation was a failure , and Joseph Chamberlain lost £ 50 @,@ 000 .
On his return to England , Neville Chamberlain entered business , purchasing ( with assistance from his family ) Hoskins & Company , a manufacturer of metal ship berths . Chamberlain served as managing director of Hoskins for 17 years during which time the company prospered . He also involved himself in civic activities in Birmingham . In 1906 , as Governor of Birmingham 's General Hospital , and along with " no more than fifteen " other dignitaries , Chamberlain became a founding member of the national United Hospitals Committee of the British Medical Association .
At forty , Chamberlain was expecting to remain a bachelor , but in 1910 he fell in love with Anne Cole , a distant relative by marriage , and married her the following year . She encouraged and supported his entry into local politics and was to be his constant companion , helper and trusted colleague , and to share in full his interests in housing and other political and social activities after his election as an MP . The two had a son and a daughter .
= = = Entry into politics = = =
Chamberlain initially showed little interest in politics though his father and half @-@ brother were in Parliament . During the " Khaki election " of 1900 he made speeches in support of Joseph Chamberlain 's Liberal Unionists . The Liberal Unionists were allied with the Conservatives and later merged with them under the name " Unionist Party " , which in 1925 became known as the " Conservative and Unionist Party " . In 1911 Neville Chamberlain successfully stood as a Liberal Unionist for Birmingham City Council for the All Saints ' Ward , located within his father 's parliamentary constituency .
Chamberlain was made chairman of the Town Planning Committee . Under Chamberlain 's direction Birmingham soon adopted one of the first town planning schemes in Britain . The start of war in 1914 prevented implementation of his plans . In 1915 , Chamberlain became Lord Mayor of Birmingham . Apart from his father Joseph , five of Chamberlain 's uncles had also attained the chief Birmingham civic dignity : they were Joseph 's brother Richard Chamberlain , William and George Kenrick , Charles Beale , who had been four times Lord Mayor and Sir Thomas Martineau . As a Lord Mayor in wartime , Chamberlain had a huge burden of work and he insisted that his councillors and officials work equally hard . He halved the Lord Mayor 's expense allowance and cut back on the number of civic functions expected of the incumbent .
In 1915 Chamberlain was appointed member of the Central Control Board on liquor traffic . In December 1916 the Prime Minister , David Lloyd George , offered Chamberlain the new position of Director of National Service with responsibility for co @-@ ordinating conscription and ensuring that essential war industries were able to function with sufficient workforces . However , his tenure was marked by conflict with Lloyd George and in August 1917 , having received little support from the Prime Minister , Chamberlain resigned . The relationship between Chamberlain and Lloyd George would be one thenceforth of hatred .
Chamberlain decided to stand for the House of Commons , and was adopted as Unionist candidate for Birmingham Ladywood . After the war ended , a general election was called almost immediately . He was elected with almost 70 % of the vote and a majority of 6 @,@ 833 . At age 49 he is still the oldest Parliamentary debutant to later become Prime Minister .
= = MP and Minister ( 1919 – 37 ) = =
= = = Rise from the backbench = = =
Chamberlain threw himself into Parliamentary work , begrudging the times when he was unable to attend debates and spending much time on committee work . He was chairman of the national Unhealthy Areas Committee ( 1919 – 21 ) and in that role , had visited the slums of London , Birmingham , Leeds , Liverpool and Cardiff . Consequently , in March 1920 he was offered a junior post at the Ministry of Health by Bonar Law on behalf of the Prime Minister , but was unwilling to serve under Lloyd George . Chamberlain was offered no further posts during Lloyd George 's premiership . When Bonar Law resigned as party leader Austen Chamberlain took his place as head of the Unionists in Parliament . Unionist leaders were willing to fight the 1922 election in coalition with the Lloyd George Liberals , but on 19 October Unionist MPs held a meeting at which they voted to fight the election as a single party . Lloyd George resigned , as did Austen Chamberlain , and Bonar Law was recalled from retirement to lead the Unionists as Prime Minister .
Many high @-@ ranking Unionists refused to serve under Bonar Law to the benefit of Chamberlain who rose over the course of ten months from backbencher to Chancellor of the Exchequer . Bonar Law initially appointed Chamberlain Postmaster General and Chamberlain was sworn of the Privy Council . When Sir Arthur Griffith @-@ Boscawen , the Minister of Health , lost his seat in the 1922 general election and failed to win a by @-@ election in March 1923 , Bonar Law offered the position within the Cabinet to Chamberlain . Two months later , Bonar Law was diagnosed with advanced , terminal throat cancer . He immediately resigned , and was replaced by Chancellor of the Exchequer Stanley Baldwin . In August 1923 , Baldwin promoted Chamberlain to the position of Chancellor of the Exchequer .
Chamberlain served only five months in the office before the Conservatives were defeated in the 1923 general election . Ramsay MacDonald became the first Labour Prime Minister , but the Labour government fell within months necessitating another general election . Chamberlain narrowly defeated Labour candidate Oswald Mosley ( who later led the British Union of Fascists ) . Believing he would lose if he stood again in Ladywood , Chamberlain arranged to be adopted for Birmingham Edgbaston , the district of the city where he was born and which was a much safer seat which he would hold for the rest of his life . The Unionists won the election , but Chamberlain declined to serve again as Chancellor , preferring his former position as Minister of Health .
Within two weeks of his appointment as Minister of Health Chamberlain presented the Cabinet with an agenda containing 25 pieces of legislation he hoped to see enacted . Before he left office in 1929 , 21 of the 25 bills had passed into law . Chamberlain sought the abolition of the elected Poor Law Boards of Guardians which administered relief — and which in some areas were responsible for rates . Many of the Boards were controlled by Labour , and such Boards had defied the government by distributing relief funds to the able @-@ bodied unemployed . In 1929 Chamberlain initiated legislation to abolish the Poor Law boards entirely . Chamberlain spoke in the Commons for two and a half hours on the second reading of the Bill , and when he concluded he was applauded by all parties . The Bill passed into law .
Though Chamberlain struck a conciliatory note during the 1926 General Strike , in general he had poor relations with the Labour opposition . Future Labour Prime Minister Clement Attlee complained that Chamberlain " always treated us like dirt " , and Chamberlain in April 1927 wrote : " More and more do I feel an utter contempt for their lamentable stupidity . " His poor relations with the Labour Party later played a major part in his downfall as Prime Minister .
= = = Opposition and second term as Chancellor = = =
Baldwin called a general election for 30 May 1929 which resulted in a hung parliament , with Labour holding the most seats . Baldwin and his government resigned and Labour leader Ramsay MacDonald ( 1866 – 1937 ) took office . In 1931 , the MacDonald government faced a serious crisis , as the May Report revealed that the budget was unbalanced , with an expected shortfall of £ 120 million . On 24 August 1931 the Labour government resigned and MacDonald formed a National Government supported by most Conservative MPs . Chamberlain once again returned to the Ministry of Health .
After the 1931 general election , in which supporters of the National Government ( mostly the Conservatives ) won an overwhelming victory , MacDonald designated Chamberlain as Chancellor . Chamberlain proposed a 10 % tariff on foreign goods and lower or no tariffs on goods from the colonies and the Dominions . Joseph Chamberlain had advocated a similar policy , " Imperial Preference " . On 4 February 1932 Neville Chamberlain laid his bill before the House of Commons . Chamberlain concluded his address by noting the appropriateness of his seeking to enact his father 's proposal . At the end of the speech , Sir Austen Chamberlain walked down from the backbenches and shook his brother 's hand . The Import Duties Act 1932 passed Parliament easily .
Chamberlain presented his first budget in April 1932 . He maintained the severe budget cuts that had been agreed to at the inception of the National Government . Interest on the war debt had been a major cost in each budget . Chamberlain was able to reduce the interest rate on most of Britain 's war debt from 5 % to 3 @.@ 5 % . Between 1932 and 1938 , Chamberlain halved the percentage of the budget devoted to payment of interest on the war debt .
Chamberlain hoped that a cancellation of the war debt owed to the United States could be negotiated . In June 1933 , Britain hosted the World Monetary and Economic Conference . The Conference came to nothing . US President Franklin Roosevelt sent word that he would not consider any war debt cancellation . By 1934 , Chamberlain was able to declare a budget surplus and restore many of the cuts in unemployment compensation and civil servant salaries he had made after taking office . He told the Commons " We have now finished the story of Bleak House and are sitting down this afternoon to enjoy the first chapter of Great Expectations . "
The Unemployed Assistance Board ( established by the Unemployment Act 1934 ) was largely Chamberlain 's creation and he wished to see the issue of unemployment assistance removed from party political argument . Moreover , Chamberlain " saw the importance of ' providing some interest in life for the large numbers of men never likely to get work ' , and out of this realisation was to come the responsibility of the U.A.B. for the " welfare " , not merely the maintenance , of the unemployed " .
Defence spending had been heavily cut in Chamberlain 's early budgets . By 1935 , faced with a resurgent Germany under Hitler 's leadership ( see German re @-@ armament ) , he was convinced of the need for rearmament . Chamberlain especially urged the strengthening of the Royal Air Force , realising that Britain 's traditional bulwark , the English Channel , was no defence against air power .
In 1935 , MacDonald stood down as Prime Minister , while Baldwin became Prime Minister for the third time . In the 1935 general election the Conservative @-@ dominated National Government lost 90 seats from the massive majority of 1931 , but still retained an overwhelming majority of 255 in the House of Commons . During the campaign , deputy Labour leader Arthur Greenwood had attacked Chamberlain for spending money on rearmament stating that the rearmament policy was " the merest scaremongering ; disgraceful in a statesman of Mr. Chamberlain 's responsible position , to suggest that more millions of money needed to be spent on armaments " .
Chamberlain is believed to have had a significant role in the 1936 abdication crisis . He wrote in his diary that Wallis Simpson , Edward VIII 's intended wife , was " an entirely unscrupulous woman who is not in love with the King but is exploiting him for her own purposes . She has already ruined him in money and jewels ... " . In common with the rest of the Cabinet , except Duff Cooper , he agreed with Baldwin that the King should abdicate if he married Simpson and on 6 December he and Baldwin both stressed the King should make his decision before Christmas ; by one account , he believed that the uncertainty was " hurting the Christmas trade " . The King eventually abdicated on the 10th , four days after the meeting .
Soon after the abdication Baldwin announced that he would remain until shortly after the coronation of King George VI and Queen Elizabeth . On 28 May , two weeks after the Coronation , Baldwin resigned , advising the King to send for Chamberlain . Sir Austen did not live to see his brother 's final " climb ... to the top of the greasy pole " , having died two months earlier .
= = Premiership ( 1937 – 40 ) = =
Upon his accession Chamberlain considered calling a general election , but with three and a half years remaining in the then current Parliament 's term decided to wait . At age 68 , he was the second @-@ eldest person in the 20th century ( behind Sir Henry Campbell @-@ Bannerman ) to become Prime Minister for the first time , and was widely seen as a caretaker who would lead the Conservative Party until the next election , and then step down in favour of a younger man , with Foreign Secretary Anthony Eden a likely candidate . From the start of Chamberlain 's premiership a number of would @-@ be successors were rumoured to be jockeying for position .
Chamberlain had disliked what he considered to be an overly sentimental attitude by both Baldwin and MacDonald on Cabinet appointments and reshuffles . Although he had worked closely with the President of the Board of Trade , Walter Runciman over the tariff issue , Chamberlain dismissed him from his post , offering Runciman the token position of Lord Privy Seal which an angry Runciman declined . Runciman , a member of the Liberal National Party , was thought by Chamberlain to be lazy . Soon after taking office , Chamberlain instructed his ministers to prepare two @-@ year policy programmes . These reports were to be integrated with the intent of co @-@ ordinating the passage of legislation through the current Parliament , the term of which was to expire in November 1940 .
At the time of his succession Chamberlain 's personality was not well known to the public , though he had made annual budget broadcasts for six years , which , according to Chamberlain biographer Robert Self , appeared relaxed and modern , showing an ability to speak directly to the camera . Chamberlain had few friends among his parliamentary colleagues . An attempt by his Parliamentary Private Secretary , Lord Dunglass ( later Prime Minister himself as Alec Douglas @-@ Home ) to bring him to the Smoking Room in the Commons to socialise with his colleagues , ended in embarrassing silence . Chamberlain compensated for these shortcomings by devising the most sophisticated press management system employed by a Prime Minister up to that time , with officials at Number 10 led by his chief of press George Steward , convincing members of the press that they were colleagues sharing power and insider knowledge , and should espouse the government line .
= = = Domestic policy = = =
Chamberlain saw his elevation to the premiership as the final glory in a career as a domestic reformer , not realising that he would be remembered for foreign policy decisions . One reason he sought the settlement of European issues was in the hope it would allow him to concentrate on domestic affairs .
Soon after attaining the premiership , Chamberlain obtained passage of the Factories Act 1937 . This act was aimed at bettering working conditions in factories and placed limits on the working hours of women and children . In 1938 , Parliament enacted the Coal Act 1938 , which allowed for nationalisation of coal deposits . Another major piece of legislation passed that year was the Holidays with Pay Act . Though the act only recommended that employers give workers a week off with pay , the Act caused the great expansion of holiday camps and other leisure accommodation for the working classes . The Housing Act of 1938 provided subsidies aimed at encouraging slum clearance and maintained rent control . Chamberlain 's plans for the reform of local government were shelved because of the outbreak of war in 1939 . Likewise , the proposal to raise the school @-@ leaving age to 15 , scheduled for implementation on 1 September 1939 , did not go into effect .
= = = Relations with Ireland = = =
When Chamberlain became Prime Minister relations between the United Kingdom and the Irish Free State had been strained since the 1932 accession of the new Irish Taoiseach ( Prime Minister ) Éamon de Valera . The Anglo @-@ Irish Trade War , sparked by the withholding of money that Ireland had agreed to pay the United Kingdom , had caused economic losses on both sides , and the two nations were anxious for a settlement . The de Valera government also sought to remove the remaining ties between Ireland and the UK , such as ending the King 's status as Irish Head of State . Chamberlain , as Chancellor had taken a hard @-@ line stance against concessions to the Irish , but having been persuaded that the strained ties were having effects on relations with other Dominions he sought a settlement with Ireland .
Talks had been suspended under Baldwin in 1936 but resumed in November 1937 . De Valera sought not only to alter the constitutional status of Ireland , but to overturn other aspects of the Anglo @-@ Irish Treaty , most notably the issue of partition , as well as obtaining full control of the three " Treaty Ports " which had remained in British control . Britain , on the other hand , wished to retain the Treaty Ports , at least in time of war and to obtain the money that Ireland had agreed to pay .
The Irish proved very tough negotiators , so much so that Chamberlain complained that one of de Valera 's offers had " presented United Kingdom ministers with a three @-@ leafed shamrock , none of the leaves of which had any advantages for the UK " . With the talks facing deadlock , Chamberlain made the Irish a final offer in March 1938 which acceded to many Irish positions though he was confident that he had " only given up the small things " , and the agreements were signed on 25 April 1938 . The issue of partition was not resolved , but the Irish agreed to pay £ 10 million to the British . There was no provision in the treaties for British access to the Treaty Ports in time of war , but Chamberlain accepted de Valera 's oral assurance that in the event of war the British would have access . The agreements were attacked by Conservative backbencher Winston Churchill in Parliament for surrendering the Treaty Ports which Churchill described as the " sentinel towers of the Western Approaches " . When war came , de Valera denied Britain access to the Treaty Ports under Irish neutrality . Churchill railed against these treaties in The Gathering Storm , stating that he " never saw the House of Commons more completely misled " and that " members were made to feel very differently about it when our existence hung in the balance during the Battle of the Atlantic " . Chamberlain , however , believed that the Treaty Ports were unusable if Ireland was hostile and deemed their loss worthwhile to assure friendly relations with Dublin .
= = = European policy = = =
= = = = Early days ( May 1937 – March 1938 ) = = = =
Chamberlain sought to conciliate Germany and make the Nazi state a partner in a stable Europe . He believed Germany could be satisfied by the restoration of some of her colonies , and during the Rhineland crisis of March 1936 he had stated that " if we were in sight of an all @-@ round settlement the British government ought to consider the question " of restoration of colonies .
The new Prime Minister 's attempts to secure such a settlement were frustrated because Germany was in no hurry to talk to Britain . Foreign Minister Konstantin von Neurath was supposed to visit Britain in July 1937 but cancelled his visit . Lord Halifax , the Lord President of the Council visited Germany privately in November and met with Hitler and other German officials . Both Chamberlain and British Ambassador to Germany Nevile Henderson pronounced the visit a success . Foreign Office officials complained that the Halifax visit made it appear Britain was too eager for talks , and Foreign Secretary Eden felt that he had been bypassed .
Chamberlain also bypassed Eden while the Foreign Secretary was on holiday by opening direct talks with Italy , an international pariah for its invasion and conquest of Ethiopia . At a Cabinet meeting on 8 September 1937 , Chamberlain indicated that he saw " the lessening of the tension between this country and Italy as a very valuable contribution toward the pacification and appeasement of Europe " which would " weaken the Rome – Berlin axis " . The Prime Minister also set up a private line of communication with the Italian " Duce " Benito Mussolini through the Italian Ambassador , Count Dino Grandi .
In February 1938 Hitler began to press the Austrian government to accept " Anschluss " or union between Germany and Austria . Chamberlain believed that it was essential to cement relations with Italy in the hope that an Anglo – Italian alliance would forestall Hitler from imposing his rule over Austria . Eden , however , believed Chamberlain was being too hasty in talking with Italy and holding out the prospect of de jure recognition of Italy 's conquest of Ethiopia . Chamberlain concluded that Eden would have to accept his policy , or resign . The Cabinet heard both men out but unanimously decided for Chamberlain . Despite efforts by other Cabinet members to prevent it , Eden resigned from office . In later years , Eden tried to portray his resignation as a stand against appeasement ( Churchill described him in The Second World War as " one strong young figure standing up against long , dismal , drawling tides of drift and surrender " ) but many ministers and MPs believed there was no issue at stake worth resignation . Chamberlain appointed Lord Halifax as Foreign Secretary in Eden 's place .
= = = = Road to Munich ( March 1938 – September 1938 ) = = = =
In March 1938 Austria became a part of Germany in the " Anschluß " . Though the beleaguered Austrians requested help from Britain none was forthcoming . Britain did send Berlin a strong note of protest . In addressing the Cabinet shortly after German forces crossed the border , Chamberlain placed blame on both Germany and Austria . Chamberlain noted ,
It is perfectly evident now that force is the only argument Germany understands and that " collective security " cannot offer any prospect of preventing such events until it can show a visible force of overwhelming strength backed by the determination to use it . ... Heaven knows I don 't want to get back to alliances but if Germany continues to behave as she has done lately she may drive us to it .
On 14 March , the day after the " Anschluß " , Chamberlain addressed the House of Commons and strongly condemned the methods used by the Germans in the takeover of Austria . Chamberlain 's address met with the approval of the House .
With Austria absorbed by Germany , attention turned to Hitler 's obvious next target , the Sudetenland region of Czechoslovakia . With three million ethnic Germans , the Sudetenland represented the largest German population outside the " Reich " . Hitler began to call for the union of the region with Germany . Britain had no military obligations toward Czechoslovakia , but France and Czechoslovakia had a mutual assistance pact . After the fall of Austria , the Cabinet 's Foreign Policy Committee considered seeking a " grand alliance " to thwart Germany , or alternatively , an assurance to France of assistance if the French went to war . Instead , the committee chose to advocate that Czechoslovakia be urged to make the best terms it could with Germany . The full Cabinet agreed with the committee 's recommendation influenced by a report from the chiefs of staff stating that there was little that Britain could do to help the Czechs in the event of a German invasion . Chamberlain reported to an amenable House that he was unwilling to limit his government 's discretion by giving commitments .
Britain and Italy signed an agreement in April 1938 . In exchange for " de jure " recognition of Italy 's Ethiopian conquest , Italy agreed to withdraw some Italian " volunteers " from the Nationalist ( pro @-@ Franco ) side of the Spanish Civil War . The Nationalists by now strongly had the upper hand in this war and completed their victory the following year . Later that month the new French Prime Minister , Édouard Daladier , came to London for talks with Chamberlain , and agreed to follow the British position on Czechoslovakia .
In May , Czech border guards shot two Sudeten German farmers who were attempting to cross the border into Czechoslovakia without stopping for border controls . This incident caused unrest among the Sudeten Germans , and Germany was then said to be moving troops to the border . In response to the report , Prague moved troops to the German border . Halifax sent a note to Germany warning that if France intervened in the crisis on Czechoslovakia 's behalf , Britain might support France . Tensions calmed , and Chamberlain and Halifax were applauded for their " masterly " handling of the crisis . Though not known at the time , it later became clear that Germany had had no plans for a May invasion of Czechoslovakia . Nonetheless , the Chamberlain government received strong and almost unanimous support from the British press .
Negotiations between the Czech government and the Sudeten Germans dragged on through mid @-@ 1938 . They achieved little result with Sudeten leader Konrad Henlein under private instructions from Hitler not to reach an agreement . On 3 August , Walter Runciman ( by now Lord Runciman ) travelled to Prague as a mediator sent by the British government . Over the next two weeks , Runciman met separately with Henlein , the Czechoslovak President Edvard Beneš and other leaders , but made no progress . On 30 August Chamberlain met with his Cabinet and Ambassador Henderson and secured their backing — with only First Lord of the Admiralty Duff Cooper dissenting against Chamberlain 's policy to pressure Czechoslovakia into making concessions on the ground that Britain was then in no position to back up any threat to go to war .
Chamberlain realised that Hitler would likely signal his intentions in his 12 September speech at the annual Nuremberg Rally , and so Chamberlain discussed with his advisers how to respond if war seemed likely . In consultation with his close adviser Sir Horace Wilson , Chamberlain set out " Plan Z " . If war seemed inevitable , Chamberlain would fly to Germany to negotiate directly with Hitler .
= = = = September 1938 : Munich = = = =
= = = = = Preliminary meetings = = = = =
Lord Runciman continued his work attempting to pressure the Czechoslovak government into concessions . On 7 September there was an altercation involving Sudeten members of the Czechoslovak parliament in the North @-@ Moravian city of Mährisch @-@ Ostrau . The Germans made considerable propaganda of the incident though the Prague government attempted to conciliate them by dismissing Czech police who had been involved . As the tempest grew Runciman concluded that there was no point in attempting further negotiations until after Hitler 's speech . The mission would never resume .
The final days before Hitler 's speech on the last day of the Rally were spent amidst tremendous tension as Britain , France , and Czechoslovakia all partially mobilised their troops . Thousands gathered outside 10 Downing Street on the night of Hitler 's speech in Nuremberg . At last the Führer addressed his wildly enthusiastic followers :
The condition of the Sudeten Germans is indescribable . It is sought to annihilate them . As human beings they are oppressed and scandalously treated in an intolerable fashion ... The depriving of these people of their rights must come to an end . ... I have stated that the " Reich " would not tolerate any further oppression of these three and a half million Germans , and I would ask the statesmen of foreign countries to be convinced that this is no mere form of words .
The following morning , 13 September , Chamberlain and the Cabinet were informed by secret service sources that all German embassies had been told that Germany would invade Czechoslovakia on 25 September . Convinced that the French would not fight ( Daladier was privately proposing a three @-@ Power summit to settle the Sudeten question ) , Chamberlain decided to implement " Plan Z " and sent a message to Hitler that he was willing to come to Germany to negotiate . Hitler accepted and Chamberlain flew to Germany on the morning of 15 September ; this was the first time , excepting a short jaunt at an industrial fair , that Chamberlain had ever flown . Chamberlain flew to Munich and then journeyed by rail to Hitler 's retreat at Berchtesgaden .
The face to face meeting lasted about three hours . Hitler demanded the annexation of the Sudetenland , and through questioning him , Chamberlain was able to obtain assurances that Hitler had no designs on the remainder of Czechoslovakia or on the areas in Eastern Europe which had German minorities . After the meeting Chamberlain returned to London believing that he had obtained a breathing space during which agreement could be reached and the peace preserved . Under the proposals made at Berchtesgaden the Sudetenland would be annexed by Germany if a plebiscite in the Sudetenland favoured it . Czechoslovakia would receive international guarantees of its independence which would replace existing treaty obligations — principally the French pledge to the Czechoslovaks . The French agreed to the requirements . Under considerable pressure the Czechoslovaks also agreed , causing the Czechoslovak government to fall .
Chamberlain flew back to Germany , meeting Hitler in Bad Godesberg on 22 September . Hitler brushed aside the proposals of the previous meeting , stating " that won 't do any more " . Hitler demanded immediate occupation of the Sudetenland and that Polish and Hungarian territorial claims on Czechoslovakia be addressed . Chamberlain objected strenuously telling Hitler that he had worked to bring the French and Czechoslovaks into line with Germany 's demands , so much so that he had been accused of giving in to dictators and had been booed on his departure that morning . Hitler was unmoved .
That evening , Chamberlain told Lord Halifax that the " meeting with Herr Hitler had been most unsatisfactory " . The following day , Hitler kept Chamberlain waiting until mid @-@ afternoon when he sent a five @-@ page letter , in German , outlining the demands he had spoken of orally the previous day . Chamberlain replied by offering to act as an intermediary with the Czechoslovaks , and suggested that Hitler put his demands in a memorandum which could be circulated to the French and Czechoslovaks .
The leaders met again late on the evening of 23 September — a meeting which stretched into the early morning hours . Hitler demanded that fleeing Czechs in the zones to be occupied take nothing with them . He extended his deadline for occupation of the Sudetenland to 1 October — the date he had long before secretly set for the invasion of Czechoslovakia . The meeting ended amicably with Chamberlain confiding to Hitler his hopes they would be able to work out other problems in Europe in the same spirit . Hitler hinted that the Sudetenland fulfilled his territorial ambitions in Europe . Chamberlain flew back to London , stating " It is up to the Czechs now . "
= = = = = Munich conference = = = = =
Hitler 's proposals met with resistance not only from the French and Czechoslovaks , but also from some members of Chamberlain 's cabinet . With no agreement in sight , war seemed inevitable . The Prime Minister issued a press statement calling on Germany to abandon the threat of force in exchange for British help in obtaining the concessions it sought . On the evening of 27 September , Chamberlain addressed the nation by radio , and after thanking those who wrote to him , stated :
How horrible , fantastic , incredible it is that we should be digging trenches and trying on gas @-@ masks here because of a quarrel in a far @-@ away country between people of whom we know nothing . It seems still more impossible that a quarrel that has already been settled in principle should be the subject of war .
On 28 September , he called on Hitler to invite him to Germany again to seek a solution through a summit involving the British , French , Germans , and Italians . Hitler replied favourably and word of this response came to Chamberlain as he was winding up a speech in the House of Commons which sat in gloomy anticipation of war , Chamberlain informed the House of this in his speech . The response was a passionate demonstration with members cheering Chamberlain wildly . Even diplomats in the galleries applauded . Lord Dunglass later commented , " There were a lot of appeasers in Parliament that day . "
On the morning of 29 September Chamberlain left Heston Aerodrome ( to the east of today 's Heathrow Airport ) for his third and final visit to Germany . On arrival in Munich the British delegation was taken directly to the " Führerbau " where Daladier , Mussolini and Hitler soon arrived . The four leaders and their translators held an informal meeting with Hitler stating that he intended to invade Czechoslovakia on 1 October . Mussolini distributed a proposal similar to Hitler 's Bad Godesberg terms . In fact , the proposal had been drafted by German officials and transmitted to Rome the previous day . The draft was debated by the four leaders and Chamberlain raised the question of compensation for the Czechoslovak government and citizens which Hitler refused to consider .
The leaders were joined by advisers after lunch and hours were spent on long discussions of each clause of the Italian draft agreement . Late that evening the British and French left for their hotels on the grounds that they had to seek advice from their respective capitals . Meanwhile , the Germans and Italians enjoyed the feast which Hitler had intended for all the participants . During this break , Chamberlain adviser Sir Horace Wilson met with the Czechoslovaks informing them of the draft agreement and enquiring which districts particularly were important to them . The Munich Conference resumed about 10 p.m. and was mostly in the hands of a small drafting committee . At 1 : 30 a.m. the Munich Agreement was ready for signing , though a signing ceremony was delayed when Hitler discovered that the ornate inkwell on his desk was empty .
Chamberlain and Daladier returned to their hotel and informed the Czechoslovaks of the agreement . The two Prime Ministers urged quick acceptance by the Czechoslovaks of the agreement since the evacuation by the Czechs was to begin the following day . At 12 : 30 pm the Czechoslovak government in Prague objected to the decision but agreed to its terms .
= = = = = Aftermath and reception = = = = =
Prior to leaving the " Führerbau " , Chamberlain requested a private conference with Hitler which the German leader agreed to , and the two met at Hitler 's apartment in the city later that morning . Chamberlain urged restraint in the implementation of the agreement and requested that the Germans not bomb Prague if the Czechs resisted , to which Hitler seemed agreeable . Chamberlain took from his pocket a paper headed " Anglo – German Agreement " , which contained three paragraphs including a statement that the two nations considered the Munich Agreement " symbolic of the desire of our two people never to go to war again " . According to Chamberlain , Hitler interjected " Ja ! Ja ! " ( " Yes ! Yes ! " ) as the Prime Minister read it . The two men signed the paper then and there . When , later that day , German Foreign Minister Joachim von Ribbentrop remonstrated with Hitler for signing it , the " Führer " replied , " Oh , don 't take it so seriously . That piece of paper is of no further significance whatever . " Chamberlain , on the other hand , when he returned to his hotel for lunch patted his breast pocket and said , " I 've got it ! " Word leaked as to the outcome of the meetings before Chamberlain 's return causing delight among many in London , though causing gloom amongst Churchill and his adherents .
Chamberlain returned to London in triumph . Large crowds mobbed Heston where he was met by the Lord Chamberlain , the Earl of Clarendon , who gave him a letter from King George VI assuring him of the Empire 's lasting gratitude and urging him to come straight to Buckingham Palace to report . The streets were so packed with cheering people that it took Chamberlain an hour and a half to journey the nine miles from Heston to the Palace . After reporting to the King , Chamberlain and his wife appeared on the Palace balcony with the King and his wife , Queen Elizabeth . He then went to Downing Street where both the street and the front hall of Number 10 were packed . As he headed upstairs to address the crowd from a first @-@ floor window someone called to him , " Neville , go up to the window and say ' peace for our time ' . " Chamberlain turned around and responded , " No , I don 't do that sort of thing . " Nevertheless , Chamberlain recalled the words of his predecessor , Benjamin Disraeli and his return from the Congress of Berlin in his statement to the crowd :
My good friends , this is the second time there has come back from Germany to Downing Street peace with honour . I believe it is peace for our time . We thank you from the bottom of our hearts . Now I recommend you go home , and sleep quietly in your beds .
King George issued a statement to his people , " After the magnificent efforts of the Prime Minister in the cause of peace it is my fervent hope that a new era of friendship and prosperity may be dawning among the peoples of the world . " When the King met with Duff Cooper , who resigned as First Lord of the Admiralty over the Munich Agreement , he told Cooper that he respected people who had the courage of their convictions , but could not agree with him . He wrote to his mother , Queen Mary , that " the Prime Minister was delighted with the results of his mission , as are we all " . The dowager queen responded to her son with anger against those who spoke against the Prime Minister : " He brought home peace , why can 't they be grateful ? " Most newspapers supported Chamberlain uncritically , and he received thousands of gifts , from a silver dinner service to many of his trademark umbrellas .
The Commons discussed the Munich Agreement on 3 October . Though Cooper opened by setting forth the reasons for his resignation and Churchill spoke harshly against the pact , no Conservative voted against the government . Only between 20 and 30 abstained , including Churchill , Eden , Cooper and Harold Macmillan .
= = = Path to war ( October 1938 – August 1939 ) = = =
In the aftermath of Munich , Chamberlain continued to pursue a course of cautious rearmament . He told the Cabinet in early October 1938 , " [ I ] t would be madness for the country to stop rearming until we were convinced that other countries would act in the same way . For the time being , therefore , we should relax no particle of effort until our deficiencies had been made good . " However , later in October , he resisted calls to put industry on a war footing , convinced that such an action would show Hitler that the Prime Minister had decided to abandon Munich . Chamberlain hoped that the understanding he had signed with Hitler at Munich would lead toward a general settlement of European disputes . However , Hitler expressed no public interest in following up on the accord . Having considered a general election immediately following Munich Chamberlain instead reshuffled his Cabinet . By the end of the year , however , public concerns caused Chamberlain to conclude that " to get rid of this uneasy and disgruntled House of Commons by a General Election " would be " suicidal " .
Despite Hitler 's relative quietness as the " Reich " absorbed the Sudetenland , foreign policy concerns continued to preoccupy Chamberlain . He made trips to Paris and Rome hoping to persuade the French to hasten their rearmament and to persuade Mussolini to be a positive influence on Hitler . However , several of his Cabinet members , led by the Foreign Secretary Lord Halifax , began to draw away from the appeasement policy . Halifax was now convinced that Munich , though " better than a European war " , had been " a horrid business and humiliating " . Public revulsion over the pogrom of Kristallnacht on 9 November 1938 made any attempt at a " rapprochement " with Hitler unacceptable , though Chamberlain did not abandon his hopes .
Still hoping for reconciliation with Germany , Chamberlain made a major speech at Birmingham on 28 January 1939 in which he expressed his desire for international peace , and had an advance copy sent to Hitler at Berchtesgaden . Hitler seemed to respond ; in his " Reichstag " speech on 30 January 1939 , he stated that he wanted a " long peace " . Chamberlain was confident that improvements in British defence since Munich would bring the dictator to the bargaining table . This belief was reinforced by a German official 's conciliatory speech welcoming Ambassador Henderson back to Berlin after an absence for medical treatment in Britain . Chamberlain responded with a speech in Blackburn on 22 February hoping that the nations would resolve their differences through trade , and was gratified when his comments were printed in German newspapers . With matters appearing to improve Chamberlain 's rule over the House of Commons was firm and he was convinced the government would " romp home " in a late @-@ 1939 election .
On 15 March 1939 , Germany invaded the Czech provinces of Bohemia and Moravia , including Prague . Though Chamberlain 's initial parliamentary response was , according to biographer Nick Smart , " feeble " , within 48 hours he had spoken more forcefully against the German aggression . In 17 March speech given at Birmingham , Chamberlain warned that " no greater mistake could be made than to suppose that because it believes war to be a senseless and cruel thing the nation has so lost its fibre that it will not take part to the utmost of its power in resisting such a challenge if it were ever made " . The Prime Minister questioned whether the invasion of Czechoslovakia was " the end of an old adventure , or the beginning of a new " and whether it was " a step in the direction of an attempt to dominate the world by force " . The Colonial Secretary , Malcolm MacDonald stated , " whereas the Prime Minister was once a strong advocate of peace , he has now definitely swung around to the war point of view " . This speech was met with widespread approval in Britain and recruitment for the armed services increased considerably .
Chamberlain sought to build an interlocking series of defence pacts among the remaining European countries as a means of deterring Hitler from war . He sought an agreement among Britain , France , the USSR and Poland whereby the first three would go to the assistance of Poland if her independence were threatened , but Polish mistrust of the Soviet Union caused those negotiations to fail . Instead , on 31 March 1939 , Chamberlain informed an approving House of Commons of British and French guarantees that they would lend Poland all possible aid in the event of any action which threatened Polish independence . In the ensuing debate Eden stated that the nation was now united behind the government . Even Churchill and Lloyd George praised Chamberlain 's government for issuing the guarantee to Poland .
The Prime Minister took other steps to deter Hitler from aggression . He doubled the size of the Territorial Army , created a Ministry of Supply to expedite the provision of equipment to the armed forces , and instituted peacetime conscription . The Italian invasion of Albania on 7 April 1939 led to guarantees being given to Greece and Romania . On 17 June 1939 , Handley Page received an order for 200 Hampden twin @-@ engined medium bombers , and by 3 September 1939 , the chain of radar stations girdling the British coast was fully operational .
Chamberlain was reluctant to seek military alliance with the Soviet Union , distrusting Joseph Stalin ideologically and feeling that there was little to gain given the massive purges that recently had taken place in the Red Army . However , much of his Cabinet favoured such an alliance , and when Poland withdrew her objection to Anglo – Soviet alliance Chamberlain had little choice but to proceed . The talks with Soviet Foreign Minister Vyacheslav Molotov , to which Britain sent only a low @-@ level delegation , dragged on over several months and eventually foundered on 14 August 1939 when Poland and Romania refused to allow Soviet troops to be stationed on their territories . A week after the failure of these talks the Soviet Union and Germany signed the Molotov @-@ Ribbentrop Pact which committed the countries to non @-@ aggression toward each other . A secret agreement divided up Poland in the event of war . Chamberlain had disregarded rumours of a Soviet @-@ German " rapprochement " , and was dismissive of the publicly announced pact stating that it in no way affected British obligations toward Poland . Nevertheless , on 23 August 1939 , Chamberlain had Henderson deliver a letter to Hitler telling him that Britain was fully prepared to live up to its obligations to Poland . Hitler instructed his generals to prepare for an invasion of Poland , telling them , " Our enemies are small worms . I saw them at Munich . "
= = = War leader ( 1939 – 40 ) = = =
= = = = Declaration of war = = = =
Germany invaded Poland in the early morning hours of 1 September 1939 . The British Cabinet met late that morning and issued a warning to Germany that unless it withdrew from Polish territory Britain would carry out its obligations to Poland . When the House of Commons met at 6 : 00 p.m. , Chamberlain and Labour deputy leader Arthur Greenwood ( deputising for the sick Clement Attlee ) entered the chamber to loud cheers . Chamberlain spoke emotionally , laying the blame for the conflict on Hitler .
No formal declaration of war was immediately made . French Foreign Minister Georges Bonnet stated that France could do nothing until its parliament met on the evening of 2 September . In fact , Bonnet was trying to rally support for a Munich @-@ style summit proposed by the Italians to be held on 5 September . The British Cabinet , however , demanded that Hitler be given an ultimatum at once , and if troops were not withdrawn by the end of 2 September , that war be declared forthwith . Chamberlain and Halifax were convinced by Bonnet 's pleas from Paris that France needed more time for mobilisation and evacuation , and postponed the expiration of the ultimatum ( which had in fact not yet been served ) . The House of Commons received Chamberlain 's lengthy statement , which made no mention of an ultimatum , badly . Greenwood rose to " speak for the working classes " . Conservative backbencher Leo Amery urged Greenwood to " Speak for England , Arthur " , implying that the Prime Minister was not so speaking . Chamberlain replied that telephone difficulties were making it hard to communicate with Paris and tried to dispel fears that the French were weakening . He had little success ; too many members knew of Bonnet 's efforts . National Labour MP and diarist Harold Nicolson later wrote , " In those few minutes he flung away his reputation . " The seeming delay gave rise to fears Chamberlain would again seek a settlement with Hitler . Chamberlain 's last peacetime Cabinet met at 11 : 30 that night , with a thunderstorm raging outside , and determined that the ultimatum would be presented in Berlin at nine o 'clock the following morning — to expire two hours later prior to the House of Commons convening at noon . At 11 : 15 a.m. , Chamberlain addressed the nation by radio stating that the United Kingdom was at war with Germany :
This morning , the British ambassador in Berlin , handed the German government , the final note , stating that unless we heard from them , by 11 o 'clock , that they were prepared at once , to withdraw their troops from Poland , a state of war would exist between us . I have to tell you now , that no such undertaking has been received , and that consequently , this country is now at war with Germany . ... We have a clear conscience ; we have done all that any country could do to establish peace . The situation in which no word given by Germany 's ruler could be trusted , and no people or country could feel itself safe had become intolerable ... Now may God bless you all . May He defend the right . It is the evil things we shall be fighting against — brute force , bad faith , injustice , oppression , and persecution — and against them I am certain that the right will prevail .
That afternoon Chamberlain addressed the House of Commons ' first Sunday session in over 120 years . He spoke to a quiet House in a statement which even opponents termed " restrained and therefore effective " :
Everything that I have worked for , everything that I have hoped for , everything that I have believed in during my public life has crashed into ruins . There is only one thing left for me to do : that is devote what strength and power I have to forwarding the victory of the cause for which we have sacrificed so much .
= = = = " Phoney War " = = = =
Chamberlain instituted a War Cabinet and invited the Labour and Liberal parties to join his government which they declined . He restored Churchill to the Cabinet as First Lord of the Admiralty with a seat in the War Cabinet . Chamberlain also gave Eden a government post ( Dominions Secretary ) but not a seat in the small War Cabinet . The new First Lord proved to be a difficult Cabinet colleague , deluging the Prime Minister with a sea of lengthy memos . Chamberlain castigated Churchill for sending so many memos as unnecessary when the two met in War Cabinet every day . Chamberlain suspected , correctly as it proved after the war , that " these letters are for the purpose of quotation in the Book that he will write hereafter " . Chamberlain was also able to deter some of Churchill 's more extreme plans , such as Operation Catherine , which would have sent several heavily armoured ships into the Baltic Sea with little support and no air cover as a means of stopping shipments of iron ore to Germany . With the naval war the only significant front involving the British in the early months of the war , the First Lord 's obvious desire to wage a ruthless , victorious war established him as a leader @-@ in @-@ waiting in the public consciousness and among parliamentary colleagues .
With little land action in the west , the initial months of the war were dubbed the " Bore War " , later renamed the " Phoney War " by journalists . Chamberlain , in common with most Allied officials and generals , felt the war could be won relatively quickly by keeping economic pressure on Germany through a blockade while continuing rearmament . Chamberlain was reluctant to go too far in altering the British economy . The government submitted an emergency war budget about which Chamberlain stated , " the only thing that matters is to win the war , though we may go bankrupt in the process " . However , actual government expenditures rose by little more than the rate of inflation between September 1939 and March 1940 . Despite these difficulties , Chamberlain still enjoyed approval ratings as high as 68 % and almost 60 % in April 1940 .
= = = = Downfall = = = =
In early 1940 the Allies approved a naval campaign that was devised to seize the northern part of Norway , a neutral country , including the key port of Narvik , and possibly also to seize the iron mines at Gällivare in northern Sweden from which Germany obtained much of its iron ore . Since the Baltic freezes in winters the iron ore was sent by ship south from Narvik during warmer times of the year . The Allies planned to begin by mining Norwegian waters , thus provoking a German reaction in Norway , and then the Allies planned to occupy much of the country . Unforeseen by the Allies , however , Germany had itself planned to occupy Norway , and on 9 April German troops occupied Denmark and began an invasion of Norway . German troops quickly overran much of the country . The Allies sent troops to Norway who met with little success , and on 26 April the War Cabinet ordered a withdrawal . The Prime Minister 's opponents decided to turn the adjournment debate for the Whitsun recess into a challenge to Chamberlain who soon heard about the plan . After initial anger , Chamberlain determined to fight .
What became known as the " Norway debate " opened on 7 May , and lasted for two days . The initial speeches , including Chamberlain 's , were nondescript , but Admiral of the Fleet Sir Roger Keyes , member for Portsmouth North , in full uniform , delivered a withering attack on the conduct of the Norway campaign , though he excluded Churchill from criticism . Leo Amery then delivered a speech which he concluded by echoing Oliver Cromwell 's words on dissolving the Long Parliament : " You have sat here too long for any good you are doing . Depart , I say , and let us have done with you . In the name of God , go ! " When Labour announced that they would call for a division of the House of Commons , Chamberlain called upon his " friends — and I still have some friends in this House — to support the Government tonight " . Though the use of the word " friends " was a conventional term to refer to party colleagues , and , according to biographer Robert Self , many MPs took it that way , it was an " error of judgment " for Chamberlain to refer to party loyalty " when the gravity of the war situation required national unity " . Lloyd George joined the attackers and Churchill concluded the debate with a vigorous speech in support of the government . When the division took place , the government , which had a normal majority of over 200 , prevailed by only 81 , with 38 MPs in receipt of the government whip voting against it , with between 20 and 25 abstaining .
Chamberlain spent much of 9 May in meetings with his Cabinet colleagues . Many Conservative MPs , even those who had voted against the government , indicated on 9 May and in the days following that they did not wish Chamberlain to depart but rather would seek to reconstruct his government . However , Chamberlain decided that he would resign unless the Labour Party was willing to join his government , and so he met with Attlee later that day . Attlee was unwilling but did agree to consult his National Executive then meeting in Bournemouth . Chamberlain favoured Halifax as the next Prime Minister , but Halifax proved reluctant to press his own claims , and Churchill emerged as the choice . The following day Germany invaded the Low Countries and Chamberlain considered remaining in office . However , Attlee confirmed that Labour would not serve under Chamberlain though it was willing to serve under someone else . Chamberlain went to Buckingham Palace to resign and advise the King to send for Churchill . Churchill later expressed gratitude to Chamberlain for not advising the King to send for Halifax who would have commanded the support of most government MPs . In a resignation broadcast that evening , Chamberlain told the nation ,
For the hour has now come when we are to be put to the test , as the innocent people of Holland , Belgium , and France are being tested already . And you and I must rally behind our new leader , and with our united strength , and with unshakable courage fight , and work until this wild beast , which has sprung out of his lair upon us , has been finally disarmed and overthrown .
Queen Elizabeth told Chamberlain that her daughter , Princess Elizabeth wept as she heard the broadcast . Churchill wrote to express his gratitude for Chamberlain 's willingness to stand by him in the nation 's hour of need , and Lord Baldwin , the only living former Prime Minister besides Chamberlain and Lloyd George , wrote , " You have passed through fire since we were talking together only a fortnight ago , and you have come out pure gold . "
= = Lord President of the Council and death = =
In a departure from usual practice , Chamberlain did not issue any resignation Honours list . With Chamberlain remaining leader of the Conservative Party , and with many MPs still supporting him and distrusting the new Prime Minister , Churchill refrained from any purge of Chamberlain loyalists . Churchill wished Chamberlain to return to the Exchequer , which he declined , convinced that accepting would lead to difficulties with the Labour Party . Instead , he accepted the post of Lord President of the Council with a seat in the shrunken five @-@ member War Cabinet . When Chamberlain entered the House of Commons on 13 May 1940 , for the first time since his resignation , " MPs lost their heads , they shouted , they cheered , they waved their order papers , and his reception was a regular ovation . " However , Churchill was received coolly by the House . Some of Churchill 's great speeches to the House , such as " We shall fight on the beaches " , met with only half @-@ hearted enthusiasm there .
His fall from power left Chamberlain deeply depressed , writing , " Few men can have known such a reversal of fortune in so short a time . " He especially regretted the loss of Chequers as " a place where I have been so happy " , though after a farewell visit there by the Chamberlains on 19 June , he wrote " I am content now that I have done that , and shall put Chequers out of my mind . " As Lord President he assumed vast responsibilities over domestic issues and chaired the War Cabinet during Churchill 's many absences . Attlee later remembered him as " free from any of the rancour he might have felt against us . He worked very hard and well : a good chairman , a good committeeman , always very businesslike " . As chairman of the Lord President 's Committee , he exerted great influence over the wartime economy . When Axis feelers for peace reached the War Cabinet on 26 May 1940 , with the Low Countries conquered and France tottering , Halifax urged following up and seeing if the actual offer was worthwhile . The battle over the course of action within the War Cabinet lasted three days , and Chamberlain 's statement on the final day that there was unlikely to be an acceptable offer and that the feelers should not be pursued at that time helped persuade the War Cabinet to reject negotiations .
Twice in May 1940 Churchill broached the subject of bringing Lloyd George into the government . Each time Chamberlain indicated that due to their longtime antipathy he would immediately retire if Lloyd George were appointed a minister . Churchill did not appoint Lloyd George but brought up the subject with Chamberlain again early in June . This time , Chamberlain agreed to Lloyd George 's appointment provided Lloyd George gave a personal assurance to put aside the feud . However , Lloyd George declined to serve in Churchill 's government .
Chamberlain worked to bring his Conservative Party in line behind Churchill , working with the Chief Whip , David Margesson , to overcome members ' suspicions and dislikes of the Prime Minister . On 4 July , after the British attack on the French fleet , Churchill entered the Chamber to a great cheer from Conservative MPs orchestrated by the two , and the Prime Minister was almost overcome with emotion at the first cheer he had received from his own party 's benches since May . Churchill returned the loyalty refusing to consider Labour and Liberal attempts to expel Chamberlain from the government . When criticisms of Chamberlain appeared in the press , and when the former Prime Minister learned that Labour intended to use an upcoming secret session of Parliament as a platform to attack him , Chamberlain told Churchill that he could only defend himself by attacking Labour . The Prime Minister intervened with the Labour Party and the press , and the criticism ceased , according to Chamberlain , " like turning off a tap " .
In July 1940 , a polemic entitled Guilty Men was released by " Cato " — a pseudonym for three journalists ( including future Labour leader Michael Foot ) . It attacked the record of the National Government , alleging that it had failed to prepare adequately for war . It called for the removal of Chamberlain and other ministers who had allegedly contributed to the British disasters of the early part of the war . The short book sold more than 200 @,@ 000 copies , many of which were passed from hand to hand , and went into twenty @-@ seven editions in the first few months despite not being carried by several major bookshops . According to historian David Dutton , " its impact upon Chamberlain 's reputation , both among the general public and within the academic world , was profound indeed " .
Chamberlain had long enjoyed excellent health , except for occasional attacks of gout , but by July 1940 , he was in almost constant pain . He sought treatment , and later that month entered hospital for surgery . Surgeons discovered that he was suffering from terminal bowel cancer , but they concealed it from him , instead telling him that he would not require further surgery . Chamberlain resumed work in mid @-@ August . He returned to his office on 9 September . However , renewed pain , compounded by the night @-@ time bombing of London which forced him to go to an air raid shelter and denied him rest , sapped his energy , and he left London for the last time on 19 September returning to Highfield Park in Heckfield . He offered his resignation to Churchill on 22 September , which the Prime Minister initially was reluctant to accept . However , as both men realised that Chamberlain would never return to work , Churchill finally allowed him to resign . The Prime Minister asked if Chamberlain would accept the highest order of British chivalry , the Order of the Garter , of which his brother had been a member . Chamberlain refused stating that he would " prefer to die plain ' Mr. Chamberlain ' like my father before me , unadorned by any title " .
In the short time remaining to him , Chamberlain was angered by the " short , cold and for the most part depreciatory " press comments on his retirement , according to him written " without the slightest sign of sympathy for the man or even any comprehension that there may be a human tragedy in the background " . However , the King and Queen drove down from Windsor to visit the dying man on 14 October . He received hundreds of sympathetic letters from friends and supporters . He wrote to John Simon , who had served as Chancellor of the Exchequer in Chamberlain 's government :
[ I ] t was the hope of doing something to improve the conditions of life for the poorer people that brought me at past middle life into politics , and it is some satisfaction to me that I was able to carry out some part of my ambition even though its permanency may be challenged by the destruction of war . For the rest I regret nothing that I have done & I can see nothing undone that I ought to have done . I am therefore content to accept the fate that has so suddenly overtaken me .
Chamberlain died of bowel cancer on 9 November 1940 at the age of 71 . His funeral service took place at Westminster Abbey ( due to wartime security concerns , the date and time were not widely publicised ) , and his ashes were interred there next to those of Andrew Bonar Law . Churchill eulogised Chamberlain in the House of Commons three days after his death :
Whatever else history may or may not say about these terrible , tremendous years , we can be sure that Neville Chamberlain acted with perfect sincerity according to his lights and strove to the utmost of his capacity and authority , which were powerful , to save the world from the awful , devastating struggle in which we are now engaged . This alone will stand him in good stead as far as what is called the verdict of history is concerned .
Though some Chamberlain supporters found Churchill 's oratory to be faint praise of the late Prime Minister , Churchill added less publicly , " Whatever shall I do without poor Neville ? I was relying on him to look after the Home Front for me . " Amongst the others who paid tribute to Chamberlain in the Commons and in the House of Lords on 12 November were Lord Halifax , Attlee , and the Liberal Party leader and Air Minister , Sir Archibald Sinclair . Lloyd George , the only former Prime Minister remaining in the Commons , had been expected to speak , but absented himself from the proceedings . Ever close to his family , the executors of Chamberlain 's will were his cousins , Wilfred Byng Kenrick and Sir Wilfrid Martineau ; both of whom , like Chamberlain , were Lord Mayor of Birmingham .
= = Legacy and reputation = =
A few days before his death , Neville Chamberlain wrote ,
So far as my personal reputation is concerned , I am not in the least disturbed about it . The letters which I am still receiving in such vast quantities so unanimously dwell on the same point , namely without Munich the war would have been lost and the Empire destroyed in 1938 ... I do not feel the opposite view ... has a chance of survival . Even if nothing further were to be published giving the true inside story of the past two years I should not fear the historian 's verdict .
Guilty Men was not the only Second World War tract that damaged Chamberlain 's reputation . We Were Not All Wrong , published in 1941 , took a similar tack to Guilty Men , arguing that Liberal and Labour MPs , and a small number of Conservatives , had fought against Chamberlain 's appeasement policies . The author , Liberal MP Geoffrey Mander , had voted against conscription in 1939 . Another polemic against Conservative policies was Why Not Trust the Tories ( 1944 , written by " Gracchus " , who later proved to be future Labour minister Aneurin Bevan ) , which castigated the Conservatives for the foreign policy decisions of Baldwin and Chamberlain . Though a few Conservatives offered their own versions of events , most notably MP Quintin Hogg in his 1945 The Left was Never Right , by the end of the war , there was a very strong public belief that Chamberlain was culpable for serious diplomatic and military misjudgments that had nearly caused Britain 's defeat .
Chamberlain 's reputation was devastated by these attacks from the left . In 1948 , with the publication of The Gathering Storm , the first volume of Churchill 's six @-@ volume set , The Second World War , Chamberlain sustained an even more serious assault from the right . While Churchill stated privately , " this is not history , this is my case " , his series was still hugely influential . Churchill depicted Chamberlain as well @-@ meaning but weak , blind to the threat posed by Hitler , and oblivious to the fact that ( according to Churchill ) Hitler could have been removed from power by a grand coalition of European states . Churchill suggested that the year 's delay between Munich and war worsened Britain 's position , and criticised Chamberlain for both peacetime and wartime decisions . In the years following the publication of Churchill 's books , few historians questioned his judgment .
Anne Chamberlain , the former premier 's widow , suggested that Churchill 's work was filled with matters that " are not real misstatements that could easily be corrected , but wholesale omissions and assumptions that certain things are now recognised as facts which actually have no such position " .
Many of Chamberlain 's family letters and his extensive personal papers were bequeathed by his family in 1974 to the Birmingham University Archives . During the war , the Chamberlain family had commissioned historian Keith Feiling to produce an official biography , and gave him access to Chamberlain 's private diaries and papers . While Feiling had the right of access to official papers as the official biographer of a recently deceased person , he may not have been aware of the provision , and the Cabinet Secretary denied his requests for access .
Though Feiling produced what historian David Dutton described in 2001 as " the most impressive and persuasive single @-@ volume biography " of Chamberlain ( completed during the war and published in 1946 ) , he could not repair the damage already done to Chamberlain 's reputation .
Conservative MP Iain Macleod 's 1961 biography of Chamberlain was the first major biography of a revisionist school of thought on Chamberlain . The same year , A. J. P. Taylor , in his The Origins of the Second World War , found that Chamberlain had adequately rearmed Britain for defence ( though a rearmament designed to defeat Germany would have taken massive additional resources ) and described Munich as " a triumph for all that was best and most enlightened in British life ... [ and ] for those who had courageously denounced the harshness and short @-@ sightedness of Versailles " .
The adoption of the " thirty @-@ year rule " in 1967 made available many of the papers of the Chamberlain government over the subsequent three years , helping to explain why Chamberlain acted as he did . The resultant works greatly fuelled the revisionist school , although they also included books that strongly criticised Chamberlain , such as Keith Middlemas 's 1972 Diplomacy of Illusion ( which portrayed Chamberlain as a seasoned politician with strategic blindness when it came to Germany ) . Released papers indicated that , contrary to claims made in Guilty Men , Chamberlain had neither ignored the advice of the Foreign Office nor had he disregarded and run roughshod over his Cabinet . Other released papers showed that Chamberlain had considered seeking a grand coalition amongst European governments like that later advocated by Churchill , but had rejected it on the ground that the division of Europe into two camps would make war more , not less likely . They also showed that Chamberlain had been advised that the Dominions , pursuing independent foreign policies under the Statute of Westminster , had indicated that Chamberlain could not depend on their help in the event of a Continental war . The Chiefs of Staff report , which indicated that Britain could not forcibly prevent Germany from conquering Czechoslovakia , was first publicly known at this time .
In reaction against the revisionist school of thought regarding Chamberlain a post @-@ revisionist school emerged beginning in the 1990s , using the released papers to justify the initial conclusions of Guilty Men . Oxford historian R. A. C. Parker argued that Chamberlain could have forged a close alliance with France after the Anschluß , in early 1938 , and begun a policy of containment of Germany under the auspices of the League of Nations . While many revisionist writers had suggested that Chamberlain had had few or no choices in his actions , Parker argued that Chamberlain and his colleagues had chosen appeasement over other viable policies . In his two volumes , Chamberlain and Appeasement ( 1993 ) and Churchill and Appeasement ( 2000 ) , Parker stated that Chamberlain , due to his " powerful , obstinate personality " and his skill in debate , caused Britain to embrace appeasement instead of effective deterrence . Parker also suggested that had Churchill held high office in the second half of the 1930s Churchill would have built a series of alliances which would have deterred Hitler , and perhaps would have caused Hitler 's domestic opponents to procure his removal .
Dutton observes that Chamberlain 's reputation , for good or ill , will probably always be closely tied to evaluation of his policy toward Germany :
Whatever else may be said of Chamberlain 's public life his reputation will in the last resort depend upon assessments of this moment [ Munich ] and this policy [ appeasement ] . This was the case when he left office in 1940 and it remains so sixty years later . To expect otherwise is rather like hoping that Pontius Pilate will one day be judged as a successful provincial administrator of the Roman Empire .
= = Honours and styles of address = =
= = = Styles of address = = =
1869 @-@ 1918 : Arthur Neville Chamberlain Esq
1918 @-@ 1922 : The Hon Arthur Neville Chamberlain MP
1922 @-@ 1938 : The Rt Hon Arthur Neville Chamberlain MP
1938 @-@ 1940 : The Rt Hon Arthur Neville Chamberlain MP FRS
= = = Academic = = =
Fellow of the Royal Society ( FRS ) – 1938
Oxford University – DCL
Cambridge University – LLD
Birmingham University – LLD
Bristol University – LLD
Leeds University – LLD
Reading University – DLitt
= = = Freedoms = = =
Honorary Freedom City of Birmingham
Honorary Freedom City of London – conferred 1940 but died before acceptance , the scroll being presented to his widow in 1941
= = = Others = = =
Honorary Air Commodore , No 916 ( County of Warwick ) Balloon Squadron , Auxiliary Air Force – 1939
= = Parliamentary election results = =
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= Death of Jimi Hendrix =
On September 18 , 1970 , the American musician Jimi Hendrix died in London , aged 27 years . One of the most influential guitarists of the 1960s , he was described by the Rock and Roll Hall of Fame as " arguably the greatest instrumentalist in the history of rock music . "
In the days before his death , Hendrix had been in poor health , due in part to fatigue caused by overworking , a chronic lack of sleep , and an illness assumed to be influenza @-@ related . Insecurities about his personal relationships and disillusionment with the music industry had also contributed to his frustration . Although the details of his final hours and death are disputed , Hendrix spent much of his last day with Monika Dannemann . During the morning of September 18 , she found him unresponsive in her apartment at the Samarkand Hotel , 22 Lansdowne Crescent , Notting Hill . She called for an ambulance at 11 : 18 a.m. , and he was taken to St Mary Abbot 's Hospital where an attempt was made to resuscitate him . He was pronounced dead at 12 : 45 p.m.
The post @-@ mortem examination concluded that Hendrix aspirated his own vomit and died of asphyxia while intoxicated with barbiturates . At the inquest , the coroner , finding no evidence of suicide and lacking sufficient evidence of the circumstances , recorded an open verdict . Dannemann stated that Hendrix had taken nine of her prescribed Vesparax sleeping tablets , 18 times the recommended dosage .
On October 1 , 1970 , Hendrix was interred at Greenwood Cemetery in Renton , Washington . In 1992 , his former girlfriend Kathy Etchingham asked British authorities to reopen the investigation into his death . A subsequent inquiry by Scotland Yard proved inconclusive , and in 1993 , they decided against proceeding with the investigation .
= = Background = =
The American musician Jimi Hendrix ( born November 27 , 1942 ) was one of the most influential guitarists of the 1960s . His Rock and Roll Hall of Fame biography says he " was arguably the greatest instrumentalist in the history of rock music . Hendrix expanded the range and vocabulary of the electric guitar into areas no musician had ever ventured before . His boundless drive , technical ability and creative application of such effects as wah @-@ wah and distortion forever transformed the sound of rock and roll . "
During the week before his death , he was dealing with two pending lawsuits , one a paternity case and the other a recording contract dispute that was due to be heard by a UK High Court the following week . He was also troubled with wanting to leave his manager , Michael Jeffery . Hendrix was fatigued and suffering from poor health , due in part to severe exhaustion caused by overworking , a chronic lack of sleep , and a persistent illness assumed to be influenza @-@ related . Lacking trusting personal relationships , his insecurities about the future and disillusionment with the music industry contributed to his frustration .
On September 11 , 1970 , Hendrix gave his final interview in his suite at the Cumberland Hotel in London , where he talked with Keith Altham , a journalist for Record Mirror . During the interview , Hendrix confirmed reports that Billy Cox , the bass player in his band , The Jimi Hendrix Experience , was leaving . Cox , who had been suffering from severe exhaustion and was exhibiting symptoms of paranoia , mutually agreed with Hendrix that they should suspend their plans to collaborate musically . When Altham asked Hendrix : " Do you feel any kind of compulsion to prove yourself as King Guitar " , Hendrix replied : " No , I don 't even let that bother me . Because they say a lot of things about people that , if they let it bother them , they wouldn 't even be around today ... King Guitar now ? Wow , that 's a bit heavy . " Altham also suggested that Hendrix invented psychedelic music , to which he laughed and replied : " A mad scientist approach ... I don 't consider [ my music ] the invention of psychedelic , it 's just asking a lot of questions . "
The following day , Hendrix received a phone call from one of his girlfriends , Devon Wilson , who had become jealous after hearing rumors that he was dating another woman , Kirsten Nefer . Nefer recalled : " I heard Jimi talk to Devon ... she was mad ... she went into fits ... Jimi said ' Devon , get off my back ' " . Hendrix was scheduled to perform in Rotterdam on September 13 , but the show , along with three others , was cancelled due to Cox 's incapacitation . During the evening of September 13 , Nefer visited Hendrix at the Cumberland . After informing him that she would have to go back to work that evening , he convinced her to phone her boss , actor George Lazenby , and ask for the night off . Lazenby became angry and shouted over the phone to Nefer : " You 're nothing but a fucking groupie " , which Hendrix overheard . The exchange upset him , and he told Nefer : " Don 't you ever go out to that guy again " . Nefer explained to him that she had spent six months working on a film with Lazenby and that she did not want to quit her job ; Hendrix eventually agreed . Nefer spent the night with him and left in the morning .
Hendrix spent most of the early afternoon and evening of September 14 discussing his career plans with the record producer Alan Douglas . In the early morning hours of September 15 , he went to London 's Heathrow Airport with Douglas , who was returning to New York . Hendrix 's confidante Sharon Lawrence was in London , and spoke with him that day . Lawrence commented : " Jimi tracked me down , detailing his pressures and discussing the ' so @-@ called friends ' . He was jittery and angry . " According to Lawrence , Hendrix told her : " I can 't sleep . I can 't focus to write any songs . " Later that afternoon , his girlfriend Monika Dannemann arrived at the Cumberland . She and Hendrix then drove to her apartment in the Samarkand Hotel , 22 Lansdowne Crescent , Notting Hill .
During the afternoon of September 15 , Hendrix was asked by his friend Eric Burdon , formerly of the Animals , if he wanted to participate in a jam session at Ronnie Scott 's Jazz Club with Burdon 's newly formed band , War . Hendrix accepted , but when he arrived at the club that evening , he was not allowed to play due to his apparently drug @-@ related disorientation . Burdon commented : " Jimi came down and was well out of it . He ... was wobbling too much to play , so I told him to come back the following night . " Hendrix returned the next night and presented a healthier appearance . The crowd was enthusiastic and impressed by his performance despite his uncharacteristically subdued guitar playing when he sat in with War on " Tobacco Road " and " Mother Earth " . This was the last time Hendrix played guitar in public .
= = Final hours = =
= = = Late morning and early afternoon = = =
Although the details of Hendrix 's last day and death are unclear and widely disputed , he had spent much of September 17 in London with Monika Dannemann . He awoke late that morning at Dannemann 's apartment in the Samarkand Hotel . By around 2 p.m. , he was sitting in a garden area outside the apartment enjoying some tea while she took photographs of him holding his favorite Fender Stratocaster guitar that he called the " black beauty " . In the opinion of author Tony Brown , " Jimi doesn 't look particularly healthy in these photographs : his face seems a little puffy and on only a few of the pictures does he attempt to smile . "
According to Dannemann , by 3 p.m. they had left the apartment to use a bank . They continued on to Kensington Market , where Hendrix signed an autograph for a young boy , purchased a leather jacket , and ordered some shoes . He also briefly spoke with his ex @-@ girlfriend Kathy Etchingham , inviting her to visit him at his hotel that evening at 8 p.m. ; she declined the invitation due to prior engagements and later admitted that she had " regretted it ever since " . Hendrix and Dannemann then went to a Chelsea antiques market , where Hendrix purchased more clothing . After another stop to buy writing paper , which he used to compose his final lyrics , Dannemann and Hendrix drove to his suite at the Cumberland Hotel , meeting Devon Wilson as she walked down King 's Road . Hendrix asked Dannemann to stop the car so that he could get out and talk with Wilson , who invited Hendrix to a party that evening . Dannemann became jealous , giving Wilson a cold stare during the brief meeting . Later , Phillip Harvey invited Dannemann and Hendrix to tea ; they accepted . Prior to their arrival at Harvey 's , they briefly stopped by the Cumberland .
While at the hotel , Hendrix made several telephone calls . Dannemann said he phoned his lawyer Henry Steingarten , asking him to find a way out of his contract with his manager Mike Jeffery , and producer Eddie Kramer , for whom Hendrix left a voice message . Mitch Mitchell said that he called Hendrix at the Cumberland on September 17 , after having been asked to do so by tour manager Gerry Stickells , who had spoken to Hendrix just minutes earlier . Mitchell said that during the phone conversation Hendrix agreed to join him around midnight at the Speakeasy Club for a previously arranged jam session , which included Sly Stone .
= = = Late afternoon and evening = = =
After stopping at the Cumberland , Hendrix and Dannemann accompanied Harvey to his apartment , arriving around 5 : 30 p.m. Hendrix and Dannemann smoked hashish and drank tea and wine with Harvey and two of his female companions while discussing their individual careers . Sometime around 10 p.m. , Dannemann , apparently feeling left out of the conversation and jealous of the attention Hendrix was giving Harvey 's female friends , became visibly upset and stormed out of the flat . Hendrix followed her , and an argument ensued between them during which Dannemann reportedly shouted : " you fucking pig " . Harvey , concerned that their yelling would draw unwanted attention from the police , asked them to quiet down .
Harvey , who had remained silent about the incident out of respect for his English nobleman father , Arthur Vere Harvey , gave an affidavit after his father 's death in 1994 . In his statement , he claims to have been mildly concerned for Hendrix 's safety , worried that Dannemann might " resort to serious physical violence " . According to Harvey , Dannemann " verbally assaulted [ Hendrix ] in the most offensive possible way " . Approximately 30 minutes later , Hendrix re @-@ entered the flat and apologized for the outburst before leaving with Dannemann at 10 : 40 p.m. Dannemann said she then prepared a meal for them at her apartment around 11 p.m. and shared a bottle of wine with Hendrix . Sometime after returning to the apartment , Hendrix took a bath , then wrote a poem titled " The Story of Life " .
= = = Early morning = = =
At approximately 1 : 45 a.m. on Friday , September 18 , Dannemann drove Hendrix to the party Wilson had invited him to earlier that day , which was hosted by Hendrix 's acquaintance and business associate , Pete Cameron . At the party , Hendrix complained to Cameron about business problems , ate some food , and took at least one amphetamine tablet . Approximately 30 minutes later , Dannemann rang the flat 's intercom asking for Hendrix . Another guest , Stella Douglas , asked her to return later . According to guest Angie Burdon , the estranged wife of Eric Burdon of the Animals , when Dannemann came back around 15 minutes later , Douglas used an assertive approach with her to the point of being impolite . Undeterred , Dannemann demanded to speak with Hendrix . Burdon recalled : " [ Hendrix ] got angry because [ Dannemann ] wouldn 't leave him alone . " According to Burdon , other guests at the party shouted out the windows at Dannemann , asking her to leave . Hendrix eventually yielded and spoke with Dannemann before unexpectedly leaving the party around 3 a.m.
Dannemann , the only eyewitness to Hendrix 's final hours , said that sometime after 3 a.m. , she prepared two tuna fish sandwiches for them after arriving back at her basement apartment . Around 4 a.m. , Hendrix , struggling with insomnia after having consumed amphetamines hours earlier , asked her for sleeping tablets . She later said she refused his request hoping he would fall asleep naturally . Dannemann said she surreptitiously took a sleeping tablet sometime around 6 a.m. , with Hendrix still awake . She awoke sometime between 10 and 10 : 20 a.m. to find him sleeping normally in bed next to her . She said she then left to purchase cigarettes , and when she returned around 11 a.m. , found him in bed breathing , although unconscious and unresponsive . She telephoned for an ambulance at 11 : 18 a.m. and one arrived at 11 : 27 a.m.
When ambulance crew members Reg Jones and John Saua arrived at the Samarkand , the door to the flat was wide open , the gas fire was on , the curtains were drawn , and the apartment was dark . The crew called out several times , but after receiving no response , they entered and found Hendrix alone in bed . Dannemann was nowhere to be found . According to Jones : " Well , we had to get the police , we only had [ Hendrix ] and an empty flat , so John ran up and radioed , and got the aspirator ... It was horrific . He was covered in vomit . There was tons of it all over the pillow — black and brown it was . His airway was completely blocked all the way down ... We felt his pulse ... showed a light in his eyes . But there was no response at all . " At 11 : 30 a.m. , police officers Ian Smith and Tom Keene responded to a call for police assistance from the ambulance control centre . Jones commented : " Once the police arrived , which seemed like no time at all , we got [ Hendrix ] off to hospital as quick as we could . "
The ambulance crew left the hotel at approximately 11 : 35 a.m. to take Hendrix to St Mary Abbot 's Hospital and they arrived at 11 : 45 a.m. Medical registrar Dr. Martin Seifert stated : " Jimi was rushed into the [ resuscitation ] room . He was put on a monitor , but it [ ECG trace ] was flat . I pounded his heart [ CPR ] a couple of times , but there was no point , he was dead " . According to Seifert , the attempt to resuscitate Hendrix lasted " just a few minutes " . The surgical registrar , Dr. John Bannister , commented : " He was cold and he was blue . He had all the parameters of someone who had been dead for some time . We worked on him for about half an hour without any response at all . " Bannister pronounced Hendrix dead at 12 : 45 p.m. , on Friday , September 18 , 1970 ; he was 27 years old . He later stated : " On admission he was obviously dead . He had no pulse , no heartbeat , and the attempt to resuscitate him was merely a formality . "
= = Media response = =
During the morning of September 18 , Eric Burdon arrived at the Samarkand sometime before the ambulance crew and found that Hendrix was already dead . Burdon immediately became concerned that police would find drugs at the apartment , and as he was collecting incriminating evidence , he found the poem that Hendrix had written hours earlier , " The Story of Life " . Burdon , who said he had previously discussed suicide and death with Hendrix , assumed the poem was a suicide note . Under this assumption , he made comments to the press regarding his belief that Hendrix had committed suicide that he has since recanted : " I made false statements ... I simply didn 't understand what the situation was . I misread the note ... I thought it was a goodbye " . Dannemann said Hendrix told her : " I want you to keep this [ poem ] forever [ and ] I don 't want you to forget anything that is written . It 's a story about you and me " .
Soon after Bannister pronounced Hendrix dead , a hospital spokesperson told the press : " We don 't know where , how , or why he died , but he died of an overdose . " By that evening , many newspapers in London and New York had printed sensationalized headlines that exploited the death @-@ from @-@ overdose account . Hendrix 's public relations manager , Les Perrin , granted an interview on Dutch radio soon after the hospital announcement . He commented : " Well , all I know is that Mr. Hendrix 's body was taken to St. Mary Abbots Hospital in Kensington , London , at 11 : 45 this morning , and he was certified to be dead on arrival . " At 2 p.m. , BBC Radio 1 reported : " Jimi Hendrix , regarded by millions as one of the most talented and original performers in modern rock music , is dead . " That evening , The New York Times described him as " a genius black musician , a guitarist , singer and composer of brilliantly dramatic power . He spoke in gestures and big as he could imagine and create . "
On September 19 , Dannemann spoke with a journalist for the German tabloid Bild . During the interview , published on September 24 , Dannemann stated : " I loved him , and Jimi loved me ... We were already engaged ... I would then have designed the sleeves for his records ... He could not sleep . So I gave him the tablets . " On September 20 , a reporter from The Daily Telegraph interviewed Dannemann 's brother , Klaus @-@ Peter Dannemann , who stated : " [ Monika ] telephoned me on [ September 19 ] and told me that [ Hendrix ] took nine sleeping tablets . She said that Jimi had told her that he wanted to sleep for a day and a half before he went to America . She told me that he did not intend to kill himself . "
= = Post @-@ mortem = =
To determine the cause of death , the coroner , Gavin Thurston , ordered a post @-@ mortem examination on Hendrix 's body , which was performed on September 21 by Professor Robert Donald Teare , a forensic pathologist . Teare reported that Hendrix was " well nourished and muscular " , and he identified a quarter @-@ inch scar on Hendrix 's left wrist . He said that there were " no stigmata of [ intravenous ] drug addiction . Once these marks are there [ in the skin ] , they never go away . In this case , there were no marks at all . " Although Teare observed that the right side of Hendrix 's heart was widely dilated , he found no evidence of valvular heart disease . He discovered a partially collapsed left lung and 400 ml of fluid in Hendrix 's chest . Both lungs were congested , and vomit was found in the smaller bronchi . According to Teare , Hendrix 's stomach " contained a medium @-@ sized partially digested meal in which rice could be distinguished . " Teare concluded that Hendrix 's kidneys were healthy , and his liver was congested . His " bladder was half full of clear urine . " He stated that Hendrix 's blood alcohol content was 100 mg per 100 ml , " enough to fail a breathalyzer test ... the equivalent of about four pints of beer . " Teare reported that analysis of Hendrix 's blood " revealed a mixture of barbiturates consistent with those from Vesparax " , and he estimated that drug concentrations translated to ingestion of 1 @.@ 8 grams of barbiturate , 20 mg of amphetamine , and 20 mg of cannabis . Teare gave the cause of death as : " Inhalation of vomit due to barbiturate intoxication . " He did not attempt to determine Hendrix 's time of death .
Thurston began an inquest on September 23 , and on September 28 he concluded that Hendrix had aspirated his own vomit and died of asphyxia while intoxicated with barbiturates . Citing " insufficient evidence of [ the ] circumstances " , he recorded an open verdict . He commented : " The cause of death was clearly inhalation of vomit due to barbiturate intoxication , but there is no evidence as to intention to commit suicide ... If the question of intention cannot be answered , then it is proper to find the cause of death and leave it an open verdict . " Dannemann later stated that Hendrix had taken nine of her prescribed Vesparax sleeping tablets . Intended to be taken in half @-@ tablet doses , nine tablets of the powerful sedative amounted to 18 times the recommended amount .
After Hendrix 's body had been embalmed by Desmond Henley , it was flown to Seattle , Washington , on September 29 . After a service at Dunlop Baptist Church on October 1 , he was interred at Greenwood Cemetery in Renton , Washington , the location of his mother 's gravesite . Hendrix 's family and friends traveled in twenty @-@ four limousines . More than two hundred people attended the funeral , including several notable musicians such as the original Experience members Mitch Mitchell and Noel Redding , as well as Miles Davis , John Hammond and Johnny Winter .
= = Inconsistencies and the Scotland Yard inquiry = =
Tony Brown , author of Jimi Hendrix : The Final Days ( 1997 ) , had been in regular contact with Dannemann from 1980 until her death in 1996 . He visited with her on multiple occasions and spoke with her numerous times over the phone . Soon after contacting her , Brown came to the conclusion that her account of the events of Hendrix 's final days " would change from one call to the next . " In the days following Hendrix 's death , she gave two significantly different accounts of the morning of September 18 .
At approximately 4 p.m. on September 18 , Dannemann told Police Sergeant John Shaw : " We went to sleep about 7 a.m. When I woke up at eleven his face was covered in vomit , and he was breathing noisily . I sent for an ambulance , and he was taken to hospital . I also noticed that ten of my sleeping tablets were missing . " In a statement given to P. Weyell of the coroner 's office on September 24 , she said :
I made a sandwich and we talked until about 7 a.m. He then said that he wanted to go to sleep . He took some tablets , and we went to bed . I woke up about 11 : 00 a.m. , and saw that Jimi 's face was covered in vomit . I tried to wake him but could not . I called an ambulance and he was taken to the hospital in Kensington ... Prior to going with him to the hospital , I checked my supply of Vesparax sleeping tablets and found that nine of them were missing .
In Dannemann 's initial statements , she said she awoke at 11 a.m. on September 18 . During the inquest she stated that she awoke at 10 : 20 a.m. , and left to purchase cigarettes , something she had previously failed to mention . In 1971 , she wrote a manuscript in which she said she awoke at 10 a.m. In 1975 , during an interview with author Caesar Glebbeek , Dannemann stated that she awoke at 9 a.m. According to Burdon , Dannemann phoned him as " the first light of dawn was coming through the window . " Stickells said he received a phone call regarding a problem with Hendrix " between 8 a.m. and 9 a.m. " Mitchell said he waited for Hendrix at the Speakeasy Club until they closed at 4 a.m. , and a couple of hours after his hour and a half drive home , he received a phone call from Stickells , who told him Hendrix had died . In her statements to the police and coroner 's office , Dannemann never mentioned telephoning Burdon .
Although Dannemann stated that Hendrix was alive when placed in the ambulance at approximately 11 : 30 a.m. and that she rode with him on the way to the hospital , the ambulance crew later denied she was there . Statements from the paramedics who responded to the call support that they found Hendrix alone in the flat when they arrived at 11 : 27 a.m. , fully clothed and apparently already dead . Jones later commented : " [ When ] we arrived at the flat , the door was flung wide open , nobody about , just the body on the bed . " Saua stated : " There was just me and the casualty and Reg the driver . Nobody else . " Burdon stated : " [ Dannemann ] didn 't leave in the ambulance ; she was with me " . According to Jones , Hendrix 's bowels and bladder had released some of their contents prior to the ambulance crew 's arrival at the Samarkand . Saua stated that the vomit was dry when they arrived , making use of their aspirator ineffective . Saua commented : " When we moved [ Hendrix ] , the gases were gurgling , you get that when someone has died " . According to police officer Smith : " The ambulance men were there , but Jimi was dead ... There was really nothing they could do for him . " Smith also disputes Dannemann 's claim that she was there with Hendrix at the flat and in the ambulance :
No , I remember quite clearly the doors shutting on the crew and Jimi ... there was no one about . If she had been in the flat , they would never have called us to come ... But because no one was there , he was dead , and circumstances were a little odd , suspicious , they radioed ... us in . It wasn 't until later in the day that I found out that it was Jimi Hendrix .
In 1992 , after having conducted an extensive review of the events of September 18 , 1970 , the London Ambulance Service issued an official statement : " There was no one else , except the deceased , at the flat when they arrived ; nor did anyone else accompany them in the ambulance to St. Mary Abbotts Hospital . "
In 1992 , having arranged for a private investigation of Hendrix 's death , Etchingham supplied the results of the effort to UK authorities and requested they reopen the coroner 's inquest . After a several @-@ month inquiry by Scotland Yard , during which every interested party to the events was interviewed , officials were confident the request would be granted . The investigation eventually proved inconclusive in 1993 , when Attorney General Sir Nicholas Lyell decided that proceeding with the investigation would not serve the public , due in part to the excessive time that had passed since Hendrix 's death .
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= Liv Tyler =
Liv Rundgren Tyler ( born Liv Rundgren ; July 1 , 1977 ) is an American actress and former child model . She is the daughter of Aerosmith 's lead singer , Steven Tyler , and model Bebe Buell . Tyler began a career in modeling at the age of 14 but , after less than a year , she decided to focus on acting . After her film debut Silent Fall ( 1994 ) , she appeared in supporting roles in Empire Records ( 1995 ) , Heavy ( 1996 ) and That Thing You Do ! ( 1996 ) . Tyler later achieved critical recognition in the leading role in Bernardo Bertolucci 's Stealing Beauty ( 1996 ) , playing a teenage girl visiting her deceased mother 's artist friends in Italy . She followed this by appearing in supporting roles including Inventing the Abbotts ( 1997 ) and Robert Altman 's black comedy Cookie 's Fortune ( 1999 ) .
Tyler achieved international recognition as a result of her portrayal of Elf maiden Arwen Undómiel in the Lord of the Rings film trilogy ( 2001 – 2003 ) . She has appeared in an eclectic range of films , including the 2004 comedy Jersey Girl , the indie film Lonesome Jim ( 2005 ) , the drama Reign Over Me ( 2007 ) and big @-@ budget studio films such as Armageddon ( 1998 ) , the home invasion horror film The Strangers ( 2008 ) and The Incredible Hulk ( 2008 ) .
In 2014 , Tyler made her television debut on the HBO series The Leftovers in a recurring role .
She has served as a United Nations Children 's Fund ( UNICEF ) Goodwill Ambassador for the United States in 2003 , and as a spokesperson for Givenchy 's line of perfume and cosmetics .
= = Early life = =
Tyler was born Liv Rundgren at Mount Sinai Hospital in East Harlem , New York . She is the only daughter of Bebe Buell , a model , singer , and former Playboy Playmate ( Miss November 1974 ) , and Steven Tyler , the lead singer of Aerosmith . Her mother named her after Norwegian actress Liv Ullmann , after seeing Ullmann on the cover of the March 5 , 1977 issue of TV Guide . She is of Italian , German , Polish , and English ancestry on her father 's side and German ancestry on her mother 's side . Tyler has three half @-@ siblings : Mia Tyler ( born 1978 ) , Chelsea Anna Tallarico ( born 1989 ) , and Taj Monroe Tallarico ( born 1992 ) . Her maternal grandmother , Dorothea Johnson , founded the Protocol School of Washington .
From 1972 to 1979 , Liv ’ s mother Bebe Buell lived with rock musician Todd Rundgren . In 1976 , Buell became unexpectedly pregnant from a brief relationship with Steven Tyler . On July 1 , 1977 , Buell gave birth , naming the daughter Liv Rundgren and claiming that Todd Rundgren was the biological father . Rundgren and Buell ended their romantic relationship but Rundgren put his heart and soul into the " white lie " . At age eight Liv met Steven Tyler and noticed a resemblance she shared with his other daughter , Mia . When she asked her mother about the similarity , the secret was revealed . The truth about Tyler 's paternity did not become public until six years later in 1991 , when she changed her name from Rundgren to Tyler , but kept the former as a middle name . Buell 's stated reason for the initial decision was that Steven was too heavily addicted to drugs at the time of her birth . Since learning the truth about her paternity , Liv and Steven have developed a close relationship . They also have worked together professionally , once when she appeared in Aerosmith 's music video for " Crazy " in 1993 , and again when Aerosmith performed many of the songs in the film Armageddon ( 1998 ) in which Tyler starred .
According to Tyler " ... Todd [ Rundgren ] basically decided when I was born that I needed a father so he signed my birth certificate . He knew that there was a chance that I might not be his but .... " He paid to put her through private school , and she visited him several times a year .
Tyler maintains a close relationship with Rundgren . " I ’ m so grateful to him , I have so much love for him . You know , when he holds me it feels like Daddy . And he ’ s very protective and strong . "
Tyler attended the Congressional Schools of Virginia , Breakwater School , and Waynflete School in Portland , Maine , before returning to New York City with her mother at age 12 . She went to York Preparatory in New York City for junior high and high school after her mother researched the school to accommodate Tyler 's ADHD . She graduated in 1995 and left to continue her acting career . When asked about the way she spent her youth , Tyler said : " For me , I didn ’ t get much of a childhood in my teen years because I ’ ve been working since I was 14 . But that also kept me out of trouble . When everybody was doing acid and partying like crazy , I was at work on a movie in Tuscany ... having my own fun , of course , but it was a different kind of thing . I have no regrets . I love the way my life has gone . "
= = Career = =
= = = Early work = = =
Tyler received her first modeling job at age 14 with the assistance of Paulina Porizkova , who took pictures of her that ended up in Interview magazine . She later starred in television commercials . She , however , became bored with her modeling career less than a year after it started , and decided to go into acting , although she never took acting lessons . Tyler first became known to television audiences when she starred alongside Alicia Silverstone in the music video for Aerosmith 's 1993 song " Crazy " .
= = = 1994 – 1997 : Film debut ; Stealing Beauty = = =
Tyler made her feature film debut in Silent Fall in 1994 , where she played the elder sister of a boy with autism . In 1995 , she starred in the comedy drama Empire Records . Tyler has described Empire Records as " one of the best experiences " she has ever had . Soon after , she landed a supporting role in James Mangold 's 1996 drama Heavy as Callie , a naive young waitress . The film received favorable reviews ; critic Janet Maslin noted : " Ms. Tyler ... gives a charmingly ingenuous performance , betraying no self @-@ consciousness about her lush good looks . "
Tyler had her breakthrough role in the art house film Stealing Beauty ( 1996 ) , in which she played Lucy Harmon , an innocent , romantic teenager who travels to Tuscany , Italy , intent on losing her virginity . The film received generally mixed reviews , but Tyler 's performance was regarded favorably by the critics . Variety wrote : " Tyler is the perfect accomplice . At times sweetly awkward , at others composed and serene , the actress appears to respond effortlessly and intuitively to the camera , creating a rich sense of what Lucy is about that often is not explicit in the dialogue . " Empire noted , " Liv Tyler ( here radiantly resembling a ganglier young Ava Gardner ) with a rare opportunity to enamour , a break she capitalizes on with composure . " The film was directed by Bernardo Bertolucci , who chose Tyler for the role after meeting with a number of young girls in Los Angeles , including Tyler 's music video co @-@ star Alicia Silverstone . Bertolucci said " there was something missing in all of them " . He later said that what he saw in Tyler was a gravitas he described as " a New York aura " . During promotion of the film , Tyler said she wanted to separate herself from the character during production : " I tried my damnedest not to think of my own situation . But at one point , after a take , I just started to cry and cry . I remembered when I found out about my dad and how we just stared at each other from head to toe taking in every nook and cranny . "
She later appeared in That Thing You Do ! ( 1996 ) , a movie about a fictional one @-@ hit wonder rock band called The Wonders , following their whirlwind rise to the top of the pop charts , and just as quickly , their plunge back to obscurity . The film was written and directed by Tom Hanks . It grossed over $ 25 million worldwide , and was met with favorable reviews . The following year , she appeared in Inventing the Abbotts in 1997 , in which she played the daughter of Will Patton and Barbara Williams ' characters . The movie is based on a short story by Sue Miller . Entertainment Weekly declared Tyler 's performance as " lovely and pliant " . That same year , Tyler was chosen by People magazine as one of the 50 Most Beautiful People .
= = = 1998 – 2000 : Mainstream exposure = = =
Tyler next appeared in Armageddon ( 1998 ) , where she played the daughter of Bruce Willis ' character and love interest of Ben Affleck 's character . The film generated mixed reviews , but was a box office success earning $ 553 million worldwide . The movie included the songs " I Don 't Want to Miss a Thing " and " What Kind of Love Are You On " by Aerosmith . In a 2001 interview with The Guardian , she said that she initially turned down the role in Armageddon ; " I really didn 't want to do it at first and I turned it down a couple of times , but the biggest reason I changed my mind was because I was scared of it . I wanted to try it for that very reason . I mean , I 'm not really in this to do amazing things in my career – I just want it to be special when I make a movie . "
She was then cast in the drama Onegin ( 1999 ) , a film based on the 19th century Russian novel of the same name by Alexander Pushkin , in which she portrayed Tatyana Larina and co @-@ starred with Ralph Fiennes . Tyler was required to master an English accent , though Stephen Holden of The New York Times felt that her approximation of an English accent was " inert " . The film was critically and financially unsuccessful . That same year , she appeared in the historical comedy film Plunkett & Macleane .
She later appeared in two films directed by Robert Altman , Cookie 's Fortune ( 1999 ) and Dr. T & the Women ( 2000 ) . In Cookie 's Fortune , she was part of an ensemble cast that included Glenn Close , Julianne Moore , Chris O 'Donnell , and Patricia Neal . Her performance well received among critics ; Salon.com wrote : " This is the first time in which Tyler 's acting is a match for her beauty ( she 's always been a bit forlorn ) . Altman helps her find some snap , but a relaxed , silly snap , as in the cartoon sound she makes when she takes a midday swig of bourbon . The lazy geniality of the movie is summed up by the way Emma [ Tyler 's character ] saunters off to take a swim with her cowboy hat and pint of Wild Turkey . " Entertainment Weekly also noted that Tyler is " sweetly gruff as the tomboy troublemaker " . In the romantic comedy , Dr. T & the Women , she played Marilyn , a gynecological patient of Richard Gere 's character , who is the lesbian lover of his daughter , played by Kate Hudson .
= = = 2001 – 2007 : Lord of the Rings = = =
In 2001 , Tyler played the object of infatuation for three men ( Matt Dillon , John Goodman , and Paul Reiser ) in the comedy One Night at McCool 's . In discussion of the role , she said it was " definitely the first part where I had to be so physically aware and have people so aware of me physically . Maybe it 's not hard for anybody else , but it is a bit for me . I mean I love my body and I feel very comfortable in my skin but this was tough . " Peter Travers of Rolling Stone wrote : " Tyler , a true beauty , gives the role a valiant try , but her range is too limited to play this amalgam of female perfection . "
In 2001 , she starred in the feature film The Lord of the Rings : The Fellowship of the Ring , directed by Peter Jackson . She played the Elf maiden Arwen Undómiel . The film is based on the first volume of J. R. R. Tolkien 's The Lord of the Rings . The filmmakers approached Tyler after seeing her performance in Plunkett & Macleane . She learned to speak the fictitious Elvish language that was created by Tolkien . Mick LaSalle of the San Francisco Chronicle noted that Tyler 's performance was " lovely and earnest " .
A year later , Tyler again starred as Arwen in The Lord of the Rings : The Two Towers , the second installment of the series . The film received favorable reviews . She spent months learning sword fighting to be used during the concluding battle scenes in The Two Towers , but her scenes were removed after the script was changed . The film was an enormous box office success , earning over $ 926 million worldwide , out @-@ grossing its predecessor , which earned over $ 871 million . In 2003 , Tyler featured in the third and last installment of the series , The Lord of the Rings : The Return of the King .
Following the success of The Lord of the Rings , she appeared opposite her Armageddon co @-@ star Ben Affleck in writer @-@ director Kevin Smith 's romantic comedy Jersey Girl ( 2004 ) , playing a woman who meets a widowed father played by Affleck , re @-@ opening his heart to love . In an interview with MTV News , Tyler confessed that she felt " scared and vulnerable " while filming Jersey Girl , adding " I was so used to those other elements of the character [ Arwen ] . On The Lord of the Rings , a lot of things were done in post @-@ production , whereas this was really just about me and Ben sitting there , just shooting off dialogue . " However , she reiterated that doing Jersey Girl was what she wanted to do .
In 2005 , she appeared in Steve Buscemi 's independent drama Lonesome Jim , where she was cast alongside Casey Affleck , as a single mother and nurse who reconnects with an old fling who has returned to their small town in Indiana after a failed run as a novelist in New York . The film was screened at a special presentation at the 2005 Sundance Film Festival where it was nominated for the Grand Jury Prize . Her next appearance in film was in a supporting role as an insightful therapist who tries to help a once @-@ successful dentist ( Adam Sandler ) cope with the loss of his family in the September 11th attacks in Reign Over Me ( 2007 ) .
= = = 2008 – present : Box office hits ; The Leftovers = = =
In 2008 , she starred in the home invasion horror film The Strangers with Scott Speedman , a film about a young couple who are terrorized one night by three masked assailants in their remote country house . Although the film garnered a mixed reception among critics , it was a major box office success , earning over $ 80 million over its considerably smaller $ 9 million budget . In an interview with Entertainment Weekly , she noted that The Strangers was the most challenging role of her career . " It was as far as I could push myself in every way : physically , emotionally , mentally . "
She appeared in The Incredible Hulk ( 2008 ) , in which she played Dr. Betty Ross , the love interest of the title character , played by Edward Norton . Tyler was attracted to the love story in the script , and was a fan of the television show . She said filming the part was " very physical , which was fun " , and compared her performance to " a deer caught in the headlights " . The Incredible Hulk was a box office success , earning over $ 262 million worldwide . The Washington Post , in review of the film , wrote : " Tyler gives Betty an appropriately angelic nimbus of ethereal gentleness as the one Beauty who can tame the Beast ... during their most pivotal encounters . "
Tyler appeared in two films released in 2011 : Super and The Ledge . In April 2011 , publishing house Rodale announced that Tyler and her grandmother Dorothea Johnson , an etiquette expert , have written a book called Modern Manners . It was released October 29 , 2013 .
In 2014 she appeared in Space Station 76 , a film directed by Jack Plotnick , starring also Matt Bomer and Patrick Wilson .
In June 2014 Tyler began appearing as a regular in the HBO television series The Leftovers .
In 2016 Tyler took on a role opposite Bel Powley in the fantasy / horror drama Wildling directed by Fritz Böhm . The film also marks her debut as a producer .
= = Personal life = =
In 1998 , Tyler began dating British musician Royston Langdon of the band Spacehog . She and Langdon became engaged in February 2001 , and married in Barbados on March 25 , 2003 . On December 14 , 2004 , she gave birth to a son , Milo William Langdon . On May 8 , 2008 , the couple confirmed through representatives that they would be separating . In an interview with the Australian Daily Telegraph , Tyler revealed that her separation from Langdon led her to move to Los Angeles , explaining that it was hard to be in the Manhattan home that they had shared . In June 2010 , Tyler stated she was " far too sensitive " for casual dates , adding " I fall in love once in a blue moon . " In September 2014 , Tyler confirmed she was pregnant with her second child ; the father is sports and entertainment manager David Gardner . On February 11 , 2015 Tyler had her second son , Sailor Gene Gardner , who was born six weeks early . On January 8 , 2016 Tyler announced that she was expecting her third child and second with Gardner . Her third child and first daughter , Lula Rose Gardner , was born on July 10 , 2016 .
Tyler was formerly a vegan , but later began to eat meat . In 2003 , she became the spokesperson for Givenchy perfume and cosmetics ; in 2005 the brand named a rose after her , which was used in one of its fragrances . In 2009 , Tyler signed on for two more years as Givenchy spokesperson . On December 8 , 2011 , Givenchy announced a collaboration between Givenchy perfumes and Sony Music . In the video released on February 7 , 2012 , Liv Tyler covered the INXS song " Need You Tonight " .
Tyler learned Transcendental Meditation in New York City . In December 2012 she participated in a charity gala for the David Lynch Foundation to provide Transcendental Meditation to disadvantaged sections of society . At the event she said , " it helps me make better decisions and be a better mother , and just deal with the daily stress of the modern world that we live in . It helps with everything . "
= = = Activism = = =
Tyler is an active supporter of the charitable United Nations Children 's Fund ( UNICEF ) . She was appointed as a Goodwill Ambassador for the United States in 2003 . In November 2004 , she hosted the lighting of the UNICEF Snowflake in New York City . Tyler also served as spokesperson for the 2004 Givenchy Mother 's Day promotion , in support of UNICEF 's Maternal & Neonatal Tetanus ( MNT ) campaign .
Since 2004 , she has donated to the Women 's Cancer Research Fund to support innovative research , education , and outreach directed at the development of more effective approaches to the early diagnosis , treatment and prevention of all women 's cancers . In October 2007 , Tyler , along with her mother , Bebe Buell and her grandmother , Dorothea Johnson , helped launch the Emergen @-@ C Pink energy drink , in which the event was in honor of Breast Cancer Awareness month .
= = Filmography = =
= = = Television = = =
= = Discography = =
= = = Singles = = =
2012 : " Need You Tonight " ( Music Of Very Irresistible Givenchy Electric Rose ) : cover of INXS song
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= Sleepy Hollow Country Club =
Sleepy Hollow Country Club is a historic country club in Scarborough @-@ on @-@ Hudson in Briarcliff Manor , New York . The club was founded in 1911 , and its clubhouse was known as Woodlea , a 140 @-@ room , Vanderbilt mansion owned by Colonel Elliott Fitch Shepard and his wife Margaret Louisa Vanderbilt Shepard . It was built in 1892 – 95 at a cost of $ 2 million ( $ 52 @.@ 7 million in 2015 ) and was designed by the architectural firm McKim , Mead & White ; the estate became a contributing property to the Scarborough Historic District ( on the National Register of Historic Places ) in 1984 .
Woodlea 's exterior was designed in an English Renaissance Revival style , incorporating Beaux @-@ Arts details . The building 's facades are composed primarily of buff @-@ colored Italian brick . The south and west facades are symmetrical , but the overall plan of the house is not . The house 's west facade is the longest and most ornate , and has a view of the Hudson River from its west @-@ facing windows and adjoining terrace . The main entrance is on the building 's south , directly approached from the south drive . The interior also has significant features , including marble fireplaces , coffered ceilings , and extensive carved wood and plaster detail . The house has between 65 @,@ 000 and 70 @,@ 000 square feet ( 6 @,@ 039 and 6 @,@ 503 m2 ) of interior space , making it one of the largest privately @-@ owned houses in the United States .
= = Club = =
The club currently has 338 acres ( 0 @.@ 5 sq mi ) and a 27 @-@ hole golf course with tree @-@ limb footbridges . Facilities include the main clubhouse , a pool complex , ten Har @-@ Tru tennis courts , four aluminum heated platform tennis courts , four squash courts , eighteen guest rooms , skeet and trap areas , a 45 @-@ horse boarding facility , twenty paddocks , a large indoor riding arena , pro shops for golf and paddle sports , a fitness complex , the golf course and practice range ( non @-@ contributing ) , outdoor riding rings , stables , and a carriage house . Youth activities include golf , tennis , squash and riding . The clubhouse has three dining rooms , and altogether the club can hold 400 guests . The club currently has 570 members , and a staff consisting of 60 year @-@ round employees and 200 during the height of the season . The stables have a tack room , fifty stalls , and two indoor arenas , and they host the Sleepy Hollow Stable and Riding Academy . The club 's gross revenue is $ 12 million ; of it , $ 2 @.@ 5 million is from food and beverage sales . The club property surrounds Saint Mary 's Episcopal Church on three sides and slopes upwards east from U.S. Route 9 . The clubhouse , which is open through every season of the year , sits on a wide central plateau . Notable early members included George G. Haven , V. Everit Macy , George W. Perkins , Moses Taylor , Oakleigh Thorne , and Frank Vanderlip ; notable current members include Bill Murray , James Patterson , and several members of the Rockefeller family .
= = History = =
= = = Name = = =
Sleepy Hollow Country Club , founded in 1911 , predates the 1996 renaming of the neighboring village of North Tarrytown to Sleepy Hollow . The club is named after its location in the river valley of the Pocantico River , a river which was once called Slapershaven ( " sleepers ' harbor " in Dutch ) ; the Dutch name later grew to apply to the valley . Today , as a geographic term , " Sleepy Hollow " refers only to the incorporated village .
= = = 19th century = = =
Sleepy Hollow 's clubhouse was once a private residence named Woodlea . The mansion retained the name of a former house of J. Butler Wright , who lived there and called it Woodlea ; it dates to around 1806 . Wright 's Victorian house , of painted brick with porches and a high tower on one end , was later renamed the Villa . Colonel Elliott Fitch Shepard came to the Briarcliff area in the early 1890s , and having purchased the house and its 500 @-@ acre ( 0 @.@ 8 sq mi ) property , ordered construction of the existing house and improvements to the grounds . Construction on the mansion began in 1892 , and it was completed in 1895 . In 1892 Shepard ordered the construction of Scarborough 's first dock ( at the present Scarborough Park ) to allow construction materials to be shipped to his property . Shepard died in 1893 , leaving his wife Margaret to oversee the completion of Woodlea . After his death , Margaret lived there only during spring and autumn , with less frequent trips as time went on . In November 1896 , Maria Louisa Kissam ( Margaret 's mother and widow of William Henry Vanderbilt ) died in the house . Maria 's sister and Margaret called for a Scarborough doctor who was unable to assist her . By 1900 , Margaret began selling property to Frank Vanderlip and William Rockefeller , and she sold the house to the two men in 1910 . Vanderlip thought of it as too big of a bargain to pass up – the Shepards had already spent $ 2 million ( $ 50 @.@ 8 million in 2015 ) on the property , and Margaret had offered it for only $ 165 @,@ 000 ( $ 4 @,@ 190 @,@ 400 in 2015 ) . Narcissa Vanderlip thought the house too large and grand to live in , and so the Vanderlips stayed in their nearby property of Beechwood .
= = = 20th century to the present = = =
The two men assembled a board of directors to form a country club , including future Titanic victim John Jacob Astor IV , coal baron Edward Julius Berwind , cotillion leaders Elisha Dyer and Lispenard Stewart , and sportsmen W. Averell Harriman , Cornelius Vanderbilt III , and Harrison A. Williams . The country club was incorporated on May 11 , 1911 , with 600 members . The directors ' first meeting took place at Vanderlip 's office at 55 Wall St. , the National City Bank Building ( Vanderlip was the president of the bank at the time ) . Initiation and yearly dues were each $ 100 ( $ 2 @,@ 500 in 2015 ) . For the first few years , the club rented Woodlea for $ 25 @,@ 000 ( $ 634 @,@ 900 in 2015 ) a year , and in 1912 the club purchased the property from Vanderlip and Rockefeller for $ 350 @,@ 000 ( $ 8 @,@ 582 @,@ 200 in 2015 ) . The club then constructed the golf course in close harmony to the existing lawns , and also built an outdoor garden theater with clipped cedars and a 16th @-@ century Italian portal . The club ended up paying $ 310 @,@ 000 for the land and house , and spent another $ 100 @,@ 000 on improvements . The club spent four years , starting in 1910 , rearranging the house 's kitchen , pantries , and service wing to house and serve more people , and in renovating one of the stables into a garage . The club also constructed more tennis courts and a toboggan slide for use in the winter . The grounds had been designed by the sons of Frederick Law Olmsted from 1895 to 1901 , using American and foreign trees ; the club had Charles B. Macdonald and Seth Raynor design the first golf course in 1911 , and A. W. Tillinghast designed an update in 1935 , succeeded by Gil Hanse 's redesign from 18 to 27 holes around 2008 .
In 1917 the club had 1 @,@ 000 members , and its president was Frank Vanderlip . In June of that year , William Rockefeller purchased 387 acres ( 0 @.@ 6 sq mi ) for the club , bringing its area to 480 acres ( 0 @.@ 8 sq mi ) ( the house was originally sold with only 93 acres ( 0 @.@ 1 sq mi ) ) . Rockefeller spent $ 600 @,@ 000 ( $ 11 @,@ 082 @,@ 100 in 2015 ) , making it the largest single real estate transaction in the county . The purchases allowed for the construction of about 40 houses on the club property . New facilities were built in the 1920s , including a manager 's house , skeet house , squash house , indoor riding ring , and swimming pool . The club had operated at a loss from the beginning , and after the Wall Street Crash of 1929 , club members were not successful in maintaining their wealth , and membership declined . Cuts were made – horses were sold , Woodlea was closed except for special occasions , and the golf house became the primary clubhouse . 5 @-@ acre ( 0 @.@ 008 sq mi ) building lots north of Woodlea were sold to members . The club was also not successful during World War II and later ; in 1950 a member could stay overnight at Woodlea for $ 5 ( $ 49 in 2015 ) , and for less in the golf house . The first formal dance that year also cost $ 5 a person . In 1961 , in time for the club 's 50th anniversary , Woodlea was redecorated with more modern fabrics , warm gold and forest green carpets , dropped lighting , and some lowered ceilings .
Original to the house , and occupying its northwest terrace against its service wing , was an Italian garden with vine @-@ clad pergolas on each side , symmetrical gravel paths , marble benches , and long stone balustrades , giving it characteristics of a hanging garden . The garden was below the house 's first floor , and was built against the hillside , occupying a portion of the slope that falls far below it . The lower walls of the house were screened with a row of large cedars planted on the highest part of the garden . The garden formed an immense rectangular space , and on the four sides of the terrace there were pergolas thickly overgrown with vines . In the center was a pool and fountain . Walks and beds of flowers and shrubbery occupied the rest , visible from the west @-@ facing windows of the house .
The garden was demolished in the 1960s , as was the golf house ( in 1967 ) . In the garden 's location and replacing the use of the golf house , a wing was added to the clubhouse , constructed on the northeast terrace and completed in 1962 . The building holds a pro shop , dining facilities , and locker rooms . The structure was designed to be spacious and convenient and not be noticeable from the grounds below , although from Woodlea , the sight of the tar roof and ventilators was noted to be worse than the prior standing gardens . In 2014 the country club expanded and renovated the snack bar building , renovated the locker room building exterior , constructed a large array of solar panels on the roof of the locker room and dining facility building , and performed other renovations . Replacing the golf house 's location , a pool facility and tennis shop was constructed in 1968 .
= = Architecture = =
= = = Woodlea = = =
The architect of Woodlea is variously stated as McKim , Mead & White , and Stanford White , although according to William Mitchell Kendall in his 1920 list of the firm 's works , he attributes the house 's design to McKim , Mead & White , with W. R. Mead as the supervising architect .
= = = = Exterior = = = =
Woodlea 's exterior was designed in an English Renaissance Revival style . The house is said to have been modeled after Kimberley Hall in Kimberley , Norfolk . Its classical devices of 18th @-@ century English architecture include urns , pediments , columns , and balusters . The house also is a full @-@ blown expression of the American Renaissance . Woodlea incorporates characteristics of the Beaux @-@ Arts style of architecture – the exterior dictates the use of the interior , with family and guest rooms on the third floor . At the north end of the house , situated farthest from the main entrance , and of a size larger than most houses , is the service wing , which contains the servant quarters . Compared to the rest of the house , this wing has lower ceilings , smaller windows , and less exterior trim . In the early 1900s , the wing was clad in ivy .
Woodlea is constructed of buff @-@ colored pressed Italian brick with pale stone trim . It is three stories tall , seven bays wide , and more than fourteen bays deep . The south and west facades are both symmetrical , although the house has an asymmetrical overall plan . The house has pedimented pavilions and entrance porticos on the west , south , and east ; window trim consisting of stone surrounds , pediments , lintels , and sills ; classical balusters and quoins . The house 's third story is separated visually by a stone string course and is topped with a modillioned cornice . From a shallow hipped roof rise brick chimneys that are trimmed and capped with stone . The pavilion pediments have decorative urn @-@ shaped elements . The house 's windows are primarily rectangular , double hung , one @-@ over @-@ one panel style , except for a large triple Palladian window , which has stained glass and is situated midway up the house 's main staircase , illuminating its lower steps . The house has distinctive quoins , pediments , and classical balustrades of pale gray limestone .
The west facade of the house is the most ornate , and faces the Hudson River , with a view of the river from its terrace and west @-@ facing windows . The curtain wall between the facade 's pavilions contains a semicircular portico , and its entablature is upheld by Ionic columns , and supports a balustrade . A flight of semicircular steps descends to the terrace . The river front is parallel with the east front , which had a porte @-@ cochère , a minor entrance , and a service entrance . The main entrance is at the building 's south , directly approached by the south drive . The entrance is recessed , with a portico of Ionic columns over the entranceway .
The house has been described as " low and spreading , notwithstanding its unusual height " . It has between 65 @,@ 000 and 70 @,@ 000 square feet ( 6 @,@ 000 and 6 @,@ 500 m2 ) , making it one of the largest houses in the U.S. The property has about three miles of wide driveways .
= = = = Interior = = = =
The house also has significant interior features , including marble fireplaces , wood paneling , coffered ceilings , window and door architraves , parquet floors , and extensive carved wood and plaster detail , primarily in the Adamesque mold . The original furnishings together were reported in 1895 to have cost hundreds of thousands of dollars , and to have included rare tapestries , carved woods , paintings , and Italian marble .
In 1906 , the house had 16 bathrooms and 65 rooms , including 20 for servants . The house 's main door opens into a square vaulted vestibule , walled throughout with highly polished yellow marble . It leads into the main hall , which is paneled to the ceiling in wood , painted white , the corners and angles accentuated by pilasters , and the rich mahogany doors encased within monumental frames . The white ceiling is intricately coffered . The hall has a large fireplace of carved white marble and a large table in the room 's center , which was on a large red rug covering most of the floor . The first floor also has an enfilade of three rooms : the green silk- and cedar @-@ paneled living room , the white and gold drawing room , and the dark mahogany dining room . The three rooms have a span or linear distance of over 150 feet . A corridor connects the main hall to three rooms ; it has recessed windows , dividing the corridor into bays . The corridor has pilasters and the same coffered ceiling of the main hall , and it used to have heavy velvet curtains at the window alcoves and entrance to the hallway ; the windows had curtains of delicate salmon silk .
The first room from the corridor was the living room , with a wainscot , pilasters , cornice , and door and window frames all of Spanish cedar , and a mantelpiece imported from an Italian chateau . Walls are paneled in green silk , mirroring the rug and furnishings . The drawing room , music room , or parlor was at the center , with paneled walls in ivory white and gold , with gilded moldings and ornaments . There are richly interlaced panels above the doorways with paintings inserted in them . The mantle is of mottled purple and white marble , and has a built @-@ in mirror above it . The room has richly gilt chandeliers hanging from ornamental reliefs in the otherwise plain ceiling . Furniture was of tapestry and gold , with a light rug and yellow and gold curtains at the windows and doors .
The dining room had a high wainscot of mahogany , paneled in rectangles , above which is a broad tapestry frieze . The ceiling is beamed with closely set beams , and the cornice is mahogany like the other woodwork . The room is lighted by the cluster of lights applied to the wainscot . The house 's pantry was " as large as many New York apartments " , had a counter and wash bowls and large rows of glazed closets around other walls . The kitchen and serving room had a refrigerator and were well stocked and equipped . The breakfast room was green and white , woodwork painted white , walls covered in Nile green cloth ; it had a wood mantel with facings of mottled white marble . Adjoining is the morning @-@ room , finished in quartered oak , with walls papered in red stripes of two shades , has a quartered oak wainscot and white cornice , curtains and furniture are red and gold .
The library is on the right of the hall , removed from the other rooms ; it once held a billiard table . The walls are lined with tall bookcases , and were otherwise covered in large square panel @-@ like pieces of leather . The room has a richly coffered ceiling and had green and brown curtains . The house has bedrooms of various sizes , most large , with Mrs. Shepard 's the biggest . Each room has distinct furnishings and from moderate to rich decoration . One particular was the Moorish room , furnished in the Moorish style , with mantel and furniture inlaid with mother of pearl . The third floor had bedrooms , a children 's suite and a large playroom .
The house 's room arrangement was planned for convenience and comfort , as compared to typical English mansions , which often were built with kitchens far from the dining room . Woodlea has 140 rooms , which were designed not to be drafty , and with important rooms not too remote . The rooms are all over @-@ scaled in terms of the height of the ceilings and size of the doors , with large fireplaces , and the length and breadth of the stairway to the house 's second floor .
= = = Stable = = =
The stable was designed by McKim , Mead & White and built in the late 19th century using the same yellow brick used for the main residence . The stable is two and a half stories high , 29 bays wide , and 5 bays deep , and it has a gable roof covered with asbestos shingles that replaced its original ceramic tile . On the roof 's ridge sits a shallow monitor , flanked by two taller octangular monitors with louvered ventilating elements and bell @-@ cast copper roofs .
The end bays of the west ( main ) facade are framed in pedimented pavilions , which have recessed brick panels above the impost line , and below it are bricks coursed to resemble rustication . One glazed roundel is at the middle of each tympanum . The pedimented central bay has an arched recessed entrance with a pair of oversized double wood doors beneath a fanlight . The arch is flanked with blind roundels above the impost line , with rustication below . The bay 's tympanum is undecorated . The arch impost line continues as a belt course between the pavilions and forms the sills for recessed wood @-@ framed , fixed @-@ sashed , nine @-@ light windows on the building 's second level . The windows are divided by Doric pilasters .
Fenestration at the main facade 's lower level is only narrow wood @-@ framed double @-@ hung glazed embrasures with two @-@ over @-@ two sash . The facades have a denticulated cornice , repeated within the pediments and arched pavilion lintels . The stable is built into a hill , and has a partial basement level with 51 stalls .
The two @-@ story interior space on the first floor was originally used for carriages and then for automobiles , and now is used as an indoor exercising ring for the horses occupying the stalls below . In the end pavilions , there is a reception area , tack room , and small apartment designed to be occupied by the riding instructor .
= = = Golf house = = =
In the 1920s , the old Butler Wright house became the golf house . It was at the center of the club 's sporting operations , originally holding a pro shop , dining room , bar , and bedrooms . In 1931 , it was refurbished with more showers and dressing rooms , an addition to the locker room to double its space and increase the lounge space , an enlarged kitchen , a new women 's locker room and sitting room , a larger dining veranda , an enclosed porch on the northwest corner of the building , and a new porch on the building 's east side . The club 's first pool was constructed adjoining the house in 1930 , necessitating the construction of the showers and dressing rooms . The building was demolished in 1967 .
= = = Gatehouses = = =
Both of the country club 's Route 9 entrances have a gatehouse . Both are small , two stories high , three bays wide , and one bay deep , and were constructed along with the house in the 1890s . The gatehouses resemble Woodlea in materials and simplified stylistic detail . Both gatehouses have gable roofs and a shed @-@ roofed one @-@ story high rear addition . The houses have stone and brick pedimented porticos over their entranceways . The lower @-@ level windows have flat @-@ arched surrounds with keystones ; the oculi break the cornice lines beneath segmentally arched pediments . The northern gatehouse has another one @-@ story rear addition and a small one @-@ car garage . The club 's gates are made of French @-@ imported carved stone and ironwork .
= = = Pool house = = =
The pool house was built in 1968 and is brick with wood @-@ framed casement windows . It is a divided brick building with locker rooms on the larger west section and a refreshment area on the smaller east section . The west section has a flat roof , and the east section has a shallow hipped roof with a broad overhang . The building does not contribute to the former historic estate .
= = = Skeet house = = =
The skeet house was built around 1925 , and is a small one @-@ story log building , three bays wide and one bay deep with a gable roof . The interior is rustic , with a small kitchen and one large multi @-@ purpose room . The building contributes to the estate 's early 20th century development .
= = = Logan Memorial Riding Ring = = =
The 17 @,@ 000 @-@ square @-@ foot ( 1 @,@ 600 m2 ) building , originally named the Logan Riding Ring , was completed in 1929 . Mrs. Thomas F. Logan , an Ardsley resident and member of the Sleepy Hollow Riding Committee , funded the building 's $ 300 @,@ 000 expense ( $ 3 @.@ 54 million in 2015 ) and supervised its construction . The building has a length of 180 feet and a width of 95 feet . Its exterior is stucco over concrete block ; the building has a main section with a round @-@ arched asbestos @-@ shingled roof , and is two stories high , five bays wide ( 95 feet ( 29 m ) ) , and ten bays deep ( 180 feet ( 55 m ) ) . The building has narrow metal @-@ framed tripartite casement windows with brick sills . The upper , eight @-@ light sections of the windows open horizontally , and the lower portions with sixteen lights open vertically ; the central twenty @-@ light sections are fixed . The structure 's bays are divided on the side facades by sloping concrete ground @-@ to @-@ cornice buttresses , paired at the intersections of the side and rear facades . Around 1931 , an exhibition ring and corrals were constructed near the riding ring .
The main ( west ) facade has a projecting two and a half @-@ story gable roof section that is three bays wide and two deep . Decorative detail on the exterior includes quoins , the James Gibbs @-@ inspired surround on the main entrance , and the molded surrounds and keystones of the casement windows . In the northwest corner of the intersection between the building 's two sections is a one @-@ story @-@ high , one @-@ bay @-@ square addition with a narrow metal casement window on the west facade and a large double entrance for horses on the north . The building 's interior consists of a large riding ring that is open to the rafters , and in the gable @-@ roofed section , there are lockers and changing rooms on the first floor and a multi @-@ purpose room on the second ; on one of its walls is a floor @-@ to @-@ ceiling window permitting view of the ring activity below .
= = = Squash house = = =
The squash house was constructed around 1920 , completed in 1931 , and was demolished between 2011 and 2013 . It was located near the Logan Riding Ring , on the club 's south entrance road . It was two stories high , five bays wide and nine bays deep , and was stucco @-@ covered with a flat roof . There were two entrances on the main ( south ) facade , one at ground level and another on the balcony . The entrances had double wooden doors , paneled below and glazed above . All of the building 's windows consisted of wood @-@ framed , paired casement windows with brick sills . A veranda with Tuscan piers extended the length of the main facade , interrupted by a two @-@ bay @-@ wide , one @-@ bay @-@ deep projection east of the main entrance . The building 's interior contained a doubles court , two singles courts , a reception room , locker rooms , showers , and a spectators ' gallery seating 150 . Across the road from where the building stood is an outdoor riding ring enclosed by a rough rail fence . To the west of the building 's site , standing alone in the tall grass , is a 16th @-@ century post @-@ and @-@ lintel stone element , which was at the center of the stage of a 1 @,@ 500 @-@ seat outdoor Greek amphitheater that was part of the Shepard estate and was since dismantled .
= = = Former manager 's house = = =
The manager 's house was built of brick and stucco around 1920 . It is two stories high , four bays wide , two bays deep , and has an asymmetrical plan . The building has a shallow hip roof with exposed rafter ends . Its windows are primarily one @-@ over @-@ one and double @-@ hung with wood trim , with window @-@ sills made of concrete . There is a three @-@ story rectangular brick tower set into the main ( west ) facade . The tower is open at the top beneath a wide wood fascia . The building has a brick chimney decorated with corbelling ; its chimney coping and caps are made of concrete . The building is now rented to the members .
= = = Carriage barn complex = = =
The carriage barn complex predates the Shepards ' ownership of the property ; it was built around 1875 as part of Wright 's original estate . The most prominent component is the brick carriage house , which was designed by McKim , Mead & White . It is made of brick with granite trim and is one and a half stories high , ten bays wide and three bays deep . It has a steeply pitched slate hip roof with spring eaves and exposed rafters . At the roof 's ridge sits an octagonal ventilating element with a bell @-@ cast roof .
On the main ( north ) facade , there is a two @-@ bay @-@ wide projection with a hip roof and two wall dormers . There is a large roof dormer on the side ( east ) facade which provides exterior access to the hayloft . Other fenestration includes small square windows with fixed sashes near the eaves on all facades and four double @-@ hung windows , two per level , in the main facade 's pavilion . Each end facade has a set of large double wood carriage doors . The complex now serves as a storage and maintenance facility for the club 's golf carts .
Opposite the carriage barn is another building , also of brick but with a low hip roof . It is one story high , one bay deep and five bays wide . There are three sets of overhead doors on the main ( south ) facade of the building . A high brick wall encloses the entire complex , and sections of the corner utility structures are a part of the surrounding wall . There is a small building in the northeast corner of the complex ; it is one bay square with a steep hip roof with spring eaves . It has single round windows near the root line , on two facades . The building 's entrance , on the south facade , is made of wood . The building has a counterpart across the yard , with a low hip roof , a large brick chimney , and a stone water table and string course ; it has overhead doors on the north facade .
= = Popular culture = =
In the 2011 – 12 television show Pan Am , Sleepy Hollow Country Club was the setting for much of the series ' third episode . Other media filmed at the country club include the 2012 show 666 Park Avenue , the 2009 – present show The Good Wife , the 2009 film The Six Wives of Henry Lefay , the 2006 – 13 show 30 Rock , the 2009 television special Michael J. Fox : Adventures of an Incurable Optimist , the 2010 film The Bounty Hunter , and the music video of Beyoncé 's 2011 song " Best Thing I Never Had " .
= = Scorecard = =
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= To SquarePants or Not to SquarePants =
" To SquarePants or Not to SquarePants " , also known as " To SquarePants or Not to " , is the 9th episode of the sixth season and the 109th overall episode of the American animated television series SpongeBob SquarePants . It originally aired on Nickelodeon in the United States on July 17 , 2009 .
The series follows the adventures and endeavors of the title character and his various friends in the underwater city of Bikini Bottom . In this episode , SpongeBob 's pants have shrunk in the dryer . Unable to find a new pair , he tries round pants , but no one seems to recognizes him as SpongeBob RoundPants .
The episode was directed by Alan Smart , and was written by Luke Brookshier , Nate Cash , and Steven Banks . On July 21 , 2009 , the DVD version of the episode was released . Upon release , the episode received positive reviews .
= = Plot summary = =
It is laundry day , and SpongeBob is drying a whole load of his " square pants " . But while all his pants are in the dryer , SpongeBob gets distracted by Patrick who wants SpongeBob to hear him make funny sounds with his tongue for a long time . Eventually , SpongeBob goes to check on his pants which all shrunk in the dryer ; he heads to the mail to buy new pairs . Upon hearing there will not be another shipping of " square pants " for months , SpongeBob tries out several different styles of pants at the mall until he finally chooses a pair of " round pants " .
SpongeBob wanders around town and Patrick is unable to recognize him because of the new pants , SpongeBob is greeted by Sandy who teases SpongeBob by pretending she does not recognize him and makes comments about his clothes in a good way . SpongeBob sees Squidward who also pretends he does not know him . SpongeBob heads home , although Patrick does not let him in because the house belongs to SpongeBob SquarePants before he " left " .
Feeling discouraged by the idea nobody knows who he is , SpongeBob decides to start a new life as " SpongeBob RoundPants " , to which he decides to re @-@ apply to his job at the Krusty Krab . When he meets Squidward at the restaurant , SpongeBob acts as if this is his first time applying at the Krusty Krab and has never met Squidward before . Squidward decides to take advantage of this by training SpongeBob to act like him , a horrible employee , in hopes SpongeBob will later get fired . After a series of complaints from the customers , Mr. Krabs confronts SpongeBob for his lousy work , to which SpongeBob explains since he has new pants , he is no longer " SpongeBob SquarePants " . Mr. Krabs then convinces SpongeBob he should take his pants off then . SpongeBob , no longer wearing pants , then continues to be his normal self and go back to being a good employee . When Sandy comes in seeing SpongeBob in his underwear , however , she ( teasingly ) calls him " SpongeBob UnderPants " , SpongeBob looks at his underwear and screams , ending the episode .
= = Production = =
" To SquarePants or Not to SquarePants " was written by Luke Brookshier , Nate Cash , and Steven Banks , and was directed by Alan Smart . Brookshier and Cash also functioned as storyboard directors . The episode originally aired on Nickelodeon in the United States on July 17 , 2009 , with a TV @-@ Y7 parental rating .
The episode was a part of the network 's tenth anniversary celebration of SpongeBob SquarePants . Starting July 17 , 2009 at 8 : 00 pm EDT , Nickelodeon aired a 50 @-@ hour SpongeBob marathon titled " The Ultimate SpongeBob SpongeBash Weekend " . The marathon started with the premiere of " To SquarePants or Not to SquarePants " at 8 pm .
On July 21 , 2009 , the episode became available on the DVD compilation of the same name , along with fellow sixth season episodes " Squid 's Visit " , " The Splinter " , " Slide Whistle Stooges " , " Boating Buddies " , " The Krabby Kronicle " , " The Slumber Party " , and " Grooming Gary " . " To SquarePants or Not to SquarePants " was also released on the series ' season six DVD compilation .
= = Reception = =
The episode and its DVD release received positive reviews . Paul Mavis of DVD Talk positively responded to the episode and wrote that " There are laughs in ' To SquarePants or Not to SquarePants . ' " Gordon Sullivan of DVD Verdict gave the episode a score of 5 out of 10 and said " [ the episode ] was one of the slighter entries [ on the DVD ] , with the core joke being fairly well @-@ handled with no one recognizing SpongeBob , but it went on just a little too long . April Pohren of the Blogcritics said " [ the episode ] is original and comical . "
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= Tales of Hearts =
Tales of Hearts ( Japanese : テイルズオブハーツ , Hepburn : Teiruzu Obu Hātsu ) is a Japanese role @-@ playing game released for the Nintendo DS in Japan and the PlayStation Vita worldwide . It is the eleventh main entry in the Tales series , developed by Namco Tales Studio and published by Bandai Namco Games . The Japan @-@ exclusive DS version received two editions : the " Anime Edition , " featuring cutscenes by Production I.G , and the " CG Movie Edition , " featuring CGI cutscenes created by Shirogumi Ltd . A remake of the game , Tales of Hearts R ( テイルズオブハーツ アール , Teiruzu Obu Hātsu Āru ) , was released on the Vita in March 2013 and later released in western regions in November 2014 . Hearts R was also ported to iOS and released in Japan in October 2013 although it was pulled from the App Store on March 31 , 2016 , and therefore no longer available for download . Hearts R was developed by 7th Chord and includes staff from Bandai Namco Studios .
The game follows main protagonist Kor Meteor after he discovers a woman named Kohaku Hearts and her brother Hisui near his home town . When Kohaku is attacked by a mysterious antagonist named Incarose and infected by a monster called a xerom , Kor attempts to cure her using his Soma , an ancient weapon designed to fight xerom . In the process , he ends up shattering Kohaku 's Spiria , the essence of her heart and emotions , and scattering the pieces across the world . Together with Hisui , Kor sets off with Kohaku on a quest to restore her Spiria . Its characteristic genre name , a concept used extensively in the Tales series , is Kokoro to deau RPG ( 心と出会うRPG ? , lit . " A Meeting Between Hearts RPG " ) . It represents the game 's central theme of people 's hearts uniting to overcome strife . For Hearts R , extra story scenes were created and the genre name was altered to Aratana kokoro to deau RPG ( 新たな心と出会うRPG ? , lit . " A New Meeting Between Hearts RPG " ) .
Hearts began production in the winter of 2006 , during the final development stages of the PlayStation 2 remake of Tales of Destiny . It was produced by Hideo Baba , the former brand manager for the series . Though the third title on the DS , it was the first portable title to be developed by Namco Tales Studio . The remake was mostly handled by different development staff , but the writer and character designer both returned to add new content . Both versions of the game have received strong sales and highly positive reviews in Japan , with the DS version selling 260 @,@ 000 units by 2009 . Reviews of the DS version have been positive overall , while western reviews of Hearts R have been mixed to positive .
= = Gameplay = =
Like previous entries in the Tales series , Tales of Hearts is an action role @-@ playing game . The game is split into two main areas : the field map and battlefield arenas triggered upon encountering an enemy . The battle arenas are fully rendered and played out in 2D . Characters are rendered outside pre @-@ rendered cutscenes as 2D character sprites against 3D backgrounds . For the original Nintendo DS version , the top screen shows the main visuals , while the bottom screen shows the navigation map and other functions . Battles are triggered by running into enemy sprites rather than appearing as random encounters . As with previous titles , Skits , extra conversations between characters , are available for the player to trigger .
The battle system is a variant on the Linear Motion Battle System ( LMBS ) from multiple Tales titles : an action @-@ based combat system similar to a fighting game : button commands instantly trigger various attacks and actions , and different attacks string together to form combos . The system used in Hearts is called the " Combination Aerial LMBS " . Up to three characters participate in battle , with one controlled by the player and the other two controlled via artificial intelligence . The two AI characters be assigned to perform different actions such as healing or attacking . The " Combination " element refers to a special gauge that fills up and can be used to perform special attacks with party members not assigned in battle . A second " Emotion " gauge determines how many moves a character can perform : the gauge fills while the character is blocking , and is depleted by performing actions . The lower the gauge is , the lower a character 's defenses are . Characters can employ special attacks called " Combination Blasters , " Hearts ' take on the series ' staple Mystic Artes ( " Hi @-@ Ougis " in the Japanese version ) . Defeated enemies drop items and materials that can be used to level up character abilities , with certain combinations of items yielding certain abilities and skills . Once enough skills have been learned , a character 's weapon can be upgraded via three separate skill trees , with the abilities and power of the character changing according to the choice of skills beforehand .
For the PlayStation Vita remake , the gameplay takes place in 3D environments with fully rendered character models . Along with including a fourth AI @-@ controlled character in battle , Hearts R uses a redesigned battle system titled the Aerial Chase Linear Motion Battle System ( called " Arc Chase " in the Japanese version ) . The " chase link " mechanic enables a character to follow an enemy after knocking it into the air and continue a combo attack . By selecting an ally at the right moment , the player character can perform a Chase Cross attack , while holding down the attack button activates a finishing move . Multiple items found in chests scattered across the land can be used in battle ( such as curative items ) and for obstacles and objects in the field areas . Multiple elements from the series , including cooking healing recipes , are included . Random encounters with enemies on the field are also present . Characters level up using Soma Build Points ( SBP ) , with the " soma " being a character 's signature weapon and points causing the Soma to evolve , granting new abilities . SBPs are assigned to character stat values called Spir Parameters , which strengthen different character stats . Mystic Artes from the original game are carried over , along with new ones . Also added are Union Artes , special attacks unique to a particular character pairing . Characters can be assigned special accessories called " Combo Commands " : activated by a specific set of button presses , the accessory grants a character full access to all their Artes for a limited time .
= = Plot = =
= = = Setting = = =
Tales of Hearts is set on the worlds of Organica and Minera ( known to Organicans as the " white moon " ) , with the events of the story mostly taking place on Organica . Two millennia before the present day , Minera was in a state of war with itself , and Organica 's inhabitants were used by the Minerans as a food source for organic weapons called xeroms . The xeroms were designed to attack Spirias , the crystalline essence of a person 's emotions , and either destroyed them or infected them with an ailment known as despir . Some Minerans who sympathized with the Organicans ' plight and wishes for peace provided them with weapons to fight off the xerom , called Soma . In the present day , after Minera was destroyed , the xerom continue to threaten the people of Minera and the people who bear Somas and fight the creatures are called Somatics . Other remnants of the Mineran civilization left on the planet include the airship fortress Mysticete , mostly known to the Organicans as the " Forest of Thorns " , and mechanoids , machines with synthetic Spirias who acted as guardians to important Minerans . During the events of Hearts , Organica is under the united rule of the Maximus Empire , which waged a war against the world 's other factions eighteen years before in a conflict called the " Unification War " .
= = = Characters = = =
Kor Meteor
A boy with a strong curiosity for the world , Kor lives on an isolated island with his grandfather Sydan . Encountering Kohaku and Hisui and venturing beyond his town for the first time , his grandfather is killed by Incarose . His attempt to save Kohaku from an attack of despir unwittingly causes her Spiria to shatter , prompting Kor to join Hisui and Kohaku in an effort to restore her . By the end of the game he has developed romantic feelings for Kohaku . His name is Shing Meteoryte ( シング ・ メテオライト , Shingu Meteoraito ) in the original Japanese . His first name was based on the Japanese words " shin " ( 心 ) and " gu " ( 具 ) , which was intended to mean that he " is armed with a heart . " His surname was taken from the English word " meteorite " . Kor is voiced by Tetsuya Kakihara .
Kohaku Hearts ( コハク ・ ハーツ , Kohaku Hātsu , Kohak Hearts in Japanese )
A girl who travels the world with her brother searching for a Soma , guided on her quest by Lithia . Attacked by Incarose and infected by a xerom , Kor 's attempt to save her ends up shattering her Spiria , rendering her virtually emotionless . During the course of the game , she develops romantic feelings for Kor . Kohaku 's first name is the Japanese word for " amber " . Her name is alternately translated as " Amber Hearts " . Kohaku is voiced by Marina Inoue .
Hisui Hearts ( ヒスイ ・ ハーツ , Hisui Hātsu )
Kohaku 's older brother . Because of the circumstances of their mother 's death , he is overprotective of his sister . He is initially distant and cold towards Kor because of the latter 's actions with Kohaku , but gradually comes around . Hisui 's first name is the Japanese word for " jade " . His name is alternately translated as " Jadeite Hearts " . Hisui is voiced by Masaya Matsukaze .
Ines Lorenzen ( イネス ・ ローレンツ , Inesu Rōrentsu , Innes Lorenz in Japanese )
A woman who is the manager and sole employee of the transport shop " Wanderlust " . Possessed of superhuman strength , she initially accompanies the group to help sell her wares . Her surname is based on the mineral lorenzenite . Ines is voiced by Shizuka Itō .
Beryl Benito ( ベリル ・ ベニト , Beriru Benito )
A girl who ran away from her village to become a court painter , she is easily conned due to her inexperience of the world and prone to be nihilistic . Her name is directly drawn from both the eponymous gemstone and the mineral benitoite . Beryl is voiced by Saeko Chiba .
Kunzite ( クンツァイト , Kuntsaito )
A guardian knight hidden from the public by those currently using him , he is an ancient machine constructed with functions that mimic and understand human emotions , giving him the equivalent of a heart . He was created as Richea 's guardian . His name is one of the names for spodumene . Kunzite is voiced by Hozumi Gōda .
Chalcedony Akerman ( カルセドニー ・ アーカム , Karusedonii Aakamu , Calcedny Arcome in Japanese )
The leader of the Crystal Knights , Chalcedony has been a skilled swordsman from childhood , and is initially antagonistic towards the protagonists . Originally a non @-@ player character ( NPC ) in Hearts , he is included as a playable character in Hearts R. Chalcedony is voiced by Hiroshi Kamiya .
Gall Gruner ( ガラド ・ グリナス , Garado Gurinasu , Galando Grinus in Japanese )
A veteran Somatic who joins Kor 's group in the hope of destroying the Xerom . He became a master after his wife and daughter were killed by Xerom , and becomes attached to Kohaku as she reminds him of his daughter . Initially cold and distant , he begins to show a lighter side while traveling with the group . Gall is voiced by Hideo Ishikawa .
= = = Story = = =
Note : Aside from the addition of Gall and Chalcedony 's presence in the late section of the game , the plots of Hearts and Hearts R are the same .
Kor Meteor , a young man living on a remote island with his grandfather Sydan and being trained as a Somatic , encounters Kohaku and Hisui Hearts outside his village : they are fleeing from the female mechanoid Incarose and are seeking a Soma . After finding one on the island , the island is attacked by Incarose and a group of xerom . During the conflict , Sydan is fatally injured by Incarose and Kohaku is infected with despir . Despite his inexperience , Kor enters Kohaku to destroy the infection . While there , he encounters a Mineran called Lithia Spodumene , who has been using Kohaku as a host . Sensing a hostile presence inside Kor during an angry outburst from him , Lithia causes Kohaku 's Spiria to shatter : aside from one fragment , the pieces are scattered across the world . Feeling responsible , Kor chooses to go with Hisui to restore Kohaku 's Spiria . During their quest , they are joined by Somatic Gall , Ines , Beryl , Kunzite , and reluctantly Chalcedony : through their early encounters with him , they become involved in a conflict between the Maximus Empire 's military and religious authorities . They are also opposed by Silver , the head of a rebel militant group who wants to use Mineran technology to topple the Empire and create a new world order . They eventually arrive at the fortress Mysticete , where they retrieve the final piece from Silver and are forced to kill him when he fuses with a xerom . It is then revealed that Kor holds the consciousness of Creed Graphite , a hostile Mineran and Incarose 's master , within him . Creed and Litha , within their respective hosts , briefly do battle , but the effort on Lithia 's part breaks a seal containing their physical forms , allowing the two Minerans to return to them .
The group escape Mysticete with Lithia , who explains that in an effort to stop the warring on Minera , Creed , Lithia and her sister Fluora created Gardenia , a xerom capable of remotely absorbing Spirias . Though intended to quell violent thoughts in the population , Gardenia went berserk when activated and absorbed every Spiria on Minera , calcifying the planet . Fluora used herself to seal Gardenia away , and when Creed attempted to free Fluora , Lithia interfered , causing both to be separated from their physical forms : since then , they have been living in Organican hosts and battling each other for two millennia . Creed , who still believes the Minerans are alive within Gardenia , intends to undo Fluora 's work and rebuilding Minera at the cost of Organica and its people . In the aftermath , Kohaku and Kor find out how Lithia and Creed ended up inside them : eighteen years before , Creed and Lithia were respectively in the bodies of Zirconia , then @-@ ruler of the Maximus Empire , and Iola Hearts , Kohaku 's mother . Iola faced Zirconia with a group of Somatics that included Sydan and Kor 's mother Kardia , who was then carrying him . During their final battle , Iola 's Spiria was shattered , forcing Lithia to transfer herself into the unborn Kohaku 's Spiria , and Creed was forced to abandon his host , leaving Zirconia emotionally scarred . Creed attempted to possess Kardia 's child , but with help from the unborn Kor , she succeeded in sealing Creed away with Kor 's help at the cost of her Spiria . Though Kor is initially disheartened by these revelations , Kohaku helps bring him round .
With Creed controlling Mysticete and xerom attacking people across the planet , the group , along with Peridot and Pyrox , manage to unite the disputing factions of the Maximus Empire . With the world now united against the xerom , they set off to find the means of turning Chalcedony 's wing @-@ based Soma into an airship for their use . In gathering the final component inside an active volcano , Incarose attacks them and the group are forced to leave Peridot and Pyrox to die . After this , Lithia is shown to be dying , as her Spiria is in a severely weakened condition , but she resolves to live until her mission is complete . During their first assault on Mysticete , the group are repelled and end up on Minera . Finding their way to a transport tower that can take them to Gardenia , they have a final confrontation with Incarose , who is defeated and forced to provide the power for their journey at the cost of her life . Reaching Gardenia , the two are unable to prevent Creed from freeing Fluora and activating Gardenia . Gardenia instantly absorbs Fluora , and Creed fuses with it in an attempt to gain control over it . When he is defeated , Kor and Kohaku , together with his friends and the still @-@ living Mineran Spirias , destroy Gardenia , then escape as Creed dies with Gardenia . After learning that the Minerans have a chance of being reborn , Kunzite saves the dying Lithia by sealing her inside his Spiria and entering a comatose state . After this , the rest of the group return to Kor 's home village , where Kor and Kohaku confirm their love for each other .
= = Development = =
Hearts began development in the winter of 2006 , while debugging was being performed on the PlayStation 2 remake of Tales of Destiny , though active development did not begin until spring the following year . The production was headed by Hideo Baba , producing his first original Tales game , and the development team was made up of members from both " Team Symphonia " ( the team behind 3D entries in the series ) and " Team Destiny " ( responsible for 2D titles ) . Multiple development assets were borrowed from the Destiny remake for use in Hearts . The earliest form of the game was as a DS remake of Destiny . The game 's characteristic genre name , a recurring feature of the series in Japan , was Kokoro to deau RPG ( 心と出会うRPG ? , lit . " A Meeting Between Hearts RPG " ) , which represented the core theme of people 's hearts meeting and uniting to overcome difficulties in their lives . The characters were designed by regular Tales series designer Mutsumi Inomata . Inomata worked on the designs while she was also working on character designs for Tales of Innocence , and found it hard working on both titles at once . The characters ' names were inspired by various ores and gemstones . More conventional names were repeatedly suggested and rejected .
Despite being the third Tales title on the Nintendo DS after Tales of the Tempest and Innocence , it was the first to be produced by Namco Tales Studio , and thus it was an unusual experience for the development team . According to director Naoto Miyadera , one of the most difficult aspects was creating a suitable interface and fitting the game 's content on the limited hardware , which required a trial @-@ and @-@ error programming process . During the early phases , the team considered ways of using the DS touch screen during battles , but this was eventually scrapped and the final game made little to no use of the feature . Production I.G created the anime cutscenes , while Shirogumi Ltd created CGI cutscenes for a separate edition of the game . The CGI cutscenes were worked on by a three @-@ person team , including company director Manabu Koike : the three worked closely with the development team to make sure the cutscenes fit properly into the game , and that they did justice to Inomata 's character designs despite the different animation style . One issue they had was lip @-@ synching dialog to the CGI character models . The main reason behind the creation of CGI cutscenes was that the team wanted to try something new , attempting to sell two versions of the games . Hearts was released as two separate game editions : the " Anime Edition " , featuring the cutscenes by Production I.G , and " CG Movie Edition " , using the Shirogumi cutscenes . After release , it was determined that the CGI cutscenes were less popular with fans . Speaking to Siliconera after the game 's release , Baba said that it was the Tales game he most wanted western players to try out , due to its story and technical achievements .
= = = Hearts R = = =
Hearts R was primarily developed by Japan @-@ based developer 7th Chord , with staff from in @-@ house development studio Bandai Namco Studios helping with development . The game was a complete remake of Hearts , featuring full voice acting for the main scenario , new playable characters , 3D graphics and over ten new anime cutscenes created by Production I.G. in addition to the " Anime Edition " cutscenes already present . Due to the poor reception of the " CG Edition " by the fanbase , it was decided not to use CGI cutscenes again . It was given an altered genre name : Aratana kokoro to deau RPG ( 新たな心と出会うRPG ? , lit . " A New Meeting Between Hearts RPG " ) . The staff of the game also had differences : Hironori Naoi replaced Kazuhisa Oomi as director , while Takashi Yota ( also known under the alias " Ryuji Odate " ) and Mika Murakita produced the game in place of Baba . Inomata returned as character designer .
The concept behind Hearts R was to leave the base story and theme intact while building on and improving it , using the development of Innocence R as a template . It was developed alongside Innocence R , and many staff overlapped on the projects . Naoi joined the team in early 2012 , after finishing work on Tales of the Heroes : Twin Brave , and was the principle developer for the new combat system . In the middle of development , the " Chase Link " system was added based on a similar gameplay mechanic from Innocence R. Naoki Yamanoto , the scenario writer for Hearts , returned to co @-@ write the extra story content with Keishi Maeda . For the rebuilt battle system , the team were asked by Baba to create a sense of speed when compared with the original . Along with the gameplay and story additions , two new playable characters were introduced : Chalcedony and new character Gall Gruner . Chalcedony , originally an antagonist in Hearts , was included in the playable cast to fully explore the character 's relationship with Kor . Gall was originally conceived as a woman , but at a suggestion from Murakita for a mature leader figure for the group , Gall was changed to a man . Inomota 's design was based on a picture of Yota wearing sunglasses . The narrative connection to Innocence R was initially unplanned , but positive fan reception prompted the team to add it in .
= = = Audio = = =
Heart 's soundtrack was composed by veteran Tales composer Motoi Sakuraba , Hiroshi Tamura and Shinji Tamura ( as Hibiki Aoyama ) . The official soundtrack album , Tales of Hearts Original Soundtrack , was published by BMG Japan on two compact discs on December 10 , 2008 . In addition to the original soundtrack , a special disc of selected arranged tracks titled Tales of Hearts CG Movie Edition Visual & Original Soundtrack DVD was released alongside the " CG Movie Edition " of the game . Reviews of the soundtrack have been mixed . RPGFan 's Patrick Gann both called it the best soundtrack of the three Nnintendo DS Tales games and a weaker soundtrack than the console @-@ based Tales games . Max Nevill of Game @-@ OST was also mixed , feeling that the album was too much like previous Tales scores by Sakuraba . Some tracks did please him , but he noted that some might not find them to their taste . The music featured in Hearts R was re @-@ arranged and added to by Kazuhiro Nakamura and Sakuraba .
The game 's theme song , " Eien no Ashita " ( 永遠の明日 , " Eternal Tomorrow " ) , was written and performed by Japanese rock band Deen , who had previously performed the theme song for the original version of Destiny . The single reached 6th place in the Oricon charts during its first week of release and remained in the charts for eight weeks . Both Gann and Nevill praised the song and the multiple versions found in the soundtrack : Nevill called it " a charismatic and emotional rock ballad " , while Gann referred to it as " a great opening single " .
= = Release = =
In order to compete against Square Enix 's PlayStation Portable exclusive Dissidia Final Fantasy , which was releasing on the same day as Hearts , the company heavily promoted the game at several events and offered multiple pre @-@ order bonuses for buyers . The original version of Hearts has not been released in the west , and a fan translation for this version was released in 2009 . Hearts R came as both a standard edition and a special edition titled " Linked Edition " , which included a Vita and accessories themed after the game . First print copies of Hearts R gave access to a special downloadable game called Tales of Hearts R : Infinite Evolve . Rendered in the same graphic style as Hearts , it is a game separate from the main story with an exponentially increasing difficulty level . At release , DLC outfits for the characters were created themed around " idol " , " school " , " maid " and " butler " . Another set was based around protagonists from previous Tales games . Hearts R was also ported to and released on iOS mobile devices in October 2013 exclusively in Japan .
= = = Vita version = = =
Speculation about the existence of Hearts R started back in early 2012 . The game was first teased during the credits of Innocence R , with both a post @-@ credits message saying " To be continued to next Re @-@ imagination " , and artwork in certain dungeons featuring scenes and characters from both Hearts and Tempest . This caused speculation as to whether the next remake was Tempest , Hearts or both . Hearts R was officially announced in Weekly Shōnen Jump in October 2012 .
The localization of the title was originally unplanned , but during heavy promotion of the Tales series in Europe and North America alongside the domestic release of Innocence R and Hearts R , there were multiple requests from the western fanbase to bring the titles west : as Hearts R was the most recent title , it was chosen for localization . The localization was officially announced in April 2014 . Unlike previous localizations , the game remained with Japanese voice acting , but with subtitles in multiple languages . This decision was influenced both by limited space on the Vita cartridge and fan requests for the original Japanese voice track . The North American physical release was exclusive to video game retail line GameStop . It also received a digital release on PlayStation Store . For its European release , a special day @-@ one " Soma Linked Edition " was created : it featured three costumes from Tales of Vesperia . The edition also included a code to enter a competition for five autographed Japanese Collector 's Editions of Hearts R , which would include a special congratulatory video from Baba and a personalized case featuring the winner 's name . Pre @-@ order downloadable content in the form of character costumes was also created . The costume DLC was also made available in North America from selected stores . The stores also had a limited digital release of the game alongside the physical release . Hearts R is compatible with the PlayStation TV .
= = = Media adaptations = = =
Hearts R received a manga adaptation of the same name . The manga was eventually collected into a single volume and released under the title Tales of Hearts R Comic Anthology ( テイルズ オブ ハーツ R コミックアンソロジー , Teiruzu Obu Hātsu R Komikku Ansorojī ) on 25 June 2013 . An official strategy guide , Tales of Hearts R Official Complete Guide ( テイルズ オブ ハーツR 公式コンプリートガイド , Teiruzu Obu Hātsu R Kōshiki Konpurīto Gaido ) , was released on 14 March 2013 . Five audio dramas based on Hearts were produced after the release of the official soundtrack , released under the general name of Tales of Hearts Drama CD ( テイルズ オブ ハーツ ドラマＣＤ , Teiruzu Obu Hātsu Dorama CD ) .
= = Reception = =
= = = Nintendo DS = = =
Bandai Namco had high expectations for Hearts , preparing shipments of 400 @,@ 000 units , based on previous high sales they had for Innocence . During its week of release , Hearts reached fourth place in Famitsu 's sales charts and fifth place in Dengeki 's . It sold 137 @,@ 000 units in its week of release , more than Innocence in a similar period : the " Anime Edition " accounted for 122 @,@ 000 units , while the " CG Movie " edition sold 15 @,@ 000 . According to Famitsu , Hearts sold a slightly higher 140 @,@ 000 units in its first week . By the end of the year , both versions of the game together had sold 176 @,@ 526 units , placing # 72 in Famitsu 's list of 2008 's 100 best @-@ selling titles . As of 2009 , the game has sold 260 @,@ 000 units .
Famitsu gave the game 33 / 40 points from four reviewers . They praised the battles as being " plain fun " , there being " a ton of volume to the story " and both the anime and CG cutscenes . Their main criticism was that there was little difference between the two versions besides the cutscenes . Japanese gaming site Game Watch Impress was greatly positive about most aspects , saying it would fully satisfy fans of the series despite some elements falling below expectations for the series . Andrew Barker of RPGFan , reviewing an imported version of the " Anime Edition " of Hearts , was highly positive : he praised the story for straying from the normal course of a Tales narrative , called the graphics " outstanding " , the music " excellent " , and was generally positive about the battle system and graphic presentation . It was also awarded the site 's " Editor 's Choice " award .
= = = PlayStation Vita = = =
Hearts R also did well commercially in Japan , selling 55 @,@ 258 copies in its first week , outselling previous Vita Tales title Innocence R. The title sold 75 @,@ 049 units by June that year , ranking among Japan 's fifty top @-@ selling games of that year . Famitsu ranked Hearts R a little higher than the original , giving it 34 / 40 : they cited the battles as being " more exciting " than in Hearts , and generally praised the additions to the story . They also praised the graphical overhaul , calling it " a true Tales at the core . " Dengeki PlayStation also praised the game , with the four reviewers giving it scores of 80 , 85 , 90 and 93 . Praise went to the fully voiced main scenario , the new playable characters and aspects of the battle system . The main criticisms were " flat " graphics and other elements of the battle system such as the lack of character support and companion AI .
Western reviews of the title have been mixed to positive : review aggregate sites GameRankings and Metacritic gave it scores of 76 @.@ 77 % and 77 / 100 based on 22 and 23 critic reviews respectively . The gameplay was a general point of praise . RPGFan 's John McCarroll said that its various elements " tie together to provide a cohesive battle experience that 's quite enjoyable " despite him finding it inferior to Tales of Graces , and Destructoid 's Kyle MacGregor said that the experience " can be quite fun " . Hardcore Gamer 's Adam Beck said that the combat " works perfectly on the handheld system " , while Kimberley Wallace of Game Informer said that the pace and various features " help keep [ the battles ] exciting . " Andrew Fitch of Electronic Gaming Monthly was more mixed about the gameplay , citing the combat as a less smooth experience compared to previous Tales titles and being annoyed at the reintroduction of random encounters , a feature not present in the original Hearts .
The story received a generally mixed response . Beck found the characters to be a mixed assortment , being particularly unimpressed with Kohaku 's condition through most of the game and stating that her awkward romance with Kor " almost feels forced " . Wallace referred to the storyline as " cheesy and campy " , stating that it didn 't impress her despite it not being taken very seriously . McCarrol was unimpressed by the story or the cast , while MacGregor cited the story as " a slow @-@ burn " , though commenting that the cast succeeded in seeming like real people rather than character archetypes . In contrast with the other reviewers , Fitch generally enjoyed the story , calling it one of the stronger casts and narratives of recent Tales titles . The localization received some criticism over discrepancies between the English text and Japanese dialogue , with Fitch describing it as " written with an ultimately canceled English dub in mind " , and McCarrol citing the renaming of some characters despite the presence of the original Japanese as a downside . MacGregor , while not minding the setup , was concerned that the lack of an English option would cause controversy . Todd Ciolek of Anime News Network listed the game as the second most overlooked title from 2014 , stating that its release mediums and close proximity to the release of Tales of Xillia 2 hampered its notability .
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= John Winchester ( Supernatural ) =
John Eric Winchester is a fictional character on The CW Television Network 's drama / horror television series Supernatural , and the protagonist of the comic book spin @-@ off series Supernatural : Origins . Developed by series creator Eric Kripke , the character is mainly portrayed by Jeffrey Dean Morgan . John is the father of Sam and Dean Winchester , the show 's protagonists .
Seeking revenge after his wife Mary was killed by the demon Azazel , John Winchester became a hunter and raised his two sons to fight the supernatural . John disappears early in Supernatural , and the first season revolves primarily around Sam and Dean trying to find him . Morgan was also filming episodes of Grey 's Anatomy while the first season of Supernatural was under production , and future appearances of the character were hindered by his busy schedule . While Morgan 's portrayal has been praised , fans and critics were generally frustrated at the character for keeping so many secrets .
= = Plot = =
The father of series protagonists Sam and Dean Winchester , John Winchester first appears in the pilot episode of the series , but plot devices such as flashbacks and time travel detail his background in later seasons . Apparently abandoned by his father at a young age — his father actually died while serving a secret order known as the Men of Letters — John Winchester grew up hating the man . John left high school to join the Marine Corps , eventually attaining the rank of corporal and receiving many medals for his service in Vietnam . After leaving the service , he found a job as a mechanic , and fell in love with Mary Campbell .
In the fourth season episode " In the Beginning " , Dean is sent back through time by the angel Castiel . Dean meets his parents ' former selves , and ends up convincing John to buy the 67 Chevy Impala that he eventually inherits . Dean later watches John being killed by Azazel , though the demon then resurrects him in exchange for Mary 's permission to enter her house in ten years . When the angel Anna Milton travels back in time in the fifth season episode " The Song Remains the Same " to prevent the births of Sam and Dean , John agrees to serve as a temporary vessel for the archangel Michael to stop her . Michael subsequently kills Anna and erases John and Mary 's memories of the incident .
Azazel later uses his pact with Mary to enter their home in the pilot episode , and ultimately kills her . The second season episode " All Hell Breaks Loose , Part One " reveals that she had witnessed the demon secretly feeding his blood to Sam . John investigated the incident and learned of the existence of the supernatural . His desire to find and kill Azazel led him to become a hunter of supernatural creatures . He took his sons with him during his travels , but often left them alone in motels for long periods of time during his hunts , leaving Dean with instructions to " shoot first and ask questions later " while watching over Sam .
As revealed in the fourth season episode " Jump the Shark " , John slept with a woman he met while away on a hunt . Learning over a decade later that he had fathered her son Adam , John made occasional visits over the years to partake in father @-@ son activities with him . He hid the truth from Adam to protect him , and never revealed to him the existence of Sam and Dean , nor vice versa . Meanwhile , John trained Sam and Dean to become hunters . However , Sam later left this life to start anew in college , leading to a fallout between John and his son .
Twenty @-@ two years after Mary 's death , John disappears while on a hunt , forcing Sam and Dean to reunite in an unsuccessful attempt to find him . Sam returns to the life of a hunter after Azazel kills his girlfriend . John reluctantly chooses to avoid his sons throughout most of the season while he investigates something , eventually reuniting with them in the episode " Shadow " . However , the demonic Meg Masters attacks them and reveals that Azazel is after John . After escaping from Meg , the brothers split up from their father to keep him from the demons . When vampires murder his old mentor and steal the Colt — a mystical gun capable of killing anything — John teams up with Sam and Dean in " Dead Man 's Blood " to retrieve it . Because demons cannot be killed by conventional means , they hope that the Colt will be effective against Azazel . In response , Meg begins killing the Winchesters ' friends in " Salvation " , and threatens to kill more unless they deliver the Colt . John is captured after trying to give her a fake gun , and reveals himself to be possessed by Azazel when the brothers come to his rescue in the first season finale " Devil 's Trap " . However , he manages to resist the demon 's control . Despite John 's pleas for Sam to shoot him with the Colt , Sam cannot bring himself to do so and allows Azazel to escape . As the Winchesters flee in Dean 's Impala , a demonically @-@ possessed trucker crashes into them .
In the second season premiere , " In My Time of Dying " , Sam and John awake in the hospital with only minor injuries , but a dying Dean is comatose . John secretly summons Azazel , and seems to know what the demon 's plans are . He then makes a deal to save Dean , giving up his life , soul , and the Colt . Before dying , John instructs Dean to kill Sam should he become evil . The fourth season episode " On the Head of a Pin " reveals that the demon Alastair tortured John in Hell for over a century , with John refusing the demon 's offer to stop if he himself would torture someone else . His soul escapes from Hell in the second season finale " All Hell Breaks Loose , Part 2 " when a gateway to Hell is opened . He saves Dean from Azazel , and distracts the demon long enough for Dean to kill him with the Colt . John then gives Sam and Dean a loving smile before becoming engulfed in a white light . However , the fifth season episode " Dark Side of the Moon " suggests that he might not be in Heaven .
= = Characterization = =
Actor Jeffrey Dean Morgan deemed John a " tormented soul " , motivated by an " equal combination of revenge and protecting his sons " . Following the death of their mother , Sam and Dean became secondary to John 's quest of killing the demon responsible , although Morgan believed that this aspect changed once John began spending more time with them again . Though he thought that John was not the world 's best dad and " definitely made a lot of mistakes " , the actor noted that " he did things , even when they were wrong , for the good of his sons " . John Kubicek of BuddyTV felt that this reasoning extended to John 's decision to hide the truth from Adam to protect him . Kubicek also suggested that John became involved in Adam 's life to achieve " some level of normalcy " as a father , an opportunity he had previously lost following the death of Sam and Dean 's mother . Overall , Morgan felt that John " loved those kids more than he loved his own life " , with the character 's demonic pact with Azazel serving as " his way of finding redemption " .
Regarding his portrayal of the character , Morgan commented , " I played him with extra angst . I think what was on the page , what I foresaw — not knowing where it was going , because no one would ever tell me anything — there was always a lot more going on in his head than he was going to show anybody , including his sons . Because , indeed , there was a lot more going on . " Kripke later confirmed this , stating , " It 's our view that John knew everything the producers of the show know . John knew stuff we 're not even ready to reveal , that won 't come out for a couple of seasons . He was an awesome hunter , and by the time he showed up in ' Dead Man 's Blood ' , he knew it all . "
= = Development = =
In writing the pilot episode , series creator Eric Kripke made several dramatic revisions to John 's storyline . The first draft of the script had Sam and Dean being raised by their aunt and uncle , though this was changed when Kripke realized that the backstory became much less complicated by having John raise them on the road . Another revision had John dying at the end of the episode instead of Sam 's girlfriend Jessica . Though he survives in the final version of the pilot , the writers decided halfway through production of the first season that John did have to die , as they believed his separation from his sons " split the show " by having him away " doing more interesting things than the boys are doing " . Kripke also felt that John kept Sam and Dean away from the " front lines " , his death being required to allow the brothers to " explore , investigate and confront the yellow @-@ eyed demon directly " . The writers initially intended for John to die in the car accident in " Devil 's Trap " , but they ultimately postponed his death to prevent the finale from becoming too dark . Following the character 's eventual escape from Hell , executive producer Ben Edlund stated that even the writers are unsure of where John 's soul ended up .
Evil Dead @-@ actor Bruce Campbell was Kripke 's first choice to portray the character . However , Campbell was unavailable , and Jeffrey Dean Morgan eventually received the role . Due to the fact that Morgan 's scene in the pilot episode takes place 22 years before the series , Morgan expected to be replaced by an older actor for subsequent episodes . Being only 12 years older than Jensen Ackles , who portrays the eldest son Dean , Morgan was surprised when he was asked to reprise the role . Ackles and Jared Padalecki often teased him about the age difference during filming . Throughout the season , Morgan became frustrated at times due to his character 's avoidance of his sons , stating , " It pissed off everybody , it pissed off us as actors , it pissed off the audience watching , because none of us really knew where we were gonna go . " However , he reasoned that John 's motivation for his actions was due to having knowledge that nobody else had .
During production of Supernatural 's first season , Morgan was also working on the shows Weeds and Grey 's Anatomy , so he was often traveling back and forth between Los Angeles and Vancouver . This interfered at times with Morgan 's acting , as he had trouble getting " Winchester @-@ y enough " after portraying the nice character of Denny Duquette on Grey 's Anatomy . Morgan commented , " I was stuck in Denny @-@ land , where I was being too nice . Winchester 's harder to find . Denny 's more me . He 's an intense guy , John is . And Denny , for a guy who 's having trouble living , he 's just a charming dude . " Morgan was at first reluctant to return for Supernatural 's second season due to his role on Grey 's Anatomy . Although he lent his voice for the third season episode " Long @-@ Distance Call " , future appearances of Morgan as the character after the second season have been hindered due to the actor 's busy schedule . Nevertheless , both Kripke and writer Sera Gamble have stated that they " would love to have him back . " The scheduling conflict has continued into the sixth season of Supernatural , with executive producer Robert Singer revealing that the writers had considered bringing the character back in the alternate reality episode " My Heart Will Go On " instead of Ellen Harvelle , but due to concerns that they would not be able to secure Morgan 's return , they ultimately chose Ellen for the deceased character they would have ( temporarily ) return in the episode . During the production of the fifth season , Morgan had an interview with MovieWeb in which he stated that no one from the show had contacted him about making another appearance , and expressed the desire to return for at least one more episode in what was then @-@ believed to be the show 's final season , as he had enjoying working with on @-@ screen sons Jensen Ackles and Jared Padalecki and he felt that John 's storyline had ended too soon .
= = Reception = =
While critics praised Morgan for his performance in the role , their reaction to the character has generally been mixed . Don Williams of BuddyTV felt that John is a " rather divisive character " , with some fans not understanding John 's motivation for keeping his sons in the dark . However , Williams himself found the character to be " completely fascinating " . He chose " In My Time of Dying " as the second best episode of the series , mainly because of John 's contributions , stating , " Even if you 're not a huge fan of Poppa Winchester , I think it 's impossible not to be moved by the final ten minutes of this episode ... John 's final speech to Dean , where he finally tells his son that he 's proud of him , is one hell of a tear @-@ jerker , and both Jeffrey Dean Morgan and Jensen Ackles knock that scene out of the park . " Williams praised Matt Cohen 's performance of a younger version of the character in the time @-@ travel episode " In the Beginning " , believing that he " did an excellent job at portraying a more innocent John Winchester than we 've ever seen before " .
Diana Steenbergen of IGN also criticized John for his lack of explanation , feeling that " it is not exactly easy to watch John treat Dean and Sam so dismissively , especially after they have been nearly killing themselves all season to find him " . However , Steenbergen praised Morgan for his acting , writing , " Even though he is used sparingly throughout the series , Jeffrey Dean Morgan is always effective as John . " She also felt that he brought " emotional weight " to the character , allowing the audience to " feel John 's weariness , and his resignation that things will most likely not go well " . While Brian Tallerico of UGO enjoyed Morgan 's performance , he was happy that the character was killed off because John 's presence made Sam and Dean into " followers " that were " merely existing in the wake of their father " . With their father gone , the brothers are no longer prevented from " heading up the battle with the other side " .
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= Michael Bruxner =
Lieutenant Colonel Sir Michael Frederick Bruxner KBE , DSO , JP ( 25 March 1882 – 28 March 1970 ) was an Australian politician and soldier , serving for many years as Leader of the Country Party and its predecessors . Born in Tabulum in Northern New South Wales , Bruxner was educated at The Armidale School and started studies at University of Sydney but later dropped out to take up employment as a grazier and station agent in Tenterfield . After serving in the Citizen Military Forces from 1911 , Bruxner enlisted into the Australian Light Horse upon the outbreak of the First World War in 1914 . Serving with distinction in Gallipoli , Egypt and Palestine , he was promoted to lieutenant colonel and awarded the Distinguished Service Order .
Returning to Australia in 1919 , Bruxner sold his business and joined the Progressive Party , being elected to the Parliament of New South Wales for Northern Tablelands at the 1920 election . Bruxner came to political prominence when he led the rural " True Blues " faction of the Progressive Party that went against their Leader 's decision to form a coalition in Sir George Fuller 's short @-@ lived government in 1921 . Bruxner emerged as the leader of the reduced Progressive Party , which consisted of the members of his faction , but they nevertheless joined with Fuller 's Nationalists to form government in 1922 . Bruxner also became involved in the New England New State Movement . Bruxner resigned the party leadership , now for the renamed Country Party , at the end of 1925 .
At the 1927 election , with the abandonment of proportional representation , he won the new seat of Tenterfield unopposed . Bruxner was included in new Premier Thomas Bavin 's cabinet as Minister for Local Government , which included the responsibility for transport . He served until Labor won the 1930 election . In April 1932 Bruxner was elected again as the new party Country Party Leader , which he would hold continuously until 1958 . When Sir Philip Game dismissed Jack Lang and called upon the Leader of the Opposition Bertram Stevens to form a caretaker government in 1932 , Stevens formed a coalition with Bruxner 's Country Party and Bruxner was named as the first Deputy Premier of New South Wales . Bruxner was also sworn in as Minister for Transport and briefly resumed his former Local Government portfolio . Bruxner also worked with his long @-@ time friend and Minister for Education David Drummond , to establish the New England University College in 1938 , which was later to become the University of New England .
Bruxner was central in ensuring Alexander Mair became Premier after Stevens was defeated in the house in August 1939 . The Coalition lost government at the 10 May 1941 election and Bruxner would never again serve in government . The rest of Bruxner 's parliamentary career was to be on the opposition benches , leading the Country Party through five more elections and through the instability of the larger opposition parties that eventually united as the Liberal Party of Australia . On 6 May 1958 , Bruxner formally resigned as Leader of the Country Party , having served continuously in that role since 1932 . He continued to serve in his capacity as Member for Tenterfield for one more term before retiring from politics before the 1962 election . Bruxner was Knighted as a KBE in 1962 and thereafter served in various capacities on boards and continued his passion for horses before his death aged 88 on 28 March 1970 .
= = Early life and military career = =
Bruxner was born in Tabulum , near the Clarence River in Northern New South Wales , the second son of English @-@ born grazier Charles Augustus Bruxner ( 1851 – 1915 ) and his wife Sarah Elizabeth Barnes ( 1858 – 1941 ) . Bruxner was initially educated in private tuition but was soon sent as a boarder first at St Mark 's Crescent School in Darling Point , Sydney and then to The Armidale School , where he became School Captain in 1900 . From 1901 to 1903 , he studied arts and law at the University of Sydney while resident at St Paul 's College , but was expelled for non @-@ attendance of lectures .
Returning to home to work as a grazier , Bruxner eventually moved to Tenterfield and set up business as a Stock and station agent . He also purchased " Roseneath " , a grazing property near Tenterfield , where he bred Hereford cattle . On 17 June 1908 at Christ Church , Kiama , he married Winifred Catherine Hay Caird . Bruxner became vice @-@ president of the local agricultural society and of the Cricket and Rugby clubs in Tenterfield . Being a racehorse owner , Bruxner also rose to be President of the Tenterfield Jockey Club from 1909 to 1911 . He was commissioned as a Justice of the Peace in 1914 .
Bruxner started his military career when he was commissioned as a second lieutenant on 11 September 1911 in the 6th Australian ( New England ) Light Horse , Citizen Military Forces , which was redesignated the 5th the following year . When the First World War broke out in September 1914 , Bruxner joined up soon after on 10 October 1914 with the 6th Light Horse Regiment in the Australian Imperial Force . Promoted to captain , Bruxner was sent with his unit to take part in the Gallipoli Campaign , being wounded several times . Later , in 1916 , he commanded the 6th during part of the Battle of Romani and served with distinction in the Sinai and Palestine Campaign , for which he was mentioned in despatches twice . On 30 May 1917 was appointed by the President of France , Raymond Poincaré , as a Chevalier of the Légion d 'honneur " in recognition of distinguished services during the campaign " . Also in 1917 , Bruxner was appointed to General Headquarters and rose to be assistant adjutant and quartermaster @-@ general of the ANZAC Mounted Division . For his service he was promoted to lieutenant colonel and appointed as a Companion of the Distinguished Service Order ( DSO ) in 1919 .
In July 1919 , he returned Australia and was discharged a month later in August . Bruxner then returned to Tenterfield , sold his stock and station agency and went back to his property as a grazier . They eventually raised a family , having a daughter , Helen Elizabeth Bruxner , and two sons , James Caird and John Michael Bruxner .
= = Early political career = =
As a prominent member of his local community , Bruxner became involved in emerging movements to have a political force for regional areas and joined and was convinced by friends to stand as a Progressive Party candidate in the 1920 New South Wales state election . Bruxner was elected under proportional representation with 23 % as the second member of the New South Wales Legislative Assembly district of Northern Tablelands alongside his friend David Drummond .
On 20 December 1920 , the Labor Party Premier , James Dooley , and his cabinet resigned after having lost a vote in the New South Wales Legislative Assembly a week before . The Governor , Sir Walter Davidson , then commissioned the Leader of the Opposition , Sir George Fuller , as Premier . As Fuller did not have a majority , he initiated attempts to form a coalition with the Progressive Party . The Progressives split over whether to join the Fuller government into an urban wing , led by Leader Walter Wearne and Deputy Leader Thomas Bavin , which agreed to enter Fuller 's coalition and a rural wing ( " The True Blues " ) , led by Bruxner and Ernest Buttenshaw who offered Fuller only conditional support . After seven hours in government , still without a workable majority , Fuller requested a double @-@ dissolution from Davidson . Davidson refused , on the basis that Dooley still had a majority in the lower house , and Fuller resigned .
Davidson then re @-@ commissioned Dooley , who was then granted a dissolution for an election in March 1922 . The Progressives were permanently divided and Bruxner and the " True Blues " who had opposed the coalition maintained their separate identity , while the urban members of the party joined Fuller 's Nationalist Party . The Rural Progressives then elected Bruxner in 1922 as Leader for the election . The Progressives were reduced to nine rural members at the 1922 election and entered a Coalition with the Nationalists . Bruxner increased his margin to become the first electorate member with 39 % . Bruxner also became involved in the New England New State Movement and helped pass a formal request to the Commonwealth by the Legislative Assembly to establish a new state in northern New South Wales . The request resulted in the 1924 Cohen Royal Commission into New States .
At the May 1925 election , Bruxner retained his seat with an increased margin of 41 % , while the Nationalist / Progressive Government lost office to Jack Lang and the Labor Party . After the election , the Progressive party renamed themselves the Country Party , reflecting the electoral base of the party . Bruxner resigned the leadership at the end of 1925 , citing the difficulty in balancing the needs of his family with the commitments of his political career , and was succeeded by Ernest Buttenshaw .
= = Minister of the Crown = =
At the 1927 election , with the abandonment of proportional representation , he won the new seat of Tenterfield unopposed . At the election , Lang 's Labor Party was defeated and Bruxner was included in new Premier Bavin 's cabinet as Minister for Local Government , which included the responsibility for transport . As Minister , Bruxner was responsible for the amendment to the Main Roads Act which gave more powers to the Main Roads Board and provided for the reclassification of the principal roads of the State . All the roads of the state were classified in accordance with their order of importance , which formed the basis for which road development was funded . His view that transport should be a public asset was reinforced when he brought through the passage of the Transport Act 1930 , which regulated private bus services to prevent the collapse of government @-@ owned tramways and railways . He remained as Minister until the Bavin Government was defeated by Lang at the 1930 election . At the election , Bruxner retained his seat with 59 % . On 23 December 1930 , Bruxner was granted by King George V retention of the title " The Honourable " for having served for more than three years as a Member of the Executive Council of New South Wales .
As the political climate in New South Wales became more volatile after Lang 's attempts to abolish the Legislative Council and conflict with the Federal Government over debts , Bruxner emphasised the need that the Country Party remain independent of the United Australia Party ( which had succeeded the Nationalist Party ) amidst calls for the opposition to unite . On 26 April 1932 , Country Party Leader Buttenshaw notified the party of his intention to resign . Bruxner was then elected as the new party Leader .
= = Deputy Premier = =
Not long after , on 13 May Governor Sir Philip Game dismissed the Lang government and called upon the Leader of the Opposition and UAP Leader Bertram Stevens to form a caretaker government . Stevens formed a coalition with Bruxner 's Country Party and immediately called an election . Lang 's NSW Labor Party was heavily defeated and the Country Party gained eleven seats and held five seats on the cabinet . Bruxner retained his seat again unopposed ( he would be elected unopposed a total of five times during his term ) . This time , the Country Party was an equal partner in the coalition and Bruxner was named as the first Deputy Premier of New South Wales . Sworn in on 16 May 1932 as Minister for Transport , Bruxner also briefly resumed his former Local Government portfolio during the caretaker period until 17 June 1932 .
Insistent that his party take an equal role in the coalition government , Bruxner formed a good working relationship and long @-@ lasting friendship with Stevens that would ensure the government 's stability . The Stevens government had significant success , reducing Lang 's 2 million pound deficit by 75 % . However , one significant problem was that Stevens had trouble with an unruly backbench , and increasingly depended upon Bruxner and the Country Party . As Deputy Premier , Bruxner saw himself as loyal to Stevens , but still managed to push through several initiatives that specifically benefited rural areas , including another royal commission on the question of new States in 1935 . The May 1935 election saw Stevens and Bruxner retaining government against a divided and fractious Labor opposition and Bruxner was returned unopposed again in his seat .
Bruxner detested the UAP Deputy Leader and Minister for Public Works and Local Government , Eric Spooner , whom Bruxner saw as trying to undermine confidence in Steven 's leadership and reducing Country Party influence in the government . When Stevens went on a visit to London in March 1936 for six months until October , Bruxner became Acting Premier , with Spooner as Acting Deputy . The animosity between the two became most pronounced at this time , often over the most petty issues . In May 1937 , Bruxner visited the United Kingdom as a member of the NSW parliamentary delegation to the coronation of King George VI . At the March 1938 election , the Stevens @-@ Bruxner government reatined power against Lang and the still @-@ divided Labor Party . Bruxner was re @-@ elected with 61 % of the vote . Bruxner worked with his long @-@ time friend , now Minister for Education David Drummond , to establish a regional tertiary education institution . After the 1938 election , they moved to establish the New England University College , a constituent college of the University of Sydney in the city of Armidale , and Bruxner was appointed to the first Advisory Council , on which he served until 1951 .
In July 1939 , Stevens and Colonial Treasurer Alexander Mair attempted to address Spooner 's unwillingness to accede to cabinet decisions regarding ministerial expenditure by creating a committee of four , consisting of Mair , Stevens , Spooner and Bruxner , to approve all expenditure . Furious at this gesture , Spooner resigned on 21 July 1939 as Minister and Deputy Leader , citing a ' disagreement in government policy on relief works ' as the reason . Despite Spooner 's departure , the stability of the government was to be short . On 1 August 1939 , Spooner carried a motion of no confidence in Stevens in the house , which unexpectedly passed by two votes , owing to the absence of several ministers . On 3 August Stevens tendered his resignation to the Governor , Lord Wakehurst , but was granted several days to remain until his successor was chosen .
Upon the resignation , Spooner was touted as Stevens ' possible successor until Bruxner , who had always detested Spooner , refused to form a coalition government with him . At a UAP party meeting on 5 August , Spooner chose not to nominate and Steven 's favoured candidate , Alexander Mair , defeated Athol Richardson 18 votes to 6 , becoming Leader of the United Australia Party and was sworn in as Premier by Lord Wakehurst on the same day . Mair , who had got on well with Bruxner , ensured the survival of the coalition government . Mair attempted to shore up unity in his party to save the government . In the last months of government Bruxner was preoccupied with preparation for Australia 's entry into the Second World War . He equipped railway workshops with modern machine tools and established National Emergency Services to deal with air raids .
However , despite the efforts of Mair and Bruxner , the controversy surrounding Stevens ' departure and a resurgent Labor Party , now led by the moderate William McKell , ensured that the popularity of the government never recovered . At the campaign for the 10 May 1941 election , the government performed poorly , finding it difficult to distinguish themselves from the past and proposing policies but only promising action after the war . McKell 's Labor Party did the opposite , leaving war matters to the federal government and promising current reforms . At the election , the Labor Party polled more than half the vote while Bruxner 's Country Party lost nine seats and Mair 's UAP lost twenty seats . Bruxner retained his seat with 56 % . Bruxner would never again hold ministerial office and the conservative political forces would not take government again until Robert Askin and Charles Cutler won the 1965 election .
= = In opposition = =
The rest of Bruxner 's parliamentary career was to be on the opposition benches , due largely to the disintegration of the larger opposition party , the UAP , after the 1943 Federal election . A large number of former UAP members then formed the Democratic Party in New South Wales , led by Mair , who continued as Opposition Leader . Mair resigned as Democratic Party Leader on 10 February 1944 , to be replaced by former Assembly Speaker Reginald Weaver . At the 1944 election , Bruxner 's stable leadership ensured that the Country Party retained all ten of its seats in the Legislative Assembly . Bruxner retained his seat with 67 @.@ 73 % .
Bruxner witnessed the fragmented opposition parties forming into the Liberal Party of Australia in 1945 , under the leadership of Weaver , Mair and then former Justice Minister Vernon Treatt from March 1946 . Bruxner led the party , again being elected unopposed , again at the May 1947 election , achieving an overall gain of 5 seats from independents and the Labor Party , now led by James McGirr . Recognising the importance of the larger Liberals to opposing Labor while also being responsive to the needs of the Country Party 's rural voters , Bruxner maintained the Country Party 's coalition with the Liberals as well as trying to prevent seat conflicts between the two parties . However , it was to be the persistence of these " tri @-@ cornered " contested seats between Labor , Liberal and Country candidates that were to prove problematic not only for maintaining the coalition but also for attempting to wrest government from Labor .
Treatt and Bruxner led the Coalition at the 17 June 1950 election , which resulted in a hung parliament . The Country Party gained two seats for a total of 17 for a Coalition total of 46 seats . With the Labor Party also holding 46 seats , the balance of power lay with the two re @-@ elected Independent Labor members , James Geraghty and John Seiffert , who had been expelled from the Labor Party for disloyalty during the previous parliament . Seiffert was readmitted and , with the support of Geraghty , McGirr and Labor were able to stay in power . Bruxner retained his seat with 60 % . He sold his " Roseneath " property in 1950 and in 1951 bought the homestead section of Old Auburn Vale station , dividing his time between there and his Sydney residence in Bellevue Hill .
The near loss of the election by Labor further weakened McGirr 's position and he was replaced as premier by Joseph Cahill in April 1952 . Cahill had won popular support as a vigorous and impressive minister who had resolved problems with New South Wales ' electricity supply and in his first 10 months as premier had reinvigorated the party . He brought order to the government 's chaotic public works program . In addition , he attacked the increasingly unpopular federal Coalition government of Robert Menzies . All this , combined with Bruxner and Treatt constantly clashing over policy and candidate issues , contributed to the Liberal @-@ Country Coalition again being defeated at the 14 February 1953 election . This amounted to a total loss of ten seats , three being Country Party seats , and a swing against them of 7 @.@ 2 % . Bruxner retained his seat with 60 @.@ 15 % .
Murray Robson replaced Treatt as Leader of the Opposition in August 1954 . Like other senior members of the Liberals , after having no conservative government since Alexander Mair in 1941 , Robson had no experience in government , he had little interest in policy except for Cold War anti @-@ communism , ignored majority views of his party and fellow parliamentary colleagues and Robson 's attempts to forge a closer alliance with Bruxner and the Country Party , failed dismally and alienated him from many in his party . Robson was replaced by Pat Morton as leader in September 1955 . Bruxner , now aged 70 and having fallen ill several times , led the Country Party one last time at the March 1956 election , which resulted in another labour victory and Country Party regained the seat of Armidale , but overall the government 's majority fell from twenty to six . Bruxner retained Tenterfield unopposed .
On 6 May 1958 , Bruxner formally resigned as Leader of the Country Party , having served continuously in that role since 1932 . He continued to serve in his capacity as Member for Tenterfield , retaining his seat one final time at the March 1959 election , with 68 % of the vote . After a final term he retired from the assembly before the election in 1962 .
= = Retirement and legacy = =
Upon his retirement , his youngest son , James Caird ( Tim ) Bruxner , who had served with distinction in the 2nd AIF and the Royal Australian Air Force during World War II , gained preselection for his father 's vacated seat , allegedly against his parent 's advice , and won it at the 1962 election . Tim Bruxner went on to become a member of the Askin , Lewis and Willis Cabinets from 1973 – 1976 , including in his father 's old portfolio as Minister for Transport and as Deputy Leader of the Country Party . His eldest son , John Michael Bruxner , having graduated from Sydney University with honours in law in 1935 , was admitted to the Bar in 1936 and also served in the 2nd AIF as an officer . On 2 June 1954 , he was appointed as a Judge of the District Court of New South Wales .
Upon retiring from politics , Bruxner was appointed as a Knight Commander of the Order of the British Empire in 1962 " For political and public services " . On 2 November 1959 , the Mains Roads Board named the highway spanning across Northern NSW as the " Bruxner Highway " in recognition of his services to transport and roads in NSW . Throughout his life , Bruxner had maintained his passion for horses , including as a member of the Australian Jockey Club and the Sydney Turf Club . From 1960 Bruxner was also Deputy President of the Royal Agricultural Society of New South Wales . His wife Winifred having died the year before in 1969 , Bruxner died on 28 March 1970 , survived by his daughter and both sons . His portrait by William Chandler is in the National Party offices in Sydney , and a sketch of him by George Washington Lambert is in the Australian War Memorial , Canberra .
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= ' Adud al @-@ Dawla =
Fannā ( Panāh ) Khusraw ( Persian : فنا خسرو ) , better known by his laqab of ʿAḍud al @-@ Dawla ( Arabic : عضد الدولة , " Pillar of the [ Abbasid ] Dynasty " ) ( September 24 , 936 – March 26 , 983 ) was an emir of the Buyid dynasty , ruling from 949 to 983 , and at his height power ruling an empire stretching from Makran as far to Yemen and the shores of the Mediterranean Sea . He is widely regarded as the greatest monarch of the dynasty , and by the end of his reign was the most powerful Muslim ruler .
The son of Rukn al @-@ Dawla , Fanna Khusraw was given the title of Adud al @-@ Dawla by the Abbasid caliph in 948 when he was made emir of Fars after the death of his childless uncle Imad al @-@ Dawla , after which Rukn al @-@ Dawla became the senior emir of the Buyids . In 974 Adud al @-@ Dawla was sent by his father to save his cousin Izz al @-@ Dawla from a rebellion . After defeating the rebel forces , he claimed the emirate of Iraq for himself , and forced his cousin to abdicate . His father , however , became angered by this decision and restored Izz al @-@ Dawla . After the death of Adud al @-@ Dawla 's father , his cousin rebelled against him , but was defeated . Adud al @-@ Dawla became afterwards the sole ruler of the Buyid dynasty and assumed the Persian title Shahanshah ( " King of Kings " ) .
When Adud al @-@ Dawla became emir of Iraq , the capital city , Baghdad , was suffering from violence and instability owing to sectarian conflict . In order to bring peace and stability to the city , he ordered the banning of public demonstrations and polemics . At the same time , he patronized a number of Shia scholars such as al @-@ Mufid , and sponsored the renovation of a number of important Shia shrines .
In addition , ' Adud al @-@ Dawla is credited with sponsoring and patronizing other scientific projects during his time . An observatory was built by his orders in Isfahan where Azophi worked . Al @-@ Muqaddasi also reports that he ordered the construction of a great dam between Shiraz and Estakhr in 960 . The dam irrigated some 300 villages in Fars province and became known as Band @-@ e Amir ( port of the emir ) . Among his other major constructions was the digging of the Haffar channel , that joined the Karun river to the Shatt al @-@ Arab river ( the confluence of the Tigris and the Euphrates ) . The port of Khorramshahr was built on the Haffar , at its joining point with the Shatt al @-@ Arab .
= = Early life = =
Fanna Khusraw was born in Isfahan on September 24 , 936 , he was the son of Rukn al @-@ Dawla , who was the brother of Imad al @-@ Dawla and Mu 'izz al @-@ Dawla . According to Ibn Isfandiyar , Fanna Khusraw 's mother was the daughter of the Daylamite Firuzanid nobleman al @-@ Hasan ibn al @-@ Fairuzan , who was the cousin of the prominent Daylamite military leader Makan ibn Kaki .
= = Reign = =
= = = Rule in Fars = = =
In 948 , Fanna Khusraw was chosen by his uncle Imad al @-@ Dawla as his successor because he had no heir . Imad al @-@ Dawla died in December 949 , and thus Fanna Khusraw became the new ruler of Fars . However , this appointment was not accepted by a group of Daylamite officers , who shortly rebelled against Fanna Khusraw . Rukn al @-@ Dawla quickly left for southern Iran to save his son , and was joined by the vizier of Mu 'izz al @-@ Dawla for the same purpose . Together they defeated the rebels and put Fanna Khusraw on the throne in Shiraz . Fanna Khusraw then requested the title of " Taj al @-@ Dawla " ( Crown of the state ) from the Abbasid caliph . However , to Mu 'izz al @-@ Dawla , the title of " Taj " ( " crown " ) implied that Fanna Khusraw was the superior ruler of the Buyid Empire , provoking a reaction from him , and making him decline Fanna Khusraw 's request . A more suitable title ( " Adud al @-@ Dawla " ) ( " Pillar of the [ Abbasid ] Dynasty " ) was instead chosen . Adud al @-@ Dawla was only thirteen when he was crowned as the ruler of Fars , and was educated there by his tutor Abu ' l @-@ Fadl ibn al- ' Amid .
After the death of Imad al @-@ Dawla in 949 , Adud al @-@ Dawla 's father Rukn al @-@ Dawla , who was the most powerful of the Buyid rulers , claimed the title of senior emir , which Mu 'izz al @-@ Dawla and Adud al @-@ Dawla recognized . In 955 , a Daylamite military officer named Muhammad ibn Makan seized Isfahan from Rukn al @-@ Dawla . Adud al @-@ Dawla then marched towards the city and recaptured it from Muhammad ibn Makan . Another Daylamite military officer named Ruzbahan also shortly rebelled against Mu 'izz al @-@ Dawla , while his brother Bullaka rebelled against Adud al @-@ Dawla at Shiraz . Abu ' l @-@ Fadl ibn al- ' Amid , however , managed to suppress the rebellion .
In 966 , Adud al @-@ Dawla and Mu 'izz al @-@ Dawla made a campaign to impose Buyid rule in Oman . Mu 'izz al @-@ Dawla died in 967 , and was succeeded by his eldest son Izz al @-@ Dawla as emir of Iraq . The same year , Adud al @-@ Dawla aided the Ziyarid Bisutun in securing the Ziyarid throne from his brother Qabus . Adud al @-@ Dawla and Bisutun then made an alliance , and Bisutun married a daughter of Adud al @-@ Dawla , while he married a daughter of Bisutun .
= = = Campaigns in eastern Iran = = =
In 967 , Adud al @-@ Dawla took advantage of the quarrel between the Ilyasid ruler Muhammad ibn Ilyas and his son in Kerman to annex the province to his domain . Mu 'izz al @-@ Dawla had already attempted to conquer the province but was defeated by the Ilyasids . Adud al @-@ Dawla conquered all of Kerman , and appointed his son Shirdil Abu 'l @-@ Fawaris as the viceroy of the province , while a Daylamite officer named Kurkir ibn Justan was appointed as the chief captain of the army of Kerman .
In the next year , Adud al @-@ Dawla negotiated peace with the Saffarid ruler Khalaf ibn Ahmad , who agreed to recognize Buyid authority . In 969 / 970 , Sulaiman , the son of Muhammad ibn Ilyas , wanted to regain his kingdom of Kerman , and invaded the region . Adud al @-@ Dawla managed to defeat the army of Sulaiman and continued to expand his domains to the strait of Hormuz . During his campaign in southern Iran , many Iranian tribes converted to Islam and pledged allegiance to him . On August / September 971 , Adud al @-@ Dawla launched a punitive expedition against the Baloch tribes who had declared independence . Adud al @-@ Dawla defeated them on January 8 , 972 , and installed loyal landowners to control the region . Afterwards , Adud al @-@ Dawla and his father Rukn al @-@ Dawla signed a peace treaty with the Samanids by paying them 150 @,@ 000 dinars . In the same year , Adud al @-@ Dawla conquered most of Oman , including its capital , Sohar .
= = = Rebellion of Sebük @-@ Tegin and aftermath = = =
In 974 , Izz al @-@ Dawla was trapped in Wasit by his troops who under leader Sebük @-@ Tegin had rebelled against him . Adud al @-@ Dawla quickly left Fars to quell the rebellion , where he inflicted a decisive defeat on the rebels on January 30 , 975 , who under their new leader Alptakin fled to Syria . Adud al @-@ Dawla then made a plot which forced Izz al @-@ Dawla to abdicate in his favor on March 12 , 975 . Rukn al @-@ Dawla , greatly angered at this action , protested against Adud al @-@ Dawla , claiming that the line of Mu 'izz al @-@ Dawla could not be removed from power . Adud al @-@ Dawla tried to make an agreement with his father by proposing to pay tribute to him . Rukn al @-@ Dawla , however , rejected his offer , and then restored Izz al @-@ Dawla as the ruler of Iraq . The consequences of the restoration of Izz al @-@ Dawla would later lead to war between him and Adud al @-@ Dawla after the death of Rukn al @-@ Dawla .
In 975 Adud al @-@ Dawla launched an expedition to take Bam and defeated another son of Muhammad ibn Ilyas who sought to reconquer to Kerman .
= = = Struggle for power in Iraq and war with the Hamdanids = = =
On September 16 , 976 , Rukn al @-@ Dawla , the last of the first generation Buyids , died . After his death , Izz al @-@ Dawla prepared to take revenge against Adud al @-@ Dawla . He made an alliance with Fakhr al @-@ Dawla , the brother of Adud al @-@ Dawla and his father 's successor to the territories around Hamadan . He also made an alliance with the Hamdanids prevailing in northern Iraq , the Hasanwayhid ruler Hasanwayh and the ruler of the marshy areas of southern Iraq . However , Mu 'ayyad al @-@ Dawla , the third son of Rukn al @-@ Dawla , remained loyal to his eldest brother .
Izz al @-@ Dawla then stopped recognizing the rule of his cousin Adud al @-@ Dawla , and stopped mentioning his name during Friday prayers . Adud al @-@ Dawla , greatly outraged by his cousin , marched towards Khuzestan and easily defeated him in Ahvaz on July 1 , 977 . Izz al @-@ Dawla then asked Adud al @-@ Dawla for permission to retire and settle in Syria . However , on the road to Syria , Izz al @-@ Dawla became convinced by Abu Taghlib , the Hamdanid ruler of Mosul , to go fight again against his cousin . On May 29 , 978 , Izz al @-@ Dawla along with Abu Taghlib invaded the domains of his Adud al @-@ Dawla and fought against him near Samarra . Izz al @-@ Dawla was once again defeated , and was captured and executed at the orders of Adud al @-@ Dawla . He then marched to Mosul and captured the city , which forced Abu Taghlib to flee to the Byzantine city of Anzitene , where he asked for aid . Adud al @-@ Dawla then spent one year in Mosul to consolidate his power , while his army were completing the conquest of Diyar Bakr and Diyar Mudar ; The important Hamdanid city of Mayyafariqin was shortly captured by them , which forced Abu Taghlib to flee to Rahba from where he tried to negotiate peace with Adud al @-@ Dawla . Unlike the rest of the Buyids who had held the region temporarily , Adud al @-@ Dawla had complete control of the region during the rest of his reign .
Adud al @-@ Dawla , now the ruler of Iraq , then took control of the territories under the control of the Bedouins and Kurds . He also killed almost all the sons of Hasanwayh , and appointed Badr ibn Hasanwayh , the last surviving son of Hasanwayh , as the ruler of the Hasanwayhid dynasty . It should be understood that during that period the word " Kurd " meant nomad . He then subdued the Shayban tribe , and fought against Hasan ibn ' Imran , the ruler of Batihah . He was , however , defeated , and made peace with Hasan who agreed to recognize his authority . During the same period , Adud al @-@ Dawla had Izz al @-@ Dawla 's former vizier Ibn Baqiyya arrested , blinded , and then trampled to death by elephants . His corpse was thereafter impaled at the head of the bridge in Baghdad , where it would remain until Adud al @-@ Dawla 's death .
= = = War in northern Iran = = =
During the same period , Bisutun died , and his kingdom was thrown into civil war ; his governor of Tabaristan , Dubaj ibn Bani , supported his son as the new Ziyarid ruler , while Bisutun 's brother Qabus claimed the throne for himself . Adud quickly sent an army to aid Qabus against Dubaj . Qabus managed to defeat him and capture the son of Bisutun in Simnan . Adud then made the Abbasid caliph give Qabus the title of Shams al @-@ Ma 'ali .
In May 979 , Adud al @-@ Dawla invaded the territories of his brother Fakhr al @-@ Dawla , who was forced to flee to Qazvin and then to Nishapur , a large part of his troops deserted . Adud al @-@ Dawla then moved to Kerman and later Kermanshah where he set up a governor . In August / September 980 , Adud al @-@ Dawla captured Hamadan and occupied the entire area south of the city which would remain in Buyid hands in half a century . Shortly after , on October / November of the same year , Sahib ibn Abbad , the vizier of Adud al @-@ Dawla 's younger brother Mu 'ayyad al @-@ Dawla , arrived from Ray to negotiate a transfer of power in the city in favor of his master . Adud al @-@ Dawla , recognized his younger brother Mu 'ayyad because of his loyalty , and gave him the troops of Fakhr al @-@ Dawla and helped him conquer Tabaristan and Gorgan from Qabus who had betrayed Adud by giving refugee to Fakhr al @-@ Dawla . Mu 'ayyad al @-@ Dawla shortly managed to conquer these two provinces .
= = = Consolidation of the Empire and peace negotiations with the Byzantines = = =
Adud al @-@ Dawla was now the senior ruler of the Buyid Empire , and several rulers such as the Hamdanids , Saffarids , Shahinids , Hasanwayhids and even other lesser rulers who controlled Yemen , including its surrounding regions , acknowledged his authority . Other regions such as Makran , was also under Buyid control .
Adud al @-@ Dawla then returned to Baghdad , where he built and restored several buildings in the city . He also stopped the quarrel between the Daylamites and Turks of the Buyid army . In 980 , the Byzantine rebel Bardas Skleros fled to Mayyafariqin . When he arrived to the city , he sent his brother to Baghdad to offer his alliegence to Adud al @-@ Dawla and make an alliance against the Byzantines , which Adud al @-@ Dawla accepted . A Byzantine envoy from Constantinople shortly arrived to Baghdad and tried to persuade Adud al @-@ Dawla to hand over the rebel , but he refused and kept the rebel and some of his family members in Baghdad for the rest of his reign , thus standing in a strong position for his diplomacy with the Byzantines . In 981 , Adud al @-@ Dawla sent Abu Bakr Baqillani to Constantinople to negotiate for peace . However , he was most likely sent to spy on the Byzantines and how their military functioned , since Adud al @-@ Dawla was planning to invade Byzantine territory .
In 982 , Adud al @-@ Dawla sent another envoy to Constaninople , this time under Abu Ishaq ibn Shahram , who after having spent three months in the city , concluded a 10 @-@ year peace treaty with them . One year later , a Byzantine envoy arrived back in Baghdad , but Adud al @-@ Dawla was too ill to bring an end to the negotiations . In the end , the 10 @-@ year peace treaty was finally completed , and the Byzantines also agreed to mention Adud al @-@ Dawla 's name in the Friday prayer in Constantinople . Sahib ibn Abbad , is known to have said the following thing about this event : " he [ Adud al @-@ Dawla ] has done what no kings of the Arabs nor any Chosroes [ kings ] of the Persians could – he has Syria and the two Iraqs , and he is close to the Despot of Byzantium and the Maghribi by his continuous correspondence . "
= = Administration and contributions = =
Adud al @-@ Dawla kept his court in Shiraz . He visited Baghdad frequently and kept some of his viziers there , one of them being a Christian named Nasir ibn Harun . Furthermore , he had several Zoroastrian statesmen who served him , such as Abu Sahl Sa 'id ibn Fadl al @-@ Majusi , who served as his representative of Baghdad before his conquest of Iraq ; Abu 'l @-@ Faraj Mansur ibn Sahl al @-@ Majusi , who served as his financial minister ; and Bahram ibn Ardashir al @-@ Majusi , who served as a Buyid official . Adud al @-@ Dawla seems to have greatly respected their religion .
Under him the Buyid kingdom flourished . His policies were liberal so there were no riots during his reign . He embellished Baghdad with numerous public buildings . He also built a famous public hospital known as the Al- ' Adudi Hospital . It was the largest hospital of that time , and was destroyed during the Mongol conquests . Many prominent figures worked at the hospital , such as ' Ali ibn al- ' Abbas al @-@ Majusi and Ibn Marzuban .
Adud al @-@ Dawla also build caravanserai 's and dams . The city that has particularly benefited from this work is Shiraz . In the region of Shiraz , he built a palace with three hundred and sixty rooms with advanced wind towers for air conditioning system of residential rooms . The population of Shiraz had increased so much during his reign that he built a satellite city near the city for his army . The name of the city was Kard @-@ i Fannā Khusraw ( " made by Fanna Khusraw " ) , making a clear reference to the names that the Sasanians gave their foundations .
There were two annual festivals in the city . The first to commemorate the day when the water pipe reached the city and the second to recall the date of the founding of the city . Both celebrations were instituted by Adud al @-@ Dawla on the model of the holiday of Nowruz , the Iranian New Year .
All these activities greatly expanded the economy of Fars so that the tax income was tripled in the 10th @-@ century . His contributions to the enrichment of Fars made it a region of relative stability and prosperity for the culture of Iran during the Seljuq and Mongol invasions .
= = Family = =
Adud al @-@ Dawla , in order to maintain peace , established marriage ties with several rulers ; his daughter was married to the Abbasid caliph at @-@ Ta 'i , while another was married to the Samanids and the Ziyarid ruler Bisutun . Adud al @-@ Dawla himself had several wives , which included ; the daughter of Bisutun ; the daughter of Manadhar , an Justanid king ; and the daughter of Siyahgil , an Giilite king . From these wives , Adud al @-@ Dawla had several sons ; Abu 'l @-@ Husain Ahmad and Abu Tahir Firuzshah , from the daughter of Manadhar ; Abu Kalijar Marzuban , from the daughter of Siyahgil ; and Shirdil Abu 'l @-@ Fawaris , from a Turkic concubine . Adud al @-@ Dawla also had a younger son named Baha ' al @-@ Dawla . Abu 'l @-@ Husain Ahmad was supported by his mother and his uncle Fuladh ibn Manadhar as the heir of the Buyid Empire . However , Abu Kalijar Marzuban , because of his more prominent descent , was appointed as heir of the Buyid Empire by Adud al @-@ Dawla .
= = Ancestry = =
= = Death and succession = =
Adud al @-@ Dawla died at Baghdad on March 26 , 983 , and was buried in Najaf . His son Abu Kalijar Marzuban , who was in Baghdad at the time of his death , first kept his death secret in order to ensure his succession and avoid civil war . When he made the death of his father public , he was given the title of " Samsam al @-@ Dawla " . However , Adud al @-@ Dawla 's other son , Shirdil Abu 'l @-@ Fawaris , challenged the authority of Samsam al @-@ Dawla , resulting in a civil war .
= = Legacy = =
Adud al @-@ Dawla , like the previous Buyid rulers , maintained the Abbasids in Baghdad , which gave legitimacy to his dynasty in the eyes of some Sunni Muslims . However , he showed more interest than his predecessors to the pre @-@ Islamic culture of Iran , and was proud of his Iranian origin . He visited Persepolis alongside Marasfand , the Zoroastrian chief priest ( mobad ) of Kazerun , who read the pre @-@ Islamic inscriptions in the city for him . Adud al @-@ Dawla later left an inscription in the city , which tells about his awareness of being heir of an ancient pre @-@ Islamic civilization . Adud al @-@ Dawla even claimed descent from the Sasanian king Bahram V Gur , minted coins of him wearing a Sasanian type crown , and carried the traditional Sasanian inscription ; Shahanshah , may his glory increase . While the reverse side of the coin said : May Shah Fanna Khusraw live long .
However , he still preferred Arabic authors more than Persian ones . There is very little evidence which shows his interest in Persian poetry . He spoke Arabic , wrote in Arabic and was proud to be a student of a famous Arab grammarian . He studied science in Arabic , including astronomy and mathematics . Many books written in Arabic were dedicated to him whether religious or secular content . Apparently showing interest in Arabic rather than Persian , Adud al @-@ Dawla followed the mainstream of intellectual life in a provincial town where culture was dominated by Arabic and Persian .
Like many of his contemporaries , he does not seem to have felt that his admiration for the pre @-@ Islamic Iranian civilization conflicted with his Muslim Shiite faith . According to some accounts , he repaired the Imam Husayn Shrine in Karbala , and built a mausoleum of Ali in Najaf , which is today known as the Imam Ali Mosque . He is said to have been generous to a prominent Shiite theologian , but did not follow a Shiite religious policy and was tolerant to the Sunnis . He even tried to get closer to the Sunnis by giving his daughter in marriage to the caliph , which was a failure because the caliph refused to consummate the marriage .
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= The Boat Race 1989 =
The 135th Boat Race took place on 25 March 1989 . Held annually , the Boat Race is a side @-@ by @-@ side rowing race between crews from the Universities of Oxford and Cambridge along the River Thames . Oxford won by two @-@ and @-@ a @-@ half lengths . It was the seventh occasion that the race was umpired by Ronnie Howard , and the first time in the history of the race that both crews were coxed by women .
In the reserve race , Oxford 's Isis won , while Cambridge won the Women 's Boat Race .
= = Background = =
The Boat Race is a side @-@ by @-@ side rowing competition between the University of Oxford ( sometimes referred to as the " Dark Blues " ) and the University of Cambridge ( sometimes referred to as the " Light Blues " ) . First held in 1829 , the race currently takes place on the 4 @.@ 2 @-@ mile ( 6 @.@ 8 km ) Championship Course on the River Thames in southwest London . The rivalry is a major point of honour between the two universities , followed throughout the United Kingdom and broadcast worldwide . Oxford went into the race as reigning champions , having won the 1988 race by five @-@ and @-@ a @-@ half lengths , with Cambridge leading overall with 69 victories to Oxford 's 64 ( excluding the " dead heat " of 1877 ) . The event was sponsored by Beefeater Gin ; prior to the race , it was announced that the company would be sponsors for the following three years in a deal worth £ 700 @,@ 000 . Former Oxford Blue Ronnie Howard was the umpire for the race for the seventh occasion .
Cambridge were coxed by Leigh Weiss while Oxford 's cox was Alison Norrish – it was the first time in the history of the Boat Race that both crews had female coxes . Prior to the race , Oxford coach Pat Sweeney criticised Weiss : " Their cox is so useless she might hit us . It 's not her fault , but Cambridge should have chosen someone who knows the river . " Weiss responded " I feel confident that I will make the decisions to make Cambridge win . "
The first Women 's Boat Race took place in 1927 , but did not become an annual fixture until the 1960s . Until 2014 , the contest was conducted as part of the Henley Boat Races , but as of the 2015 race , it is held on the River Thames , on the same day as the men 's main and reserve races . The reserve race , contested between Oxford 's Isis boat and Cambridge 's Goldie boat has been held since 1965 . It usually takes place on the Tideway , prior to the main Boat Race .
= = Crews = =
Cambridge were pre @-@ race favourites , as their crew weighed an average of almost 12 pounds ( 5 @.@ 4 kg ) per rower more than their opponents , the largest difference since the first Boat Race . Cambridge 's Toby Backhouse weighed in at 16 st 11 lb ( 106 @.@ 3 kg ) making him the heaviest rower in the history of the event . The Oxford boat featured three former Blues while Cambridge 's contained five . Cambridge 's chief coach was Mike Lees while Oxford University Boat Club selected Sweeney as coach , and Steve Royle to be their full @-@ time director .
= = Races = =
Cambridge won the toss and elected to start from the Surrey station . After an early clash of blades , Oxford crept ahead and held a lead of three seconds by the Mile Post . Two minutes later Oxford had a clear water advantage and continued to pull away , holding a six @-@ second lead at Hammersmith Bridge . The lead had extended slightly by the Chiswick Steps ; Cambridge failed to make any ground on Oxford who swept under Barnes Bridge eight seconds ahead . Oxford maintained the lead to pass the finish post two @-@ and @-@ a @-@ half lengths clear .
In the reserve race , Oxford 's Isis won by one @-@ and @-@ a @-@ quarter lengths , their first victory in three years. while Cambridge won the 44th Women 's Boat Race by one length in a time of 6 minutes and 20 seconds , their second victory in three years .
= = Reaction = =
Umpire Ronnie Howard said " It was a damaging race , and I was looking for possible breakages " . Oxford 's stroke Richard Thorp explained " We expect it [ clashing ] but Ali [ Norrish ] has so much more experience of the Tideway " . Former Oxford coach Dan Topolski suggested that " the race is a battle of guts and willpower , and Cambridge settled to a steady rhythm too soon . "
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= Brother from Another Series =
" Brother from Another Series " is the sixteenth episode of The Simpsons ' eighth season . It originally aired on the Fox network in the United States on February 23 , 1997 . Sideshow Bob is released from prison into the care of his brother Cecil and claims to be a changed man . However , Bart does not believe him and tries to find out what Bob is up to . It was the first episode directed by Pete Michels and was written by Ken Keeler . The episode guest stars Kelsey Grammer in his sixth appearance as Sideshow Bob and David Hyde Pierce as Cecil . The title is not only a pun on the movie The Brother from Another Planet ( used for a previous episode as well ) , but also a reference to the fact that guest stars Kelsey Grammer ( Frasier Crane ) and David Hyde Pierce ( Niles Crane ) also played bickering brothers on the NBC sitcom Frasier .
= = Plot = =
Former criminal Sideshow Bob is declared a changed man by Reverend Lovejoy and released from prison on a work program , despite the protests of Bart. Bob is surprised to be taken into the care of his brother Cecil as the two had previously not spoken for ten years . A flashback reveals the cause of this rift : Cecil had auditioned to become the new sidekick for Krusty the Clown , a job he had long desired , but Bob , who had not originally intended to be the sidekick , was chosen instead . Cecil , who is Springfield 's chief hydrological and hydrodynamical engineer , employs Bob to supervise the construction of a hydroelectric dam in a river near Springfield , while Bart , believing that Bob is still evil , continuously follows him around . Bob begins to become intensely annoyed by Bart 's intrusions into his personal life and the dam 's incompetent laborers ( Cletus and his family ) , and he expresses a desire to see the dam burst and obliterate Springfield .
Meanwhile , Bart enlists Lisa to help find out what Sideshow Bob is up to , but only ends up being discovered rummaging in Bob 's trash and angrily escorted home by him . They finally decide to search in Bob 's trailer at the dam construction site , and discover a briefcase full of cash . On being interrupted by Bob , the children run and hide inside the dam 's turbine room , but are cornered . When confronted with the money , Bob denies knowing anything about it , stating that he 's putting up his finances to build the dam walls out of concrete , but is distraught to see the walls empty and poorly constructed . The kids then believe that Bob is cutting back on construction materials by embezzling the money for himself , but Cecil shows up with a gun and reveals that he is the one who embezzled the money ; now he plans on framing Bob and using him as a scapegoat when the poorly constructed dam collapses . He officially declares his greed of the money motivated him to enact his plan , though he privately admits to Bob that his true motivation was because of Bob being chosen as Krusty 's sidekick instead of Cecil . Without hesitation , Cecil locks Bob , Bart and Lisa in the dam and prepares to blow it up , taking the money with him .
Deciding to work together , Bart , Lisa , and Bob escape and try to save the dam . While Lisa and Bob set about defusing Cecil 's dynamite , Bart jumps at Cecil before he can press the plunger . Cecil attempts to swat him off with the briefcase of money , but the case bursts open and the money is lost . Cecil manages to throw Bart off the cliff , declaring he will kill Bart as Bob never could ; ironically , Bob grabs the cord of the dynamite and dives down in an effort to save him . As the two dangle down the side of the dam , Bob decides to cut the cord on the dynamite in an act of self @-@ sacrifice to prevent Cecil from destroying the town , but his and Bart 's perilous fall is broken by a conveniently placed pipe .
The police arrive and Cecil is immediately arrested . Bob gloats over his victory , having gained the respect from Bart and Lisa , who now believed that Bob has truly changed . Unfortunately , Chief Wiggum suddenly arrives and arrests Bob , believing him to be involved in the plot as well , despite Bart and Lisa 's protests . As they are taken away , Cecil tricks Bob into swearing revenge on Bart and incriminating himself . Upon realizing that he just made Bart his enemy again , Bob gets angry at Cecil for it . Just after the brothers are taken away , the dam crumbles and releases a torrent of water on Springfield , only to do apparently minimal damage . Wiggum muses on the evil the brothers could concoct while locked up together ; in reality , the brothers merely continue to bicker childishly , as Bob is still angry at Cecil for making Bart his nemesis again .
= = Production = =
The episode was written by Ken Keeler , who had been watching a lot of Frasier at the time and had been assigned to write a Sideshow Bob episode and he thought it would be a good idea to mix the two . Pierce was cast as Sideshow Bob 's brother , causing Pierce to joke , " Normally , I would not do something like this . But how often do you get a chance to work with an actor like Kelsey Grammer and , more importantly , play his brother ? " While Sideshow Bob is addressing the crowd , a man near the back raises his hand and says " probably " ; he is also voiced by David Hyde Pierce , who had wanted to be a man in a crowd .
An early draft of the episode originally featured an Opera house explosion , which was changed because the writers felt using a dam would be more exciting . An early rule of Sideshow Bob episodes was to recap what had gone on in previous Bob episodes , in case the viewer had forgotten who he was . The original script was run by the Frasier producers to make sure they were okay with it , and they only had one problem . There was a very brief scene in which Cecil talks to a visible character and refers to her as " Maris " , who in Frasier is an unseen character , and the producers of Frasier said the scene should go . The writers spent a long time trying to figure out a civilization that considered chief hydrological engineer a true calling and chose the Cappadocians , who were famous for underground cities although not specifically dams .
Cecil was drawn to resemble David Hyde Pierce , but still look similar to Bob . According to director Pete Michels , it was difficult to draw Bob and Cecil standing together because their feet are both so big . There was a scene featuring Hans Moleman and his house , which was cut , but his house can still briefly be seen in the scene where Cecil throws Bart off a cliff . The sequence was cut in order to make room for the explanation of why Bob was sent back to prison . Ken Keeler has said that it is his favorite deleted scene .
= = Cultural references = =
The " Krusty the Clown Prison Special " is based on Johnny Cash 's 1968 appearance at Folsom Prison . Krusty 's song is a parody of " Folsom Prison Blues " . The mention of Arthur Fiedler 's wake is an apparent reference and parody of Frasier Crane 's upper class Seattle lifestyle . The episode contains several references to Frasier , with the intention of making it obvious that The Simpsons was parodying the series . These include a title card just before the start of the second act which says " Frasier is a hit show on the NBC television network " in a similar typeface and style as Frasier 's intertitles , with jazz music playing over it as it does in the series . When Bart jumps on Cecil and says " guess who , " Cecil replies with " Maris ? " Cecil 's inability to see Bart also refers to the fact that Maris , Niles ' wife in Frasier , is never actually seen .
= = Reception = =
In its original broadcast , " Brother from Another Series " finished 39th in ratings for the week of February 17 – 23 , 1997 , with a Nielsen rating of 9 @.@ 1 , equivalent to approximately 8 @.@ 8 million viewing households . It was the fourth highest @-@ rated show on the Fox network that week , following The X @-@ files , King of the Hill and Melrose Place . Beforehand , the media said the episode " looks promising , " and afterwards journalist Ben Rayner called it one of director Peter Michels ' " classics . " This episode was nominated for a Primetime Emmy Award for Sound Mixing for a Comedy Series or Special . In a 2008 article , Entertainment Weekly named Pierce 's role as Cecil as one of the sixteen best guest appearances on The Simpsons . Grammer and Pierce were ranked second on AOL 's list of their favorite 25 Simpsons guest stars .
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= Hurricane Madeline ( 1976 ) =
Hurricane Madeline was a Category 4 hurricane that made landfall in Mexico in October 1976 . Madeline formed on September 29 , not far from Central America . The next day , the circulation dissipated , and as a result weakened to a remnant low . Four days later , on October 3 , the low regenerated into a tropical depression . The system remained weak for three days as it drifted west @-@ northwest . When it began to recurve towards Mexico on October 6 , the cyclone rapidly intensified , eventually making landfall at peak intensity as a Category 4 . Shortly after landfall , the cyclone rapidly dissipated .
Prior to the arrival of Madeline , 15 @,@ 000 people evacuated form the coast , which had already been impacted by Hurricane Liza . Heavy damage was reported , along with seven fatalities . Two dams were flooded ; extensive crop damage was reported .
= = Meteorological history = =
Early on September 27 , 1976 , the Eastern Pacific Hurricane Center ( EPHC ) reported that a tropical disturbance had formed about 770 km ( 480 mi ) to the southwest of San Jose , Costa Rica . During the next two days the disturbance slowly developed while moving northwest . By the morning of September 29 , the disturbance was upgraded to a 40 mph ( 65 km / h ) tropical storm and based on ship reports and satellite imagery . Due to the fact that it attained tropical storm status , it was named Madeline . At this time , the cyclone had developed a center of circulation . Its intensification was short @-@ lived and Madeline remained at tropical storm strength for just 12 hours before it was downgraded into a tropical depression . Madeline remained at tropical depression strength until September 30 . At that time , the EPHC reported that the circulation center was no longer visible and downgraded the system to a remnant low , while located 575 mi ( 925 km ) to the southeast of Acapulco , Mexico .
Over the following days , the low moved towards the west and started to regenerate with a circulation center becoming visible early on October 3 . Based on this , the EPHC re @-@ upgraded Madeline to a tropical depression . Continuing to intensify , Madeline was soon upgraded to a tropical storm for the second time . During the next day or two , Madeline remained near stationary before turning towards the northeast on October 5 . As the cyclone moved over an area of warm seas surface temperatures , the storm started to intensify . During the next day , Madeline slowly developed an eye before intensifying into a hurricane . In addition , a Hurricane Hunter aircraft reported winds 75 mph ( 120 km / h ) winds and a pressure of 984 millibars .
During October 7 , with warm water helping to fuel its intensification , Madeline quickly intensified into a Category 2 hurricane , and was upgraded to a major hurricane ( Category 3 or higher on the Saffir @-@ Simpson Hurricane Scale ) early on October 8 . Based on hurricane hunter reports , Madeline reached its peak sustained winds of 145 mph ( 230 km / h ) and a peak pressure of 940 millibars early on the 8th . This made Madeline a moderate Category 4 hurricane . Later that morning Madeline made landfall to the northwest of Zihuatanejo as a powerful Category 4 hurricane , before it rapidly dissipated over land .
= = Preparations and impact = =
Mexican army headquarters put in effect an emergency plan three days prior to the arrival of the hurricane . An estimated 15 @,@ 000 people evacuated from threatened areas in the path of Madeline . According to one report , evacuations prior to Madeline were considered a success . Hurricane warnings and flood warnings were issued along the coastlines of Michoacán and Guerrero . In addition , tropical storm warnings were issued for nine states in Mexico . This warning area extended as far inland as the area west of the Gulf of Mexico .
Hurricane Madeline produced heavy rains over Mexico , peaking at 16 @.@ 57 in ( 421 mm ) , rainfall fell at El Povenir / San Marcos . According to Comision Nacional del Agua , a parent agency of the Servicio Meteorológico Nacional , rainfall fell at 2 @,@ 069 sites . Damage from the hurricane was considered to be severe . In Chilpancingo , Guerrero , two people drowned from the hurricane . In addition , five other deaths were reported . The cyclone also flooded two major hydro @-@ electrical dams and power outages were reported . While no serious damage was reported in Zihuatanejo , many boats were damaged . In addition , the storm caused extensive crop damage . Losses from Madeline , combined with previous hurricanes Liza and Kathleen , were estimated at $ 200 million ( 1976 USD ) . It was the second storm to strike Mexico within a week ; Hurricane Liza was the first . When Madeline was over the ocean , it impacted several ships , but no major damage from these ships was reported .
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= Raymond D. Tarbuck =
Raymond D. Tarbuck ( 4 May 1897 – 15 November 1986 ) was a rear admiral in the United States Navy who is best known as a planner with General Douglas MacArthur 's General Headquarters ( GHQ ) Southwest Pacific Area during World War II .
A 1920 graduate of the United States Naval Academy in Annapolis , Maryland , Tarbuck spent most of his early career on destroyers . During a tour of duty in the Caribbean , he served ashore with the United States occupation of Nicaragua . Later , while at the Naval War College at Newport , Rhode Island , he wrote a thesis entitled " The Nicaraguan Policy of the United States " , which was subsequently published by the United States Naval Institute .
Tarbuck received his first command , the destroyer USS Macdonough in May 1939 , and in March 1941 , he assumed command of Destroyer Division 70 . Then , in October 1941 , he became an instructor in air observer and navigator training with the United States Army Air Corps at Maxwell Field , Alabama . In 1943 he was assigned to General MacArthur 's GHQ , where he planned a series of combined operations , and accurately predicted the course of the Battle of Leyte Gulf . He served with GHQ until December 1944 , when he became chief of staff of the VII Amphibious Force .
After the war he became the chief of staff of Amphibious Forces , Atlantic Fleet . His last command was of the battleship USS Iowa . He retired from active service on 1 July 1950 , and received a tombstone promotion to the rank of rear admiral .
= = Early life = =
Raymond Dumbell { Sic } ( Ray ) Tarbuck was born in Philadelphia on 4 May 1897 . His middle name caused him embarrassment and was seldom used , and he preferred the shortened form of his first name . He was educated at Philadelphia Central High School and the Philadelphia College of Pedagogy , where he studied to be a teacher , graduating with a Bachelor of Arts degree . He also attended the Naval Academy Preparatory School .
Tarbuck was appointed to the United States Naval Academy in Annapolis , Maryland in June 1917 by Congressman George W. Edmonds of Pennsylvania 's 4th congressional district . At the Academy he was on the shooting team , and was assistant art editor of the Lucky Bag , and the editor of The Log magazine . While there he took his summer cruises on the battleships USS Missouri and USS North Dakota during World War I. He was commissioned as an ensign on graduation on 5 June 1920 . His class was graduated in two groups due to the disruption caused by World War I. For his first assignment , he chose the destroyer tender USS Dixie , because it was based at the League Island Navy Yard in Philadelphia , and he was in love with Marion Orf , a woman who lived in Philadelphia 's Germantown section . The two were married in 1921 . They had a son , Richard Ray Tarbuck , and a daughter , Joan .
As had been his intention , Tarbuck 's early service was on destroyers , first as engineer and radio officer on the USS Robinson and then as chief engineer on the USS McCormick from 1922 to 1924 The ship sailed to the Black Sea , where Tarbuck observed the Russian Civil War first hand . He served in succession as torpedo officer on the destroyer USS Sharkey , as a communications officer on the cruiser USS Concord and as gunnery officer on the destroyer USS Flusser . During this cruise in the Caribbean , he served ashore with the United States occupation of Nicaragua .
Tarbuck attended the Naval Postgraduate School at Annapolis from 1927 to 1928 , and then the Naval War College at Newport , Rhode Island . While there he wrote a thesis entitled " The Nicaraguan Policy of the United States " , which was subsequently published by the United States Naval Institute . He returned to sea in 1929 as executive officer of the destroyer USS Stewart , which sailed to China , Japan and the Philippines as part of the Asiatic Fleet . His daughter Joan died in Shanghai . On returning to the United States in 1932 , he was assigned to the University of California as a Naval Reserve Officers Training Corps instructor . He taught astronomy there as an assistant professor . Robert Gordon Sproul requested that Tarbuck be permanently assigned to the university , but the Navy turned him down on the grounds that Tarbuck 's career would suffer without sea duty . Tarbuck 's next assignment was to a battleship , the USS West Virginia , where he was promoted to lieutenant commander . Following the pattern of alternating duty at sea with duty ashore , he was assigned to the Fleet Training Division of the Bureau of Navigation from June 1937 to May 1939 .
= = World War II = =
In May 1939 , Tarbuck received his first command , of the destroyer USS Macdonough , which was part of the U.S. Pacific Fleet . While he was its captain , he was promoted to the rank of commander . In March 1941 , he assumed command of Destroyer Division 70 , which consisted of five destroyers based on the West Coast . In October 1941 , he was ordered to report to the Naval Air Station Pensacola , an unusual destination for a non @-@ aviator . The United States Army Air Corps had requested that some Naval officers be sent to Maxwell Field , Alabama , as instructors in air observer and navigator training , and Tarbuck was one of the three officers selected . At Maxwell , he wrote three manuals on ship and aircraft recognition , which became course materials . The ability to speak " Army " , and knowledge of the conduct of land , sea and air operations , would prove important in his selection for his next post . He was promoted to captain on 20 June 1942 .
In 1943 , the Supreme Commander in the Southwest Pacific Area , General Douglas MacArthur , requested a Naval officer for his General Headquarters ( GHQ ) to replace Captain Herbert J. Ray , an officer who had escaped from the Philippines with him in 1942 . Ray had been appointed to command the battleship USS Maryland , and Tarbuck was chosen to replace him . En route to Australia , Tarbuck met with Admiral Chester Nimitz , who told him in no uncertain terms that anti @-@ Army and anti @-@ MacArthur sentiments had no place in his command . As it was , Tarbuck became a loyal supporter of MacArthur .
Tarbuck expected to become the head of a naval section within GHQ , but instead found himself part of Brigadier General Stephen J. Chamberlin G @-@ 3 Section , the staff section responsible for planning and operations . He found that more than forty naval officers were working at GHQ , but they were dispersed , working in nearly every corner of the staff . Tarbuck became head of a planning group known as the Red Team . This was one of three teams ; there was also a White Team under a US army officer , Colonel Peyton , and a Blue Team under an Australian Army officer , Brigadier Tom White .
His job was to prepare staff studies on upcoming potential operations . While he did do naval planning , his team prepared plans that coordinated land , air and sea operations . A staff study might be put into effect and become an operation , or MacArthur might shelve it in favor of an alternative operation , especially if the staff study revealed that it would be too time @-@ consuming , difficult or costly . The three teams would work simultaneously on three different objectives in leapfrog fashion . Tarbuck routinely attended staff conferences that involved naval matters .
He led the planning for the Battle of Leyte , known as Operation King II , and predicted that the Japanese fleet would attempt to intervene , striking at the invasion force through the Surigao Strait . His warning that the Japanese fleet would sortie was discounted by MacArthur 's chief intelligence officer , Brigadier General Charles A. Willoughby , but Tarbuck put his objection in writing . MacArthur would later commend him for an accurate prediction of the course of the Battle of Leyte Gulf .
Tarbuck was on hand to see the battle as an observer on the command ship USS Blue Ridge . He watched as his predictions on the courses of the Battle of Surigao Strait and Battle off Samar unfolded . On the morning of 25 October he wrote :
It now becomes apparent that an extremely critical situation exists . The enemy 's Second Diversion Attack Force has sortied into the Pacific Ocean through the San Bernardino Strait under the cover of darkness to attack our escort carriers , convoys , or Leyte Gulf shipping .
A while later he wrote :
People here feel that Halsey 's Third Fleet are chasing a secondary force , leaving us at the mercy — of which there is none — of the enemy 's main body .
In his report on the battle , Vice Admiral Randall Jacobs called Tarbuck 's predictions as " almost uncanny " . For his service with GHQ , Tarbuck was awarded the Legion of Merit .
In December 1944 , Tarbuck became chief of staff of the VII Amphibious Force , which was under the command of Rear Admiral Daniel E. Barbey . He was promoted to the wartime rank of commodore on 3 April 1945 . When Barbey went on leave , he left Tarbuck in command of VII Amphibious Force , despite the fact that his three amphibious group commanders , William Fechteler , Albert G. Noble and Arthur D. Struble were all rear admirals . They were in overall command of the operations for which they were responsible however . For his service as chief of staff of the VII Amphibious Force , Tarbuck was awarded a second Legion of Merit . His citation read :
For distinguishing himself by exceptionally meritorious conduct in connection with amphibious operations against Japanese forces in the Philippine Islands and Borneo from December 1944 to July 1945 . As chief of staff to Commander , VII Amphibious Force he was directly concerned with the planning and execution of all amphibious operations in the Southwest Pacific during this period . These included the landings on the island of Luzon at Lingayen , Zambales , Nasugbu , Legaspi , Bataan , Corregidor , and on the islands guarding the entrance to Manila Bay ; on the islands of Palawan , Lubang , Panay , Cebu , Negros , Masbati , Jolo and Buhol ; on the island of Mindanao at Zamboanga , Parang , Macajala Bay and Davao ; in Borneo at Tarakan and Brunei Bay . In addition he assisted in the preparation of plans for minesweeping operations covering an area of approximately six thousand square miles in Philippine waters .
= = Later life = =
Tarbuck became the chief of staff of Amphibious Forces , Atlantic Fleet in December 1945 . He reverted to the rank of captain on 20 June 1946 . On 30 June he assumed command of the battleship USS Iowa . After a year in this command , he became Inspector General of the Eleventh Naval District at San Diego , California . At the conclusion of this posting , he retired from active service on 1 July 1950 . On retirement , he received a tombstone promotion to the rank of rear admiral .
He became program administrator for the San Diego Fine Arts Gallery , and served with the San Diego Board of Health and other community projects . He also served on the South Bay Committee for San Diego . He died in Coronado , California on 15 November 1986 , and was interred in the Fort Rosecrans National Cemetery , San Diego , California . His papers are in the Douglas MacArthur Memorial in Norfolk , Virginia .
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= No. 1 Wing RAAF =
No. 1 Wing was an Australian Flying Corps ( AFC ) and Royal Australian Air Force ( RAAF ) wing active during World War I and World War II . The wing was established on 1 September 1917 as the 1st Training Wing and commanded the AFC 's pilot training squadrons in England until April 1919 , when it was disbanded . It was reformed on 7 October 1942 as a fighter unit comprising two Australian and one British flying squadrons equipped with Supermarine Spitfire aircraft , and a mobile fighter sector headquarters . The wing provided air defence to Darwin and several other key Allied bases in northern Australia until the end of the war , and was again disbanded in October 1945 .
During its first months at Darwin , No. 1 Wing intercepted several of the air raids conducted against Northern Australia by the Imperial Japanese Army Air Force and Imperial Japanese Navy . Although the wing was hampered by mechanical problems with its Spitfires and suffered heavy losses in some engagements , it eventually downed a greater number of Japanese aircraft than it lost in combat . After the final Japanese air raid on northern Australia in November 1943 , No. 1 Wing saw little combat , which led to its personnel suffering from low morale . The wing 's two Australian flying squadrons were replaced with British units in July 1944 , and subsequent proposals to move these squadrons to more active areas were not successful .
= = World War I = =
The 1st Training Wing was formed at Minchinhampton , England on 1 September 1917 . It commanded No. 5 , No. 6 , No. 7 and No. 8 Squadrons of the AFC . The wing 's role was to train replacement pilots for the four operational AFC squadron in Palestine and France . Each of the training squadrons provided replacements to a specific operational squadron ; No. 5 trained pilots for No.1 Squadron , No. 6 supported No. 2 Squadron , No. 7 was aligned with No. 3 Squadron and No. 8 supported No. 4 Squadron . By the time Lieutenant @-@ Colonel Oswald Watt was appointed to command the wing in February 1918 , its headquarters had moved to Tetbury . In keeping with their varied responsibilities , the 1st Training Wing 's squadrons operated a wide variety of aircraft and most were split between several bases . From the spring of 1918 No. 5 and No. 6 Squadrons were stationed at Minchinhampton Airfield while No. 7 and No. 8 Squadrons were at Leighterton Airfield . Both facilities had been purpose @-@ built for the AFC over the autumn and winter of 1917 / 1918 . Watt proposed moving the wing to France , but this did not eventuate .
Following the war the 1st Training Wing continued to conduct pilot training courses in England . This activity was undertaken to strengthen the AFC and keep pilots and ground crew occupied until they were repatriated to Australia . Most of the wing 's personnel were given leave in April 1919 and several of its pilots took part in a fly @-@ past over London on Anzac Day . The four training squadrons were disbanded on 6 May 1919 , the day the wing left Minchinhampton to begin the journey back to Australia . The last entry in the 1st Training Wing 's war diary had been made in April that year . While Watt placed a strong emphasis on safety , the 1st Training Wing 's trainee pilots inevitably suffered a number of flying accidents , resulting in at least 17 fatalities between 1917 and 1919 . At least 15 other members of the wing died from disease or were killed in accidents on the ground .
In 1919 the AFC was disbanded and succeeded by the Australian Air Corps , which was in turn replaced with an independent Australian Air Force on 31 March 1921 ( the " Royal " prefix was added in August ) . The first proposal for the RAAF 's force structure considered by its Air Board included two fighter wings , designated No. 1 Wing and No. 2 Wing , each comprising two fighter squadrons . In July 1920 the Air Council , which oversaw the RAAF , approved the establishment of a base at Laverton , Victoria to house No. 1 Wing and its component squadrons ( No. 1 and No. 2 Squadrons ) as well as No. 1 Aircraft Depot . No. 1 and No. 2 Squadrons were formed in January 1922 , but in July that year No. 2 Squadron was disbanded and No. 1 Squadron reduced to a cadre . The RAAF 's proposed force structure was subsequently amended in 1924 so as not to include any fighter squadrons or wing headquarters .
= = World War II = =
= = = Reestablishment = = =
At the outbreak of the Pacific War in December 1941 the RAAF did not possess any modern fighters in or near Australia . Following the Bombing of Darwin on 19 February 1942 , which caused heavy damage to the military installations at the town and ships in its harbour , the Australian Government began to urgently look for fighter aircraft . As the Australian aviation industry was not capable of producing fighter aircraft at the time , the government sought assistance from the United States and Britain . While the US Government responded by providing the RAAF with what became a steady flow of P @-@ 40 Kittyhawk aircraft , Britain was initially unable to allocate fighters to Australia due to its heavy commitments in the North African Campaign and elsewhere .
Japanese air units attacked the Darwin area multiple times during 1942 . The P @-@ 40 equipped United States Army Air Forces ' ( USAAF ) 49th Fighter Group was deployed to Darwin following the 19 February raid , and its first squadron became operational there in mid @-@ March . The group 's three squadrons were ready for operations in late April , and subsequently intercepted all Japanese daylight raids on the area . The 49th Fighter Group began to withdraw from Darwin in August 1942 and was replaced by two Australian P @-@ 40 squadrons ; No. 77 Squadron arrived in August and No. 76 Squadron in October . During its time at Darwin the 49th Fighter Group shot down 79 Japanese aircraft and lost 21 P @-@ 40s . As well as bombing targets near Darwin , Japanese air units also occasionally struck other small Australian towns , attacked shipping sailing off the north coast and flew reconnaissance sorties over Allied bases .
In May 1942 the Australian Minister for External Affairs H.V. " Doc " Evatt travelled to the United States and Britain to seek additional aircraft for the RAAF . Evatt first visited the United States , where the government agreed to increase the number of aircraft it would provide to Australia . He then travelled to London and met with Prime Minister Winston Churchill . In this meeting , Evatt requested that Britain provide an aircraft carrier to serve with the Royal Australian Navy , and an allocation of Spitfire fighters for the RAAF . Evatt had not received advice from the RAAF on the Spitfire 's suitability for Australian conditions , and appears to have assumed that it would perform as well in Australia as it had in Europe . While Britain could not spare an aircraft carrier , after several days of discussions Churchill agreed on 28 May to send three fully equipped Spitfire squadrons to Australia . The squadrons selected were No. 452 Squadron RAAF , No. 457 Squadron RAAF and No. 54 Squadron RAF , all of which had seen combat over Europe against the Luftwaffe . Under the agreement each squadron would be initially equipped with 16 Spitfires and a further 15 aircraft would be sent to Australia each month as replacements . Churchill 's role in sending Spitfire units to Australia led to No. 1 Wing often being referred to as the " Churchill Wing " .
Delays in shipping Spitfires to Australia disrupted No. 1 Wing 's formation . In late June 1942 the British Government diverted all but six of the initial 48 aircraft to Egypt to reinforce the three RAF Spitfire squadrons there after the German victory in the Battle of Gazala ; most of these aircraft were allocated to No. 92 Squadron RAF with the remainder forming a reserve to replace future losses . The Australian Government protested against this action , but reluctantly accepted it after Churchill refused to counteract the diversion . During the same period , the men of the three Spitfire squadrons sailed from Liverpool on board the MV Stirling Castle on 21 June and disembarked at Melbourne with the six remaining Spitfires on 13 August . A shipment of 43 Spitfires left England on 4 August and arrived in Australia in late October , and further deliveries continued to be made until June 1945 .
The deployment of Spitfires to Australia was kept secret so that the Japanese were not alerted to their presence , and the Australian Government directed that the aircraft be referred to as Capstans ( after the brand of cigarettes ) and their Merlin engines as Marvels . General Douglas MacArthur , the commander of Allied forces in the South West Pacific Area , agreed that the Australian Government could choose when to announce the presence of the Spitfires , but warned against exaggerating the impact they were likely to have .
No. 1 Wing was formed at RAAF Station Richmond on 7 October 1942 . Its initial commander was Group Captain Allan Walters and the wing leader was Wing Commander Clive Caldwell , Australia 's top @-@ scoring flying ace of the war . At this time the RAAF had received 71 tropicalised variants of the Spitfire Vc and another 33 were en route to Australia . These aircraft differed from the standard Spitfire Vc in that they been fitted with a Vokes air filter beneath their nose to reduce the amount of sand and dust which entered the engine ; Caldwell believed that this modification reduced the Spitfires ' performance . As well as the three Spitfire squadrons , No. 1 Wing also included No. 10 Mobile Fighter Sector Headquarters . Many of the squadrons ' most experienced pilots were posted to other units before they departed Britain , and only 37 of the 95 pilots in the wing as at May 1943 had previously seen combat .
Following its formation the wing undertook training in the Richmond area until late December 1942 . Its performance during these exercises was hindered by a lack of previous contact between the Australian and British pilots which was exacerbated by the three squadrons being based at different airstrips in the Sydney region . A number of accidents occurred , resulting in the deaths of four pilots . Richmond 's base commander , Group Captain Paddy Heffernan , found that the veterans of the European theatre of operations " tended to consider themselves invincible " , and reacted with disdain when he warned them that the Japanese A6M Zero could outmanoeuvre the Spitfire . On 29 December the wing held a formal dinner at RAAF Station Richmond which was attended by H.V. Evatt , Minister for Air Arthur Drakeford , Chief of the Air Staff Air Vice Marshal George Jones , and Group Captain Heffernan .
= = = Early engagements = = =
The wing was ready for combat operations at the end of 1942 and was assigned responsibility for defending Darwin against Japanese air attacks . The bulk of the units departed Richmond in air , land and sea parties during January 1943 , following an advance party that had set out on 31 December . No. 54 and No 452 Squadrons ' air parties arrived at RAAF Station Darwin and Batchelor Airfield respectively on 17 January , and No. 457 Squadron began to operate from Livingstone Airfield on 31 January . No. 452 Squadron subsequently moved to Strauss Airfield on 1 February . The Darwin area had been attacked 50 times by the time No. 1 Wing arrived . Conditions at Strauss and Livingstone were primitive , with these airfields comprising narrow dirt runways and tree @-@ lined taxiways . The pilots were not familiar with operating from such under @-@ developed airfields , and the squadrons at Strauss and Livingstone suffered a high accident rate during February and March 1943 . The airmen also found the region 's hot and humid climate to be oppressive . This was the first time that Spitfires had operated in a tropical environment , and the aircraft were found to have lesser performance than in other climatic conditions . The region 's remoteness also contributed to supply difficulties , and No. 1 Wing continually suffered from a shortage of spare parts for its Spitfires . Despite these limitations to Spitfire operations , the wing 's arrival improved the morale of Allied military units near Darwin and allowed No. 77 Squadron to be transferred from Darwin to Milne Bay in New Guinea . No. 1 Wing first saw combat on 6 February 1943 when a No. 54 Squadron Spitfire shot down a Mitsubishi Ki @-@ 46 " Dinah " reconnaissance aircraft near Darwin . Another Dinah overflew Darwin the next day but was not intercepted , and no further Japanese aircraft ventured into the area during the month .
No. 1 Wing engaged in its first large @-@ scale battles during March 1943 . On 2 March , No. 54 and No. 457 Squadrons intercepted 16 Japanese aircraft , which had attacked Coomalie Creek Airfield . Four of the raiders were shot down , two of them by Wing Commander Caldwell . This engagement led Prime Minister John Curtin to announce on 4 March that Spitfires were operational in Australia . His statement in the House of Representatives was greeted with cheers from the members of parliament present and No. 1 Wing received positive media coverage . Winston Churchill also took an interest in the wing 's operations and sent a cable expressing satisfaction with its combat debut . On 7 March four No. 457 Squadron aircraft intercepted and shot down a Dinah about 15 miles ( 24 km ) from Darwin . The entire wing intercepted a force of over 40 Japanese bombers and fighters that attacked Darwin on 15 March , shooting down eight raiders but losing four Spitfires and three pilots . No. 452 Squadron 's commander , Squadron Leader R.E. Thorold @-@ Smith , was one of those killed . Thorold @-@ Smith was leading the wing at the time , and its attacks were uncoordinated for the remainder of the engagement as none of the other pilots assumed his responsibilities . Nine military personnel and five civilians were also wounded by approximately 100 bombs dropped on Darwin during the raid . The Spitfires used dogfighting tactics during the battle , causing some to run dangerously low on fuel ; the USAAF units previously based at Darwin had discovered that these tactics were not effective against the highly maneuverable Japanese fighters . No. 1 Wing did not see action again during March and April , and its flying was limited to training exercises which usually lasted for less than an hour .
The wing 's next battle on 2 May 1943 led to controversy . On that day , 33 Spitfires intercepted a force of 27 Japanese fighters and 25 bombers after they attacked Darwin . No. 54 Squadron engaged the fighters while the other squadrons attacked the bombers . In the 25 @-@ minute engagement , the wing shot down between six and ten Japanese aircraft for the loss of five Spitfires . Five more Spitfires also made forced landings due to fuel shortages and three broke off after suffering engine failures ; all but two of these aircraft were later repaired . Following the raid , General MacArthur 's General Headquarters stated in its regular communique that the Allied losses at Darwin had been " heavy " , a term it had not previously applied to fighting in the North Western Area . This led to criticism of No. 1 Wing in the Australian media and the Advisory War Council requested that Air Vice Marshal Jones provide it with a report explaining the losses caused by mechanical problems and fuel shortage . In his report , Jones stated that the wing 's equipment was in good condition and attributed its losses to tactical errors made by Caldwell , adverse weather conditions and the pilots ' inexperience with their aircraft . Caldwell rejected this criticism of his leadership , and argued after the war that Jones had not properly investigated the engagement . To avoid further losses from fuel shortages the Spitfires were fitted with drop tanks and banned from dogfighting .
The raid of 2 May marked the start of an upsurge in Japanese aerial activity over northern Australia . A detachment of six No. 457 Squadron aircraft was deployed to Milingimbi Island on 9 May after the airfield there was attacked . This detachment intercepted subsequent raids on 10 and 28 May , shooting down four Japanese for the loss of three Spitfires . On 20 June No. 1 Wing intercepted two Japanese raids on Darwin . While the raiders bombed the suburb of Winnellie and RAAF Station Darwin , the Allied fighters shot down nine bombers and five fighters and damaged another ten aircraft for the loss of two Spitfires . This was the most successful engagement fought by the RAAF over Darwin up to that time , and General MacArthur sent a congratulatory message to the defenders . The battle also received positive media coverage which restored public confidence in No. 1 Wing . The facilities which housed No. 54 Squadron 's photographic and parachute sections were badly damaged during the raid , but the unit 's ground crew did not suffer any casualties . Several days after the engagement Group Captain Walters was posted to take command of No. 5 Service Flying Training School and Caldwell was appointed the wing 's acting commanding officer . On 22 June No. 1 Wing was scrambled to intercept two large forces of incoming aircraft , but was subsequently directed by ground control to not engage them after it was determined that the Japanese force was made up only of fighters .
Air combat continued over Darwin in late June . The wing intercepted a further raid on the town on 28 June when 42 Spitfires were scrambled to intercept nine bombers escorted by nine fighters . In the subsequent engagement four Japanese fighters and two bombers were shot down while Allied losses were limited to a single Spitfire destroyed during a forced landing . Two days later , No. 1 Wing intercepted a force of 27 Mitsubishi G4M " Betty " bombers escorted by 23 Zeros which was en route to attack the USAAF heavy bomber base at Fenton airstrip and shot down six bombers and two fighters . The wing lost six Spitfires during this battle , including three to mechanical problems . Enough of the Japanese force made it through the defences to attack Fenton , and three USAAF B @-@ 24 Liberators were destroyed and seven damaged . While June had been the most successful month in No. 1 Wing 's history , its strength declined considerably due to losses from combat and mechanical problems . At the end of June the commander of the North Western Area , Air Commodore Frank Bladin , requested 22 Spitfires from Vice Air Marshal Jones to bring the wing up to strength . In response , RAAF Headquarters stated that it would dispatch 17 Spitfires to Darwin during the next week and was preparing an additional 33 aircraft which had recently arrived in Australia .
No. 1 Wing saw further action in July 1943 . On 3 and 4 July , Dinahs flew over the Darwin area without being intercepted . These preceded a major raid against Fenton on 6 July by 26 bombers and 21 fighters . The wing scrambled 33 aircraft to meet this force , and shot down nine of the raiders , losing seven Spitfires due to air combat or mechanical problems ; a B @-@ 24 was also destroyed on the ground . The wing 's high losses in this engagement were partially attributed to the worn state of the Spitfires ' engines , and Bladin again signalled RAAF Headquarters to seek the immediate delivery of new aircraft . These began to arrive at No. 1 Wing 's bases on 10 July . The attack on 6 July was the last major raid on the Darwin area , and the Spitfires saw little action during the remainder of the month and early August with flying operations limited to exercises and false alerts . By this time , the wing had been credited with 63 confirmed ' kills ' and a further 13 probably destroyed . In exchange , it had lost 44 aircraft , though only 17 were due to Japanese action . The Japanese official history produced after the war praised the effectiveness of No. 1 Wing and the radar stations around Darwin , stating that from mid @-@ 1943 they were at " the highest level in the world " . Nevertheless , Air Vice Marshal Adrian Cole , who replaced Bladin on 22 July , assessed the fighter force near Darwin as not being adequate to counter an invasion , and noted that the Spitfires had been forced to break off some engagements after running low on fuel . To counter these perceived shortfalls he requested units equipped with long ranged P @-@ 38 Lightning fighters . This request was not met , however , as all Lighting @-@ equipped units were committed to the fighting in New Guinea and the Solomon Islands .
= = = Final engagements = = =
In late July 1943 , No. 1 Wing 's headquarters was disbanded to make it easier to deploy the Spitfire squadrons to different areas as the need arose . Under the new command arrangements , the squadrons reported directly to the North @-@ Western Area 's headquarters for administrative purposes and No. 5 Fighter Sector Headquarters controlled all fighter operations . This change also aimed to end the confusion which existed at the time between whether the wing leader or senior ground controller in the fighter sector headquarters was responsible for directing the Spitfires during battle . No. 5 Fighter Sector Headquarters was redesignated No. 1 Wing on 25 September when Wing Commander Peter Jeffrey assumed command from Caldwell , who had been appointed No. 2 Operational Training Unit 's chief flying instructor . The headquarters ' role remained unchanged , however .
In the meantime , No. 1 Wing continued to respond to Japanese aerial activity over northern Australia . On the night of 13 / 14 August 18 Japanese aircraft raided Fenton and Coomalie Creek airfields . While No. 57 and No. 452 Squadrons scrambled Spitfires , they were unable to intercept the raiders . At this time the remainder of the wing was holding a dinner at Darwin to celebrate the anniversary of its return to Australia . No. 1 Wing had greater success on 17 August when it shot down all four of the Dinahs dispatched to the Darwin area that day ; three were destroyed by No. 457 Squadron and the fourth by Caldwell who was flying with No. 452 Squadron . This success led to celebrations within the wing and Baldin sent the pilots a message congratulating them for " 100 per @-@ cent de @-@ lousing Fenton . Appreciate the pageant " . Another night raid took place on 20 / 21 August , but the ten Spitfires scrambled did not make contact with the 18 raiders . From August the Japanese bomber units mainly conducted attacks on the Darwin area at night so that their aircraft were not intercepted by Spitfires .
No. 1 Wing fought its last major engagements during September and November 1943 . On 7 September , the Japanese dispatched a twin @-@ engined reconnaissance aircraft escorted by 20 fighters to the Darwin area . The 48 Spitfires scrambled in response to this force were led by Flight Lieutenant Bob Foster . This was Foster 's first experience in leading the wing , and he misdeployed No. 54 and 452 squadrons ' aircraft , leading to them being ' bounced ' by Japanese fighters . In the subsequent combat three Spitfires were shot down while the wing claimed one fighter destroyed and two ' probables ' . No. 457 Squadron was able to gain a height advantage on the Japanese , however , and shot down four fighters without loss . A further two night raids were made against Fenton on 15 and 27 September but the Spitfires scrambled in response were unable to find the bombers on either occasion . No. 1 Wing experienced a major turnover of personnel during September as pilots completed their nine @-@ month tours of duty . While this led of a loss of experienced airmen , the new pilots were often better trained than the men they replaced . No attacks took place during October , and the wing did not make contact with the Japanese until 6 November when a flight of six Spitfires which been deployed to Drysdale River Mission , Western Australia on the 3rd of the month failed in an attempt to intercept a reconnaissance aircraft near the settlement . In the early hours of 12 November nine Spitfires were scrambled to intercept nine Japanese aircraft which were bound for Darwin and Fenton . Two Betty bombers were shot down over Darwin Harbour by Flying Officer John Smithson and no Allied aircraft were lost . Both these aircraft were commanded by senior officers , and their deaths lead to the cancellation of further Betty bomber operations in the Darwin area .
= = = Garrison duty = = =
The raid on 12 November 1943 was the last Japanese attack on northern Australia . In December the Japanese transferred several of the air units based in the islands north of Australia to New Guinea and the Solomon Islands to counter Allied offensives . Few Japanese aircraft were subsequently based within 600 miles ( 970 km ) of Darwin , and the focus of the Allied forces in the North @-@ Western Area shifted from defending northern Australia to attacking Japanese positions in the Netherlands East Indies ( NEI ) and western New Guinea . As a result , No. 1 Wing had little to do and morale declined . Spitfires were scrambled in response to several false alerts during the last months of the year , but flying was heavily curtailed by the monsoon from November . Most of the wing 's veteran pilots were posted to other units at the end of 1943 and were replaced with less experienced aircrew .
On 25 February 1944 Wing Commander Dick Cresswell , who had previously commanded No. 77 Squadron , was appointed No. 1 Wing 's new wing leader . Creswell 's posting to this role was made upon the request of Jeffery , who tasked him with reducing the wing 's rate of flying accidents . Creswell achieved this through instructing pilots to make ' power on ' approaches and landings and having the Spitfires ' wheels modified . On 8 March , No. 1 Wing was ordered to urgently dispatch No. 452 and No. 457 Squadrons to the vicinity of Perth , Western Australia in response to concerns that a Japanese naval force would raid the area . Both squadrons arrived at RAAF Station Guildford on 12 March after a long flight in severe weather conditions during which one Spitfire crashed at Carnarvon and another made a forced landing at Gingin . On the day of their arrival the two squadrons assumed responsibility for air defence of the Perth @-@ Fremantle area alongside the CAC Boomerang @-@ equipped No. 85 Squadron RAAF . No attack eventuated , however , and the Spitfire squadrons were directed to return to Darwin on 20 March . During this period the Kittyhawk @-@ equipped No. 84 Squadron was transferred from Horn Island to Livingstone Airfield to replace the Spitfires while they were at Perth ; this unit arrived at Livingstone on 12 March and departed twelve days later . On 18 April the wing made strafing attacks on Japanese positions in the Babar Islands . Later that month No. 452 Squadron converted to the more advanced Mark VIII Spitfire . In May 1944 , No. 1 Wing 's headquarters and No. 57 and 457 Squadrons were deployed to Exmouth Gulf in Western Australia to protect the facilities which had been established to refuel the British Eastern Fleet before Operation Transom , during which it attacked Surabaya in Java . This deployment was hampered by a shortage of transport aircraft and inadequate facilities at Exmouth Gulf and the airstrips en route to the area . Cresswell also left the wing in May to become the wing leader of No. 81 Wing . On 12 June No. 452 Squadron aircraft shot down a Dinah . Despite the limited Japanese air activity , Air Vice Marshal Cole continued to regard No. 1 Wing as being " essential " to the defence of the North Western Area and in May reported that he could not release it for other duties .
No. 1 Wing was restructured from July 1944 . On 1 July , No. 452 and No. 457 Squadrons were transferred to No. 80 Wing RAAF , which had been formed to conduct offensive operations in the NEI under the command of Clive Caldwell . They were replaced by two other British units ; No. 548 and No. 549 Squadrons RAF . These squadrons had been dispatched to Australia as a result of a further meeting between H.V. Evatt and Winston Churchill in July 1943 in which Evatt had requested additional RAF units . They were formed from British pilots and Australian ground crew at Lawnton , Queensland on 15 December 1943 but did not receive their Mark VIII Spitfires until April the next year . No. 548 Squadron was initially stationed at Livingstone Airfield , and its air echelon arrived there on 10 June after a flight in which four Spitfires made forced landings when they ran low on fuel . No. 549 Squadron 's air echelon arrived at Strauss Airfield on 16 June and its rear echelon completed its movement from Queensland on 14 July . On 20 July , two No. 54 Squadron Spitfires operating out of Truscott Airstrip shot down a Dinah . This was the last Japanese aircraft to be destroyed over Northern Australia .
After July 1944 , No. 1 Wing 's combat flying was limited to occasional raids on Japanese positions . Aircraft from the wing strafed Selaroe in the Tanimbar Islands on 5 September . After the raid Jeffery told Caldwell that it had been conducted only as a means of boosting his pilots ' morale . Caldwell believed that the danger of flying Spitfires to the edge of their range in such operations outweighed the benefits which could be gained , and did not allow his pilots to participate in them . Group Captain Brian " Blackjack " Walker assumed command of No. 1 Wing in October ; he had previously served at Darwin as No. 12 Squadron RAAF 's commander . From 24 October the wing 's three squadrons were all stationed at Darwin 's civil airfield , which was located 1 mile ( 1 @.@ 6 km ) from RAAF Station Darwin . On 27 November seven Spitfires , five of which were drawn from No. 549 Squadron , escorted B @-@ 25 Mitchells to Cape Lore , Timor and strafed the area before the bombers made their attack . This was the longest operational flight made by Spitfires during the war .
Boredom continued to be a major problem for No. 1 Wing , and morale declined sharply in 1945 after No. 80 Wing left Darwin for the NEI and most of the Spitfires were grounded due to cooling system problems . Frustrations caused by a lack of opportunities for air combat were a common problem across the RAAF 's fighter squadrons in the SWPA , and contributed to the " Morotai Mutiny " of April 1945 when Caldwell and seven other officers attempted to resign in protest against their units ' being primarily tasked with attacking isolated Japanese garrisons . The Australian and British governments discussed replacing the RAF pilots with Australians or transferring the squadrons to a more active area , and in July 1945 Air Vice Marshal William Bostock , who led RAAF Command , proposed transferring two No. 1 Wing squadrons to Borneo to operate in the ground attack role . This did not eventuate , however , and the only action undertaken by the wing during 1945 was an attack made by six Spitfires on Japanese positions at Cape Chater , Timor on 3 June . Following the end of the war , No. 1 Wing 's headquarters closed at Darwin on 12 October 1945 , and the three British squadrons were disbanded on 31 October .
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= IC in a Sunflower =
IC in a Sunflower ( Japanese : 集積回路のヒマワリ , Hepburn : Shūsekikairo no Himawari ) is a science fiction josei ( targeted towards women ) manga written and illustrated by Mitsukazu Mihara . It is a collection of seven , unrelated short stories which appeared in the Japanese manga magazine Feel Young from 1994 to 1997 . The stories were then collected into a bound volume in Japan by Shodensha on October 18 , 1997 . Tokyopop licensed IC in a Sunflower for an English @-@ language release in North America , and published it on January 2 , 2007 . IC in a Sunflower was positively received by English @-@ language critics and readers . Reviewers identified various themes and literary elements in the collection , and generally enjoyed the short stories and art .
The seven short stories consist of Mihara 's 1994 debut " Keep Those Condoms Away From Our Kids " ( ゴムのいらない子供たち , " Gomu no Iranai Kodomo @-@ tachi " ) , set in a future in which an AIDS vaccine destroyed the desire for sex ; " The Iron Maiden " ( リッサの鉄の柩 ) , which focuses on a young woman haunted by her childhood sexual abuse ; " The Sunflower Quality Of An Integrated Circuit " ( 集積回路のヒマワリ ) , which deals with the events surrounding a couple and their robotic housekeeper ; " The Other Side Of The Rose Wire " ( バラ鉄線のむこう側 ) , which centers on a boy in love with a girl caring for her elderly father ; " Fish Out Of Water " ( 籠の魚 ) , which revolves around a captured mermaid ; " Mister Mineral " ( 鉱物君 ) , which features a disturbed college student ; and " Alive " ( あなたは生きている ) , which is set in a future where human cloning is practiced .
= = Plot = =
IC in a Sunflower consists of seven short stories , a format that Mitsukazu Mihara frequently uses for her narrative . The stories are unrelated to each other , each featuring a different protagonist . The stories of IC in a Sunflower sometimes incorporate a twist ending .
" Keep Those Condoms Away From Our Kids " ( ゴムのいらない子供たち , " Gomu no Iranai Kodomo @-@ tachi " ) revolves around a future in which teenagers do not have a desire for sex , as a result of an AIDS vaccine . The story focuses on Irori , who is taught about sex in school and encouraged by his parents , but ultimately neither understands nor has a desire for sex .
" The Iron Maiden " ( リッサの鉄の柩 ) focuses on a woman who struggles to create a happy life for herself despite the childhood sexual abuse done to her by her older brother . In her backstory , her parents refused to believe her as a child about her brother 's abuse towards her , and upset , she bites her doll and develops a compulsive habit of biting . Later , as an adult , she settles down with a husband and child , but after discovering her battered doll which triggers memories of her unhappy childhood , she bites her child .
" The Sunflower Quality Of An Integrated Circuit " ( 集積回路のヒマワリ ) centers on Vanilla , an android who keeps house for an old man married to a younger , unfaithful woman . The man treats Vanilla well , seeing her as a daughter , and the two have tea in the garden ; his wife , in contrast , abuses her and allows her lover to do the same . After the old man reveals his plans for divorce , his wife murders him and orders Vanilla to bury the remains . Vanilla obeys , although she recognizes that the remains were of the old man . The story ends with Vanilla in the garden , keeping her promise to the man by having tea when the sunflowers bloom .
In " The Other Side Of The Rose Wire " ( バラ鉄線のむこう側 ) , a boy falls in love from afar with a girl taking care of her elderly father . After she fails to appear with her father one day , he finds her dressed in mourning clothes with a smile on her face and burning the basket she kept with her .
" Fish Out Of Water " ( 籠の魚 ) focuses on a captured mermaid and her refusal to speak . Her captor attempts to pull her out of the bathtub where she had been living , and she remembers that she was a girl whose mother had tried to drown her and herself in a lake years ago . Her mother died , but she survived and imagined herself as a mermaid . She then wakes up from her delusion , finding herself in a hospital instead of a bathtub , and can begin to recover .
" Mister Mineral " ( 鉱物君 ) revolves around a college student , who collects rocks and is tormented by his memories of dissecting a frog . After learning that his girlfriend is pregnant , he becomes upset and tosses her into a busy highway .
Set in a future where human cloning is practiced , " Alive " ( あなたは生きている ) focuses on Tou , a clone sent to live in an orphanage of humans as part of an assignment . There , he meets a cheerful girl named Riika and after some time , she is taken to be killed for her organs . It is then revealed that Tou only thought he was a clone .
= = Style and themes = =
In IC in a Sunflower and all her works , Mihara uses character designs incorporating Lolita fashion — a clothing style influenced by the Rococo style and the Victorian and Edwardian eras . She explained that that particular style conveys the duality of her characters : " It 's about showing the delicate balance of ' delicate , yet strong , ' or ' selfish and wild , yet lustful . ' " Mihara has been involved with the shaping of the Gothic Lolita style — a subset of the Lolita fashion which incorporates dark colors — through her artwork ; she illustrated the first eight covers of the fashion magazine @-@ book Gothic & Lolita Bible and later returned to illustrating the covers with the twenty @-@ seventh volume in fall 2007 .
Reviewers have identified multiple themes and literary elements in the manga . According to Mania Entertainment 's Nadia Oxford , Mihara uses minimal dialogue and narrative , instead conveying emotion through the behavior of the characters . IGN 's A.E. Sparrow stated that the theme of the stories was the meaning of humanity , while Oxford wrote that the manga contains " themes of dystopian society and the fragile nature of the human mind . " Sparrow thought that mental instability figures prominently in the stories . According to him , " Keep Those Condoms Away From Our Kids " deals with " the nature of sex , " while Oxford believed that the story raises the question of the declining birth rate of Japan and other developed countries . Jason Thompson , author of Manga : The Complete Guide , considered " The Sunflower Quality of an Integrated Circuit " to have elements from film noir . By featuring a mute mermaid in " Fish Out Of Water " , Mihara makes an implicit reference to the fairytale " The Little Mermaid " , according to Oxford . The treatment of the elderly , children , or the unborn is the focus of some of the stories , according to Sparrow . Sparrow and Dan Grendall of Ain 't It Cool News speculated that " Alive " focuses on the meaning of living .
= = Release = =
Written and illustrated by Mitsukazu Mihara , the seven short stories of IC in a Sunflower appeared in the Japanese manga magazine Feel Young from 1994 to 1997 ; Mihara made her debut as a manga artist with " Keep Those Condoms Away From Our Kids " in 1994 , which won a contest in Feel Young . The short stories were published by Shodensha in a bound volume , ( ISBN 4396761716 ) , in Japan on October 18 , 1997 . For her stories , she generally draws inspiration from real @-@ life problems in society or unhappy times in her own life .
Tokyopop licensed IC in a Sunflower for an English @-@ language release in North America and the United Kingdom , along with four of her other works : The Embalmer , Beautiful People , Haunted House and R.I.P. : Requiem in Phonybrian . Beni Axia Conrad translated IC in a Sunflower from Japanese , and Nathan Johnson adapted it for an English @-@ language audience . Tokyopop published it on January 2 , 2007 ( ISBN 978 @-@ 1 @-@ 59816 @-@ 769 @-@ 6 ) . However , Tokyopop 's North American branch stopped publishing on May 31 , 2011 .
= = Reception and legacy = =
IC in a Sunflower was positively received by English @-@ language reviewers and readers . The manga ranked eighth on About.com 's 2007 Reader Poll for the best new josei manga , manga targeted towards women . Douresseaux praised the collection as " easily some of [ Mihara 's ] best work made available in English . " Sparrow highly recommended the manga , describing it as " a darker counterpart to Beautiful People . " The art was a frequent source of praise among reviewers , although Grendall wrote that some of the older stories had art not on the same level of refinement as her later work Doll . Mihara 's storytelling also went over well with critics ; Oxford commended Mihara 's ability to create unrelated short stories , something not commonly seen in manga . Rating the manga two @-@ and @-@ a @-@ half out of four stars , Thompson enjoyed some of the stories , but felt that the occasionally predictable endings or " ideas " that the story failed to expand upon hurt the manga . Upon learning that her illustrations and stories in general had been positively received in the West , Mihara was surprised and pleased " that people are overcoming the cultural barrier and just getting the message ! "
Appearing as a serial in Feel Young from 1998 to 2002 , Mihara 's science @-@ fiction josei manga Doll examines the relationships between the eponymous androids and their human owners in the future . The narrative primarily consists of unrelated short stories , but also develops an overall plot involving Ichiro , a man who illegally remodels the androids , and his revenge against the corporation which creates them . The character Vanilla from " The Sunflower Quality Of An Integrated Circuit " appears in Doll as one of the nine prototypes . Discovered by Ichiro and his Doll companion , she acts as if she suffers from psychological trauma , which she overcomes by recovering her memories of having to bury her master .
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= Artur Phleps =
Artur Gustav Martin Phleps ( 29 November 1881 – 21 September 1944 ) was an Austro @-@ Hungarian , Romanian and German army officer who held the rank of SS @-@ Obergruppenführer und General der Waffen @-@ SS ( lieutenant general ) in the Waffen @-@ SS during World War II . An Austro @-@ Hungarian Army officer before and during World War I , he specialised in mountain warfare and logistics , and had been promoted to Oberstleutnant ( lieutenant colonel ) by the end of the war . During the interwar period he joined the Romanian Army , reaching the rank of General @-@ locotenent ( major general ) , and also became an adviser to King Carol . After he spoke out against the government , he was sidelined and forcibly retired from the army .
In 1941 he left Romania and joined the Waffen @-@ SS as a SS @-@ Standartenführer ( colonel ) under his mother 's maiden name of Stolz . Seeing action on the Eastern Front as a regimental commander with the SS Motorised Division Wiking , he later raised and commanded the 7th SS Volunteer Mountain Division Prinz Eugen , raised the 13th Waffen Mountain Division of the SS Handschar ( 1st Croatian ) , and commanded the V SS Mountain Corps . Units under his command committed many crimes against the civilian population of the Independent State of Croatia , Territory of the Military Commander in Serbia and Italian governorate of Montenegro . His final appointment was as plenipotentiary general in south Siebenbürgen and the Banat , during which he organised the evacuation of the Volksdeutsche ( ethnic Germans ) of Siebenbürgen to the Reich . In addition to the Knight 's Cross of the Iron Cross , Phleps was awarded the German Cross in Gold , and after he was killed in September 1944 , he was awarded the Oak Leaves to his Knight 's Cross .
= = Early life = =
Phleps was born in Birthälm ( Biertan ) , near Hermannstadt in Siebenbürgen , then a part of the Austro @-@ Hungarian Empire ( modern @-@ day Romania ) . At the time , Siebenbürgen was densely populated by ethnic Germans commonly referred to as Transylvanian Saxons . He was the third son of the surgeon Gustav Phleps and Sophie ( née Stolz ) , the daughter of a peasant . Both families had lived in Siebenbürgen for centuries . After finishing at the Lutheran Realschule school in Hermannstadt , Phleps entered the Imperial and Royal cadet school in Pressburg ( in modern @-@ day Slovakia ) in 1900 , and on 1 November 1901 was commissioned as a Leutnant ( lieutenant ) in the 3rd Regiment of the Tiroler Kaiserjäger ( mountain infantry ) .
In 1903 , Phleps was transferred to the 11th Feldjäger ( rifle ) Battalion in Güns ( in modern @-@ day Hungary ) , and in 1905 was accepted into the Theresian Military Academy in Wiener Neustadt . He completed his studies in two years , and was endorsed as suitable for service in the General Staff . Following promotion to Oberleutnant ( first lieutenant ) he transferred to the staff of the 13th Infantry Regiment at Esseg in Slavonia , and then the 6th Infantry Division in Graz . This was followed by a promotion to Hauptmann ( captain ) in 1911 along with a position on the staff of the XV Army Corps in Sarajevo , where he specialised in mobilisation and communications in the difficult terrain of Bosnia and Herzegovina .
= = World War I = =
At the outbreak of World War I , Phleps was serving with the staff of the 32nd Infantry Division in Budapest . The division was involved in the early stages of the Serbian campaign , during which Phleps was transferred to the operations staff of the Second Army . The Second Army was soon withdrawn from the Serbian front and deployed via the Carpathian Mountains to the Austro @-@ Hungarian province of Galicia ( modern @-@ day Poland and Ukraine ) to defend against a successful offensive by the Russian Empire . The Second Army continued to fight the Russians in and around the Carpathians through the winter of 1914 – 1915 . In 1915 Phleps was again transferred , this time to Armeegruppe Rohr commanded by General der Kavallerie ( General ) Franz Rohr von Denta , which was formed in the Austrian Alps in response to the Italian declaration of war in May 1915 . Armeegruppe Rohr became the basis for the formation of the 10th Army , which was headquartered in Villach . Phleps subsequently became the deputy quartermaster of the 10th Army , responsible for organising the supply of the troops fighting the Italians in the mountains .
On 1 August 1916 , Phleps was promoted to Major . Later that month , King Ferdinand of Romania led the Kingdom of Romania in joining the Triple Entente , and subsequently invaded Phleps ' homeland of Siebenbürgen . On 27 August , Phleps became the chief of staff of the 72nd Infantry Division , which was involved in Austro @-@ Hungarian operations to repel the Romanian invasion . He remained in this theatre of operations for the next two years , ultimately serving as the chief quartermaster of the German 9th Army , and was awarded the Iron Cross 2nd Class on 27 January 1917 . In 1918 he returned to the mountains when he was transferred to Armeegruppe Tirol , and ended the war as an Oberstleutnant ( lieutenant colonel ) and chief quartermaster for the entire Alpine Front .
= = Between the wars = =
After the war the Austro @-@ Hungarian Empire was dissolved , and Phleps returned to his homeland , which had become part of Romania under the Treaty of Trianon . He joined the Romanian Army and was appointed as commander of the Saxon National Guard , a militia formed from the German @-@ speaking people of Siebenbürgen . In this role he opposed the Hungarian communist revolutionary government of Béla Kun , which fought Romania in 1919 . During a battle at the Tisza river against Kun 's forces he disobeyed direct orders and was subsequently court @-@ martialled . The trial concluded that Phleps had saved the Romanian forces through his actions , and he was promoted to Oberst ( colonel ) . He commanded the 84th Infantry Regiment , then joined the general staff and taught logistics at the War Academy in Bucharest . He attended the V Army Corps staff college in Kronstadt , and published a book , Logistics : Basics of Organisation and Execution , in 1926 which became the standard work on logistics for the Romanian Army . Ironically , after the book was published , Phleps failed his first general 's examination on the topic of logistics . He commanded various Romanian units , including the 1st Brigade of the vânători de munte ( mountain troops ) and also acted as a military advisor to King Carol II in the 1930s . Phleps reached the rank of Generalleutnant ( major general ) despite his disdain for the corruption , intrigue and hypocrisy of the royal court . After criticising government policy and publicly calling King Carol a liar when another general tried to twist his words , he was transferred to the reserves in 1940 and forcibly retired from the service in 1941 .
= = World War II = =
= = = SS Motorised Division Wiking = = =
In November 1940 , with the support of the leader of the Volksgruppe in Rumänien ( ethnic Germans in Romania ) , Andreas Schmidt , Phleps had written to the key Waffen @-@ SS recruiting officer SS @-@ Brigadeführer und Generalmajor der Waffen SS ( Brigadier ) Gottlob Berger offering his services to the Third Reich . Phleps subsequently asked for permission to leave Romania to join the Wehrmacht , and this was approved by the recently installed Romanian Conducător ( dictator ) General Ion Antonescu . Phleps volunteered for the Waffen @-@ SS instead , enlisting under his mother 's maiden name of Stolz . According to the historian Hans Bergel , Phleps joined the Waffen @-@ SS because Volksdeutsche were not permitted to join the Wehrmacht . He was appointed as a SS @-@ Standartenführer ( colonel ) by Reichsführer @-@ SS Heinrich Himmler and joined the SS Motorised Division Wiking , where he commanded Dutch , Flemish , Danish , Norwegian , Swedish and Finnish volunteers . When Hilmar Wäckerle , the commander of SS @-@ Regiment Westland , was killed in action near Lvov in late June 1941 , Phleps took over command of that regiment . Phleps distinguished himself in the fighting at Kremenchuk and Dnipropetrovsk in the Ukraine , commanded his own Kampfgruppe , became a confidant of Generalmajor ( Brigadier General ) Hans @-@ Valentin Hube , commander of the 16th Panzer Division , and was subsequently promoted to SS @-@ Oberführer ( senior colonel ) . In July 1941 he was awarded the 1939 clasp to his Iron Cross ( 1914 ) 2nd Class and then the Iron Cross ( 1939 ) 1st Class .
= = = 7th SS Volunteer Mountain Division Prinz Eugen = = =
On 30 December 1941 , Generalfeldmarschall ( Field Marshal ) Wilhelm Keitel advised Himmler that Adolf Hitler had authorised the raising of a seventh Waffen @-@ SS division from the Volksdeutsche ( ethnic Germans ) of Yugoslavia . In the meantime , Phleps reverted to his birth name from his mother 's maiden name . Two weeks later , SS @-@ Brigadeführer und Generalmajor der Waffen SS Phleps was selected to organise the new division , On 1 March 1942 , the division was officially designated the SS @-@ Freiwilligen @-@ Division " Prinz Eugen " . Phleps was promoted to SS @-@ Gruppenführer und Generalleutnant der Waffen SS ( major general ) on 20 April 1942 . After recruitment , formation and training in the Banat in October 1942 , the two regiments and supporting arms were deployed into the southwestern part of the Territory of the Military Commander in Serbia as an anti @-@ Partisan force . Headquartered in Kraljevo , with its two mountain infantry regiments centred on Užice and Raška , the division continued to train . Some artillery batteries , the anti @-@ aircraft battalion and the motorcycle battalion and cavalry squadron continued to form in the Banat . During his time with the 7th SS Division , Phleps was referred to as " Papa Phleps " by his troops .
In early October 1942 , the division commenced Operation Kopaonik , targeting the Chetnik force of Major Dragutin Keserović in the Kopaonik Mountains , which ended with little success , as the Chetniks had forewarning of the operation and were able to avoid contact . After a quiet winter , in January 1943 Phleps deployed the division to the Independent State of Croatia ( NDH ) to participate in Case White . Between 13 February and 9 March 1943 he was responsible for the initial aspects of raising the 13th Waffen Mountain Division of the SS Handschar ( 1st Croatian ) in the NDH in addition to his duties commanding the 7th SS Division . During Case White , the division captured Bihać and Bosanski Petrovac , killed over 2 @,@ 000 Partisans and captured nearly 400 . After a short rest and refit in April , the division was committed to Case Black in May and June 1943 , during which it advanced from the Mostar area into the Italian governorate of Montenegro , killing 250 Partisans and capturing over 500 .
In May 1943 , Phleps became frustrated by the failure of his Italian allies to cooperate with German operations , which was demonstrated in his reputation for forthright speech . During a meeting with his Italian counterpart in Podgorica , Montenegro , Phleps called the Italian Corps commander General Ercole Roncaglia a " lazy macaroni " . Phleps scolded his Wehrmacht interpreter , Leutnant Kurt Waldheim for toning down Phleps ' language , saying , " Listen Waldheim , I know some Italian and you are not translating what I am telling this so @-@ and @-@ so " . On another occasion , Phleps threatened to shoot Italian sentries who were delaying his passage through a checkpoint . While under Phleps ' command , the division committed many crimes against the civilian population of the NDH , especially during Case White and Case Black . These included " burning villages , massacre of inhabitants , torture and murder of captured partisans " , and the division thereby developed a distinctive reputation for cruelty . This was the subject of international controversy when Waldheim 's service in the Balkans became public in the mid @-@ 1980s , during his successful bid for the Austrian presidency . On 15 May 1943 , Phleps handed over command of the division to SS @-@ Brigadeführer und Generalmajor der Waffen SS Karl von Oberkamp .
In July 1943 , Phleps was promoted to Obergruppenführer und General der Waffen @-@ SS ( lieutenant general ) , awarded the Knight 's Cross of the Iron Cross , and placed in command of the V SS Mountain Corps .
= = = V SS Mountain Corps = = =
The formations under the command of V SS Mountain Corps varied during Phlep 's command . In July 1944 , it consisted of the 118th Jäger Division and 369th ( Croatian ) Infantry Division in addition to the 7th SS and 13th SS divisions . Throughout Phlep 's command , the corps was under the overall control of 2nd Panzer Army and conducted anti @-@ Partisan operations throughout the NDH and Montenegro . These operations included Operations Kugelblitz ( ball lightning ) and Schneesturm ( blizzard ) , which were part of a major offensive in eastern Bosnia in December 1943 , but they were only a limited success . Phleps had met personally with Hitler to discuss the planning for Operation Kugelblitz .
Due to the unreliable nature of the troops loyal to the NDH government , Phleps utilised Chetnik forces as auxiliaries , stating to a visiting officer that he could not disarm the Chetniks unless the NDH government provided him with the same strength in reliable troops . In January 1944 , due to fears that the Western Allies would invade along the Dalmatian coastline and islands , V SS Mountain Corps forced the mass evacuation of male civilians between the ages of 17 and 50 from that area . Phleps was criticised by both NDH and German authorities for the harshness with which the evacuation was carried out . During the first six months of 1944 , elements of the V SS Mountain Corps were involved in Operation Waldrausch ( Forest Fever ) in central Bosnia , Operation Maibaum ( Maypole ) in eastern Bosnia , and Operation Rösselsprung ( Knight 's Move ) , the attempt to capture or kill the Partisan leader Josip Broz Tito .
On 20 June 1944 , Phleps was awarded the German Cross in Gold . In September , he was appointed plenipotentiary general of German occupation troops in south Siebenbürgen and the Banat , organising the flight of the Volksdeutsche of north Siebenbürgen ahead of the advancing Soviet Red Army .
= = Death and aftermath = =
While en route to a meeting with Himmler in Berlin , Phleps and his entourage made a detour to reconnoitre the situation near Arad , Romania after receiving reports of Soviet advances in that area . Accompanied only by his adjutant and his driver , and unaware of the presence of Red Army units in the vicinity , he entered Șimand , a village approximately 20 kilometres ( 12 mi ) north of Arad , on the afternoon of 21 September 1944 . Soviet forces were already in the village , and Phleps and his men were captured and brought in for interrogation . When the building in which they were held was attacked by German aircraft later that afternoon , the prisoners tried to escape and were shot by their guards . Bergel suspects that Phleps had been set up by Hungarian army officers who had found out that Phleps knew of plans for Hungary to switch sides as Romania had done shortly before . Phleps ' personal effects , including his identity card , tags and decorations , were found by a Hungarian patrol and handed over to German authorities on 29 September 1944 . Phleps had been listed as missing in action since 22 September 1944 when he did not show up for his meeting with Himmler , who had issued a warrant for Phleps ' arrest .
Phleps was posthumously awarded the Oak Leaves to his Knight 's Cross on 24 November 1944 , which was presented to his son , SS @-@ Obersturmführer ( First Lieutenant ) Dr.med. Reinhart Phleps , a battalion doctor serving in the 7th SS Division . Soon after his death , the 13th Gebirgsjäger Regiment of the 7th SS Division was given the cuff title Artur Phleps in his honour . Phleps was married ; his wife 's name was Grete and in addition to their son Reinhart , they had a daughter , Irmingard . One of Phleps ' brothers became a doctor , and the other was a professor at the Danzig technical university , now Gdańsk University of Technology .
= = Accusations of war crimes = =
Phleps was accused by the Yugoslav authorities of war crimes in association with the atrocities committed by 7th SS Division in the area of Nikšić in Montenegro . At the Nuremberg trials on 6 August 1946 , a document from the Yugoslav State Commission for Crimes of Occupiers and their Collaborators regarding the crimes of the 7th SS Division was quoted as follows :
At the end of May 1943 the division came to Montenegro to the area of Niksic in order to take part in the fifth enemy offensive in conjunction with the Italian troops . [ ... ] The officers and men of the SS division Prinz Eugen committed crimes of an outrageous cruelty on this occasion . The victims were shot , slaughtered and tortured , or burnt to death in burning houses . [ ... ] It has been established from the investigations entered upon that 121 persons , mostly women , and including 30 persons aged 60 – 92 years and 29 children of ages ranging from 6 months to 14 years , were executed on this occasion in the horrible manner narrated above . The villages [ and then follows the list of the villages ] were burnt down and razed to the ground . [ ... ] For all of these most serious War Crimes those responsible besides the actual culprits--the members of the SS Division Prinz Eugen--are all superior and all subordinate commanders as the persons issuing and transmitting the orders for murder and devastation . Among others the following war criminals are known : SS Gruppenfuehrer and Lieutenant General of the Waffen @-@ SS Phleps ; Divisional Commander , Major General of the Waffen @-@ SS Karl von Oberkamp ; Commander of the 13th Regiment , later Divisional Commander , Major General Gerhard Schmidhuber ...
= = Awards = =
Phleps received the following awards during his service :
Austrian Military Merit Medal ( Signum Laudis )
in Bronze with war decoration and swords on 13 October 1914
in Silver with war decoration on 15 March 1916
Austrian Military Merit Cross 3rd Class with war decoration and swords on 3 July 1915
Decoration for Services to the Red Cross 2nd Class with war decoration on 23 October 1915
Prussian Iron Cross ( 1914 ) 2nd Class on 27 January 1917
Austrian Order of the Iron Crown 3rd Class with war decoration and swords on 24 April 1917
Officers cross of the Order of Franz Joseph with war decoration and swords on 23 July 1918
Order of the Star of Romania
Officers cross with swords on ribbon of military merit on 12 March 1920
Commanders cross on 28 February 1933
Czechoslovak War Cross on 1 March 1928
Order of the Yugoslav Crown 2nd Class in 1933
Bulgarian Order of Military Merit 2nd Class on 26 April 1934
Romanian Order of the Crown
Commander on 1 January 1927
Grand Cross on 10 May 1939
Clasp to the Iron Cross ( 1939 ) 2nd Class on 10 July 1941
Iron Cross 1st Class on 26 July 1941
Infantry Assault Badge in Bronze on 7 November 1943
German Cross in Gold on 20 June 1944 as SS @-@ Obergruppenführer und General der Waffen @-@ SS in the V SS Mountain Corps
Knight 's Cross of the Iron Cross with Oak Leaves
Knight 's Cross on 4 July 1943 as SS @-@ Brigadeführer und Generalmajor der Waffen SS and commander of SS @-@ Division " Prinz Eugen "
670th Oak Leaves on 24 November 1944 ( posthumously ) as SS @-@ Obergruppenführer und General der Waffen @-@ SS , commanding general of the V SS Mountain Corps and Higher SS and Police Leader as well as commander @-@ in @-@ chief in Siebenbürgen .
= = = Books = = =
= = = Journals = = =
= = = Websites = = =
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= Neville Cardus =
Sir John Frederick Neville Cardus , CBE ( 3 April 1888 – 28 February 1975 ) was an English writer and critic . From an impoverished home background , and mainly self @-@ educated , he became The Manchester Guardian 's cricket correspondent in 1919 and its chief music critic in 1927 , holding the two posts simultaneously until 1940 . His contributions to these two distinct fields in the years before the Second World War established his reputation as one of the foremost critics of his generation .
Cardus 's approach to cricket writing was innovative , turning what had previously been largely a factual form into vivid description and criticism ; he is considered by contemporaries to have influenced every subsequent cricket writer . Although he achieved his largest readership for his cricket reports and books , he considered music criticism as his principal vocation . Without any formal musical training , he was initially influenced by the older generation of critics , in particular Samuel Langford and Ernest Newman , but developed his own individual style of criticism — subjective , romantic and personal , in contrast to the objective analysis practised by Newman . Cardus 's opinions and judgments were often forthright and unsparing , which sometimes caused friction with leading performers . Nevertheless , his personal charm and gregarious manner enabled him to form lasting friendships in the cricketing and musical worlds , with among others Newman , Sir Thomas Beecham and Sir Donald Bradman .
Cardus spent the Second World War years in Australia , where he wrote for The Sydney Morning Herald and gave regular radio talks . He also wrote books on music , and completed his autobiography . After his return to England he resumed his connection with The Manchester Guardian as its London music critic . He continued to write on cricket , and produced books on both his specialisms . Cardus 's work was publicly recognised by his appointment as a Companion of the Order of the British Empire ( CBE ) in 1964 and the award of a knighthood in 1966 , while the music and cricket worlds acknowledged him with numerous honours . In his last years , he became a guru and inspirational figure to aspiring young writers .
= = Biography = =
= = = Early life = = =
= = = = Family background and early childhood = = = =
Neville Cardus was born on 3 April 1888 in Rusholme , Manchester . Throughout his childhood and young adulthood he was known as " Fred " . There has been confusion over his birth date ; some sources give it as 2 April 1889 , and Cardus himself hosted a dinner party on 2 April 1959 believing this to be his 70th birthday . His birth certificate , however , confirms the earlier date . Neville 's mother was Ada Cardus , one of several daughters of Robert and Ann Cardus of 4 Summer Place , Rusholme . On 14 July 1888 , when the baby was three months old , Ada left her parents ' home and married John Frederick Newsome , a blacksmith . Apart from their shared forenames , there is no evidence that Newsome was Neville 's father , who is described in Cardus 's autobiographical works as a violinist in an orchestra . The Newsome marriage was short @-@ lived , and within a few years Ada and Neville had returned to her parents ' home in Summer Place .
Robert Cardus was a retired policeman ; to augment his small pension the family took in neighbours ' washing , and the household income was further supplemented by his daughters ' earnings from part @-@ time prostitution . In his autobiographical writings , Cardus refers to his home environment at Summer Place as " sordid ... unlettered and unbeautiful " , yet enlivened by laughter : " Humour kept breezing in " . Commentators have suggested that Cardus tended to overstate the deprived aspects of his childhood ; his biographer Christopher Brookes asserts that " Cardus was the product neither of a slum , nor a cultural desert " . Robert Cardus , though uneducated , was not illiterate , and was instrumental in awakening his grandson 's literary interests . Theatres , libraries and other cultural facilities were easily accessible from the Cardus home .
Neville 's formal schooling was limited to five years at the local board school , where the curriculum was basic and the methods of tuition harsh : " [ T ] he boy who showed the faintest sign of freedom of the will was caned " . This experience did not curb Neville 's intellectual curiosity ; at a very young age he was expanding his cultural horizons , through the worlds of reading and of music hall and pantomime . When he was 10 years old he discovered the novels of Dickens ; years later he wrote that there were two classes of person , " those who have it in them from birth onwards to appreciate Dickens and those who haven 't . The second group should be avoided as soon as detected " . His earliest creative writing took the form of a handwritten magazine , The Boy 's World , full of articles and stories he had written . He circulated it among his schoolmates , until it was discovered and torn up by an irate teacher .
= = = = Manchester , 1901 – 12 = = = =
After Robert Cardus 's death in 1900 the family moved several times , eventually breaking up altogether . Cardus left school in 1901 and took a variety of short @-@ term , unskilled jobs before finding more secure employment as a clerk with Flemings ' marine insurance agency . He lived for a time with his Aunt Beatrice with whom , according to Brookes , he had at an early age " embarked on a lifelong love affair ... In his eyes she could do no wrong " . A flamboyant character , Beatrice brought colour into Cardus 's life ; she encouraged him to read worthwhile books and her memory , Brookes asserts , " remained a potent inspirational force " throughout his later life as a writer . She also bought him his first cricket bat .
These years were a period of intense self @-@ education . Cardus became an habitué of the local libraries , and extended his reading from Dickens to include many of the masters of literature : Fielding , Thackeray , Conrad and — with more reservation — Hardy and Henry James . In due course he added philosophy and metaphysics to his curriculum ; this began with his discovery of George Henry Lewes , which led him on to the works of Kant , Hume , Berkeley and , eventually , Schopenhauer . He supplemented these studies by attending free lectures at Manchester University , and met regularly with a group of like @-@ minded autodidacts at Alexandra Park or , in the winter , at the Lyons café in Albert Square , to discuss and debate for whole afternoons . At first Cardus 's schedule of self @-@ improvement was random ; eventually he compiled what he called a " cultural scheme " whereby he devoted a set weekly number of hours to different subjects .
Cardus 's interest in music began with the popular tunes sung by his mother and her sisters in the family home . He remembered hearing for the first time the melody of the " Vilja " song from Franz Lehár 's operetta The Merry Widow , which " curled its way into my heart to stay there for a lifetime " . In April 1907 he was " swept ... into the seven seas of music " by a performance of Edward German 's operetta Tom Jones . " I am unable to explain " , Cardus wrote many years later , " why it should have been left to Edward German — of all composers — to release the flood " . He began going to the Hallé Orchestra 's concerts at the Free Trade Hall where , on 3 December 1908 , he was present at the premiere of Elgar 's first symphony , under Hans Richter . He regularly attended the fortnightly concerts at the Royal Manchester College of Music , where students ' performances were assessed by the principal , Adolph Brodsky . As part of his scheme of study , Cardus briefly took singing lessons , his only formal instruction in music . In 1912 Cardus published his first musical article , " Bantock and Style in Music " , in Musical Opinion .
Alongside his intellectual pursuits Cardus played and followed cricket . As a small boy he had begun to visit Old Trafford Cricket Ground to watch Lancashire matches : " The first cricketer I saw was A.C. MacLaren ... I can still see the swing of MacLaren 's bat , the great follow @-@ through finishing high and held there with the body poised " . In 1902 he saw the Test match against Australia in which Victor Trumper scored a century before lunch and thereby won a permanent place among Cardus 's heroes . Cardus first played cricket on rough waste land close to his home in Rusholme ; as he matured he developed as an effective medium @-@ paced off break bowler , and for several seasons from 1908 onwards he played as a weekend professional in Manchester league cricket . " I am not ashamed to confess that I seldom hesitated , as soon as a batsman came to the crease , to let him have a quick one bang in the penis ; after which a quick , simple straight one would invariably remove him from the scene " .
= = = Shrewsbury = = =
In the spring of 1912 , in search of a change from his unrewarding clerical job , Cardus applied for the post of assistant cricket coach at Shrewsbury School , citing his bowling averages in Manchester club cricket . He reasoned that , by living frugally during the Shrewsbury summers , he would be able to finance his winter studies of music and literature . His application was successful , and in May 1912 he began his duties . He worked initially under Attewell , a former Nottinghamshire professional , and later under the Yorkshire and England cricketer Ted Wainwright . Cardus established good working relations with both of these , but identified most closely with Cyril Alington , the school 's headmaster : " Because of Alington I call myself ... an old Salopian " . Alington first detected Cardus 's intellectual potential when he found him reading a copy of Gilbert Murray 's translation of Euripides 's drama Medea . In August 1914 , in addition to his cricketing duties he became Alington 's secretary , after the previous incumbent joined the army at the outbreak of war ; Cardus was rejected for military service because of his poor eyesight .
Cardus did not find his duties at Shrewsbury onerous . He made frequent trips to Manchester , for Hallé concerts or to watch Thomas Beecham conduct at the Manchester Opera House . He found time for other work ; thus , in 1913 , he was the music critic for the northern edition of The Daily Citizen . This short @-@ lived newspaper was an official organ of the early Labour Party ; mainly out of admiration for Bernard Shaw Cardus had joined the Independent Labour Party , but quickly lost interest in socialism : " Their creed or system was obviously not to be a means to an end but an end in itself " . According to Brookes , the influence of Shrewsbury School affected Cardus to the extent that " [ t ] he playing fields of an English public school were for him a more natural setting than the iconoclastic frenzy of the Lyons café where socialism vied with Richard Strauss for pride of place in the race to modernity " . The Daily Citizen paid poorly , and Cardus 's association with it soon ended .
Cardus spent his winters in Manchester , studying hard in anticipation of any opportunity for an opening as a music critic , eking out his summer savings by taking temporary clerical work . Around 1916 he met Edith King , an art teacher and amateur actress who became a regular attender at the Lyons café meetings . In the summers , when Cardus returned to Shrewsbury , she kept him informed of musical and cultural events in Manchester . The Shrewsbury years , which Brookes describes as a " magical interlude " , ended suddenly when , at the end of the 1916 summer , Alington was appointed headmaster of Eton . Initially it seemed likely that Cardus would join him there as his secretary , but Cardus 's military exemption was under review ; the uncertainty of his position ended the possibility of a post at Eton . He left Shrewsbury in September 1916 with little money , and no immediate prospects of regular work .
= = = Manchester Guardian , 1917 – 1940 = = =
= = = = First years = = = =
In the winter of 1916 – 17 Cardus continued his private studies while working intermittently ; among various jobs , he collected insurance premiums for a burial society . Early in January 1917 he wrote to C. P. Scott , The Manchester Guardian 's editor , asking for any available post at the paper , as " the means whereby to continue my education " . To bolster his chances he enclosed specimens of his writing . The result was , first , a temporary unpaid position as Scott 's secretary , but in mid @-@ March Scott offered a job on the paper 's reporting staff . The writer J. B. Priestley later asserted that Cardus , who did not know shorthand , was engaged not as a reporter , but as a " writer " . In Cardus 's own account of these years he appears to have been fully engaged in reporters ' duties , his lack of shorthand being dismissed by the chief reporter , Haslam Mills , who paraphrased Shakespeare : " Some men are born to shorthand , others achieve shorthand , while others have shorthand thrust upon them " . Mills advised Cardus to concentrate on style : " We can be decorative at times ; we can even be amusing . Here , possibly , you will find scope " .
Within a year Cardus had been moved from the reporters ' room to take charge of the paper 's " Miscellany " column . He also resumed the duties of part @-@ time secretary to Scott , who was at this time over 70 , and had edited The Manchester Guardian since 1872 . Despite his years , he struck Cardus as " of inexhaustible energy and aliveness " . Scott was a demanding employer , who gave his young writers free rein , but expected in return long hours and total dedication . Driven hard , sometimes to the point of exhaustion , Cardus nevertheless relished these years , and never complained to Scott of weariness . Early in 1919 his role changed again , when he was made junior drama critic under the direction of C.E. Montague , the paper 's principal theatre critic who had returned from war service with no great desire to continue in the role . Cardus 's principal ambitions still lay in the direction of music criticism , though he recognised that this door was closed while Samuel Langford , music critic since 1906 , remained in post . In preparation for any opportunity that might arise in that direction , Cardus maintained a daily two @-@ hour study of music or music literature .
= = = = Cricket correspondent = = = =
In the spring of 1919 , while recovering from a serious pulmonary condition , Cardus took up a suggestion from his news editor , William Percival Crozier , that he should watch some cricket at Old Trafford and , if he felt able , write reports on a few matches . On 19 May 1919 Cardus went to the first day of Lancashire 's match with Derbyshire . His first published cricket report , on the following day , showed little sign of his later characteristic style : " I simply had no intention of writing on cricket for any length of time ; this was a spare @-@ time affair ... and I fitted myself into the idioms and procedures of the sporting writers of 1919 " . Scott nonetheless saw a potential , and from the beginning of 1920 Cardus became the paper 's regular cricket correspondent , under the by @-@ line " Cricketer " , a position he held for 20 years .
Cardus 's emergence as cricket correspondent was concurrent with another appointment , that of deputy and successor designate to Langford as music critic . In January 1920 Cardus deputised for Langford at a recital by the Russian tenor Vladimir Rosing , and impressed Scott with the quality of his notice . With the succession to Langford assured , and a significant increase in salary , Cardus was happy to devote his summers exclusively to cricket . He remained circumspect about his commitment to the sport : " Never have I regarded my cricket as more than a means to an end ; that end being always music " . Nevertheless , he developed a style of cricket reporting that quickly lifted him to the forefront of contemporary sports writers . He did this , according to his fellow cricket writer Gerald Howat , by using imagery and metaphor to create " a mythology of characters and scenes " . John Arlott described Cardus as " the creat [ or ] of modern cricket writing " .
The new sense of financial and professional security was probably instrumental in the decision of Cardus and Edith King to marry , on 17 June 1921 . The marriage , which lasted until Edith 's death 47 years later , was unconventional ; the couple led individual lives and rarely lived together , while remaining devoted friends . Cardus described his wife as " a great spirit and character , born for sisterhood not marriage . " From this time onward , Cardus used the forename " Neville " in place of " Fred " , and adopted the initials " N.C. " for his music reviews , to distinguish this persona from " Cricketer " . In August 1921 Cardus gained what he termed " the only scoop of my career " , when he reported the unexpected victory by 28 runs of MacLaren 's scratch side over the previously unbeaten Australian touring team . The match , at The Saffrons ground at Eastbourne , had attracted little interest from other cricket correspondents , being treated as a foregone conclusion .
The focus of much of Cardus 's cricket writing was the Lancashire side of the inter @-@ war years , and in particular their twice @-@ yearly battles with rivals Yorkshire . His eye was as much on the players and their personalities as on the game , on " the match within the match " , with the actual scores treated as secondary . Cardus justified this : " Do I add up the notes of a Mozart " Vivace " to evaluate the music ? " To meet Cardus 's requirements , the players were sometimes " enlarged " , notably Emmott Robinson , the veteran Yorkshire all @-@ rounder of the 1920s who through Cardus 's pen became " the apotheosis of Yorkshire cricket and Yorkshire character " . In the 1930s , Cardus 's style became less effusive , as his older heroes were replaced by players with , in his view , less romantic appeal . Bradman was an exception ; after his exploits in the England versus Australia Test series of 1930 Cardus described the Australian as " an incredible exponent who in himself sums up all the skill and experience that have gone before him ... he has kindled grand bonfires of batsmanship for us " .
Selections from Cardus 's Manchester Guardian cricket writings were published in a series of books between 1922 and 1937 . Because of financial constraints the paper did not send " Cricketer " to Australia to cover the " Bodyline " tour of 1932 – 33 . Cardus was generally approving of Jardine 's controversial bodyline tactics , writing on 5 March 1933 : " [ H ] ad [ Jardine ] been a weak man , all the energy of Larwood [ England 's premier bowler ] might have proved as vain a thing as it did in 1930 " . In 1936 – 37 , Cardus accompanied the MCC team to Australia ; otherwise he continued to write on English domestic cricket until the 1939 season was summarily truncated . On 1 September , the day that Germany invaded Poland , Cardus observed the removal of the bust of W. G. Grace from the Lord 's pavilion ; he was informed by a bystander : " That means war " .
= = = = Music critic = = = =
Following Langford 's death in May 1927 , Cardus became The Manchester Guardian 's chief music critic . For several years he had worked closely with Langford , whose influence on the younger man was equalled only by that of Ernest Newman , Langford 's predecessor as the paper 's music critic : " Langford taught me to feel and translate , while Newman taught me to observe and analyse " . Cardus 's fellow @-@ critic Hugo Cole has described his approach as personal rather than academic , based on his own reactions to the music he was hearing , and with a complete independence of judgement . Cardus was , Cole says , " the last distinguished music critic never to have received formal musical training ... he was a writer first , and a music critic second " .
Cardus 's lack of deference sometimes led to friction , as with Hamilton Harty , chief conductor of the Hallé Orchestra from 1920 . In his reviews of the Hallé concerts until Harty 's departure in 1933 , Cardus frequently criticised the conductor 's choices and interpretations . On one occasion he observed that Harty 's rendering of the adagio in Beethoven 's Ninth had broken the world record for slowness , and quoted minutes and seconds . Responding to Harty 's outraged protests , Cardus threatened to bring an alarm clock to the next performance , " less for critical purposes than for those of personal convenience " . When Harty left , he was not replaced as chief conductor ; the Hallé employed distinguished visiting conductors such as Beecham , Malcolm Sargent , Pierre Monteux , Adrian Boult and Ernest Ansermet . Cardus considered that a lack of central direction was adversely affecting the orchestra , and his biting criticisms of some performances led to temporarily strained relations .
Cardus often expressed views contrary to popular and critical opinion . He dismissed Stravinsky 's The Rite of Spring as " a sophisticated exploitation of primitive rum @-@ ti @-@ tum " . When Harty introduced Gershwin 's symphonic poem An American in Paris into a Hallé concert , Cardus proposed " a 150 per cent [ import ] tariff against this sort of American dry @-@ goods " . He professed to think that Sullivan 's " preoccupation with comic opera , to the neglect of oratorio and symphony " was a " deplorable " loss to English music , although he also wrote that without Gilbert , nothing of Sullivan 's music would have survived . Cardus championed Delius against the consensus of his fellow @-@ critics : " His music looks back on days intensely lived through ; it knows the pathos of mortal things doomed to fade and vanish " . At the 1929 Delius Festival in London , Cardus briefly met the composer , who thought he looked too young to be The Manchester Guardian 's music critic , and counselled him : " Don 't read yourself daft . Trust to y 'r emotions " . Also against the grain of critical opinion , Cardus commended the then unfashionable music of Richard Strauss and Anton Bruckner .
In 1931 Cardus visited the Salzburg Festival , where he met Beecham and began a friendship which lasted until Sir Thomas 's death in 1961 — despite numerous disagreements . One of Cardus 's notices in 1937 so incensed Beecham that he announced he would not conduct any concert at which Cardus was present . Cardus later numbered Beecham , with Elgar and Delius , as " one of the three most original spirits known in English music since Purcell " . The annual Salzburg Festival became a highlight of Cardus 's musical calendar ; in 1936 he saw Toscanini conduct a performance there of Wagner 's Die Meistersinger that , he said , " will remain in the mind for a lifetime ... Toscanini held us like children listening to a tale told in the chimney corner , lighted by the glow of olden times " . Cardus 's final prewar Salzburg visit was in 1938 , just after the German @-@ Austrian Anschluss which led to the withdrawal in protest of many of the Festival 's leading figures .
Despite financial incentives from London newspapers , Cardus remained loyal to The Manchester Guardian . On the outbreak of war in September 1939 the Free Trade Hall closed , requisitioned for military purposes . The Hallé Society left Manchester to tour with Sargent around the north @-@ west of England . With no music in Manchester and all first @-@ class cricket suspended , Cardus was unemployed , " imprisoned in Manchester , useless to anybody " . Thus , when he received an offer from Sir Keith Murdoch to join The Herald of Melbourne in Australia , he accepted immediately .
= = = Australia = = =
Cardus had been known to Australian readers since the 1920s , when The Argus in Melbourne reported his view that Australians made cricket " a war game ... with an intensity of purpose too deadly for a mere game . " His books on cricket were widely reviewed in the Australian press in the 1920s and 30s ; one critic commented in 1929 , " Mr. Cardus mingles fancy with fact . The latter is preferable . " Another Australian writer , quoting him extensively in 1932 , observed , " Mr. Cardus is a gifted writer and a most impartial critic . " By 1936 he was known to a considerable section of the Australian public as a cricket writer , although he was hardly known there in his musical capacity .
The 1936 – 37 MCC tour of Australia under G.O. Allen was the occasion of Cardus 's first visit to the country . During the tour he made , or consolidated , friendships with players and colleagues including C. B. Fry and Donald Bradman . Fry , a former England cricket captain , was a boyhood hero of Cardus , and was covering the Tests for the London Evening Standard . In Bradman , Cardus found a sophistication and sensitivity that other writers had failed to detect . When interviewed on his arrival in Australia , Cardus speculated how he would cope for the six months of the tour without music ; he was touched when the following day music students in Perth gave him a private recital of music by Chopin and Hugo Wolf . During this tour Cardus wrote for The Herald in Melbourne , and broadcast about cricket on Australian radio .
Cardus made a private visit to Australia from mid @-@ January to mid @-@ March 1938 . When he joined The Herald in 1940 , his initial brief was to cover a series of concerts conducted by Beecham for the Australian Broadcasting Commission ( ABC ) . Daily contact between the two men during Beecham 's time in Australia between June and October 1940 helped to consolidate their friendship . At the end of his tour Beecham tried to persuade Cardus to join him in sailing to America , asking , " Do you propose to stay in this barbarous country all your life ? " Cardus insisted on remaining in Australia , but moved from Melbourne to Sydney . Concluding that he could not satisfactorily review concerts for an evening newspaper , he joined the staff of The Sydney Morning Herald ( SMH ) .
At first Cardus failed to adjust his expectations to the prevailing standard of music @-@ making in Australia , which was not at that time comparable to the best on offer in Europe or America . He was accused of being " just one more sneering Pommy bastard come to hand down higher wisdom to the ignorant colonials . " His biographer Christopher Brookes suggests that Cardus was applying critical standards " more appropriate to Salzburg than to Sydney " . Over the next two years Cardus and the public slowly came to terms with each other , and by 1942 he was both popular and respected among Australians .
For ABC Cardus presented a weekly hour @-@ long programme , " The Enjoyment of Music " , which enlarged the audience for classical music across the country . His topics included concert works , such as the late Beethoven string quartets and Mahler 's Ninth Symphony , operas including The Marriage of Figaro and Der Rosenkavalier , and performers such as Wilhelm Furtwängler and Arturo Toscanini . He also gave a weekly , fifteen @-@ minute talk on music , illustrated by records , for the children 's Argonauts Club programme and regularly wrote for ABC Weekly .
Early in 1942 Cardus rented a small flat in the Kings Cross district of Sydney , where he wrote his Ten Composers ( 1945 ) and Autobiography ( 1947 ) . He said later that he found the discipline of writing for seven hours a day difficult at first , but that the process had turned him from a journalist into something more substantial . When later in 1942 his wife announced her intention of sailing from England to join him , Cardus declined to move to a larger flat to accommodate them both , and rented a separate establishment for her a mile away . They dined together once a week , but otherwise continued to lead largely separate lives .
By the end of the war Cardus 's thoughts were turning to England . Refusing an offer of a highly paid permanent contract to cover both music and cricket for the SMH he considered his options ; with some reluctance he agreed to cover the MCC 's 1946 – 47 tour of Australia for the SMH and also for The Times and The Manchester Guardian . The novelist Charles Morgan wrote of Cardus 's reports , " the best [ I have ] read these 40 years . Who shall dare to say now that George Meredith is forgotten ? "
= = = Later career = = =
= = = = Years of uncertainty = = = =
In April 1947 Cardus returned to England . He had not as yet decided to leave Australia permanently , but " felt in need of spiritual refreshment " . He found a war @-@ weary England in which much had changed ; familiar landmarks had disappeared , and old friends and acquaintances had died . The Free Trade Hall was a burnt @-@ out shell , and the Queen 's Hall in London completely destroyed ; however , Cardus was struck by the apparent good health of the English music scene . He also found an undamaged Lord 's , and enjoyed a season of magnificent cricket , marked by the batting exploits of the Middlesex pair , Denis Compton and Bill Edrich . Cardus was back in Sydney by the end of the year , but early in 1948 , having accepted an offer from The Sunday Times to cover that year 's Test series against Australia , he left for England again .
Another factor that brought Cardus to England in 1948 was the prospect of succeeding Newman , whose retirement as chief music critic of The Sunday Times was assumed to be imminent . However , Newman had no intention of retiring , and made it clear that he would resent any successor @-@ designate looking over his shoulder . Feeling slighted , Cardus resigned from the paper and accepted an offer from the London Evening Standard to be its music critic . This new appointment was short @-@ lived ; Cardus 's lengthy and discursive concert reviews were incompatible with this paper 's style , and were ruthlessly cut by subeditors . At the end of 1948 he was back in Australia , proclaiming his intention to settle there permanently . This determination , too , was brief ; the lure of London life proved irresistible . Because of the commercial success of his Autobiography , published in 1947 , and the immediate commissioning of a second autobiographical work , Cardus was not under immediate financial pressure . He left Australia again in the spring of 1949 , and although he spent the English winter of 1950 – 51 in Australia , writing about the 1950 – 51 England v. Australia Test series for the Sydney Morning Herald , London was thereafter his permanent home . Here he worked as a freelance writer , in which role he resumed his association with The Manchester Guardian . In December 1951 he was appointed the paper 's London music critic , on a permanent salaried basis .
= = = = London critic = = = =
In 1949 Cardus set up his London home at the National Liberal Club , while Edith took a flat in Bickenhall Mansions , just off Baker Street . The pair lived harmoniously apart , though in frequent contact , until Edith 's death . Cardus found London 's musical life invigorating , with five major orchestras and a host of distinguished conductors and solo artists performing regularly . Toscanini paid his final visit to England in 1952 , with two concerts at the Royal Festival Hall . Outside London , Cardus was a regular visitor to the Edinburgh Festival and to Glyndebourne , and was in Manchester for the reopening of the Free Trade Hall and the " homecoming " of the Hallé Orchestra in November 1951 . The inaugural concert concluded with Kathleen Ferrier singing " Land of Hope and Glory " . Cardus had first heard Ferrier at the Edinburgh Festival in 1947 ; he became a devoted admirer to the extent that , eventually , questions were raised about his critical blindness to her technical weaknesses . He wrote of her singing that it was , " like the woman herself ... imbued with a quiet but reliant sense and a feeling for the fun and goodness of life " . He was devastated by her death from cancer in October 1953 ; the following year he edited and contributed to a memorial volume of tributes .
For The Manchester Guardian , Cardus wrote around 30 music articles a year . These included " survey " pieces , which often reflected his personal enthusiasms ; a regular subject was the music of Gustav Mahler , who in the early 1950s was by no means a popular composer with British audiences . Cardus sought to change that , with a series of articles between 1952 and 1957 under titles such as " Mahler 's Growing Influence " , " Misunderstanding Mahler " , and " The Mahler Problem " . He wrote the first volume of a detailed analysis entitled Gustav Mahler : His Mind and his Music ; the book , dealing with Mahler 's first five symphonies , was published in 1965 , but was poorly received by critics . Volume II was never written .
Throughout the 1950s and 1960s Cardus wrote cricket articles ; these included an annual reflection for Wisden Cricketers ' Almanack and occasional columns for The Manchester Guardian , for whom he covered the 1953 Test Matches against Australia . In the English winter of 1954 – 55 Cardus made his final visit to Australia , to report on the Test series for The Sydney Morning Herald ; he undertook to write " impressions " rather than day @-@ to @-@ day reports on play . He found time to enjoy Sydney 's theatrical and music scene , but was disappointed in what he perceived as a decline in the city 's musical standards .
In the decades after the war many of Cardus 's earlier heroes and acquaintances died . On Fry 's death in 1956 Cardus wrote of him as " A great Englishman , measured by any standards of occupation , art and civilisation " . In 1959 , still in harness , Newman died at the age of 90 ; Cardus considered him the most outstanding of all music critics , and thought he should have been appointed a Companion of Honour ( CH ) , or even to the Order of Merit . Beecham died on 8 March 1961 . Cardus had for some years noted a decline in his old friend 's powers , though he had written in 1954 , on the occasion of Beecham 's 75th birthday , of the debt the music world owed to the conductor : " He led us out of the Teutonic captivity . He showed us other and more sensitive worlds " . After Beecham 's death , Cardus organised the publication of a celebratory memoir , as he had done with Kathleen Ferrier . To an extent the departed idols were replaced with new heroes : in music , Herbert von Karajan , Otto Klemperer , Clifford Curzon and Claudio Arrau ; in cricket , Keith Miller and Garfield Sobers . Cardus maintained a keen antagonism towards much of contemporary music ; discussing Pierre Boulez 's Pli selon pli after a performance in 1965 , he said he " could not relate the varied succession of aural phenomena to music as my musical intelligence and senses recognise music " .
In 1964 Cardus was appointed a Commander of the Order of the British Empire ( CBE ) . In a letter to his friend Marjorie Robinson he described the investiture at Buckingham Palace , remarking that the Queen " might have been any nice shy young lady in D.H. Evans or Kendal Milnes " . Just over two years later Cardus was awarded a knighthood , the first music critic to receive such an honour , although in all likelihood it was awarded as much for his cricket writing . Years previously Beecham had advised : " In the unlikely event of you being offered a knighthood , Neville , take it . It makes tables at the Savoy so much easier to come by " .
= = = = Final years = = = =
Edith Cardus died on 26 March 1968 . Despite their separate day @-@ to @-@ day lives , she had been an influential presence for nearly all Cardus 's adult life ; they had communicated by telephone almost daily , and he felt her loss keenly . After her death he left the National Liberal Club and moved into her flat , which remained his base for the rest of his life . In the ensuing months he worried about his deteriorating relationship with The Guardian ; the paper had been renamed in 1959 following reorganisation , and its editorial offices had moved to London in 1964 . Cardus felt that much of the old ethos had departed , and that his once @-@ sacrosanct copy was now at the mercy of subeditors . He was particularly incensed by the treatment meted out to his 1969 Edinburgh Festival reports , and referred to the subeditors ' room as " the Abattoir " in one of many letters complaining of editorial butchery .
As well as his work for The Guardian Cardus wrote occasionally for The Sunday Times , a particular pleasure to him in view of his failure to achieve Newman 's post . In 1970 he published Full Score , the last of his autobiographical works and , in Daniels 's view , the least substantial of all the Cardus books . In his eighties , Cardus assumed the role of guru to young aspiring writers , before whom he would hold court in favourite locations : the Garrick Club , the National Liberal Club , or Lord 's . According to Daniels , Cardus " thrived in the role of patron , encourager , [ and ] accoucheur " . Howat describes his appearance in these years as not having changed much from his younger days : " ... the lean , ascetic figure of moderate height , with sharp features , sleek hair , and strong glasses " .
Cardus died on 28 February 1975 at the Nuffield Clinic , London , a few days after collapsing at home . His cremation service was private . On 4 April more than 200 people attended a memorial service at St Paul 's , Covent Garden . These included representatives from Cardus 's worlds of cricket , journalism and music . Flora Robson and Wendy Hiller gave readings , and Clifford Curzon , with the Royal Philharmonic Orchestra , played the second movement of Mozart 's Piano Concerto No. 23 . The eulogy was given by the cricket writer and historian Alan Gibson , who took as his text verses from Blake 's Auguries of Innocence :
= = Reputation , honours and influence = =
Cardus 's contribution to cricket writing has been acknowledged by various commentators on the game . John Arlott wrote : " Before him , cricket was reported ... with him it was for the first time appreciated , felt , and imaginatively described . " Howat commented : " He would have his imitators and parodists , and no serious cricket writer would remain unaffected by him " . His influence on his successors was more specifically acknowledged by Gibson :
" All cricket writers of the last half century have been influenced by Cardus , whether they admit it or not , whether they have wished to be or not , whether they have tried to copy him or tried to avoid copying him . He was not a model , any more than Macaulay , say , was a model for the aspiring historian . But just as Macaulay changed the course of the writing of history , Cardus changed the course of the writing of cricket . He showed what could be done . He dignified and illuminated the craft " .
As a music critic , Cardus 's romantic , instinctive approach was the opposite of Newman 's objective school of musical criticism . Initially in awe of Newman 's reputation , Cardus soon discovered his own independent , more subjective voice . A fellow critic wrote that Newman " probed into Music 's vitals , put her head under deep X @-@ ray and analysed cell @-@ tissue . Cardus laid his head against her bosom and listened to the beating of her heart . " Despite their different approaches , the two writers held each other in considerable regard ; at times , Newman 's own prose showed the influence of Cardus 's style . Among leading musicians who have paid tribute to Cardus , Yehudi Menuhin wrote that he " reminds us that there is an understanding of the heart as well as of the mind ... in Neville Cardus , the artist has an ally " . Colin Davis highlighted " the quality and verve of Cardus 's writing " , which had made him a household name .
Beside his CBE and knighthood , Cardus received numerous honours from the musical and cricketing worlds , at home and overseas . In 1963 he was awarded the City of Bayreuth 's Wagner Medal ; he was given honorary membership of the Royal Manchester College of Music in 1968 , and of the Royal Academy of Music in 1972 . The Hallé Orchestra honoured him with two special concerts in April 1966 to mark his long association with the orchestra . In 1970 he received the Austrian Cross of Honour for Science and Art , 1st class . Among the honours he most valued was the presidency of Lancashire County Cricket Club , which he accepted in 1971 .
Cardus was not an " establishment " figure . His friends encountered initial resistance when they sought his election to the MCC , although he was eventually accepted in 1958 . He was denied the civic honour of the Freedom of the City of Manchester , and although he made light of this omission he was hurt by it . Long after his death , the city named a pathway close to the rebuilt Summer Place " Neville Cardus Walk " . Aside from formal institutional recognition , Cardus was highly regarded by prominent individual cricketers and musicians , as indicated by the " tribute book " he received at his 70th birthday celebration lunch . The book included contributions from Wilfred Rhodes , Jack Hobbs and Len Hutton , and also from Klemperer , Elisabeth Schwarzkopf and Bruno Walter . He managed to maintain close friendships with both Beecham and Sir John Barbirolli , though the two conductors cordially disliked one another .
In the conventional sense , Cardus was not a religious man ; Dennis Silk , a one @-@ time MCC president , suggests that Cardus 's religion was " friendship " . In Autobiography Cardus says he found his Kingdom of Heaven in the arts , " the only religion that is real and , once found , omnipresent " — though his rationalism was shaken , he confesses , when he came to understand the late string quartets of Beethoven . He ends his autobiography by declaring : " If I know that my Redeemer liveth it is not on the church 's testimony , but because of what Handel affirms " .
Within the relaxed framework of his marriage , Cardus enjoyed relationships with many women . These included Hilda " Barbe " Ede , with whom he shared a passionate affair in the 1930s before her sudden death in 1937 ; Cardus referred to her as " Milady " , and devoted a chapter of Full Score to her . After his return from Australia his closest women friends were Margaret Hughes and Else Mayer @-@ Lismann , to whom he referred respectively as his " cricket wife " and his " music wife " . Hughes , who was more than 30 years younger than Cardus , became his literary executor after his death , and edited several collections of his cricketing and musical writings .
= = Books by Cardus = =
The list includes all original works together with collections , anthologies and books edited or jointly edited by Cardus . Posthumous publications are included . Publication year relates to the original edition ; many of the books have been reissued , often by different publishers .
= = = Autobiographical works = = =
Autobiography . London : Collins . 1947 . OCLC 1106112 .
Second Innings — Autobiographical Reminiscences . London : Collins . 1950 . OCLC 558923046 .
My Life ( edited by H.G. Earnshaw ) . London : Collins . 1965 . OCLC 5215263 . A condensed edition of Autobiography and Second Innings
Full Score . London : Cassell . 1970 . ISBN 030493643X .
Conversations with Cardus ( edited by Robin Daniels ) . London : Gollancz . 1976 . ISBN 0575021268 .
= = = Music books = = =
Samuel Langford — Musical Criticisms ( edited by Neville Cardus ) . London and Oxford : Oxford University Press . 1929 . OCLC 1072313 .
Ten Composers . London : Jonathan Cape . 1944 . OCLC 34134895 . ( Chapters on Schubert , Wagner , Brahms , Mahler , Richard Strauss , César Franck , Debussy , Elgar , Delius and Sibelius )
Music for Pleasure . Sydney and London : Angus & Robertson . 1942 . OCLC 558923034 .
Kathleen Ferrier — A Memoir . London : Hamish Hamilton . 1954 . OCLC 468939873 . ( A memorial volume , edited by Cardus , with additional contributions by Winifred Ferrier , Sir John Barbirolli , Benjamin Britten , Roy Henderson , Gerald Moore and Bruno Walter )
Talking of Music . London : Collins . 1957 . OCLC 252854923 .
A Composers Eleven . London : Jonathan Cape . 1958 . OCLC 2986595 . ( A revised version of Ten Composers , with an additional chapter on Bruckner )
Sir Thomas Beecham — A Memoir . London : Collins . 1961 . OCLC 1290533 .
Gustav Mahler — His Mind and His Music . London : Gollancz . 1965 . OCLC 185561901 .
The Delights of Music — A Critic 's Choice . London : Gollancz . 1966 . OCLC 912315 .
What is Music ? ( edited by Margaret Hughes ) . London : White Lion . 1977 . ISBN 0728500175 .
Cardus on Music — A Centenary Collection ( edited by Donald Wright ) . London : Hamish Hamilton . 1988 . ISBN 0241122856 .
= = = Cricket books = = =
A Cricketer 's Book . London : Grant Richards . 1922 . OCLC 20476437 .
Days In the Sun — A Cricketer 's Journal . London : Grant Richards . 1924 . OCLC 36463332 .
The Summer Game — A Cricketer 's Journal . London : Grant Richards . 1929 . OCLC 54322964 .
Cricket . London and New York : Longmans Green . 1930 . OCLC 986998 .
Good Days — A Book of Cricket . London : Jonathan Cape . 1934 . OCLC 8279027 .
Australian Summer . London : Jonathan Cape . 1937 . OCLC 36463306 .
English Cricket . London : Collins . 1945 . OCLC 2580219 .
Cardus On Cricket — A Selection from the Cricket Writings of Neville Cardus . London : The Sportsman 's Book Club . 1949 .
Cricket all the Year . London : Collins . 1952 . OCLC 753105120 .
Close of Play . London : Collins . 1956 . OCLC 30163488 .
The Playfair Cardus — Essays by Neville Cardus first published in " Playfair Cricket Monthly " . London : Dickens Press . 1966 . OCLC 59024265 .
The Noblest Game — A Book of Fine Cricket Prints ( jointly edited with John Arlott ) . London : Harrap . 1969 . ISBN 024559888X .
Cardus in the Covers . London : Souvenir . 1978 . ISBN 0285623729 .
Play Resumed with Cardus . London : Souvenir . 1979 . ISBN 0285624261 .
A Fourth Innings with Cardus . London : Souvenir . 1981 . ISBN 0285624830 .
The Roses Matches , 1919 – 1939 . London : Souvenir . 1982 . ISBN 0285625209 .
A Cardus for All Seasons ( edited by Margaret Hughes ) . London : Souvenir . 1985 . ISBN 0285626868 .
Cardus on the Ashes ( edited by Margaret Hughes ) . London : Souvenir . 1989 . ISBN 0285629239 .
The Wisden Papers of Neville Cardus ( edited by Benny Green ) . London : Stanley Paul . 1989 . ISBN 0091740010 .
= = = General anthology = = =
The Essential Neville Cardus ( edited by Rupert Hart @-@ Davis ) . London : Jonathan Cape . 1949 . OCLC 12986547 .
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= African Americans in Omaha , Nebraska =
African Americans in Omaha , Nebraska are central to the development and growth of the 43rd largest city in the United States . The first free black settler in the city arrived in 1854 , the year the city was incorporated . In 1894 black residents of Omaha organized the first fair in the United States for African @-@ American exhibitors and attendees . The 2000 US Census recorded 51 @,@ 910 African Americans as living in Omaha ( over 13 % of the city 's population ) . In the 19th century , the growing city of Omaha attracted ambitious people making new lives , such as Dr. Matthew Ricketts was the first African American to graduate from a Nebraska college or university , and Silas Robbins was the first African American to be admitted to the bar in Nebraska . In 1892 Dr. Ricketts was also the first African American to be elected to the Nebraska State Legislature . Ernie Chambers , an African @-@ American barber from North Omaha 's 11th District , became the longest serving state senator in Nebraska history in 2005 after serving in the unicameral for more than 35 years .
Because of its industrial jobs with the railroads and meatpacking industries , Omaha was the city on the Plains that attracted the most African @-@ American migrants from the South in the Great Migration of the early 20th century . By 1910 it had the third largest black population among western cities after Los Angeles and Denver . From 1910 to 1920 , the African @-@ American population in Omaha doubled to more than 10 @,@ 000 , as new migrants were attracted by jobs in the expanding meatpacking industry . More than 70 percent were from the South . Of western cities , in 1920 only Los Angeles had a greater population of blacks than Omaha , with nearly 16 @,@ 000 . Reflecting the concentration of people and vital community , in 1915 the Lincoln Motion Picture Company was founded in Omaha . It was the first film company owned by African Americans . Like several other major industrial cities during the " Red Summer of 1919 " , Omaha suffered a race riot . It was marked by the lynching of Will Brown , a black worker , and deaths of two white men . The violence erupted out of job competition and postwar social tensions among working class groups , aggravated by sensational journalism in the city . In the aftermath of the riot , the city 's residential patterns became more segregated . By the 1920s , a vibrant African @-@ American musical and entertainment culture had developed in the city .
While African Americans were already concentrated in North Omaha , in the 1930s redlining and race restrictive covenants reinforced their staying there without options for years to move to newer housing . In the 1930s and 1940s African Americans were part of successful interracial organizing teams in the meatpacking industry . They succeeded in creating the integrated United Meatpacking Workers of America union and gained an end to segregated jobs in the industry . The union helped support integration of public facilities in the 1950s and the civil rights movement in the 1960s . During this period , activists worked both for local and national changes ; they contributed to improving conditions for African Americans in Omaha . Mid @-@ century massive restructuring in railroads and the meatpacking industry cost the city more than 10 @,@ 000 jobs . African Americans were particularly affected by the loss of industrial jobs . Those who could migrated for work in other areas and problems increased among the remaining population in North Omaha .
Omaha has the fifth @-@ highest African @-@ American poverty rate among the nation 's 100 largest cities , with more than one in three black residents in Omaha living below the poverty line . The percentage of black children in Omaha who live in poverty rank ranks number one in the United States , with nearly six of 10 black kids living below the poverty line . Only one other metropolitan area in the U.S. , Minneapolis , has a wider economic disparity between blacks and whites .
= = Population history = =
The first recorded instance of a black person in the Omaha area occurred in 1804 . " York " was a slave belonging to William Clark of the Lewis and Clark expedition . The presence of several black people , probably slaves , was recorded in the area comprising North Omaha today when Major Stephen H. Long 's expedition arrived at Fort Lisa in September 1819 . They reportedly lived at the post and in neighboring farmsteads .
= = = 19th century = = =
After a short history of slavery in Nebraska , the first free black person to live in Omaha was Sally Bayne , who moved to Omaha in 1854 . A clause in the original proposed Nebraska State Constitution from 1854 limited voting rights in the state to " free white males " , which kept Nebraska from entering the Union for almost a year . In the 1860s , the U.S. Census showed 81 " Negroes " in Nebraska , ten of whom were accounted for as slaves . At that time , the majority of the population lived in Omaha and Nebraska City .
Some of the earliest African @-@ American residents of the city may have arrived by the Underground Railroad via a small log cabin outside of Nebraska City built by Allen Mayhew in 1855 . It is honored today as the Mayhew Cabin Museum . One report says , " Henry Daniel Smith , born in Maryland in 1835 , still living in Omaha in 1913 and working at his trade of broom @-@ maker , was one escaped slave who entered Nebraska via the Underground Railroad . "
By 1867 enough blacks gathered in community to found St. John 's African Methodist Episcopal Church in the Near North Side neighborhood . It was the first church for African Americans in Nebraska . The first recorded birth of an African American in Omaha occurred in 1872 , when William Leper was born .
Before Omaha 's African @-@ American residents gathered in North Omaha , they lived dispersed throughout the city . By 1880 there were nearly 800 black residents , many recruited by Union Pacific Railroad as strikebreakers . By 1884 there three black churches had been founded . By 1900 there were 3 @,@ 443 black residents , in a total city population of 102 @,@ 555 .
Black men and women quickly formed social and community organizations , such as the Women 's Club in 1895 , devoted to education , respectability and reform . In addition , the community began to create its own newspapers , such as the Progress , the Afro @-@ American Sentinel and The Enterprise in the 1880s and 1890s .
Blacks also quickly distinguished themselves in public life : in 1892 Dr. Matthew Ricketts was the first black person elected to serve in the Nebraska Legislature and in 1895 Silas Robbins was the first black lawyer admitted to the Nebraska State Bar Association .
= = = 20th century = = =
At the turn of the 20th century , two African @-@ American physicians , doctors Riddle and Madison , opened a hospital for African Americans . Citizens could not afford the facility and it failed financially . Reared in Omaha , Clarence W. Wigington was the first black architect to design a home in Nebraska as a student of the noted Thomas Rogers Kimball . He also designed churches in Omaha . Wigington gained a national reputation after moving to St. Paul , Minnesota , in 1914 , where he soon became the senior architectural designer for the city . His legacy includes 60 surviving buildings , among which four are listed on the National Register of Historic Places .
John Grant Pegg was the Leading Colored Republican of the Western States Meet in Conference . In 1906 , he was appointment as the City Weights and Measures Inspector by J.C. Dalhman , Mayor of Omaha 1910 . Pegg held the post for 10 years until his death in 1916 . Encouraged and Sponsored many of the black settlers who went by wagon out to Cherry County , Nebraska to homestead benefiting from The Kincaid Homestead Act of 1904
In 1912 the Omaha chapter of the National Association for the Advancement of Colored People was founded , the first NAACP chapter west of the Mississippi . George Wells Parker , a founder of the Afrocentric Hamitic League of the World , was instrumental in recruiting African Americans from the Deep South to Omaha during the 1910s .
Railroads and the meatpacking industry recruited African American workers from the South . From 1910 to 1920 , the African @-@ American population of Omaha doubled from 4 @,@ 426 to 10 @,@ 315 , making up five percent of Omaha 's population . Of the western cities which were new destinations for blacks of the Great Migration , in 1920 Omaha had the second largest black population , after Los Angeles . The rapid pace of growth alarmed some people in the city , which was also absorbing thousands of new eastern and southern European immigrants . People were concerned about social problems : labor unrest following strikes in 1917 , and the return of veterans looking for work after World War I.
During the first week of August 1919 , the Omaha Bee newspaper reported that as many as 500 " Negro " workers , mostly from Chicago and East St. Louis , arrived in Omaha to seek employment in the packinghouses . The Bee tended to sensational journalism , adding to tensions in the city as it highlighted alleged crimes committed by blacks . The migration of African Americans to Omaha and the hiring of black workers created a source of friction in the local labor market . Blacks had been hired as strikebreakers in 1917 , and there was a major strike among white workers in 1919 . The immigrant workers in the meatpacking industry resented the strikebreakers . Economic pressure exacerbated hostilities .
From 1910 to the 1950s , Omaha was a destination for African Americans during the Great Migration from the American South . An African @-@ American cultural expansion flourished beginning in the 1920s , part of a larger boom time in the Prohibition era . A late 20th @-@ century documentary reported about the 1940s , " On the surface the black community appeared quite stable . Its center was a several @-@ block district north of the downtown . There were over a hundred black @-@ owned businesses , and there were a number of black physicians , dentists , and attorneys . Over twenty fraternal organizations and clubs flourished . Church life was diverse . Of more than forty denominations , Methodists and Baptists predominated . "
= = Neighborhoods = =
Early African American neighborhoods in Omaha included Casey 's Row , a community of housing for African @-@ American families , most of whose men worked as railroad porters at the nearby Union Pacific Railroad . The steady jobs on the railroads were considered good work , even if some men had greater ambitions . In the 1880s , Omaha 's original " Negro district " was located at Twentieth and Harney Streets . The Near North Side , located immediately north of Downtown Omaha , is where the majority of African Americans have lived in Omaha for almost 100 years . Originally the community had mostly European immigrants : Germans , Italians and Jews and gradually drew more African Americans . In pre @-@ 1900 Omaha , the city 's cemetery was always integrated .
The community became more racially segregated soon after the Omaha Race Riot of 1919 . During that event an African @-@ American worker named Will Brown was lynched by a white mob outside the Douglas County Courthouse . After the mob finished with Brown , they turned against the entire population of African Americans in the Near North Side ; however , their efforts were thwarted by soldiers from Fort Omaha . In the following years the city began enforcing race @-@ restrictive covenants . Properties for rent and sale were restricted on the basis of race , with the primary intent of keeping the Near North Side " black " and the rest of the city " white " . These agreements were held in place with redlining , a system of segregated insuring and lending reinforced by the federal government . These restrictions were ruled illegal in 1940 .
During the 1930s , the Federal government built housing projects for working families : the Logan Fontenelle Housing Projects in North Omaha and a similar project in South Omaha . Both were intended to improve housing for the large working @-@ class community , whose majority then were immigrants from Eastern and Southern Europe and their descendants . With job losses and demographic changes accelerating in the late 1950s and 1960s , the project residents in North Omaha became nearly all poor and low @-@ income African Americans . By the early first decade of the 21st century , each of these facilities was torn down and replaced with public housing schemes featuring mixed @-@ income and supporting uses .
African @-@ American neighborhoods in Omaha have been studied extensively ; the most notable reports include Lois Mark Stalvey 's Three to Get Ready : The Education of a White Family in Inner City Schools , and the 1966 documentary film A Time for Burning . This movie featured the opinions of the young Ernie Chambers . A barber , Chambers went on to law school and has been repeatedly elected to represent North Omaha in the Nebraska State Legislature for more than 35 years .
= = Occupations = =
The Union Pacific Railroad first introduced large numbers of African American strikebreakers to Omaha during a strike in 1877 . Black barbers organized the first labor union in Omaha , and went on strike in Omaha in 1887 after they deemed it " unprofessional to work beside white competitors . " Arriving in 1890 , Dr. Stephenson was the first African @-@ American physician in Omaha and the start of a substantial professional class . Matthew Ricketts was the first African @-@ American medical student to graduate from the University of Nebraska Medical College and settled in North Omaha to set up his practice . In 1892 , Dr. Ricketts was the first African American elected to a seat in the Nebraska State Legislature . According to the Works Progress Administration , the first African @-@ American fair held in the United States took place in Omaha , July 3 – 4 , 1894 . Their study reports : " Only Negro @-@ owned horses were entered in the races , and all exhibits were restricted to articles made or owned by Negroes . "
African Americans also built a " Colored Old Folks Home " in North Omaha in the 1910s and sustained it for a long period of time . Clarence W. Wigington was a renowned African @-@ American architect from Omaha . He designed St. John 's A.M.E. and the Broomfield Rowhouse , among many others in the city , but built most of his career after 1914 in St. Paul , Minnesota .
Miss Lucy Gamble , later known as Mrs. John Albert Williams , was the first African @-@ American teacher in the Omaha Public Schools , teaching there for six years from 1899 through 1905 . The first film company controlled by Black filmmakers was founded in Omaha in the summer of 1915 . George and Noble Johnson founded the Lincoln Motion Picture Company to produce films for African @-@ American audiences . Noble was a small @-@ time actor ; George worked for the post office . Noble Johnson was president of the company ; Clarence A. Brooks , secretary ; Dr. James T. Smith , treasurer ; and Dudley A. Brooks was assistant secretary . Lincoln Films quickly built a reputation for making films that showcased African @-@ American talent in the full sphere of cinema . In less than a year the company relocated to Los Angeles , where the major film industry was located .
Today African Americans own fifty percent of all minority @-@ owned businesses in Omaha .
= = Politics = =
From a slow start in the late 19th century , in the mid @-@ 20th century on , African Americans began to win more seats and appointments in politics , with their participation steadily growing . More people obtained higher education and entered professional middle classes .
In 1892 , Dr. Matthew Ricketts became the first African American elected to the Nebraska State Legislature , and was the acknowledged leader of the African @-@ American community in Omaha . After he left Omaha in 1903 , Jack Broomfield , proprietor of a notorious bar in downtown Omaha , became the leader of the community . He is criticized for having allowed the community to fall apart under the influence of Tom Dennison .
No African Americans served on the Omaha City Council or Douglas County Board of Commissioners until district elections became law . In 1893 Edwin R. Overall , a mail carrier , ran as a Populist for the City Council . He finished 18th in a field of 23 candidates running at @-@ large for nine of 18 council seats . In 1973 and 1977 , Fred Conley ran for the Omaha City Council in the at @-@ large format and each time finished 18th – just as Overall did some 70 years earlier . At @-@ large elections were won by candidates who represented the majority population of the city , which was white .
In 1981 , after City Council elections were changed to be based on district representation , Conley became the first African American elected . He served until 1989 . In 1992 , Carol Woods Harris became the first African American elected to the Douglas County Board and served until 2004 .
African Americans have been represented on the Omaha School Board since 1950 when attorney Elizabeth Davis Pittman was elected . De facto school segregation , however , persisted in Omaha long after that date with school boundaries tailored to match residential areas , which had de facto segregation .
Brenda Warren Council , a former member of the Omaha School Board and the City Council , narrowly lost the 1997 mayoral election , losing by 700 votes to Mayor Hal Daub . In 2003 Thomas Warren , Brenda Council 's brother , was appointed by Mayor Mike Fahey as the city ’ s first African @-@ American Chief of Police for the Omaha Police Department .
In 2005 , Marlon Polk was appointed by Governor Dave Heineman to serve as a District Court Judge , the first African American to do so in Nebraska . He was assigned to serve in Douglas County . In 1970 Ernie Chambers became the city 's second African American elected to the state legislature . Chambers has won every election since then , and in 2007 became the longest @-@ serving Nebraska Senator in history . In 2005 the Nebraska State Legislature approved a term limit law limiting legislators to two terms , forcing Chambers from office in 2008 .
= = = African @-@ American firefighters = = =
Hose Company # 12 , and later Hose Company # 11 , hired the first African @-@ American firefighters in the city . One of these two stations was located at 20th and Lake Streets . One of the first African @-@ American fireFighters in Omaha , was James C. Greer , Sr. who was a member of the Omaha Fire Department from 5 / 5 / 1906 to 8 / 1 / 1933 and was a captain in the department for many years . Horse @-@ drawn wagons were in use when he was assigned to the old No. 11 Station at Thirtieth and Spaulding Streets . He later served at the No. 4 Station at Sixteenth and Izard Streets . He retired as senior captain from the Omaha , NE . Fire Department in 1933 . His son Richard N. Greer ( known as Dick ) served as a volunteer for Fire Department in the 1950s . The first step towards integration in Omaha 's Fire Department came in 1940 , when an African @-@ American firefighter was assigned to the city 's Bureau of Fire Prevention and Inspection . By the 1950s , the city had two companies of African @-@ American firefighters . Omaha 's Fire Department was integrated in 1957 . The first step towards integration in Omaha 's Fire Department came in 1940 , when an African @-@ American firefighter was assigned to the city 's Bureau of Fire Prevention and Inspection . By the 1950s , the city had two companies of African @-@ American firefighters . Omaha 's Fire Department was integrated in 1957 .
= = African @-@ American culture = =
= = = Religious institutions = = =
The earliest African @-@ American churches in Omaha were St. John 's African Methodist Episcopal Church , organized in 1867 ; St. Phillip the Deacon Episcopal Church , organized in 1878 , and ; Zion Baptist Church , organized in 1884 . The second St. John 's building and Zion 's current building were notable for being designed by future master architect Clarence Wigington . St. John 's current building is lauded for being a notable example of the Prairie School architectural style .
In 1921 , the Omaha and Council Bluffs Colored Ministerial Alliance demanded that Tom Dennison 's cabarets in the Sporting District " wherein there is unwarranted mingling of the races " be closed indefinitely . It is unknown what their objectives were .
Other influential churches included Calvin Memorial Presbyterian Church , which opened in 1954 as an integrated congregation . Omaha had several interesting examples of integration in its churches , including those featured the documentary film A Time for Burning and Pearl Memorial United Methodist Church , which began integration efforts in the 1970s . Sacred Heart Catholic Church has operated since the late 19th century and has evolved numerous times as different ethnic groups succeeded each other in the neighborhood . North Omaha 's Lizzie Robinson founded the first Church of God in Christ congregation in Nebraska in the 1920s . Salem Baptist Church has been particularly important in the city 's African @-@ American community , hosting Dr. Martin Luther King , Jr. in a major speaking event in Omaha in 1957 .
= = = Historical social clubs = = =
The African @-@ American community in North Omaha was anchored with numerous important social clubs . According to one report from the 1930s , " There are today in Omaha alone some twenty @-@ five clubs and societies with a total membership of over two thousand . " These groups included the Pleasant Hour Club ( which was estimated to be 50 years old in the late 1930s ) , Aloha Club , Entre Nous Club , the Beau Brummels Club , the Dames Club , the Jolly Twenty Club , the Trojan Club , and the Quack Club . Important locations included the North Side YWCA . This influential organization , starting in 1920 , was located in a house at 2306 N. 22nd Street The African @-@ American community in Omaha also supported the Old Colored Folks ' Home , which was organized in 1913 . In 1923 they received funds from the city 's " Community Chest " fund , with which they purchased a building .
The Royal Circle was a premier African @-@ American social organization . The Royal Circle held annual cotillions for young African @-@ American women through the early 1960s , at which they were " introduced " to adult society . Formed in 1918 , the War Camp Community Service became the local American Legion the following year . The Centralized Commonwealth Civic Club , formed in 1937 , promoted community business . Two local Boy Scout troops ( Troop 23 , Troop 79 ) were founded for African @-@ American youth .
The community also boasted halls for the Odd Fellows , the Masons , ( which had about 550 members in North Omaha in 1936 ) , and the Elks , ( with about 250 members in the community in 1936 ) . Perhaps the most elusive organization in North Omaha was the Knights and Daughters of Tabor , also known as the " Knights of Liberty " . This was a secret African @-@ American organization whose goal was " nothing less than the destruction of slavery . "
= = = Historic entertainment venues = = =
From the 1920s through to the early 1960s , North Omaha boasted a vibrant African @-@ American entertainment district , featuring both local and nationally known musicians . The most important venue in the area was the Dreamland Ballroom , opened in 1923 in the Jewell Building at 24th and Grant Streets . Dreamland hosted some of the greatest jazz , blues , and swing performers , including Duke Ellington , Count Basie , Louis Armstrong , Lionel Hampton , and the original Nat King Cole Trio . Whitney Young spoke there as well . Other venues included Jim Bell 's Harlem , opened in 1935 on Lake Street , west of 24th ; McGill 's Blue Room , located at 24th and Lake , and ; Allen 's Showcase Lounge , which was located at 24th and Lake .
The Ritz Theater was opened in the mid @-@ 1930s at 2041 North 24th Street , near Patrick Avenue . It was specifically designated an " African @-@ American theater " with seating for 548 people . It was closed in the 1950s and has since been demolished .
During this period , North Omaha and its main artery of North 24th Street were the heart of the city 's African @-@ American cultural and business community , with a thriving jazz and rhythm & blues scene that attracted top @-@ flight swing , blues and jazz bands from across the country . Due to racial segregation , musicians such as Cab Calloway stayed at Myrtle Washington 's at 22nd and Willis , while others stayed at Charlie Trimble 's at 22nd and Seward . Early North Omaha bands included Lewis ' Excelsior Brass Band , Dan Desdunes Band , Simon Harrold 's Melody Boys , the Sam Turner Orchestra , the Ted Adams Orchestra , the Omaha Night Owls , Red Perkins and his Original Dixie Ramblers , and the Lloyd Hunter Band who , in 1931 , became the first Omaha band to record . A Lloyd Hunter concert poster can be seen on display at the Community Center in nearby Mineola , Iowa .
The intersection of 24th and Lake was the setting of the Big Joe Williams song " Omaha Blues " . Omaha @-@ born Wynonie Harris , one of the founders of rock and roll , got his start at the North Omaha clubs , and for a time lived in the now @-@ demolished Logan Fontenelle Housing Project . There were innumerable African @-@ American churches , social and civic clubs , formal dances for young people , and many other cultural activities .
Several accounts attribute the decline of the African @-@ American cultural scene in North Omaha to the riots of the 1960s and ' 70s . Television also took away from local entertainment . Since the turn of the 21st century , there has been a resurgence in interest in this vibrant period , with cultural and historical institutions created to honor it , such as Love 's Jazz & Art Center , the Dreamland Project , and the Omaha Black Music Hall of Fame .
= = = Historic musicians = = =
Preston Love , who left Omaha to tour nationally , said ,
The history of African Americans and music in Omaha is long and varied . The black music community was first organized in the early 20th century by Josiah Waddle , one of Omaha 's first barbers . After teaching himself to play a number of brass instruments , Waddle pulled together Omaha 's first African American band in 1902 . In 1917 he brought together the first women 's band in Omaha . One of his most famous students was Lloyd Hunter , who ran one of the most popular orchestras ' in the United States Midwest . Anna Mae Winburn was a student of Waddle 's as well .
After leading the Cotton Club Boys and several smaller outfits , Winburn led the International Sweethearts of Rhythm to fame during World War II . The Sweethearts were the first integrated all women 's band in the United States . Nat Towles also led an important territory band out of Omaha during the swing era , and most of these bands were represented by the National Orchestra Service , which was also based out of Omaha . It was a nationally regarded company which acted as agent for dozens of bands .
International Jazz legend Preston Love was an important figure in Omaha 's African @-@ American community . After playing in Towles ' and Hunter 's bands , Love joined Count Basie as a saxophonist . After traveling the world , Love came back to North Omaha and founded his own band . He also joined the staff of the Omaha Star newspaper . Love toured the U.S. and Europe into the late 1990s and died in 2004 .
North Omaha 's musical culture gave rise to several influential African @-@ American musicians . Rhythm & Blues singer Wynonie Harris and influential drummer Buddy Miles , who played with guitarist Jimi Hendrix , were friends while they grew up and played together . They collaborated throughout their lives , and while they were playing with the greatest names in Rock and Roll , Jazz , R & B and Funk . Big Joe Williams and funk band leader Lester Abrams are also from North Omaha .
= = = Historic newspapers = = =
There have been numerous African @-@ American newspapers in Omaha . The first was the Progress , established in 1889 by Ferdinand L. Barnett . Cyrus D. Bell , an ex @-@ slave , established the Afro @-@ American Sentinel in 1892 . In 1893 George F. Franklin started publishing the Enterprise , later published by Thomas P. Mahammitt and edited by his wife , Ella Mahammitt . It was the longest lived of any of the early African @-@ American newspapers published in Omaha . The best known and most widely read of all African @-@ American newspapers in the city was the Omaha Monitor , established in 1915 , edited and published by Reverend John Albert Williams . It stopped publishing in 1929 .
George Wells Parker , co @-@ founder of the Hamitic League of the World , founded the New Era in Omaha from 1920 through until 1926 . The Omaha Guide was established by B.V. and C.C. Galloway in 1927 . The Guide , with a circulation of over 25 @,@ 000 and an advertisers ' list including business firms from coast to coast , was the largest African @-@ American newspaper west of the Missouri River through the 1930s .
Today , African @-@ American culture in Omaha is regarded as being anchored , in large part , by The Omaha Star , founded by the late Mildred D. Brown and her husband S. E. Gilbert in 1938 . Brown is believed to be the first female , certainly the first African @-@ American woman , to have founded a newspaper in the nation 's history . She managed the paper for the rest of her life . Since 1945 the paper was the only one representing the black community in Omaha and the only black paper being printed in the state . Today the paper has a circulation of more than 30 @,@ 000 ; distribution to the 48 continental states , and is being managed by her niece .
= = = Other cultural institutions = = =
The Fair Deal Cafe , located on North 24th Street , was called the " Black City Hall " during its existence from 1954 to 2003 . Today , Omaha 's African @-@ American community celebrates its heritage in numerous ways . The biennial Native Omahans Days is a week @-@ long celebration including picnics , family reunions and a large parade . Also held on a biennial calendar is the induction ceremony for the Omaha Black Music Hall of Fame , or OBMHoF . Their inductees include African American contributors to rock and roll , swing , jazz and R & B , as well as other cultural contributions .
Formed by Bertha Calloway in the 1960s , the Negro Historical Society opened the Great Plains Black Museum in North Omaha in 1974 . Located at 2213 Lake Street , the museum is home to Omaha 's only African @-@ American history collection . The annual Omaha Jazz and Blues Festival also promotes African @-@ American culture throughout the city .
= = Race relations = =
North Omaha has a contentious history between whites and African Americans that is predicated on racism . In 1891 an African American George Smith was lynched at the Douglas County Courthouse , accused as a suspect for allegedly attacking a young girl . While little is known about Smith , reports of the incident described a mob dragging Smith from his cell , before any court trial , and hanging him from a nearby street post .
In July 1910 racial tension flared towards the African @-@ American community after a tremendous upset victory by African @-@ American boxer Jack Johnson in Reno , Nevada . Mobs of whites roamed throughout Omaha rioting , as they did in cities across the U.S .. The mobs wounded several black men in the city , killing one .
The Red Summer of 1919 caused one Omaha newspaper to run a front page declaration that 21 Omaha women reported that they were assaulted from early June to late September 1919 . In an example of yellow journalism , 20 of the victims were white and 16 of the assailants were identified as black , while only one of the victims was black . A separate newspaper warned that vigilante committees would be formed if the " respectable colored population could not purge those from the Negro community who were assaulting white girls . " During the ensuing Omaha Race Riot of 1919 in September , a white ethnic mob from South Omaha took over the Douglas County Courthouse . The white rioters lynched Willy Brown , an accused packinghouse worker . They then tried to attack blacks on the street and move against the community in North Omaha . Soldiers from Fort Omaha put down the riot . They reestablished control and were stationed in South Omaha , to prevent any more mobs from forming , and in North Omaha at 24th and Lake streets " to prevent any further murders of black citizens . Orders were issued that any citizen with a gun faced immediate arrest . All blacks were ordered to remain indoors . "
= = = Segregation = = =
A legacy of this terrible summer was the de facto racial segregation of many of Omaha 's neighborhoods . Introduced in the 1930s , the practices of redlining by banks and racially restrictive housing covenants effectively ended for decades the ability of African Americans to buy or rent outside North Omaha . Originally built in the 1930s , Omaha housing projects were intended for occupancy without reference to race . A 1937 report from the Omaha Housing Authority reported that residents included " both black and white occupants and there are 284 units . There is no distinct segregation of the whites from the blacks but individual buildings will be confined to either Negro or white . " The Logan Fontenelle Housing Project , built during the Depression , with an addition completed in 1941 , to improve working class housing in North Omaha , was closed to African Americans through the 1950s . Even in the 1940s , housing was so overcrowded in the area that some families stayed at the projects although their income exceeded the limits , because they couldn 't find housing elsewhere . With civil rights challenges , the segregation policy that kept African Americans out of public housing changed in the 1960s .
The massive loss of industrial jobs changed the nature of families and the issues in public housing . Although the Logan Fontenelle projects were first built for working families , they came to be dominated by the unemployed . Other public housing projects also reflected later de facto segregation . A concentration of problems here and in other cities led the City of Omaha , along with the U.S. Department of Housing and Urban Development , to radically rethink public housing in the 1990s . The Logan Fontenelle Housing Project was torn down in 1996 . Today public housing is scattered throughout Omaha and often combined with market rate housing and community amenities .
= = = Civil Rights Movement = = =
The lynching of Willy Brown has been credited for radicalizing Omaha 's African @-@ American community . In the 1920s the Omaha chapter of Marcus Garvey 's Universal Negro Improvement Association was founded by Earl Little , a Baptist minister and the father of Malcolm X. Malcolm X was born in Omaha in 1925 . Malcolm X 's mother reported a 1924 incident where her family was warned to leave Omaha by Ku Klux Klansmen . She was told that her husband , Earl Little , was " stirring up trouble " through his involvement with Universal Negro Improvement Association . The family moved shortly thereafter .
Another radical leader , Communist spokesman and one @-@ time leader of American forces in the Spanish Civil War Harry Haywood , was born in 1898 in South Omaha as Haywood Hall to parents who were former slaves . In 1913 his father was beaten by a white gang at the South Omaha meatpacking plant where he worked , forcing the family to move from the city . The African Blood Brotherhood , started in Omaha , contributed to radicalizing Haywood when he joined it the group in Chicago , where his family had moved in 1915 .
Starting in 1920 , the Colored Commercial Club organized to help blacks in Omaha secure employment and to encourage business enterprises among African Americans . The National Federation of Colored Women had five chapters in Omaha . In 1928 the first Urban League chapter in the American West was founded in city . Whitney Young led the chapter in 1950 and tripled its membership . After a few years he left Omaha , taking over the national leadership of the Urban League by 1961 .
The Industrial Workers of the World organized African @-@ American workers in the South Omaha Stockyards in the 1920s . Along with the rest of the working class , they suffered setbacks during layoffs in the Great Depression .
In the 1930s , however , an interracial committee succeeded in organizing the United Meatpacking Workers of America , one of the Congress of Industrial Organizations ( CIO ) unions . They worked to end segregation of job positions in meatpacking in the 1940s . Community leader Rowena Moore attacked gender restrictions and organized to expand opportunities in industry for black women . UMPWA helped African Americans extended their political power and gain an end to segregation in retail places in the 1950s . After all this progress , however , the loss of more than 10 @,@ 000 jobs due to structural changes in the railroad and meatpacking industries in the 1960s sharply reduced opportunities for the working class communities .
As a major western city , Omaha was visited by Rev. Dr. Martin Luther King , Jr. in 1958 and Robert Kennedy in 1968 , who helped galvanize the civil rights movement in North Omaha . Local leaders continued to struggle against racism . North Omaha was marred by race @-@ related violence and de facto segregation throughout the 20th century . When the Black Panthers were implicated in a police killing in North Omaha in 1970 , the trial highlighted political tensions . The Rice / Poindexter Case continues to highlight Omaha 's contentious legacy of racism . A majority of Omaha 's African @-@ American population still lives in North Omaha .
= = = Integration = = =
Studies have shown starting in the 1950s Omaha 's white middle class moved from North Omaha to the suburbs of West Omaha in the phenomenon called " white flight . " The inability of government money to solve the problems of Omaha 's African American community was accented by white flight . The city 's schools were greatly affected by racial unrest . Consequential to the 1971 Swann v. Charlotte @-@ Mecklenburg Board of Education ruling enforcing desegregation busing in the United States , Omaha was reputed to have adapted well to integrated busing . However , an analysis of white flight found that public schools in Omaha had enhanced racial discrimination despite their integration attempts . Optional attendance zones , the location of new schools , and feeder patterns were found to enhance segregation . This study found that mandatory busing was required to attain racial balance in every school . Enrollment of white students in the Omaha Public Schools plummeted in the 1970s , while the enrollment of black students during the same period rose from 21 % to 30 % , primarily due to the loss of white students . In the 1990s the Omaha Housing Authority adopted a scattered site housing plan , eventually destroying several of the housing projects in the city , including the Logan Fontenelle Housing Project .
= = = Race riots = = =
The civil rights movement brought calls for black power and against racism to Omaha . While youth throughout the city were being drafted to fight in the Vietnam War , funding for education and youth programs were being cut , and policing tactics were targeting African @-@ American youth . This led to a series of protests and riots , the repercussions of which are still felt today in some communities .
On July 4 , 1966 , the temperature soared to 103 degrees . A crowd of African Americans gathered at the intersection of North 24th and Lake Streets in the evening . When police requested their dispersal they responded violently . After demolishing police cars , the mob roamed the North 24th Street business corridor for hours , throwing firebombs and demolishing storefronts . After three days of rioting millions of dollars of damage was reported by affected businesses .
Riots erupted again on August 1 , 1966 after a 19 @-@ year @-@ old was shot by a white , off @-@ duty policeman during a burglary . The Omaha World @-@ Herald and local television stations blamed African Americans for the conditions they faced in their deteriorating neighborhoods during this period . Three buildings were firebombed , and 180 riot police were required to quell the crowds .
On March 4 , 1968 a crowd of high school and university students were gathered at the Omaha Civic Auditorium to protest the presidential campaign of George Wallace , the segregationist governor of Alabama . After counter @-@ protesters began acting violently toward the youth activists , police brutality led to the injury of dozens of protesters . An African @-@ American youth was shot and killed by a police officer during the melee , and fleeing students caused thousands of dollars of damage to businesses and cars . The following day a local barber named Ernie Chambers helped calm a disturbance and prevent a riot by students at Horace Mann Junior High School . Chambers was already recognized as a community leader . After finishing his law degree , Chambers was elected to the Nebraska State Legislature , and served a total of 38 years , longer than any of his predecessors .
African @-@ American teenager Vivian Strong was shot and killed by police officers in an incident at the Logan Fontenelle Housing Projects on June 24 , 1969 . Young African Americans in the area rioted in response to the teenager 's death , with looting along the North 24th Street business corridor . During this initial surge , eight businesses were destroyed by firebombing or looting . Rioting went on for several more days . This is the last noted riot in Omaha .
The effects of these riots is still evident in the North 24th Street district , with high numbers of vacant lots and general economic depression still prevalent .
= = = Commemorations and recognitions = = =
There have been several different organizations formed to commemorate the history of Omaha 's African Americans . In the 1960s Bertha Calloway founded the Nebraska Negro Historical Society , and in 1974 the Society opened the Great Plains Black History Museum . It includes material related to the history of black homesteaders on the plains , as well as the more numerous urbanites based chiefly in Omaha , the major city of the state .
In 1976 the community began Native Omaha Days , devised as a series of activities to celebrate black history in the city . In addition to being a labor organizer in meatpacking in the 1940s , Rowena Moore led an effort to recognize the Malcolm X House Site in the 1970s . A monument to the Rev. Dr. Martin Luther King , Jr. was placed along North 24th Street in the late 1990s . The Omaha Black Music Hall of Fame was founded in 2005 to celebrate the city 's musical history .
= = = Economics = = =
The director of a statewide poverty advocacy group was quoted as saying in 2007 : " In Omaha , you start talking about low @-@ income issues , people assume you ’ re talking about minority issues ... " As of October 2007 , the city of Omaha , the 42nd largest in the country , has the fifth highest percentage of low @-@ income African Americans in the country . Census data from 2000 in Douglas County show more than 7 @,@ 800 families live below the poverty line , about 6 @.@ 7 percent of families . The percentage of black children in Omaha who live in poverty rank ranks number one in the United States , with nearly six of 10 black kids living below the poverty line . Only one other metropolitan area in the U.S. , Minneapolis , has a wider economic disparity between blacks and whites .
= = African Americans from Omaha = =
= = Additional reading = =
Angus , J. ( 2004 ) Black and Catholic in Omaha : A Case of Double Jeopardy : The First Fifty Years of St. Benedict the Moor Parish. iUniverse , Inc .
Bish , James D. ( 1989 ) The Black Experience in Selected Nebraska Counties , 1854 – 1920 . M.A. Thesis , University of Nebraska at Omaha .
Mihelich , Dennis . ( 1979 ) " World War II and the Transformation of the Omaha Urban League , " Nebraska History 60 ( 3 ) ( Fall 1979 ) : 401 – 423 .
Paz , D.G. ( 1988 ) " John Albert Williams and Black Journalism in Omaha , 1895 – 1929 . " Midwest Review 10 : 14 – 32 .
Johnson , T. ( 2001 ) African American Administration of predominantly Black Schools : Segregation or Emancipation in Omaha , NE . Paper presented at the annual meeting of the Association for the Study of African American Life and History in Charlotte , NC .
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= 1959 Escuminac disaster =
The 1959 Escuminac disaster ( also to referred to as the Escuminac hurricane ) was considered the worst fishing @-@ related disaster in New Brunswick in 100 years . It occurred due to the extratropical remnants of an Atlantic hurricane . The storm was the third tropical cyclone and first hurricane of the 1959 Atlantic hurricane season , and developed from a tropical wave in the central Gulf of Mexico on June 18 . It headed rapidly northeastward and struck Florida later that day . Shortly after entering the Atlantic Ocean , it strengthened into a tropical storm later on June 18 . By the following day , it had strengthened into a hurricane . However , it transitioned into an extratropical cyclone about six hours later . The remnants struck Atlantic Canada , once in Nova Scotia and again in Newfoundland before dissipating on June 21 .
In its early stages , the storm dropped moderately heavy rainfall in Florida , which caused damage to crops . A tornado near Miami and high tides on the west coast of the state also resulted in damage . Overall , losses in Florida were around $ 1 @.@ 7 million ( 1959 USD ) . After becoming extratropical , the storm caused significant effects in Atlantic Canada . About 45 boats were in the Northumberland Strait between New Brunswick and Prince Edward Island , and they did not have radio to receive warning of the approaching storm . Rough seas of up to 49 ft ( 15 m ) in height damaged or destroyed many boats . At least 22 fishing boats capsized over water with their crew , causing 35 fatalities . High winds also disrupted communications in some areas , and several houses were damaged , causing $ 750 @,@ 000 ( 1959 CAD , $ 781 @,@ 000 1959 USD ) . The event became the deadliest work @-@ related disaster in New Brunswick .
= = Early history = =
On June 15 , a tropical wave with associated instability was observed in the northwestern Caribbean Sea . It moved into the central Gulf of Mexico on June 16 , and the next day developed a weak circulation at the same time that Tropical Storm Beulah was on the other side of the gulf . The system in the eastern gulf moved to the northeast , becoming a tropical depression by June 18 at 0000 UTC . Moving quickly to the northeast , the system moved across central Florida in less than six hours , making landfall near Tampa Bay and exiting near Cape Canaveral .
As the depression struck western Florida , it produced 3 ft ( 0 @.@ 91 m ) above normal tides , which damaged docks and caused beach erosion . Wind gusts near Sarasota reached about 49 mph ( 80 km / h ) . After previously wet conditions , the system dropped heavy rainfall across the state , unofficially reaching 15 in ( 380 mm ) in some areas and causing flooding . Along the Indian River , flooding damaged citrus crops , and statewide some roads were damaged due to flooding . When the storm was first forming in the Gulf of Mexico , it spawned a tornado in Miami that lasted for over 20 minutes . The National Climatic Data Center considered it the worst tornado in the city since one in 1925 , and the overall path was about 12 mi ( 19 km ) . A total of 77 people were injured due to the tornado , mostly due to cuts from broken glass , and damage from it was estimated at $ 1 @.@ 5 million . Another tornado was reported north of West Palm Beach , although it affected a sparsely populated area ; total damage statewide totaled $ 1 @,@ 656 @,@ 000 .
= = Storm approach to Canada = =
Late on June 18 , it is estimated the depression intensified into a tropical storm , and that day the Miami Hurricane Center issued its last advisory , warning ships of the potential for future strengthening . The storm moved rapidly to the northeast , passing halfway between Bermuda and North Carolina early on June 19 . At 0250 UTC that day , a ship reported a falling barometric pressure of 993 mbar ( 29 @.@ 3 inHg ) with west @-@ southwesterly winds of 92 mph ( 148 km / h ) . Although it was associated with a diffused frontal zone , the storm maintained a warm core and initially remained largely tropical . At 1200 UTC on June 19 , it is estimated the storm intensified into a hurricane about halfway between Bermuda and Nova Scotia , with a pressure of 974 mbar ( 28 @.@ 8 inHg ) . By six hours later , it became extratropical , although the former hurricane intensified further to peak winds of 80 mph ( 130 km / h ) . On June 20 , the storm slowed and turned sharply to the northwest . It weakened slightly before moving ashore near Canso , Nova Scotia . Crossing the island , it struck Prince Edward Island before turning sharply to the east and crossing Nova Scotia again . By late on June 20 , it re @-@ emerged into the Atlantic Ocean and continued to the east @-@ northeast . The extratropical storm moved over southeastern Newfoundland and dissipated on June 21 .
Before the storm reached Atlantic Canada , the National Search and Rescue Secretariat ( NSS ) provided notices for the advancing storm . On the day of the storm , the forecast from Halifax was for light winds , and although it was amended to highlight severe conditions , boats in the region had no radio to learn of the threat . There were many salmon in the region , which prompted fishermen to set sail . As the storm approached , there were about 45 boats in the Northumberland Strait between New Brunswick and Prince Edward Island .
= = Impact and aftermath = =
Along the coast of New Brunswick , the storm produced 49 ft ( 15 m ) waves that destroyed several boats , including 22 over open waters between Point Escuminac and Richibucto . Two bodies washed ashore in the latter city , and eleven bodies were eventually discovered . About one @-@ third of the salmon boats in Miramichi were destroyed . Across New Brunswick , the storm disrupted communications near the coast . Along the coasts of New Brunswick and Prince Edward Island , high waves destroyed cottages and forced some families to evacuate . The former hurricane produced strong winds in the region , peaking at 75 mph ( 120 km / h ) , and its passage was accompanied by moderate rainfall , peaking at 4 @.@ 29 in ( 109 mm ) in Nova Scotia . There , many lobster cages were destroyed , and boats were removed from their moorings . In Prince Edward Island , up to 50 % of lobster traps were destroyed or missing , including 5 @,@ 000 destroyed traps near Souris . As with New Brunswick , several boats were destroyed or washed ashore , and damage in the province was estimated at $ 750 @,@ 000 ( 1959 CAD , $ 781 @,@ 000 1959 USD ) . A total of 35 people were killed between Nova Scotia and Prince Edward Island , mostly fishermen . As a result , the Escuminac Disaster , as it came to be known , became the deadliest work @-@ related disaster in New Brunswick . The Minister of Fisheries considered the event as " the worst disaster to hit a Canadian fishing fleet in about 100 years . "
In the days after the storm , the Royal Canadian Air Force and Royal Canadian Mounted Police operated search and rescue missions , while families waited on the beach . The Canadian Red Cross set up headquarters in Escuminac to assist the victims . Due to storm fatalities , 24 adults became widows , and 83 children lost a father . As a result , the New Brunswick Fishermen 's Disaster Fund was created to assist the families . The fund raised $ 400 @,@ 000 in a few months from donations from throughout Canada , as well as Pope John XXIII and Queen Elizabeth II , the latter who was on a tour of the country at the time .
In memory of the storm victims , artist Claude Roussel created a wood sculpture entitled " Les Pêcheurs – The Fishermen " , which won first prize at New Brunswick Museum in 1962 . Later , residents near Escuminac raised money to turn the work into a stone monument , which was dedicated on June 19 , 1969 . It was nearly 7 ft ( 2 @.@ 3 m ) in height , weighed about 10 @,@ 000 lbs ( 5 tonnes ) , and depicted a group of fishermen working together , with the names of the deceased on a bronze plaque . In 2001 , the government of New Brunswick declared the Escuminac Disaster Monument as a provincial historical site .
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= Permanent Record : Al in the Box =
Permanent Record : Al in the Box is a four disc compilation box set of songs by " Weird Al " Yankovic . The album , released by Scotti Brothers Records so that the label could make monetary projections for the fiscal year , collects Yankovic 's favorite songs from his first eight studio albums . The collection also includes alternate versions of " My Bologna " , " Happy Birthday " , " UHF " and the new single , " Headline News " , a parody of " Mmm Mmm Mmm Mmm " by Crash Test Dummies . It peaked at number 104 on the Billboard Hot 100 .
The collection was met with mostly positive critical reviews , with many appreciating the gathering of some of Yankovic 's best works . However , the box set was not a high seller , and near the end of the 1990s , it ranked as Yankovic 's least @-@ purchased album . In 2006 , due to a mishap by Volcano Records , the artwork for the set was lost , and the collection went out of print . Yankovic refused to scan existing copies of the album to make new ones , fearing that it would lead to an inferior product .
= = Production = =
= = = Release and music = = =
While Yankovic was writing the original songs for a new album — which would later be released in 1996 as Bad Hair Day — his label , Scotti Brothers Records , insisted that he release a new record in order to meet monetary projections for the fourth fiscal quarter of the year . Yankovic , however , explained that he would be unable to finish a new record in time , so his label decided to release a box set that eventually was named Permanent Record : Al in the Box . The label then stipulated that Yankovic would need to at least record a new single to promote the box set . Yankovic complied , producing the parody " Headline News " , a spoof of " Mmm Mmm Mmm Mmm " by Crash Test Dummies , which would also appear on his second greatest hits album .
While most of the songs that appear on this record can be found on Yankovic 's first eight studio albums , there are several unique inclusions . The version of " My Bologna " is the Capitol Records single version , which only featured the accordion and Yankovic 's voice . Early pressings of the album included the incorrect version of " My Bologna " , but this was later rectified in subsequent pressings . The version of " Happy Birthday " included was previously released on the 1981 independent Another One Rides the Bus EP . Finally , the third disc contains the single edit of " UHF " as opposed to the lengthier version available on UHF – Original Motion Picture Soundtrack and Other Stuff ; this was done because Yankovic figured that " fans would appreciate having both versions available . "
= = = Tile and artwork = = =
Both " Permanent Record " and " Al in the Box " were titles proposed by Yankovic ; however , he favored the former , whereas his label preferred the latter . Both parties , being unwilling to yield , eventually decided to compromise and name the release Permanent Record : Al in the Box . The album also included a detailed booklet , written by Yankovic 's long @-@ time associate , Dr. Demento . When Yankovic 's recording contract was transferred from Scotti Brothers to Volcano in the late 1990s , the artwork for the set was lost , forcing the set to go out of print ; although Yankovic noted that the label " could just scan existing booklets and CD art and crank out boxed sets with slightly inferior graphics , " he did not want to put out a product that was not up to his usual standards .
= = Reception = =
= = = Critical response = = =
Barry Weber of AllMusic awarded the album four @-@ and @-@ a @-@ half stars out of five , and argued that " no [ other greatest hits album of Yankovic 's ] matches Permanent Record , a four @-@ CD set of Yankovic 's best songs " . He applauded many of the parodies , and called several of them — namely " My Bologna " , " Eat It " , " Like a Surgeon " , " Yoda " , " Fat " , and " Smells Like Nirvana " — " defining satires " . He also wrote that the originals contained on the record were " overlooked but equally entertaining " . Nathan Brackett and Christian Hoard , in The Rolling Stone Album Guide , awarded the album three @-@ and @-@ a @-@ half stars out of five , denoting that the album averaged between good and excellent . Craig Rosen of Billboard magazine opined that the album " will remind consumers that Yankovic has outlasted " many of his past parody targets . Chuck Eddy of Spin magazine named the album the fourth most " essential " comedy record , writing that album is proof " for fifth @-@ grade smart alecks , no rock star is greater " than Yankovic .
= = = Commercial performance = = =
The box set was released on September 27 , 1994 . As of January 1997 , the set was Yankovic 's worst @-@ selling album , trailing all of his studio releases , as well as his various compilation and greatest hits albums . On March 1 , 2006 , the record went out of print , due to the aforementioned loss of the artwork . The collection 's only single , " Headline News " , charted and peaked at number four on the Billboard Bubbling Under Hot 100 Singles chart , which corresponds to a position of 104 on the Billboard Hot 100 .
= = Track listing = =
= = = Disc one = = =
" My Bologna " ( orig . Doug Fieger , Berton Averre , arr . " Weird Al " Yankovic ) – 2 : 01
Parody of " My Sharona " by The Knack ; the narrator talks about his obsession with bologna sausage . This version is the 1979 Capitol Records version of the song .
" Another One Rides the Bus " ( orig . John Deacon , arr . Yankovic ) – 2 : 36
Parody of " Another One Bites the Dust " by Queen ; the narrator laments a crowded public bus . From the 1983 album " Weird Al " Yankovic .
" Happy Birthday " ( Yankovic ) – 2 : 36
Style parody of Tonio K ; the song is a morbidly depressing birthday greeting detailing ails of the world . From the 1981 EP Another One Rides the Bus .
" I Love Rocky Road " ( orig . Jake Hooker , arr . Yankovic ) – 2 : 36
Parody of " I Love Rock ' n ' Roll " by Joan Jett ; the narrator expresses his love towards the titular ice cream flavor . From the 1983 album " Weird Al " Yankovic .
" Ricky " ( orig . Mike Chapman , Nicky Chinn , arr . Yankovic ) – 2 : 36
Parody of " Mickey " by Toni Basil ; this is an ode to I Love Lucy with Yankovic playing the part of Ricky and Tress MacNeille as Lucy . From the 1983 album " Weird Al " Yankovic .
" Polkas on 45 " ( Polka medley , arr . Yankovic ) – 4 : 23
This was Yanovic 's first polka medley of popular songs . From the 1984 album " Weird Al " Yankovic in 3 @-@ D.
" Midnight Star " ( Yankovic ) – 4 : 35
Original ; this song is about ludicrous supermarket tabloids . From the 1984 album " Weird Al " Yankovic in 3 @-@ D.
" Eat It " ( orig . Michael Jackson , arr . " Weird Al " Yankovic ) – 3 : 21
Parody of " Beat It " by Michael Jackson ; a song about a parent 's exasperating quest to get their picky child to eat . From the 1984 album " Weird Al " Yankovic in 3 @-@ D.
" Mr. Popeil " ( Yankovic ) – 4 : 42
A style parody of the B @-@ 52s ; about the inventor Samuel Popeil , his myriad inventions of varying usefulness , and his son Ron 's infomercials . From the 1984 album " Weird Al " Yankovic in 3 @-@ D.
" I Lost on Jeopardy " ( orig . Greg Kihn , Steve Wright , arr . Yankovic ) – 3 : 28
Parody of " Jeopardy " by The Greg Kihn Band ; a Jeopardy ! contestant details why he lost . From the 1984 album " Weird Al " Yankovic in 3 @-@ D.
" Buy Me a Condo " ( Yankovic ) – 3 : 45
Style parody of Bob Marley and reggae ; a Rastafarian sings about giving up his lifestyle to become a yuppie . From the 1984 album " Weird Al " Yankovic in 3 @-@ D.
" King of Suede " ( orig . Sting , arr . Yankovic ) – 3 : 13
Parody of " King of Pain " by The Police ; a song about the world 's greatest fabric salesman . From the 1984 album " Weird Al " Yankovic in 3 @-@ D.
= = = Disc two = = =
" Yoda " ( orig . Ray Davies , arr . Yankovic ) – 3 : 58
Parody of " Lola " by The Kinks ; the spoof describes the Dagobah @-@ setting events of The Empire Strikes Back as told from the point of view of Luke Skywalker . From the 1985 album Dare to Be Stupid .
" This Is the Life " ( Yankovic ) – 3 : 06
Style parody of 1920s and 1930s music ; the singer brags about his lavish lifestyle . From the 1985 album Dare to Be Stupid . Theme to the Michael Keaton film , Johnny Dangerously .
" Like a Surgeon " ( orig . Billy Steinberg , Tom Kelly , arr . Yankovic ) – 3 : 32
Parody of " Like a Virgin " by Madonna ; the song is about an incompetent surgeon performing surgery . From the 1985 album Dare to Be Stupid .
" One More Minute " ( Yankovic ) – 4 : 04
Style parody of Elvis Presley @-@ like Doo @-@ wop ; the song describes the myriad tortures that the singer would sooner endure than spending " one more minute " with his ex @-@ girlfriend . From the 1985 album Dare to Be Stupid .
" I Want a New Duck " ( orig . Chris Hayes , Huey Lewis , arr . Yankovic ) – 3 : 04
Parody of " I Want a New Drug " by Huey Lewis and the News ; this is a song about how much the singer wants a better pet duck . From the 1985 album Dare to Be Stupid .
" Dare to Be Stupid " ( Yankovic ) – 3 : 25
Style parody of Devo ; the song recounts a list of " stupid " things a person can do . From the 1985 album Dare to Be Stupid .
" Hooked on Polkas " ( Polka medley , arr . Yankovic ) – 4 : 23
A polka medley including songs popular in 1984 and 1985 . From the 1985 album Dare to Be Stupid .
" Addicted to Spuds " ( orig . Robert Palmer , arr . Yankovic ) – 3 : 50
" Addicted to Love " by Robert Palmer ; a song about a man 's obsession for potatoes and potato @-@ based dishes . From the 1986 album Polka Party ! .
" Dog Eat Dog " ( Yankovic ) – 3 : 42
Style parody of Talking Heads ; the narrator describes his experience in an office building . From the 1986 album Polka Party ! .
" Here 's Johnny " ( orig . Peter Wolf , Ina Wolf , arr . Yankovic ) – 3 : 24
Parody of " Who 's Johnny " by El DeBarge ; the song is a loving ode to Ed McMahon . From the 1986 album Polka Party ! .
" Living with a Hernia " ( orig . Dan Hartman , Charlie Midnight , arr . Yankovic ) – 3 : 20
Parody of " Living in America " by James Brown ; the song discusses various types of hernias . From the 1986 album Polka Party ! .
" Christmas at Ground Zero " ( Yankovic ) – 3 : 09
Style parody of Christmas carols ; the song discusses nuclear annihilation during the holidays . From the 1986 album Polka Party ! .
= = = Disc three = = =
" Lasagna " ( arr . " Weird Al " Yankovic ) – 2 : 46
Parody of the folk song " La Bamba " ; a song centered largely around Italians and Italian cuisine . From the 1988 album Even Worse .
" Good Old Days " ( Yankovic ) – 3 : 21
Style parody of James Taylor ; in this song , a psychopath reminisces his childhood . From the 1988 album Even Worse .
" Fat " ( orig . Michael Jackson , arr . Yankovic ) – 3 : 37
Parody of " Bad " by Michael Jackson ; the spoof discusses a man 's obesity , which is blown out of proportion . From the 1988 album Even Worse .
" Melanie " ( Yankovic ) – 3 : 58
Original ; the song describes a socially inept apartment dweller 's attempts to woo his neighbor Melanie . From the 1988 album Even Worse .
" I Think I 'm a Clone Now " ( orig . Ritchie Cordell , arr . Yankovic ) – 3 : 20
Parody of " I Think We 're Alone Now " as performed by Tiffany ; the song is about a man 's experiences of being a lab @-@ created identical clone . From the 1988 album Even Worse .
" You Make Me " ( Yankovic ) – 3 : 06
Style parody of Oingo Boingo ; the song describes a person 's desire to engage in strange behavior compelled by another person . From the 1988 album Even Worse .
" Alimony " ( orig . Tommy James , Bo Gentry , Ritchie Cordell , Bobby Bloom , arr . Yankovic ) – 3 : 16
Parody of " Mony Mony " as performed by Billy Idol ; the song discusses a man and his alimony payments to his ex @-@ wife . From the 1988 album Even Worse .
" UHF " ( Yankovic ) – 3 : 49
Original ; this is the theme song to Yankovic 's 1989 film UHF . From the 1989 album and soundtrack UHF – Original Motion Picture Soundtrack and Other Stuff .
" Money for Nothing / Beverly Hillbillies " ( Mark Knopfler , Gordon Sumner , Paul Henning , arr . Yankovic ) – 3 : 11
Parody of " Money for Nothing " by Dire Straits ; the song features the slightly altered lyrics of the theme song from the television series The Beverly Hillbillies which are set to the tune of Dire Straits 's single . From the 1989 album and soundtrack UHF – Original Motion Picture Soundtrack and Other Stuff .
" The Biggest Ball of Twine in Minnesota " ( Yankovic ) – 6 : 50
Style parody of Harry Chapin and Gordon Lightfoot ; this is a folk song about a family road trip to a tourist location in Minnesota . From the 1989 album and soundtrack UHF – Original Motion Picture Soundtrack and Other Stuff .
" Spam " ( orig . Bill Berry , Peter Buck , Mike Mills , Michael Stipe , arr . Yankovic ) – 3 : 23
Parody of " Stand " by R.E.M. ; this is an ode to the canned luncheon meat Spam . From the 1989 album and soundtrack UHF – Original Motion Picture Soundtrack and Other Stuff .
" Generic Blues " ( Yankovic ) – 4 : 34
Style parody of the blues ; a song with deliberately clichéd and over @-@ the @-@ top lyrics . From the 1989 album and soundtrack UHF – Original Motion Picture Soundtrack and Other Stuff .
= = = Disc four = = =
" Polka Your Eyes Out " ( Polka medley , arr . Yankovic ) – 3 : 50
A polka medley including songs popular from 1990 to 1992 . From the 1992 album Off the Deep End .
" You Don 't Love Me Anymore " ( Yankovic ) – 4 : 00
Original ; this is a ballad that is addressed to an ex @-@ girlfriend who did numerous exaggerated and deadly things to the oblivious singer . From the 1992 album Off the Deep End .
" Smells Like Nirvana " ( orig . Kurt Cobain , Dave Grohl , Krist Novoselic , arr . Yankovic ) – 3 : 42
Parody of " Smells Like Teen Spirit " by Nirvana ; the song pokes fun at the original song 's ambiguous and unintelligible lyrics . From the 1992 album Off the Deep End .
" When I Was Your Age " ( Yankovic ) – 4 : 35
Original ; the singer tells a child how he never had it as good as he does , but takes it to exaggerated lengths . From the 1992 album Off the Deep End .
" I Can 't Watch This " ( orig . MC Hammer , Rick James , Alonzo Miller , arr . Yankovic ) – 3 : 31
Parody of " U Can 't Touch This " by MC Hammer ; the singer laments the state of television . From the 1992 album Off the Deep End .
" Trigger Happy " ( Yankovic ) – 3 : 46
Style parody of The Beach Boys and Jan & Dean ; about a man who has an exaggerated obsession with firearms . From the 1992 album Off the Deep End .
" Taco Grande " ( orig . Christian Carlos Warren , Gerardo Mejia , Alberto Slezynger , and Rosa Soy , arr . Yankovic ) – 3 : 44
Parody of " Rico Suave " by Gerardo ; the song documents a narrator 's visit to a Mexican restaurant . Cheech Marin does a brief Spanish monologue in the song . From the 1992 album Off the Deep End .
" Bedrock Anthem " ( orig . Anthony Kiedis , John Frusciante , Flea , Chad Smith , arr . Yankovic ) – 3 : 43
Parody of " Under the Bridge " and " Give It Away " by the Red Hot Chili Peppers ; the song describes someone who wants to be a Flintstone and live in Bedrock . From the 1993 album Alapalooza .
" Harvey the Wonder Hamster " ( Yankovic ) – 0 : 21
Original ; this is a short song about the titular hamster . From the 1993 album Alapalooza .
" Achy Breaky Song " ( orig . Don Von Tress , arr . Yankovic ) – 3 : 23
Parody of " Achy Breaky Heart " by Billy Ray Cyrus ; the singer begs to not have to listen to the original song . From the 1993 album Alapalooza .
" Livin ' in the Fridge " ( org . Steven Tyler , Joe Perry , Mark Hudson , arr . Yankovic ) – 3 : 55
Parody of " Livin ' on the Edge " by Aerosmith ; a tune that discusses leftovers that have grown sentient in the refrigerator . From the 1993 album Alapalooza .
" Frank 's 2000 " TV " ( Yankovic ) – 4 : 07
Style parody of R.E.M. ' s early work ; a song about consumerism and modern electronics , describing the neighborhood 's envy of the eponymous character 's new television . From the 1993 album Alapalooza .
" Jurassic Park " ( orig . Jimmy Webb , arr . Yankovic ) – 3 : 55
Parody of " MacArthur Park " by Richard Harris ; a spoof that recounts the plot to the movie Jurassic Park . From the 1993 album Alapalooza .
" Headline News " ( orig . Brad Roberts , arr . Yankovic ) - 3 : 46
Parody of " Mmm Mmm Mmm Mmm " by Crash Test Dummies ; the song details three major tabloid stories of 1993 . This single was recorded for this compilation .
= = Credits and personnel = =
= = Chart positions = =
= = = Singles = = =
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= Richard Smith ( silent film director ) =
Richard Smith ( September 17 , 1886 – 1937 ) , also known as Dick Smith , was a screenwriter , actor , and film director . Smith was born in Cleveland , Ohio , and became a comedian active in the vaudeville era . He met his wife Alice Howell in 1910 and the two performed together as Howell and Howell . After working under direction of Mack Sennett at the American Mutoscope and Biograph Company in New York , Smith moved to Los Angeles , California . Smith and his wife starred in reels together produced by L @-@ KO Kompany .
While Howell was contracted at Universal Studios , Smith directed her in films described in the book Clown Princes and Court Jesters as , " some of Universal 's most memorable comedies of the twenties " . With colleague Vin Moore , Smith directed actor Oliver Hardy in the 1920 film Distilled Love . Smith directed the Marx Brothers in 1921 in their first film , titled Humor Risk , which has since been lost . In 1925 , Smith 's directing work included films starring Bert Roach , Neely Edwards , and Charles Puffy . His contributions at Universal included a series of comedy films called " The Collegians " .
= = Career = =
= = = Vaudeville = = =
Richard Smith was active in the field of comedy , and participated in the vaudeville scene . He met his wife Alice Howell when she was a member of a production by DeWolf Hopper , in 1910 . The two utilized the title of a previously known vaudeville group , and performed together as Howell and Howell . The Howell and Howell duo performed together for three years . Their performances included burlesque and vaudeville . Mack Sennett directed Smith at the American Mutoscope and Biograph Company in New York . Sennett offered Smith a chance to go with him when he started the company Keystone Studios , but he declined the opportunity .
= = = Film director = = =
Due to a medical condition , Smith decided to switch his residence from New York to Los Angeles , California , where his wife began to gain roles in the film industry under Sennett in 1914 . The two starred together in reels including Dad 's Dollars and Dirty Doings , a comedy by L @-@ KO Kompany . Under the production company Reelcraft Pictures , Smith wrote and directed several films which his wife starred in . In the book Clown Princes and Court Jesters , authors Kalton C. Lahue and Samuel Gill describe these films directed by Smith and starring Howell as " low @-@ burlesque charades and as such were slanted toward the neighborhood and second @-@ run houses , where they found receptive audiences . "
After his wife became an actress in features at Universal Studios in 1921 , Smith directed her in multiple comedies . Lahue and Gill characterize these films as , " some of Universal 's most memorable comedies of the twenties " , and note , " Starting with the usual framework provided by the situation comedy format , directors William Watson and Richard Smith inserted a sufficient amount of subdued slapstick to flavor these single reels with laugh after laugh . " Comedian Oliver Hardy acted under the direction of Smith and associate Vin Moore , in the 1920 film Distilled Love ; Smith also had an acting role in the film as an artist . He served as director in 1921 of Humor Risk , the first film starring the Marx Brothers . Smith directed actors including Bert Roach and Neely Edwards in the 1925 film A Nice Pickle , and Charles Puffy the same year in Muddled Up . After Howell retired from film in the 1926 , Smith kept up with his contracted work at Universal and wrote a set of comedy films called " The Collegians " . Smith died in 1937 in Los Angeles , California , at fifty years old .
= = Filmography = =
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= Matrix ( mathematics ) =
In mathematics , a matrix ( plural matrices ) is a rectangular array of numbers , symbols , or expressions , arranged in rows and columns . The dimensions of matrix ( 1 ) are 2 × 3 ( read " two by three " ) , because there are two rows and three columns .
The individual items in a matrix are called its elements or entries . Provided that they are the same size ( have the same number of rows and the same number of columns ) , two matrices can be added or subtracted element by element . The rule for matrix multiplication , however , is that two matrices can be multiplied only when the number of columns in the first equals the number of rows in the second . Any matrix can be multiplied element @-@ wise by a scalar from its associated field . A major application of matrices is to represent linear transformations , that is , generalizations of linear functions such as f ( x ) = 4x . For example , the rotation of vectors in three dimensional space is a linear transformation which can be represented by a rotation matrix R : if v is a column vector ( a matrix with only one column ) describing the position of a point in space , the product Rv is a column vector describing the position of that point after a rotation . The product of two transformation matrices is a matrix that represents the composition of two linear transformations . Another application of matrices is in the solution of systems of linear equations . If the matrix is square , it is possible to deduce some of its properties by computing its determinant . For example , a square matrix has an inverse if and only if its determinant is not zero . Insight into the geometry of a linear transformation is obtainable ( along with other information ) from the matrix 's eigenvalues and eigenvectors .
Applications of matrices are found in most scientific fields . In every branch of physics , including classical mechanics , optics , electromagnetism , quantum mechanics , and quantum electrodynamics , they are used to study physical phenomena , such as the motion of rigid bodies . In computer graphics , they are used to project a 3D model onto a 2 dimensional screen . In probability theory and statistics , stochastic matrices are used to describe sets of probabilities ; for instance , they are used within the PageRank algorithm that ranks the pages in a Google search . Matrix calculus generalizes classical analytical notions such as derivatives and exponentials to higher dimensions .
A major branch of numerical analysis is devoted to the development of efficient algorithms for matrix computations , a subject that is centuries old and is today an expanding area of research . Matrix decomposition methods simplify computations , both theoretically and practically . Algorithms that are tailored to particular matrix structures , such as sparse matrices and near @-@ diagonal matrices , expedite computations in finite element method and other computations . Infinite matrices occur in planetary theory and in atomic theory . A simple example of an infinite matrix is the matrix representing the derivative operator , which acts on the Taylor series of a function .
= = Definition = =
A matrix is a rectangular array of numbers or other mathematical objects for which operations such as addition and multiplication are defined . Most commonly , a matrix over a field F is a rectangular array of scalars each of which is a member of F. Most of this article focuses on real and complex matrices , that is , matrices whose elements are real numbers or complex numbers , respectively . More general types of entries are discussed below . For instance , this is a real matrix :
<formula>
The numbers , symbols or expressions in the matrix are called its entries or its elements . The horizontal and vertical lines of entries in a matrix are called rows and columns , respectively .
= = = Size = = =
The size of a matrix is defined by the number of rows and columns that it contains . A matrix with m rows and n columns is called an m × n matrix or m @-@ by @-@ n matrix , while m and n are called its dimensions . For example , the matrix A above is a 3 × 2 matrix .
Matrices which have a single row are called row vectors , and those which have a single column are called column vectors . A matrix which has the same number of rows and columns is called a square matrix . A matrix with an infinite number of rows or columns ( or both ) is called an infinite matrix . In some contexts , such as computer algebra programs , it is useful to consider a matrix with no rows or no columns , called an empty matrix .
= = Notation = =
Matrices are commonly written in box brackets or parentheses :
<formula>
The specifics of symbolic matrix notation vary widely , with some prevailing trends . Matrices are usually symbolized using upper @-@ case letters ( such as A in the examples above ) , while the corresponding lower @-@ case letters , with two subscript indices ( e.g. , a11 , or a1,1 ) , represent the entries . In addition to using upper @-@ case letters to symbolize matrices , many authors use a special typographical style , commonly boldface upright ( non @-@ italic ) , to further distinguish matrices from other mathematical objects . An alternative notation involves the use of a double @-@ underline with the variable name , with or without boldface style , ( e.g. , <formula> ) .
The entry in the i @-@ th row and j @-@ th column of a matrix A is sometimes referred to as the i , j , ( i , j ) , or ( i , j ) th entry of the matrix , and most commonly denoted as ai , j , or aij . Alternative notations for that entry are A [ i , j ] or Ai , j . For example , the ( 1 @,@ 3 ) entry of the following matrix A is 5 ( also denoted a13 , a1,3 , A [ 1 @,@ 3 ] or A1,3 ) :
<formula>
Sometimes , the entries of a matrix can be defined by a formula such as ai , j |
= f ( i , j ) . For example , each of the entries of the following matrix A is determined by aij =
i − j .
<formula>
In this case , the matrix itself is sometimes defined by that formula , within square brackets or double parenthesis . For example , the matrix above is defined as A |
= [ i @-@ j ] , or A =
( ( i @-@ j ) ) . If matrix size is m × n , the above @-@ mentioned formula f ( i , j ) is valid for any i |
= 1 , ... , m and any j =
1 , ... , n . This can be either specified separately , or using m × n as a subscript . For instance , the matrix A above is 3 × 4 and can be defined as A |
= [ i − j ] ( i =
1 , 2 , 3 ; j |
= 1 , ... , 4 ) , or A =
[ i − j ] 3 × 4 .
Some programming languages utilize doubly subscripted arrays ( or arrays of arrays ) to represent an m- × -n matrix . Some programming languages start the numbering of array indexes at zero , in which case the entries of an m @-@ by @-@ n matrix are indexed by 0 ≤ i ≤ m − 1 and 0 ≤ j ≤ n − 1 . This article follows the more common convention in mathematical writing where enumeration starts from 1 .
The set of all m @-@ by @-@ n matrices is denoted 𝕄 ( m , n ) .
= = Basic operations = =
There are a number of basic operations that can be applied to modify matrices , called matrix addition , scalar multiplication , transposition , matrix multiplication , row operations , and submatrix .
= = = Addition , scalar multiplication and transposition = = =
Familiar properties of numbers extend to these operations of matrices : for example , addition is commutative , that is , the matrix sum does not depend on the order of the summands : A + B |
= B + A. The transpose is compatible with addition and scalar multiplication , as expressed by ( cA ) T =
c ( AT ) and ( A + B ) T |
= AT + BT . Finally , ( AT ) T =
A.
= = = Matrix multiplication = = =
Multiplication of two matrices is defined if and only if the number of columns of the left matrix is the same as the number of rows of the right matrix . If A is an m @-@ by @-@ n matrix and B is an n @-@ by @-@ p matrix , then their matrix product AB is the m @-@ by @-@ p matrix whose entries are given by dot product of the corresponding row of A and the corresponding column of B :
<formula> ,
where 1 ≤ i ≤ m and 1 ≤ j ≤ p . For example , the underlined entry 2340 in the product is calculated as ( 2 × 1000 ) + ( 3 × 100 ) + ( 4 × 10 )
= 2340 :
<formula>
Matrix multiplication satisfies the rules ( AB ) C =
A ( BC ) ( associativity ) , and ( A + B ) C |
= AC + BC as well as C ( A + B ) =
CA + CB ( left and right distributivity ) , whenever the size of the matrices is such that the various products are defined . The product AB may be defined without BA being defined , namely if A and B are m @-@ by @-@ n and n @-@ by @-@ k matrices , respectively , and m ≠ k . Even if both products are defined , they need not be equal , that is , generally
AB ≠ BA ,
that is , matrix multiplication is not commutative , in marked contrast to ( rational , real , or complex ) numbers whose product is independent of the order of the factors . An example of two matrices not commuting with each other is :
<formula>
whereas
<formula>
Besides the ordinary matrix multiplication just described , there exist other less frequently used operations on matrices that can be considered forms of multiplication , such as the Hadamard product and the Kronecker product . They arise in solving matrix equations such as the Sylvester equation .
= = = Row operations = = =
There are three types of row operations :
row addition , that is adding a row to another .
row multiplication , that is multiplying all entries of a row by a non @-@ zero constant ;
row switching , that is interchanging two rows of a matrix ;
These operations are used in a number of ways , including solving linear equations and finding matrix inverses .
= = = Submatrix = = =
A submatrix of a matrix is obtained by deleting any collection of rows and / or columns . For example , from the following 3 @-@ by @-@ 4 matrix , we can construct a 2 @-@ by @-@ 3 submatrix by removing row 3 and column 2 :
<formula>
The minors and cofactors of a matrix are found by computing the determinant of certain submatrices .
A principal submatrix is a square submatrix obtained by removing certain rows and columns . The definition varies from author to author . According to some authors , a principal submatrix is a submatrix in which the set of row indices that remain is the same as the set of column indices that remain . Other authors define a principal submatrix to be one in which the first k rows and columns , for some number k , are the ones that remain ; this type of submatrix has also been called a leading principal submatrix .
= = Linear equations = =
Matrices can be used to compactly write and work with multiple linear equations , that is , systems of linear equations . For example , if A is an m @-@ by @-@ n matrix , x designates a column vector ( that is , n × 1 @-@ matrix ) of n variables x1 , x2 , ... , xn , and b is an m × 1 @-@ column vector , then the matrix equation
Ax
= b
is equivalent to the system of linear equations
A1,1x1 + A1,2x2 + ... + A1 , nxn =
b1
...
Am , 1x1 + Am , 2x2 + ... + Am , nxn = bm .
= = Linear transformations = =
Matrices and matrix multiplication reveal their essential features when related to linear transformations , also known as linear maps . A real m @-@ by @-@ n matrix A gives rise to a linear transformation Rn → Rm mapping each vector x in Rn to the ( matrix ) product Ax , which is a vector in Rm . Conversely , each linear transformation f : Rn → Rm arises from a unique m @-@ by @-@ n matrix A : explicitly , the ( i , j ) -entry of A is the ith coordinate of f ( ej ) , where ej
= ( 0 , ... , 0 @,@ 1 @,@ 0 , ... , 0 ) is the unit vector with 1 in the jth position and 0 elsewhere . The matrix A is said to represent the linear map f , and A is called the transformation matrix of f .
For example , the 2 × 2 matrix
<formula>
can be viewed as the transform of the unit square into a parallelogram with vertices at ( 0 , 0 ) , ( a , b ) , ( a + c , b + d ) , and ( c , d ) . The parallelogram pictured at the right is obtained by multiplying A with each of the column vectors <formula> and <formula> in turn . These vectors define the vertices of the unit square .
The following table shows a number of 2 @-@ by @-@ 2 matrices with the associated linear maps of R2 . The blue original is mapped to the green grid and shapes . The origin ( 0 @,@ 0 ) is marked with a black point .
Under the 1 @-@ to @-@ 1 correspondence between matrices and linear maps , matrix multiplication corresponds to composition of maps : if a k @-@ by @-@ m matrix B represents another linear map g : Rm → Rk , then the composition g ∘ f is represented by BA since
( g ∘ f ) ( x ) =
g ( f ( x ) ) |
= g ( Ax ) =
B ( Ax ) = ( BA ) x .
The last equality follows from the above @-@ mentioned associativity of matrix multiplication .
The rank of a matrix A is the maximum number of linearly independent row vectors of the matrix , which is the same as the maximum number of linearly independent column vectors . Equivalently it is the dimension of the image of the linear map represented by A. The rank @-@ nullity theorem states that the dimension of the kernel of a matrix plus the rank equals the number of columns of the matrix .
= = Square matrix = =
A square matrix is a matrix with the same number of rows and columns . An n @-@ by @-@ n matrix is known as a square matrix of order n . Any two square matrices of the same order can be added and multiplied . The entries aii form the main diagonal of a square matrix . They lie on the imaginary line which runs from the top left corner to the bottom right corner of the matrix .
= = = Main types = = =
= = = = Diagonal and triangular matrix = = = =
If all entries of A below the main diagonal are zero , A is called an upper triangular matrix . Similarly if all entries of A above the main diagonal are zero , A is called a lower triangular matrix . If all off @-@ diagonal elements are zero , A is called a diagonal matrix .
= = = = Identity matrix = = = =
The identity matrix In of size n is the n @-@ by @-@ n matrix in which all the elements on the main diagonal are equal to 1 and all other elements are equal to 0 , e.g.
<formula>
It is a square matrix of order n , and also a special kind of diagonal matrix . It is called an identity matrix because multiplication with it leaves a matrix unchanged :
AIn |
= ImA =
A for any m @-@ by @-@ n matrix A.
= = = = Symmetric or skew @-@ symmetric matrix = = = =
A square matrix A that is equal to its transpose , that is , A |
= AT , is a symmetric matrix . If instead , A is equal to the negative of its transpose , that is , A =
− AT , then A is a skew @-@ symmetric matrix . In complex matrices , symmetry is often replaced by the concept of Hermitian matrices , which satisfy A ∗ = A , where the star or asterisk denotes the conjugate transpose of the matrix , that is , the transpose of the complex conjugate of A.
By the spectral theorem , real symmetric matrices and complex Hermitian matrices have an eigenbasis ; that is , every vector is expressible as a linear combination of eigenvectors . In both cases , all eigenvalues are real . This theorem can be generalized to infinite @-@ dimensional situations related to matrices with infinitely many rows and columns , see below .
= = = = Invertible matrix and its inverse = = = =
A square matrix A is called invertible or non @-@ singular if there exists a matrix B such that
AB |
= BA =
In .
If B exists , it is unique and is called the inverse matrix of A , denoted A − 1 .
= = = = Definite matrix = = = =
A symmetric n × n @-@ matrix is called positive @-@ definite ( respectively negative @-@ definite ; indefinite ) , if for all nonzero vectors x ∈ Rn the associated quadratic form given by
Q ( x )
= xTAx
takes only positive values ( respectively only negative values ; both some negative and some positive values ) . If the quadratic form takes only non @-@ negative ( respectively only non @-@ positive ) values , the symmetric matrix is called positive @-@ semidefinite ( respectively negative @-@ semidefinite ) ; hence the matrix is indefinite precisely when it is neither positive @-@ semidefinite nor negative @-@ semidefinite .
A symmetric matrix is positive @-@ definite if and only if all its eigenvalues are positive , that is , the matrix is positive @-@ semidefinite and it is invertible . The table at the right shows two possibilities for 2 @-@ by @-@ 2 matrices .
Allowing as input two different vectors instead yields the bilinear form associated to A :
BA ( x , y ) =
xTAy .
= = = = Orthogonal matrix = = = =
An orthogonal matrix is a square matrix with real entries whose columns and rows are orthogonal unit vectors ( that is , orthonormal vectors ) . Equivalently , a matrix A is orthogonal if its transpose is equal to its inverse :
<formula>
which entails
<formula>
where I is the identity matrix of size n .
An orthogonal matrix A is necessarily invertible ( with inverse A − 1 |
= AT ) , unitary ( A − 1 =
A * ) , and normal ( A * A = AA * ) . The determinant of any orthogonal matrix is either + 1 or − 1 . A special orthogonal matrix is an orthogonal matrix with determinant + 1 . As a linear transformation , every orthogonal matrix with determinant + 1 is a pure rotation , while every orthogonal matrix with determinant -1 is either a pure reflection , or a composition of reflection and rotation .
The complex analogue of an orthogonal matrix is a unitary matrix .
= = = Main operations = = =
= = = = Trace = = = =
The trace , tr ( A ) of a square matrix A is the sum of its diagonal entries . While matrix multiplication is not commutative as mentioned above , the trace of the product of two matrices is independent of the order of the factors :
tr ( AB )
= tr ( BA ) .
This is immediate from the definition of matrix multiplication :
<formula>
Also , the trace of a matrix is equal to that of its transpose , that is ,
tr ( A ) =
tr ( AT ) .
= = = = Determinant = = = =
The determinant det ( A ) or | A | of a square matrix A is a number encoding certain properties of the matrix . A matrix is invertible if and only if its determinant is nonzero . Its absolute value equals the area ( in R2 ) or volume ( in R3 ) of the image of the unit square ( or cube ) , while its sign corresponds to the orientation of the corresponding linear map : the determinant is positive if and only if the orientation is preserved .
The determinant of 2 @-@ by @-@ 2 matrices is given by
<formula>
The determinant of 3 @-@ by @-@ 3 matrices involves 6 terms ( rule of Sarrus ) . The more lengthy Leibniz formula generalises these two formulae to all dimensions .
The determinant of a product of square matrices equals the product of their determinants :
det ( AB ) = det ( A ) · det ( B ) .
Adding a multiple of any row to another row , or a multiple of any column to another column , does not change the determinant . Interchanging two rows or two columns affects the determinant by multiplying it by − 1 . Using these operations , any matrix can be transformed to a lower ( or upper ) triangular matrix , and for such matrices the determinant equals the product of the entries on the main diagonal ; this provides a method to calculate the determinant of any matrix . Finally , the Laplace expansion expresses the determinant in terms of minors , that is , determinants of smaller matrices . This expansion can be used for a recursive definition of determinants ( taking as starting case the determinant of a 1 @-@ by @-@ 1 matrix , which is its unique entry , or even the determinant of a 0 @-@ by @-@ 0 matrix , which is 1 ) , that can be seen to be equivalent to the Leibniz formula . Determinants can be used to solve linear systems using Cramer 's rule , where the division of the determinants of two related square matrices equates to the value of each of the system 's variables .
= = = = Eigenvalues and eigenvectors = = = =
A number λ and a non @-@ zero vector v satisfying
Av
= λv
are called an eigenvalue and an eigenvector of A , respectively . The number λ is an eigenvalue of an n × n @-@ matrix A if and only if A − λIn is not invertible , which is equivalent to
<formula>
The polynomial pA in an indeterminate X given by evaluation the determinant det ( XIn − A ) is called the characteristic polynomial of A. It is a monic polynomial of degree n . Therefore the polynomial equation pA ( λ ) =
0 has at most n different solutions , that is , eigenvalues of the matrix . They may be complex even if the entries of A are real . According to the Cayley – Hamilton theorem , pA ( A ) = 0 , that is , the result of substituting the matrix itself into its own characteristic polynomial yields the zero matrix .
= = Computational aspects = =
Matrix calculations can be often performed with different techniques . Many problems can be solved by both direct algorithms or iterative approaches . For example , the eigenvectors of a square matrix can be obtained by finding a sequence of vectors xn converging to an eigenvector when n tends to infinity .
To be able to choose the more appropriate algorithm for each specific problem , it is important to determine both the effectiveness and precision of all the available algorithms . The domain studying these matters is called numerical linear algebra . As with other numerical situations , two main aspects are the complexity of algorithms and their numerical stability .
Determining the complexity of an algorithm means finding upper bounds or estimates of how many elementary operations such as additions and multiplications of scalars are necessary to perform some algorithm , e.g. , multiplication of matrices . For example , calculating the matrix product of two n @-@ by @-@ n matrix using the definition given above needs n3 multiplications , since for any of the n2 entries of the product , n multiplications are necessary . The Strassen algorithm outperforms this " naive " algorithm ; it needs only n2.807 multiplications . A refined approach also incorporates specific features of the computing devices .
In many practical situations additional information about the matrices involved is known . An important case are sparse matrices , that is , matrices most of whose entries are zero . There are specifically adapted algorithms for , say , solving linear systems Ax
= b for sparse matrices A , such as the conjugate gradient method .
An algorithm is , roughly speaking , numerically stable , if little deviations in the input values do not lead to big deviations in the result . For example , calculating the inverse of a matrix via Laplace 's formula ( Adj ( A ) denotes the adjugate matrix of A )
A − 1 =
Adj ( A ) / det ( A )
may lead to significant rounding errors if the determinant of the matrix is very small . The norm of a matrix can be used to capture the conditioning of linear algebraic problems , such as computing a matrix 's inverse .
Although most computer languages are not designed with commands or libraries for matrices , as early as the 1970s , some engineering desktop computers such as the HP 9830 had ROM cartridges to add BASIC commands for matrices . Some computer languages such as APL were designed to manipulate matrices , and various mathematical programs can be used to aid computing with matrices .
= = Decomposition = =
There are several methods to render matrices into a more easily accessible form . They are generally referred to as matrix decomposition or matrix factorization techniques . The interest of all these techniques is that they preserve certain properties of the matrices in question , such as determinant , rank or inverse , so that these quantities can be calculated after applying the transformation , or that certain matrix operations are algorithmically easier to carry out for some types of matrices .
The LU decomposition factors matrices as a product of lower ( L ) and an upper triangular matrices ( U ) . Once this decomposition is calculated , linear systems can be solved more efficiently , by a simple technique called forward and back substitution . Likewise , inverses of triangular matrices are algorithmically easier to calculate . The Gaussian elimination is a similar algorithm ; it transforms any matrix to row echelon form . Both methods proceed by multiplying the matrix by suitable elementary matrices , which correspond to permuting rows or columns and adding multiples of one row to another row . Singular value decomposition expresses any matrix A as a product UDV ∗ , where U and V are unitary matrices and D is a diagonal matrix .
The eigendecomposition or diagonalization expresses A as a product VDV − 1 , where D is a diagonal matrix and V is a suitable invertible matrix . If A can be written in this form , it is called diagonalizable . More generally , and applicable to all matrices , the Jordan decomposition transforms a matrix into Jordan normal form , that is to say matrices whose only nonzero entries are the eigenvalues λ1 to λn of A , placed on the main diagonal and possibly entries equal to one directly above the main diagonal , as shown at the right . Given the eigendecomposition , the nth power of A ( that is , n @-@ fold iterated matrix multiplication ) can be calculated via
An |
= ( VDV − 1 ) n =
VDV − 1VDV − 1 ... VDV − 1 = VDnV − 1
and the power of a diagonal matrix can be calculated by taking the corresponding powers of the diagonal entries , which is much easier than doing the exponentiation for A instead . This can be used to compute the matrix exponential eA , a need frequently arising in solving linear differential equations , matrix logarithms and square roots of matrices . To avoid numerically ill @-@ conditioned situations , further algorithms such as the Schur decomposition can be employed .
= = Abstract algebraic aspects and generalizations = =
Matrices can be generalized in different ways . Abstract algebra uses matrices with entries in more general fields or even rings , while linear algebra codifies properties of matrices in the notion of linear maps . It is possible to consider matrices with infinitely many columns and rows . Another extension are tensors , which can be seen as higher @-@ dimensional arrays of numbers , as opposed to vectors , which can often be realised as sequences of numbers , while matrices are rectangular or two @-@ dimensional arrays of numbers . Matrices , subject to certain requirements tend to form groups known as matrix groups . Similarly under certain conditions matrices form rings known as matrix rings . Though the product of matrices is not in general commutative yet certain matrices form fields known as matrix fields .
= = = Matrices with more general entries = = =
This article focuses on matrices whose entries are real or complex numbers . However , matrices can be considered with much more general types of entries than real or complex numbers . As a first step of generalization , any field , that is , a set where addition , subtraction , multiplication and division operations are defined and well @-@ behaved , may be used instead of R or C , for example rational numbers or finite fields . For example , coding theory makes use of matrices over finite fields . Wherever eigenvalues are considered , as these are roots of a polynomial they may exist only in a larger field than that of the entries of the matrix ; for instance they may be complex in case of a matrix with real entries . The possibility to reinterpret the entries of a matrix as elements of a larger field ( e.g. , to view a real matrix as a complex matrix whose entries happen to be all real ) then allows considering each square matrix to possess a full set of eigenvalues . Alternatively one can consider only matrices with entries in an algebraically closed field , such as C , from the outset .
More generally , abstract algebra makes great use of matrices with entries in a ring R. Rings are a more general notion than fields in that a division operation need not exist . The very same addition and multiplication operations of matrices extend to this setting , too . The set M ( n , R ) of all square n @-@ by @-@ n matrices over R is a ring called matrix ring , isomorphic to the endomorphism ring of the left R @-@ module Rn . If the ring R is commutative , that is , its multiplication is commutative , then M ( n , R ) is a unitary noncommutative ( unless n = 1 ) associative algebra over R. The determinant of square matrices over a commutative ring R can still be defined using the Leibniz formula ; such a matrix is invertible if and only if its determinant is invertible in R , generalising the situation over a field F , where every nonzero element is invertible . Matrices over superrings are called supermatrices .
Matrices do not always have all their entries in the same ring – or even in any ring at all . One special but common case is block matrices , which may be considered as matrices whose entries themselves are matrices . The entries need not be quadratic matrices , and thus need not be members of any ordinary ring ; but their sizes must fulfil certain compatibility conditions .
= = = Relationship to linear maps = = =
Linear maps Rn → Rm are equivalent to m @-@ by @-@ n matrices , as described above . More generally , any linear map f : V → W between finite @-@ dimensional vector spaces can be described by a matrix A
= ( aij ) , after choosing bases v1 , ... , vn of V , and w1 , ... , wm of W ( so n is the dimension of V and m is the dimension of W ) , which is such that
<formula>
In other words , column j of A expresses the image of vj in terms of the basis vectors wi of W ; thus this relation uniquely determines the entries of the matrix A. Note that the matrix depends on the choice of the bases : different choices of bases give rise to different , but equivalent matrices . Many of the above concrete notions can be reinterpreted in this light , for example , the transpose matrix AT describes the transpose of the linear map given by A , with respect to the dual bases .
These properties can be restated in a more natural way : the category of all matrices with entries in a field <formula> with multiplication as composition is equivalent to the category of finite dimensional vector spaces and linear maps over this field .
More generally , the set of m × n matrices can be used to represent the R @-@ linear maps between the free modules Rm and Rn for an arbitrary ring R with unity . When n =
m composition of these maps is possible , and this gives rise to the matrix ring of n × n matrices representing the endomorphism ring of Rn .
= = = Matrix groups = = =
A group is a mathematical structure consisting of a set of objects together with a binary operation , that is , an operation combining any two objects to a third , subject to certain requirements . A group in which the objects are matrices and the group operation is matrix multiplication is called a matrix group . Since in a group every element has to be invertible , the most general matrix groups are the groups of all invertible matrices of a given size , called the general linear groups .
Any property of matrices that is preserved under matrix products and inverses can be used to define further matrix groups . For example , matrices with a given size and with a determinant of 1 form a subgroup of ( that is , a smaller group contained in ) their general linear group , called a special linear group . Orthogonal matrices , determined by the condition
MTM = I ,
form the orthogonal group . Every orthogonal matrix has determinant 1 or − 1 . Orthogonal matrices with determinant 1 form a subgroup called special orthogonal group .
Every finite group is isomorphic to a matrix group , as one can see by considering the regular representation of the symmetric group . General groups can be studied using matrix groups , which are comparatively well @-@ understood , by means of representation theory .
= = = Infinite matrices = = =
It is also possible to consider matrices with infinitely many rows and / or columns even if , being infinite objects , one cannot write down such matrices explicitly . All that matters is that for every element in the set indexing rows , and every element in the set indexing columns , there is a well @-@ defined entry ( these index sets need not even be subsets of the natural numbers ) . The basic operations of addition , subtraction , scalar multiplication and transposition can still be defined without problem ; however matrix multiplication may involve infinite summations to define the resulting entries , and these are not defined in general .
If R is any ring with unity , then the ring of endomorphisms of <formula> as a right R module is isomorphic to the ring of column finite matrices <formula> whose entries are indexed by <formula> , and whose columns each contain only finitely many nonzero entries . The endomorphisms of M considered as a left R module result in an analogous object , the row finite matrices <formula> whose rows each only have finitely many nonzero entries .
If infinite matrices are used to describe linear maps , then only those matrices can be used all of whose columns have but a finite number of nonzero entries , for the following reason . For a matrix A to describe a linear map f : V → W , bases for both spaces must have been chosen ; recall that by definition this means that every vector in the space can be written uniquely as a ( finite ) linear combination of basis vectors , so that written as a ( column ) vector v of coefficients , only finitely many entries vi are nonzero . Now the columns of A describe the images by f of individual basis vectors of V in the basis of W , which is only meaningful if these columns have only finitely many nonzero entries . There is no restriction on the rows of A however : in the product A · v there are only finitely many nonzero coefficients of v involved , so every one of its entries , even if it is given as an infinite sum of products , involves only finitely many nonzero terms and is therefore well defined . Moreover , this amounts to forming a linear combination of the columns of A that effectively involves only finitely many of them , whence the result has only finitely many nonzero entries , because each of those columns do . One also sees that products of two matrices of the given type is well defined ( provided as usual that the column @-@ index and row @-@ index sets match ) , is again of the same type , and corresponds to the composition of linear maps .
If R is a normed ring , then the condition of row or column finiteness can be relaxed . With the norm in place , absolutely convergent series can be used instead of finite sums . For example , the matrices whose column sums are absolutely convergent sequences form a ring . Analogously of course , the matrices whose row sums are absolutely convergent series also form a ring .
In that vein , infinite matrices can also be used to describe operators on Hilbert spaces , where convergence and continuity questions arise , which again results in certain constraints that have to be imposed . However , the explicit point of view of matrices tends to obfuscate the matter , and the abstract and more powerful tools of functional analysis can be used instead .
= = = Empty matrices = = =
An empty matrix is a matrix in which the number of rows or columns ( or both ) is zero . Empty matrices help dealing with maps involving the zero vector space . For example , if A is a 3 @-@ by @-@ 0 matrix and B is a 0 @-@ by @-@ 3 matrix , then AB is the 3 @-@ by @-@ 3 zero matrix corresponding to the null map from a 3 @-@ dimensional space V to itself , while BA is a 0 @-@ by @-@ 0 matrix . There is no common notation for empty matrices , but most computer algebra systems allow creating and computing with them . The determinant of the 0 @-@ by @-@ 0 matrix is 1 as follows from regarding the empty product occurring in the Leibniz formula for the determinant as 1 . This value is also consistent with the fact that the identity map from any finite dimensional space to itself has determinant 1 , a fact that is often used as a part of the characterization of determinants .
= = Applications = =
There are numerous applications of matrices , both in mathematics and other sciences . Some of them merely take advantage of the compact representation of a set of numbers in a matrix . For example , in game theory and economics , the payoff matrix encodes the payoff for two players , depending on which out of a given ( finite ) set of alternatives the players choose . Text mining and automated thesaurus compilation makes use of document @-@ term matrices such as tf @-@ idf to track frequencies of certain words in several documents .
Complex numbers can be represented by particular real 2 @-@ by @-@ 2 matrices via
<formula>
under which addition and multiplication of complex numbers and matrices correspond to each other . For example , 2 @-@ by @-@ 2 rotation matrices represent the multiplication with some complex number of absolute value 1 , as above . A similar interpretation is possible for quaternions and Clifford algebras in general .
Early encryption techniques such as the Hill cipher also used matrices . However , due to the linear nature of matrices , these codes are comparatively easy to break . Computer graphics uses matrices both to represent objects and to calculate transformations of objects using affine rotation matrices to accomplish tasks such as projecting a three @-@ dimensional object onto a two @-@ dimensional screen , corresponding to a theoretical camera observation . Matrices over a polynomial ring are important in the study of control theory .
Chemistry makes use of matrices in various ways , particularly since the use of quantum theory to discuss molecular bonding and spectroscopy . Examples are the overlap matrix and the Fock matrix used in solving the Roothaan equations to obtain the molecular orbitals of the Hartree – Fock method .
= = = Graph theory = = =
The adjacency matrix of a finite graph is a basic notion of graph theory . It records which vertices of the graph are connected by an edge . Matrices containing just two different values ( 1 and 0 meaning for example " yes " and " no " , respectively ) are called logical matrices . The distance ( or cost ) matrix contains information about distances of the edges . These concepts can be applied to websites connected by hyperlinks or cities connected by roads etc . , in which case ( unless the connection network is extremely dense ) the matrices tend to be sparse , that is , contain few nonzero entries . Therefore , specifically tailored matrix algorithms can be used in network theory .
= = = Analysis and geometry = = =
The Hessian matrix of a differentiable function ƒ : Rn → R consists of the second derivatives of ƒ with respect to the several coordinate directions , that is ,
<formula>
It encodes information about the local growth behaviour of the function : given a critical point x = ( x1 , ... , xn ) , that is , a point where the first partial derivatives <formula> of ƒ vanish , the function has a local minimum if the Hessian matrix is positive definite . Quadratic programming can be used to find global minima or maxima of quadratic functions closely related to the ones attached to matrices ( see above ) .
Another matrix frequently used in geometrical situations is the Jacobi matrix of a differentiable map f : Rn → Rm . If f1 , ... , fm denote the components of f , then the Jacobi matrix is defined as
<formula>
If n > m , and if the rank of the Jacobi matrix attains its maximal value m , f is locally invertible at that point , by the implicit function theorem .
Partial differential equations can be classified by considering the matrix of coefficients of the highest @-@ order differential operators of the equation . For elliptic partial differential equations this matrix is positive definite , which has decisive influence on the set of possible solutions of the equation in question .
The finite element method is an important numerical method to solve partial differential equations , widely applied in simulating complex physical systems . It attempts to approximate the solution to some equation by piecewise linear functions , where the pieces are chosen with respect to a sufficiently fine grid , which in turn can be recast as a matrix equation .
= = = Probability theory and statistics = = =
Stochastic matrices are square matrices whose rows are probability vectors , that is , whose entries are non @-@ negative and sum up to one . Stochastic matrices are used to define Markov chains with finitely many states . A row of the stochastic matrix gives the probability distribution for the next position of some particle currently in the state that corresponds to the row . Properties of the Markov chain like absorbing states , that is , states that any particle attains eventually , can be read off the eigenvectors of the transition matrices .
Statistics also makes use of matrices in many different forms . Descriptive statistics is concerned with describing data sets , which can often be represented as data matrices , which may then be subjected to dimensionality reduction techniques . The covariance matrix encodes the mutual variance of several random variables . Another technique using matrices are linear least squares , a method that approximates a finite set of pairs ( x1 , y1 ) , ( x2 , y2 ) , ... , ( xN , yN ) , by a linear function
yi ≈ axi + b , i = 1 , ... , N
which can be formulated in terms of matrices , related to the singular value decomposition of matrices .
Random matrices are matrices whose entries are random numbers , subject to suitable probability distributions , such as matrix normal distribution . Beyond probability theory , they are applied in domains ranging from number theory to physics .
= = = Symmetries and transformations in physics = = =
Linear transformations and the associated symmetries play a key role in modern physics . For example , elementary particles in quantum field theory are classified as representations of the Lorentz group of special relativity and , more specifically , by their behavior under the spin group . Concrete representations involving the Pauli matrices and more general gamma matrices are an integral part of the physical description of fermions , which behave as spinors . For the three lightest quarks , there is a group @-@ theoretical representation involving the special unitary group SU ( 3 ) ; for their calculations , physicists use a convenient matrix representation known as the Gell @-@ Mann matrices , which are also used for the SU ( 3 ) gauge group that forms the basis of the modern description of strong nuclear interactions , quantum chromodynamics . The Cabibbo – Kobayashi – Maskawa matrix , in turn , expresses the fact that the basic quark states that are important for weak interactions are not the same as , but linearly related to the basic quark states that define particles with specific and distinct masses .
= = = Linear combinations of quantum states = = =
The first model of quantum mechanics ( Heisenberg , 1925 ) represented the theory 's operators by infinite @-@ dimensional matrices acting on quantum states . This is also referred to as matrix mechanics . One particular example is the density matrix that characterizes the " mixed " state of a quantum system as a linear combination of elementary , " pure " eigenstates .
Another matrix serves as a key tool for describing the scattering experiments that form the cornerstone of experimental particle physics : Collision reactions such as occur in particle accelerators , where non @-@ interacting particles head towards each other and collide in a small interaction zone , with a new set of non @-@ interacting particles as the result , can be described as the scalar product of outgoing particle states and a linear combination of ingoing particle states . The linear combination is given by a matrix known as the S @-@ matrix , which encodes all information about the possible interactions between particles .
= = = Normal modes = = =
A general application of matrices in physics is to the description of linearly coupled harmonic systems . The equations of motion of such systems can be described in matrix form , with a mass matrix multiplying a generalized velocity to give the kinetic term , and a force matrix multiplying a displacement vector to characterize the interactions . The best way to obtain solutions is to determine the system 's eigenvectors , its normal modes , by diagonalizing the matrix equation . Techniques like this are crucial when it comes to the internal dynamics of molecules : the internal vibrations of systems consisting of mutually bound component atoms . They are also needed for describing mechanical vibrations , and oscillations in electrical circuits .
= = = Geometrical optics = = =
Geometrical optics provides further matrix applications . In this approximative theory , the wave nature of light is neglected . The result is a model in which light rays are indeed geometrical rays . If the deflection of light rays by optical elements is small , the action of a lens or reflective element on a given light ray can be expressed as multiplication of a two @-@ component vector with a two @-@ by @-@ two matrix called ray transfer matrix : the vector 's components are the light ray 's slope and its distance from the optical axis , while the matrix encodes the properties of the optical element . Actually , there are two kinds of matrices , viz. a refraction matrix describing the refraction at a lens surface , and a translation matrix , describing the translation of the plane of reference to the next refracting surface , where another refraction matrix applies . The optical system , consisting of a combination of lenses and / or reflective elements , is simply described by the matrix resulting from the product of the components ' matrices .
= = = Electronics = = =
Traditional mesh analysis and nodal analysis in electronics lead to a system of linear equations that can be described with a matrix .
The behaviour of many electronic components can be described using matrices . Let A be a 2 @-@ dimensional vector with the component 's input voltage v1 and input current i1 as its elements , and let B be a 2 @-@ dimensional vector with the component 's output voltage v2 and output current i2 as its elements . Then the behaviour of the electronic component can be described by B = H · A , where H is a 2 x 2 matrix containing one impedance element ( h12 ) , one admittance element ( h21 ) and two dimensionless elements ( h11 and h22 ) . Calculating a circuit now reduces to multiplying matrices .
= = History = =
Matrices have a long history of application in solving linear equations but they were known as arrays until the 1800s . The Chinese text The Nine Chapters on the Mathematical Art written in 10th – 2nd century BCE is the first example of the use of array methods to solve simultaneous equations , including the concept of determinants . In 1545 Italian mathematician Girolamo Cardano brought the method to Europe when he published Ars Magna . The Japanese mathematician Seki used the same array methods to solve simultaneous equations in 1683 . The Dutch Mathematician Jan de Witt represented transformations using arrays in his 1659 book Elements of Curves ( 1659 ) . Between 1700 and 1710 Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz publicized the use of arrays for recording information or solutions and experimented with over 50 different systems of arrays . Cramer presented his rule in 1750 .
The term " matrix " ( Latin for " womb " , derived from mater — mother ) was coined by James Joseph Sylvester in 1850 , who understood a matrix as an object giving rise to a number of determinants today called minors , that is to say , determinants of smaller matrices that derive from the original one by removing columns and rows . In an 1851 paper , Sylvester explains :
I have in previous papers defined a " Matrix " as a rectangular array of terms , out of which different systems of determinants may be engendered as from the womb of a common parent .
Arthur Cayley published a treatise on geometric transformations using matrices that were not rotated versions of the coefficients being investigated as had previously been done . Instead he defined operations such as addition , subtraction , multiplication , and division as transformations of those matrices and showed the associative and distributive properties held true . Cayley investigated and demonstrated the non @-@ commutative property of matrix multiplication as well as the commutative property of matrix addition . Early matrix theory had limited the use of arrays almost exclusively to determinants and Arthur Cayley 's abstract matrix operations were revolutionary . He was instrumental in proposing a matrix concept independent of equation systems . In 1858 Cayley published his A memoir on the theory of matrices in which he proposed and demonstrated the Cayley @-@ Hamilton theorem .
An English mathematician named Cullis was the first to use modern bracket notation for matrices in 1913 and he simultaneously demonstrated the first significant use of the notation A
= [ ai , j ] to represent a matrix where ai , j refers to the ith row and the jth column .
The study of determinants sprang from several sources . Number @-@ theoretical problems led Gauss to relate coefficients of quadratic forms , that is , expressions such as x2 + xy − 2y2 , and linear maps in three dimensions to matrices . Eisenstein further developed these notions , including the remark that , in modern parlance , matrix products are non @-@ commutative . Cauchy was the first to prove general statements about determinants , using as definition of the determinant of a matrix A =
[ ai , j ] the following : replace the powers ajk by ajk in the polynomial
<formula> ,
where Π denotes the product of the indicated terms . He also showed , in 1829 , that the eigenvalues of symmetric matrices are real . Jacobi studied " functional determinants " — later called Jacobi determinants by Sylvester — which can be used to describe geometric transformations at a local ( or infinitesimal ) level , see above ; Kronecker 's Vorlesungen über die Theorie der Determinanten and Weierstrass ' Zur Determinantentheorie , both published in 1903 , first treated determinants axiomatically , as opposed to previous more concrete approaches such as the mentioned formula of Cauchy . At that point , determinants were firmly established .
Many theorems were first established for small matrices only , for example the Cayley – Hamilton theorem was proved for 2 × 2 matrices by Cayley in the aforementioned memoir , and by Hamilton for 4 × 4 matrices . Frobenius , working on bilinear forms , generalized the theorem to all dimensions ( 1898 ) . Also at the end of the 19th century the Gauss – Jordan elimination ( generalizing a special case now known as Gauss elimination ) was established by Jordan . In the early 20th century , matrices attained a central role in linear algebra. partially due to their use in classification of the hypercomplex number systems of the previous century .
The inception of matrix mechanics by Heisenberg , Born and Jordan led to studying matrices with infinitely many rows and columns . Later , von Neumann carried out the mathematical formulation of quantum mechanics , by further developing functional analytic notions such as linear operators on Hilbert spaces , which , very roughly speaking , correspond to Euclidean space , but with an infinity of independent directions .
= = = Other historical usages of the word “ matrix ” in mathematics = = =
The word has been used in unusual ways by at least two authors of historical importance .
Bertrand Russell and Alfred North Whitehead in their Principia Mathematica ( 1910 – 1913 ) use the word “ matrix ” in the context of their Axiom of reducibility . They proposed this axiom as a means to reduce any function to one of lower type , successively , so that at the “ bottom ” ( 0 order ) the function is identical to its extension :
“ Let us give the name of matrix to any function , of however many variables , which does not involve any apparent variables . Then any possible function other than a matrix is derived from a matrix by means of generalization , that is , by considering the proposition which asserts that the function in question is true with all possible values or with some value of one of the arguments , the other argument or arguments remaining undetermined ” .
For example , a function Φ ( x , y ) of two variables x and y can be reduced to a collection of functions of a single variable , e.g. , y , by “ considering ” the function for all possible values of “ individuals ” ai substituted in place of variable x . And then the resulting collection of functions of the single variable y , that is , ∀ ai : Φ ( ai , y ) , can be reduced to a “ matrix ” of values by “ considering ” the function for all possible values of “ individuals ” bi substituted in place of variable y :
∀ bj ∀ ai : Φ ( ai , bj ) .
Alfred Tarski in his 1946 Introduction to Logic used the word “ matrix ” synonymously with the notion of truth table as used in mathematical logic .
= = Glossary = =
off @-@ diagonal element
An element where i and j differ . Zero for a diagonal matrix .
complex matrix
a matrix containing complex numbers
symmetric sparse matrix
a symmetric sparse matrix
= = = Physics references = = =
Bohm , Arno ( 2001 ) , Quantum Mechanics : Foundations and Applications , Springer , ISBN 0 @-@ 387 @-@ 95330 @-@ 2
Burgess , Cliff ; Moore , Guy ( 2007 ) , The Standard Model . A Primer , Cambridge University Press , ISBN 0 @-@ 521 @-@ 86036 @-@ 9
Guenther , Robert D. ( 1990 ) , Modern Optics , John Wiley , ISBN 0 @-@ 471 @-@ 60538 @-@ 7
Itzykson , Claude ; Zuber , Jean @-@ Bernard ( 1980 ) , Quantum Field Theory , McGraw – Hill , ISBN 0 @-@ 07 @-@ 032071 @-@ 3
Riley , Kenneth F. ; Hobson , Michael P. ; Bence , Stephen J. ( 1997 ) , Mathematical methods for physics and engineering , Cambridge University Press , ISBN 0 @-@ 521 @-@ 55506 @-@ X
Schiff , Leonard I. ( 1968 ) , Quantum Mechanics ( 3rd ed . ) , McGraw – Hill
Weinberg , Steven ( 1995 ) , The Quantum Theory of Fields . Volume I : Foundations , Cambridge University Press , ISBN 0 @-@ 521 @-@ 55001 @-@ 7
Wherrett , Brian S. ( 1987 ) , Group Theory for Atoms , Molecules and Solids , Prentice – Hall International , ISBN 0 @-@ 13 @-@ 365461 @-@ 3
Zabrodin , Anton ; Brezin , Édouard ; Kazakov , Vladimir ; Serban , Didina ; Wiegmann , Paul ( 2006 ) , Applications of Random Matrices in Physics ( NATO Science Series II : Mathematics , Physics and Chemistry ) , Berlin , DE ; New York , NY : Springer @-@ Verlag , ISBN 978 @-@ 1 @-@ 4020 @-@ 4530 @-@ 1
= = = Historical references = = =
A. Cayley A memoir on the theory of matrices . Phil . Trans . 148 1858 17 @-@ 37 ; Math . Papers II 475 @-@ 496
Bôcher , Maxime ( 2004 ) , Introduction to higher algebra , New York , NY : Dover Publications , ISBN 978 @-@ 0 @-@ 486 @-@ 49570 @-@ 5 , reprint of the 1907 original edition
Cayley , Arthur ( 1889 ) , The collected mathematical papers of Arthur Cayley , I ( 1841 – 1853 ) , Cambridge University Press , pp. 123 – 126
Dieudonné , Jean , ed . ( 1978 ) , Abrégé d 'histoire des mathématiques 1700 @-@ 1900 , Paris , FR : Hermann
Hawkins , Thomas ( 1975 ) , " Cauchy and the spectral theory of matrices " , Historia Mathematica 2 : 1 – 29 , doi : 10 @.@ 1016 / 0315 @-@ 0860 ( 75 ) 90032 @-@ 4 , ISSN 0315 @-@ 0860 , MR 0469635
Knobloch , Eberhard ( 1994 ) , " From Gauss to Weierstrass : determinant theory and its historical evaluations " , The intersection of history and mathematics , Science Networks Historical Studies 15 , Basel , Boston , Berlin : Birkhäuser , pp. 51 – 66 , MR 1308079
Kronecker , Leopold ( 1897 ) , Hensel , Kurt , ed . , Leopold Kronecker 's Werke , Teubner
Mehra , Jagdish ; Rechenberg , Helmut ( 1987 ) , The Historical Development of Quantum Theory ( 1st ed . ) , Berlin , DE ; New York , NY : Springer @-@ Verlag , ISBN 978 @-@ 0 @-@ 387 @-@ 96284 @-@ 9
Shen , Kangshen ; Crossley , John N. ; Lun , Anthony Wah @-@ Cheung ( 1999 ) , Nine Chapters of the Mathematical Art , Companion and Commentary ( 2nd ed . ) , Oxford University Press , ISBN 978 @-@ 0 @-@ 19 @-@ 853936 @-@ 0
Weierstrass , Karl ( 1915 ) , Collected works 3
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= Albin of Brechin =
Albin ( or Albinus ) ( died 1269 ) was a 13th @-@ century prelate of the Kingdom of Scotland . A university graduate , Albin is known for his ecclesiastical career in the diocese of Brechin , centred on Angus in east @-@ central Scotland .
Almost certainly a native of Angus , he appears to be a descendant of David of Scotland , Earl of Huntingdon , brother of King William I of Scotland , through an illegitimate son whom Earl David settled in the area around Brechin .
Albin , himself an illegitimate child , made his career as a churchman in the local diocese , and served for some time as precentor of Brechin Cathedral before , in 1246 , being elected Bishop of Brechin . He remained Bishop of Brechin until his death in 1269 .
= = Biography = =
= = = Background and early career = = =
Albin 's family and origin are unclear . It has been suggested that he may have been a son of Henry de Brechin ( died 1244 or 1245 ) , the bastard son of David of Huntingdon ( " Earl David " ) and the younger brother of King William the Lion ; Henry bore the title Lord of Brechin , and was given lands there by his father . The strongest evidence of Albin 's relationship with Henry is that his episcopal seal bore the arms of Earl David .
Albin 's family certainly had strong connections in the church of Brechin . A known kinsman ( nepos ) of Albin 's , Adam , held the position of Archdeacon of Brechin , probably by 1242 , but certainly by 1264 . It has been suggested that this Adam was Adam de Brechin , probable son of Henry de Brechin 's successor William de Brechin ( died between 1286 and 1294 ) , who held benefices in the see of Brechin in 1274 .
Albin became precentor of Brechin Cathedral , the first known person to hold that office ; he was not , however , recorded in that position until the summer of 1246 , when he was confirmed as Bishop of Brechin . Because Albin was born illegitimately , he needed papal dispensation to hold that office , which he obtained from the papal legate Otto of Tonengo , Bishop of Porto , in the autumn or early winter of 1239 , when that legate visited Scotland .
By 1246 , Albin was styled " Master " , indicating that he had completed many years of university study ; what he studied , and at which university , is unknown .
= = = Accession to Brechin bishopric = = =
Albin became Bishop of Brechin following an election and then a successful appeal for confirmation to the papacy . Pope Innocent IV 's mandate for confirmation gave the details of the election . Following the death of Gregory , Bishop of Brechin , the cathedral chapter selected three of their members to elect the next bishop , and they unanimously forwarded their precentor , Albin . Because of Albin 's " defect of birth " ( i.e. his illegitimacy ) , they supplicated the papacy to repeat the earlier dispensation .
The Pope followed legate Otto 's earlier dispensation , and on 19 July 1246 issued the mandate for confirmation and consecration to the Kingdom of Scotland 's three senior bishops : David de Bernham , Bishop of St Andrews ; William de Bondington , Bishop of Glasgow ; and Geoffrey de Liberatione , Bishop of Dunkeld . The consecration took place some time before 13 May 1247 , the date Albin was given his first recorded task as a consecrated bishop , when he , Clement , Bishop of Dunblane , and David de Bernham , Bishop of St Andrews , were authorised to perform the episcopal consecration of Peter de Ramsay as Bishop of Aberdeen .
= = = Early episcopate , 1240s = = =
Albin witnessed a royal charter at Forfar on 4 July 1246 . In the following year , on 11 July and 8 August 1248 , the Pope wrote to Albin commanding him to ensure that a settlement between Inchaffray Abbey in Strathearn , diocese of Dunblane , and Bishop Clement of Dunblane be peacefully kept , with Inchaffray being portrayed as the side in more need of protection .
In the same period , he ordained vicarages for Arbroath Abbey in Angus , and on 22 September 1248 settled a long @-@ standing property dispute between the church of Brechin and Arbroath Abbey . However , he had left Scotland by the following month , and was in England , at Finchale Priory near Durham , where he granted many indulgences .
Following the death of Alexander II of Scotland on 6 July 1249 , the accession of the boy king , Alexander III of Scotland , meant minority administration , and as a result , factional politics . The government during this minority was divided between a faction centred on Walter Comyn , husband of the countess of Menteith , and Alan Durward ; the Comyn faction held the ascendancy between 1249 and 1252 , and again between 1255 and 1257 ; the Durward faction held the ascendancy between 1252 and 1255 , and again between 1257 and 1258 .
The available sources give no clue as to Albin 's pattern of allegiance in these factional politics , and neither do his recorded activities . Professor Donald Watt has suggested that Albin was probably aligned with the Durward faction , in contrast , for instance , to the allegedly Comyn aligned Clement of Dunblane . Watt even argued that Albin 's postulation was probably due to the influence of Alan Durward , who at the time was a close advisor of King Alexander II .
= = = Middle episcopate , 1250s = = =
Despite Albin 's suggested Durwardite allegiance , Bishop Albin , Bishop David de Bernham of St Andrews and Abel de Gullane , Archdeacon of St Andrews , issued a letter of protest against the behaviour of the Durward dominated government ; they criticised Durward 's onslaught on the " liberties of the church " , probably in the aftermath of the translation of the relics of St Margaret to Dunfermline Abbey on 19 June 1250 .
In either 1253 or 1254 , Albin was an assessor at a court held by the Justiciar of Scotia , Alexander Comyn , Earl of Buchan . In April 1253 , he summoned Bishop David de Bernham to appear before the papal curia , in order to resolve a dispute he and the culdees of St Mary 's were having with St Andrews Cathedral Priory .
Albin performed various tasks in this period on behalf of the papacy . On 15 May 1253 , Bishop Albin and Richard de Inverkeithing , Bishop of Dunkeld , were appointed to be papal mandatories , and instructed by the papacy to protect Bishop William de Bondington from being summoned to lay courts on account of matters concerning his bishopric .
Bishop Albin , with the Archdeacon of Brechin , was named as a papal mandatory again on 4 January 1254 and authorised to put Nicholas de Hedon in possession of the deanery of Elgin Cathedral . Along with Clement of Dunblane , Albin was named by the pope as a conservator of the privileges given to Abel de Gullane , newly provided Bishop of St Andrews , on 23 March .
On 22 June , Bishop Albin assisted the justiciar Alexander Comyn in conducting a perambulation in eastern Angus . Albin appears to have left Scotland again some time after this , as he appears active around Durham again in either 1254 or 1255 . Back in Scotland , at Arbroath on 21 September 1256 , he and Bishop Clement of Dunblane passed judgment on William de Mydford , vicar of the parish church of Dundee , after Mydford had been withholding the revenues due to the church 's rector , Lindores Abbey .
During this period , Albin was involved in a political controversy regarding succession to an earldom . An alleged papal bull , dated 13 December 1255 , had named Bishop Albin as a papal mandatory , along with Robert de Stuteville , with instructions to investigate Alan Durward 's claim to the earldom of Mar ; however , the bull was denounced as a forgery on 28 March 1257 , after Durward 's rivals had seized power . During the months preceding this denunciation , Albin was once again out of Scotland ; on 4 March 1257 his presence was once again recorded at Durham .
= = = Later episcopate , 1260s = = =
For three years , Albin 's activities are unreported until , on 30 April 1260 , he was recorded as being at Montrose , again as a papal mandatory . He gave judgment on a dispute between Archibald , Bishop of Moray , and the latter 's cathedral chapter , concerning the bishop 's rights of visitation . On 13 June 1263 , Albin , Roger , Bishop of Ross , and Richard de Inverkeithing , Bishop of Dunkeld , were selected by the papacy to judge the fitness and , if appropriate , consecrate Walter de Baltrodin as Bishop of Caithness .
In the following year , Albin was involved in a controversy regarding the archdeaconry of Brechin . On 23 January 1364 , papal judge @-@ delegates were appointed to investigate allegations of nepotism which had been made against him . The allegations centred on Bishop Albin 's handling of a vacancy to the Brechin archdeaconry ; Albin had given collation of the archdeaconry to the Abbot of Arbroath , who then appointed Adam , one of Albin 's relatives . The outcome of the case is not known , and it is therefore unclear whether or not Adam was deposed as archdeacon . All that can be confirmed is that no other archdeacon is attested by name until 1284 .
The stay of Cardinal Ottobono Fieschi ( later Pope Adrian V ) in England from 29 October 1265 , until July 1268 , led to a great deal of diplomatic activity in the Scottish church , in which Albin was perhaps involved . Cardinal Ottobono imposed a general tax on the English church , which he extended to Scotland . King Alexander III forbade the payment of this money , and appealed to the papacy ; but in 1267 the Scottish clergy persuaded Alexander to abandon his appeal , while they made their own reduced payments . Meanwhile , Cardinal Ottobono 's legatine council , to which the Scottish church had sent four delegates , promulgated canons for the English church which he expected the Scottish church to incorporate ; the Scottish church does not appear to have done so , however .
Bishop Albin witnessed William de Brechin 's foundation charter of Maison Dieu chapel , Brechin , sometime between March and July 1267 , the last known recorded reference to him until 1269 . His death in that year was reported in the Chronicle of Melrose , but without any details of the cause , or location , or Albin 's age .
= = = General notes about Albin 's episcopate = = =
During Albin 's episcopate , the incorporation of the Céli Dé ( " vassal of God " ) into the cathedral chapter was probably brought near to completion . The Céli Dé were the Scottish monks who formed the base of the pre @-@ Reform , pre @-@ 13th century monastery of Brechin before it was organised into a bishopric in the 12th century . A bull of Pope Innocent IV of 18 February 1250 stated that :
The brethren who have been wont to be in the church of Brechin were called Keledei and now by change of name are styled canons
These Céli Dé had been proclaimed as part of the secular cathedral by an act of Bishop Gregory , Albin 's predecessor .
During his episcopate , Albin is said to have attracted Egbert , an English Arabic scholar and Carmelite friar , to teach in Brechin . A later tradition held that a now obscure local martyr named Stolbrand , " martyr of Brechin " , had been translated to Brechin Cathedral during Albin 's episcopate ; the date given is 2 January but the year is not recorded .
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= National Popular Vote Interstate Compact =
The National Popular Vote Interstate Compact ( NPVIC ) is an agreement among several U.S. states and the District of Columbia to award all their respective electoral votes to whichever presidential candidate wins the overall popular vote in the 50 states and the District of Columbia . The compact is designed to ensure that the candidate who wins the most popular votes is elected president , and it will come into effect only when it will guarantee that outcome . As of 2016 , it has been joined by ten states and the District of Columbia ; their 165 combined electoral votes amount to 30 @.@ 7 % of the total Electoral College vote , and 61 @.@ 1 % of the 270 votes needed for it to have legal force .
= = Mechanism = =
Proposed in the form of an interstate compact , the agreement would go into effect among the participating states in the compact only after they collectively represent an absolute majority of votes ( currently at least 270 ) in the Electoral College . In the next presidential election after adoption by the requisite number of states , the participating states would award all of their electoral votes to presidential electors associated with the candidate who wins the overall popular vote in the 50 states and the District of Columbia . As a result , the winner of the national popular vote would always win the presidency by always securing a majority of votes in the Electoral College . Until the compact 's conditions are met , all states award electoral votes in their current manner .
The compact would modify the way participating states implement Article II , Section 1 , Clause 2 of the U.S. Constitution , which requires each state legislature to define a method to appoint its electors to vote in the Electoral College . The Constitution does not mandate any particular legislative scheme for selecting electors , and instead vests state legislatures with the exclusive power to choose how to allocate its own electors . States have chosen various methods of allocation over the years , with regular changes in the nation 's early decades . Today , all but two states ( Maine and Nebraska ) award all their electoral votes to the candidate with the most votes statewide .
= = Motivation behind the compact = =
Under current state laws , a presidential candidate could lose the popular vote nationally but still win the presidency Public opinion surveys suggest that a majority of Americans support the idea of a popular vote for President . A 2007 poll found that 72 % favored replacing the Electoral College with a direct election , including 78 % of Democrats , 60 % of Republicans , and 73 % of independent voters . Polls dating back to 1944 have shown a consistent majority of the public supporting a direct vote . Reasons behind the compact include :
The Electoral College allows a candidate to win the Presidency while losing the popular vote , as happened in the elections of 1824 , 1876 , 1888 and 2000 . In the 2000 election , the outcome was decided by 528 votes in Florida .
The Electoral College system effectively forces candidates to focus disproportionately on a small percentage of pivotal swing states , while sidelining the rest . A study by FairVote reported that the 2004 candidates devoted three quarters of their peak season campaign resources to just five states , while the other 45 states received very little attention . The report also stated that 18 states received no candidate visits and no TV advertising . This means that swing state issues receive more attention , while issues important to other states are largely ignored .
The Electoral College system tends to decrease voter turnout in states without close races . Voters living outside the swing states have a greater certainty of which candidate is likely to win their state . This knowledge of the probable outcome decreases their incentive to vote . A report by the Committee for the Study of the American Electorate found that 2004 voter turnout in competitive swing states grew by 6 @.@ 3 % from the previous presidential election , compared to an increase of only 3 @.@ 8 % in noncompetitive states . A report by The Center for Information and Research on Civic Learning and Engagement ( CIRCLE ) found that turnout among eligible voters under age 30 was 64 @.@ 4 % in the 10 closest battleground states and only 47 @.@ 6 % in the rest of the country — a 17 % gap .
= = Debate = =
The project has been supported by editorials in many newspapers , including the New York Times , the Chicago Sun @-@ Times , the Los Angeles Times , the Boston Globe , and the Minneapolis Star Tribune , arguing that the existing system discourages voter turnout and leaves emphasis on only a few states and a few issues , while a popular election would equalize voting power . Others have argued against it , including the Honolulu Star @-@ Bulletin . An article by Pierre S. du Pont , IV , a former governor of Delaware , in the opinion section of the Wall Street Journal has called the project an urban power grab that would shift politics entirely to urban issues in high population states and allow lower caliber candidates to run . A collection of readings pro and con has been assembled by the League of Women Voters .
Some of the major points of debate are detailed below :
= = = Campaign focus = = =
Under the current system , campaign focus – in terms of spending , visits , and attention paid to regional or state issues – is largely limited to the few swing states whose electoral outcomes are competitive , with politically " solid " states mostly ignored by the campaigns . The maps to the right illustrate the amount spent on advertising and the number of visits to each state , relative to population , by the two major @-@ party candidates in the last stretch of the 2004 presidential campaign . Supporters of the compact contend that a national popular vote would encourage candidates to campaign with equal effort for votes in competitive and non @-@ competitive states alike . Critics of the compact argue that candidates would have less incentive to focus on states with smaller populations or fewer urban areas , and would thus be unmotivated to address rural issues .
= = = Close elections and election fraud = = =
Opponents of the compact have raised concerns about election fraud . In his article , Pete du Pont argues that in 2000 , " Mr. Gore 's 540 @,@ 000 @-@ vote margin amounted to 3 @.@ 1 votes in each of the country 's 175 @,@ 000 precincts . ' Finding ' three votes per precinct in urban areas is not a difficult thing ... " . However , National Popular Vote has argued that a direct election would in fact reduce the likelihood of a close election and decrease the feasibility of fraud . They contend that the large pool of 122 million votes spread across the country would make a close or fraudulent outcome much less likely than under the current system , in which the national winner may be determined by an extremely small vote margin in any one of the fifty @-@ one statewide tallies .
The NPVIC does not include any provision for a nationwide recount in the event that the vote tally is in dispute . While each state has established rules governing recounts in the event of a close or disputed statewide tally , it is possible for the national vote to be close without there being a close result in any one state . Proponents of the compact argue that the need for a recount would be less likely under a national popular vote than under the current electoral system .
= = = Populous states versus low @-@ population states = = =
There is some debate over whether the Electoral College favors small- or large @-@ population states . Those who argue that the College favors low @-@ population states point out that such states have proportionally more electoral votes relative to their populations , because each state 's number of electors is greater by two than its ( proportionally allocated ) number of Congressional representatives . In the most populous state , California , this results in an electoral clout 16 % smaller than a purely proportional allocation would produce , whereas the least @-@ populous states , with three electors , hold a voting power 143 % greater than they would under purely proportional allocation . The proposed compact would give equal weight to each voter 's ballot , regardless of what state they live in . Others , however , believe that since most states award electoral votes on a winner @-@ takes @-@ all system , the potential of populous states to shift greater numbers of electoral votes gives them more actual clout .
= = = Possible partisan advantage = = =
Some supporters and opponents of the NPVIC have based their position at least in part on a perceived partisan advantage of the compact . Governor Du Pont , a Republican , has argued that the compact would be an " urban power grab " and benefit Democrats . However , Saul Anuzis of the Republican National Committee wrote that Republicans " need " the compact , citing what he believes to be the center @-@ right nature of the American electorate . New Yorker essayist Hendrik Hertzberg maintains that the compact would benefit neither party , noting that historically both Republicans and Democrats have been successful in winning the popular vote in presidential elections . In the last four elections , Democrats enjoyed an advantage from the electoral vote system in three elections ( 2012 , 2008 , and 2004 ) , whereas in 2000 the electoral system provided the Republicans with an advantage .
= = = Relevance of state @-@ level majorities = = =
Two governors who have vetoed NPVIC legislation , Arnold Schwarzenegger of California and Linda Lingle of Hawaii , both in 2007 , objected to the compact on the grounds that it could require their states ' electoral votes to be awarded to a candidate who did not win a majority in their state . ( Both states have since enacted laws joining the compact . ) Supporters of the compact counter that under a national popular vote system , state @-@ level majorities are irrelevant ; in any state , votes cast contribute to the nationwide tally , which determines the winner . The preferences of individual voters are thus paramount , while state @-@ level majorities are an obsolete intermediary measure .
= = = Legality = = =
Supporters believe the compact is legal under Article II of the U.S. Constitution , which establishes the plenary power of the states to appoint their electors in any manner they see fit : " Each State shall appoint , in such Manner as the Legislature thereof may direct , a Number of Electors , equal to the whole Number of Senators and Representatives to which the State may be entitled in the Congress … " Proponents of this position include law professors Jamie Raskin , who co @-@ sponsored the first NPVIC bill to be signed into law , and Akhil Reed Amar and Vikram Amar , who were the compact 's original proponents .
A 2008 assessment by law school student David Gringer suggested that the NPVIC could potentially violate the Voting Rights Act of 1965 , but the U.S. Department of Justice in 2012 precleared California 's entry into the compact under Section 5 of the Act , concluding that the compact had no adverse impact on California 's racial minority voters . The DOJ 's decision is consistent with the argument of FairVote 's Rob Richie that the NPVIC " treats all voters equally . "
Gringer also assailed the NPVIC as " an end @-@ run around the constitutional amendment process . " Raskin has responded : " the term ' end run ' has no known constitutional or legal meaning . More to the point , to the extent that we follow its meaning in real usage , the ' end run ' is a perfectly lawful play . " Raskin argues that the adoption of the term " end run " by the compact 's opponents is a tacit acknowledgment of the plan 's legality .
Ian Drake , an assistant professor of Political Science and another critic of the compact , has argued that the constitution both requires and prohibits Congressional approval of the compact . In Drake 's view , only a constitutional amendment could make the compact valid . Authors Michael Brody , Jennifer Hendricks , and Bradley Turflinger have examined the compact and concluded that the NPVIC , if successfully enacted , would pass constitutional muster .
It is possible that Congress would have to approve the NPVIC before it could go into effect . Article I , Section 10 of the US Constitution states that : " No State shall , without the Consent of Congress . . . enter into any Agreement or Compact with another State , or with a foreign Power . " However , the U.S. Supreme Court has ruled in Virginia v. Tennessee , 148 U.S. 503 ( 1893 ) , and in several more recent cases , that such consent is not necessary except where a compact encroaches on federal supremacy . Every Vote Equal argues that the compact could never encroach upon federal power since the Constitution explicitly gives the power of casting electoral votes to the states , not the federal government . Derek Muller argues that the NPVIC would nonetheless affect the federal system in such a way that it would require Congressional approval , while Ian Drake argues that Congress is actually prohibited under the Constitution from granting approval to the NPVIC . NPVIC supporters dispute this conclusion and state they plan to seek congressional approval if the compact is approved by a sufficient number of states .
= = History = =
= = = Proposals to abolish the Electoral college by amendment = = =
Several proposals to abolish the Electoral College by constitutional amendment have been introduced in Congress over the decades . These efforts have , however , been hampered by the fact that a two @-@ thirds vote in both the House and Senate are required to send an amendment to the states , where ratification by three @-@ fourths of the State legislatures is required for it to become operative .
= = = = Bayh – Celler Amendment = = = =
The amendment which came closest to success was the Bayh – Celler proposal during the 91st Congress . Introduced by Representative Emanuel Celler of New York as House Joint Resolution 681 , it would have replaced the Electoral College with a simpler plurality system based on the national popular vote . Under this system , the pair of candidates who had received the highest number of votes would win the presidency and vice presidency respectively , providing they won at least 40 % of the national popular vote . If no pair received 40 % of the popular vote , a runoff election would be held , in which the choice of president and vice president would be made from the two pairs of persons who had received the highest numbers of votes in the first election . The word " pair " was defined as " two persons who shall have consented to the joining of their names as candidates for the offices of President and Vice President . " Celler 's proposed constitutional amendment passed in the House of Representatives by a 338 – 70 vote in 1969 , but was filibustered in the Senate , where it died .
= = = = Every Vote Counts Amendment = = = =
A joint resolution to amend the Constitution , providing for the popular election of the president and vice president under a new electoral system was introduced in 2005 by Representative Gene Green of Texas . In 2009 , at the start of the 111th Congress , Green introduced H.J.Res. 9 , commonly known as the Every Vote Counts Amendment . Two other joint resolutions were proposed in the 111th Congress to amend the Constitution to establish a national popular vote for the president and vice @-@ president . Sponsored by Congressman Jesse Jackson , Jr. of Illinois , H.J.Res. 36 would require a majority vote for president . Sponsored by Senator Bill Nelson of Florida , S.J.Res. 4 would leave the method of election to an Act of Congress . Each of these measures died in committee .
= = = Academic plan = = =
In 2001 , Northwestern University law professor Robert Bennett suggested a plan in an academic publication to implement a National Popular Vote through a mechanism that would embrace state legislatures ' power to appoint electors , rather than resist that power . By coordinating , states constituting a majority of the Electoral College could effectively implement a popular vote .
Law professors ( and brothers ) Akhil Reed Amar and Vikram Amar defended the constitutionality of such a plan . They proposed that a group of states , through legislation , form a compact wherein they agree to give all of their electoral votes to the national popular vote winner , regardless of the balance of votes in their own state . These state laws would only be triggered once the compact included enough states to control a majority of the electoral college ( 270 votes ) , thus guaranteeing that the national popular vote winner would also win the electoral college .
The academic plan uses two constitutional features :
Presidential Electors Clause in Article 2 , section 1 , clause 2 which gives each state the power to determine the manner in which its electors are selected .
Compact Clause , Article I , section 10 , clause 3 under which it creates an enforceable compact .
The Amar brothers noted that such a plan could be enacted by the passage of laws in as few as eleven states and would probably not require Congressional approval , though this is not certain ( see Debate above ) .
= = = Organization and advocacy = = =
In 2006 , John Koza , a computer science professor at Stanford , was the lead author of Every Vote Equal , a book that makes a detailed case for his plan for an interstate compact to establish National Popular Vote . ( Koza had previously had exposure to interstate compacts from his work with state lottery commissions after inventing the scratch @-@ off lottery ticket . ) That year , Koza , Barry Fadem and others formed National Popular Vote , a non @-@ profit group to promote the legislation . The group has a transpartisan advisory committee including former US Senators Jake Garn , Birch Bayh , and David Durenberger , and former Representatives John Anderson , John Buchanan , and Tom Campbell .
By the time of the group 's opening news conference in February 2006 , the proposed interstate compact had been introduced in the Illinois legislature . With backing from National Popular Vote , the NPVIC legislation was introduced in five additional state legislatures in the 2006 session . It passed in the Colorado Senate and in both houses of the California legislature before being vetoed by Governor Arnold Schwarzenegger .
= = = Adoption = = =
In 2007 , NPVIC legislation was introduced in 42 states . It was passed by legislative chambers in Arkansas , California , Colorado , Illinois , New Jersey North Carolina , Maryland , and Hawaii . Maryland became the first state to join the compact when Governor Martin O 'Malley signed it into law on April 10 , 2007 .
New Jersey became the second state to enter the compact when Governor Jon S. Corzine signed the bill on January 13 , 2008 . Illinois became the third state to join when Governor Rod Blagojevich signed it into law on April 7 , 2008 and Hawaii became the fourth on May 1 , 2008 , after the legislature overrode a second veto from the governor .
Washington became the fifth state to join when Governor Christine Gregoire signed it into law on April 28 , 2009 . Massachusetts became the sixth state to join when Governor Deval Patrick signed it into law on August 4 , 2010 . The District of Columbia entered into the compact when the bill was signed by Mayor Adrian Fenty on October 12 , 2010 . ( Neither chamber of Congress objected to the passage of the bill during the mandatory review period of 30 legislative days following that date , thus allowing the District 's action to proceed . )
Vermont joined the compact when Governor Peter Shumlin signed it into law on April 22 , 2011 . California entered the compact on August 8 , 2011 , with Governor Jerry Brown 's signature . Rhode Island entered the compact on July 12 , 2013 , with Governor Lincoln Chafee 's signature . On April 15 , 2014 , New York entered the compact with a bipartisan vote in the NY assembly and Governor Andrew Cuomo 's signature .
NPVIC legislation has been introduced in all 50 states . States where only one chamber has adopted the legislation are Arkansas , Connecticut , Delaware , Maine , Michigan , Nevada , New Mexico , North Carolina , Oklahoma and Oregon . In Colorado the legislation has passed in both chambers ( in different sessions ) . Bills seeking to repeal the compact in Maryland , New Jersey and Washington have failed .
= = = Prospects = = =
Psephologist Nate Silver wrote that , as swing states are unlikely to support a compact that reduces their disproportionate influence , the compact cannot succeed without adoption by " red states " . As of 2016 , all the states that have adopted the compact are " blue states " , ranking within the 14 strongest vote shares for Barack Obama in the 2012 Presidential Election .
= = Bills = =
= = = Currently active bills = = =
The table below lists state bills to join the NPVIC that are currently pending ( as of July 20 , 2016 ) . The " EVs " column indicates the number of electoral votes each state has .
= = = Bills in previous sessions = = =
The table below lists the status of past bills that received a floor vote in at least one chamber of the state 's legislature . Bills which failed without a floor vote are not listed . The " EVs " column indicates the number of electoral votes the state had at the time the bill was introduced . This number may have changed since then due to reapportionment following the 2010 Census .
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= Drama Queen ( Ivy Queen album ) =
Drama Queen is the seventh studio album by Puerto Rican reggaeton recording artist Ivy Queen . It was released on July 13 , 2010 by Machete Music . The album was written by Queen with help from Rafael Castillo , Marcos Masis and others , while production was handled by Luny Tunes , Tainy and Noriega . The album features collaborations with De La Ghetto , Frank Reyes , Wisin & Yandel and Franco " El Gorila " . It features a wide variety of musical styles in common with her previous album , Sentimiento , released three years earlier on a different label .
Selling 3 @,@ 000 units in its first week , Drama Queen debuted and peaked at number 163 on the US Billboard 200 chart , number three on the Billboard Top Latin Albums chart , number one on the Billboard Latin Rhythm Albums chart and number 18 on the Billboard Rap Albums chart . The recording received a Latin Grammy nomination for Best Urban Music Album at the Latin Grammy Awards of 2011 and two nominations at the Billboard Latin Music Awards of 2011 . The album garnered mainly positive reviews from critics , who praised the mixture of R & B and reggaeton .
Two singles were released from the album : " La Vida Es Así " and " Amor Puro " . The former became a commercial success ; it was supplied to Latin radio in urban and bachata versions , reaching the Top 10 in several Spanish @-@ language markets in the United States . The latter , however , failed to gain chart success . A deluxe edition of the recording was released with extra tracks and music videos on August 10 , 2010 , and marks the last studio album on Machete .
= = Background = =
After the success of her 2007 effort Sentimiento , which spawned the Top 10 hit " Que Lloren " and was later certified platinum by the United States Recording Industry Association of America ( RIAA ) , a live album ( Ivy Queen 2008 World Tour LIVE ! ) was distributed by Machete in 2008 . The album included a studio track , " Dime " , which became Queen 's first single to top the Billboard Latin Rhythm Songs chart .
Queen signed a new record deal with the label in April 2010 , as it celebrated its fifth anniversary . The signing , described as a " 360 deal " , includes profit @-@ sharing in tours , sponsorships and merchandising . Ivy Queen was previously signed to a distribution deal with Univision Records , which was acquired by Machete parent company Universal Music Latin Entertainment in 2008 . The president of Universal Music Latino and Machete , Walter Kolm , commented in a press release : " It 's a privilege to have Ivy Queen apart of our artistic roster . Ivy is an extraordinary woman with incomparable talent , and she 's number one in her genre . We 're happy to be able to work with her on her new album as well as future projects " . " I 'm very proud to be a part of Machete Music . They are a young , vibrant company that has created a name for itself in Latin music in the United States and the world . They are a strong and important company that has been recognized for nurturing their artists ’ creative talents " , said Queen about the partnership . The album was originally to be released after her third compilation album , Cosa Nostra : Hip @-@ Hop ( 2006 ) , as an concept album which would have Ivy Queen performing duets with female singers from different genres on new label Filtro Musik . However , this was changed and Sentimiento was released instead . Ivy Queen told Efe that the composition process started while she was heartbroken at home , and her emotions then burst out in the recording studio . She added the album brings together 16 of 26 songs she wrote during this period . When asked by Latina Magazine about the drama between the release of Sentimiento and Drama Queen , Queen said :
I ’ m single . For the first time in my life , I ’ m really experiencing what that ’ s like because I used to always feel the need to be in a relationship ; I didn ’ t like being alone . But this time I ’ m realizing that people come into your life for a season , and my last relationship served its purpose . I can ’ t sit here and cry about it , because it ended right where it should have . A lot of that stuff is on the album .
= = Recording and production = =
Recording took place at Mas Flow Studios in Carolina , Puerto Rico between 2008 and mid @-@ 2010 . In October 2008 a release date of either February or March 2009 was confirmed by Queen , who had finished five songs for the album at the time ; however , she did not finished the collaborations until later . Production was handled by a roster of urban artists , including the Latin Grammy Award @-@ winning production team of Luny Tunes , Noriega , Tainy , DJ Blass , Mad Music , R.K.O and Keko Musik ( who produced over half the album ) .
Collaborations on the album include Wisin & Yandel on " Acércate " ; former Aventura band member Lenny Santos , who plays guitar on " Cosas De La Vida " with Frank Reys on vocals ; Franco " El Gorila " on " Jungle " ; De La Ghetto on " De La Calle " and Jadiel on " Amor A Primera Vista " . Queen said the collaboration with Wisin & Yandel came about from her work on their album , La Revolución ( 2009 ) . When speaking about the collaboration with Jadiel she said it was a decision she made with her heart : " When I collaborate with colleagues , I don 't care who is a hit on the radio and who isn 't " . The track " I Do " was to originally feature American R & B singer Beyoncé Knowles after Queen signed a contract with International Creative Management ( ICM ) .
= = Composition = =
= = = Music and themes = = =
Drama Queen has been described as " R & B meets reggaeton " ; it was the first time Ivy Queen experimented with R & B. Queen explained that the album was half hip hop and half reggaeton but that she had to include extra styles such as R & B and bachata . Musical textures on the album vary from R & B to tropical bachata , pop , rap and reggaeton , a more diverse set of musical styles than on Sentimiento . Themes include " cool & cocky , pool party , TGIF , partying and driving . " According to Frances Tirado of Primera Hora , the album demonstrates Queen 's vocal maturity and rhythmic evolution . The album 's lyrics explore heartbreak , love and the value of women in relationships . It contains original songs with sentimental lyrics , demonstrating Queen 's incorporation of musical fusion and sonic evolution ( in contrast to her previous studio albums ) .
= = = Song structure and lyrics = = =
" Intro ( Listen To My Drama ) " is in a minor key and features a string ensemble and synthesizers . In the rap , Ivy Queen sings : " 1 @-@ 9 @-@ 9 @-@ 3 was the year that I started , Many have seen my rise and fall I 've seen many . Vigilant , I have an angel on my back , I have a throne flanked by holy souls . " Lyrically , Ivy Queen highlights her position as the queen of reggaeton . " Te Voy A Recordar " ( I 'm Going To Make You Remember ) , also in a minor key , also employs a string ensemble and synthesizers . Lyrically , the song describes when the passion in a relationship has been lost . " Me Quiere " ( They Like Me ) is an R & B power ballad built on a snapping rhythm . Also in a minor key , it features synthesizers and percussion . In the song , Queen says that people listen to her because they like her . The lyrics reveal that when she wants it smooth she puts on R. Kelly , and when she is discontented she plays Mary J. Blige ( both of whom Queen has said she would like to work with in the future ) . The song highlights her hip @-@ hop status . " De La Calle " ( From the Street ) is an R & B power ballad exploring the love between two people ( " love from the street " ) , with Queen and De La Ghetto reprising their 2006 collaboration on a remix of Luny Tunes ' " Noche de Entierro ( Nuestro Amor ) " .
" Amor Puro " ( Pure Love ) is in a minor key with romantic lyrics , a string ensemble and techno synthesizers . Its lyrics focus on the meaning of true love . Queen sings : " Pure love does not fight , it does not hurt you , love that is pure does not cause you to fall " , and described the song as " an honest statement of what love is " . " I Do " is a minor @-@ key , mid @-@ tempo pop and R & B power ballad built on a handclapped rhythm and piano . Lyrically , the song is a message to men and women ; Queen sings : " My ladies , if you know better , if he loves you , let him come back . My fellas , if you love her , don 't let nothing hold you back , run out and look for her " . Queen recorded the song in English because she felt the language worked well with the beat . According to an editor for iTunes , the song " puts her message of female empowerment into a glossy pop ballad , complete with English lyrics and Auto @-@ Tuned vocal . " The minor @-@ key " Acércate " ( Get Closer ) features vocals by Wisin & Yandel and synthesizers ; it has been described as " pure reggaeton " . The song was praised for the presence of Wisin & Yandel and its hook . Queen previously collaborated with Wisin & Yandel on their seventh studio album , La Revolución ( 2009 ) , with " Perfecto " ( which also featured Yaviah ) .
The minor @-@ key " La Vida es Así " ( Life Is Like That ) features vocal effects and synthesizers . The urban version " attacks " with a modern and aggressive beat ; the bachata version is slower , with Luny Tunes ' tropical rhythms . In the lyrics , Ivy Queen declares to a rival : " The guy you 're dating is mine , and you know it , but here 's the detail : He 's worthless in bed . That 's why I 'm here to congratulate you for setting me free , I have to confess " . The reggaeton rhymes tell a story of revenge and lovesickness . Angie Romero of Latina Magazine describes the song as a " powerful and pulsating break @-@ up anthem . "
" Cuando " ( When ) , also in a minor key , is a pop R & B ballad featuring synthesizers and percussion with Caribbean roots and Afro @-@ Latin influences . It uses electric @-@ guitar riffs , an acoustic guitar , a string orchestra and a piano . In the song , Queen explores what happens when a relationship ends : " Adam sinned because he loved Eve , the love of Celia and Pedro touched the stars , but only when you learn to value women , can you be happy " . An editor for iTunes claimed the song 's lyrics to be sultry . She stated that of the 16 tracks , " Cuando " means the most to her because it is an R & B @-@ bolero track which would remind men to value women . " Cosas De La Vida " ( Things of Life ) is a romantic tropical bachata ballad , infused with R & B rhythms : " They are the things of life , don 't ask me for an explanation , our love is first , and you know my heart is yours . For the sake of us two , fight for our love against temptation " . The track features Queen and Dominican bachata singer Frank Reyes ; she expressed her love for the song ( and bachata in general ) , calling it a genre where " men express themselves with women " . The minor @-@ key " Cansada " ( Tired ) showcases Queen 's rapping skills , featuring techno synthesizers . Frances Tirado of Primera Hora described it as " pegajosa " ( " addictive " ) .
" Jungle " is another minor @-@ key track featuring techno synthesizers , angry lyrics and a sociopolitical theme . Queen raps : " And in this jungle I 'm the boss , undoubtedly I run this , you 're thirsty , all I want is an adventure . " The singer collaborates with Franco " El Gorila " on this track . " Aya Aya " is " an conventional dembow beat , flanked by a sitar . " It also combines the sounds of hip hop and Bollywood music . Its Arabic rhythm has been described as inviting to dancers by Primera Hora 's Frances Tirado . " Amor A Primera Vista " ( Love At First Sight ) is a tropical bachata ballad featuring smooth vocals , electric guitar riffs , piano , synthesizers and hand drums . Its roots are Caribbean , with Afro @-@ Latin influences . Jadiel surfaces around the 1 : 17 mark ; the two explore love 's power and how love can be good and bad at the same time . " Dime " ( Tell Me ) is a blend of reggaeton and bachata ( known as bachaton or bachateo ) , a musical genre in the Dominican Republic and Puerto Rico combining bachata melodies and reggaeton @-@ style beats , lyrics , rapping and disc @-@ jockeying . Queen described the song as combining feelings with bachata and urban beats , later claiming the song to be a " sentimental subject where we fused bachata and urban rhythms " .
= = Release and promotion = =
Ivy Queen headlined the Machete Music Tour 2010 , which performed in cities such as New York and Los Angeles and featured " the hottest stars in reggaeton and Latin urban music " , including Chino & Nacho , Flex , Jowell & Randy , Tego Calderon , Don Omar , Cosculluela , Angel & Khriz , J @-@ King & Maximan and R.K.M & Ken @-@ Y. Ivy Queen would usually be the last to perform closing each show . Dressed in a pink miniskirt sporting blonde hair with white boots which reached past her knees , Queen 's setlist included . Songs she performed included " Que Lloren " , " Dime " , " La Vida Es Así " and " Cosa De La Vida " . Drama Queen was first promoted in the liner notes of Queen 's seventh studio album , Sentimiento ( 2007 ) , with a picture of Queen with hands bent upward and the words " Drama " and " Queen " on the right and left sides of her body ; underneath are the words " Coming Soon " in bold letters . In an effort by Universal Music Latin Entertainment to expand their promotional efforts on the social network MySpace , the album was offered exclusively in full , before its official release , garnering over 100 @,@ 000 streams . It was released on July 13 , 2010 ; on August 10 a deluxe edition was released , with three new tracks ( " Aya Aya " ; " Amor A Primera Vista " , featuring Jadiel and the hit " Dime " ) and a DVD with three music videos . " Dime " was originally included on her first live album , Ivy Queen 2008 World Tour LIVE ! ( 2008 ) , with a bachata version of the song . On the album 's cover Queen appears on a gargoyle dressed in black , representing a villain . On the inside of the album jacket she is seen with superpowers , dressed in bold colors ( such as yellow and pink ) and representing a superhero . The singer was inspired by action figures she use to collect and Wonder Woman , of whom she is a fan . Following the album 's release , she created the " Drama Line " , in which fans could call and leave messages and " publicly humiliate their former partner or anyone who has betrayed them in the past " .
= = Singles = =
The lead single , " La Vida es Así " , was released on May 11 ; the music video ( directed by Marlon Pena ) was shot on May 17 in Miami and premiered on mun2 on June 22 and VEVO on June 28 . Queen said that the genre of bachata is meaningful , since it reveals more feelings . The a cappella version of " La Vida es Así " was sent to Tainy and Keko Musik for production , allowing Queen to pick the version she preferred . The Keko Musik version was later released as a pre @-@ order bonus track for Drama Queen on iTunes . The second single , " Amor Puro " was released for Puerto Rican radio on September 24 . The music video ( also directed by Marlon Pena ) was shot on September 28 , and premiered on VEVO November 30 . The video was also filmed in Miami , at the Spanish monastery of St. Bernard of Clairvaux ( a historic building dating to 1133 in Sacramenia , Segovia , Spain , later reconstructed in Miami ) . " Acércate " was leaked online before the album was released , the first time Queen experienced copyright infringement in her 15 @-@ year career . Originally titled " No Te Equivoques " , it was re @-@ recorded in response to the copyright violation and retitled " Acércate " . She said , " Sometimes they try to hurt you are when you do well . I 'm proud and grateful that Wisin & Yandel have gone with me to the studio to record the song . We have good chemistry and friendship . We tried to change the song and lyrics , but with their agenda , which is tight , and mine too , we could not do it again . We have no idea who hacked , all the music was in a studio and to mobilize it to another was what someone did " . The singer appeared on the television program “ Don Francisco Presenta ” , where she performed " La Vida es Así " .
" La Vida Es Así " has two versions : reggaeton and bachata . The reggaeton version became a hit on Latin radio , but the bachata alternative did not chart . On Hot Latin Songs , the song debuted at number 49 on June 6 and peaked at number 11 on August 21 . On Latin Pop Airplay , the song debuted at number 33 on July 3 and peaked at number 10 on August 28 . On Latin Rhythm Airplay , the song debuted at number 29 on May 22 . It reached number one on July 10 ( Queen 's second number @-@ one single on the chart , replacing " Cuando Me Enamoro " by Enrique Iglesias ) , and was dislodged by " Cuando Me Enamoro " a week later . " Amor Puro " failed to chart . On Hot Latin Songs , " Dime " debuted at number 43 on September 20 , 2008 and peaked at number 8 on December 6 . On Latin Pop Airplay , the song debuted at number 38 on November 15 and peaked at number 33 on December 13 . On Latin Tropical Airplay , the song debuted at number 33 on October 4 and peaked at number 4 on December 6 . On Latin Rhythm Airplay , the song debuted at number 22 on August 30 . It reached number 1 on October 11 ( becoming her first number @-@ one single , replacing " Síguelo " by Wisin & Yandel ) , and was dethroned by R.K.M & Ken @-@ Y for " Te Regalo Amores " eight weeks later . " Acércate " was not released as a single , although it peaked at number 16 on the Latin Rhythm Digital Songs chart on July 31 , 2010 .
= = Reception = =
Drama Queen sold over 3 @,@ 000 units in its first week of release , dominating urban album sales for ten consecutive weeks . The album sold 6 @,@ 000 less copies than Sentimiento , and 2 @,@ 000 less than 2005 's Flashback , in its first week . It debuted ( and peaked ) at number 163 on the US Billboard 200 chart , number three on Top Latin Albums and number 18 on Rap Albums .
Drama Queen received a Latin Grammy nomination for Best Urban Music Album at the 2011 Latin Grammy Awards ( which was won by Calle 13 for Entren Los Que Quieran ) . It earned Queen two nominations at the 2011 Latin Billboard Music Awards for Hot Latin Songs Artist of the Year , Female and Top Latin Albums Artist of the Year , Female ( both won by Shakira ) .
The album received generally positive reviews . David Jefferies of Allmusic gave the album a score of 3 @.@ 5 of 5 stars , commenting that the album keeps its sci @-@ fi elements on its cover artwork as Queen keeps her reggaeton strong by sticking with her original formula ; he later claimed it was a standard @-@ issue effort . Ayala Ben @-@ Yehuda of Billboard noted that the album features a set filled with a more @-@ honest longing than most of what is heard on commercial Latin radio . Frances Tirado of Primera Hora gave the album a positive review , stating that " Ivy Queen shows vocal maturity and evolution of rhythms " . Sarah Bardeen of Rhapsody felt " each track could have been a single . "
Jefferies commented on the musical style as well : " The beats are familiar as reggaeton drum machines meet R & B keyboards and the Queen , commanding attention on every track with a stern yet sexy delivery . Bardeen said , " Her authoritative flow is matched only by the evolving landscape of beats that back her -- and Ivy , unlike some of her peers , has not been seduced by the European club scene " . Ben @-@ Yehuda also noted , " The set presents a more diverse range of musical styles , from bachata to R & B to even a poppy ballad ( " Cuando " ) " . The iTunes Notes for the album say , " True to its title , her seventh album is rich in melodrama , boasting grand synthesizer runs and heart @-@ wrenching themes of love and betrayal . That 's her strength . She 's her own yin and yang @-@ strong yet soft , swaggering yet tender . " The Editor Notes for the album claimed Drama Queen to be an " adventurous set " and " full of sonic surprises " .
= = Track listing = =
Standard Edition :
= = Personnel = =
Standard edition
Deluxe edition
= = Charts = =
= = Release history = =
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= Evolutionary history of life =
The evolutionary history of life on Earth traces the processes by which living and fossil organisms have evolved since life appeared on the planet , until the present day . Earth formed about 4 @.@ 5 Ga ( billion years ) ago and there is evidence that life appeared within 0 @.@ 5 billion years . The similarities between all present @-@ day organisms indicate the presence of a common ancestor from which all known species have diverged through the process of evolution . More than 99 percent of all species , amounting to over five billion species , that ever lived on Earth are estimated to be extinct . Estimates on the number of Earth 's current species range from 10 million to 14 million , of which about 1 @.@ 2 million have been documented and over 86 percent have not yet been described .
= = Outline = =
The earliest evidence for life on Earth is graphite found to be a biogenic substance in 3 @.@ 7 billion @-@ year @-@ old metasedimentary rocks discovered in western Greenland and microbial mat fossils found in 3 @.@ 48 billion @-@ year @-@ old sandstone discovered in Western Australia . More recently , in 2015 , " remains of biotic life " were found in 4 @.@ 1 billion @-@ year @-@ old rocks in Western Australia . According to one of the researchers , " If life arose relatively quickly on Earth ... then it could be common in the universe . "
Microbial mats of coexisting bacteria and archaea were the dominant form of life in the early Archean and many of the major steps in early evolution are thought to have taken place within them . The evolution of photosynthesis , around 3 @.@ 5 Ga , eventually led to a buildup of its waste product , oxygen , in the atmosphere , leading to the great oxygenation event , beginning around 2 @.@ 4 Ga . The earliest evidence of eukaryotes ( complex cells with organelles ) dates from 1 @.@ 85 Ga , and while they may have been present earlier , their diversification accelerated when they started using oxygen in their metabolism . Later , around 1 @.@ 7 Ga , multicellular organisms began to appear , with differentiated cells performing specialised functions . Sexual reproduction , which involves the fusion of male and female reproductive cells ( gametes ) to create a zygote in a process called fertilization is , in contrast to asexual reproduction , the primary method of reproduction for the vast majority of macroscopic organisms , including almost all eukaryotes ( which includes animals and plants ) . However the origin and evolution of sexual reproduction remain a puzzle for biologists though it did evolve from a common ancestor that was a single celled eukaryotic species . Bilateria , animals with a front and a back , appeared by 555 Ma ( million years ago ) .
The earliest land plants date back to around 450 Ma , although evidence suggests that microorganisms formed the earliest terrestrial ecosystems , at least 2 @.@ 9 Ga . Microorganisms are thought to have paved the way for the inception of land plants in the Phanerozoic . Land plants were so successful that they are thought to have contributed to the Late Devonian extinction event . Ediacara biota appear during the Ediacaran period , while vertebrates , along with most other modern phyla originated about 525 Ma during the Cambrian explosion . During the Permian period , synapsids , including the ancestors of mammals , dominated the land , but most of this group became extinct in the Permian – Triassic extinction event 252 @.@ 17 Ma . During the recovery from this catastrophe , archosaurs became the most abundant land vertebrates ; one archosaur group , the dinosaurs , dominated the Jurassic and Cretaceous periods . After the Cretaceous – Paleogene extinction event 66 Ma killed off the non @-@ avian dinosaurs , mammals increased rapidly in size and diversity . Such mass extinctions may have accelerated evolution by providing opportunities for new groups of organisms to diversify .
= = Earliest history of Earth = =
The oldest meteorite fragments found on Earth are about 4 @.@ 54 billion years old ; this , coupled primarily with the dating of ancient lead deposits , has put the estimated age of Earth at around that time . The Moon has the same composition as Earth 's crust but does not contain an iron @-@ rich core like the Earth 's . Many scientists think that about 40 million years later a body the size of Mars struck the Earth , throwing into orbit crust material that formed the Moon . Another hypothesis is that the Earth and Moon started to coalesce at the same time but the Earth , having much stronger gravity than the early Moon , attracted almost all the iron particles in the area .
Until 2001 , the oldest rocks found on Earth were about 3 @.@ 8 billion years old , leading scientists to estimate that the Earth 's surface had been molten until then . Accordingly , they named this part of Earth 's history the Hadean , whose name means " hellish . " However , analysis of zircons formed 4 @.@ 4 Ga indicates that Earth 's crust solidified about 100 million years after the planet 's formation and that the planet quickly acquired oceans and an atmosphere , which may have been capable of supporting life .
Evidence from the Moon indicates that from 4 to 3 @.@ 8 Ga it suffered a Late Heavy Bombardment by debris that was left over from the formation of the Solar System , and the Earth should have experienced an even heavier bombardment due to its stronger gravity . While there is no direct evidence of conditions on Earth 4 to 3 @.@ 8 Ga , there is no reason to think that the Earth was not also affected by this late heavy bombardment . This event may well have stripped away any previous atmosphere and oceans ; in this case gases and water from comet impacts may have contributed to their replacement , although volcanic outgassing on Earth would have supplied at least half . However , if subsurface microbial life had evolved by this point , it would have survived the bombardment .
= = Earliest evidence for life on Earth = =
The earliest identified organisms were minute and relatively featureless , and their fossils look like small rods , which are very difficult to tell apart from structures that arise through abiotic physical processes . The oldest undisputed evidence of life on Earth , interpreted as fossilized bacteria , dates to 3 Ga . Other finds in rocks dated to about 3 @.@ 5 Ga have been interpreted as bacteria , with geochemical evidence also seeming to show the presence of life 3 @.@ 8 Ga . However , these analyses were closely scrutinized , and non @-@ biological processes were found which could produce all of the " signatures of life " that had been reported . While this does not prove that the structures found had a non @-@ biological origin , they cannot be taken as clear evidence for the presence of life . Geochemical signatures from rocks deposited 3 @.@ 4 Ga have been interpreted as evidence for life , although these statements have not been thoroughly examined by critics .
= = Origins of life on Earth = =
Biologists reason that all living organisms on Earth must share a single last universal ancestor , because it would be virtually impossible that two or more separate lineages could have independently developed the many complex biochemical mechanisms common to all living organisms . As previously mentioned the earliest organisms for which fossil evidence is available are bacteria . The lack of fossil or geochemical evidence for earlier organisms has left plenty of scope for hypotheses , which fall into two main groups : 1 ) that life arose spontaneously on Earth or 2 ) that it was " seeded " from elsewhere in the Universe .
= = = Life " seeded " from elsewhere = = =
Panspermia does not explain how life arose in the first place , but simply examines the possibility of it coming from somewhere other than the Earth . The idea that life on Earth was " seeded " from elsewhere in the Universe dates back at least to the Greek philosopher Anaximander in the sixth century BCE . In the twentieth century it was proposed by the physical chemist Svante Arrhenius , by the astronomers Fred Hoyle and Chandra Wickramasinghe , and by molecular biologist Francis Crick and chemist Leslie Orgel .
There are three main versions of the " seeded from elsewhere " hypothesis : from elsewhere in our Solar System via fragments knocked into space by a large meteor impact , in which case the most credible sources are Mars and Venus ; by alien visitors , possibly as a result of accidental contamination by microorganisms that they brought with them ; and from outside the Solar System but by natural means .
Experiments in low Earth orbit , such as EXOSTACK , demonstrated that some microorganism spores can survive the shock of being catapulted into space and some can survive exposure to outer space radiation for at least 5 @.@ 7 years . Scientists are divided over the likelihood of life arising independently on Mars , or on other planets in our galaxy .
= = = Independent emergence on Earth = = =
Life on Earth is based on carbon and water . Carbon provides stable frameworks for complex chemicals and can be easily extracted from the environment , especially from carbon dioxide . There is no other chemical element whose properties are similar enough to carbon 's to be called an analogue ; silicon , the element directly below carbon on the periodic table , does not form very many complex stable molecules , and because most of its compounds are water @-@ insoluble , it would be more difficult for organisms to extract . The elements boron and phosphorus have more complex chemistries , but suffer from other limitations relative to carbon . Water is an excellent solvent and has two other useful properties : the fact that ice floats enables aquatic organisms to survive beneath it in winter ; and its molecules have electrically negative and positive ends , which enables it to form a wider range of compounds than other solvents can . Other good solvents , such as ammonia , are liquid only at such low temperatures that chemical reactions may be too slow to sustain life , and lack water 's other advantages . Organisms based on alternative biochemistry may , however , be possible on other planets .
Research on how life might have emerged from non @-@ living chemicals focuses on three possible starting points : self @-@ replication , an organism 's ability to produce offspring that are very similar to itself ; metabolism , its ability to feed and repair itself ; and external cell membranes , which allow food to enter and waste products to leave , but exclude unwanted substances . Research on abiogenesis still has a long way to go , since theoretical and empirical approaches are only beginning to make contact with each other .
= = = = Replication first : RNA world = = = =
Even the simplest members of the three modern domains of life use DNA to record their " recipes " and a complex array of RNA and protein molecules to " read " these instructions and use them for growth , maintenance and self @-@ replication . The discovery that some RNA molecules can catalyze both their own replication and the construction of proteins led to the hypothesis of earlier life @-@ forms based entirely on RNA . These ribozymes could have formed an RNA world in which there were individuals but no species , as mutations and horizontal gene transfers would have meant that the offspring in each generation were quite likely to have different genomes from those that their parents started with . RNA would later have been replaced by DNA , which is more stable and therefore can build longer genomes , expanding the range of capabilities a single organism can have . Ribozymes remain as the main components of ribosomes , modern cells ' " protein factories . "
Although short self @-@ replicating RNA molecules have been artificially produced in laboratories , doubts have been raised about where natural non @-@ biological synthesis of RNA is possible . The earliest " ribozymes " may have been formed of simpler nucleic acids such as PNA , TNA or GNA , which would have been replaced later by RNA .
In 2003 , it was proposed that porous metal sulfide precipitates would assist RNA synthesis at about 100 ° C ( 212 ° F ) and ocean @-@ bottom pressures near hydrothermal vents . Under this hypothesis , lipid membranes would be the last major cell components to appear and , until then , the protocells would be confined to the pores .
= = = = Metabolism first : Iron – sulfur world = = = =
A series of experiments starting in 1997 showed that early stages in the formation of proteins from inorganic materials including carbon monoxide and hydrogen sulfide could be achieved by using iron sulfide and nickel sulfide as catalysts . Most of the steps required temperatures of about 100 ° C ( 212 ° F ) and moderate pressures , although one stage required 250 ° C ( 482 ° F ) and a pressure equivalent to that found under 7 kilometres ( 4 @.@ 3 mi ) of rock . Hence it was suggested that self @-@ sustaining synthesis of proteins could have occurred near hydrothermal vents .
= = = = Membranes first : Lipid world = = = =
It has been suggested that double @-@ walled " bubbles " of lipids like those that form the external membranes of cells may have been an essential first step . Experiments that simulated the conditions of the early Earth have reported the formation of lipids , and these can spontaneously form liposomes , double @-@ walled " bubbles , " and then reproduce themselves . Although they are not intrinsically information @-@ carriers as nucleic acids are , they would be subject to natural selection for longevity and reproduction . Nucleic acids such as RNA might then have formed more easily within the liposomes than they would have outside .
= = = = The clay hypothesis = = = =
RNA is complex and there are doubts about whether it can be produced non @-@ biologically in the wild . Some clays , notably montmorillonite , have properties that make them plausible accelerators for the emergence of an RNA world : they grow by self @-@ replication of their crystalline pattern ; they are subject to an analog of natural selection , as the clay " species " that grows fastest in a particular environment rapidly becomes dominant ; and they can catalyze the formation of RNA molecules . Although this idea has not become the scientific consensus , it still has active supporters .
Research in 2003 reported that montmorillonite could also accelerate the conversion of fatty acids into " bubbles , " and that the " bubbles " could encapsulate RNA attached to the clay . These " bubbles " can then grow by absorbing additional lipids and then divide . The formation of the earliest cells may have been aided by similar processes .
A similar hypothesis presents self @-@ replicating iron @-@ rich clays as the progenitors of nucleotides , lipids and amino acids .
= = Environmental and evolutionary impact of microbial mats = =
Microbial mats are multi @-@ layered , multi @-@ species colonies of bacteria and other organisms that are generally only a few millimeters thick , but still contain a wide range of chemical environments , each of which favors a different set of microorganisms . To some extent each mat forms its own food chain , as the by @-@ products of each group of microorganisms generally serve as " food " for adjacent groups .
Stromatolites are stubby pillars built as microorganisms in mats slowly migrate upwards to avoid being smothered by sediment deposited on them by water . There has been vigorous debate about the validity of alleged fossils from before 3 Ga , with critics arguing that so @-@ called stromatolites could have been formed by non @-@ biological processes . In 2006 , another find of stromatolites was reported from the same part of Australia as previous ones , in rocks dated to 3 @.@ 5 Ga .
In modern underwater mats the top layer often consists of photosynthesizing cyanobacteria which create an oxygen @-@ rich environment , while the bottom layer is oxygen @-@ free and often dominated by hydrogen sulfide emitted by the organisms living there . It is estimated that the appearance of oxygenic photosynthesis by bacteria in mats increased biological productivity by a factor of between 100 and 1 @,@ 000 . The reducing agent used by oxygenic photosynthesis is water , which is much more plentiful than the geologically produced reducing agents required by the earlier non @-@ oxygenic photosynthesis . From this point onwards life itself produced significantly more of the resources it needed than did geochemical processes . Oxygen is toxic to organisms that are not adapted to it , but greatly increases the metabolic efficiency of oxygen @-@ adapted organisms . Oxygen became a significant component of Earth 's atmosphere about 2 @.@ 4 Ga . Although eukaryotes may have been present much earlier , the oxygenation of the atmosphere was a prerequisite for the evolution of the most complex eukaryotic cells , from which all multicellular organisms are built . The boundary between oxygen @-@ rich and oxygen @-@ free layers in microbial mats would have moved upwards when photosynthesis shut down overnight , and then downwards as it resumed on the next day . This would have created selection pressure for organisms in this intermediate zone to acquire the ability to tolerate and then to use oxygen , possibly via endosymbiosis , where one organism lives inside another and both of them benefit from their association .
Cyanobacteria have the most complete biochemical " toolkits " of all the mat @-@ forming organisms . Hence they are the most self @-@ sufficient of the mat organisms and were well @-@ adapted to strike out on their own both as floating mats and as the first of the phytoplankton , providing the basis of most marine food chains .
= = Diversification of eukaryotes = =
= = = Chromatin , nucleus , endomembrane system , and mitochondria = = =
Eukaryotes may have been present long before the oxygenation of the atmosphere , but most modern eukaryotes require oxygen , which their mitochondria use to fuel the production of ATP , the internal energy supply of all known cells . In the 1970s it was proposed and , after much debate , widely accepted that eukaryotes emerged as a result of a sequence of endosymbiosis between " prokaryotes . " For example : a predatory microorganism invaded a large prokaryote , probably an archaean , but the attack was neutralized , and the attacker took up residence and evolved into the first of the mitochondria ; one of these chimeras later tried to swallow a photosynthesizing cyanobacterium , but the victim survived inside the attacker and the new combination became the ancestor of plants ; and so on . After each endosymbiosis began , the partners would have eliminated unproductive duplication of genetic functions by re @-@ arranging their genomes , a process which sometimes involved transfer of genes between them . Another hypothesis proposes that mitochondria were originally sulfur- or hydrogen @-@ metabolising endosymbionts , and became oxygen @-@ consumers later . On the other hand , mitochondria might have been part of eukaryotes ' original equipment .
There is a debate about when eukaryotes first appeared : the presence of steranes in Australian shales may indicate that eukaryotes were present 2 @.@ 7 Ga ; however , an analysis in 2008 concluded that these chemicals infiltrated the rocks less than 2 @.@ 2 Ga and prove nothing about the origins of eukaryotes . Fossils of the algae Grypania have been reported in 1 @.@ 85 billion @-@ year @-@ old rocks ( originally dated to 2 @.@ 1 Ga but later revised ) , and indicates that eukaryotes with organelles had already evolved . A diverse collection of fossil algae were found in rocks dated between 1 @.@ 5 and 1 @.@ 4 Ga . The earliest known fossils of fungi date from 1 @.@ 43 Ga .
= = = Plastids = = =
Plastids are thought to have originated from endosymbiotic cyanobacteria . The symbiosis evolved around 1 @.@ 5 Ga and enabled eukaryotes to carry out oxygenic photosynthesis . Three evolutionary lineages have since emerged in which the plastids are named differently : chloroplasts in green algae and plants , rhodoplasts in red algae and cyanelles in the glaucophytes .
= = Sexual reproduction and multicellular organisms = =
= = = Evolution of sexual reproduction = = =
The defining characteristics of sexual reproduction in eukaryotes are meiosis and fertilization . There is much genetic recombination in this kind of reproduction , in which offspring receive 50 % of their genes from each parent , in contrast with asexual reproduction , in which there is no recombination . Bacteria also exchange DNA by bacterial conjugation , the benefits of which include resistance to antibiotics and other toxins , and the ability to utilize new metabolites . However , conjugation is not a means of reproduction , and is not limited to members of the same species – there are cases where bacteria transfer DNA to plants and animals .
On the other hand , bacterial transformation is clearly an adaptation for transfer of DNA between bacteria of the same species . Bacterial transformation is a complex process involving the products of numerous bacterial genes and can be regarded as a bacterial form of sex . This process occurs naturally in at least 67 prokaryotic species ( in seven different phyla ) . Sexual reproduction in eukaryotes may have evolved from bacterial transformation . ( Also see Evolution of sexual reproduction # Origin of sexual reproduction . )
The disadvantages of sexual reproduction are well @-@ known : the genetic reshuffle of recombination may break up favorable combinations of genes ; and since males do not directly increase the number of offspring in the next generation , an asexual population can out @-@ breed and displace in as little as 50 generations a sexual population that is equal in every other respect . Nevertheless , the great majority of animals , plants , fungi and protists reproduce sexually . There is strong evidence that sexual reproduction arose early in the history of eukaryotes and that the genes controlling it have changed very little since then . How sexual reproduction evolved and survived is an unsolved puzzle .
The Red Queen hypothesis suggests that sexual reproduction provides protection against parasites , because it is easier for parasites to evolve means of overcoming the defenses of genetically identical clones than those of sexual species that present moving targets , and there is some experimental evidence for this . However , there is still doubt about whether it would explain the survival of sexual species if multiple similar clone species were present , as one of the clones may survive the attacks of parasites for long enough to out @-@ breed the sexual species . Furthermore , contrary to the expectations of the Red Queen hypothesis , Kathryn A. Hanley et al. found that the prevalence , abundance and mean intensity of mites was significantly higher in sexual geckos than in asexuals sharing the same habitat . In addition , biologist Matthew Parker , after reviewing numerous genetic studies on plant disease resistance , failed to find a single example consistent with the concept that pathogens are the primary selective agent responsible for sexual reproduction in the host .
Alexey Kondrashov 's deterministic mutation hypothesis ( DMH ) assumes that each organism has more than one harmful mutation and the combined effects of these mutations are more harmful than the sum of the harm done by each individual mutation . If so , sexual recombination of genes will reduce the harm that bad mutations do to offspring and at the same time eliminate some bad mutations from the gene pool by isolating them in individuals that perish quickly because they have an above @-@ average number of bad mutations . However , the evidence suggests that the DMH 's assumptions are shaky , because many species have on average less than one harmful mutation per individual and no species that has been investigated shows evidence of synergy between harmful mutations . ( Further criticisms of this hypothesis are discussed in the article Evolution of sexual reproduction # Removal of deleterious genes )
The random nature of recombination causes the relative abundance of alternative traits to vary from one generation to another . This genetic drift is insufficient on its own to make sexual reproduction advantageous , but a combination of genetic drift and natural selection may be sufficient . When chance produces combinations of good traits , natural selection gives a large advantage to lineages in which these traits become genetically linked . On the other hand , the benefits of good traits are neutralized if they appear along with bad traits . Sexual recombination gives good traits the opportunities to become linked with other good traits , and mathematical models suggest this may be more than enough to offset the disadvantages of sexual reproduction . Other combinations of hypotheses that are inadequate on their own are also being examined .
The adaptive function of sex today remains a major unresolved issue in biology . The competing models to explain the adaptive function of sex were reviewed by John A. Birdsell and Christopher Wills . The hypotheses discussed above all depend on possible beneficial effects of random genetic variation produced by genetic recombination . An alternative view is that sex arose , and is maintained , as a process for repairing DNA damage , and that the genetic variation produced is an occasionally beneficial byproduct .
= = = Multicellularity = = =
The simplest definitions of " multicellular , " for example " having multiple cells , " could include colonial cyanobacteria like Nostoc . Even a technical definition such as " having the same genome but different types of cell " would still include some genera of the green algae Volvox , which have cells that specialize in reproduction . Multicellularity evolved independently in organisms as diverse as sponges and other animals , fungi , plants , brown algae , cyanobacteria , slime molds and myxobacteria . For the sake of brevity , this article focuses on the organisms that show the greatest specialization of cells and variety of cell types , although this approach to the evolution of biological complexity could be regarded as " rather anthropocentric . "
The initial advantages of multicellularity may have included : more efficient sharing of nutrients that are digested outside the cell , increased resistance to predators , many of which attacked by engulfing ; the ability to resist currents by attaching to a firm surface ; the ability to reach upwards to filter @-@ feed or to obtain sunlight for photosynthesis ; the ability to create an internal environment that gives protection against the external one ; and even the opportunity for a group of cells to behave " intelligently " by sharing information . These features would also have provided opportunities for other organisms to diversify , by creating more varied environments than flat microbial mats could .
Multicellularity with differentiated cells is beneficial to the organism as a whole but disadvantageous from the point of view of individual cells , most of which lose the opportunity to reproduce themselves . In an asexual multicellular organism , rogue cells which retain the ability to reproduce may take over and reduce the organism to a mass of undifferentiated cells . Sexual reproduction eliminates such rogue cells from the next generation and therefore appears to be a prerequisite for complex multicellularity .
The available evidence indicates that eukaryotes evolved much earlier but remained inconspicuous until a rapid diversification around 1 Ga . The only respect in which eukaryotes clearly surpass bacteria and archaea is their capacity for variety of forms , and sexual reproduction enabled eukaryotes to exploit that advantage by producing organisms with multiple cells that differed in form and function .
By comparing the composition of transcription factor families and regulatory network motifs between unicellular organisms and multicellular organisms , scientists found there are many novel transcription factor families and three novel types of regulatory network motifs in multicellular organisms , and novel family transcription factors are preferentially wired into these novel network motifs which are essential for multicullular development . These results propose a plausible mechanism for the contribution of novel @-@ family transcription factors and novel network motifs to the origin of multicellular organisms at transcriptional regulatory level .
= = = Fossil evidence = = =
The Francevillian biota fossils , dated to 2 @.@ 1 Ga , are the earliest known fossil organisms that are clearly multicellular . They may have had differentiated cells . Another early multicellular fossil , Qingshania , dated to 1 @.@ 7 Ga , appears to consist of virtually identical cells . The red algae called Bangiomorpha , dated at 1 @.@ 2 Ga , is the earliest known organism that certainly has differentiated , specialized cells , and is also the oldest known sexually reproducing organism . The 1 @.@ 43 billion @-@ year @-@ old fossils interpreted as fungi appear to have been multicellular with differentiated cells . The " string of beads " organism Horodyskia , found in rocks dated from 1 @.@ 5 Ga to 900 Ma , may have been an early metazoan ; however , it has also been interpreted as a colonial foraminiferan .
= = Emergence of animals = =
Animals are multicellular eukaryotes , and are distinguished from plants , algae , and fungi by lacking cell walls . All animals are motile , if only at certain life stages . All animals except sponges have bodies differentiated into separate tissues , including muscles , which move parts of the animal by contracting , and nerve tissue , which transmits and processes signals .
The earliest widely accepted animal fossils are the rather modern @-@ looking cnidarians ( the group that includes jellyfish , sea anemones and Hydra ) , possibly from around 580 Ma , although fossils from the Doushantuo Formation can only be dated approximately . Their presence implies that the cnidarian and bilaterian lineages had already diverged .
The Ediacara biota , which flourished for the last 40 million years before the start of the Cambrian , were the first animals more than a very few centimetres long . Many were flat and had a " quilted " appearance , and seemed so strange that there was a proposal to classify them as a separate kingdom , Vendozoa . Others , however , have been interpreted as early molluscs ( Kimberella ) , echinoderms ( Arkarua ) , and arthropods ( Spriggina , Parvancorina ) . There is still debate about the classification of these specimens , mainly because the diagnostic features which allow taxonomists to classify more recent organisms , such as similarities to living organisms , are generally absent in the Ediacarans . However , there seems little doubt that Kimberella was at least a triploblastic bilaterian animal , in other words , an animal significantly more complex than the cnidarians .
The small shelly fauna are a very mixed collection of fossils found between the Late Ediacaran and Middle Cambrian periods . The earliest , Cloudina , shows signs of successful defense against predation and may indicate the start of an evolutionary arms race . Some tiny Early Cambrian shells almost certainly belonged to molluscs , while the owners of some " armor plates , " Halkieria and Microdictyon , were eventually identified when more complete specimens were found in Cambrian lagerstätten that preserved soft @-@ bodied animals .
In the 1970s there was already a debate about whether the emergence of the modern phyla was " explosive " or gradual but hidden by the shortage of Precambrian animal fossils . A re @-@ analysis of fossils from the Burgess Shale lagerstätte increased interest in the issue when it revealed animals , such as Opabinia , which did not fit into any known phylum . At the time these were interpreted as evidence that the modern phyla had evolved very rapidly in the Cambrian explosion and that the Burgess Shale 's " weird wonders " showed that the Early Cambrian was a uniquely experimental period of animal evolution . Later discoveries of similar animals and the development of new theoretical approaches led to the conclusion that many of the " weird wonders " were evolutionary " aunts " or " cousins " of modern groups — for example that Opabinia was a member of the lobopods , a group which includes the ancestors of the arthropods , and that it may have been closely related to the modern tardigrades . Nevertheless , there is still much debate about whether the Cambrian explosion was really explosive and , if so , how and why it happened and why it appears unique in the history of animals .
= = = Deuterostomes and the first vertebrates = = =
Most of the animals at the heart of the Cambrian explosion debate are protostomes , one of the two main groups of complex animals . The other major group , the deuterostomes , contains invertebrates such as starfish and sea urchins ( echinoderms ) , as well as chordates ( see below ) . Many echinoderms have hard calcite " shells , " which are fairly common from the Early Cambrian small shelly fauna onwards . Other deuterostome groups are soft @-@ bodied , and most of the significant Cambrian deuterostome fossils come from the Chengjiang fauna , a lagerstätte in China . The chordates are another major deuterostome group : animals with a distinct dorsal nerve cord . Chordates include soft @-@ bodied invertebrates such as tunicates as well as vertebrates — animals with a backbone . While tunicate fossils predate the Cambrian explosion , the Chengjiang fossils Haikouichthys and Myllokunmingia appear to be true vertebrates , and Haikouichthys had distinct vertebrae , which may have been slightly mineralized . Vertebrates with jaws , such as the acanthodians , first appeared in the Late Ordovician .
= = Colonization of land = =
Adaptation to life on land is a major challenge : all land organisms need to avoid drying @-@ out and all those above microscopic size must create special structures to withstand gravity ; respiration and gas exchange systems have to change ; reproductive systems cannot depend on water to carry eggs and sperm towards each other . Although the earliest good evidence of land plants and animals dates back to the Ordovician period ( 488 to 444 Ma ) , and a number of microorganism lineages made it onto land much earlier , modern land ecosystems only appeared in the Late Devonian , about 385 to 359 Ma .
= = = Evolution of terrestrial antioxidants = = =
Oxygen is a potent oxidant whose accumulation in terrestrial atmosphere resulted from the development of photosynthesis over 3 Ga , in cyanobacteria ( blue @-@ green algae ) , which were the most primitive oxygenic photosynthetic organisms . Brown algae accumulate inorganic mineral antioxidants such as rubidium , vanadium , zinc , iron , copper , molybdenum , selenium and iodine which is concentrated more than 30 @,@ 000 times the concentration of this element in seawater . Protective endogenous antioxidant enzymes and exogenous dietary antioxidants helped to prevent oxidative damage . Most marine mineral antioxidants act in the cells as essential trace elements in redox and antioxidant metalloenzymes .
When plants and animals began to enter rivers and land about 500 Ma , environmental deficiency of these marine mineral antioxidants was a challenge to the evolution of terrestrial life . Terrestrial plants slowly optimized the production of “ new ” endogenous antioxidants such as ascorbic acid , polyphenols , flavonoids , tocopherols , etc . A few of these appeared more recently , in last 200 @-@ 50 Ma , in fruits and flowers of angiosperm plants .
In fact , angiosperms ( the dominant type of plant today ) and most of their antioxidant pigments evolved during the Late Jurassic period . Plants employ antioxidants to defend their structures against reactive oxygen species produced during photosynthesis . Animals are exposed to the same oxidants , and they have evolved endogenous enzymatic antioxidant systems . Iodine is the most primitive and abundant electron @-@ rich essential element in the diet of marine and terrestrial organisms , and as iodide acts as an electron donor and has this ancestral antioxidant function in all iodide @-@ concentrating cells from primitive marine algae to more recent terrestrial vertebrates .
= = = Evolution of soil = = =
Before the colonization of land , soil , a combination of mineral particles and decomposed organic matter , did not exist . Land surfaces would have been either bare rock or unstable sand produced by weathering . Water and any nutrients in it would have drained away very quickly .
Films of cyanobacteria , which are not plants but use the same photosynthesis mechanisms , have been found in modern deserts , and only in areas that are unsuitable for vascular plants . This suggests that microbial mats may have been the first organisms to colonize dry land , possibly in the Precambrian . Mat @-@ forming cyanobacteria could have gradually evolved resistance to desiccation as they spread from the seas to intertidal zones and then to land . Lichens , which are symbiotic combinations of a fungus ( almost always an ascomycete ) and one or more photosynthesizers ( green algae or cyanobacteria ) , are also important colonizers of lifeless environments , and their ability to break down rocks contributes to soil formation in situations where plants cannot survive . The earliest known ascomycete fossils date from 423 to 419 Ma in the Silurian .
Soil formation would have been very slow until the appearance of burrowing animals , which mix the mineral and organic components of soil and whose feces are a major source of the organic components . Burrows have been found in Ordovician sediments , and are attributed to annelids ( " worms " ) or arthropods .
= = = Plants and the Late Devonian wood crisis = = =
In aquatic algae , almost all cells are capable of photosynthesis and are nearly independent . Life on land required plants to become internally more complex and specialized : photosynthesis was most efficient at the top ; roots were required in order to extract water from the ground ; the parts in between became supports and transport systems for water and nutrients .
Spores of land plants , possibly rather like liverworts , have been found in Middle Ordovician rocks dated to about 476 Ma . In Middle Silurian rocks 430 Ma , there are fossils of actual plants including clubmosses such as Baragwanathia ; most were under 10 centimetres ( 3 @.@ 9 in ) high , and some appear closely related to vascular plants , the group that includes trees .
By the Late Devonian 370 Ma , trees such as Archaeopteris were so abundant that they changed river systems from mostly braided to mostly meandering , because their roots bound the soil firmly . In fact , they caused the " Late Devonian wood crisis " because :
They removed more carbon dioxide from the atmosphere , reducing the greenhouse effect and thus causing an ice age in the Carboniferous period . In later ecosystems the carbon dioxide " locked up " in wood is returned to the atmosphere by decomposition of dead wood . However , the earliest fossil evidence of fungi that can decompose wood also comes from the Late Devonian .
The increasing depth of plants ' roots led to more washing of nutrients into rivers and seas by rain . This caused algal blooms whose high consumption of oxygen caused anoxic events in deeper waters , increasing the extinction rate among deep @-@ water animals .
= = = Land invertebrates = = =
Animals had to change their feeding and excretory systems , and most land animals developed internal fertilization of their eggs . The difference in refractive index between water and air required changes in their eyes . On the other hand , in some ways movement and breathing became easier , and the better transmission of high @-@ frequency sounds in air encouraged the development of hearing .
The oldest known air @-@ breathing animal is Pneumodesmus , an archipolypodan millipede from the Middle Silurian , about 428 Ma . Its air @-@ breathing , terrestrial nature is evidenced by the presence of spiracles , the openings to tracheal systems . However , some earlier trace fossils from the Cambrian @-@ Ordovician boundary about 490 Ma are interpreted as the tracks of large amphibious arthropods on coastal sand dunes , and may have been made by euthycarcinoids , which are thought to be evolutionary " aunts " of myriapods . Other trace fossils from the Late Ordovician a little over 445 Ma probably represent land invertebrates , and there is clear evidence of numerous arthropods on coasts and alluvial plains shortly before the Silurian @-@ Devonian boundary , about 415 Ma , including signs that some arthropods ate plants . Arthropods were well pre @-@ adapted to colonise land , because their existing jointed exoskeletons provided protection against desiccation , support against gravity and a means of locomotion that was not dependent on water .
The fossil record of other major invertebrate groups on land is poor : none at all for non @-@ parasitic flatworms , nematodes or nemerteans ; some parasitic nematodes have been fossilized in amber ; annelid worm fossils are known from the Carboniferous , but they may still have been aquatic animals ; the earliest fossils of gastropods on land date from the Late Carboniferous , and this group may have had to wait until leaf litter became abundant enough to provide the moist conditions they need .
The earliest confirmed fossils of flying insects date from the Late Carboniferous , but it is thought that insects developed the ability to fly in the Early Carboniferous or even Late Devonian . This gave them a wider range of ecological niches for feeding and breeding , and a means of escape from predators and from unfavorable changes in the environment . About 99 % of modern insect species fly or are descendants of flying species .
= = = Early land vertebrates = = =
Tetrapods , vertebrates with four limbs , evolved from other rhipidistian fish over a relatively short timespan during the Late Devonian ( 370 to 360 Ma ) . The early groups are grouped together as Labyrinthodontia . They retained aquatic , fry @-@ like tadpoles , a system still seen in modern amphibians .
Iodine and T4 / T3 stimulate the amphibian metamorphosis and the evolution of nervous systems transforming the aquatic , vegetarian tadpole into a “ more evoluted ” terrestrial , carnivorous frog with better neurological , visuospatial , olfactory and cognitive abilities for hunting . The new hormonal action of T3 was made possible by the formation of T3 @-@ receptors in the cells of vertebrates . Firstly , about 600 @-@ 500 million years ago , in primitive Chordata appeared the alpha T3 @-@ receptors with a metamorphosing action and then , about 250 @-@ 150 million years ago , in the Birds and Mammalia appeared the beta T3 @-@ receptors with metabolic and thermogenetic actions .
From the 1950s to the early 1980s it was thought that tetrapods evolved from fish that had already acquired the ability to crawl on land , possibly in order to go from a pool that was drying out to one that was deeper . However , in 1987 , nearly complete fossils of Acanthostega from about 363 Ma showed that this Late Devonian transitional animal had legs and both lungs and gills , but could never have survived on land : its limbs and its wrist and ankle joints were too weak to bear its weight ; its ribs were too short to prevent its lungs from being squeezed flat by its weight ; its fish @-@ like tail fin would have been damaged by dragging on the ground . The current hypothesis is that Acanthostega , which was about 1 metre ( 3 @.@ 3 ft ) long , was a wholly aquatic predator that hunted in shallow water . Its skeleton differed from that of most fish , in ways that enabled it to raise its head to breathe air while its body remained submerged , including : its jaws show modifications that would have enabled it to gulp air ; the bones at the back of its skull are locked together , providing strong attachment points for muscles that raised its head ; the head is not joined to the shoulder girdle and it has a distinct neck .
The Devonian proliferation of land plants may help to explain why air breathing would have been an advantage : leaves falling into streams and rivers would have encouraged the growth of aquatic vegetation ; this would have attracted grazing invertebrates and small fish that preyed on them ; they would have been attractive prey but the environment was unsuitable for the big marine predatory fish ; air @-@ breathing would have been necessary because these waters would have been short of oxygen , since warm water holds less dissolved oxygen than cooler marine water and since the decomposition of vegetation would have used some of the oxygen .
Later discoveries revealed earlier transitional forms between Acanthostega and completely fish @-@ like animals . Unfortunately , there is then a gap ( Romer 's gap ) of about 30 Ma between the fossils of ancestral tetrapods and Middle Carboniferous fossils of vertebrates that look well @-@ adapted for life on land . Some of these look like early relatives of modern amphibians , most of which need to keep their skins moist and to lay their eggs in water , while others are accepted as early relatives of the amniotes , whose waterproof skin enables them to live and breed far from water .
= = Dinosaurs , birds and mammals = =
Amniotes , whose eggs can survive in dry environments , probably evolved in the Late Carboniferous period ( 330 to 298 @.@ 9 Ma ) . The earliest fossils of the two surviving amniote groups , synapsids and sauropsids , date from around 313 Ma . The synapsid pelycosaurs and their descendants the therapsids are the most common land vertebrates in the best @-@ known Permian ( 298 @.@ 9 to 252 @.@ 17 Ma ) fossil beds . However , at the time these were all in temperate zones at middle latitudes , and there is evidence that hotter , drier environments nearer the Equator were dominated by sauropsids and amphibians .
The Permian – Triassic extinction event wiped out almost all land vertebrates , as well as the great majority of other life . During the slow recovery from this catastrophe , estimated to have taken 30 million years , a previously obscure sauropsid group became the most abundant and diverse terrestrial vertebrates : a few fossils of archosauriformes ( " ruling lizard forms " ) have been found in Late Permian rocks , but , by the Middle Triassic , archosaurs were the dominant land vertebrates . Dinosaurs distinguished themselves from other archosaurs in the Late Triassic , and became the dominant land vertebrates of the Jurassic and Cretaceous periods ( 201 @.@ 3 to 66 Ma ) .
During the Late Jurassic , birds evolved from small , predatory theropod dinosaurs . The first birds inherited teeth and long , bony tails from their dinosaur ancestors , but some had developed horny , toothless beaks by the very Late Jurassic and short pygostyle tails by the Early Cretaceous .
While the archosaurs and dinosaurs were becoming more dominant in the Triassic , the mammaliaform successors of the therapsids evolved into small , mainly nocturnal insectivores . This ecological role may have promoted the evolution of mammals , for example nocturnal life may have accelerated the development of endothermy ( " warm @-@ bloodedness " ) and hair or fur . By 195 Ma in the Early Jurassic there were animals that were very like today 's mammals in a number of respects . Unfortunately , there is a gap in the fossil record throughout the Middle Jurassic . However , fossil teeth discovered in Madagascar indicate that the split between the lineage leading to monotremes and the one leading to other living mammals had occurred by 167 Ma . After dominating land vertebrate niches for about 150 Ma , the dinosaurs perished in the Cretaceous – Paleogene extinction event ( 66 Ma ) along with many other groups of organisms . Mammals throughout the time of the dinosaurs had been restricted to a narrow range of taxa , sizes and shapes , but increased rapidly in size and diversity after the extinction , with bats taking to the air within 13 million years , and cetaceans to the sea within 15 million years .
= = Flowering plants = =
The first flowering plants appeared around 130 Ma . The 250 @,@ 000 to 400 @,@ 000 species of flowering plants outnumber all other ground plants combined , and are the dominant vegetation in most terrestrial ecosystems . There is fossil evidence that flowering plants diversified rapidly in the Early Cretaceous , from 130 to 90 Ma , and that their rise was associated with that of pollinating insects . Among modern flowering plants Magnolia are thought to be close to the common ancestor of the group . However , paleontologists have not succeeded in identifying the earliest stages in the evolution of flowering plants .
= = Social insects = =
The social insects are remarkable because the great majority of individuals in each colony are sterile . This appears contrary to basic concepts of evolution such as natural selection and the selfish gene . In fact , there are very few eusocial insect species : only 15 out of approximately 2 @,@ 600 living families of insects contain eusocial species , and it seems that eusociality has evolved independently only 12 times among arthropods , although some eusocial lineages have diversified into several families . Nevertheless , social insects have been spectacularly successful ; for example although ants and termites account for only about 2 % of known insect species , they form over 50 % of the total mass of insects . Their ability to control a territory appears to be the foundation of their success .
The sacrifice of breeding opportunities by most individuals has long been explained as a consequence of these species ' unusual haplodiploid method of sex determination , which has the paradoxical consequence that two sterile worker daughters of the same queen share more genes with each other than they would with their offspring if they could breed . However , E. O. Wilson and Bert Hölldobler argue that this explanation is faulty : for example , it is based on kin selection , but there is no evidence of nepotism in colonies that have multiple queens . Instead , they write , eusociality evolves only in species that are under strong pressure from predators and competitors , but in environments where it is possible to build " fortresses " ; after colonies have established this security , they gain other advantages through co @-@ operative foraging . In support of this explanation they cite the appearance of eusociality in bathyergid mole rats , which are not haplodiploid .
The earliest fossils of insects have been found in Early Devonian rocks from about 400 Ma , which preserve only a few varieties of flightless insect . The Mazon Creek lagerstätten from the Late Carboniferous , about 300 Ma , include about 200 species , some gigantic by modern standards , and indicate that insects had occupied their main modern ecological niches as herbivores , detritivores and insectivores . Social termites and ants first appear in the Early Cretaceous , and advanced social bees have been found in Late Cretaceous rocks but did not become abundant until the Middle Cenozoic .
= = Humans = =
The idea that , along with other life forms , modern @-@ day humans evolved from an ancient , common ancestor was proposed by Robert Chambers in 1844 and taken up by Charles Darwin in 1871 . Modern humans evolved from a lineage of upright @-@ walking apes that has been traced back over 6 Ma to Sahelanthropus . The first known stone tools were made about 2 @.@ 5 Ma , apparently by Australopithecus garhi , and were found near animal bones that bear scratches made by these tools . The earliest hominines had chimpanzee @-@ sized brains , but there has been a fourfold increase in the last 3 Ma ; a statistical analysis suggests that hominine brain sizes depend almost completely on the date of the fossils , while the species to which they are assigned has only slight influence . There is a long @-@ running debate about whether modern humans evolved all over the world simultaneously from existing advanced hominines or are descendants of a single small population in Africa , which then migrated all over the world less than 200 @,@ 000 years ago and replaced previous hominine species . There is also debate about whether anatomically modern humans had an intellectual , cultural and technological " Great Leap Forward " under 100 @,@ 000 years ago and , if so , whether this was due to neurological changes that are not visible in fossils .
= = Mass extinctions = =
Life on Earth has suffered occasional mass extinctions at least since 542 Ma . Although they were disasters at the time , mass extinctions have sometimes accelerated the evolution of life on Earth . When dominance of particular ecological niches passes from one group of organisms to another , it is rarely because the new dominant group is " superior " to the old and usually because an extinction event eliminates the old dominant group and makes way for the new one .
The fossil record appears to show that the gaps between mass extinctions are becoming longer and the average and background rates of extinction are decreasing . Both of these phenomena could be explained in one or more ways :
The oceans may have become more hospitable to life over the last 500 Ma and less vulnerable to mass extinctions : dissolved oxygen became more widespread and penetrated to greater depths ; the development of life on land reduced the run @-@ off of nutrients and hence the risk of eutrophication and anoxic events ; and marine ecosystems became more diversified so that food chains were less likely to be disrupted .
Reasonably complete fossils are very rare , most extinct organisms are represented only by partial fossils , and complete fossils are rarest in the oldest rocks . So paleontologists have mistakenly assigned parts of the same organism to different genera , which were often defined solely to accommodate these finds — the story of Anomalocaris is an example of this . The risk of this mistake is higher for older fossils because these are often unlike parts of any living organism . Many of the " superfluous " genera are represented by fragments which are not found again and the " superfluous " genera appear to become extinct very quickly .
Biodiversity in the fossil record , which is " ... the number of distinct genera alive at any given time ; that is , those whose first occurrence predates and whose last occurrence postdates that time " shows a different trend : a fairly swift rise from 542 to 400 Ma ; a slight decline from 400 to 200 Ma , in which the devastating Permian – Triassic extinction event is an important factor ; and a swift rise from 200 Ma to the present .
= = = General information = = =
" Evolution " . The Virtual Fossil Museum . Retrieved 2015 @-@ 02 @-@ 22 . General information on evolution compiled by Roger Perkins
" Understanding Evolution : your one @-@ stop resource for information on evolution " . University of California , Berkeley . Retrieved 2015 @-@ 02 @-@ 22 .
" Evolution Resources " . Washington , D.C. : National Academies . Retrieved 2015 @-@ 02 @-@ 23 .
" Tree of Life " . Retrieved 2015 @-@ 02 @-@ 23 . Tree of life diagram by Neal Olander
" Evolution " . New Scientist . Retrieved 2015 @-@ 02 @-@ 23 .
Brain , Marshall . How Evolution Works at HowStuffWorks
" Modern Theories of Evolution : An Introduction to the Concepts and Theories That Led to Our Current Understanding of Evolution " . Palomar College . Retrieved 2015 @-@ 02 @-@ 23 . Tutorial created by Dennis O 'Neil
= = = History of evolutionary thought = = =
van Wyhe , John ( ed . ) . " The Complete Work of Charles Darwin Online " . Retrieved 2015 @-@ 02 @-@ 23 .
Price , R. G. " Understanding Evolution : History , Theory , Evidence , and Implications " . rationalrevolution.net. Retrieved 2015 @-@ 02 @-@ 23 .
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= Moonbase 3 =
Moonbase 3 is a British science fiction television programme that ran for six episodes in 1973 . It was a co @-@ production between the BBC , 20th Century Fox and the American ABC network . Created by Doctor Who producer Barry Letts and script editor Terrance Dicks as a realistic alternative strand of TV science @-@ fiction , it was not a commercial or critical success ( Dicks himself has stated in a foreword to a collection of Tom Baker @-@ era Doctor Who scripts that they " overdid the grimness and forgot about the sense of wonder that science fiction is all about " ) .
It starred Donald Houston as Director David Caulder , who is appointed to the position after the previous director was killed while returning to Earth . Ralph Bates was Michel Lebrun , the Deputy Director , who was concerned about keeping to the rules . Fiona Gaunt played Doctor Helen Smith , the base 's psychiatrist , and Barry Lowe played Tom Hill , the head of the base technical section .
The programme was notable for its combination of realistic spaceflight procedures , ensured by hiring BBC technical adviser James Burke , and its strong character @-@ based writing . Although very dated in terms of its looks and assumptions about the future , it remains well regarded in retrospect .
= = Concept and setting = =
Moonbase 3 was set in the year 2003 – some 30 years into the future at time of broadcast – and dramatised life in the enclosed environment of the titular moonbase . Five world powers have colonised the Moon : America ( Moonbase 1 , commanded by Bill Jackson ) , Russia ( Moonbase 2 ) , Europe ( Moonbase 3 ) , China ( Moonbase 4 , commanded by General Cheng ) and Brazil ( Moonbase 5 ) . The European Moonbase 3 has been in existence for 8 years at the time the series starts . With oversight provided by the European Space Assembly and the European Aeronautics and Space Administration , Moonbase 3 is a shoestring operation when compared with the Russian and American efforts and much of base director David Caulder 's job is to stave off budget cuts or a complete shutdown in the face of sceptical bureaucrats .
Alongside technical problems such as stranded astronauts , explosive decompressions and failed experiments , the inhabitants of the moonbase must also deal with psychological problems arising from the cramped , dangerous environment they live in . In " Departure and Arrival " , a mental breakdown suffered by a shuttle pilot has tragic consequences . " Achilles Heel " and " Outsiders " deal with the fallout from crew members ' difficulty with living up to the standards they have set for themselves . " Behemoth " and " View of a Dead Planet " deal with forms of mass hysteria .
= = Principal characters = =
Dr David Caulder ( Donald Houston )
Appointed Director of Moonbase 3 following the death of his predecessor , David Caulder is a scientist , academic and administrator . A lecturer at the University of Oxford , he rose to prominence when he was appointed Chancellor of the University during a period of student unrest and managed to calm the situation down , earning him a reputation as a " Welsh wizard " . The Director @-@ General of the European space effort describes Caulder as a " militant liberal , passionately committed to the middle of the road " . Caulder sees himself as a buffer , who deals with the political aspects of running the moonbase , giving the others the room to perform the vital tasks of keeping Moonbase 3 operations going .
Dr Michel Lebrun ( Ralph Bates )
Deputy Director Michel Lebrun is noted for his rigid adherence to the rules and procedures , making him a somewhat inflexible individual who has difficulty understanding the human dimension involved when dealing with other base personnel . The Frenchman is slightly resentful of Caulder 's appointment to the position of Director , feeling that he has been overlooked for the job though Helen Smith reminds him that he is , perhaps , too young to take up the position at this time . However , when he is ordered to relieve Caulder of command during the attempted rescue of Tom Hill in the episode " Castor and Pollux " , he remains loyal to Caulder and carries out the rescue as planned despite his misgivings about the risks .
Dr Helen Smith ( Fiona Gaunt )
Helen Smith is the base psychologist responsible for preparing regular psychological record reports ( or PSIs ) , assessing the mental state of all personnel . An expert in behavioural studies in an alien environment – her thesis was titled " Human beings adjust " – she acts as a sounding board , enabling individual crew members to adapt to the situation of life on the Moon . However , she develops a trend of engaging in romantic relationships with her most troubled patients as seen in " Achilles Heel " and " Outsiders " .
Tom Hill ( Barry Lowe )
Forty @-@ two @-@ year @-@ old Tom Hill is director of operations on the moonbase responsible for flight control and base maintenance . An experienced astronaut , he became a minor celebrity six years before the events of the series take place when he rescued an escaped cat from a spacelab . A down @-@ to @-@ earth no @-@ nonsense type , who dislikes having his work interfered with by management , he generally tries to maintain an informal , casual air , calling all female staff as " love " and calling Lebrun " Mickey boy " , a moniker Lebrun hates . However , unhappy about the way Caulder conducted the investigation of his predecessor 's death in " Departure and Arrival " , Hill initially maintains a strictly businesslike relationship with Caulder before their relationship thaws in later episodes .
= = Production = =
= = = Origins = = =
Terrance Dicks and Barry Letts had been working together , as script editor and producer respectively , on Doctor Who since 1970 . Dicks had begun his television writing career on The Avengers and Crossroads before joining Doctor Who as its script editor in 1968 . Former actor Barry Letts had changed career into television direction in 1967 and had worked on series such as Z @-@ Cars and The Newcomers before being asked to take over as producer of Doctor Who in 1970 , where he first met Dicks . In 1972 , looking to move on from Doctor Who , the pair started considering a number of ideas for other shows they could collaborate on . Their first idea arose from the successful collaboration they had with the Royal Navy on the Doctor Who serial The Sea Devils which led to them considering pitching a serial set on a frigate only to find they were too late – the BBC had just commissioned a series , Warship , with that very premise . In late 1972 , they developed the concept of Moonbase 3 , as an anthology series set on a lunar colony that would " provide intelligent , realistic drama rather than Science Fantasy " , and submitted a pilot script , titled " Departure and Arrival " , to Shaun Sutton , the Head of Drama at the BBC . The series was formally commissioned in December 1972 and would be made , as a co @-@ production between the BBC and 20th Century Fox and the ABC network in America , during the break in production between Seasons 10 and 11 of Doctor Who .
= = = Production = = =
The first Moonbase 3 script to be formally commissioned was " View of a Dead Planet " on 15 December 1972 . This was written by Arden Winch , a respected writer who had written for The Wednesday Play . Two scripts , " Behemoth " and " Outsiders " , were commissioned from John Brason , who had written for Colditz and Special Branch . The final two scripts , " The Dark Side of the Moon " and " The Gentle Rain " ( later renamed " Castor and Pollux " and " Achilles Heel " respectively ) , were commissioned from John Lucarotti , a prolific writer whose credits included The Avengers , Doctor Who and The Troubleshooters . Lastly , Letts and Dicks retrospectively commissioned themselves in late May 1973 for their pilot script " Departure and Arrival " .
In order to achieve a high level of realism , Letts and Dicks hired a technical advisor , James Burke , a science correspondent who was well known to television viewers thanks to his work as anchorman on the television coverage of the Apollo moon landings and for presenting science series such as Tomorrow 's World and The Burke Special . Burke decided that 2003 would be a realistic date for bases to have been established on the Moon , telling the Radio Times that " Men won 't go back to the Moon until the 1990s . Neither the Russians nor the Americans have any plans at present and no @-@ one else can afford it . [ ... ] As for the base itself – it should look exactly as it would if they built one tomorrow . [ ... ] They 'd be small , supporting 30 or 40 men and running on a shoestring . [ ... ] It 'll be like life on a nuclear submarine " .
Cast as David Caulder was Donald Houston , an experienced character actor , who had appeared in 633 Squadron , The Longest Day and The Sea Wolves , and was known for playing authority figures . Ralph Bates , who was cast as Michel Lebrun , had first made a name for himself playing the Emperor Caligula in the Granada Television series The Caesars but was best known as a regular actor in the Hammer horror stable . Fiona Gaunt , playing Helen Smith , had been in a television adaptation of War and Peace while Barry Lowe , playing Tom Hill , had been a regular on the police drama Z @-@ Cars .
Two directors were assigned to the series – Ken Hannam and Christopher Barry . Hannam had previously directed such series as Colditz and Paul Temple while Barry had worked extensively on Doctor Who , having directed some 31 episodes at the time , including the stories The Dæmons and The Mutants for Letts and Dicks , as well as episodes of Out of the Unknown , Paul Temple and The Onedin Line . Hannam and Barry alternated directing the episodes between them with filming on Moonbase 3 beginning on 24 April 1973 at the BBC film studios in Ealing . The Ealing filming mainly centred around the scenes set on the lunar surface which proved a difficult experience for the actors . Star Donald Houston told the Radio Times that the spacesuits got " hot and claustrophobic . In the end they had to have oxygen standing by . [ ... ] the dust rose in clouds and the cameramen all wore surgical masks . The actors just choked " . Recalling his guest appearance on Moonbase 3 , in the episode " Behemoth " , Peter Miles told TV Zone in 1991 that he was " asked to be like a gazelle and leap as I came down the hillock in full astronaut gear . [ ... ] The tech crew wondered why I was steaming up furiously in my astronaut 's head . They 'd forgotten to put air holes into the helmet . [ ... ] I said , ' Help help ! Help help ! I 'm not breathing folks ! ' They took the helmet off before drilling the holes or I wouldn 't be here now " . Filming continued at Ealing until 30 May 1973 before production moved to BBC Television Centre for the remaining scenes , mostly those set inside the moonbase , which would be recorded on videotape beginning on 18 June 1973 . The episodes were recorded in a different order than that in which they were broadcast with " Departure and Arrival " recorded first followed by " Castor and Pollux " , " Behemoth " , " View of a Dead Planet " , " Outsiders " and , lastly , " Achilles Heel " with recording wrapping on 15 August 1973 . Music was provided by Dudley Simpson who , at this time , was the regular composer on Doctor Who . Simpson composed the main title theme that accompanied the opening and closing credits as well as approximately 60 minutes of incidental music .
= = = Transmission and audience reaction = = =
Moonbase 3 was promoted by the Radio Times on the week of broadcast with a two @-@ page article by Mike Bygrave , titled " The Facts of Life on the Moon " , that interviewed James Burke about his ideas of life on the moon and also spoke to star Donald Houston , dresser Leslie Hallam and costume designer Dee Kelly about their experiences making the show . Broadcast on Sunday nights at 7 : 25pm on BBC One , audience reaction to the series was disappointing with the debut episode garnering under 6 million viewers and ratings slipping as low as 2 million in subsequent weeks before stabilising at 4 million . A BBC Audience Research report slated the series as " banal , predictable and slow " . Reviewing " Departure and Arrival " in The Observer , Clive James described the plot as " the Yangtze Incident plus liquid oxygen " .
= = = Archive status = = =
As was normal procedure at the BBC at the time , the original PAL master tapes of the series were wiped some time after broadcast and , for many years , Moonbase 3 was believed to be lost forever . However , in 1993 , NTSC copies of all six episodes were found in co @-@ producer Fox 's archives and returned to the BBC . The series was subsequently released on VHS videotape over three volumes in 1994 by BBC Video and on DVD in 2002 by Second Sight .
= = Legacy = =
Terrance Dicks has felt that Moonbase 3 was ultimately a failure : " The trouble was we built a too restrictive format for ourselves " and that the series " lacked a sense of wonder and outrageousness " . Academic Peter Wright has said about Moonbase 3 that its " appeal to realism resulted in a disquieting sense of claustrophobia and isolation that undermined the optimism of its premise and captured the general mood of insularity felt ( and often desired ) in Britain in the early 1970s " . Moonbase 3 , although not directly influential , can be seen as an antecedent of similar realistic , near @-@ future , British space series such as Star Cops and Space Island One .
= = Episode guide = =
Six episodes of Moonbase 3 were made and broadcast on BBC One on Sunday nights at 7 : 25pm from 9 September 1973 .
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= Niagara Falls Suspension Bridge =
The Niagara Falls Suspension Bridge , which stood from 1855 to 1897 across the Niagara River , was the world 's first working railway suspension bridge . It spanned 825 feet ( 251 m ) and stood 2 @.@ 5 miles ( 4 @.@ 0 km ) downstream of Niagara Falls , where it connected Niagara Falls , Ontario , to Niagara Falls , New York . Trains used the upper of its two decks , pedestrians and carriages the lower . The brainchild of Canadian politicians , the bridge was built by one American and one Canadian company . It was most commonly called the Suspension Bridge ; other names included Niagara Railway Suspension Bridge , Niagara Suspension Bridge , and its official American name , the International Suspension Bridge .
The bridge was part of Canadian politician William Hamilton Merritt 's vision to promote trade within his country and with its neighbor the United States . Many , including bridge builders , argued that a suspension bridge could not allow the safe passage of trains . Nonetheless , the bridge companies hired Charles Ellet , Jr . , who laid a line by a kite across the 800 @-@ foot ( 240 m ) chasm and built a temporary suspension bridge in 1848 . Ellet left the project after a financial dispute with the bridge companies , who hired John Augustus Roebling to complete the project . By 1854 , his bridge was nearly complete , and the lower deck was opened for pedestrian and carriage travel . On March 18 , 1855 , a fully laden passenger train officially opened the completed bridge .
A border crossing between Canada and the United States , the Suspension Bridge played significant roles in the histories of the Niagara region and the two countries . Three railway lines crossed over the bridge , connecting cities on both sides of the border . The Great Western Railway , New York Central Railroad , and New York and Erie Rail Road differed in the track gauge ; the bridge used a triple gauge system to conserve space , overlapping two tracks on top of each other and using a rail of each to form the third track . The railroads brought a large influx of trade and tourists into the region around the Niagara Falls . In the time leading to the American Civil War , the Underground Railroad helped slaves in the United States escape across the Suspension Bridge to freedom in Canada . After the war , the bridge became a symbol of inspiration to Americans , encouraging them to rebuild their country and pushing them to quickly industrialize their nation .
The bridge 's success proved that a railway suspension bridge could be safe and operational . Slowly decaying , the bridge 's wooden structures were replaced with stronger steel and iron versions by 1886 . Heavier trains required its replacement by the Steel Arch Bridge , later renamed the Whirlpool Rapids Bridge , on August 27 , 1897 .
= = Conception and construction = =
In the mid @-@ 19th century , the hinterlands of the North American East Coast opened up rapidly . In Canada , entrepreneur and politician William Hamilton Merritt helped establish several trade routes , especially in dredged waterways between the lake cities . He also envisioned a U.S. and Canadian rail network to connect the Atlantic coast with new territories in the West , and this led to a railway suspension bridge across the Niagara River below the falls .
Merritt 's vision for the Niagara Suspension Bridge was conceived at the Niagara River itself . In summer 1844 while taking a picnic on the river shores , near what was then the town of Clifton , Merritt read a letter from his sons to his wife . The younger Merritts were touring Europe and visited the town of Fribourg , Switzerland . Amazed by the Freiburg Suspension Bridge , they wrote to their parents , describing the wonders of the bridge in eloquent terms . Their writing had a profound effect on their parents , and the elder Merritts wondered if such a suspension bridge could be built across the Niagara . Merritt was driven to realize that vision , and he approached the relevant authorities , including the Queen of England , for permission to start the construction of the suspension bridge . His efforts were rewarded in 1846 ; the state of New York and the government of Canada approved the charters to form the Niagara Falls International Bridge Company and the Niagara Falls Suspension Bridge Company , respectively .
In the years before the first bridge was built over the Niagara River , the river was crossed entirely by boats . Powered by steam engines , vessels ferried people and carriages across the raging river at calmer points of the water . One of these vessels was the Maid of the Mist , the first tourist boat to ply the waters of the Niagara River . Named after a local legend , the steamer began service in 1846 . Launching from a point 2 miles ( 3 @.@ 2 km ) below the Horseshoe Falls , it chugged up to the base of the falls , offering a close @-@ up view of the natural wonder to its passengers , before moving to the opposite shore . The site for the Suspension Bridge was half a mile ( 0 @.@ 8 km ) from the Maid of the Mist 's landings . The selection of the bridge site was based more on aesthetics than technical ease ; it was the narrowest point of the gorge — 800 feet ( 240 m ) across and 230 feet ( 70 m ) deep — that allowed a full view of the falls from the American side .
After the bridge companies were founded , they invited engineers to submit plans and cost estimates for a suspension bridge that carried a railway . The invitation was met with skepticism among the engineering community . At that time , there was not a suspension bridge that could allow a train to pass over it safely . While the Europeans were erecting suspension bridges by the hundreds , the Americans mostly ignored them out of safety concerns ; in 1831 Sir Samuel Brown 's Broughton Suspension Bridge in Britain had collapsed under the marching feet of a troop of soldiers , sending those on its deck into the River Irwell . Furthermore , many American bridges had collapsed without experiencing weight and pressure equivalent to railroad traffic , and American engineers feared that any railway bridge would likely fail — especially a suspension bridge .
Four engineers responded : Edward Serrell , Samuel Keefer , Charles Ellet , Jr . , and John Augustus Roebling . All submitted designs for a suspension bridge . At the time of the bidding , Ellet and Roebling were acknowledged as masters of suspension bridge building in America . Roebling submitted two designs , a conservative single @-@ deck suspension bridge and a double @-@ decked version , both with meticulous calculations and drawings . Instead of relying solely on submissions , Charles Ellet , Jr. took a proactive approach . When he got wind of the project in 1845 , he wrote to Charles B. Stuart , chief engineer of the Great Western Railway , boldly proclaiming that he could build a bridge for any likely purpose across the Niagara . After the charters had been obtained , Ellet helped Stuart to sell the bridge companies ' stock and offered to buy US $ 30 @,@ 000 worth of stock himself . His efforts earned him the $ 190 @,@ 000 bridge contract on November 9 , 1847 .
= = = Charles Ellet , Jr . ' s temporary bridge = = =
While growing up on a farm in Pennsylvania , Charles Ellet , Jr. scraped through odd jobs , but saved enough money to finance an education at the École nationale des Ponts et Chaussées in France . After attending four months of lectures , he toured Europe before returning to the United States as the only native @-@ born American with European education in engineering . Ellet announced his ambitions to build suspension bridges in his country of birth by proposing to span the Potomac River with one . His proposal was ignored ; few were willing to heed a young , inexperienced and impetuous engineer . To gain experience , Ellet started to work on railroads and canals , and later became the chief engineer on the James River and Kanawha Canal project . He further improved his reputation by contributing articles about suspension bridges to respected engineering journals , such as American Railroad Journal ; eventually , Ellet built his first suspension bridge over the Schuylkill River , Pennsylvania , in 1842 .
Ellet had the looks of an actor , which were complemented by his entertaining oratorical skills . He took advantage of these characteristics , and used showmanship and dramatics to market his proposals . These skills helped to win him attention and raise his profile both in the public and within the industry . However , his imperiousness also ruffled the feathers of people , which caused conflicts . Nonetheless , his capability to promote himself had won him the contracts for the Suspension Bridge and the later Wheeling Suspension Bridge ; the Wheeling contract was won in July 1847 while Ellet 's plan for the Niagara Suspension Bridge was still in its initial stages of construction . Ellet 's initial design for the bridge at Niagara placed all forms of transportation on a single deck . The railway track was in the middle of the deck , sandwiched between carriageways and footpaths on the outer sides . Moreover , trains would not go over the bridge ; their cars would be disconnected from the heavy locomotives and pulled across the bridge by horses , cables , or lighter 6 @-@ short @-@ ton ( 5 @.@ 4 t ) engines . Before the work could begin , Ellet faced the problem of all suspension bridge construction : getting a line across the gap .
Ellet 's brainstorming sessions with his men raised several ideas that could enable a line to be suspended across the gorge ; these included firing cannonballs with the line attached , towing it across the river with a steamer , and tying it to a rocket that would then be launched across the gorge . Ultimately the bridge engineer chose an idea inspired by Benjamin Franklin 's experiment with a kite . It was similar to 15th century inventor Leonardo da Vinci 's plan to span a gap . Ellet also took the opportunity to generate publicity for his project . Organizing a kite @-@ flying contest , he offered $ 5 to any boy who flew a kite across the gorge and secured the kite string to the other side . Youths from nearby towns flocked in to participate . Unlike the other boys who flew their kites from the United States side of the gorge , 16 @-@ year @-@ old Homan Walsh crossed the river by a ferry upstream and walked to the Canadian side of the bridge site to launch his kite . He almost succeeded on his first attempt ; his kite flew across but crashed just short of the shore . After resting several days at a friend 's house , Walsh finally got his kite across the gorge and secured its line to a tree .
Charles Ellet and his team tied a heavier line to the kite string and pulled the joined lines across . They pulled successive heavier and stronger lines across until the final bridge cable — 7 ⁄ 8 inch ( 2 @.@ 2 cm ) thick — was hanging across the gorge . The cable was suspended between two wooden towers 40 feet ( 12 m ) tall , and it was attached to an iron basket . Ellet planned to use this system as a basket ferry to shuttle workers and materials across the gorge , saving time that would otherwise have been spent on land and ferry travel . Through media coverage and word @-@ of @-@ mouth , many people knew of Ellet 's efforts and flocked to the site to watch the construction . On March 13 , 1848 , the system was completed , and the team planned to test it by pulling the empty basket across . They hit a snag when the basket kept getting stuck halfway and could not move ahead . Pulling back the basket , Ellet decided to assure the watching crowd that the system was workable . He stepped into the basket , and it moved towards the opposite shore . When Ellet reached the problematic spot , he spotted the issue ; the basket 's rollers could not pass over a portion of the cable that had been accidentally flattened during the construction . He fixed the problem and proceeded to cross to the Canadian side and back , becoming the first person to cross the gorge . Although the bridge companies had prohibited Ellet from collecting tolls , he charged each person $ 1 @.@ 00 for the chance to " observe first hand the engineering wonder of bridging the Niagara " . On some days , the basket ferry conveyed up to 125 people across the gorge .
Continuing his construction , Ellet built two footbridges and joined them together to form an 8 @-@ foot ( 2 @.@ 4 m ) wide suspension bridge . He intended to use this temporary bridge as a scaffold for the construction of the permanent railway bridge . On July 29 , 1848 , the bridge builder inaugurated the span in his typical manner ; standing in his horse @-@ buggy like a gladiator in his chariot , Ellet sped across the bridge , which had railings for only a third of its length at that time . His stunt garnered further publicity for the bridge , and the toll collected from the span proved lucrative ; $ 5 @,@ 000 was collected in less than a year since its official opening on August 1 , 1848 . Disputes arose between the bridge companies and Ellet over their shares of the money , and their relations turned bitter . The companies charged that Ellet was late in his schedule and withheld payment . Ellet retaliated by mounting cannons at the bridge to claim ownership over it . In the end the matter went to court . The bridge companies paid $ 10 @,@ 000 to Charles Ellet , and he left the project to work full @-@ time on the Wheeling Suspension Bridge .
The Niagara Suspension Bridge project was in hiatus for three years before the bridge companies engaged another renowned civil engineer , John Augustus Roebling , to complete it . The delay caused Roebling to miss out on the honor of building the first permanent bridge to span the Niagara ; Serrell completed the Lewiston Suspension Bridge in 1851 . Roebling would , however , achieve other honors in building his Niagara Railway Suspension Bridge .
= = = John Augustus Roebling 's railway bridge = = =
Born in Prussia ( later a part of Germany ) , John Augustus Roebling obtained his first conditional engineering degree ( Feldmesserprüfung ) at Erfurt in 1824 . He attended two semesters of lessons at Berlin 's Bauakademie and worked for the Prussian government , constructing military roads . Tired of the bureaucracy , he resigned his position and left for the United States in 1830 , arriving with his brother in Philadelphia on August 6 , 1831 . Instead of continuing an engineering profession , he took up farming for a living . After five years he married a tailor 's daughter , and had eight children with her over the next decade . Agrarian work was unsatisfactory to John Roebling , and in 1837 , after the death of his brother and the birth of his first child , he returned to engineering .
Roebling first signed on as a surveyor for the Beaver River canal system , launching his career with a string of canal and railroad projects . Aside from writing articles in engineering journals , Roebling designed his own wire cables and started his own company to manufacture them ; the John A. Roebling Company was the first wire rope manufacturer in the United States . Gradually gaining fame for his civil engineering , Roebling finally got to build suspension bridges . His first bridge was the Allegheny Suspension Aqueduct in Pittsburgh . The structure , completed in 1845 , was the first suspension aqueduct in the world and the first large American suspension bridge that had multiple spans . Furthermore , it was the first suspension structure built with modern cable spinning techniques — Roebling 's own invention . Earlier bridge building techniques involved fabricating the main cables at a factory , transporting them to the bridge site , and then stretching the heavy cables over the gap to erect them over the bridge . Roebling , during his experiments with wire ropes , conceived and patented a new construction method for these main cables . A long line — the traveler rope — formed a loop around two horizontal wheels , one on each side of the gorge . A lightweight wheel , " the traveling wheel " , was attached to this line , and a wire threaded around this wheel . Like a belt in a mechanical system , the traveler rope and its wheel moved across the gap as the horizontal wheels turned , pulling the wire along . The traveling wheel effectively hauled two lengths of the same wire ( running above and under the traveling wheel ) across the gap at a time . The lengths of wire were collected and bound at intervals to form thicker strands , which were later compressed together into the main cables. which supported themselves and later the proportional weight of the bridge as they were formed . The method became the standard for suspension bridge construction , and remained unchanged for many years . In the 20th century , suspension bridges were still built with this pulley winding system , albeit with more sophisticated equipment .
John Roebling was a contrasting character to Charles Ellet . Whereas Ellet embellished his proposals with fanciful words and deeds , Roebling presented papers filled with meticulous calculations and drawings . The elder engineer was stern and driven to achieve , taking a scientific approach to all interests . Rarely did he show emotions in his dealings , even to his closest associates . The man , however , dared to confront his detractors and make bold exaltations about his work . He openly called European suspension bridges — including American suspension bridges built with European techniques — weak , and occasionally sniped at Ellet 's and Stephenson 's works . He announced that his Brooklyn Bridge , when completed , " will not only be the greatest bridge in existence , but it will be the greatest engineering work of this continent , and of the age . " Roebling 's history with Ellet started before the bidding for the Niagara Suspension Bridge , early in their careers . During the bidding for the Schuylkill Suspension Bridge project , Ellet had written a proposal that was published in the American Railroad Journal . Mistakenly believing Ellet had won the contract , Roebling wrote to offer his congratulations and requested to be Ellet 's assistant . He received a formal reply without any reference to his request , and his subsequent letter was ignored . When Roebling learned that a contractor had won the bid , he successfully applied to be the contractor 's chief engineer . Ellet , however , persisted with his tactics and snatched the project away from the contractor ; he promoted himself to the bridge company and offered to accept land instead of cash as payment . From then on , Ellet and Roebling became rivals , vying with each other for suspension bridge projects in North America . Roebling learned from their rivalry . His losses to Ellet showed him that he needed to promote himself and gain backers to effectively secure the contracts he desired .
When Roebling was called to the Niagara Suspension Bridge project in 1851 , he had six suspension structures to his name . He found Ellet 's final plan to be impractical ; the bridge would have been too heavy and expensive . Roebling had another design in mind : the double @-@ deck bridge he had proposed earlier during the bidding . The lower deck , level with the edge of the chasm , would convey passengers and carriages , and the upper deck , 18 feet ( 5 @.@ 5 m ) above , would allow fully laden trains to continue their journeys non @-@ stop , albeit at a speed of 5 miles per hour ( 8 @.@ 0 km / h ) . Roebling reasoned that the decks and sufficient trusses would form a rigid tube , making the bridge stiffer than a normal suspension bridge . The theory was similar to that of the tubular bridge but implemented at a lower cost . The engineering community was critical of Roebling 's project . Robert Stephenson , builder of the tubular Britannia Bridge , was among those short @-@ listed to complete the Niagara Suspension Bridge before Roebling 's selection . Stephenson had submitted a design for a tubular bridge , and in 1859 he built a large and expensive tubular bridge for the Grand Trunk Railway at Montreal , Quebec . The bridge builder then said in derision of Roebling 's suspension railway , " If your bridge succeeds , mine is a magnificent blunder . "
In the face of criticism , Roebling completed the project in four years , using Ellet 's bridge as scaffolding . The railway deck was stress @-@ tested by the crossing of the 23 @-@ short @-@ ton ( 21 t ) steam engine London at a speed of 8 miles per hour ( 13 km / h ) on March 8 , 1855 . Ten days later the upper deck of the bridge was officially opened ; the lower deck had been opened to the public a year earlier . As the first commercial passenger train trundled over the bridge , the two countries were finally connected by railroad across the Niagara River . The successful crossings of these and later trains made Roebling 's Suspension Bridge the first working suspension railway bridge in history .
= = Engineering = =
Roebling 's bridge was supported by two limestone towers on each side of the gorge . These Egyptian @-@ style towers stood 88 feet ( 27 m ) tall on the American shore and 78 feet ( 24 m ) tall on the Canadian shore . With their foundations 28 feet ( 8 @.@ 5 m ) in the earth , the limestone structures could support up to 12 million pounds ( 5 @.@ 4 million kg ) . Four 10 @.@ 5 @-@ inch ( 27 cm ) thick main cables held up the bridge ; two cables ran through iron saddles at the top of each tower . Each cable comprised 3 @,@ 059 wires that were spun with Roebling 's patented technique used in his Allegheny Suspension Aqueduct . The ends of each cable were secured to 6 @-@ square @-@ foot ( 0 @.@ 56 m2 ) cast @-@ iron plates sunk 20 – 30 feet ( 6 @.@ 1 – 9 @.@ 1 m ) deep in the bedrock . Support lines hung down from iron clamps that encircled the main cables , and held up the decks . Deep trusses — never before seen on a large suspension bridge — lined the sides of the bridge , and joined the two decks so that the structure looked like a cage . The trussed sides and the upper and lower decks , which spanned 825 feet ( 251 m ) , formed a " hollow straight beam " , reinforcing the rigidity of the bridge .
The Suspension Bridge was further stiffened by guy @-@ wires which ran from its upper deck to the top of its towers . Criticism of suspension bridges was growing after the Wheeling Suspension Bridge collapsed under strong winds in 1854 . To address these concerns , Roebling added more guy @-@ wires to secure the lower deck to the shores below . Roebling 's efforts ensured that his Suspension Bridge remained standing while other suspension bridges across the Niagara River collapsed because of strong winds . Although he was not the first engineer to appreciate the need for a suspension bridge to be sufficiently rigid or to implement the methods to do so , Roebling was the first to understand the principles behind the methods and combine them in the building of a suspension bridge . Roebling proved that despite popular opinion , properly built suspension bridges can safely support the passage of heavy railway traffic . The engineer 's combination of stiffening methods created the first modern suspension bridge . Such was the rigidity of the Suspension Bridge that it withstood the shockwave caused by the nearby fall of a 5 @,@ 000 @-@ short @-@ ton ( 4 @,@ 500 t ) mass of rock in 1863 ; the force of the impact manifested itself as a wave , rippling through the decks of the bridge from the American side to the Canadian side and back .
From the United States , the New York and Erie Rail Road 's Canandaigua and Niagara Falls Railroad and New York Central Railroad 's Buffalo and Niagara Falls Railroad crossed over the bridge and reached into Ontario . Similarly , the Great Western Railway in Canada extended its network from Canada into New York . At the time of the bridge 's opening , the three railroads were of different gauges : 4 ft 8 1 ⁄ 2 in ( 1 @,@ 435 mm ) standard gauge on the New York Central , 5 ft 6 in ( 1 @,@ 676 mm ) on the Great Western , and 6 ft ( 1 @,@ 829 mm ) on the Erie . Instead of accommodating three railways side @-@ by @-@ side on a single wide deck , the bridge saved space by overlapping the tracks over each other . This method used only four rails ; one pair formed the track for one railway , and the other pair formed another . One rail from each pair would then form the final track . In the first year of the bridge 's operation , an average of 30 trains trundled across it each day . Five years later , 45 trains passed over the structure daily .
Roebling mandated that the trains be limited to a maximum speed of 5 miles per hour ( 8 @.@ 0 km / h ) to ensure absolute safety . He was confident the bridge could handle faster train traffic , but he preferred a safe operation . In his tests the bridge supported a 326 @-@ short @-@ ton ( 296 t ) train , bending 10 @.@ 5 inches ( 27 cm ) under the weight . This was within the maximum load of 450 short tons ( 410 t ) specified in the design of the bridge . The figure was a conservative estimate . The cables and guy @-@ wires could support 7 @,@ 300 short tons ( 6 @,@ 600 t ) , and travel journalist Alfred J. Pairpoint commented that it was normal to see 1 @,@ 200 @-@ short @-@ ton ( 1 @,@ 100 t ) trains pass over the bridge without danger . The bridge shook whenever a train trundled over it , although this had no effect on its integrity . When the frequency of passing trains was high , the trembling was noticeable to travelers on the lower deck and proved uncomfortable to some ; writer Mark Twain noted , " You drive over to Suspension Bridge and divide your misery between the chances of smashing down two hundred feet into the river below , and the chances of having a railway @-@ train overhead smashing down onto you . Either possibility is discomforting taken by itself , but , mixed together , they amount in the aggregate to positive unhappiness . " Despite such commentaries , thousands of people crossed over the bridge safely every day .
American engineers regard the Suspension Bridge as a major achievement of efficiency . In a fledgling country where resources — material and financial — were limited , they had to make do with whatever was available . This goal was espoused by the American Society of Civil Engineers , which opined , " That is the best engineering , not which makes the most splendid , or even the most perfect work , but that which makes a work that answers the purpose well , at the least cost . " Roebling had built a bridge that rivaled grander bridges of leading European nations at a much lower cost . His Suspension Bridge used only one @-@ sixth the material of Stephenson 's Brittania Bridge , but was twice as long and had a capacity that exceeded the tubular bridge . Moreover , the expenditure on Roebling 's Suspension Bridge was $ 400 @,@ 000 , whereas a tubular bridge of equivalent length and load @-@ bearing capability would have cost $ 4 million . Roebling 's success established him as the master of suspension bridges . The inclined guy @-@ wires that stretched from the top of towers to the roadway of the Suspension Bridge became the signature of his future works .
Although the Suspension Bridge proved that the suspension system could be safely used to carry railroads , no more suspension railway bridges were built . The outbreak of the American Civil War diverted attention from such civil engineering ventures , and by the time attention was paid to building bridges again , cantilever bridges were in vogue for railway bridges . Regardless , the Suspension Bridge 's success made it a model for suspension railway bridges . When the city of Quebec called for a structure to span the St. Lawrence River in 1850 , it looked to the Suspension Bridge for inspiration . Seventeen years later , the British journal Engineering called for a suspension railway to bridge the Straits of Messina and also referred to Roebling 's bridge . Lastly , Stuart opened his 1871 work on the history of American engineering , Lives and Works of Civil and Military Engineering in America , with an illustration of the bridge .
= = Legacy = =
As a border crossing between two large growing countries , the Suspension Bridge had throngs of travelers passing over it . Furthermore , it was the intersection of three major railroads . Coupled with its vicinity to a natural wonder , the Niagara Falls , the bridge brought a lot of railroad traffic into the region once it was opened . The towns at the ends of the bridge benefited greatly from this heavy movement of people and goods . The village of Suspension Bridge , United States , grew quickly within a few years after the opening of the bridge , acquiring shops , factories , and a hotel . Its tourism and commerce soon rivaled the town of Niagara Falls , New York ; eventually , the village was merged into the town in 1892 . Similarly , Clifton on the Canadian end of the bridge was integrated into the town of Niagara Falls , Ontario . The two Niagara Falls cities boasted commerce that surpassed neighboring settlements . Around the time of its official opening , the bridge was one of the busiest points of trade on the United States – Canadian border , carrying $ 12 million of transitory goods and $ 2 million of bonded materials into Canada . To handle the large amount of goods exchanged over the border , the Lewiston customs house — the primary customs for the Niagara region — was relocated to the Niagara Suspension Bridge in 1863 .
The bridge 's depiction as an engineering marvel and beautiful sight lured many visitors to the Falls . Travelers could , while crossing the bridge , enjoy a view of the Falls enhanced by the sensation of standing 250 feet ( 76 m ) in the air . The Falls , however , proved distant and indistinct to some when there was overcast weather . On the whole , the Suspension Bridge was considered as an attraction that must be seen by visitors to Niagara Falls . In paintings and prints of the bridge , the Suspension Bridge became the focus , pushing the Falls into the background . Unlike paintings of the Falls that capture the viewer 's eye with their majestic views of the natural wonder , pictures of the bridge impressed viewers with the utilitarian design of the structure . By 1897 , the inbound trains to Niagara Falls brought 276 @,@ 900 visitors during the months of May to August . A streetcar system was established in 1882 to handle the increasing cross @-@ border pedestrian traffic . Initially pulled by horses , the trolleys were converted to run on electricity in 1892 . The Suspension Bridge was the pride and symbol of the Great Western Railway , which touted it as the " only Route via Niagara Falls & Suspension Bridge " .
Travelers on the Suspension Bridge witnessed several death @-@ defying stunts performed across the Niagara Gorge . On June 30 , 1859 , they saw Charles Blondin 's feat of becoming the first man to cross the chasm on a tightrope . In mid @-@ crossing Blondin sat down on the rope and lowered a line to retrieve a drink from the deck of the Maid of the Mist below . In his later tightrope acts at the same spot , the acrobat would perform a different stunt on each occasion . One time he cooked and ate an omelette in mid @-@ crossing ; another time he carried his manager Harry Colcord on his back . While giving Colcord a piggyback ride , Blondin stopped five times on the tightrope to rest and recover his strength ; each time Colcord gingerly got off Blondin 's back and stood on the tightrope , climbing back on after the acrobat had enough rest . Blondin 's success inspired other acrobats , such as William Leonard Hunt ( " The Great Farini " ) , Samuel Dixon , Clifford Calverly , and Signorina Maria Spelterini , to emulate and try to surpass his acts at the same spot . The Signorina , the only woman to walk across the Niagara on a tightrope , once crossed while blindfolded and another time with her hands and legs in manacles .
Another group of people in America had their own risky crossings over the Niagara Gorge as they fled over the border into Canada . They were enslaved African @-@ Americans who sought freedom by escaping to a country that declared the liberation of any slave who entered it . The bridge was part of the Underground Railroad , a network of routes designed to smuggle slaves in the United States to freedom in Canada . Before the American Civil War , fleeing slaves had only four main routes into Canada , of which one was crossing the Niagara River . Slaves who escaped along the Niagara route had help from several quarters . The state of New York generally favored granting freedom to slaves ; this attitude emboldened African @-@ American workers in Niagara , who frequently helped slaves flee to Canada . Before the Suspension Bridge was completed , fugitives either crossed the raging river on a boat or risked their lives by swimming at calmer points of the river . The Suspension Bridge made escape across the river easier and safer , although there was still risk . To avoid getting caught and sent back to their owners , slaves had to sneak across on foot or hide aboard trains and oxcarts . Antislavery activist Harriet Tubman guided fugitives at night and bribed custom officials to turn a blind eye . As a result , many slaves crossed the Suspension Bridge to freedom before the United States was engulfed in civil war .
When the war ended and the United States turned its focus toward rebuilding , Roebling started building his Brooklyn Bridge . As the monumental task could affect naval navigation , it required state approval , and the government wanted a thorough review of the engineer 's credentials ; hence , a Bridge Party was organized . Comprising Roebling and his son , as well as their fellow bridge engineers , generals , businessmen , and high society figures , the party toured the country to review four bridges Roebling had built before the civil war . The final item on their itinerary was Roebling 's Niagara Suspension Bridge . At the dinner to commemorate the end of the bridge tour , civil war veteran General Henry Warner Slocum gave a toast and called the Suspension Bridge a symbol of inspiration for the United States in its rebuilding efforts . This sentiment was shared by the guests and was expressed at later dinners across the United States . The achievement of building a large suspension bridge over a gorge in the face of overwhelming adversity — constant put @-@ downs by the professional community , American and European — gave the United States a sense of pride . Nationalism rose as the country lauded the bridge . The completion of the bridge that had been deemed impossible by the Western world gave Americans , who had lesser technical accomplishments than Europe at that time , a trophy that stood above any other . The Suspension Bridge became the American symbol to brave the toughest of challenges and do the impossible , pushing their drive for industrialization even harder . Charles W. Woodman specifically drew attention to the Suspension Bridge in his 1865 address to the United States Senate for approval to build a rail system to transport a ship out of the water and up around the Niagara Falls .
= = Maintenance and replacement = =
Budget concerns forced Roebling to build the Suspension Bridge primarily with wood ; the cost of casting the components out of iron and transporting them " [ way ] out West " was exorbitant . The organic material decayed and rotted because of the moisture present around Niagara Falls . As the industrialization of the United States moved forward rapidly , the introduction of the Bessemer process greatly lowered the cost of the more durable steel and iron . By 1880 , the Suspension Bridge 's wooden trusses , beams , and flooring were replaced with steel . The wire cables were not replaced ; their cores were still in pristine condition . The outer layer of wires in the cables was , however , lightly corroded and had to be replaced . Due to severe deterioration , the limestone towers were replaced in 1886 with steel framed versions . These renovations increased the bridge 's strength and helped it handle heavier loads for a few more years .
The weight of trains in North America had greatly increased by the mid @-@ 1890s . Larger and more powerful locomotives were required to pull cars that handled an increasing number of passengers and goods ; compared to the 23 @-@ short @-@ ton ( 21 t ) locomotives crossing the bridge in the 1850s , 170 @-@ short @-@ ton ( 150 t ) locomotives were the common engines 40 years later . The weight of these trains exceeded the specifications of the Suspension Bridge , and the bridge companies took the opportunity to review and request the replacement of the bridge . Civil engineer Leffert L. Buck , who had been hired to maintain the Suspension Bridge , was selected to design the replacement bridge . He settled for a bridge of the arch design . At that time , arch bridges were the new models for railway bridges and were more cost @-@ efficient than suspension bridges . Buck built the new bridge around and below the Suspension Bridge , replacing it a piece at a time . His plan allowed bridge traffic — train and pedestrian — to continue without disruption . By August 27 , 1897 , the last pieces of the Suspension Bridge were dismantled , leaving the Lower Steel Arch Bridge — later renamed the Whirlpool Rapids Bridge — in its stead . On inspection , the cores of the cables that formerly held up the Suspension Bridge were found to be as sound as on the day the bridge was built .
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= SM U @-@ 21 ( Austria @-@ Hungary ) =
SM U @-@ 21 or U @-@ XXI was a U @-@ 20 @-@ class submarine or U @-@ boat built for and operated by the Austro @-@ Hungarian Navy ( German : Kaiserliche und Königliche Kriegsmarine or K.u.K. Kriegsmarine ) during the First World War . The design for U @-@ 21 was based on submarines of the Royal Danish Navy 's Havmanden class ( three of which had been built in Austria @-@ Hungary ) , and was largely obsolete by the beginning of the war .
U @-@ 21 was just over 127 feet ( 39 m ) long and was armed with two bow torpedo tubes , a deck gun , and a machine gun . Construction on U @-@ 21 began in mid 1915 and the boat was launched in September 1916 . After suffering damage during a diving trial in January 1917 , U @-@ 21 underwent seven months of repairs before her commissioning in August 1917 .
The U @-@ boat conducted patrols off the Albanian coast in October 1917 , but experienced the failure of the seal on her main hatch . The repairs kept the boat out of action until June 1918 . But in July a piston in her diesel engine broke , knocking the submarine out of the rest of the war . At the end of World War I , U @-@ 21 was ceded to Italy as a war reparation and scrapped in 1920 . U @-@ 21 had no wartime successes .
= = Design and construction = =
When it became apparent to the Austro @-@ Hungarian Navy that the First World War would not be a short one , they moved to bolster their U @-@ boat fleet by seizing the plans for the Danish Havmanden class submarines , three of which had been built at Whitehead & Co. in Fiume . Although the Austro @-@ Hungarian Navy was not happy with the design , which was largely obsolete , it was the only design for which plans were available and which could be begun immediately in domestic shipyards . The Austro @-@ Hungarian Navy unenthusiastically placed orders for U @-@ 21 and her three sister boats on 27 March 1915 .
U @-@ 21 was one of two boats of the class to be built at the Pola Navy Yard . Due to demands by the Hungarian government , subcontracts for the class were divided between Hungarian and Austrian firms , and this politically expedient solution worsened technical problems with the design , resulting in numerous modifications and delays for the class in general .
U @-@ 21 was an ocean @-@ going submarine that displaced 173 metric tons ( 170 long tons ) surfaced and 210 metric tons ( 207 long tons ) submerged and was designed for a complement of 18 . She was 127 feet 2 inches ( 38 @.@ 76 m ) long with a beam of 13 feet ( 4 @.@ 0 m ) and a draft of 9 feet ( 2 @.@ 7 m ) . For propulsion , she featured a single shaft , a single 450 bhp ( 340 kW ) diesel engine for surface running , and a single 160 shp ( 120 kW ) electric motor for submerged travel . She was capable of 12 knots ( 22 km / h ) while surfaced and 9 knots ( 17 km / h ) while submerged . Although there is no specific notation of a range for U @-@ 21 , the Havmanden class , upon which the U @-@ 20 class was based , had a range of 1 @,@ 400 nautical miles ( 2 @,@ 600 km ) at 10 knots ( 19 km / h ) , surfaced , and 23 nautical miles ( 43 km ) at 8 knots ( 15 km / h ) submerged .
U @-@ 21 was armed with two 45 cm ( 17 @.@ 7 in ) torpedo tubes located in the front and carried a complement of two torpedoes . She was also equipped with a 66 mm / 26 ( 2 @.@ 6 in ) deck gun and an 8 mm ( 0 @.@ 31 in ) machine gun .
= = Service career = =
U @-@ 21 was launched on 15 August 1916 , the first of the four U @-@ 20 @-@ class boats . During a diving trial in January 1917 , the submarine was damaged when it sank too deep , requiring repairs that took place over the next seven months . U @-@ 21 was commissioned on 15 August under the command of Linienschiffsleutnant Hugo von Seyffertitz . A 31 @-@ year @-@ old native of Brixen , von Seyffertitz was a first @-@ time U @-@ boat commander .
Ten days after commissioning , U @-@ 21 safely submerged to a depth of 42 metres ( 138 ft ) . However , her nose was dented when she hit bottom on another test dive in September , necessitating more repairs . On 29 September , von Seyffertitz steered the boat from the submarine base at Brioni to Cattaro , where she arrived on 1 October . On 4 October , U @-@ 21 set out for a patrol off the coast of Albania , but had returned to Cattaro by mid October .
On 15 October , von Seyffertitz and U @-@ 21 departed from Cattaro to begin their first Mediterranean deployment . Slated to sail into the Ionian Sea , U @-@ 21 instead had to turn back the following day when the main hatch seal on the conning tower leaked and could not be repaired . After her 18 October return to Cattaro , she sailed for Pola , arriving on 24 October . There , she would undergo another lengthy stay in port for repairs . While U @-@ 21 was under repair , von Seyffertitz was transferred to U @-@ 47 .
Linienschiffleutnant Robert Dürrial was assigned the new commander of U @-@ 21 on 24 March 1918 . The 26 @-@ year @-@ old Galician had served as commander of U @-@ 10 for four months in 1917 . Dürrial led U @-@ 21 out of Pola on 1 June for Cattaro , making stops en route at Arbe and Novigrad for repairs to the gyrocompass .
On 16 July , while conducting patrols off the Albanian coast , a piston in U @-@ 21 's diesel engine broke and Dürrial put in at Djenovic . On 25 July , U @-@ 21 was towed to Pola , where she remained until the end of the war . She was ceded to Italy as a war reparation and scrapped in 1920 . Like all of her sister boats , U @-@ 21 had no wartime successes .
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= Rickey Henderson =
Rickey Nelson Henley Henderson ( born December 25 , 1958 ) is an American retired professional baseball left fielder who played in Major League Baseball ( MLB ) for nine teams from 1979 to 2003 , including four stints with his original team , the Oakland Athletics . Nicknamed " The Man of Steal " , he is widely regarded as baseball 's most reliable leadoff hitter and baserunner . He holds the major league records for career stolen bases , runs , unintentional walks and leadoff home runs . At the time of his last major league game in 2003 , the ten @-@ time American League ( AL ) All @-@ Star ranked among the sport 's top 100 all @-@ time home run hitters and was its all @-@ time leader in base on balls . In 2009 , he was inducted to the Baseball Hall of Fame on his first ballot appearance .
Henderson also holds the single @-@ season record for stolen bases ( 130 in 1982 ) and is the only player in AL history to steal 100 bases in a season , having done so three times . His 1 @,@ 406 career steals is 50 % higher than the previous record of 938 by Lou Brock . Henderson is the all @-@ time stolen base leader for the Oakland A 's and previously held the New York Yankees ' franchise record from 1988 to 2011 . He was among the league 's top ten base stealers in 21 different seasons .
Henderson was named the AL 's Most Valuable Player in 1990 , and he was the leadoff hitter for two World Series champions : the 1989 Oakland A 's and the 1993 Toronto Blue Jays . A 12 @-@ time stolen base champion , Henderson led the league in runs five times . His 25 @-@ year career elevated Henderson to the top ten in several other categories , including career at bats , games , and outfield putouts and total chances . His high on @-@ base percentage , power hitting , and stolen base and run totals made him one of the most dynamic players of his era . He was further known for his unquenchable passion for playing baseball and a buoyant , eccentric and quotable personality that both perplexed and entertained fans . Once asked if he thought Henderson was a future Hall of Famer , statistician Bill James replied , " If you could split him in two , you 'd have two Hall of Famers . "
= = Early years = =
Henderson was born in Chicago , Illinois , and named Rickey Nelson Henley , named after singer @-@ actor Ricky Nelson , to John L. Henley and Bobbie Henley on Christmas Day , 1958 , in Chicago , in the back seat of an Oldsmobile on the way to the hospital . Henderson later joked , " I was already fast . I couldn 't wait . " When he was two years old , his father left home , and his family moved to Oakland , California , when he was seven . His father died in an automobile accident ten years after leaving home . His mother married Paul Henderson in Rickey Henley 's junior year of high school and the family adopted the Henderson surname . As a child learning to play baseball in Oakland , Henderson developed the ability to bat right @-@ handed although he was a naturally left @-@ handed thrower — a rare combination for baseball players , especially non @-@ pitchers . In the entire history of Major League Baseball through the 2008 season , only 57 position players are known to have batted right and thrown left , and Henderson is easily the most successful player to do so . Henderson later said , " All my friends were right @-@ handed and swung from the right side , so I thought that 's the way it was supposed to be done . "
In 1976 , Henderson graduated from Oakland Technical High School , where he played baseball , basketball and football , and was an All @-@ American running back with a pair of 1 @,@ 000 @-@ yard rushing seasons . He also ran track , but did not stay with the team as the schedule conflicted with baseball . Henderson received over a dozen scholarship offers to play football . Despite a childhood dream to play for the Oakland Raiders , he turned down the scholarships on the advice of his mother , who argued that football players had shorter careers . In 1983 , Henderson married his high @-@ school sweetheart , Pamela . They have three children : Angela , Alexis , and Adrianna .
= = Minor leagues = =
Henderson was drafted by the Oakland Athletics in the fourth round of the 1976 Major League Baseball draft . He spent the first season of his minor league career with the Boise A 's of the Northwest League . In 46 games , Henderson batted .336 and hit three home runs and two triples . Henderson spent the following season with the Modesto A 's . He batted .345 in 134 games during his record @-@ setting season with Modesto . Henderson , along with Darrell Woodard , nearly broke the league record for team stolen bases . The Modesto A 's finished the season with 357 stolen bases , just shy of the league record of 370 . While Woodard tied the single @-@ season player record with 90 stolen bases , Henderson beat the record by stealing 95 bases , and was awarded the Sundial Trophy , given to the Modesto A 's Most Valuable Player .
Henderson spent the 1978 season with the Jersey City A 's of the Eastern League . After the minor league season ended , he played the 1978 – 1979 winter season for the Navojoa Mayos of the Mexican Pacific League . He played in six games for the team , which won its first championship . In 1979 , Henderson started the season with the Ogden A 's of the Pacific Coast League . In 71 games for Ogden , he had a batting average of .309 and stole 44 bases .
= = Major leagues = =
= = = Oakland Athletics ( 1979 – 1984 ) = = =
Henderson made his major league debut with Oakland on June 24 , 1979 , getting two hits in four at bats , along with a stolen base . He batted .274 with 33 stolen bases in 89 games . In 1980 , Henderson became the 3rd modern @-@ era player to steal 100 bases in a season ( Maury Wills 's 104 in 1962 and Lou Brock 's 118 in 1974 had preceded him ) . His 100 steals broke Eddie Collins ' franchise record of 81 in 1910 with what were then the Philadelphia Athletics and set a new American League ( AL ) record , surpassing Ty Cobb 's 96 set in 1915 . He also batted .303 , had 179 hits ( tied for 9th in AL ) , scored 111 runs ( 4th in AL ) , drew 117 walks ( 2nd in AL ) , had a .420 on base % ( 3rd in AL ) and led the AL by reaching base 301 times .
That winter , Henderson played in the Puerto Rican Professional Baseball League ; his 42 stolen bases broke that league 's record as well .
Henderson was a Most Valuable Player candidate a year later , in a season shortened by a players ' strike . He hit .319 , fourth in the AL , and led the league in hits ( 135 ) , runs ( 89 ) and in steals ( 56 ) . Henderson was also 3rd in on @-@ base percentage ( .408 ) , tied for 2nd in triples ( 7 ) , 4th in walks ( 64 ) , 8th in total bases ( 185 ) and 2nd in times reaching base ( 201 ) . In so doing , he became the emblematic figure of Oakland manager Billy Martin 's aggressive " Billy Ball " philosophy , which received much media attention . Finishing second to the Milwaukee Brewers ' Rollie Fingers in the MVP voting , Henderson 's fielding that season also earned him his only Gold Glove Award . He later became known for his showboating " snatch catches " , in which he would flick his glove out at incoming fly balls , then whip his arm behind his back after making the catch .
In 1982 , Henderson broke Lou Brock 's major league single season record by stealing 130 bases , a total which has not been approached since . He stole 84 bases by the All @-@ Star break ; no player has stolen as many as 84 bases in an entire season since 1988 , when Henderson himself stole 93 . Henderson 's 130 steals outpaced nine of the American League 's 14 teams that season . He also led the AL in walks ( 116 ) , was 4th in runs ( 119 ) and 3rd in on base % ( .398 ) .
Henderson adopted an exaggerated crouch as his batting stance , which reduced his strike zone without sacrificing much power . Sportswriter Jim Murray described Henderson 's strike zone as being " smaller than Hitler 's heart " . In 1982 , he described his approach to Sports Illustrated :
I found that if I squatted down real low at the plate ... I could see the ball better . I also knew it threw the pitcher off . I found that I could put my weight on my back foot and still turn my hips on the swing . I 'm down so low I don 't have much of a strike zone . Sometimes , walking so much even gets me mad . Last year Ed Ott of the Angels got so frustrated because the umpire was calling balls that would 've been strikes on anybody else that he stood up and shouted at me , " Stand up and hit like a man . " I guess I do that to people .
Henderson made MLB history in 1983 with his 3rd 100 runs / 100 stolen bases / 100 bases on balls season ( no modern player , post 1900 has done it once ) , when he led the AL with 108 stolen bases & 103 walks while finishing 4th scoring 103 runs . He was 2nd with .414 on base % , tied for 9th in triples with 7 and 5th times on base , reaching 257 times . In the final season of his first stint in Oakland Henderson started to develop more of a power stroke hitting 16 home runs , leading the league in stolen bases , finishing 2nd in runs scored and 3rd in on base % . After the season he was traded to the New York Yankees .
As his muscular frame developed , Henderson continued to improve as a hitter . His increasing power @-@ hitting ability eventually led to a record for home runs to lead off a game . During his career , he hit over 20 home runs in four different seasons , with a high of 28 in 1986 and again in 1990 .
= = = New York Yankees ( 1985 – 1989 ) = = =
In December 1984 , Henderson was traded to the New York Yankees along with Bert Bradley for five players : Tim Birtsas , Jay Howell , Stan Javier , Eric Plunk , and José Rijo . In his first season with the Yankees he led the league in runs scored ( 146 ) and stolen bases ( 80 ) , was fourth in batting average ( .314 ) , walks ( 99 ) and on @-@ base percentage ( .419 ) , 7th in slugging ( .516 ) , 3rd in OPS ( .934 ) and hit 24 home runs . He also won the Silver Slugger Award , and was third in the voting for the MVP award . His 146 runs scored were the most since Ted Williams had 150 in 1950 , and he became the first player since Jimmie Foxx in 1939 to amass more runs scored than games played . Henderson became the first player in major league history to reach 80 stolen bases and 20 home runs in the 1985 season . He matched the feat in 1986 , as did the Reds ' Eric Davis ; they remain the only players in major league history who are in the " 80 / 20 club " .
In 1986 , he led the AL in runs scored ( 130 ) and stolen bases ( 87 ) for the second year in a row , and was seventh in walks ( 89 ) and extra base hits ( 64 ) while hitting 28 home runs , 9 of which led off games , and had 74 RBIs .
In 1987 he had a below @-@ average season by his standards , fueling criticism from the New York media , which had never covered Henderson or his eccentricities kindly . Yankees owner George Steinbrenner issued a press release claiming that manager Lou Piniella wanted to trade Henderson for " jaking it " ( playing lackadaisically ) . Still , Henderson had his best on @-@ base percentage to that point in his career ( .423 ) , was fifth in the AL in stolen bases ( 41 ) and hit 17 home runs despite playing only 95 games . It was the only season from 1980 to 1991 in which Henderson did not lead the AL in steals . Seattle 's Harold Reynolds led the league with 60 steals ; Reynolds tells the story of getting an impish phone call from Henderson after the season :
" The phone rings . ' Henderson here . ' I say , ' Hey , what 's going on , Rickey ? ' I think he 's calling to congratulate me , but he goes , ' Sixty stolen bases ? You ought to be ashamed . Rickey would have 60 at the break . ' And then click , he hung up . "
In 1988 , Henderson led the AL in steals ( 93 ) , was third in runs scored ( 118 ) , fifth in OBP ( .394 ) and seventh in walks ( 82 ) , while hitting .305 . Though only in New York for four and a half seasons , Henderson set the Yankees ' franchise record with 326 stolen bases ; the previous high ( 248 ) had been held by Hal Chase . On May 28 , 2011 , Henderson 's total was surpassed by Derek Jeter , who 'd played 1 @,@ 700 more games as a Yankee than Henderson .
= = = Second stint with the Oakland Athletics ( 1989 – 1993 ) = = =
Following a mid @-@ season trade to Oakland in 1989 , Henderson reasserted himself as one of the game 's greatest players , with a memorable half @-@ season in which his 52 steals and 72 runs scored led the A 's into the postseason ; his 126 walks for the year were the most for any AL hitter since 1970 . With a record eight steals in five games , he was named MVP of the American League Championship Series ; he hit .400 while scoring eight runs and delivering two home runs , five runs batted in ( RBI ) , seven walks and a 1 @.@ 000 slugging percentage . Leading the A 's to a four @-@ game sweep over the San Francisco Giants and the franchise 's first World Series title since 1974 , Henderson hit .474 with an .895 slugging average ( including two triples and a homer ) , while stealing three more bases . On August 22 , 1989 , he became Nolan Ryan 's 5,000th strikeout victim , but Henderson took an odd delight in the occurrence , saying , " If you haven 't been struck out by Nolan Ryan , you 're nobody . "
A year later , Henderson finished second in the league in batting average with a mark of .325 , losing out to the Kansas City Royals ' George Brett on the final day of the season . Henderson had a remarkably consistent season , with his batting average falling below .320 for only one game , the third of the year . Reaching safely by a hit or a walk in 125 of his 136 games , he led the league in runs ( 119 ) , stolen bases ( 65 ) , on @-@ base percentage ( .439 ) and OPS ( 1 @.@ 016 ) was 2nd in slugging % ( .577 ) , 4th in walks ( 97 ) and extra base hits ( 66 ) , 6th in home runs ( 28 ) and total bases ( 282 ) and had 61 RBI and Henderson won the AL 's MVP award and helped Oakland to another pennant . He again performed well in the World Series ( .333 batting , .667 slugging , a home run and three steals in four games ) , but the A 's were swept by the underdog Cincinnati Reds .
On May 1 , 1991 , Henderson broke one of baseball 's most noted records when he stole the 939th base of his career , one more than Lou Brock 's total compiled from 1962 to 1979 , mainly with the St. Louis Cardinals .
In 1993 , Henderson was having another outstanding season when he was traded to the Toronto Blue Jays at the trade deadline . In 90 games with Oakland , he was batting .327 ( 2nd in AL ) with 17 home runs and 47 RBIs . He also had scored 77 runs , stolen 31 bases , drew 85 walks , had a .469 on @-@ base percentage and was slugging .553 .
= = = Toronto Blue Jays ( 1993 ) = = =
In July 1993 , the Athletics traded Henderson to the playoff @-@ bound Toronto Blue Jays for Steve Karsay and José Herrera . He performed disappointingly for the Jays , hitting only .215 in 44 games , which was probably due to the fact that he fractured a bone on his hand early on with the team , after being hit by a pitch , although he still contributed 22 stolen bases and 37 runs scored . However , his hitting woes continued in the post @-@ season , batting .120 in the American League Championship Series and .227 in the World Series . Nevertheless , Henderson was involved in the final play of the World Series that year in one fashion for which he was most known , as he and Paul Molitor scored on Joe Carter 's Series @-@ ending home run . After winning his second World Series ring , this one with Toronto , he re @-@ signed as a free agent with Oakland in December 1993 .
= = = Third stint with the Oakland Athletics ( 1994 – 1995 ) = = =
In 1994 and 1995 , Henderson finished in the top 10 in the league in walks , steals and on @-@ base percentage . His .300 average in 1995 marked his sixth and final season in the AL with a .300 or better average .
= = = San Diego Padres ( 1996 – 1997 ) = = =
Henderson signed with the San Diego Padres in the offseason , where he had another respectable year in 1996 , again finishing in the top ten in the National League ( NL ) in walks , OBP , steals and runs .
= = = Anaheim Angels ( 1997 ) = = =
In August 1997 , Henderson was traded from the Padres to the Anaheim Angels . His brief stint as an Angel was uneventful , with him batting only .183 for the rest of the 1997 baseball year with the Angels .
= = = Fourth stint with the Oakland Athletics ( 1998 ) = = =
In January 1998 , Henderson signed as a free agent with the Athletics , the fourth time he played for the franchise . That season he led the AL in stolen bases ( 66 ) and walks ( 118 ) , while scoring 101 runs .
= = = New York Mets ( 1999 – 2000 ) = = =
A year later , Henderson signed as a free agent with the New York Mets . In 1999 , he batted .315 with 37 steals and was seventh in the NL in on @-@ base percentage — his .423 OBP was his ninth year in a row above .400 . Henderson was voted the 1999 National League comeback player of the year . He wore number 24 , which — although not officially retired — had not been regularly worn by a Mets player since Willie Mays ' retirement in 1973 . Nonetheless , Henderson and the Mets were an uneasy fit . Following the Mets ' loss in the 1999 NLCS , the New York press made much of a card game between Henderson and Bobby Bonilla . Both players had been substituted out of the lineup , and they reportedly left the dugout before the playoff game had concluded .
= = = Seattle Mariners ( 2000 ) = = =
In May 2000 , Henderson was released by the Mets , and quickly signed as a free agent with the Seattle Mariners . In only his second game as a Mariner , on May 20 , Henderson hit a leadoff home run , thus becoming the third player to hit a home run in four different decades ( Ted Williams and Willie McCovey were the others , and Omar Vizquel became the fourth in 2010 ) . Despite the late start , Henderson finished fourth in the AL in stolen bases ( 31 ) .
= = = Second stint with the San Diego Padres ( 2001 ) = = =
A free agent in March 2001 , Henderson returned to the Padres . During the 2001 season , he broke three major league career records and reached an additional major career milestone . He broke Babe Ruth 's record of 2 @,@ 062 career walks , Ty Cobb 's record of 2 @,@ 245 career runs , and Zack Wheat 's record of 2 @,@ 328 career games in left field , and on the final day of the season collected his 3,000th career hit , a leadoff double off Rockies pitcher John Thomson . That final game was also Padre legend Tony Gwynn 's last major league game , and Henderson had originally wanted to sit out so as not to detract from the occasion , but Gwynn insisted that Henderson play . After scoring the game 's first run , Henderson was removed from the lineup . With Gwynn having 3 @,@ 141 hits , it was just the second time in Major League history that a pair of teammates each had 3 @,@ 000 career hits ; Ty Cobb and Tris Speaker had previously played many games together for the 1928 A 's .
At the age of 42 , in his last substantial major league season , Henderson finished the year with 25 stolen bases , ninth in the NL ; it also marked his 23rd consecutive season with more than 20 steals . Of the ten top base stealers who were still active as of 2002 , the other nine each stole fewer bases in 2002 than the 42 @-@ year @-@ old Henderson .
= = = Boston Red Sox ( 2002 ) = = =
In February 2002 , Henderson signed as a free agent with the Boston Red Sox , where at age 43 he became the oldest player to play center field in major league history when he replaced Johnny Damon for three games in April and another in July . Henderson 's arrival was marked by a statistical oddity . During the 22 @-@ 1 / 2 years from his June 1979 debut through the end of the 2001 season , he had stolen more bases by himself than his new team had : 1 @,@ 395 steals for Henderson , 1 @,@ 382 for the Boston franchise . The Red Sox finally " passed " Henderson on April 30 , 2002 . At 43 , Henderson was the oldest player in the American League .
= = = Newark Bears , Los Angeles Dodgers ( 2003 ) = = =
As the 2003 season began , Henderson was without a team for the first time in his career . He played in the independent Atlantic League with the Newark Bears , hoping for a chance with another major league organization . After much media attention , the Los Angeles Dodgers signed him over the All @-@ Star break after he was named the league 's All @-@ Star game MVP .
= = = Retirement = = =
Before the 2003 season , his last in the majors , Henderson discussed his reputation for hanging onto his lengthy baseball career :
" Each and every day I set a record , but we never talk about it . We 'll talk about a home run hitter 24 / 7 . Well , they haven 't broken any all @-@ time records , but they hit homers , and that 's what matters nowadays . You continue playing , you accomplish a lot , and you 'd think people would look at it as a fantastic career . Instead , Rickey thinks people want Rickey to quit more than anything . "
Henderson played his last major league game on September 19 , 2003 ; he was hit by a pitch in his only plate appearance , and came around to score his 2,295th run . Though it became increasingly unlikely that he would return to major league action , his status continued to confound , as he publicly debated his own official retirement from professional baseball . After leaving the Dodgers , Henderson started his second consecutive season with the Newark Bears in the spring of 2004 . In 91 games he had a .462 OBP , with more than twice as many walks ( 96 ) as strikeouts ( 41 ) , and stole 37 bases while being caught only twice . On May 9 , 2005 , Henderson signed with the San Diego Surf Dawgs of the Golden Baseball League , an independent league . This was the SurfDawgs ' and the Golden Baseball League 's inaugural season , and Henderson helped the team to the league championship . In 73 games he had a .456 OBP , with 73 walks while striking out 43 times , and 16 steals while being caught only twice . It would be his final professional season .
Henderson would not accept the end of his major league career . In May 2005 , he was still insisting that he was capable of playing in the major leagues . NBC and ESPN reported that Henderson had announced his much @-@ delayed official retirement on December 6 , 2005 , but his agent denied the report the following day . On February 10 , 2006 , he accepted a position as a hitting instructor for the Mets , while leaving the door open to returning as a player . In July 2006 , Henderson discussed an offer he 'd received to rejoin the SurfDawgs for the 2006 season , which would have been his 31st in professional baseball , but suggested he 'd had enough . But six weeks later , on August 11 , he claimed " It 's sort of weird not to be playing , but I decided to take a year off " , adding , " I can 't say I will retire . My heart is still in it ... I still love the game right now , so I 'm going to wait it out and see what happens . "
On May 18 , 2007 , the San Francisco Chronicle reported that Oakland general manager Billy Beane was considering adding Henderson to the roster for one game in September , provided it did not " infringe on the integrity of the roster or of the season " , so that Henderson could retire as an Oakland A 's player . A month later , Henderson appeared to reject the overture , saying , " One day ? I don 't want one day . I want to play again , man . I don 't want nobody 's spot ... I just want to see if I deserve to be out there . If I don 't , just get rid of me , release me . And if I belong , you don 't have to pay me but the minimum — and I 'll donate every penny of that to some charity . So , how 's that hurtin ' anybody ? ... Don 't say goodbye for me ... When I want that one day they want to give me so bad , I 'll let you know . " The Athletics retired Henderson 's # 24 on August 1 , 2009 .
Henderson finally conceded his " official retirement " on July 13 , 2007 : " I haven 't submitted retirement papers to MLB , but I think MLB already had their papers that I was retired . " Characteristically , he added , " If it was a situation where we were going to win the World Series and I was the only player that they had left , I would put on the shoes . "
Contrary to speculation , Henderson 's refusal to officially retire had not been delaying his eligibility for Hall of Fame induction . Since the 1970s , the five @-@ year waiting period has been based on major league service only . Henderson was elected as part of the 2009 Hall of Fame vote , in his first appearance on the ballot . At a press conference two days after his election , the 50 @-@ year @-@ old Henderson told reporters , " I believe today , and people say I ’ m crazy , but if you gave me as many at @-@ bats that you would give the runners out there today , I would outsteal every last one of them ... they can always ring my phone and I 'll come on down and help their ballclub , that 's how much I love the game . "
In 2011 , on the 20th anniversary of his record @-@ breaking stolen base , the Oakland A 's held " Rickey Henderson Bobblehead Day . " At Henderson 's insistence , the giveaway plastic dolls had one atypical modification : " I told them , put a little dirt on mine , make sure that [ it looks ] like I 'm playing the game . " Almost eight years after his final game , Henderson also reiterated his desire to return : " Sometimes when I sit around and look at the game and things ain 't going right , I just think , ' Just let me put on the uniform and go out there and take a chance ' . "
= = = Coaching = = =
The New York Mets hired Henderson as a special instructor in 2006 , primarily to work with hitters and to teach base stealing . Henderson 's impact was noticeable on José Reyes , the Mets ' former leadoff hitter . " I always want to be around the game " , Henderson said in May 2007 . " That 's something that 's in my blood . Helping them have success feels just as good . "
On July 13 , 2007 , the Mets promoted Henderson from special instructor to first base coach , replacing Howard Johnson , who became the hitting coach . Henderson was not retained as a coach for 2008 . Henderson has periodically been a special instructor in the Athletics ' spring training camps . In 2010 , he worked on base stealing ( most notably with Rajai Davis and Coco Crisp ) and outfield drills .
= = Image and personality = =
Sports Illustrated 's Tom Verducci wrote in 2003 , " There are certain figures in American history who have passed into the realm of cultural mythology , as if reality could no longer contain their stories : Johnny Appleseed . Wild Bill Hickok . Davy Crockett . Rickey Henderson . They exist on the sometimes narrow margin between Fact and Fiction . "
Henderson was known for being an illeist , referring to himself in the third person . One unconfirmed story reports seeing him standing naked in front of a mirror before a game , practicing his swing , and declaring , " Rickey 's the best ! Rickey 's the best ! " According to Verducci , during one off @-@ season , Henderson called Padres general manager Kevin Towers and left this message : " Kevin , this is Rickey . Calling on behalf of Rickey . Rickey wants to play baseball . " However , Henderson denied that this happened in a February 26 , 2009 interview on Mike and Mike in the Morning . In 2003 , he discussed his unusual phraseology , saying , " People are always saying , ' Rickey says Rickey . ' But it 's been blown way out of proportion . Rickey says it when Rickey doesn 't do what Rickey needs to be doing . Rickey uses it to remind himself , like , `Rickey , what you doing , you stupid .... ' Rickey 's just scolding himself . " Henderson did use the first person pronoun on occasion , such as when he defended his position during a contract dispute : " All I 'm asking for is what I want . "
Henderson was so proud of a $ 1 million signing bonus that he framed it instead of cashing it , thus losing several months ' interest . In 2002 , following an argument with pitcher Orlando Hernández , Henderson stated , " He needs to grow up a little bit . I ain 't a kid . When I broke into the game , he was crawling on his hands and knees . Unless he 's as old as I am . He probably is . "
There are many unconfirmed stories about Henderson . A Padres teammate ( variously reported as Steve Finley or Tony Gwynn ) once offered him a seat anywhere on the bus , saying that Henderson had tenure . Henderson supposedly replied , " Ten years ? What are you talking about ? Rickey got 16 , 17 years . " One widely reported story was a fabrication that began as a clubhouse joke made by a visiting player . While playing for Seattle in 2000 , Henderson was said to have commented on first baseman John Olerud 's practice of wearing a batting helmet while playing defense , noting that a former teammate in Toronto did the same thing . Olerud was reported to have replied , " That was me . " The two men had been together the previous season with the 1999 Mets , as well as with the 1993 World Champion Blue Jays . Several news outlets originally reported the story as fact .
Verducci wrote , " Rickey is the modern @-@ day Yogi Berra , only faster . " Henderson himself is resigned to his persona : " A lot of stuff they had me doing or something they said I had created , it 's comedy . I guess that 's how they want to judge me , as a character . "
= = Legacy = =
On May 1 , 1991 , Henderson stole his 939th base to pass Lou Brock and became the sport 's all @-@ time stolen base leader . Henderson 's speech ( at right ) after breaking Brock 's record was similar to the standard victory or award speech . He thanked God and his mother , as well as the people that helped him in baseball . Because his idol was Muhammad Ali , Henderson decided to use the words " greatest of all time . " These words have since been taken by many to support the notion that Henderson is selfish and arrogant , although years later , Henderson revealed that he had gone over his planned remarks ahead of time with Brock , and the Cardinals Hall of Famer " had no problem with it . In fact , he helped me write what I was going to say that day . " On the day of the speech , Brock later told reporters amiably , " He spoke from his heart . " Brock and Henderson had had a friendly relationship ever since their first meeting in 1981 . Brock pronounced the young speedster as the heir to his record , saying , " How are we gonna break it ? "
Henderson has mixed feelings about his comments :
" As soon as I said it , it ruined everything . Everybody thought it was the worst thing you could ever say . Those words haunt me to this day , and will continue to haunt me . They overshadow what I 've accomplished in this game . "
At the end of his July 2009 Hall of Fame induction , Henderson alluded to his earlier speech , saying :
" In closing , I would like to say my favorite hero was Muhammad Ali . He said at one time , quote , ' I am the greatest , ' end of quote . That is something I always wanted to be . And now that the Association has voted me into the Baseball Hall of Fame , my journey as a player is complete . I am now in the class of the greatest players of all time . And at this moment , I am ... [ pause ] ... very , very humble . Thank you . "
Asked if he believes the passage of time will improve his reputation , Henderson said :
" If you talk about baseball , you can 't eliminate me , because I 'm all over baseball ... It 's the truth . Telling the truth isn 't being cocky . What do you want me to say , that I didn 't put up the numbers ? That my teams didn 't win a lot of games ? People don 't want me to say anything about what I 've done . Then why don 't you say it ? Because if I don 't say it and you don 't say it , nobody says it . "
Henderson had 468 more stolen bases in his career than Brock , one short of 50 % more than the game 's second @-@ most prolific basestealer . In 1993 , Henderson stole his 1,066th base , surpassing the record established ten years earlier by Yutaka Fukumoto for the Hankyu Braves in Japan 's Pacific League . In his prime , Henderson had a virtual monopoly on the stolen base title in the American League . Between 1980 and 1991 , he led the league in steals every season except 1987 , when he missed part of the season due to a nagging hamstring injury , allowing Mariners second baseman Harold Reynolds to win the title . Henderson had one more league @-@ leading season after that stretch , when his 66 steals in 1998 made him the oldest steals leader in baseball history . Perhaps unsurprisingly , Henderson also owns the record for times caught stealing ( 335 ) . Due to incomplete historical recordkeeping for that statistic , though , it is unknown whether he is the actual career leader . However , Henderson 's overall 81 % success rate on the basepaths is among the highest percentages in history . ( Tim Raines ranks first among players with at least 300 career attempts , at 84 % . ) On July 29 , 1989 , Henderson stole five bases against the Mariners ' left @-@ handed Randy Johnson , his career high , and one shy of the single @-@ game major league record . Unusually , Henderson was hitless in the game ( he had four walks ) . Henderson had 18 four @-@ steal games during his career . In August 1983 , in a three @-@ game series against the Brewers and a 2 @-@ game series versus the Yankees , Henderson had 13 stolen bases in five games . Baltimore Orioles third baseman Floyd Rayford described the confusion he felt during a particular game , when Henderson was leading off first base and signalling him with two fingers . Henderson quickly stole second base , then third , and Rayford understood the gesture .
Longtime scout Charlie Metro remembered the havoc caused by Henderson : ' " I did a lot of study and I found that it 's impossible to throw Rickey Henderson out . I started using stopwatches and everything . I found it was impossible to throw some other guys out also . They can go from first to second in 2 @.@ 9 seconds ; and no pitcher catcher combination in baseball could throw from here to there to tag second in 2 @.@ 9 seconds , it was always 3 , 3 @.@ 1 , 3 @.@ 2 . So actually , the runner that can make the continuous , regular move like Rickey 's can 't be thrown out , and he 's proven it . "
Joe Posnanski of the Kansas City Star and Sports Illustrated wrote :
" I ’ m about to give you one of my all @-@ time favorite statistics : Rickey Henderson walked 796 times in his career LEADING OFF AN INNING . Think about this again . There would be nothing , absolutely nothing , a pitcher would want to avoid more than walking Rickey Henderson to lead off an inning . And yet he walked SEVEN HUNDRED NINETY SIX times to lead off an inning .
He walked more times just leading off in an inning than Lou Brock , Roberto Clemente , Luis Aparicio , Ernie Banks , Kirby Puckett , Ryne Sandberg and more than 50 other Hall of Famers walked in their entire careers ... I simply cannot imagine a baseball statistic more staggering . "
Henderson was a headfirst slider . In September 2008 , Henderson discussed his base stealing technique at length with Sports Illustrated :
" I wanted to know how to dive into the base because I was getting strawberries on my knees and strawberries on my ass ... I was thinking about head @-@ first versus feet @-@ first , and wondering which would save my body . With head @-@ first I worried about pounding my shoulders and my hands , and with feet @-@ first I would worry about my knees and my legs . I felt that running was more important to me , with my legs , so I started going head @-@ first . I got my [ low @-@ to @-@ the @-@ ground ] technique from airplanes ... I was on a plane and asleep and the plane bounced and when we landed we bounced and it woke me up . Then the next flight I had the same pilot and the plane went down so smooth . So I asked the pilot why , and he said when you land a plane smooth , you get the plane elevated to the lowest position you can and then you smooth it in . Same with sliding ... If you dive when you 're running straight up then you have a long distance to get to the ground . But the closer you get to the ground the less time it will take ... I was hitting the dirt so smooth , so fast , when I hit the dirt , there wasn 't no hesitation . It was like a skid mark , like you throw a rock on the water and skid off it . So when I hit the ground , if you didn 't have the tag down , I was by you . No matter if the ball beat me , I was by you . That was what made the close plays go my way , I think . "
Padres closer Trevor Hoffman said , " I don 't know how to put into words how fortunate I was to spend time around one of the icons of the game . I can 't comprehend that yet . Years from now , though , I 'll be able to say I played with Rickey Henderson , and I imagine it will be like saying I played with Babe Ruth . " Padres general manager Kevin Towers said , " I get e @-@ mails daily from fans saying , ' Sign Rickey . ' ... I get more calls and e @-@ mails about him than anybody ... We 've had some special players come through San Diego . But there 's an aura about him nobody else has . "
Tony La Russa , Henderson 's manager in the late 1980s in Oakland , said , " He rises to the occasion — the big moment — better than anybody I 've ever seen . " Coach Rene Lachemann said , " If you 're one run down , there 's nobody you 'd ever rather have up at the plate than Rickey . " Teammate Mitchell Page said , " It wasn 't until I saw Rickey that I understood what baseball was about . Rickey Henderson is a run , man . That 's it . When you see Rickey Henderson , I don 't care when , the score 's already 1 – 0 . If he 's with you , that 's great . If he 's not , you won 't like it . "
A 's pitching coach Dave Duncan said of Henderson , " You have to be careful because he can knock one out . But you don 't want to be too careful because he 's got a small strike zone and you can 't afford to walk him . And that 's only half the problem . When he gets on base he 's more trouble still . " Sportswriter Tom Verducci wrote , " Baseball is designed to be an egalitarian sort of game in which one player among the 18 is not supposed to dominate ... Yet in the past quarter century Henderson and Barry Bonds have come closest to dominating a baseball game the way Michael Jordan could a basketball game . " In July 2007 , New York Sun sportswriter Tim Marchman wrote about Henderson 's accomplishments :
He stole all those bases and scored all those runs and played all those years not because of his body , but because of his brain . Rickey could tell from the faintest , most undetectable twitch of a pitcher 's muscles whether he was going home or throwing over to first . He understood that conditioning isn 't about strength , but about flexibility . And more than anyone else in the history of the game , he understood that baseball is entirely a game of discipline — the discipline to work endless 1 – 1 counts your way , the discipline to understand that your job is to get on base , and the discipline to understand that the season is more important than the game , and a career more important than the season . Maybe he 'd get a bit more credit for all this if he were some boring drip like Cal Ripken Jr . , blathering on endlessly about humility and apple pie and tradition and whatever else , but we 're all better off with things the way they are ... Everyone had their fun when he broke Lou Brock 's stolen base record and proclaimed , ' I am the greatest ' , but he was , of course , just saying what was plainly true .
= = = Career milestones = = =
As of 2014 , Henderson ranks fourth all @-@ time in career games played ( 3 @,@ 081 ) , tenth in at bats ( 10 @,@ 961 ) , twenty @-@ second in hits ( 3 @,@ 055 ) , and first in runs scored ( 2 @,@ 295 ) and stolen bases ( 1 @,@ 406 ) . His record for most career walks ( 2 @,@ 190 ) has since been broken by Barry Bonds ; Henderson is now second . He also holds the record for most home runs to lead off a game , with 81 ; Alfonso Soriano of the New York Yankees is tied for the second @-@ most ever with Craig Biggio , with 53 . During the 2003 season , Henderson surpassed Babe Ruth for the career record in secondary bases ( total bases compiled from extra base hits , walks , stolen bases , and times hit by pitch ) . In 1993 , he led off both games of a doubleheader with homers . At the time of his last major league game , Henderson was still in the all @-@ time top 100 home run hitters , with 297 . Bill James wrote in 2000 , " Without exaggerating one inch , you could find fifty Hall of Famers who , all taken together , don 't own as many records , and as many important records , as Rickey Henderson . "
Henderson 's eight steals during the 1989 ALCS broke Lou Brock 's postseason record for a single series . His record for the most postseason stolen bases was broken by Kenny Lofton 's 34th career steal during the 2007 ALCS ; however , Lofton accomplished his total in 95 postseason games compared to Henderson 's 60 . Henderson is the only American League player to steal more than 100 bases in a single season , and he is the all @-@ time stolen base leader for the Oakland A 's .
In 1999 , before breaking the career records for runs scored and walks , Henderson was ranked number 51 on The Sporting News ' list of the 100 Greatest Baseball Players , and was a nominee for the Major League Baseball All @-@ Century Team . In 2005 , The Sporting News updated their 100 Greatest Players list , and Henderson had inched up to number 50 . On January 12 , 2009 , Henderson was elected to the Baseball Hall of Fame in his first year on the ballot , receiving 94 @.@ 8 % of the vote . This was the 13th highest percentage in major league history .
Asked to choose the best player in history , Henderson declined , saying , " There are guys who have done different things very well , but I don 't know of anyone who mastered everything . " Offered the chance to assess his own placement among the game 's greats , he said , " I haven 't mastered the homers or RBI . The little things , I probably mastered . " Of his various records and achievements , he values his career runs scored mark the most : " You have to score to win . "
= = = Records = = =
= = = Awards and honors = = =
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= Section 3 of the Human Rights Act 1998 =
Section 3 of the Human Rights Act 1998 is a provision of the Human Rights Act 1998 that enables the Act to take effect in the United Kingdom . The section requires courts to interpret both primary and subordinate legislation so that their provisions are compatible with the articles of the European Convention of Human Rights , which are also part of the Human Rights Act 1998 . This interpretation goes far beyond normal statutory interpretation , and includes past and future legislation , therefore preventing the Human Rights act from being impliedly repealed by subsequent contradictory legislation .
Courts have applied section 3 of the Act through three forms of interpretation : " reading in " – inserting words where there are none in a statute ; " reading out " where words are omitted from a statute ; and " reading down " where a particular meaning is chosen to be in compliance . They do not interpret statutes to conflict with legislative intent , and courts have been reluctant in particular to " read out " provisions for this reason . If it is not possible to so interpret , they may issue a declaration of incompatibility under section 4 .
The relationship between sections 3 and 4 and parliamentary sovereignty has been commented on most extensively . The most common criticism has been of the implied limitations on legislative supremacy . Opponents of this criticism has questioned both its factual accuracy and its suggestion that the weakening of parliamentary sovereignty should be avoided . They instead cite morality and constitutionalism as among positive features of this change . The limits of courts ' powers have also been queried . The retroactivity of law making is one criticism related to the rule of law , although the advancement of human rights is seen as a positive feature also associated with the rule of law . Whilst the scope of section 3 has been criticised for being vague and there have been warnings of to the imposition of the judiciary on parliament 's domain , these have also been challenged .
= = Context = =
Human rights are rights taken to be universal , of considerable importance , and relate to the individual and not collectively ; among other things , they can grant freedoms , claims , immunities and powers . The European Convention on Human Rights was drawn up in the wake of the Second World War to uphold such rights . The United Kingdom ratified the European Convention on Human Rights in 1951 , and accepted the right of individual petition to the European Court of Human Rights , Strasbourg , in 1966 . The Human Rights Act 1998 made most Convention rights directly enforceable in a British court for the first time . Excluded are Articles 1 and 13 , which the government argued were fulfilled by the Act itself , and therefore were not relevant to rights enforced under it . The Human Rights Act has had a considerable effect on British law , and remains an Act of " fundamental constitutional importance " .
= = Provisions = =
Section 3 ( 1 ) states that " So far as it is possible to do so , primary legislation and subordinate legislation must be read and given effect in a way which is compatible with the Convention rights . " Accordingly , a court must read any statute passed by parliament so as to uphold Convention rights , where this is possible . It is possibly the section of the act with the widest scope . The Human Rights Act therefore built upon a small number of previously recognised absolute freedoms which could only be expressly subjugated to another aim . This is different from other systems , such as the New Zealand Bill of Rights , that require an interpretation to be " reasonable " . As happened in R ( Anderson ) v Home Secretary , the alternative where such interpretation is not possible the alternative is a declaration of incompatibility under Section 4 . Lord Hoffmann in a case , R ( Simms ) v Home Secretary , which bridged the introduction of the Human Rights Act , said :
Parliamentary sovereignty means that Parliament can , if it chooses , legislate contrary to fundamental principles of human rights . The Human Rights Act 1998 will not detract from this power . The constraints upon its exercise by Parliament are ultimately political , not legal . But the principle of legality means that Parliament must squarely confront what it is doing and accept the political cost . Fundamental rights cannot be overridden by general or ambiguous words . This is because there is too great a risk that the full implications of their unqualified meaning may have passed unnoticed in the democratic process . In the absence of express language or necessary implication to the contrary , the courts therefore presume that even the most general words were intended to be subject to the basic rights of the individual . In this way the courts of the United Kingdom , though acknowledging the sovereignty of Parliament , apply principles of constitutionality little different from those which exist in countries where the power of the legislature is expressly limited by a constitutional document .
" Read and give effect " requires the interpretation " where possible " of legislation – where there is an interpretation open to the court that is consistent with Convention rights , it must be chosen over those that do not . Following the introduction of the Human Rights Act , there was some disagreement between judges as to how far this provision went . Lord Steyn , in R v A , has said " the interpretative obligation under section 3 of the 1998 Act is a strong one . It applies even if there is no ambiguity in the language in the sense of the language being capable of two different meanings . " He further noted that it may be necessary under section 3 to " adopt an interpretation which linguistically may appear strained " and that a declaration of incomparability was a " measure of last resort " . However , In re S established that there may be cases where interpretation can go to far ; that the court can assume an administrative power it would not ordinarily have , with practical consequences that it is not best placed to consider : " a meaning which departs substantially from a fundamental feature of an Act of Parliament is likely to have crossed the boundary between interpretation and amendment . " Given that the precise wording of a statute could be altered under the section , the " thrust " was important ; going against the " thrust " required legislative power that the courts did not have . Although other sources could be used ( see , for example , Pepper v Hart ) , the wording of a statute must be considered the primary intent of parliament . The decision in Ghaidan v Godin @-@ Mendoza appears to have achieved some settling of the approach taken in extreme cases .
Section 3 ( 2 ) ( a ) extends the scope of section 3 to past and future Acts of Parliament in addition to present legislation . It therefore contradicts the usual policy of implied repeal – whereby any inconsistency between statutes are resolved in favour of the later statute . The Human Rights Act must therefore be explicitly ( or " expressly " ) repealed by an Act of Parliament deliberately doing so , not merely be introducing contradictory legislation . The act therefore carries an additional normative force and has been considered constitutional in character as a result . It is widely recognised that parliament may never directly contradict convention rights , or at least do so very rarely . Sections 3 ( 2 ) ( b ) and 3 ( 2 ) ( c ) confirm the validity of all legislation , whether or not it has been interpreted under Section 3 . Section 3 can therefore be said to protect primary legislation which is incompatible , and any secondary legislation made under such primary legislation .
= = Interpretation = =
Three types of judicial interpretation are commonly identified in the context of section 3 : " reading in " , " reading out " and " reading down " . " Reading in " refers to adding in words that are not present in the statute so as to ensure compliance with Convention rights , and " reading out " removing words in a statute to do so . These processes had already been implemented with reference to the implementation of European legislation , so as to ensure compliance of domestic law with European law . Although accepted with secondary legislation , they remain controversial with primary legislation , since parliament would have included or omitted such words if it had had such an intent ; reading in or out words would therefore conflict with parliamentary intention . Courts have , however , accepted these powers , and during the passing of the Human Rights Act , it was agreed that the courts would have such a power .
In R v A , extra provisions were read into a statute to ensure compliance , since the statute itself had the legitimate aim of protecting potential rape victims ; it was merely , in the words of Lord Steyn , that " the methods adopted amounted to legislative overkill " . In Poplar Housing v Donaghue , the Court of Appeal rejected the possibility of reading in a provision , because it would have altered the method of remedying the problem to that laid down by Parliament , amounting to starting afresh on how best to approach the issue . Courts have been far more reluctant to read out wording for fear of going against parliamentary intention , but it remains a possibility .
" Reading down " involves choosing an interpretation that is compatible , where more than one is strictly possible . For example , placing a persuasive burden of proof on a defendant raising a defence – that he need persuade the jury that it is the case , was judged to be incompatible with Article 6 ( 2 ) of the Convention , which related to the presumption of innocence , which had long been a part of English law in R v Lambert . The court read down the burden of proof as merely one of an evidential burden – meaning the defendant merely had to raise some evidence to support the defence , which it believed did not conflict with Article 6 ( 2 ) . However , in Sheldrake v DPP , the court instead requiring a persuasive burden , because it believed in the context of the motoring offence in the case , this was not disproportionate and did not conflict with Article 6 ( 2 ) .
= = Academic commentary = =
Before the Human Rights Act was brought before parliament , the government 's whitepaper considered that it was necessary to prevent courts from setting aside legislation on the basis of incompatibility ( reflecting a strong need to respect parliamentary sovereignty ) . However , the effect on parliamentary sovereignty has been criticised despite the safeguards put in place . Section 3 has been defended , however , by reference to the enhanced morality and constitutionalism of the new system , prompted by an " incoming tide " of human rights . Aileen Kavanagh considers the choice of a court in cases not a question of parliamentary sovereignty , but a complex question of how far the judiciary can perform a legislative function in that area . She considers the political and legislative pressure on government after section 3 or 4 overwhelming to the extent that the concept of parliamentary sovereignty should be " eliminated " . However , other writers have stressed the important of the formal right to ignore either decision . The result of this debate has been to label section 3 either a " radical tool " to implement human rights , or a " signficiant limitation " of Parliament 's will .
Geoffrey Marshall has characterised section 3 as a " deeply mysterious provision " in several respects , including judging how strong a provision it is – an issue since dealt with by the courts – but has also noted a disparity between what the Act might be expected to do and what it does . He argues that a litigant would hope that courts would strive to uphold his rights under the Convention , accepting a derivation from them only rarely ; instead section 3 requires courts to find compatibility with the Convention where possible – in other words , to strive to find that the Convention does not impact the claimant . Alison L. Young has examined the upper boundaries to courts ' powers of interpretation . She puts forward three possible limits : firstly , where the text of a statute is not ambiguous ; secondly , where reading in words is inappropriate ; and , thirdly , where any interpretation is restricted to cases where it does not involve implied repeal . Young dismisses the first two as incompatible with the legislative history ( and , in at least the first case , judicial history ) and believes the third to present no rigid limit on courts ' powers at all . The decision of Pepper v Hart provides a method for the legislative history of a bill to play a role in its interpretation .
Philip Sales and Richard Ekins are among those that believe that section 3 has not displaced the purpose of interpretation – to discern parliamentary intention . In their eyes , section 3 is about " how interpreters are to infer that intention " . They also criticise the " judicial lawmaking " because it applies to the case in hand , concluding that this breaks the non @-@ retroactivity commonly considered part of the rule of law , although it is sometimes necessary . They also note that rules made by courts are not transparent , because their new interpretation under section 3 differs from their ordinary meaning – after all , section 3 must go beyond standard interpretation . This leaves citizens uncertain of what the law is . Sales and Ekins also suggest that while applying section 3 to post @-@ Human Rights Act legislation might be merely using a presumption that the legislature intended to follow it , applying it to pre @-@ Human Rights Act legislation cannot possibly base itself on such an inference . Section 3 , though , still allows them to do so .
Another view is that Section 3 provides a much strengthened basis for the sort of " weak review " – the scope of which carefully determined between courts on one hand and parliament on the other – in a statutory form . There have been at least three criticisms put forward : firstly that the impossibility of implied repeal goes against some formulations of parliamentary sovereignty that require that no parliament can bind a future parliament . Secondly , whether section 3 interpretations follow parliamentary intent is questionable ; thirdly , if it does allow interpretations contrary to intent , section 3 may render section 4 necessary . However , judicial powers are probably not unconstrained . The analysis of what the courts can and cannot do would also provide the answer the third criticism , depending on the viewpoint . Whilst the scope of section 3 has been criticised for being vague , and leading therefore more easily to the imposition of the judiciary on the legal domain of parliament , this viewpoint is controversial : they do not seem to have yet so encroached and there are rules emerging about the application of section 3 .
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= Patrick Henry College =
Patrick Henry College ( PHC ) is a private , independent college with an Evangelical Christian basis that focuses on teaching classical liberal arts and government , located in Purcellville , Virginia , United States . The college is known for its conservative evangelical Christian focus . PHC is accredited by the Transnational Association of Christian Colleges and Schools , a national faith @-@ related accrediting organization .
The school was founded with the help of the Home School Legal Defense Association , and now serves as the headquarters for the organization , with which it is still closely connected .
= = History = =
Patrick Henry College was incorporated in 1998 by Michael Farris , founder of the Home School Legal Defense Association , who in 1993 , ran unsuccessfully for lieutenant governor of Virginia . It officially opened September 20 , 2000 , with a class of 92 students . Since then the school has grown to approximately 350 students . The college eschews federal financial aid and is therefore relieved from Department of Education reporting requirements on demographic makeup of its student body and from other federal reporting requirements . The school does not ask for race on applications so the ethnic demographics are unknown .
PHC receives all of its funding from tuition fees or donations . The college states that it does not accept any money from governmentor any other source that includes termThaterseding the authority of its Board of Trustees or conflict with its foundational statements . PHC adds new facilities and programs only as funds are available . The Home School Legal Defense Association is one of the primary benefactors of the school , and all members of the association receive a $ 1300 grant if they are accepted as students .
= = = Media attention = = =
The school has attracted reports from every major network and cable news organization from its inception , and been the subject of articles in Time , The New Yorker , The Economist , the New York Times , and others . A television documentary about the college , God 's Next Army , aired in the spring of 2006 on Britain 's Channel 4 and on the Discovery Times Channel in the United States . Initial media interest stemmed from the fact that the college deliberately sought students with homeschooled backgrounds . It also attracted attention because a number of the school 's students gained White House internships and opportunities within the George W. Bush administration : in spring 2004 , seven of the 100 student White House interns were from PHC , which had only 240 students at the time . Thats is the same number of interns Georgetown University had during the same period . Hanna Rosin , a writer who has covered religion and politics for several prominent journals , wrote a book entitled , God 's Harvard : A Christian College on a Mission to Save America , published 2007 . In September 2008 , photographer Jona Frank released a second book about Patrick Henry entitled " Right : Portraits of the Evangelical Ivy League , " which features photographic portraits of students and their families . Additionally , the college 's moot court team was the subject of an independent film , Come What May , shot during summer 2007 by a startup Christian production company and marketed primarily to a homeschooling audience . Chancellor Michael Farris appeared on the Colbert Report on October 21 , 2008 .
In February 2014 , The New Republic published an article alleging a pattern of pervasive covering up of sexual assault at Patrick Henry College . The article claims that dean Sandra Corbitt and other administrative staff worked to minimize or conceal sexual assault reports and shift blame to victims . The College denies these allegations . Because Patrick Henry College does not accept federal funds , it is not subject to the Clery Act or Title IX of the Education Amendments of 1972 .
= = = Accreditation = = =
Patrick Henry College received accreditation in 2007 from the Transnational Association of Christian Colleges and Schools , a national accrediting organization for Christian colleges , universities , and seminaries created by the Institute for Creation Research . The college had previously been denied accreditation by the American Academy for Liberal Education in the spring of 2002 because creationism was part of the curriculum . On June 30 , 2005 , the school was officially recognized by the United States Department of Education as an institution eligible for DOE programs . It also allowed students to use more scholarships and grants and made donors and students eligible for various tax benefits . On April 3 , 2012 , the Transnational Association of Christian Colleges and Schools reaffirmed Patrick Henry College 's accreditation for a period of ten years .
= = Religious affirmations = =
All students must sign a " Statement of Faith " before they arrive , affirming belief in what the college considers core Christian doctrines . For example , students are asked to acknowledge " Satan exists as a personal , malevolent being who acts as tempter and accuser , for whom Hell , the place of eternal punishment , was prepared , where all who die outside of Christ shall be confined in conscious torment for eternity .... Man is by nature sinful and is inherently in need of salvation , which is exclusively found by faith alone in Jesus Christ and His shed blood .... Christ 's death provides substitutionary atonement for our sins . " The college professes non @-@ denominational Christian beliefs , informed by Evangelical Protestantism .
Teaching faculty must also sign the Statement of Faith and a more detailed Statement of Biblical Worldview , which represents the college 's requirements for what should be taught . For example the Biblical Worldview Applications states , " Any biology , Bible , or other courses at PHC dealing with creation will teach creation from the understanding of Scripture that God 's creative work , as described in Genesis 1 : 1 – 31 , was completed in six twenty @-@ four @-@ hour days . "
In an interview with Fresh Air on National Public Radio , PHC founder Farris commented that the college held the view that its faith was the only true faith ( " we believe that there is truth and there is error " ) and expressed disapproval of religious and social toleration . " Tolerance cannot coexist with liberty " because " the crowd of tolerance wants to ban speech . "
On April 12 , 2007 , LGBT rights group Soulforce selected PHC as one of the targets of its annual " Equality Ride , " to protest the stance of conservative Christian colleges concerning homosexuality . Like many other Christian colleges , Patrick Henry did not allow Soulforce to enter the university premises , but the college proposed for student representatives to engage in a formal debate at a neutral location on the merits of the proposed Federal Marriage Amendment to the US Constitution . Soulforce organizers declined and notified the college of their intent to enter the campus to speak directly with students . After being refused entry , Soulforce formed a picket line outside the entrance to the campus and protested for approximately five hours .
= = Campus = =
Patrick Henry College is located in the town of Purcellville in rural northern Virginia , approximately 40 miles ( 64 km ) northwest of Washington D.C. The campus currently consists of seven buildings arranged around a retention pond popularly called " Lake Bob " , as well as several athletic fields . The oldest structure , Founders Hall , opened in 2000 and contains three classrooms , the college library , and various administrative and faculty offices . It is also home to the offices of the Home School Legal Defense Association . Hanna Rosin , author of God 's Harvard , described the campus as " tiny , less like an Ivy League college than like a Hollywood set of an old Ivy League school . " The buildings are of Colonial Revival architecture . The artwork in Founders Hall consists of copies of portraits of the Founding Fathers placed along a staircase , leading to a picture of Patrick Henry at the second Virginia convention which features a light from heaven guiding Henry 's speech . The artwork is designed to , in the words of Hanna Rosin , " remind the students that America was founded as a Christian nation . "
The school 's residential village is composed of five residence halls located along the edges of the lake . There are two men 's dormitories ( Oak Hill and Red Hill ) and three women 's dormitories ( Mount Vernon , Monticello , and Montpelier ) . The four smaller dormitories opened in 2001 , while the largest residence hall , Red Hill , opened in 2003 . In addition to student housing , Red Hill also contains three classrooms and an office suite on its basement level . Located in the basement of Mount Vernon is an auditorium referred to as Town Hall , where the school 's daily chapel sessions and other special events are held . The residence halls are set up in an arc shape around the lake .
= = = Barbara Hodel Student Center = = =
In August 2009 the college opened a $ 32 million , 106 @,@ 000 @-@ square @-@ foot ( 9 @,@ 800 m2 ) student life center , which significantly expanded dining , classroom , recreational , and athletic facilities . Construction began in December 2006 and was completed during the summer of 2009 .
In November 2007 , the college announced that the student center would be named in honor of trustee Barbara Hodel . On January 21 , 2008 , the college announced that it had received a pledge guaranteeing full funding for the center 's completion , with an anticipated opening date of fall 2009 . According to the college , the guarantee was made " in the form of a ' challenge grant ' meant to enlarge the College ’ s base of existing donors while solidifying the long @-@ term fiscal health of PHC and its annual scholarship program . " In response to the grant , the school initiated a year @-@ long fund raising campaign entitled " Finish the Foundation . " This allowed the college to fund the construction of the building debt @-@ free , pursuant to its policy of not borrowing for capital projects .
The Barbara Hodel Center opened for student use at the start of the fall 2009 academic semester , and the gymnasium , new dining hall , and coffee shop opened in October 2009 . On October 10 , 2009 the college held a dedication ceremony for the new building which was attended by approximately 1 @,@ 000 people and featured evangelical leader James Dobson of Focus on the Family as the keynote speaker . After the student center opened , most of the college 's administrative offices moved into the building , allowing more of the office space in Founders Hall to be used by HSLDA .
= = Governance = =
The college 's founder , Mike Farris , announced his resignation as president of the college on March 6 , 2006 , to become chancellor . Graham Walker , formerly of Oklahoma Wesleyan University and the University of Pennsylvania , served as the second president of the college , from 2006 @-@ 2014 . Jack Haye became the third President of Patrick Henry College in 2015 after thirty years in the banking world .
On July 1 , 2006 , the educator and cultural editor of World , Gene Edward Veith , took the post of academic dean . As part of multiple structural and administrative changes implemented in November 2006 , Veith was appointed to the position of provost and oversees the departments of Academic Affairs and Student Life .
= = Academics = =
Students at the school can specialize within one of two schools of study : Government or Classical Liberal Arts . The Government Department offers majors in Government , Journalism , Economics & Business Analytics , and Strategic Intelligence in National Security . The Government major provides an option to specialize in American Politics and Policy , International Politics and Policy , Political Theory , Strategic Intelligence , or a General Government track . The Classical Liberal Arts Department offer degrees in Classical Liberal Arts Education , History , and Literature and Minors in Biblical Studies , Classics , History , Journalism , Music , Pedagogy , and Philosophy .
The Government Department 's Public Policy degree was the first one offered by the college , and is still largely seen as its " flagship " program , which until 2009 had connections with the former George W. Bush administration , Washington , D.C. Republicans , and conservative think tanks and organizations . In late November 2006 , the school announced plans to split this track into the separate American Politics and Policy and International Politics and Policy tracks .
The college has a 100 % acceptance rate among graduates who have applied to law school . Since its founding in 2000 , the college has graduated over 735 students . At the time of its May 2009 commencement , approximately 92 % of graduating seniors who had applied to graduate school for enrollment in fall 2009 were accepted to one or more schools of their choice . On January 24 , 2007 , the school successfully completed an on @-@ site review by a TRACS assessment team , and was granted full accreditation in April .
= = = Faculty = = =
In 2008 , its website listed twenty @-@ five full @-@ time professors , of which twenty @-@ one had at least one doctorate ; one professor had a D.M.A. , and another held an Ed.D. making it such that 24 of the 25 have a terminal degree in their field . In 2011 , PHC also listed 24 part @-@ time faculty , all of whom have received a master 's degree or higher . Chancellor Mike Farris has a J.D. , has authored several novels and critiques of constitutional law , and has argued numerous cases before federal and state high courts , as well as the United States Supreme Court .
= = = = 2006 Academic freedom dispute = = = =
In 2005 , a library clerk was forced to resign for promoting the idea that baptism is essential for salvation , considered a violation of the Statement of Faith . Further , in March 2006 , five of the college 's sixteen faculty members — Erik Root , Robert Stacey , Kevin Culberson , Todd Bates , and David Noe — resigned in protest , claiming that the President 's interpretation of the Biblical Worldview Policy restricted academic freedom .
The resignations led to questions about the compatibility of a strong liberal arts education along with its conservative biblical beliefs . David C. Noe , assistant professor of Classics departed after finding that classical works by non @-@ Christian authors were sometimes considered suspect at PHC , and there was an increasingly narrow view of Christianity . Root criticized the autocratic lack of faculty participation in the ideas and governing of the school , saying " if [ PHC ] continues down this road , will end up being more an ' illiberal arts education ' . " All resulting faculty vacancies were filled by the beginning of the fall 2006 semester . In 2007 , however , two more professors announced their resignations , suggesting that academic freedom remained an issue .
= = Student life = =
As of November 2006 , the Student Life Department is presided over by Administrative Dean for Student Life , Sandra Corbitt , and falls under the authority of the provost . The college has many rules of behavior typical of conservative , religious colleges . Students may not have sex outside of marriage , or use alcohol or tobacco while under the authority of the college , which is defined as any time during a semester while enrolled , on or off campus . Men and women are not allowed in each other 's dorm rooms , and underclassmen are subject to a curfew . Firearms are prohibited on campus . The college has a number of traditions rooted in dorm life , including " bobtisms " — a portmanteau of Baptism and " Lake Bob " , in which newly engaged males are dunked . All dorm activities are subject to the discretion of the men 's and women 's Resident Directors .
Students are active in multiple campus clubs including the College Republicans , Eden Troupe ( which produces regular stage dramas ) , the Streaming Media Network ( which produces student films ) , and several philosophical and literary societies .
In the 2000s Hanna Rosin , author of God 's Harvard , said that " never would you find a group of better @-@ behaved teenagers than on the campus of Patrick Henry . " During that period many Patrick Henry students made fun of Bob Jones University , which Rosin described as having " the gold standard of vice patrol . " Rosin commented that " by most people 's standards , " Patrick Henry " was not far behind " Bob Jones .
= = = Student governance = = =
Students also participate in the school 's student government , which consists of a Student Senate composed of 24 members , elected every fall semester ; and a student president and vice president who run as a ticket and are elected every spring semester . It does not have any powers to enact campus policies but is considered an important part of life at Patrick Henry College .
As of 2007 the Student Senate had consisted of about one third of the total student body .
= = = Liberty Ball = = =
Though dancing is allowed on campus , students hold several school dances off @-@ campus , including the annual spring Liberty Ball , usually held at a historic Civil War era manor or plantation . The first Liberty Ball was held during PHC 's inaugural year on the anniversary of Patrick Henry 's famous " Give me Liberty , or give me Death ! " speech of March 23 , 1775 , and is organized by student coordinators . Another popular dance is the annual fall hoedown , a student sponsored barn dance which usually occurs in mid fall .
= = = Civic involvement = = =
Students are involved in the community , and PHC requires its Government students to fulfill up to 24 credits of apprenticeship projects , which include internships , research and writing projects , and extracurricular activities such as moot court , Model United Nations , and Mock Trial . Students currently serve as interns in a wide variety of political organizations , such as congressional offices and think @-@ tanks . Students are active in local and national politics , and members of the Patrick Henry College Republicans chapter often work with local political action groups to lobby for conservative issues at the federal and state levels . Classes are canceled the day of the national elections and the day before , so that students may volunteer on political campaigns ; and many students act as Student Action Team leaders for Generation Joshua , leading groups of usually homeschooled high school students volunteering on campaigns across the United States .
= = = Debate = = =
Debate is one of Patrick Henry College 's primary extracurricular activities . Prior to fall 2008 , the college was active in the National Educational Debate Association ( NEDA ) , where students consistently won many of the top awards at tournaments around the country . In fall 2008 , the school ended its involvement in NEDA in favor of the larger National Forensic Association . The school is also active in the National Parliamentary Debate Association ( NPDA ) , which is America 's largest college debate organization and where students have gained national attention by defeating traditional debate powers such as Cedarville and Notre Dame . PHC is currently ranked No. 37 out of 280 schools in the NPDA .
Students also compete in the American Collegiate Moot Court Association ( ACMA ) , and had the winning teams at the ACMA National Tournaments of 2005 , 2006 , 2009 , 2010 , 2011 , 2012 , 2013 , and 2014 . Moot court is a form of debate competition designed to simulate appellate arguments before the U.S. Supreme Court , in which teams of two students function as co @-@ counsels and stand before a panel of judges to argue legal matters . In 2006 , PHC not only won first overall but also won second , third , and fifth place , a feat that had never before been accomplished in ACMA history . Likewise , in 2006 , the college took home the most trophies out of any school for the fifth consecutive year . In a much publicized event during the 2004 – 2005 academic year , the college moot court team defeated that of Balliol College , Oxford in two separate competitions – one held in England using English law , and the other in the USA using American law . Patrick Henry College also has participated in British Parliamentary debate since the fall of 2010 .
= = = Athletics = = =
Patrick Henry College competes as the Sentinels , fielding teams in men 's and women 's intercollegiate soccer and basketball , and is a member of the National Christian College Athletic Association ( NCCAA ) and the Shenandoah @-@ Chesapeake Conference . Students also participate in various intramural sports including softball , volleyball , fencing , running club , and ultimate frisbee . Students participated in intramural tackle football until Fall of 2010 , when the college banned tackle football on campus citing liability concerns . Students currently participate in intramural flag football , including an annual game between Red Hill and Oak Hill , the two men 's dorms . Patrick Henry 's Student Handbook states , " Our intercollegiate athletic program will always be secondary to our academic program , " .
= = Notable alumni = =
Teresa Scanlan , ( attended ) , Miss America 2011 and Model for Body by Vi
Alex and Brett Harris , 2012 , authors of Do Hard Things : A Teenage Rebellion Against Low Expectations and founders of The Rebelution
= = = Official = = =
Patrick Henry College Official Website
Patrick Henry College Official Blog
Patrick Henry College Drama Club
Patrick Henry College Summer Teen Camps
= = = Articles = = =
Young America 's Foundation Names PHC as Top Conservative College - Patrick Henry College made list of 16 top conservative colleges
The Federalist Adds PHC to College " Clean 15 " list - Editor of the Federalist uses her admissions experience to create a " Clean College 15 " list , which includes Patrick Henry College
Student Journal Wins Award - A look at Patrick Henry College 's student journal , the George Wythe Review , and the award it won for Best Undergraduate Journal of Letters .
Educating America 's Christian Right – An article by BBC on the college .
College for the Homeschooled is Shaping Leaders for the Right – New York Times article .
God and Country – The New Yorker article .
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= Britney ( album ) =
Britney is the self @-@ titled third studio album by American singer Britney Spears . It was released on November 5 , 2001 , by JIVE Records . Looking to transition from the teen pop styles of her earlier albums ... Baby One More Time ( 1999 ) and Oops ! ... I Did It Again ( 2000 ) , Spears began to embrace a more mature sound with her next studio effort . Its music incorporates genres of pop and dance @-@ pop with influences of R & B and occasionally dips into elements of disco , hip hop and rock ; its lyrics address the subjects of reaching adulthood and sexuality . Contributions to its production came from a variety of collaborators , including Max Martin and Rami Yacoub . Spears herself assumed a more prominent role in the album 's development , co @-@ writing five of its tracks .
Upon its release , Britney received generally mixed reviews from music critics , who complimented the progression from Spears 's earlier works , but criticized her increasingly provocative image . The album debuted at number one on the US Billboard 200 with first @-@ week sales of 745 @,@ 000 copies . Its success made Spears the first female artist to have her first three albums debut atop the chart , a record she would later break again with her fourth record In the Zone ( 2003 ) . To promote the album , Spears embarked on the Dream Within a Dream Tour , which began in November 2001 and continued through July 2002 . The album received a Grammy Award nomination for Best Pop Vocal Album .
Six singles were released from the album , all of which proved less successful than those of Spears 's prior records . Consequentially , Britney became her first record not to yield a US Billboard Hot 100 top 20 hit . Its lead single " I 'm a Slave 4 U " peaked at number twenty @-@ seven on the chart , while follow @-@ up singles " Overprotected " , " I 'm Not a Girl , Not Yet a Woman " , " I Love Rock ' n ' Roll " , " Anticipating " , and " Boys " reached the lower end of the chart and its extension , the Bubbling Under Hot 100 Singles .
= = Background = =
In May 2000 , Spears released her second studio album Oops ! ... I Did It Again . Spears collaborated with producers including Rodney Jerkins , David Kreuger , and Max Martin . Following its release , Oops ! ... I Did It Again became an international success and peaked at number one on the US Billboard 200 . The album 's lead single " Oops ! ... I Did It Again " became one of the best @-@ selling singles of all time .
When recording her follow @-@ up record , Spears wanted an " older generation to pick up on it " , adding that she " had to change it up and pray people think that 's cool " . She stated that she chose to self @-@ title the album because the majority of its content describes who she is . Spears recorded twenty @-@ three tracks for the release , several of which she co @-@ wrote with the assistance of Brian Kierulf and Josh Schwartz . She added that personally writing the album and developing its concept made the project " that much more special " , elaborating of her intentions to " get better and grow " as a songwriter .
Spears worked with a variety of collaborators , including pop colleagues Martin and her then @-@ boyfriend Justin Timberlake . She commented that she initially felt " awkward " and " nervous " working with Timberlake , saying that she was accustomed to the process being " like work " . Spears also worked with hip hop producers Rodney Jerkins and The Neptunes , who made the record " nastier and funkier " . She additionally recorded songs with Missy Elliott and Timbaland , but their tracks never made the final track listing due to scheduling conflicts .
= = Composition = =
Britney incorporates pop styles with elements of dance @-@ pop and R & B. The album opens with its lead single " I 'm a Slave 4 U " . The song features an urban influence and Middle Eastern flavor , amid breathy , emotive noises , and it has been compared to " Nasty Girl " by Vanity 6 . Spears commented that its lyrics are " about me just wanting to go out and forget who I am and dance and have a good time " . " Overprotected " was noted for having Europop styles , and addresses a girl who is tired of being manipulated . Lyrically , " Lonely " sees a girl moving on from a troublesome romance after being lied to and manipulated . It was considered " a teenage version of Janet 's " What About ? " . The soft rock piano ballad " I 'm Not a Girl , Not Yet a Woman " , co @-@ penned by English singer @-@ songwriter Dido , Max Martin and Rami , details the emotional struggles that teenage girls experience during puberty . " Boys " incorporates R & B and hip hop styles , and was criticized by David Browne of Entertainment Weekly as " cut @-@ rate ' 80s Janet Jackson " . The disco @-@ inspired track " Anticipating " discusses the friendship and camaraderie between women , and it 's reminiscent of [ Madonna 's ] ' Holiday ' or Kylie in disco mood . "
Spears 's cover of " I Love Rock ' n ' Roll " , made famous by Joan Jett and the Blackhearts , infuses pop rock styles into the original hard rock rendition . " Cinderella " reflects on a girl who left her boyfriend after he failed to appreciate her efforts in the relationship . " Let Me Be " sees Spears ask to be trusted as an adult and be afforded her own opinions . " Bombastic Love " discusses a love where Spears feels that the romance will happen " exactly like in a movie " . Similarly , the penultimate track " That 's Where You Take Me " details the joy she gets from an emotionally fulfilling relationship , amid Middle Eastern chimes and a collage of electronic beats and drum programming . In some editions , " When I Found You " is the penultimate track . On the track , Britney tells she has found her " deepest love " in her soul mate who is essentially a reflection of herself . The album closes with " What It 's Like to Be Me " , which was co @-@ written and co @-@ produced by Spears 's then @-@ boyfriend Justin Timberlake ; Spears sings that a guy must " figure [ her ] out " to " be [ her ] man " .
= = Singles = =
" I 'm a Slave 4 U " was released as the album 's lead single on September 24 , 2001 . Its accompanying music video was directed by Francis Lawrence , and was nominated for three awards at the 2002 MTV Video Music Awards . The song peaked at number twenty @-@ seven on the US Billboard Hot 100 , and debuted at number four on the UK Singles Chart . " Overprotected " served as the album 's second single internationally and third single in the United States . Its " Darkchild Remix " peaked at number eighty @-@ six on the Hot 100 , while the original version reached number four in the UK . The song was nominated for the Best Female Pop Vocal Performance at the 2003 Grammy Awards . Two variations of the music video were released , one for the original and the other for the Darkchild Remix .
Staggered to fit the varying release dates of Crossroads internationally , " I 'm Not a Girl , Not Yet a Woman " was released as the theme song of the film and the second single for Britney in the United States . The song charted at number two on the Bubbling Under Hot 100 Singles chart , an extension of the twenty @-@ five songs that failed to make the Hot 100 . It was met with more success internationally , peaking at number two in the UK . Spears 's cover of " I Love Rock ' n ' Roll " was released as the fourth European single . Consequentially , the song did not chart in the US , but reached number thirteen on the UK Singles Chart . " Anticipating " was released as the fourth single exclusively in France ; it reached number thirty @-@ eight on the French Singles Chart . " Boys " served as the final single from Britney internationally , and it peaked at number twenty @-@ two on the US Bubbling Under Hot 100 Singles chart , and reached number seven in the UK .
= = Promotion = =
On January 28 , 2001 , Spears performed at Super Bowl XXXV . Shortly after , she appeared on Total Request Live to premiere new material from Britney . On September 6 , Spears premiered " I 'm a Slave 4 U " at the MTV Video Music Awards ; the performance was criticized for her use of a yellow python as a stage prop . Four days later , she performed " I 'm a Slave 4 U " on The Rosie O 'Donnell Show . Spears was scheduled to perform and hold a press conference in Australia on September 13 ; however , she cancelled the event in light of the September 11 attacks two days prior , saying that holding the conference would have been inappropriate . The following month , Spears performed at The Tonight Show with Jay Leno . In November , she performed in her first HBO concert special from the MGM Grand Garden Arena ; Cher was supposed to join Spears onstage for the song " The Beat Goes On " , which Spears covered on ... Baby One More Time , though Cher was unable to do so due to scheduling conflicts .
In December , Spears performed at the 2001 Billboard Music Awards in Las Vegas . The following January , she sang " I 'm Not a Girl , Not Yet a Woman " at the 2002 American Music Awards . Later in the month , Spears gave interviews to the The Frank Skinner Show in the UK and The Saturday Show in Australia . Crossroads premiered in February 2002 , allowing Spears to simultaneously promote both the film and her album . On February 2 , she was featured as both the host and performer of Saturday Night Live . A week later , she sang " I 'm Not a Girl , Not Yet a Woman " at the NBA All @-@ Star Game and The Tonight Show with Jay Leno . Spears also appeared on Live with Regis & Kelly , The View , and the 2002 Grammy Awards in the US , and Wetten , dass .. ? in Germany .
In November 2001 , Spears began her Dream Within a Dream Tour in Columbus , Ohio ; it ended in July 2002 in Dallas , Texas . A video released , titled Britney : The Videos , released on November 20 , 2001 , by JIVE Records . Made available less than three weeks after Britney , The Videos included a selection of her earlier music videos , behind @-@ the @-@ scenes footage , commercials , and notable live performances . It peaked at number one on the US Top Music Videos chart on December 8 , 2001 .
= = Critical reception = =
At Metacritic , which assigns a normalized rating out of 100 to reviews from mainstream critics , Britney received an average score of 58 , which indicates " mixed or average reviews " , based on 13 reviews . David Browne of Entertainment Weekly found Spears 's increasingly provocative image to be unnatural , noting " virginal vamping in an awkward adolescence " and " a few tentative new moves " . PopMatters ' Nikki Tranton complimented the production of the songs , but questioned if Spears was ready to establish herself as a grown woman in the music industry . Sal Cinquemani of Slant Magazine agreed , writing that although " Britney , [ the album ] , fills her role of guilty pleasure ( the disc certainly satiates more than the stunted growth of last year 's Oops ! ... I Did It Again ) , it 's time for Spears to quit being such a cock @-@ tease and cook something up that will satisfy the ever @-@ vacillating hype @-@ machine . "
AllMusic 's Stephen Thomas Erlewine gave a positive review , feeling that the album " strives to deepen [ Spears 's ] persona " and proves she " will know what to do when the teen @-@ pop phenomenon of 1999 @-@ 2001 passes for good " . Similarly , a reviewer from Billboard commented that the project was " a nicely varied , wholly satisfying collection " . Chris Heat of Dotmusic praised Britney for " us [ ing ] this opportunity to take the odd risk and adds a welcome edge to her sound . " NME 's Ted Kessler recognized the release as a " coming of age album " and joked that it " works best when making a good pop cheese and dance sandwich " . By contrast , Stephen Thompson of The A.V. Club panned the album , opining that the music " just [ isn 't ] catchy " and that " though neither a girl nor a woman , Spears inspires grown @-@ up anger on her own " . Craig Seymore of Spin recognized that she " sound [ s ] almost human , " but criticized that " the rest of the record is as coldly anthemic as ever . "
= = Commercial performance = =
Britney debuted at number one on the US Billboard 200 with first @-@ week sales of 745 @,@ 000 copies . In doing so , Spears became the first female to have her first three studio albums debut atop that chart . She also held the second @-@ highest debut album sales of 2001 , behind Celebrity by ' N Sync with 1 @.@ 88 million units moved , though maintained the highest debut @-@ week sales among female artists . After fluctuating within the top twenty of the chart in the following weeks , Britney sold 3 @.@ 3 million copies by 2002 .
Internationally , Britney debuted atop the Canadian Albums Chart with first @-@ week sales of 44 @,@ 550 copies . It later sold 316 @,@ 944 copies in the country , a significant decline in relation to the sales of ... Baby One More Time and Oops ! ... I Did It Again . The album peaked at number four on both the Japanese Oricon Albums Chart and the UK Albums Chart . In the latter , it was certified platinum for shipments of 300 @,@ 000 copies to retaliers . Across the rest of Europe , Britney debuted at number one in Germany , Austria , and Switzerland . In 2002 , it was certified double platinum by the International Federation of the Phonographic Industry for shipments of two million copies through Europe . The album also peaked at number four in Australia , and was certified double platinum there .
= = Track listing = =
Notes
^ a signifies a vocal producer
= = Personnel = =
Credits adapted from AllMusic .
= = Charts = =
= = Certifications = =
Notes
^ As of May 2012 , the album has sold 4 @,@ 400 @,@ 000 copies in the U.S. according to Nielsen SoundScan , with additional 588 @,@ 000 sold at BMG Music Clubs . Nielsen SoundScan does not count albums sold through clubs like the BMG Music Service , which were significantly popular in the 1990s .
= = Release history = =
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= Die Another Day ( song ) =
" Die Another Day " is the theme song from the James Bond film of the same name by American singer and songwriter Madonna . The song initially leaked into the internet in early October 2002 prior to the official release , prompting radio to play the track . It was released commercially as a single on October 22 by Maverick Records and was later included on the singer 's ninth studio album , American Life ( 2003 ) , and her greatest hits compilation , Celebration ( 2009 ) . Following the release of the previous Bond single , " The World Is Not Enough " , MGM wanted a high @-@ profile artist for the theme of Die Another Day and Madonna was their choice . She wrote and produced the song with Mirwais Ahmadzaï while French composer Michel Colombier was enlisted as composer .
While developing , the track went through numerous changes . After Madonna saw the initial version of the film she adapted the song to its theme , described as a metaphor for destroying one 's ego . Ahmadzaï re @-@ arranged " Die Another Day " at his home in Paris while Colombier finished the string sections in Los Angeles . An electroclash number , " Die Another Day " is a mixture of strings and interpolating electronic swirls , and stuttered editing on Madonna 's voice , cutting the main signal on the chorus .
" Die Another Day " received mixed responses from music critics ; one group of reviewers favored its departure from traditional Bond soundtracks , while others panned its production and called it uninteresting . It was nominated for a Golden Globe Award for Best Original Song and two Grammy Awards for Best Dance Recording and Best Short Form Music Video . The song was a commercial success , peaking at number eight on the US Billboard Hot 100 and was the top selling dance song in the US for both 2002 and 2003 . " Die Another Day " reached the top of the charts in Canada , Italy , Romania and Spain and top @-@ ten in a number of countries worldwide .
The music video was directed by Traktor , and was developed as an independent video from the film but contained Bond influences . It depicts Madonna as a prisoner in a torture chamber , alternating with scenes of a fencing duel between good ( clad in white ) and evil ( clad in black ) personas of the singer . Wounds inflicted on both fencers are mirrored on the imprisoned Madonna , and in the end she escapes being electrocuted in the chamber . The usage of Jewish religious texts and objects in the music video led to controversy , with Judaism scholars deeming it sacrilegious . Madonna has included the song on two of her world tours ; the first being the 2004 Re @-@ Invention World Tour and again as a video interlude on the 2008 – 09 Sticky & Sweet Tour .
= = Background and conception = =
After the September 11 attacks , Madonna was in an introspective mood and started writing songs for her next studio album , American Life , with producer Mirwais Ahmadzaï . Recording started in late 2001 but was put on hold as Madonna shot for her film Swept Away in Malta , and also starred in the West End play , Up For Grabs . In the meantime , Metro @-@ Goldwyn @-@ Mayer ( MGM ) was filming the twentieth James Bond film , Die Another Day , directed by Lee Tamahori . The previous film in the franchise , The World is Not Enough ( 1999 ) was a box office success earning US $ 362 million worldwide . However , the eponymous soundtrack single by alternative rock group Garbage failed to gain commercial success in the United States . The music management at MGM went to look for a high @-@ profile artist to write and perform the title song for Die Another Day .
Madonna was their first choice , since she had been successful with soundtrack singles in the US , most recently with " Beautiful Stranger " ( 1999 ) from Austin Powers : The Spy Who Shagged Me which was a top @-@ twenty hit and earned her a Grammy Award for Best Song Written for Visual Media . Anita Camrata , executive vice president of MGM Music explained the choice in 2002 : " With every other artist , you 're taking a chance . But with Madonna , she has an extraordinary track record . She has written songs for films before and they were always perfect . " By mid @-@ February 2002 sources from the film set revealed that negotiations were under process for Madonna to sing the title song and make a cameo appearance in Die Another Day . The song deal was confirmed in mid @-@ March with journalists reporting a complex contract which might have cost MGM around one million dollars , including Madonna 's fees for music and acting , promotion , the single release and the music video .
= = Writing and development = =
According to MTV News , work began on the song following the announcement , with French composer Michel Colombier being confirmed as the strings conductor . Colombier had worked with Madonna and Ahmadzaï on her single " Don 't Tell Me " from Music . Madonna and Ahmadzaï went through their demo tracks for American Life and zeroed on one of the songs for the film . They sent the demo to MGM describing it as " this techno thing , an electronica piece rewritten to accommodate the film and the title " . According to Colombier , the studio responded positively to the demo but wanted them to change it so that it blended with traditional James Bond music in some way .
The track went through various interpolations , according to executive producer of the film , Michael G. Wilson . Madonna 's publicist Liz Rosenberg had initially confirmed that the title of the song might not be same as the film , however Wilson explained that when the singer " saw the rough [ film ] we were going to use , she sort of adapted the song and changed the title to ' Die Another Day ' . " Tamahori was concerned with the demo since it did not appear expressive to him and there were abrupt endings . However he was satisfied when Madonna re @-@ wrote the chorus to make it suitable for the film . The writing process was explained by Madonna :
I hemmed and hawed about it for a while because just for that reason though . Everybody wants to do the theme song of a James Bond movie , and I never liked to do what everybody else likes to do . It 's just some perverse thing in me , right ? So , but then I thought about it and I said , you know what ? James Bond needs to get – needs to get techno so ...
Used in the opening sequence , " Die Another Day " was played 13 minutes into the film , where Bond is shown imprisoned and being tortured for over a year in a prison camp in Korea . Being a departure from the normal title sequence of the previous Bond films , Madonna faced difficulty in making the song blend with the theme of Die Another Day . Nevertheless , she understood the idea behind the opening scenes and tweaked the song accordingly . Some of the lyrics like " I 'm gonna destroy my ego ... Sigmund Freud ... Analyze this " were derived from Madonna 's interpretation of the film 's storyline . She told an interviewer from Genre magazine that the lyrics were about " destroying your ego , and it 's juxtaposing the metaphor of , you know , the fight against good and bad , and it 's set inside the whole universe of Bond " . " Die Another Day " was never adapted into the main score of the film . The song was later added to the track list of American Life and was also featured on her third greatest hits album , Celebration ( 2009 ) .
= = Recording and composition = =
Once the song structure was finished , MGM sent Colombier in Los Angeles a rough edit of the opening sequence of the film , while Ahmadzaï sent him a longer version of the demo . Colombier had to create something inline the film score with " Die Another Day " . He added some more lyrics and then went to London to conduct an ensemble of 60 string players at AIR Lyndhurst Studios . Ahmadzaï , who was already mixing and recording the other tracks for American Life , explained that the process " was often laborious but with a less @-@ is @-@ more philosophy that is reflected in the music 's sparse arrangements . " They wanted minimalist production for the song , but at the same time make them sound " futuristic " .
After the orchestra sections were done , Ahmadzaï took the track back to his home in Paris and did a complete re @-@ arrangement . String engineer Geoff Foster recalled that Madonna wanted something " big and brass " which Ahmadzaï denied , since Madonna had already done that with her 1998 single , " Frozen " . Colombier explained that the final version was not the way he had structured the song , it was according to Ahmadzaï 's mixing and ideas . " He 's a master manipulator . Sixty real strings , played live , became audio files in his computer . They can be chopped like real pieces of fabric . He 's amazingly brilliant with that , " concluded Colombier . Madonna attended the recording sessions at Olympic Studios in London . There was a tango section in the song which Colombier recalled was composed perfectly during rehearsals . But during the actual recording it did not work out as expected , prompting Madonna to grab the talkback mic and telling the crew , " It 's not sexy enough , think about sex ! "
" Die Another Day " is an electroclash number , starting with strings which continues for eleven seconds , when Madonna 's vocals starts with the lines " I 'm gonna keep this secret / I 'm gonna close my body now ... " It follows with the stuttered editing on her voice , which keeps cutting the main signal , especially on the chorus " I guess .. I would die ... another day " . The strings again gain prominence at around the 2 : 20 mark . During the intermediate verse , a " raucous " laugh by Madonna can be heard . The song ends with interpolating electronic swirls and the orchestra fading out . Sterling Clover from The Village Voice explained that the ending recalled the snare drums and bass usage in songs of the microhouse genre , describing it as " cacophony of harmonic fragments " . According to the sheet music published at Musicnotes.com , the song is set in the time signature of common time with a fast tempo of 130 beats per minute . It is composed in the key of C minor with Madonna 's voice spanning from the nodes of B3 and D ♯ 5 . " Die Another Day " follows a basic sequence of Cm – G ♯ – Cm – B ♭ – Cm as its chord progression .
= = Critical reception = =
" Die Another Day " was officially released in United States on October 22 , 2002 . It was supposed to be released on October 10 , but got leaked a week prior to that to the radio stations . Website Hollywood.com reported that " Madonna and members of her camp were beside themselves when the song — which they claim wasn 't even finished — aired on a pop station in New York City . "
The song received mixed reviews from music critics . Author Lucy O 'Brien wrote in her biography , Madonna : Like an Icon , that the techno composition and the stuttering vocals made the song " an almost anti @-@ Bond theme " . James Hannaham from Spin was positive in his review , writing that it is a " brilliant , melodramatic song , that sounds like a stoic response to a world gone mad . " Writing for Yahoo ! Music , Dan Gennoe felt that since the songs in American Life mostly gave prominence to style over substance , " Die Another Day " as a result had become one @-@ dimensional . Stylus Magazine 's Ed Howard described the song as " a great slice @-@ and @-@ dice hit of fucked @-@ up electroclash " , in an otherwise negative review for American Life . Sal Cinquemani from Slant Magazine considered it " forward @-@ thinking " and believed that the record was added to American Life 's track list to ensure that the album would not be devoid of a hit song . Clover described the track as " A blistering zeitgeist @-@ negation , hostile and uneasy — as a single , a club track , a Bond theme . " Chuck Taylor from Billboard was positive in his response , saying that the electronic effects rendered Madonna 's vocals as non @-@ discernible but the composition was forward thinking from Music ( 2000 ) , her eighth studio album .
In his book Madonna : The Complete Guide to Her Music , author Rikky Rooksby described it as " melodically uninteresting and harmonically repetitious " . He felt that the stuttered editing by Ahmadzai did not allow the song to gain its full potential but complimented the strings and the chords . Rooksby concluded by saying that " Die Another Day " reveals much about the decline in songwriting quality from the early Bond songs and was not much of an improvement over " The World is Not Enough " ; he said that the Sigmund Freud line was the " wittiest line " on the whole of American Life album . Writing for The A.V. Club , Stephen Thompson called the track " pneumatic " and " hook @-@ deficient " . Ken Tucker from Entertainment Weekly criticized the song as a " flat James Bond tune " adding that it failed to become a " Madonna classic " . Both Manohla Dargis from Los Angeles Times and Joe Morgenstern from The Wall Street Journal panned the song calling it " dumb " . Variety 's Todd McCarthy called the song " banal " . A. O. Scott from The New York Times described Madonna 's vocals as " electronically enhanced chirps " while reviewing Die Another Day .
The song was nominated for a Golden Globe award for Best Original Song , but lost to U2 's " The Hands That Built America " from Gangs of New York . At the 46th Grammy Awards , it was nominated in the categories of Best Dance Recording and Best Short Form Music Video , but lost both awards ; the former to Kylie Minogue 's " Come Into My World " and the latter to Johnny Cash 's " Hurt " . " Die Another Day " was also nominated for a Golden Raspberry Award for Worst Original Song of 2002 while Madonna herself won the trophy of Worst Supporting Actress for her cameo in the film . In a MORI poll for the Channel 4 TV show James Bond 's Greatest Hits , the song was voted the ninth best out of 22 , but also came in as an " overwhelming number one " favorite among those under the age of 24 . Rock music critic Neil McCormick from The Daily Telegraph named it the fifth best James Bond theme song , describing " Die Another Day " as an electro R & B workout which was " expressively weird , brutally modern , satisfyingly original and evocative of the dark heart of Bond . Plus , Madonna actually looks as if she might be a match for Bond in either bed or battlefield . Or both . " Rolling Stone listed it as the seventh best Bond song in the magazine 's list of " The top 10 James Bond Theme Songs " .
= = Chart performance = =
After its release to radio in United States , " Die Another Day " started receiving strong airplay at the major US radio stations , having been spun for more than 100 times . The song garnered 35 million audience impressions in its first week , debuting at number 41 on the Billboard Hot 100 , the highest debut of the year . It also debuted at number 19 on the Mainstream Top 40 , number 40 on the Adult Top 40 and number 42 on the Hot 100 Airplay charts . The next week the song continued its ascent up the airplay charts , while reaching number 28 on the Hot 100 and becoming the " breakout " track on the Hot Dance Music / Club Play chart . The release of the CD single on October 22 , 2002 , prompted the song to jump from position 18 to number eight on the Hot 100 , thus becoming Madonna 's 35th top @-@ ten single on the chart . This feat put her ahead of The Beatles ' 34 top @-@ ten hits and one behind tying Elvis Presley 's record as the artist with the most top @-@ ten singles on the Hot 100 . The move was spurred by sales of 28 @,@ 500 units of the CD which also put it on the top of Hot 100 Singles , becoming her third number one on the chart .
" Die Another Day " was the highest charting James Bond song in the US since Duran Duran 's number @-@ one single , " A View to Kill " ( 1985 ) . It was also Madonna 's highest charting song since " Don 't Tell Me " peaked at number four in February 2001 , and was her 44th top @-@ forty single — the most for any artist — breaking the tie with Aretha Franklin 's 43 entries . The single spent 11 weeks at number one on Hot 100 Singles , becoming her most successful entry on that chart . " Die Another Day " became the best selling dance single of both 2002 and 2003 and the fifth best @-@ selling dance single of the 2000s decade in the US . Additionally , Billboard also declared " Die Another Day " as Madonna 's 33rd most successful single on the Hot 100 . According to Nielsen SoundScan , the song has sold 184 @,@ 000 digital downloads as of April 2010 , making it one of her best selling titles released before 2005 , the year when downloads began contributing into calculating the ranks on Billboard Hot 100 .
In Canada , the song debuted at number 25 on the Canadian Singles Chart , and ultimately reached the top , staying there for four weeks . The song was certified double platinum by the Music Canada ( MC ) for shipment of 200 @,@ 000 copies . In Australia , the song debuted and peaked at number 11 on the Australian Singles Chart , staying for a total of 19 weeks and obtaining a gold from the Australian Recording Industry Association ( ARIA ) for shipment of 35 @,@ 000 copies of the single . It was less successful in New Zealand , where it debuted and peaked at number 22 on the RIANZ Singles Chart , staying for a total of three weeks .
In the United Kingdom , " Die Another Day " entered the UK Singles Chart at number three on November 3 , 2002 , being kept from the top spot by DJ Sammy 's remix of Bryan Adams ' 1985 single , " Heaven " , and the song " Dilemma " by rapper Nelly featuring Kelly Rowland . Next week the song dropped to number 12 , and continued its descent ultimately staying for a total of 16 weeks on the chart . In September 2015 , the song was certified silver by the British Phonographic Industry ( BPI ) for selling over 200 @,@ 000 copies . It was listed as the 80th best selling single of 2002 in UK . The single was successful in Europe , reaching the top @-@ ten of the charts in Austria , Belgium ( both Flanders and Wallonia ) , Denmark , Finland , Germany , Greece , Netherlands , Norway , Sweden and Switzerland , while topping the charts in Italy and Spain . In France the song achieved silver certification from the Syndicat National de l 'Édition Phonographique ( SNEP ) for shipping 125 @,@ 000 copies of the single . Across the pan @-@ European Hot 100 Singles , the song debuted and peaked at number three .
= = Music video = =
= = = Development = = =
The music video was directed by Traktor , a Swedish directing team known for several TV advertisements . It was filmed from August 22 – 27 , 2002 at Hollywood Center Studios in Hollywood , California . The total production costs for the video was around $ 6 @.@ 1 million ( $ 8 @.@ 03 million in 2016 dollars ) , making it the second most expensive music video ever made , after " Scream " by Michael Jackson and Janet Jackson . In an interview with Norwegian newspaper Dagbladet , Ole Sanders from Traktor recalled that in May 2002 Madonna sent them a handwritten letter , along with a demo version of " Die Another Day " . The team was in Prague , shooting a music video for The Prodigy . " We thought it was a joke , since the letter was long and handwritten . But the song sounded suspiciously like her , " Sanders explained . He was then asked to go to Pinewood Studios in London to watch a half @-@ finished version of the Bond film with producer Barbara Broccoli . Later , Sanders and one of his colleagues invited Madonna to their London home to discuss the video . By summer 2002 , he had compiled the idea for the video with Madonna 's inputs in it :
We received daily e @-@ mails with feedback that was concise , unambiguous and occasionally entertaining . She works extremely hard with gumption and detail , and it was clear to us how she has remained on top for twenty years . It was no use being unprepared with vague ideas disguised as creativity , and there was no place to hide ... First it felt like doing nonsense , then it 's fun and it 's something that 's going to be seen . The project brings us into contact with interesting actors within both film and music .
The video was developed as an independent Madonna clip devoid of any footage from the Bond film , but was still Bond @-@ inspired . It portrayed Madonna in a torture chamber as a prisoner and also fight sequences where the singer duels with herself . Post @-@ production and visual effects for the video was done by London 's Moving Picture Company ( MPC ) . They created " invisible " effects for the fighting sequences , allowing Madonna to shoot two characters . Traktor explained that every shot of the video used some visual effects , co @-@ ordinated by the group 's lead artist , Christophe Allender . The directors did not want to use too many shots for the dueling scenes , which they believed would have restricted their creative freedom . Additional post @-@ production effects included composing the fight sequence as a cohesive theme , adding blood to the wounds inflicted on Madonna , and adding digital stills of windows against the greenscreen where the shots were taken . The final shot showed the characteristic gun barrel sequence from the Bond films . MPC artist Ziggy Zigouras used a 2K resolution shot and tailored it according to Traktor 's specifications . Finally , instead of grading the film print , MPC used the negatives to achieve crisper and cleaner images .
The premiere of the video took place on MTV channels worldwide on October 22 , 2002 , a first occurrence in the music channel 's history . The music video was included in the enhanced CD of the single , along with the " Making of the video " .
= = = Synopsis = = =
The music video begins with a bruised Madonna being dragged by two soldiers through a dark corridor , and thrown against a chair in a torture chamber . She starts singing the first verse of the song as her captors laugh at her . An alternate scene shows two people fencing inside a white lit chamber , one in black cloths and one in white . Madonna continues groping with the different objects in the torture chamber and dancing . As she repeats the words " Sigmund Freud " , the soldiers catch her again and douse her head in icy @-@ water .
The two people fencing take off their masks , both are revealed to be Madonna and are surprised to see each other ; they resume their violent fighting . The black Madonna slices across the white Madonna 's stomach , which is mirrored in the imprisoned Madonna 's stomach in the chamber . She rides on a hanging chain from the ceiling and smashes a mirror across the wall . The black Madonna breaks open a dark room by throwing the white Madonna against the wall . Different artifacts from the Bond films are present in the room and the two Madonna 's fight through them . Meanwhile , the Madonna in the torture chamber wears phylacteries around her arm while hiding behind an electric chair .
As the breakdown happens , the soldiers bind her on the chair but she laughs , kicks and spits on them . Midst the aggressive fighting , the white Madonna takes a crossbow and shoots the black Madonna squarely on the chest . The black Madonna falls down and concurrently a soldier pulls the switch on the electric chair . They laugh loudly thinking Madonna to be burnt but as the smoke clears , they see that no remnants are to be found . They rush to inspect the chair closely and notice three letters ( לאו ) being burnt in the chair . They scratch their head and see a vision of a bearded man laughing at them . Madonna is shown running from the torture chamber and opens the door , as the video ends with the gun barrel sequence .
= = = Reception and analysis = = =
According to author Santiago Fouz @-@ Hernández , the video employed an identity @-@ splitting strategy in which the two Madonnas fight each other . With this she was referencing her previous videos where such tactics have been employed , like the one for " Music " , " Papa Don 't Preach " and " Human Nature " . Joanna Rydzewska , one of the authors of the book Representing Gender In Cultures analyzed that the violent imagery in the video was Madonna 's way of portraying the violence she had faced during her " tumultuous " marriage with actor Sean Penn ; she added that the video was a contrast to the " tremendously independent artist she is " . The end of the video sparked discussion about the words imprinted on the electric chair , a phrase that can be interpreted as " great escape " or " freedom " . According to The Sydney Morning Herald , some scholars of Judaism were riled by the Jewish religious texts and objects appearing in the video . One of Madonna 's Kabbalah advisors , Michael Berg , explained that " Hebrew letters Madonna displays , lamed , aleph , vov — roughly equivalent to L , A , V — form one of the 72 names of God and denote a diminishing of the ego to connect with joy and fulfillment . " According to him , donning tefillin represented " diminution of the desire to receive and a strengthening of the desire to share . But for a woman to don tefillin is still not a common practice , and for a gentile to wear tefillin might be regarded by some Jews as sacrilege . "
In 2004 , the singer was to visit Israel regarding her Kabbalah practice . However , ultra @-@ orthodox Jews protested her trip , saying that Madonna disgraced the religion with her portrayal of wearing phylacteries / tefillin over her arm — a Jewish custom usually reserved for men — in the music video . Israeli securities had advised the singer not to make the trip , but the singer continued her visit to the graves of Jewish sages as well as shrines such as Rachel 's Tomb on the edge of Bethlehem , traditional burial place of the biblical matriarch Rachel . " Die Another Day " was nominated for Best Video from a Film at the 2003 MTV Video Music Awards , but lost . It won the " Soundtrack Video of the Year " trophy at the 2003 MVPA Awards .
= = Live performances = =
Initial reports by The Observer suggested that Madonna would perform " Die Another Day " in front of Queen Elizabeth II at the premiere of the film in London 's Royal Albert Hall , but it did not happen . It was not until two years later she first performed " Die Another Day " , as part of her 2004 Re @-@ Invention World Tour . The song was to be included as the final performance in the set list , but " Holiday " was chosen instead and " Die Another Day " was included in the third segment of the show . Wearing a circus @-@ themed corset designed by Chanel , she and her dancers performed a Tango @-@ like choreography to the song , while backdrops displayed an old man in his deathbed . The performance was received favorably by Joan Anderman of The Boston Globe , who explained that " the abstract ballroom choreography of ' Die Another Day ' was an elegant antidote to the rote gyrations favored by the next generation of pop stars . " Towards the end of the performance , Madonna 's dancers tied the singer on an electric chair and as it was raised high above the stage , she started singing " Lament " from Evita . The performance of " Die Another Day " was included on Madonna 's documentary live album I 'm Going to Tell You a Secret ( 2006 ) , which chronicled the tour .
Four years later , " Die Another Day " was added to the set list of the 2008 @-@ 09 Sticky & Sweet Tour , where it was used as a video interlude . It featured Madonna as a boxer on screen , while two of her dancers performed a faux boxing match . The video also showed Madonna in a technical knockout match , spraying her blood across the screen . Madonna 's DJ Enferno remixed the song and the performance ended with the singer falling down on the ground in the video , as she emerged from beneath the stage while jump @-@ roping . Paul Schrodt from Slant Magazine felt that the video emphasized the singer 's " already @-@ muscular arms " , adding that " [ u ] nlike your run @-@ of @-@ the @-@ mill diva , Madonna is willing to get dirty for her art , and she sometimes gets lost in her backup dancers ' routine , though she 's quick to remind the audience , ' I 'm still the one in control ' " . Ben Kaplan from Canada.com noted that " Die Another Day " , along with the performances of " 4 Minutes " and " La Isla Bonita " are re @-@ imagined as " parts of larger medleys , with Madonna giving shout @-@ outs to techno , flamenco and old @-@ school R & B influences " . This performance was included on the Sticky & Sweet Tour live CD and DVD release , recorded during Madonna 's shows in Buenos Aires , Argentina , in December 2008 .
While on The MDNA Tour on 2012 , Madonna performed an exclusive club date at L 'Olympia in Paris for only 2 @,@ 700 fans and mixed " Die Another Day " with the song " Beautiful Killer " from her twelfth studio album MDNA . After finishing the performance of " Human Nature " , Madonna wears a coat and as the opening music of " Die Another Day " starts , she wields a gun and launches into " Beautiful Killer " . Excerpts of films by French actor Alain Delon — the main inspiration behind " Beautiful Killer " — was shown in the back drops . The mash @-@ up was only performed on this date of the tour .
= = Track listing and formats = =
= = Credits and personnel = =
Madonna – lead vocals , background vocals , songwriter , producer
Mirwais Ahmadzaï – songwriter , producer , programming
Tim Young – audio mastering at Metropolis Studios , London
Mark " Spike " Stent – audio mixing at Olympic Studios and Westlake Audio
Michel Colombier – strings arrangement
Geoff Foster – strings engineer at AIR Lyndhurst Studios , London
Tom Hannen – assistant engineer
Simon Changer – assistant engineer
Tim Lambert – assistant engineer
Mert and Marcus – photography
Frank Maddocks – art direction , design
Credits for " Die Another Day " are adapted from American Life and the single liner notes .
= = Charts = =
= = Certifications = =
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= Cygnus X @-@ 1 =
Cygnus X @-@ 1 ( abbreviated Cyg X @-@ 1 ) is a well @-@ known galactic X @-@ ray source , thought to be a black hole , in the constellation Cygnus . It was discovered in 1964 during a rocket flight and is one of the strongest X @-@ ray sources seen from Earth , producing a peak X @-@ ray flux density of 2 @.@ 3 × 10 − 23 Wm − 2 Hz − 1 ( 2 @.@ 3 × 103 Jansky ) . Cygnus X @-@ 1 was the first X @-@ ray source widely accepted to be a black hole and it remains among the most studied astronomical objects in its class . The compact object is now estimated to have a mass about 14 @.@ 8 times the mass of the Sun and has been shown to be too small to be any known kind of normal star , or other likely object besides a black hole . If so , the radius of its event horizon is about 44 km .
Cygnus X @-@ 1 belongs to a high @-@ mass X @-@ ray binary system about 6070 ly from the Sun that includes a blue supergiant variable star designated HDE 226868 which it orbits at about 0 @.@ 2 AU , or 20 % of the distance from the Earth to the Sun . A stellar wind from the star provides material for an accretion disk around the X @-@ ray source . Matter in the inner disk is heated to millions of degrees , generating the observed X @-@ rays . A pair of jets , arranged perpendicular to the disk , are carrying part of the energy of the infalling material away into interstellar space .
This system may belong to a stellar association called Cygnus OB3 , which would mean that Cygnus X @-@ 1 is about five million years old and formed from a progenitor star that had more than 40 solar masses . The majority of the star 's mass was shed , most likely as a stellar wind . If this star had then exploded as a supernova , the resulting force would most likely have ejected the remnant from the system . Hence the star may have instead collapsed directly into a black hole .
Cygnus X @-@ 1 was the subject of a friendly scientific wager between physicists Stephen Hawking and Kip Thorne in 1975 , with Hawking betting that it was not a black hole . He conceded the bet in 1990 after observational data had strengthened the case that there was indeed a black hole in the system . This hypothesis has not been confirmed due to a lack of direct observation but has generally been accepted from indirect evidence .
= = Discovery and observation = =
Observation of X @-@ ray emissions allows astronomers to study celestial phenomena involving gas with temperatures in the millions of degrees . However , because X @-@ ray emissions are blocked by the Earth 's atmosphere , observation of celestial X @-@ ray sources is not possible without lifting instruments to altitudes where the X @-@ rays can penetrate . Cygnus X @-@ 1 was discovered using X @-@ ray instruments that were carried aloft by a sounding rocket launched from White Sands Missile Range in New Mexico . As part of an ongoing effort to map these sources , a survey was conducted in 1964 using two Aerobee suborbital rockets . The rockets carried Geiger counters to measure X @-@ ray emission in wavelength range 1 – 15 Å across an 8 @.@ 4 ° section of the sky . These instruments swept across the sky as the rockets rotated , producing a map of closely spaced scans .
As a result of these surveys , eight new sources of cosmic X @-@ rays were discovered , including Cyg XR @-@ 1 ( later Cyg X @-@ 1 ) in the constellation Cygnus the swan . The celestial coordinates of this source were estimated as right ascension 19h53m and declination 34 @.@ 6 ° . It was not associated with any especially prominent radio or optical source at that position .
Seeing a need for longer duration studies , in 1963 Riccardo Giacconi and Herb Gursky proposed the first orbital satellite to study X @-@ ray sources . NASA launched their Uhuru satellite in 1970 , which led to the discovery of 300 new X @-@ ray sources . Extended Uhuru observations of Cygnus X @-@ 1 showed fluctuations in the X @-@ ray intensity that occurs several times a second . This rapid variation meant that the energy generation must take place over a relatively small region of roughly 105 km , as the speed of light restricts communication between more distant regions . For a size comparison , the diameter of the Sun is about 1 @.@ 4 × 106 km .
In April – May 1971 , Luc Braes and George K. Miley from Leiden Observatory , and independently Robert M. Hjellming and Campbell Wade at the National Radio Astronomy Observatory , detected radio emission from Cygnus X @-@ 1 , and their accurate radio position pinpointed the X @-@ ray source to the star AGK2 + 35 1910 = HDE 226868 . On the celestial sphere , this star lies about half a degree from the 4th magnitude star Eta Cygni . It is a supergiant star that is , by itself , incapable of emitting the observed quantities of X @-@ rays . Hence , the star must have a companion that could heat gas to the millions of degrees needed to produce the radiation source for Cygnus X @-@ 1 .
Louise Webster and Paul Murdin , at the Royal Greenwich Observatory , and Charles Thomas Bolton , working independently at the University of Toronto 's David Dunlap Observatory , announced the discovery of a massive hidden companion to HDE 226868 in 1971 . Measurements of the Doppler shift of the star 's spectrum demonstrated the companion 's presence and allowed its mass to be estimated from the orbital parameters . Based on the high predicted mass of the object , they surmised that it may be a black hole as the largest possible neutron star cannot exceed three times the mass of the Sun .
With further observations strengthening the evidence , by the end of 1973 the astronomical community generally conceded that Cygnus X @-@ 1 was most likely a black hole . More precise measurements of Cygnus X @-@ 1 demonstrated variability down to a single millisecond . This interval is consistent with turbulence in a disk of accreted matter surrounding a black hole — the accretion disk . X @-@ ray bursts that last for about a third of a second match the expected time frame of matter falling toward a black hole .
Cygnus X @-@ 1 has since been studied extensively using observations by orbiting and ground @-@ based instruments . The similarities between the emissions of X @-@ ray binaries such as HDE 226868 / Cygnus X @-@ 1 and active galactic nuclei suggests a common mechanism of energy generation involving a black hole , an orbiting accretion disk and associated jets . For this reason , Cygnus X @-@ 1 is identified among a class of objects called microquasars ; an analog of the quasars , or quasi @-@ stellar radio sources , now known to be distant active galactic nuclei . Scientific studies of binary systems such as HDE 226868 / Cygnus X @-@ 1 may lead to further insights into the mechanics of active galaxies .
= = Star system = =
The compact object and blue supergiant star form a binary system in which they orbit around their center of mass every 5 @.@ 599829 days . From the perspective of the Earth , the compact object never goes behind the other star ; in other words , the system does not eclipse . However , the inclination of the orbital plane to the line of sight from the Earth remains uncertain , with predictions ranging from 27 – 65 ° . A 2007 study estimated the inclination is 48 @.@ 0 ± 6 @.@ 8 ° , which would mean that the semi @-@ major axis is about 0 @.@ 2 AU , or 20 % of the distance from the Earth to the Sun . The orbital eccentricity is thought to be only 0 @.@ 0018 ± 0 @.@ 002 ; a nearly circular orbit . Earth 's distance to this system is about 1 @,@ 860 ± 120 parsecs ( 6 @,@ 070 ± 390 light @-@ years ) .
The HDE 226868 / Cygnus X @-@ 1 system shares a common motion through space with an association of massive stars named Cygnus OB3 , which is located at roughly 2000 parsecs from the Sun . This implies that HDE 226868 , Cygnus X @-@ 1 and this OB association may have formed at the same time and location . If so , then the age of the system is about 5 ± 1 @.@ 5 Ma . The motion of HDE 226868 with respect to Cygnus OB3 is 9 ± 3 km / s ; a typical value for random motion within a stellar association . HDE 226868 is about 60 parsecs from the center of the association , and could have reached that separation in about 7 ± 2 Ma — which roughly agrees with estimated age of the association .
With a galactic latitude of 4 degrees and galactic longitude 71 degrees , this system lies inward along the same Orion Spur in which the Sun is located within the Milky Way , near where the spur approaches the Sagittarius Arm . Cygnus X @-@ 1 has been described as belonging to the Sagittarius Arm , though the structure of the Milky Way is not well established .
= = = Compact object = = =
There is some uncertainty about the mass of the compact object . Stellar evolutionary models suggest a mass of 20 ± 5 solar masses , while other techniques resulted in 10 solar masses . Measuring periodicities in the X @-@ ray emission near the object has yielded a more precise value of 14 @.@ 8 ± 1 solar masses . In all cases , the object is most likely a black hole — a region of space with a gravitational field that is strong enough to prevent the escape of electromagnetic radiation from the interior . The boundary of this region is called the event horizon and has an effective radius called the Schwarzschild radius , which is about 26 km for Cygnus X @-@ 1 . Anything ( including matter and photons ) that passes through this boundary is unable to escape .
Evidence of just such an event horizon may have been detected in 1992 using ultraviolet ( UV ) observations with the High Speed Photometer on the Hubble Space Telescope . As self @-@ luminous clumps of matter spiral into a black hole , their radiation will be emitted in a series of pulses that are subject to gravitational redshift as the material approaches the horizon . That is , the wavelengths of the radiation will steadily increase , as predicted by General Relativity . Matter hitting a solid , compact object would emit a final burst of energy , whereas material passing through an event horizon would not . Two such " dying pulse trains " were observed , which is consistent with the existence of a black hole .
Past analysis of data from the space @-@ based Chandra X @-@ ray Observatory suggested that Cygnus X @-@ 1 was not rotating to any significant degree . However , evidence announced in 2011 suggests it is rotating extremely rapidly , approximately 790 times per second .
= = = = Formation = = = =
The largest star in the Cygnus OB3 association has a mass 40 times that of the Sun . As more massive stars evolve more rapidly , this implies that the progenitor star for Cygnus X @-@ 1 had more than 40 solar masses . Given the current estimated mass of the black hole , the progenitor star must have lost over 30 solar masses of material . Part of this mass may have been lost to HDE 226868 , while the remainder was most likely expelled by a strong stellar wind . The helium enrichment of HDE 226868 's outer atmosphere may be evidence for this mass transfer . Possibly the progenitor may have evolved into a Wolf @-@ Rayet star , which ejects a substantial proportion of its atmosphere using just such a powerful stellar wind .
If the progenitor star had exploded as a supernova , then observations of similar objects show that the remnant would most likely have been ejected from the system at a relatively high velocity . As the object remained in orbit , this indicates that the progenitor may have collapsed directly into a black hole without exploding ( or at most produced only a relatively modest explosion ) .
= = = = Accretion disk = = = =
The compact object is thought to be orbited by a thin , flat disk of accreting matter known as an accretion disk . This disk is intensely heated by friction between ionized gas in faster @-@ moving inner orbits and that in slower outer ones . It is divided into a hot inner region with a relatively high level of ionization — forming a plasma — and a cooler , less ionized outer region that extends to an estimated 500 times the Schwarzschild radius , or about 15 @,@ 000 km .
Though highly and erratically variable , Cygnus X @-@ 1 is typically the brightest persistent source of hard X @-@ rays — those with energies from about 30 up to several hundred keV — in the sky . The X @-@ rays are produced as lower energy photons in the thin inner accretion disk , then given more energy through Compton scattering with very high temperature electrons in a geometrically thicker , but nearly transparent corona enveloping it , as well as by some further reflection from the surface of the thin disk . An alternative possibility is that the X @-@ rays may be Compton scattered by the base of a jet instead of a disk corona .
The X @-@ ray emission from Cygnus X @-@ 1 can vary in a somewhat repetitive pattern called quasi @-@ periodic oscillations ( QPO ) . The mass of the compact object appears to determine the distance at which the surrounding plasma begins to emit these QPOs , with the emission radius decreasing as the mass decreases . This technique has been used to estimate the mass of Cygnus X @-@ 1 , providing a cross @-@ check with other mass derivations .
Pulsations with a stable period , similar to those resulting from the spin of a neutron star , have never been seen from Cygnus X @-@ 1 . The pulsations from neutron stars are caused by the neutron star 's magnetic field , however , the no hair theorem guarantees that black holes do not have magnetic poles . For example , the X @-@ ray binary V 0332 + 53 was thought to be a possible black hole until pulsations were found . Cygnus X @-@ 1 has also never displayed X @-@ ray bursts similar to those seen from neutron stars . Cygnus X @-@ 1 unpredictably changes between two X @-@ ray states , although the X @-@ rays may vary continuously between those states as well . In the most common state , the X @-@ rays are " hard " , which means that more of the X @-@ rays have high energy . In the less common state , the X @-@ rays are " soft " , with more of the X @-@ rays having lower energy . The soft state also shows greater variability . The hard state is believed to originate in a corona surrounding the inner part of the more opaque accretion disk . The soft state occurs when the disk draws closer to the compact object ( possibly as close as 150 km ) , accompanied by cooling or ejection of the corona . When a new corona is generated , Cygnus X @-@ 1 transitions back to the hard state .
The spectral transition of Cyg X @-@ 1 can be explained very well using two component advective flow solution of Chakrabarti and Titarchuk http : / / cdsads.u @-@ strasbg.fr / abs / 1995ApJ ... 455 .. 623C . Hard state is generated by inverse Comptonization of seed photons from the Keplerian disk and synchrotron photons produced in CENBOL by the hot electrons of CENBOL . Detailed fits are in Chakrabarti and Mandal .
The X @-@ ray flux from Cygnus X @-@ 1 varies periodically every 5 @.@ 6 d , especially during superior conjunction when the orbiting objects are most closely aligned with the Earth and the compact source is the more distant . This indicates that the emissions are being partially blocked by circumstellar matter , which may be the stellar wind from the star HDE 226868 . There is a roughly 300 d periodicity in the emission that could be caused by the precession of the accretion disk .
= = = = Jets = = = =
As accreted matter falls toward the compact object , it loses gravitational potential energy . Part of this released energy is dissipated by jets of particles , aligned perpendicular to the accretion disk , that flow outward with relativistic velocities . ( That is , the particles are moving at a significant fraction of the speed of light . ) This pair of jets provide a means for an accretion disk to shed excess energy and angular momentum . They may be created by magnetic fields within the gas that surrounds the compact object .
The Cygnus X @-@ 1 jets are inefficient radiators and so release only a small proportion of their energy in the electromagnetic spectrum . That is , they appear " dark " . The estimated angle of the jets to the line of sight is 30 ° and they may be precessing . One of the jets is colliding with a relatively dense part of the interstellar medium ( ISM ) , forming an energized ring that can be detected by its radio emission . This collision appears to be forming a nebula that has been observed in the optical wavelengths . To produce this nebula , the jet must have an estimated average power of 4 – 14 × 1036 erg / s , or ( 9 ± 5 ) × 1029 W. This is more than 1 @,@ 000 times the power emitted by the Sun . There is no corresponding ring in the opposite direction because that jet is facing a lower density region of the ISM .
In 2006 , Cygnus X @-@ 1 became the first stellar mass black hole found to display evidence of gamma ray emission in the very high energy band , above 100 GeV . The signal was observed at the same time as a flare of hard X @-@ rays , suggesting a link between the events . The X @-@ ray flare may have been produced at the base of the jet while the gamma rays could have been generated where the jet interacts with the stellar wind of HDE 226868 .
= = = HDE 226868 = = =
HDE 226868 is a supergiant star with a spectral class of O9.7 Iab , which is on the borderline between class O and class B stars . It has an estimated surface temperature of 31000 K and mass approximately 20 – 40 times the mass of the Sun . Based on a stellar evolutionary model , at the estimated distance of 2 @,@ 000 parsecs this star may have a radius equal to about 15 – 17 times the solar radius and is approximately 300 @,@ 000 – 400 @,@ 000 times the luminosity of the Sun . For comparison , the compact object is estimated to be orbiting HDE 226868 at a distance of about 40 solar radii , or twice the radius of this star .
The surface of HDE 226868 is being tidally distorted by the gravity of the massive companion , forming a tear @-@ drop shape that is further distorted by rotation . This causes the optical brightness of the star to vary by 0 @.@ 06 magnitudes during each 5 @.@ 6 @-@ day binary orbit , with the minimum magnitude occurring when the system is aligned with the line of sight . The " ellipsoidal " pattern of light variation results from the limb darkening and gravity darkening of the star 's surface .
When the spectrum of HDE 226868 is compared to the similar star Epsilon Orionis , the former shows an overabundance of helium and an underabundance of carbon in its atmosphere . The ultraviolet and Hydrogen alpha spectral lines of HDE 226868 show profiles similar to the star P Cygni , which indicates that the star is surrounded by a gaseous envelope that is being accelerated away from the star at speeds of about 1500 km / s .
Like other stars of its spectral type , HDE 226868 is thought to be shedding mass in a stellar wind at an estimated rate of 2 @.@ 5 × 10 − 6 solar masses per year . This is the equivalent of losing a mass equal to the Sun 's every 400 @,@ 000 years . The gravitational influence of the compact object appears to be reshaping this stellar wind , producing a focused wind geometry rather than a spherically symmetrical wind . X @-@ rays from the region surrounding the compact object heat and ionize this stellar wind . As the object moves through different regions of the stellar wind during its 5 @.@ 6 @-@ day orbit , the UV lines , the radio emission , and the X @-@ rays themselves all vary .
The Roche lobe of HDE 226868 defines the region of space around the star where orbiting material remains gravitationally bound . Material that passes beyond this lobe may fall toward the orbiting companion . This Roche lobe is believed to be close to the surface of HDE 226868 but not overflowing , so the material at the stellar surface is not being stripped away by its companion . However , a significant proportion of the stellar wind emitted by the star is being drawn onto the compact object 's accretion disk after passing beyond this lobe .
The gas and dust between the Sun and HDE 226868 results in a reduction in the apparent magnitude of the star as well as a reddening of the hue — red light can more effectively penetrate the dust in the interstellar medium . The estimated value of the interstellar extinction ( AV ) is 3 @.@ 3 magnitudes . Without the intervening matter , HDE 226868 would be a fifth magnitude star and thus visible to the unaided eye .
= = Stephen Hawking and Kip Thorne = =
Cygnus X @-@ 1 was the subject of a bet between physicists Stephen Hawking and Kip Thorne , in which Hawking bet against the existence of black holes in the region . Hawking later described this as an " insurance policy " of sorts . To quote from his book , A Brief History of Time ,
According to the updated 10th anniversary edition of A Brief History of Time , Hawking has conceded the bet due to subsequent observational data in favor of black holes . In his own book , Black Holes and Time Warps , Thorne reports that Hawking conceded the bet by breaking into Thorne 's office while he was in Russia , finding the framed bet , and signing it .
= = In Popular Culture = =
Cygnus X @-@ 1 is the former name for the Warp anomaly known as the " Eye of Terror " in the Warhammer 40 @,@ 000 universe .
Cygnus X @-@ 1 is the location of the " Silent Oecumene " in John C. Wright 's science fiction trilogy The Golden Oecumene .
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= Hundreds ( video game ) =
Hundreds is a mobile puzzle video game where players touch circles to make them grow without overlapping . In the game 's 100 levels , the player interacts with different types of circles to bring a counter to the number 100 . The game was developed and published by Semi Secret Software in collaboration with Greg Wohlwend and was released for iOS on January 7 , 2013 , and on Android later that year .
It was originally built for the Adobe Flash platform in 2010 as indie game artist Wohlwend 's first self @-@ developed game . The game idea came from staring at the ceiling , and Wohlwend applied a grayscale color palette from his first year in art school . When Flash game sites did not purchase the title , he open sourced the code . Eric Johnson of Semi Secret ported the game to iPad , which began a collaboration between Wohlwend and the company 's Adam Saltsman , who became the primary puzzle designer .
The game received " generally favorable " reviews , according to video game review score aggregator Metacritic . It was an honorable mention in Best Mobile Game and Nuovo Award categories of the 2012 Independent Games Festival , their honorable mention in Excellence in Visual Art the next year , and an official selection at IndieCade 2012 . Reviewers praised its minimalist design aesthetic and puzzle variety , and criticized its obtuse cryptography subgame . Ian Bogost wrote that the game functioned like a design object , a feat unique for the video game medium .
= = Gameplay = =
Players touch circles onscreen to make them grow in size . Numbers within the circles count upwards with the duration of the touch . If a growing circle overlaps another , the player must restart the puzzle . Levels are completed when the numbers within the circles total 100 . There are 100 levels that progress in complexity from a simple circle with no nearby obstructions to the advanced mechanics , such as linked circles that need to be touched at once , buzzsaws that reset the numbers within the circles , and snowflakes that freeze other circles .
The game has no pause feature or motion controls , and there is no formal tutorial . Hidden between the puzzles are a few ciphers — incomprehensible text to be decoded through substitution cipher and other methods . The endless mode unlocks when the 100 puzzles are complete , and features a series of randomly generated levels .
= = Development = =
Hundreds is a puzzle game developed and published by Semi Secret Software : Adam Saltsman of Canabalt , Greg Wohlwend of Puzzlejuice , composer Scott Morgan ( also known as Loscil ) , and developer Eric Johnson .
Wohlwend originally built Hundreds as a Flash game . As an artist , he wanted to experiment with game programming following his release of Solipskier with programmer Mike Boxleiter . He developed the game from an idea he had while staring at a ceiling , where he imagined a circle growing without overlapping another when growing . He found this to be a good core game concept and based the game around " patience and persistence " . The game 's style inadvertently borrowed from his first year in art school , where Wohlwend composed in black , white , and red so as to focus on composition rather than color . The Flash version was released in 2010 and is available online at Newgrounds . The Flash version was much simpler in design , and added circles onscreen as the game progressed . This gameplay evolved into what became the iOS release .
Though Wohlwend describes his interest in " simple and elegant " game design as permeating his works , Hundreds 's minimalism was also functional due to his inexperience with programming . The code was " brute forced " and written in a single file . It was the first game he programmed , though he had some assistance with the in @-@ game physics . Wohlwend wanted the game to be purchased by a Flash game site like Kongregate or Newgrounds . When the sites were not interested , he chose to open source his code , partly with the intent to spur " non @-@ coders " to try coding , as he had . At the time , Semi Secret Software was in a lull between projects .
Programmer Eric Johnson of Semi Secret found the open source version and ported the game to iPad in a weekend before notifying Wohlwend . At the time , Wohlwend did not have an iOS device to test the port , and had to purchase an iPad . Johnson 's iPad version spurred Wohlwend to consider how Hundreds would work with multitouch and cooperative play , and Semi Secret 's Adam Saltsman to consider a Hundreds collaboration , especially as the company lacked the funds to work on a new game from scratch . They began to work towards an iOS release . Saltsman expected Wohlwend to work with Johnson to finish the game in a few months by adding new " circle types " and designing 100 discrete puzzles , but extended that estimate and joined the project himself in that time . Wohlwend and Saltsman extended the game 's mechanics with new circles and puzzles , but their results were clunky . Saltsman recalled wanting to add atop the game 's " basic building blocks " , which took them off @-@ track after a few months and took a few additional months to recover . Wohlwend wanted to make the game easier than the Flash version and so proposed ten new circles that were not adopted . However , he was happy with the final result and credited the game 's " emergent interaction " qualities to Saltsman . They built on each other 's level designs , though Wohlwend said that Saltsman made " basically all the levels " . The new team enjoyed working with each other .
The core differences between the Flash and iOS versions are a new endless mode and a narrative element based on ciphers and codes . The latter feature spiraled from email conversations between Wohlwend and Saltsman about a " really obtuse and weird " subgame that functioned as a story . Wohlwend credited Saltsman with the idea of a Brave New World @-@ style fiction within the game that used ciphers , though the idea was also influenced by a similar plot element in Dash Shaw 's Bottomless Belly Button . The endless mode was added about six months into development . They hoped the game 's presentation conveyed " honest and confident rather than overly mysterious and weird " . The team was also inspired by Superbrothers : Sword & Sworcery EP 's boldness .
Hundreds was first announced at the 2012 Game Developers Conference and " reannounced " later that year following changes in its presentation . It was released on January 7 , 2013 for iPhone and iPad , and on June 28 for Android . It was later added to the November 2013 Humble Mobile Bundle 3 . The composer released a compilation of remixes of the Hundreds track as 100 Minutes on Bandcamp in June 2013 .
= = Reception = =
The game received " generally favorable " reviews , according to video game review score aggregator Metacritic . It was an honorable mention in Best Mobile Game and Nuovo Award categories of the 2012 Game Developers Conference Independent Games Festival , and an honorable mention in Excellence in Visual Art at the 2013 festival . Hundreds was also an official selection at IndieCade 2012 .
Reviewers noted the game 's unadorned nature . Edge called it " handsomely austere " , " modish " , and " elegant " . Dan Ryckert of Game Informer complimented its simplicity , and The Guardian 's Stuart Dredge found the game 's minimalism " stylish " and its gameplay " genuinely hypnotic " . Eurogamer 's Dan Whitehead said the game was " basically interactive porn for graphic designers " . Nissa Campbell from TouchArcade wrote that its red , gray , and black graphics were " striking " albeit not flashy , and that the game was interesting " visually , aurally , and mechanically " . In a piece for The Atlantic , Ian Bogost wrote that its game , visual , and interaction design " embodied an elegant minimalism " akin to the Bauhausian aesthetic promoted by Apple . He added that Hundreds had cultural cachet " unprecedented " in the medium of video games and similar to that of other design objects — that the game was closer to Prada or a lobby bar than to Angry Birds . Bogost felt that it required an amount of attention unlike other " time @-@ waster " mobile games , and referred to the precarious strategies required to complete some levels as a " multi @-@ touch ballet " .
Edge thought the game to be " an astoundingly harmonious mix of art and design " and said its " simple premise " is " perfectly suited for a multitouch screen " . The magazine noted that the game occasionally becomes one of patience and not skill due to the degree of entropy in each level . Dan Ryckert of Game Informer noted Hundreds as one of the better examples of games that successfully " embraced the simplicity of touch control " , such that translation to traditional controller would be " virtually impossible " . He appreciated the way the game slowly introduced the new circle types , though he did not like how his hand occasionally obscured the screen . ( For this reason , reviewers preferred the iPad version for its larger screen . ) Multiple reviewers liked how the game continually renewed itself with the slow introduction of new game elements , though Harry Slater of Pocket Gamer described the core gameplay as " one @-@ note " and criticized its lack of addictive loops that keep players interested . Mike Rose of Gamasutra compared the game as the inverse of Jezzball .
Multiple reviewers noted Hundreds 's variety of puzzles and endgame difficulty . Edge commented that the " arcane codes " and puzzles with prescribed solutions made the game 's pacing " unusual " when compared to the other puzzles designed to be completed leisurely . Slater of Pocket Gamer too felt the pacing was " swift but uninspiring " , and Eurogamer 's Whitehead called its rhythm " weird " as he waited for the right opportunity some puzzles and could finish others with a single trick . Game Informer 's Ryckert also found the final puzzles too aggravating , especially the ones with invisible elements . Campbell of TouchArcade appreciated the variety of puzzles from " twitch " to " slow and thoughtful " to , her favorite , the " cerebral " puzzles that required specific tricks as well as the ability to skip puzzles . She also found the last level nigh impossible . Multiple reviewers felt that the cipher puzzles were out of place , and TouchArcade said it was easy to ignore them as what felt like an " utterly distinct " game . The Atlantic 's Bogost thought that the hidden ciphers were the " surest clue " of its status as " a design object and not a consumable media experience " . Slater of Pocket Gamer wrote that the ciphers felt forced and unexciting , and was disappointed overall in consideration of " the incredible talent involved " . Whitehead of Eurogamer called the puzzles " deftly constructed " and said the game " delights more than it frustrates " . Wired 's Ryan Rigney wrote that Hundreds distinguished itself among iOS puzzle games in its style and design .
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= Tammar wallaby =
The tammar wallaby ( Macropus eugenii ) , also known as the dama wallaby or darma wallaby , is a small macropod native to South and Western Australia . Though its geographical range has been severely reduced since European colonisation , the tammar remains common within its reduced range and is listed as " Least Concern " by the International Union for Conservation of Nature ( IUCN ) . It has been introduced to New Zealand and reintroduced to some areas of Australia where it had been previously eradicated . Skull differences distinguish tammars from Western Australia , Kangaroo Island and mainland South Australia , making them distinct population groups or possibly different subspecies .
About the size of a rabbit , the tammar is among the smallest of the wallabies in the genus Macropus . Its coat colour is largely grey . The tammar has several notable adaptations , including the ability to retain energy while hopping , colour vision and the ability to drink seawater . A nocturnal species , it spends night time in grassland habitat and day time in shrubland . It is also very gregarious and has a seasonal , promiscuous mating pattern . A female tammar can nurse a joey in her pouch while keeping an embryo in her uterus . The tammar is a model species for research on marsupials , and on mammals in general . It is one of many organisms to have had its genome sequenced .
= = Taxonomy and classification = =
The tammar wallaby was seen in the Houtman Abrolhos off Western Australia by survivors of the 1628 Batavia shipwreck , and recorded by François Pelsaert in his 1629 Ongeluckige Voyagie . It was first described in 1817 by the French naturalist Anselme Gaëtan Desmarest , who gave it the name eugenii based on where it was found ; an island he knew as Ile Eugene in the Nuyts Archipelago off South Australia which is now known as St Peter Island . The island 's French name was given in honour of Eugene Hamelin , commander of the ship Naturaliste ; whose name is now the specific name of the tammar . The common name of the animal is derived from the thickets of the shrub locally known as tamma ( Allocasuarina campestris ) that sheltered it in Western Australia . The tammar is classified together with the kangaroos , wallaroos and several species of wallaby in the genus Macropus , and in the subgenus Notamacropus with the other wallabies , all of which have a facial stripe .
Fossil evidence of the tammar wallaby exists from the late Pleistocene era — remains were found in the Naracoorte Caves . The mainland and island dwelling tammars split from each other 7 @,@ 000 – 15 @,@ 000 years ago , while the South Australian and Western Australian animals diverged around 50 @,@ 000 years ago . The tammar wallabies on Flinders Island had greyer coats and thinner heads than the Kangaroo Island tammars , which are larger than the East and West Wallabi Islands animals . The island tammars were once thought to be a separate species from the mainland population . A 1991 examination of tammar skulls from different parts of the species ' range found that populations can be divided into three distinct groups ; one group made of populations from mainland Western Australia , East and West Wallabi Islands , Garden Island and Middle Island ; a second group comprising populations from Flinders Island , 19th century mainland Southern Australia and New Zealand ; and a third group consisting solely of the Kangaroo Island population . The Western Australia Department of Environment and Conservation listed these populations as subspecies ; M. e. derbianus , M. e. eugenii and M. e. decres respectively .
= = Description and physiology = =
One of the smallest wallaby species in the genus Macropus , the tammar wallaby features a small head and large ears with a long tail , thick at the base . It has dark grey @-@ brown upperparts with paler grey highlights , rufous on the sides of the body and limbs , particularly in males , and pale grey @-@ buff underparts . The tammar wallaby exhibits significant sexual dimorphism , with the maximum recorded weight in males being 9 @.@ 1 kg ( 20 lb ) and maximum recorded weight in females is 6 @.@ 9 kg ( 15 lb ) . The body length is 59 to 68 cm ( 23 – 27 in ) in males and 52 to 63 cm ( 20 – 25 in ) in females . Both males and females are about 45 cm ( 18 in ) in height . The tails of males range from 34 to 45 cm ( 13 – 18 in ) and those of females from 33 to 44 cm ( 13 – 17 in ) .
= = = Locomotion = = =
As with most macropods , the tammar wallaby moves around by hopping . This species has a hopping frequency of 3 @.@ 5 strides per second , with a stride length of 0 @.@ 8 to 2 @.@ 4 m ( 2 @.@ 6 – 7 @.@ 9 ft ) . When hopping , proximal muscles at the knee and hip joints generate most of the power for each leap , which are delivered by multi @-@ joint muscles at the ankle . As it lands , the energy of the jump is converted into strain energy made when its leg tendons are stretched . As it leaps back off the ground , the tammar can recover much of this energy for reuse though elastic recoil .
The amount of energy stored in the tendons increases with the animal 's speed and the weight of the load it is carrying . This is particularly helpful for mothers carrying young , and explains why tammars can increase their hopping speed without using more energy . The tammar shares this characteristic with other plains @-@ dwelling macropods like the red kangaroo . By comparison , rock wallabies , such as the yellow @-@ footed rock @-@ wallaby , have traded efficient energy saving for greater tendon thickness ; an adaption for steep rocky terrain as it allows them to leap higher and lowers the risk of their tendons rupturing .
= = = Senses = = =
The tammar has 324 ° peripheral vision and 50 ° binocular vision . It can distinguish black / white gratings of different widths and in different light conditions better than most other small mammals , such as rabbits . It is nevertheless not as good as a cat or a human . Tammars appear to have some colour vision : its eyes have only blue sensitive and green sensitive photoreceptor cones , allowing it to see colour in the blue @-@ green band of the colour spectrum , but not the longer wavelengths of the red @-@ yellow band . Nevertheless , in the band where it can see colour , it can differentiate between two monochromatic colours with wavelengths as close as 20 nm ( 2 @.@ 0 × 10 − 8 m ) apart . The pinna ( ear ) of the tammar is mobile , allowing it to track sounds from different parts of its surroundings without moving its head . A tammar can point its pinna at a sound source and increase its eardrum 's sound pressure by 25 – 30 dB at 5 kHz . When the pinna moves away from the sound source , the animal 's hearing level quickly drops . When born , a tammar 's sense of smell is already developed ; this allows the newborn to find its mother 's pouch by the scent .
= = = Thermoregulation and water turnover = = =
Tammars lick their forearms and pant to keep cool in hot weather . They breathe more heavily and lose more water when the temperature is over 30 ° C ( 86 ° F ) . Tammars can 't survive in temperatures above 40 ° C ( 104 ° F ) and must find cooler surroundings . To prevent dehydration , tammars urinate less and reabsorb water from the distal colon , which gives them relatively dry feces . Being able to concentrate more urine in their kidneys allows them to survive on seawater .
= = = Sudden deaths = = =
In late 1998 , 120 – 130 tammar wallabies died suddenly in research facilities and zoos in New South Wales and Queensland , perishing less than twelve hours after exhibiting the first symptoms , with most exhibiting no symptoms at all . Post mortem examination revealed haemorrhage of muscle , and abdominal and thoracic organs . The syndrome is known as tammar sudden death syndrome and the pathogen is an orbivirus of the family Reoviridae . It does not occur south of Sydney . Captive populations of tammar wallabies in New South Wales have subsequently suffered infections in summer months . No treatment has been attempted due to the rapid progression of the disease .
= = Ecology and life history = =
Mostly nocturnal , tammar wallabies spend much of their time foraging . In winter their home ranges are about 16 ha ( 40 acres ) , but in the dry summers they range further afield to search for quality food , needing about 42 ha ( 100 acres ) of space . Tammar home ranges overlap with those of conspecifics .
During the day , tammars stay close to scrub for shade and move out to more open grassland by nightfall . Like all macropods , the tammar is herbivorous . They are known to both graze and browse , but the latter is less effective , as they commonly drop leaves when chewing on them . When eating large leaves , tammars handle them with their forelimbs . This species spends more time chewing its food than other similar sized macropods , which likely aids digestion . Tammars commonly feed on acacia seeds . Other species consumed include heart @-@ leaved poison ( Gastrolobium bilobum ) , small @-@ flowered wallaby grass ( Austrodanthonia setacea ) , and marri ( Corymbia calophylla ) . Tammars survive on several islands that have no fresh water , subsisting on seawater and the moisture in plants .
The tammar rests in two positions : a " sitting tail forward " position , in which the hind legs are outstretched with tail brought forward in between , the body prone and the head above ground ; and a " lying " position , in which the animal lies on its side with the head touching the ground . The former position is typically used during the day for long periods , and the latter position is used at night for brief periods . Tammars are known to live in stable groups , which lessens the chance of an individual being taken by a predator . As the group increases in size , tammars spend more time foraging , grooming and interacting and less time being vigilant and moving around . Predators of the tammar include dingos , feral cats , red foxes and wedge @-@ tailed eagles . They may also have been preyed upon by the extinct thylacine . Tammars appear to respond more to the sight than the sound of predators . They can also use their acute sense of smell to detect a predator . When a predator is detected , a tammar will alert others by thumping its foot . When lost , young tammars are known to emit a coarse screeching call and adult females may respond with a similar call .
= = = Breeding and development = = =
The tammar wallaby has a promiscuous mating system . It is a seasonal breeder and births largely occur during late January and early February . During the breeding season , the male 's prostate and bulbourethral gland enlarge . However , there does not appear to be any seasonal difference in the weight of the testes . Around two weeks before the first births , the males will begin sniffing the uro @-@ genital openings and pouches of the females to determine their reproductive status . After giving birth , females enter estrus and allow males to mate with them . However , a male that attempts to mate with an estrous female may face aggression from other males . A male can achieve reproductive success by mate @-@ guarding . During the estrous period , males establish a dominance hierarchy and the higher ranking males will try to prevent subordinates from mating with estrous females . Several males may pursue a single female .
The female tammar can conceive shortly after giving birth . Tammars undergo embryonic diapause and the blastocyst remains dormant for nearly a year . For the first half of the year , the presence of the joey in the pouch prevents the blastocyst from developing and experiments have shown that removing the joey within this first half will stimulate the blastocyst 's development . However , after this the blastocyst remains dormant even after the joey has left . It begins to develop by the summer solstice in the end of December and the female gives birth around one month later . After birth the newborn young climbs unaided by its mother from the birth canal to the pouch .
When it reaches the pouch , the underdeveloped joey suckles the teat of one of the four mammary glands while the others recede . The joey remains attached to the teat for 100 – 125 days , after which it ceases its attachment but remains in the pouch and continues to suckle , but more intermittently . The joey begins to leave the pouch and eat grass at around 200 days when it is more developed . It still suckles , more forcefully but less regularly . By 250 days , the joey no longer needs the pouch , and it is fully weaned at around 300 – 350 days . The tammar wallaby has been observed to engage in alloparental care , in which an adult may adopt another 's young . Male tammars may live for around 11 years , while females live for 14 years .
= = Population dynamics and conservation = =
The tammar wallaby is listed as Least Concern by the IUCN , because of its abundance and presumably stable population . However , the fragmentation of its range has led to high amounts of inbreeding and morphological abnormalities in some populations .
Since European occupation , tammar wallaby populations on both mainland Australia and some of the islands have been greatly reduced or even eradicated . In the early 20th century , the mainland population of tammars in Western Australia was described as numerous in much of the southwest , but declining in the cultivated areas , particularly to the north . Clearings made for wheat and sheep caused the population to decline further . From the 19th century , tammars in the Eyre Peninsula and around Adelaide were decimated by mobs of hunters organised to protect crops and pastures . As a result , they were extinct in the areas around Adelaide by the 1920s , and in the Eyre Peninsula around the 1970s . Tammars from Flinders Island and St Peter Island were eradicated in a similar manner .
Tammars from these areas were introduced to Kawau Island in New Zealand by colonial administrator Sir George Grey in 1870 . Since then , they have flourished to the point where their foraging has damaged indigenous plants . Pest control operators have used sodium fluoroacetate , a naturally occurring rodenticide , to control their populations , a practice which has been controversial because of its possible effect on organisms not targeted , including humans . Cyanide pellets have been used as an alternative . In 1985 , tammars were introduced to the North Island of the Houtman Abrolhos and have made similar impacts on native vegetation . Their numbers grew to 450 individuals , but by 2008 culling efforts appeared to have reduced their numbers to 25 individuals . In 2003 , the Monarto Zoo temporarily housed 85 tammars from New Zealand awaiting reintroduction to the Innes National Park on the Yorke Peninsula in South Australia . Four releases have been made , and a stable wild population of 100 – 120 animals now exists . Tammars have also been successfully translocated to other areas , such as Nambung National Park and Avon Valley National Park in Western Australia .
= = = Resistance to sodium fluoroacetate = = =
Different tammar populations have varying levels of resistance to sodium fluoroacetate . Mainland Western tammars appear to be the most resistant , while those on Kangaroo Island are much more vulnerable . Tammars from New Zealand are also vulnerable , as the poison has been successfully used to control their populations . Tammars from East and West Wallabi Islands and Garden Island , which do not have plants containing sodium fluoroacetate , are less resistant than mainland Western tammars but are more resistant than those from Kangaroo Island . This suggests that tammars originated in South Australia and developed a resistance to sodium fluoroacetate when they reached Western Australia , where the poison is found in plants .
= = Use in science = =
= = = Model organism = = =
The tammar wallaby is a model organism for studying marsupial biology , as well as mammal biology in general . It has been used in the fields of reproductive biology , immunology , metabolism , neurobiology and many others . Its " seasonal and lactational control of its reproduction " make its reproduction particularly suited for study . Tammars are inexpensive to keep in captivity and are easy to handle . They also breed well , especially if there is at least one male for five females . Tammars used for scientific study are generally housed in outdoor pens with access to water and shelter , which is closer to their natural habitat than a laboratory .
The genomes of marsupials are of great interest to scientists studying comparative genomics , and the study of tammars has provided much information about the genetics of marsupials and mammals in general . Marsupials are at a convenient degree of evolutionary divergence from humans ; mice are too close and have not developed many different functions , while birds are genetically too remote . Key immune genes from the tammar wallaby were isolated and studied in 2009 , and the full genome was sequenced in 2011 . Sequencing of the tammar genome found " innovation in reproductive and lactational genes , rapid evolution of germ cell genes , and incomplete , locus @-@ specific X inactivation " . The researchers also found new HOX genes that control gene expression , as well as novel microRNAs . The tammar genome appears to have more rearrangements than those of both the human and the gray short @-@ tailed opossum , another sequenced marsupial .
= = = Potential pharmaceutical use = = =
A compound in the milk of the tammar wallaby called AGG01 has the potential to be a new and powerful antibiotic . AGG01 is a protein , and in laboratory tests has proven to be 100 times more effective than penicillin . It has killed over 99 % of the pathogenic bacteria , ( both Gram @-@ positive and Gram @-@ negative ) , that it was incubated with , including Salmonella , Proteus vulgaris and Staphylococcus aureus . It also killed one species of fungus . Subsequent analysis of the genome has led to the discovery of several cathelicidin peptides , which could also be used as antibiotics .
= = = Gut microbiota related with greenhouse effect = = =
The foregut of the tammar wallaby contains species of bacteria belonging to the phyla Firmicutes , Bacteroidetes and Proteobacteria . Within the phylum Proteobacteria , species of the family Succinivibrionaceae are the most abundant and a new species named WG – 1 was discovered . WG – 1 is a capnophilic bacterium . This has important environmental implications as the bacteria produces less methane than others and does not require CO2 to survive . Research suggests that this information could be used to reduce carbon production in livestock .
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= Gná and Hófvarpnir =
In Norse mythology , Gná is a goddess who runs errands in other worlds for the goddess Frigg and rides the flying , sea @-@ treading horse Hófvarpnir ( Old Norse " he who throws his hoofs about " , " hoof @-@ thrower " or " hoof kicker " ) . Gná and Hófvarpnir are attested in the Prose Edda , written in the 13th century by Snorri Sturluson . Scholarly theories have been proposed about Gná as a " goddess of fullness " and as potentially cognate to Fama from Roman mythology . Hófvarpnir and the eight @-@ legged steed Sleipnir have been cited examples of transcendent horses in Norse mythology .
= = Attestations = =
In chapter 35 of the Prose Edda book Gylfaginning , the enthroned figure of High provides brief descriptions of 16 ásynjur . High lists Gná thirteenth , and says that Frigg sends her off to different worlds to run errands . High adds that Gná rides the horse Hófvarpnir , and that this horse has the ability to ride through the air and atop the sea . High continues that " once some Vanir saw her path as she rode through the air " and that an unnamed one of these Vanir says , in verse :
" What flies there ?
What fares there ?
or moves through the air ? "
Gná responds in verse , in doing so providing the parentage of Hófvarpnir ; the horses Hamskerpir and Garðrofa :
" I fly not
though I fare
and move through the air
on Hofvarpnir
the one whom Hamskerpir got
with Gardrofa . "
The source for these stanzas is not provided and they are otherwise unattested . High ends his description of Gná by saying that " from Gna 's name comes the custom of saying that something gnaefir [ looms ] when it rises up high . " In the Prose Edda book Skáldskaparmál , Gná is included among a list of 27 ásynjur names .
= = Theories = =
Rudolf Simek says that the etymology that Snorri presents in Gylfaginning for the name Gná may not be correct , yet it is unclear what the name may otherwise mean , though Gná has also been etymologically theorized as a " goddess of fullness . " John Lindow calls the verse exchange between the Vanir and Gná " strange " and points out that it 's unclear why it should specifically be the Vanir that witness Gná flying through the air .
Ulla Loumand cites Hófvarpnir and the eight @-@ legged horse Sleipnir as " prime examples " of horses in Norse mythology as being able to " mediate between earth and sky , between Ásgarðr , Miðgarðr and Útgarðr and between the world of mortal men and the underworld . " In the 19th century , Jacob Grimm proposed a cognate in the personified rumor in Roman mythology ; Fama . However , Grimm notes that unlike Fama , Gná is not described as winged but rather that Hófvarpnir , like the winged @-@ horse Pegasus , may have been .
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= No Church in the Wild =
" No Church in the Wild " is a song by American hip hop artists Kanye West and Jay @-@ Z from their first collaborative album Watch the Throne ( 2011 ) . It is the first track on the album and features vocals from Odd Future 's Frank Ocean and The @-@ Dream , although the latter is uncredited for his contributions to the song . The song explores themes of religion and decadence . The track received highly positive reviews from music critics , who praised Ocean 's vocal hooks , the depth of the verses , the cinematic production and the song 's power as an opening track .
The track was released as the seventh and final single from Watch the Throne . The song peaked at number 72 on the US Billboard Hot 100 and entered the top 40 on both the US Billboard Hot Rap Songs and Hot R & B / Hip @-@ Hop Songs charts . The song received a music video directed by Romain Gavras released on May 29 , 2012 . The video does not feature any of the performers featured on the song and instead features anarchic riot footage and large street fights . The video received positive reviews from critics who praised the visuals of the video and the unique aesthetic presented in the video .
Jay @-@ Z and West performed the song as part of the setlist of their Watch the Throne Tour and Ocean performed his portion of the song on several different occasions during his November 2011 tour through North America and Europe . " No Church in the Wild " was featured in the theatrical trailers for the 2012 action film Safe House and the 2013 film adaptation of The Great Gatsby . The song itself has debuted at # 18 on the US Billboard YouTube 100 music video chart in July 2012 . The song received a nomination for Best Rap / Sung Collaboration and Best Short Form Music Video at the 55th Grammy Awards to be held in February 2013 . It later won in the category of Best Rap / Sung Collaboration , marking this Jay @-@ Z 's sixth win & Kanye 's fourth win in this category .
= = Background = =
Jay @-@ Z and Kanye West are American rappers who have collaborated on several tracks together , such as singles like " Swagga Like Us " , " Run This Town " , and " Monster " . In 2010 , they began production and recording on a collaborative record Watch the Throne . Frank Ocean is an R & B recording artist who released his debut mixtape Nostalgia , Ultra in early 2011 to critical acclaim . The release of the mixtape interested West , who was reported to be a large fan . West invited Ocean to write and sing on two songs off of the record . Frank wrote and provided vocals on tracks " No Church in the Wild " and " Made in America " and the songs were recorded in New York . The production of the track was handled by 88 @-@ Keys and Kanye West . 88 @-@ Keys reportedly " played 20 of his beats " to West and Jay , and " everybody in the room just started going crazy " . An hour later , they had singled out the beat that would become ' " No Church in the Wild . " The next day , 88 @-@ Keys met Frank Ocean and they recorded the chorus together and an unreleased spoken word portion . 88 @-@ Keys did not hear the final version until Jay @-@ Z showcased it at the invite @-@ only listening session at the Museum of Natural History 's planetarium in August 2011 . Producer and recording artist The @-@ Dream sings a verse on the track using AutoTune . The track impacted urban radio as the seventh and final single from Watch the Throne on March 20 , 2012 .
= = Composition = =
" No Church in the Wild " features a cinematic production style and serves as an " ominous opener . " According to Billboard , Odd Future singer Frank Ocean and The @-@ Dream lend their voices to the album 's " grim opener , " which sets the mood with a " gnarled guitar sample " . It features a bass @-@ heavy beat with guitar riffs , synthesizers , and drums . The song begins with Frank Ocean 's chorus followed by a Jay @-@ Z verse about various topics including philosophy , braggadocio and religion . On Ocean 's chorus , Los Angeles Times writer Randall Roberts stated " with it the listener enters a bejeweled realm , one filled with musings on the spoils of riches and the chaos that accompanies it . " The chorus " underpins Jay @-@ Z 's contemplation of the relevance of the clergy and ancient philosophers to someone who makes his living on the streets , while R & B star Frank Ocean questions , " What is a God to a non @-@ believer ? " " The chorus then repeats and The @-@ Dream performs a bridge , preceding West 's verse where he boasts " You will not control the threesome . " West 's verse included references to Socrates , the perils of monogamy , " implied regicide " and both rappers " take turns describing a night of decadence that leaves blood on the coliseum walls . ” The song contains samples from " K Scope " as performed by Phil Manzanera , " Sunshine Help Me " as performed by Spooky Tooth and " Don 't Tell a Lie About Me and I Won 't Tell the Truth About You " as performed by James Brown . According to the Alexis Petridis of The Guardian , the track utilizes " unlikely samples " with " Ocean 's haunting vocal against Roxy Music 's Phil Manzanera playing a tricksy prog riff . "
= = Reception = =
" No Church in the Wild " received mostly positive reviews from music critics and was often described as a highlight from Watch the Throne . Andy Gill of The Independent stated " the best track is surely the opener ' No Church in the Wild ' , whose deep , detuned twang groove , over a marching organ motif , is the most striking music on the album , promising rather more than the rest of the record is able to deliver . Both this and the other stand @-@ out track , " Made In America " , feature assured vocal refrains from Frank Ocean , while the two rappers muse over familiar themes of loyalty , sexuality and maternal solidarity . " Rolling Stone claims that it is one of the most musically impressive songs on Watch the Throne and describes the production as an " ominous , darkly funky bass groove and chilly synths tailor @-@ made for Ocean ’ s off @-@ kilter crooning . " Matt Popkin from American Songwriter praised Jay @-@ Z 's verse and the menacing vibe of the song . NOW claims that " uncomfortably visceral opener ' No Church In The Wild ' – with its filthy Phil Manzanera guitar sample and mournful Frank Ocean chorus – cuts to the heart of Watch The Throne ’ s power dynamic . " However , PopMatters criticized that the verses " feel a little out of focus compared to the hook and beat ’ s opulence . " Sputnikmusic 's Tyler Fisher commented " 88 @-@ Keys creates a positively epic opening track with ' No Church in the Wild ' , full of creeping guitar riffs and pulsating bass , building tension that simply never releases . " Rolling Stone named the track the sixth best song of the year , reporting that " with Hov and Yeezy getting deep into arcane theology , this track is just another high . "
= = Promotion = =
The track was performed by West and Jay on their Watch the Throne Tour . Ocean performed his hook of the song at some of the performances during his 2011 concert series through the US and Europe . The song was used in the promotional ad and end credits for the film Safe House , the promo ad for The Great Gatsby , and in an advertising series for the 2013 Dodge Dart automobile .
A music video was filmed in late April 2012 in the Czech Republic by the Greek @-@ French director Romain Gavras , known for his work for M.I.A and Justice . There were two hundred extras , divided into police and rioters . The final video was released on May 29 , 2012 . The video is " clearly influenced by the protests and civil unrest that took place all across the country . " The video 's final shot bears similarity to an image from visual artist UnkleLuc 's project , The Wild . Rolling Stone reported that the " clip for " No Church in the Wild " depicts a grim clash between a large number of protesters and heavily armed and violent riot police . "
The video features neither West , Jay @-@ Z or Ocean , but instead focuses on two groups : " protestors and the police , both at war with one another . And yes , this is war — it ’ s an unsettling and savage clip , depicting protestors being beaten and pepper @-@ sprayed as they mercilessly combat with the police , though the protestors @-@ turned @-@ rioters also inflict a large part of the violence : they destroy property , loot stores , and set fire to cars — and humans . The video refuses to take sides , as there ’ s no winner when a conflict turns to violence . " Young men are beaten , choked , sprayed with mace and dragged across the concrete as Frank Ocean soulfully croons , " Will he make it out alive ? " in time with the staged anarchy . By the end of the five @-@ minute video , " the freedom fighters seem to have notched a victory of some sort , standing in triumph in the face of their oppressors . But even if a single battle is won , there is no conclusive ending , meaning that the war still rages on . " Popping up at the end of the clip is an actual elephant , chained at the neck and trying to resist getting choked to death . Pitchfork Media gave the clip a positive review , however noted " Kanye 's " you will not control the threesome " / " never fuck nobody without telling me " verse seems pretty out of place when you 're watching a cop get set on fire . "
= = Personnel = =
Produced by 88 @-@ Keys , Kanye West and Mike Dean
Frank Ocean & The Dream 's vocal production by Om 'Mas Keith
Recorded by Noah Goldstein , Ken Lewis and Brent Kolatalo
Additional recording : Pat Thrall
Mixed by Mike Dean
Additional instruments : Ken Lewis
Additional vocals : The @-@ Dream
Mixed and recorded at ( The Mercer ) Hotel
= = Charts and certifications = =
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= Perfect Dark =
Perfect Dark is a first @-@ person shooter video game developed by Rare and published by Nintendo for the Nintendo 64 video game console . It is considered the spiritual successor to Rare 's earlier first @-@ person shooter GoldenEye 007 , with which it shares many gameplay features . Perfect Dark was first released in North America on 22 May 2000 ; PAL and NTSC @-@ J releases followed soon afterwards . A separate Game Boy Color game , also titled Perfect Dark , was released in August 2000 as a supplement to the game and allows certain features within the Nintendo 64 game to alternatively be unlocked via a Transfer Pak .
The game features a single @-@ player mode consisting of 17 main missions in which the player assumes the role of Carrington Institute agent Joanna Dark as she attempts to stop a conspiracy by rival corporation dataDyne . It also features a range of multiplayer options , including a co @-@ operative mode and traditional deathmatch settings . Technically , it is one of the most advanced games developed for the Nintendo 64 , with an optional high resolution graphics mode , widescreen support , and Dolby Surround Sound . A Nintendo 64 Expansion Pak is required to access the game 's campaign and most of the multiplayer features .
Perfect Dark was developed over the course of three years and uses an upgraded version of the GoldenEye 007 engine . The game met with critical acclaim and commercial success upon release , selling more than three million units worldwide . Critics widely praised its customisable multiplayer modes and replay value , but criticized its inconsistent frame rate . The game 's success has led to the development of the Perfect Dark series , which includes the 2005 prequel Perfect Dark Zero and other types of merchandise like novels and comic books . A remake , also titled Perfect Dark , with enhanced graphics and online multiplayer , was exclusively released as an Xbox Live Arcade game for the Xbox 360 in 2010 .
= = Gameplay = =
Perfect Dark is a first @-@ person shooter in which players control Carrington Institute agent Joanna Dark through a series of levels collected together into missions . The general gameplay is similar to that of its predecessor GoldenEye 007 , with features such as stealth sections and objectives determined by difficulty settings carried over . Players can crouch , duck , lean , and drop from most ledges , but there is no jump ability . A number of tutorials and training activities can be taken at the Carrington Institute , which acts as the game 's central hub . The Nintendo 64 Expansion Pak is needed to access the game 's campaign and most of the multiplayer features , although a limited subset of the Combat Simulator options are available without the device ; around 35 % of the game is playable without an Expansion Pak , as estimated on the game 's box and Instruction Booklet .
The player has access to a wide range of weapons , including handguns , rifles , submachine guns , a shotgun , rocket launchers , combat knives , grenade launchers , various explosives , and several extraterrestrial weapons . Further weapons are unlocked during the training activities in the hub . Almost all of the weapons in the game have two modes of fire : a primary mode in which the weapon is used in a typical fashion , and a secondary mode which uses the guns in other ways , such as them being close @-@ quarters melee weapons . Players can carry an unlimited number of weapons , and certain guns can be used in duplicate , one in each hand . Most weapons have a finite magazine and must be reloaded after a certain number of shots . Interaction with objects in the environment is via a single " Use " command . Enemies and players can disarm each other at close range , and the player can use this feature to steal weapons or knock foes unconscious . Damage taken during combat for the player and enemy units is location @-@ based , with a shot to the torso causing more damage than a shot to a limb .
In each level , the player must complete certain objectives and then exit the stage . The requirements are varied , with many levels requiring the recovery and use of numerous high @-@ tech gadgets . If Joanna is killed or fails an objective , the player must start the level again . Three distinct difficulty settings are available for each level , the choice of which will affect aspects such as the number of objectives that must be completed , enemy accuracy and damage , the effectiveness of the game 's optional automatic aiming assistance , and the availability of ammunition and items such as protective shields . If all the levels are completed on the highest difficulty , an additional setting becomes available , titled " Perfect Dark " . In this mode , players can customise various aspects of enemies , such as their health , their aiming accuracy and the damage they inflict . In addition to the main campaign , there are four bonus missions , with three enabling the player to control other characters with unique special abilities . Players can also unlock cheats by completing the levels within certain time limits . Some cheats can alternatively be unlocked by using the Perfect Dark Game Boy Color game and Transfer Pak .
= = = Multiplayer = = =
Unlike GoldenEye 007 , Perfect Dark features three multiplayer systems . The first is a co @-@ operative mode in which two players , or one player and up to three computer @-@ controlled players , can tackle the missions together . If two humans play , the game uses a split screen display , with the option to split horizontally or vertically . Only one human player is required to survive the mission , but all the objectives must be completed . Additionally , the game features a " Counter Operative " mode in which one player plays the missions as Joanna while another takes over the role of an enemy and attempts to stop her . If this human @-@ controlled guard is killed , the game continues with the Counter Operative player taking control of a different enemy in the level . The game does not tell the player controlling Joanna which enemy the Counter Operative player is controlling .
The third multiplayer mode is the Combat Simulator , involving up to four human players and eight computer @-@ controlled players . Again , a split @-@ screen is used if more than one human is playing . If three or four humans play , the screen is divided into quarters , with one quarter left blank if necessary . Players enter the game unarmed and with a certain amount of health . Weapons and ammunition are placed around the level in preset positions . Once a player is killed , they are regenerated elsewhere in the level , once again unarmed . The overall objective of the game is determined by the scenario being played . Scenarios range from the traditional deathmatch mode , where players score points by killing their respective enemies , to objective @-@ based games , such as Capture the Flag or King of the Hill . Other scenarios include Hold the Briefcase , where players must take a briefcase and survive with it for as long as possible , and Hacker Central , a gametype where players score points by hacking a computer system using a data uplink . Aspects of each game can be customised , including the chosen map , the weapons available , and the winning conditions . Players can also be grouped into teams or compete individually . In a team game , the players can optionally be shown coloured according to their team . Each game can be customised to a greater degree than was possible in GoldenEye 007 's multiplayer mode , such as free weapons selection and placement of shields .
Computer @-@ controlled players , called " Simulants " , can be included in multiplayer matches . The appearance , team affiliation , skill level and playing characteristics of each Simulant can be individually customised ; each Simulant can be assigned pre @-@ set behaviours , such as a tendency to pursue the highest @-@ scoring player , or a restriction to only attack using fists and disarming moves instead of gunfire . On higher difficulty settings , Simulants perform actions at a superhuman level . In team games , players can issue allied Simulants with orders to perform certain tasks . The Combat Simulator also includes 30 " Challenges " , pre @-@ set games against Simulants which may be tackled by one or more players . The Challenges cover a variety of game types , weapon arrangements and level setups . By completing Challenges , additional features such as new weapons , player models and Simulant difficulties are unlocked in the Combat Simulator . At the end of a match , the overall results are shown , alongside information about the individual players ' performance : colour @-@ coded awards divided into multiple categories based on armour damage , accuracy and ammunition usage are given to players based on their overall performance . Players are also ranked according to their performance : the better the performance , the higher the grade , with the highest receiving a special username and password as a reward .
= = Plot = =
Perfect Dark is set in 2023 against the backdrop of an interstellar war between two races : the Maians , who resemble the archetypal grey alien , and the Skedar , reptile @-@ like extraterrestrials who use a holographic disguise to appear as Scandinavian humans , bearing similarities to Nordic aliens . Using the disguise , they can interact with humans on Earth without looking too overtly suspicious . Meanwhile , on Earth , there is an ongoing rivalry between two factions : The Carrington Institute , a research and development center founded by Daniel Carrington that secretly operates an espionage group in league with the Maians ; and dataDyne , a defence contractor corporation headed by Cassandra De Vries that secretly maintains a deal with the Skedar : in exchange for creating an AI capable of cracking an ancient alien spacecraft buried on the ocean floor , the Skedar have agreed to supply them with enough alien technology to become the biggest corporation on Earth .
The player is cast as Carrington Institute agent Joanna Dark , whose excellent scores in training have earned her the codename " Perfect Dark " . On her first mission , she is sent to extract a scientist named Dr. Caroll from the dataDyne skyscraper . When Joanna rescues Dr. Caroll , she learns that he is an AI who decided to defect from dataDyne after realising that the company betrayed ethical and moral standards . After the operation , Carrington is held captive at his private villa by dataDyne soldiers and forced to tell them where Dr. Caroll has been hidden . Joanna manages to rescue Carrington , who informs her that Dr. Caroll has been taken to the G5 Corporation headquarters in Chicago because he is suspected to be a front for dataDyne . In Chicago , Joanna learns that dataDyne and their conspirators plan to kidnap the President of the United States to get access to a deep sea research vessel called Pelagic II . Despite the President being in danger , Carrington alerts Joanna that a Maian craft was shot down near Area 51 and sends her to rescue any survivors from the base . While inside the base , she rescues one survivor , a Maian protector named Elvis who is key in stopping the conspiracy .
As the President of the United States refuses to loan dataDyne the Pelagic II , the conspirators plot to kill him and replace him with a dataDyne @-@ grown clone . To accomplish their plans , an NSA strike team led by Trent Easton invades the air base from which Air Force One will depart . When Joanna foils this strike , the NSA along with some Scandinavians take over the plane itself , which crashes after an attempt to detach a craft attached to it . Having survived the crash , Joanna eliminates the President 's clone and rescues the real President . Meanwhile , Easton is killed by one particular Scandinavian known as Mr. Blonde , who is revealed to be a Skedar in disguise . Without permission from the President , dataDyne decides to hijack the Pelagic II and reach the ancient spacecraft . However , unbeknownst to dataDyne , the Carrington Institute learns that the spacecraft contains a powerful weapon capable of destroying a planet and that the conspirators are actually Skedar aliens disguised as Scandinavian humans who intend to test the weapon on Earth before using it against the Maian homeworld .
Joanna and Elvis follow the conspirators to the ancient spacecraft and eventually find a reprogrammed Dr. Caroll cracking the weapon . Joanna replaces its current personality with a backup of the original , and the restored Dr. Carroll sets the weapon to self @-@ destruct . In retaliation for ruining their plans , the Skedar launch a strike on the Carrington Institute , capturing Joanna and taking her to their homeworld . While in their spaceship , she is met by De Vries , who has also been imprisoned due to her failure to comply with the deal . Feeling that she has been used , De Vries redeems herself by making a distraction and sacrificing herself , freeing Joanna and therefore giving herself a chance for revenge . Joanna is later assisted by Elvis and the pair manage to land on the Skedar planet . There , she defeats the Skedar High Priest , leaving the Skedar in disarray . The game ends with Elvis and Joanna leaving the planet just prior to an orbital bombardment from the Maian navy .
= = Development = =
= = = Conception = = =
Perfect Dark was developed by Rare as a spiritual successor to GoldenEye 007 . Shortly after the release of GoldenEye 007 , Rare was planning to work on a video game based on the GoldenEye sequel Tomorrow Never Dies , but the company was " dramatically outbid " by another studio , which would release 007 : Tomorrow Never Dies in 1999 . This result did not affect the developers , who felt they had already spent too much time immersed in the James Bond universe . The game 's science fiction setting was chosen due to the developers ' interest in the genre . Works such as Ghost in the Shell , Elektra , The X @-@ Files , Blade Runner and the writing of author Philip K. Dick were major influences on the characters , setting and plot . Perfect Dark director Martin Hollis explained that he and designer David Doak " picked a range of locations we thought would be impressive and architectural , on the model of GoldenEye but sci @-@ fi dystopias [ ... ] The settings came first ; the plot was then constructed by Dave to sew them together " .
The decision to make the central character a woman was part of Hollis ' belief that there " should be more games centred on women . " To this end , the team created Joanna Dark , influenced by a number of other fictional heroines : Kim Kimberly from Level 9 Computing 's text adventure Snowball , the seductive spy Agent X @-@ 27 in the 1931 film Dishonored , the eponymous femme fatale of the film Nikita , and FBI agent Dana Scully from The X @-@ Files . The name " Joanna Dark " was taken from the French pronunciation of Joan of Arc as " Jeanne d 'Arc " , while the name of the in @-@ game company " dataDyne " was inspired by Yoyodyne from The Crying of Lot 49 by Thomas Pynchon .
The " double slash " symbol in the game 's logo was inspired by the Japanese dakuten mark , and the bad grammar of the phrase " Perfect Dark " alludes in some degree to Hollis ' affection for the way the Japanese use English words in their own games . The word " Dark " was chosen for its association with the game 's bleak focus on killing . Hollis noted the similarities to Criterion Software 's naming of Black : " Game developers just like black , nihilism , dystopian futures , the number zero , infinity , spheres , perfection — all that kind of stuff . " Originally , Nintendo considered releasing the game in Japan under the title Aka to Kuro ( 赤と黒 , lit . " Red and Black " ) . " Perfect Dark " does not translate well into Japanese , and the title " Aka to Kuro " was considered sufficiently edgy . However , it was ultimately released as パーフェクト ・ ダーク ( Pāfekuto Dāku ) , a transliteration of the Western title .
= = = Production = = =
Work on Perfect Dark began with the same team that developed GoldenEye 007 . The developers upgraded the GoldenEye 007 engine with new features and graphical enhancements such as dynamic lighting , widescreen support , and the option to play in high resolution graphics mode . According to Rare , only 30 % of the original engine remained , providing a basic framework to construct levels and animate characters . The developers also added more elaborate gore effects , which allow gunshots to disperse and stain enemies ' blood onto nearby walls and objects . The artificial intelligence was improved so that enemies could " assess threats , work as a team and communicate with each other . " Enemies were also given the ability to draw a secondary sidearm when disarmed . A " dizziness " graphical effect was also introduced ; if a player is punched or tranquilised , their nausea is represented through a motion blurred view . The game supports advanced audio features such as Dolby Surround Sound . There is full voice @-@ acting for all in @-@ game and cutscene dialogue , and guards can be heard having conversations amongst themselves during gameplay . Nintendo wanted an American actress to voice Joanna Dark , but the negotiations were not conducted effectively enough and video game music composer Eveline Fischer was chosen to voice the character . Motion capture was used to create character animations : game designer Duncan Botwood wore a pair of high heels so that he could portray Joanna Dark in these sessions .
Originally , Hollis hoped that the difference between light and dark would be a significant feature of the gameplay , and the title was intended to reflect this focus . A flashlight was implemented by Steve Ellis , who had been responsible for much of the multiplayer mode of GoldenEye 007 , but it was not included in the final game due to the limitations of the Nintendo 64 hardware . Hollis remarked that such aims were overambitious , commenting in 2006 that " Even today , you can see game developers struggle to make light and dark foundational from a gameplay perspective . I suspect it will take a few years before significant and pervasive gameplay innovation occurs here . " Although not all these intended features were realised , the game contains more advanced lighting than its predecessor . For example , lights can be shot out to create darkened areas , gunfire and explosions illuminate rooms dynamically , and the player can use infrared and night vision goggles .
Hollis was involved with Perfect Dark for the first 14 months of its three @-@ year development , during which progress was troubled and long delayed . He explained , " each of us was asking for more than the other could give . This situation ended with my departure , and with very deep regret I was unable to see Perfect Dark to completion " . By the end of 1998 , half of the team members , including Doak and Ellis , also left Rare to form Free Radical Design . What followed by those remaining on the project was a comprehensive re @-@ design of the game , with the story and characters being the main items kept intact . Game designer Mark Edmonds was promoted to team leader because he was familiar with most of the game engine at the time . Rare also assigned more people to the development team , which eventually became three times bigger than GoldenEye 007 's . The new team was " uniquely shielded from the outside world " and did not have a production manager , a schedule , meetings , or any sort of deadlines . According to artist B Jones , " People would just do things they thought were cool and would work " . The game 's Counter Operative mode was inspired by " Bottles ' Revenge " , an additional gameplay mode cut from the final release of Banjo @-@ Tooie .
As developers kept adding more features , the game ended up using all the extra memory on the debug consoles . As a result , the game became too big to fit into the Nintendo 64 's 4MB of random @-@ access memory ( RAM ) . The developers soon realised that they were not able to optimise it and decided to make use of the Nintendo 64 Expansion Pak , which increases the Nintendo 64 's RAM from 4MB to 8MB of contiguous main memory , to support most of the features in the game . After playing the release version of the game , Hollis was impressed by the comprehensive range of multiplayer options , which he described as " a vast array of features I never planned " . Doak , however , remarked that " GoldenEye pretty much exhausted the performance of the machine . It was hard to push it further . Perfect Dark had some good ideas but was dog slow . "
A feature called " Perfect Head " , which appeared in previews of the game but was not included in the final product , was intended to take customisation of multiplayer profiles further . This feature allowed the player to place a photograph of their choice onto their in @-@ game character 's face , via a Game Boy Camera combined with the Nintendo 64 Transfer Pak . The images taken would be uploaded to the cartridge and manipulated with a simple image editing program to adjust colour and skin tone ( as the Game Boy Camera was black and white ) and add facial features such as facial hair . This texture could then be saved to either the cartridge or a Controller Pak and then loaded onto a player 's character in multiplayer , thus creating a virtual representation of the player . Although Rare officially said that the feature was dropped due to " technical issues " , the actual reason was revealed to be " sensitive issues " surrounding the ability to attack images of real people .
Numerous easter eggs and secrets were added to the game to fuel the exploration efforts and wild speculation of many gamers . One of the most notable features is the pieces of cheese hidden on every level . These were deliberately placed by one of the game 's artists as a graphical oddity for the player 's confusion . The face of celebrity Nintendo fan Robin Williams was used for Daniel Carrington . The face of Shigeru Miyamoto along with faces of other Nintendo executives and games journalists can be seen on minor characters such as enemy guards in the missions and as selectable avatars in the multiplayer mode . The ranking system of the Combat Simulator mode awards a special username and password to skilled players . Rare had originally intended these details to allow access to password @-@ protected parts of the official Perfect Dark website , but these sections were never implemented .
= = Marketing and release = =
Rare announced in mid @-@ 1998 that their follow @-@ up to GoldenEye 007 would appear at that year 's Electronic Entertainment Expo in Atlanta as Nintendo 's lead game , and claimed that the game , using the same engine as its predecessor , would be available by Christmas 1999 . The release date gradually slipped but the game continued to be heavily trailed in magazines , with Nintendo Official Magazine predicting that it would be " the best shooting game this century " . A working version of the game appeared at the European Computer Trade Show 1998 ; N64 Magazine described the preview as having " the kind of attention to detail that had everyone who saw [ it ] drooling " . Shortly before release , Rare unveiled a number of websites for companies in the game 's universe , such as datadyne.com , to promote interest in the game 's storyline .
The first release of the game came on 22 May 2000 in North America . Nintendo arranged a number of publicity stunts to promote the release , including hiring model Michele Merkin , who appeared as the lead character Joanna Dark in commercials and in @-@ store promotions for the game cartridge . Unlike GoldenEye 007 , the game received an M ( Mature ) rating from the Entertainment Software Rating Board due to its graphic content and adult language . This caused some controversy , as Nintendo has a reputation for family @-@ friendly games like Mario and Pokémon . Total sales for the game reached 1 @.@ 3 million copies in the United States . The European release followed on 30 June , and finally the game was released in Japan on 21 October . The Japanese launch was a success , with the sale of 35 @,@ 000 copies in the first week , and 77 @,@ 000 in total . Worldwide , Perfect Dark sold 3 @.@ 2 million copies according to game designer Chris Tilston . As a result , a Player 's Choice edition was released in 2001 .
A separate Game Boy Color game set in the same fictional universe , also titled Perfect Dark , was released shortly afterwards in August 2000 to help promote the Nintendo 64 game . Although its storyline is different from the Nintendo 64 title , the game features a compatibility mode that allows certain features within the Nintendo 64 game to alternatively be unlocked , via a Transfer Pak . On the other hand , a double soundtrack album , titled Perfect Dark : Dual CD Soundtrack , which features the complete score of the game , was released on 15 November 2000 exclusively through Nintendo Power magazine .
= = Reception = =
Upon release , Perfect Dark received very strong reviews from magazines and websites . Critics praised multiple aspects of the game , particularly its graphics , sound and value . GameSpot reviewer Joe Fielder awarded the game a rating of 9 @.@ 9 out of 10 , making it the highest @-@ reviewed first @-@ person shooter of the site . He commented , " As a single @-@ player or multiplayer [ first @-@ person shooter ] experience , Perfect Dark is unparalleled on the console systems " . Patrick Klepek , writing for Gaming Age , described it as " probably one of the best [ first @-@ person shooters ] to be released in quite a while " , while Chi Kong Lui of GameCritics criticised the game for its weak characters and unoriginal storyline , but nevertheless judged the " extraordinary amount of high @-@ quality multiplayer modes and features " , meant that " the game is still a blast " .
The graphics were praised for their dynamic lighting , clean textures , and realistic and fluid animations . IGN journalist Matt Casamassina remarked that the levels are much more detailed than the ones from GoldenEye 007 and that the polygon character models and weapons are " wonderfully animated " . Game Revolution highlighted the game 's semi @-@ realistic look , saying that it " adds to the depth and addiction of the game " . The sound received similar praise , with Jonathan Nicklas of Gaming Target comparing it favourably to that of Capcom 's survival horror title Resident Evil 2 . The voiced cutscenes , amount of ambient noises , musical score , and Dolby Surround Sound capabilities were said to effectively bring the game to life . The music was described as a mixture between Vangelis ' Blade Runner theme and the GoldenEye 007 soundtrack .
The gameplay was generally praised for the challenging artificial intelligence of enemies and varied level design . GameCritics credited the missions for their " nice mix of timed , patterned , and random events that makes playing through them different and refreshing each time " . The enemies were admired for their use of squad tactics , for waiting for the player to come back instead of obediently chasing after them , and for ducking around a corner for cover . GamePro also gave high marks to the game 's Counter Operative mode , noting that the player " never [ knows ] which of the random bad guys [ the ] opponent controls " . The multiplayer and replay value were seen as the strongest features of the game . Reviewers noted that the flexibility of options , amount of game modes , " clever " weapons , number of unlockable features , and customisable Simulants give the game " endless replay value " . GameCritics stated that " Perfect Dark is easily the most advanced , elaborate , and entertaining multiplayer gaming experience on any home console . "
One frequently criticised aspect of the game was its low and inconsistent frame rate . According to Trigger Happy author Steven Poole , " The game 's inadequate temporal resolution — owing to a wrongheaded choice to privilege visual detail over frame @-@ rate — made it unplayable at higher difficulty levels . " In contrast , IGN pointed out that the frame rate " can be sluggish in certain wide @-@ open areas or when there are lots of enemies on @-@ screen , but for some odd reason it 's never really bothersome . Most of the time you 're so caught up in the game that you don 't notice it , and when you do , you 're willing to forgive it as Perfect Dark is just too much fun to dwell on such an issue " . Poole also described the " lazy sci @-@ fi fetishism " of Joanna Dark 's character design as " a blatant and doomed attempt to steal the thunder of Lara Croft " , and argued that she illustrated the challenges of characterising the protagonists of first @-@ person shooters , a problem that GoldenEye 007 had avoided by using the already well @-@ known character James Bond .
The overall positive reaction from critics can be gauged by the results of review compilation sites . The game has a Metacritic rating of 97 out of 100 , which is considered " universal acclaim " , and a GameRankings aggregate review score of 95 % as of June 2007 . Perfect Dark has also been featured in several " greatest game " lists . In 2006 , the game was placed at number 15 on IGN 's Readers Choice Top 100 Games Ever and Nintendo Power rated it the 100th best game made on a Nintendo system . In 2007 , the game was placed at number 86 on IGN 's Top 100 Games of All Time and Edge placed it at number 28 on their list of 100 Best Videogames ( a list voted for by readers , Edge staff and gaming industry professionals ) . Rare was also recognised for its work on the game , as the company was awarded the BAFTA Interactive Entertainment Moving Images Award for 2000 and the Golden Satellite Award for Best Interactive Product in 2001 . At the GameSpot 's 2000 Game of the Year Awards , Perfect Dark was awarded Best Nintendo 64 Game and Best Shooting Game .
Edge published two retrospective articles on Perfect Dark in 2007 and 2008 . The magazine acknowledged that the game 's frame rate and other dated elements of its design rendered it " nigh @-@ on unplayable " , but found its ambitious range of options still praiseworthy : " At release , Perfect Dark was the most comprehensive first @-@ person shooter ever made , and in some ways it still is . " Edge found the ambitious mentality which resulted in weapons and computer @-@ controlled players being " designed for possibilities rather than balance " , both one of Perfect Dark 's most interesting aspects and the cause of its biggest problem : " Restraint [ ... ] would have made Perfect Dark a tighter , more focused experience , helped with those framerate issues , and removed almost all of the fun . " The magazine concluded that despite Perfect Dark not standing up as a good game to play in 2008 , " its currency of ideas and provocation [ ... ] remains sound . "
= = Legacy = =
Perfect Dark was one of the last first @-@ person shooters released for the Nintendo 64 , which was already nearing the end of its lifespan ; Nintendo unveiled their upcoming console , the GameCube , at SpaceWorld 2000 . A " sister " game to Perfect Dark , called Velvet Dark , was initially planned to be developed for either the Nintendo 64 or GameCube in late 2000 , but the project was ultimately abandoned . Also notable is the fact that Perfect Dark features a character named Velvet Dark that can be controlled by the second player in the game 's co @-@ operative mode . Twenty months before Perfect Dark was released , several members of the development team left Rare to form Free Radical Design . This company would develop the PlayStation 2 game TimeSplitters , another first @-@ person shooter based around a completely new engine . TimeSplitters and its sequels bear several gameplay and presentational similarities to GoldenEye 007 and Perfect Dark , including a similar aiming system and unlockable options through quick level completions .
Meanwhile Rare began development of a prequel titled Perfect Dark Zero for the GameCube . In 2002 , the company was purchased by Microsoft and the development of the game was subsequently transferred to Microsoft 's Xbox console . It was later decided that the game would instead be released for the Xbox 360 as a launch title . Perfect Dark Zero retains Perfect Dark 's mission objective system and Joanna Dark as the protagonist , but other features were not carried over . The game 's multiplayer mode supports more players due to the more advanced Xbox 360 hardware , and can also be played online via Xbox Live . Perfect Dark Zero received generally positive reviews from critics , but some publications such as Eurogamer and Game Informer felt it was a disappointment .
Perfect Dark 's worldwide sales were not as great as its predecessor 's eight million , and Joanna Dark did not attain the same status in pop culture as other video game heroines such as Tomb Raider 's Lara Croft . Nevertheless , the game 's universe continued to be developed with the release of the novel Perfect Dark : Initial Vector , a Rare @-@ sanctioned paperback by Greg Rucka . The novel is set in the time between Perfect Dark Zero and Perfect Dark , and portrays Joanna Dark as an ex @-@ bounty hunter drawn into the Carrington Institute 's battle with dataDyne through her own vendetta against the hyper @-@ corporations . Rucka stated , " If you 've played the first game , you 're going to get a huge treat , because a lot of stuff that happens in Perfect Dark we set up in the novel . " In 2007 , two new titles were developed : the comic series Perfect Dark : Janus ' Tears , written by Eric Trautmann , and a second novel by Rucka titled Perfect Dark : Second Front , both of which are direct chronological sequels .
In 2010 , Perfect Dark was remade on the Xbox 360 as an Xbox Live Arcade game , featuring reworked graphics and online features ( see Perfect Dark XBLA ) . The development of the remake was handled by 4J Studios , the same studio that previously handled the Xbox Live Arcade ports of Rare 's platform games Banjo @-@ Kazooie and Banjo @-@ Tooie . The remake was generally well received : while some critics considered the relatively unchanged game to be outdated , most agreed that the title was a solid revival of a classic . In August 2015 , both Perfect Dark Zero and the Xbox Live Arcade version of Perfect Dark were released for the Xbox One as part of Microsoft 's Rare Replay collection .
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= Tribal Hidage =
The Tribal Hidage is a list of thirty @-@ five tribes that was compiled in Anglo @-@ Saxon England some time between the 7th and 9th centuries . It includes a number of independent kingdoms and other smaller territories and assigns a number of hides to each one . The list of tribes is headed by Mercia and consists almost exclusively of peoples who lived south of the Humber estuary and territories that surrounded the Mercian kingdom , some of which have never been satisfactorily identified by scholars . The value of 100 @,@ 000 hides for Wessex is by far the largest : it has been suggested that this was a deliberate exaggeration .
The original purpose of the Tribal Hidage remains unknown : many scholars believe that it was a tribute list created by a king , but other possibilities have been suggested . The hidage figures may be purely symbolic and merely reflect the prestige of each territory , or they may represent an early example of book @-@ keeping . Many historians are convinced that the Tribal Hidage originated from Mercia , which dominated southern Anglo @-@ Saxon England until the start of the 9th century , but others have argued that the text was Northumbrian in origin .
The Tribal Hidage has been of great importance to historians since the middle of the 19th century , partly because it mentions territories unrecorded in other documents . Attempts to link all the names in the list with modern places are highly speculative and all resulting maps are treated with caution . Three different versions ( or recensions ) of the Tribal Hidage have survived , two of which resemble each other : one dates from the 11th century and is part of a miscellany of works ; another is contained in a 17th @-@ century Latin treatise ; the third version , which has survived in six mediaeval manuscripts , has many omissions and spelling variations . All three versions appear to be based on the same lost manuscript : historians have been unable to establish a date for the original compilation . The Tribal Hidage has been used to construct theories about the political organisation of the Anglo @-@ Saxons , and to give an insight into the Mercian state and its neighbours at a time when Mercia held hegemony over a number of other peoples . It has been used to support theories regarding the origin and location of the tribes in the list and the way in which the tribes were systematically assessed and ruled by others . Some historians have proposed that the Tribal Hidage is not a list of peoples but of administrative areas .
= = The hide assessments = =
The Tribal Hidage is , according to D. P. Kirby 's description , " a list of total assessments in terms of hides for a number of territories south of the Humber , which has been variously dated from the mid @-@ 7th to the second half of the 8th century " . Most of the kingdoms of the Heptarchy are included . Mercia , which is assigned 30 @,@ 000 hides , is at the top at the list , followed by a number of small tribes to the west and north of Mercia , all of which have no more than 7000 hides listed . Other named tribes have even smaller hidages , of between 300 and 1200 hides : of these the Herefinna , Noxgaga , Hendrica and Unecungaga cannot be identified , whilst the others have been tentatively located around the south of England and in the border region between Mercia and East Anglia . Ohtgaga can be heard as Jutegaga and understood as the area settled by Jutes in and near the Meon Valley of Hampshire . The term ' -gaga ' is a late copiest mistranscription of the Old English ' -wara ' ( people / men of ) the letter forms of ' w ' wynn and the long @-@ tailed ' r ' being read as ' g ' . A number of territories , such as the Hicca , have only been located by means of place @-@ names evidence . The list concludes with several other kingdoms from the Heptarchy : the East Angles ( who are assessed at 30 @,@ 000 hides ) , the East Saxons ( 7 @,@ 000 hides ) , Kent ( 15 @,@ 000 hides ) , the South Saxons ( 7 @,@ 000 hides ) and Wessex , which is assessed at 100 @,@ 000 hides .
The round figures of the hidage assessments make it unlikely they were the result of an accurate survey . The methods of assessment used probably differed according to the size of the region . The figures may be of purely symbolic significance , reflecting the status of each tribe at the time it was assessed . The totals given within the text for the figures suggest that the Tribal Hidage was perhaps used as a form of book @-@ keeping . Frank Stenton describes the hidage figures given for the Heptarchy kingdoms as exaggerated and in the instances of Mercia and Wessex , " entirely at variance with other information " .
= = The surviving manuscripts = =
A manuscript , now lost , was originally used to produce the three known different recensions of the Tribal Hidage : these have been named Recensions A , B and C.
Recension A , the earliest and most complete copy of the Tribal Hidage , dates from the 11th century . It is included in a miscellany of works , written in Old English and Latin , with Aelfric 's Latin Grammar and his homily De initio creaturæ , a work written in 1034 . It is in the keeping of the British Library , reference MS Harley 3271 . It was written by several different scribes , at a date no later than 1032 .
Recension B , which resembles Recension A , is contained in a 17th @-@ century Latin treatise , Archaeologus in Modum Glossarii ad rem antiquam posteriorem , written by Henry Spelman in 1626 . The tribal names are given in Old English . There are significant differences in spelling between the two recessions . The differences ( for instance Spelman 's use of the word hidas ) indicate that the text he copied was not Recension A , but a different text , written in Latin . According to Peter Featherstone , the highly edited form of the copied text suggests the possibility that Spelman embellished the Latin text himself .
Recension C has survived in six Latin documents . The texts each contain common omissions and spellings . Four versions , of 13th @-@ century origin , formed part of a collection of legal texts and , according to Featherstone , " may have been intended to act as part of a record of native English custom " . The other two versions are a century older : one is flawed and may have been a scribe 's exercise and the other was part of a set of legal texts .
= = Origin = =
Historians have not been able to agree upon the date for the original compilation of the list . According to Campbell , who notes the plausibility of it being produced during the rise of Mercia , the document can probably be dated back to the 7th or 8th century . Other historians , such as J. Brownbill , Barbara Yorke , Frank Stenton and Cyril Hart , have generally agreed that the Tribal Hidage originated from Mercia at around this time , although they have different theories for the identity of the Mercian overlord under whom the list was compiled . Wendy Davies and Hayo Vierck have placed the document 's origin more precisely at 670 @-@ 690 .
There is near universal agreement that the text originates from Mercia , partly because the kings of Mercia are known to have held extensive power over other Anglo @-@ Saxon territories from the late 7th to the early 9th centuries , but also because the list , headed by Mercia , is almost exclusively of peoples who lived south of the river Humber . Peter Featherstone has concluded that the original material , dating from late 7th century Mercia , was then used to be included in a late 9th century document and asserts that the Mercian kingdom " was at the centre of the world mapped out by the Tribal Hidage " . Frank Stenton acknowledged that the evidence is not conclusive when he noted that " the Tribal Hidage was almost certainly compiled in Mercia " .
In contrast to most historians , Professor Nicholas Brooks has suggested that the list is of Northumbrian origin , noting that it would account for the inclusion of Elmet and the absence of the two Northumbrian kingdoms of Deira and Bernicia . He notes that a Mercian tribute list was would not have been headed by Mercia , as " an early mediaeval king did not impose tribute upon his own kingdom " : it must have been a list produced by another kingdom , perhaps with an altogether different purpose .
N. J. Higham has argued that because the date of the original information is unknown and the largest Northumbrian kingdoms are not included in the Tribal Hidage , it cannot be proved to be a tribute list of Mercian origin . He notes that Elmet , which was never a province of Mercia , is included in the list . He suggests that the Tribal Hidage may have been a tribute list drawn up by Edwin of Northumbria in the 620s , and that it probably originated before 685 , after which no Northumbrian king exercised imperium over the Southumbrian kingdoms . According to Higham , the values assigned to each people are likely to be specific to the events of 625 @-@ 626 , representing the individual contracts made between Edwin and those who recognised his overlordship at that time . This explains the artificial and rounded nature of the figures that were arrived at : the figure of 100 @,@ 000 hides for the West Saxons was probably the largest number Edwin knew . However , D. P. Kirby notes that the Northumbrian origin theory has not been generally accepted as convincing .
= = Purpose = =
The purpose of the Tribal Hidage remains unknown . Over the years different theories have been suggested for its purpose , linked with a range of dates for its creation .
According to many experts , the Tribal Hidage was a tribute list created upon the instructions of an Anglo @-@ Saxon king such as Offa of Mercia , Wulfhere of Mercia or Edwin of Northumbria — but it may have been used for different purposes at various times during its history . Cyril Hart has described it as a tribute list that involved all of Anglo @-@ Saxon England south of the Humber and that was created for Offa , but acknowledges that no proof exists that it was compiled during his rule . Higham notes that the syntax of the text requires that a word implying ' tribute ' was omitted from each line and argues that it was " almost certainly a tribute list " . According to Higham , the large size of the West Saxon hidation indicates that there were close links between the scale of tribute and any political considerations . James Campbell has argued that if the list served any practical purpose , it implies that tributes were assessed and obtained in an organised way , and notes that , " whatever it is , and whatever it means , it indicates a degree of orderliness , or coherence in the exercise of power ... " .
Yorke acknowledges that the purpose of the Tribal Hidage is unknown and that it may well not be , as has been commonly argued , an overlord 's tribute list . She warns against assuming that the minor peoples ( of 7000 hides or less ) possessed any " means of defining themselves as a distinct gentes " . She notes that among these , the Isle of Wight and the South Gyrwe tribes , tiny in terms of their hidages and geographically isolated from other peoples , were among the few who possessed their own royal dynasties .
P. H. Sawyer argues that the values may have had a symbolic purpose and that they were intended to be an expression of the status of each kingdom and province . To Sawyer , the obscurity of some of the tribal names and the absence from the list of others points to an early date for the original text , which he describes as a " monument to Mercian power " . The 100 @,@ 000 hides assigned to Wessex may have reflected its superior status at a later date and would imply that the Tribal Hidage in its present form was written in Wessex . The very large hidage assessment for Wessex was considered to be an error by the historian J. Brownbill , but Cyril Hart maintains that the value for Wessex is correct and that it was one of several assessments designed to exact the largest possible tribute from Mercia 's main rivals .
= = Historiography = =
Sir Henry Spelman was the first to publish the Tribal Hidage in his first volume of Glossarium Archaiologicum ( 1626 ) and there is also a version of the text in a book written in 1691 by Thomas Gale , but no actual discussion of the Tribal Hidage emerged until 1848 , when John Mitchell Kemble 's The Saxons in England was published . In 1884 , Walter de Gray Birch wrote a paper for the British Archaeological Society , in which he discussed in detail the location of each of the tribes . The term Tribal Hidage was introduced by Frederic William Maitland in 1897 , in his book Domesday Book and Beyond . During the following decades , articles were published by William John Corbett ( 1900 ) , Hector Munro Chadwick ( 1905 ) and John Brownbill ( 1912 and 1925 ) . The most important subsequent accounts of the Tribal Hidage since Corbett , according to Campbell , are by Josiah Cox Russell ( 1947 ) , Cyril Hart ( 1971 ) , Wendy Davies and Hayo Vierck ( 1974 ) and David Dumville ( 1989 ) .
Kemble recognised the antiquity of Spelman 's document and used historical texts ( such as Bede 's Historia ecclesiastica gentis Anglorum ) to assess its date of origin . He proposed locations for each tribe , without attempting to locate each one , and suggested that some Anglo @-@ Saxon peoples were missing from the document . Birch , in his paper An Unpublished Manuscript of some Early Territorial Names in England , announced his discovery of what became known as Recension A , which he suggested was a 10th or 11th century copy of a lost 7th @-@ century manuscript . He methodically compared all the publications and manuscripts of the Tribal Hidage that are available at the time and placed each tribe using both his own theories and the ideas of others , some of which ( for instance when he located the Wokensætna in Woking , Surrey ) are now discounted . Maitland suspected that the accepted number of acres to each hide needed to be reconsidered to account for the figures in the Tribal Hidage and used his own calculations to conclude that the figures were probably exaggerated . John Brownbill advised against using Latin versions of the document , which he described as error @-@ prone . He determined that the Old English manuscript was written in 1032 and was a copy of an original Mercian manuscript . Chadwick attempted to allocate each tribe to one or more English shires , with the use of key passages from historical texts .
In 1971 , Hart attempted a " complete reconstruction of the political geography of Saxon England at the end of the 8th century " . Assuming that all the English south of the Humber are listed within the Tribal Hidage , he produced a map that divides southern England into Mercia 's provinces and outlying dependencies , using evidence from river boundaries and other topographical features , place @-@ names and historical borders .
= = Importance for historians = =
The Tribal Hidage is a valuable record for historians . It is unique in that no similar text has survived : the document is one of a very few to survive out of a great many records that were produced by the administrators of the Anglo @-@ Saxon kingdoms , a " chance survivor " of many more documents , as Campbell has suggested . Hart has observed that " as a detailed record of historical topography it has no parallel in the whole of western Europe " . The Tribal Hidage lists several minor kingdoms and tribes that are not recorded anywhere else and is generally agreed to be the earliest fiscal document that has survived from mediaeval England .
Historians have used the Tribal Hidage to provide evidence for the political organisation of Anglo @-@ Saxon England and it has been " pressed into service by those seeking to interpret the nature and geography of kingships and of ' peoples ' in pre @-@ Viking England " , according to N. J. Higham . In particular , the document has been seen as invaluable for providing evidence about the Mercian state and those peoples that were under its rule or influence .
Alex Woolf uses the concentration of tribes with very small hidages between Mercia and East Anglia as part of an argument that there were in existence " large , multi @-@ regional provinces , some of which were surrounded by small , contested territories " . Stenton positions the Middle Anglian peoples to the south @-@ east of the Mercians . He suggests that an independent Middle Anglia once existed , seemingly consisting of twenty of the peoples that were listed in the Tribal Hidage . The expansion of Wessex in the tenth century would have caused the obliteration of the Middle Anglia 's old divisions , by which time the places listed would have become mere names . Middle Anglia in the 7th century constitutes a model for the development of English administrative units during the period , according to Davies and Vierck , who demonstrate that it was created by Penda of Mercia when he made his son Peada king of the Middle Angles at the time that they were introduced to Christianity .
James Campbell refutes suggestions that the hides given for each tribe were the sum of a system of locally @-@ collected assessments and argues that a two @-@ tier system of assessment , one for large areas such as kingdoms and a more accurate one for individual estates , may have existed . He considers the possibility that many of the tribes named in the Tribal Hidage were no more than administrative units and that some names did not originate from a tribe itself but from a place from where the people were governed , eventually coming to signify the district where the tribe itself lived . Barbara Yorke suggests that the -sætan / sæte form of several of the place @-@ names are an indication that they were named after a feature of the local landscape . She also suggests the tribes were dependent administrative units and not independent kingdoms , some of which were created as such after the main kingdoms were stabilized .
The term Tribal Hidage may perhaps have led scholars to underestimate how the names of the tribes were used by Anglo @-@ Saxon administrators for the purpose of labelling local regions ; the names could be referring to actual peoples ( whose identity was retained after they fell under Mercian domination ) , or administrative areas that were unconnected with the names of local peoples . Campbell suggests that the truth lies between somewhere between these two possibilities . Davies and Vierck believe the smallest of the groups in the Tribal Hidage originated from populations formed into tribes after the departure of the Romans in the fifth century and suggest that these tribes might sometimes have joined forces , until large kingdoms such as Mercia emerged around the beginning of the 7th century . Scott DeGregorio has argued that the Tribal Hidage provides evidence that Anglo @-@ Saxon governments required a system of " detailed assessment " in order to construct great earthworks such as Offa 's Dyke .
The kingdom of East Anglia is recorded for the first time in the Tribal Hidage . According to Davies and Vierck , 7th century East Anglia may have consisted of a collection of regional groups , some of which retained their individual identity . Martin Carver agrees with Davies and Vierck when he describes the territory of East Anglia as having unfixed borders , stating that " political authority appears to have primarily invested in people rather than territory " .
= = = Early printed texts and commentaries = = =
Birch , Walter de Gray ( 1884 ) . " An Unpublished Manuscript of some Early Territorial Names in England " . Journal of the British Archaeological Society . 1 40 : 28 – 46 . Retrieved 13 November 2011 .
Brownbill , J. ( October 1912 ) . " The Tribal Hidage " . The English Historical Review 27 : 625 – 648 @.@ doi : 10 @.@ 1093 / ehr / xxvii.cviii.625. Retrieved 13 November 2011 .
Chadwick , H. M. ( 1907 ) . " 1 England in the Sixth Century " . The Origin of the English Nation . Cambridge : Cambridge University Press. pp. 6 – 10 . Retrieved 14 November 2011 .
Gale , Thomas ( 1691 ) . Historiae Britannicae , Saxonicae , Anglo @-@ Danicae Scriptores XV , volume 3 ( in Latin ) . Oxford. p . 748 . Retrieved 14 November 2011 .
Kemble , John Mitchell ( 1876 ) . The Saxons in England , volume 1 . London : Bernard Quaritch. pp. 81 – 84 .
Maitland , Frederic William ( 1907 ) . Domesday Book and Beyond : Three Essays in the Early History of England . Cambridge : Cambridge University Press. pp. 506 – 509 .
Riley , Henry ; Carpenter , John ( 1860 ) . " Extracts from the Cottonian Portians of Liber Custumarum and Liber Legum Regum Antiquorum which have not previously appeared in the Government publications " . Chronicles and memorials of Great Britain and Ireland during the Middle Ages ( in Latin and English ) . London : Great Britain Public Record Office. pp. 626 – 627 . Retrieved 14 November 2011 .
Spelman , Henry ( 1626 ) . Glossarium Archaiologicum ( in Latin ) ( 1687 ed . ) . London. pp. 291 – 292 . Retrieved 17 November 2011 .
= = = Modern sources = = =
Baxter , Stephen David ; Karkov , Catherine E. ; Nelson , Janet L. ; et al . ( eds . ) . Early Medieval Studies in Memory of Patrick Wormald . Farnham ( UK ) , Burlington ( USA ) : Ashgate .
Brooks , Nicholas ( 2000 ) . Anglo @-@ Saxon Myths : State and Church 400 @-@ 1066 . London : Hambledon Press . ISBN 1 @-@ 85285 @-@ 154 @-@ 6 .
Campbell , James , ed . ( 1991 ) . The Anglo @-@ Saxons . London : Penguin . ISBN 0 @-@ 14 @-@ 014395 @-@ 5 .
Campbell , James ( 2000 ) . The Anglo @-@ Saxon State . London , New York : Hambledon and London . ISBN 1 @-@ 85285 @-@ 176 @-@ 7 .
Carver , M. O. H. , ed . ( 1992 ) . The Age of Sutton Hoo : the Seventh Century in North @-@ western Europe . Woodbridge : Boydell Press . ISBN 0 @-@ 851 @-@ 15361 @-@ 5 .
Davies , Wendy ; Vierck , Hayo ( 1974 ) . " The Contexts of Tribal Hidage : Social Aggregates and Settlement Patterns " . Frühmittelalterliche Studien 8 . Berlin , New York : De Gruyter . ISBN 978 @-@ 3 @-@ 11 @-@ 024207 @-@ 2 .
DeGregorio , Scott , ed . ( 2010 ) . The Cambridge Companion to Bede . Cambridge , New York : Cambridge University Press . ISBN 978 @-@ 0 @-@ 521 @-@ 73073 @-@ 0 .
Featherstone , Peter ( 2001 ) . " The Tribal Hidage and the Ealdormen of Mercia " . In Brown , Michelle P. ; Farr , Carol Ann . Mercia : an Anglo @-@ Saxon Kingdom in Europe . London : Leicester University Press . ISBN 0 @-@ 8264 @-@ 7765 @-@ 8 .
Hart , Cyril ( 1971 ) . " Tribal Hidage " . Transactions of the Royal Historical Society . 5th series 21 : 133 – 157 @.@ doi : 10 @.@ 2307 / 3678924 .
Higham , N. J. ( 1995 ) . An English Empire : Bede and the Early Anglo @-@ Saxon Kings . Manchester : Manchester University Press . ISBN 0 @-@ 7190 @-@ 4424 @-@ 3 .
Hill , David ; Rumble , Alexander R. ( 1996 ) . The Defence of Wessex : the Burghal Hidage and Anglo @-@ Saxon Fortifications . Manchester , New York : Manchester University Press . ISBN 0 @-@ 7190 @-@ 3218 @-@ 0 .
Hines , John , ed . ( 1997 ) . The Anglo @-@ Saxons from the Migration Period to the Eighth Century . Woodbridge : Boydell Press . ISBN 1 @-@ 84383 @-@ 034 @-@ 5 .
Hunter Blair , Peter ( 2003 ) . An Introduction to Anglo @-@ Saxon England . Cambridge : Cambridge University Press . ISBN 0 @-@ 521 @-@ 29219 @-@ 0 .
Kirby , D.P. ( 2000 ) . The Earliest English Kings . London and New York : Routledge . ISBN 0 @-@ 4152 @-@ 4211 @-@ 8 .
Neal , James R. ( May 2008 ) . Defining power in the Mercian Supremacy : An examination of the dynamics of power in the kingdom of the borderers . ( Submitted thesis ) . Reno : University of Nevada . Retrieved 17 August 2011 .
Sawyer , P. H. ( 1978 ) . From Roman Britain to Norman England . London : Methuen .
Stenton , Sir Frank ( 1988 ) . Anglo @-@ Saxon England . New York : Oxford University Press . ISBN 0 @-@ 19 @-@ 821716 @-@ 1 .
Woolf , Alex ( 2000 ) . " Community , Identity and Kingship in Early England " . In Frazer , William O. ; Tyrrell Andrew . Social Identity in Early Medieval Britain . London and New York : Leicester University Press . ISBN 0 @-@ 7185 @-@ 0084 @-@ 9 .
Yorke , Barbara ( 2000 ) . " Political and Ethnic Identity : A Case Study of Anglo @-@ Saxon Practice " . In Frazer , William O. ; Tyrrell Andrew . Social Identity in Early Medieval Britain . London and New York : Leicester University Press . ISBN 0 @-@ 7185 @-@ 0084 @-@ 9 .
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= Ezra Meeker =
Ezra Manning Meeker ( December 29 , 1830 – December 3 , 1928 ) was an American pioneer who traveled the Oregon Trail by ox @-@ drawn wagon as a young man , migrating from Iowa to the Pacific Coast . Late in life he worked to memorialize the Trail , repeatedly retracing the trip of his youth . Once known as the " Hop King of the World " , he was the first mayor of Puyallup , Washington .
Meeker was born in Butler County , Ohio , to Jacob and Phoebe Meeker . His family relocated to Indiana when he was a boy . He married Eliza Jane Sumner in 1851 ; the following year the couple , with Ezra 's brother and with their newborn son , set out for the Oregon Territory , where land could be claimed and settled on . Although they endured hardships on the Trail in the journey of nearly six months , the entire party survived the trek . Meeker and his family briefly stayed near Portland , then journeyed north to live in the Puget Sound region . They settled at what is now Puyallup in 1862 , where Meeker grew hops for use in brewing beer . By 1887 , his business had made him wealthy , and his wife built a large mansion for the family . In 1891 an infestation of hop aphids destroyed his crops and took much of his fortune . He later tried his hand at a number of ventures , and made four largely unsuccessful trips to the Klondike , taking groceries and hoping to profit from the gold rush .
Meeker became convinced that the Oregon Trail was being forgotten , and he determined to bring it publicity so it could be marked and monuments erected . In 1906 – 1908 , although in his late 70s , he retraced his steps along the Oregon Trail by wagon , seeking to build monuments in communities along the way . His trek reached New York , and in Washington , D.C. he met President Theodore Roosevelt . He traveled the Trail again several times in the final two decades of this life , including by oxcart in 1910 – 1912 and by airplane in 1924 . During another such trip , in 1928 , Meeker fell ill but was succored by Henry Ford . On his return to Washington state , Meeker became ill again and died there on December 3 , 1928 at age 97 . Meeker wrote several books ; his work has continued through the activities of such groups as the Oregon @-@ California Trails Association .
= = Early life = =
Ezra Manning Meeker was born in Butler County , Ohio , near Huntsville , on December 29 , 1830 , the son of Jacob ( 1804 – 1869 ) and Phoebe ( Baker ) Meeker ( 1801 – 1854 ) . His paternal ancestors had been among the early settlers of Elizabeth , New Jersey , where their ancestral home was located . In the American Revolutionary War , about twenty Meekers fought for the new nation . Ezra was the fourth of the six children Jacob and Phoebe had together , with older brothers John , Manning ( died at age one week ) and Oliver , and a younger sister Hannah and brother Clark .
Jacob was a miller and farmer . In 1839 , the family moved from Ohio to Indiana , close to Indianapolis — Ezra and his older brother Oliver walked behind the family wagon for 200 miles ( 320 km ) . Ezra had little formal education ; he later estimated a total of six months . Phoebe , seeing that her son 's mind was not well adapted to formal learning , allowed him to earn money through odd jobs . He obtained work as printer 's devil at the Indianapolis Journal , where his duties involved delivering the newspaper to subscribers , among them local pastor Henry Ward Beecher . In 1845 , Phoebe 's father , a Cincinnati merchant , gave his daughter $ 1 @,@ 000 , enough to buy the family a farm . As both Jacob and Ezra Meeker realized the boy enjoyed the outdoor life more than inside work , Jacob placed Ezra in charge of the farm , allowing the elder Meeker to work as a miller .
= = Migration to Oregon Territory ( 1852 ) = =
Ezra Meeker married his childhood sweetheart , Eliza Jane Sumner , in May 1851 . The Sumners lived about four miles from Indianapolis , and like the Meekers were family farmers who did not hire help . When he asked her for her hand , he told her he wanted to farm , which she accepted as long as it was on their own property . In October 1851 , the couple set out for Eddyville , Iowa , where they rented a farm . They had heard that land in Eddyville would be free , but this was not the case . Ezra , working in a surveyor 's camp , decided that he did not like Iowa 's winters — a prejudice shared by his pregnant wife . Reports were circulating through the prairies about the Oregon Territory 's free land and mild climate . Also influencing the decision was the urging of Oliver Meeker who , with friends , had outfitted for the trip to Oregon near Indianapolis , and had come to Eddyville to recruit his brother . Ezra and Eliza Jane Meeker vacillated on the decision , and it was not until early April 1852 , more than a month after the birth of their son Marion , that they decided to travel the Oregon Trail .
That April , Ezra , Eliza Jane , Oliver , and Marion Meeker set out to journey to Oregon , some 2 @,@ 000 miles ( 3 @,@ 200 km ) in all . With their wagon , they had two yokes of oxen , one of cows and an extra cow . They were accompanied by William Buck , who would remain with them much of the way before separating from them to go to California . Buck outfitted the wagon , Meeker selected the animals , and with his wife carefully prepared food supplies . The wagons of Meeker 's grouping traveled together by informal agreement ; there was no wagon master in overall charge .
A number of Oliver Meeker 's friends from Indianapolis joined the group before the party left Iowa . They crossed the Missouri River at the small Mormon settlement of Kanesville ( today Council Bluffs , Iowa ) . Meeker recounted that , as he stood on the far side of the Missouri , he felt as if he had left the United States . As they journeyed westward along the Platte River in Nebraska Territory , there were such large numbers traveling that they were never out of sight of the tens of thousands of other pioneers journeying west that year . Sometimes several wagons advanced side by side . The Meekers chose a slow , steady pace , unlike many who sought to rush along as quickly as possible . Piles of abandoned possessions lined the way , cast aside to lighten loads . As the party went further west , they passed some of those who had hurried past them , and whose wagons had broken down or whose oxen had died as a result of failure to care for them properly . Disease was an ever @-@ present risk ; at the present site of Kearney , Nebraska , Oliver Meeker was stricken with illness . This led to a division of the group when most of Oliver 's friends , including later Idaho Territory governor David W. Ballard , refused to wait . Oliver recovered after four days , and was one of the lucky ones — his brother later estimated that one in ten of those who took the Trail perished during the journey . Ezra Meeker remembered meeting one wagon train , slowly moving east against the flow of traffic . That group had made it as far as Fort Laramie ( today in Wyoming ) before losing the last of its menfolk , and the women and children turned back , hoping to regain their homes in the East . He never learned if they made it . According to local historians Bert and Margie Webber , " all of these deaths made a great impression on the young man " .
They encountered Native Americans , who would sometimes demand provisions for passage , but none were given and none of the incidents ended with violence . The travelers ' stores were supplemented by shooting bison , which roamed the Great Plains in huge numbers . Despite being a source of food , the bison were a danger as their stampedes could destroy property and kill irreplaceable stock . In southeastern Idaho , the California Trail separated from the Oregon , and Buck and some of the rest of the party split off there ; they settled in California and remained friends with Meeker until their deaths .
Meeker found that the final stretch between Fort Boise ( now Boise , Idaho ) and The Dalles was the most difficult . The section is filled with mountains and deserts , and there was little chance of supplementing stores . Those who entered this 350 miles ( 560 km ) segment with exhausted teams or minimal supplies often died along it . Others shed baggage brought across half a continent , saving only provisions . Parties who feared this part of the journey sometimes tried to float down the Snake and Columbia Rivers ; many were wrecked in the rapids and died . At The Dalles , where river passage was available to Portland , the Meeker party found a motley crowd of emigrants . With the money earned at the ferry , they booked passage downriver . Oliver Meeker brought the livestock ahead overland , and met Ezra and his family on their arrival in Portland on October 1 , 1852 , where they slept inside a house for the first time since leaving Iowa . Ezra Meeker had lost 20 pounds ( 9 @.@ 1 kg ) and possessed $ 2 @.@ 75 in cash . All of the party survived , although Jacob Davenport , one of Oliver Meeker 's friends from Indiana , became ill on the final part of the trip and died some weeks after reaching Portland . All but one of the livestock completed the trip — a cow was lost while crossing the Missouri River . Ezra Meeker considered his journey over the Oregon Trail to have been the making of him as a man .
= = Territorial pioneer = =
= = = Early days = = =
Meeker 's first employment in the Pacific Northwest was unloading a ship that had docked at Portland . He moved to the nearby town of St. Helens , where construction of a wharf in competition with Portland 's was under way — Oliver rented a house to lodge workers in , and Ezra went to help his brother . By this time , Ezra Meeker and his wife were determined to fulfill their original plan to farm , and when work was abandoned on the wharf , he went to find land which could be cultivated .
Meeker first made a claim in January 1853 about 40 miles ( 64 km ) downriver from Portland , on the current site of Kalama , Washington . There , he built a log cabin and began his first farm . He did not build close to the water , which proved fortunate as there was a major flood on the Columbia soon after he claimed the land . Instead , he profited from the incident , selling logs the river left on his claim , together with trees he chopped down , for lumber .
In April 1853 , Meeker heard that the lands north of the Columbia would become a separate territory ( named Washington Territory ) , with its capital on Puget Sound , an inlet of the Pacific . He decided to travel north with his brother to scout for lands to claim around the waterway . There were as yet only about 500 European @-@ descended inhabitants in the Puget Sound region , of which 100 were in the village of Olympia , which would become the territorial ( and later state ) capital . Despite there only being a few settlers , there was considerable activity in the area — the lumber of Puget Sound fueled San Francisco 's building boom . The Meekers ' first view of Puget Sound was unprepossessing ; the tide was out , exposing mud flats . Nevertheless , they pressed on , building a skiff to travel by water . They were met by friendly Indians , who sold them clams and taught them how to cook the shellfish . Engaging one of the Native Americans as guide , they explored the area , looking for good , well @-@ located farmland . At one point , they entered the Puyallup River , in a region where no white settlers lived , and camped on the present site of Puyallup , but were deterred by the large number of huge trees , which would make it difficult to clear land for farming . They decided on tracts on McNeil Island , not far from the thriving town of Steilacoom , where the farm 's produce could be sold . Oliver remained on the island to build a cabin while his brother went back to fetch family and possessions , and sell their old claims at Kalama . He returned to a cabin in which they installed a glass window that looked over the water to Steilacoom , with a view of Mount Rainier . The Meeker claim was later the site of McNeil Island Corrections Center .
Later in 1853 , Ezra and Oliver Meeker received a three @-@ month @-@ old letter from their father , stating that he and other family members wanted to emigrate , and would do so if Oliver Meeker could return to assist them . They immediately responded that Oliver would return to Indiana by early the following year , and put their plans on hold to prepare for and finance his journey by steamship and rail . In August 1854 , Ezra Meeker received word that his relatives were en route , but were delayed and short on provisions . He quickly went to their aid , intending to guide them through the Naches Pass into the Puget Sound area . When he found his family 's party close to the first Fort Walla Walla ( near Richland , Washington ) , he learned that his mother and a younger brother had died along the Trail . He guided the survivors through the pass and to his claim on McNeil Island .
Jacob Meeker saw only limited prospects on the island , and the family took claims near Tacoma , where they operated a general store in Steilacoom . On November 5 , 1855 , Ezra Meeker claimed 325 @.@ 21 acres ( 131 @.@ 61 ha ) of land called Swamp Place , near Fern Hill , southeast of Tacoma . He began to improve the land , planting a garden and an orchard .
Pursuant to the 1854 Treaty of Medicine Creek , settlers purchased lands from the Indians . The agreement , signed under duress , restricted the Native Americans to inadequate reservations , and in 1855 , the Puget Sound War broke out , bringing unrest to the region over the following two years . Ezra Meeker had maintained good relations with the Native Americans , and did not fight in the conflict , though he accompanied one expedition to recover possessions captured by the Indians . A controversial aspect of the war was the trials and hanging of Chief Leschi , deemed responsible for killing during the conflict . Meeker sat on the jury in the first trial , which resulted in a hung jury , with Meeker and another man holding out for acquittal on the grounds that Leschi was a combatant in wartime . A second trial convicted Leschi , and he was hanged . Meeker described the execution as wrongful , and in later years wrote of the incident . In 1895 , Meeker chartered a special train to bring whites to Leschi 's reburial on tribal land , and in 2004 the Washington State Senate passed a resolution that Leschi had been unjustly treated ; a special historical tribunal made up of past and present justices of the Washington Supreme Court also exonerated Leschi as both he and the man he was said to have killed were combatants .
= = = " Hop King of the World " = = =
Ezra Meeker 's farm at Swamp Place was not a success as the land was too poor to grow crops . The family continued to run the store in Steilacoom . On January 5 , 1861 , Oliver Meeker drowned while returning from a buying trip to San Francisco , when his ship , the Northerner , sank off the California coast . The Meekers had borrowed to finance the trip , and the losses from this disaster reduced Ezra Meeker to near penury . He secured the squatter 's claim of Jerry Stilly on land in the Puyallup Valley , and moved his wife and children there in 1862 . While clearing his own holdings , he earned money by helping to clear the land of others . His father and surviving brother , John Meeker , also had claims in the valley . John Meeker had come to Washington Territory by ship in 1859 and had settled in the Puyallup Valley . Ezra Meeker ran for the Washington Territorial Legislature in 1861 , but was defeated . In 1869 , Meeker ran for Pierce County Surveyor ; he was defeated by James Gallagher , 138 votes to 116 .
In 1865 , Olympia brewer Isaac Wood imported some hop roots from the United Kingdom , hopeful that they would do well in the Pacific Northwest . As hops , used to flavor beer , were not then grown locally , the cost of transport from Britain or New York made his beer expensive , and he hoped Puget Sound @-@ area farmers would grow hops and supply him . He was a friend of Jacob Meeker , and gave him the roots to grow . Jacob passed some of them on to Ezra . The plants grew extremely well , and at the end of the season , the Meekers earned $ 185 from selling Wood the crop . Such a sum was rarely seen in the Puyallup Valley at that time , and a hop @-@ growing boom promptly began . Ezra Meeker , with his head start , was able to repeatedly expand operations , he eventually had 500 acres ( 200 ha ) of hop @-@ growing lands . He also built one of the first hop @-@ drying kilns in the valley . For years Meeker supplied Portland brewer Henry Weinhard .
The fertile soil and temperate climate of the valley proved ideal for hops . Not only did the plants thrive , farmers were able to obtain four or five times the usual yield . Meeker , never one to miss an opportunity , formed his own hop brokerage business . In 1870 , he penned an 80 @-@ page pamphlet , Washington Territory West of the Cascades , to promote investment in the region . He took ship for San Francisco , then journeyed east by the new transcontinental railroad , hoping to get the railroads to expand to his region . He met with newspaper editor Horace Greeley ( known for his famous advice , " Go West , young man " ) and with railroad mogul Jay Cooke as part of his promotional blitz . Cooke , who was building the Northern Pacific Railway to cross the northern tier of the country , not only bought up Meeker 's pamphlets to give away to potential investors , but hired Meeker to drum up interest in his railroad . While working from a Manhattan office , Meeker dressed like city dwellers , but did not entirely lose his frontier habits , often stirring a lump of butter into his coffee .
In 1877 , Meeker filed a plat for a townsite to surround his cabin . He named the town Puyallup , using the local Indian words for generous people , according to Meeker . The local post office had previously been called " Franklin " , a common designation in the United States ; Meeker , the town 's first postmaster , stated that the new name was likely to remain unique . He later admitted that the pronunciation of Puyallup caused confusion when he visited England — it still remains difficult for non @-@ locals .
Meeker strove to improve life in the region , and donated land and money towards town buildings and parks , a theatre and a hotel while defraying the start @-@ up costs of a wood products factory . The Ezra Meeker Historical Society , in their 1972 pamphlet on his life , wrote of his activities :
During those years , Mr. Meeker became a dynamic force in the community , and had a part in almost everything that happened in the valley . Restless , forceful , a natural leader , he became a prime mover , galvanizing the citizens of Puyallup into action on such vital problems as the building of streets , roads , homes , schools , and businesses and transforming the forest into one of the most progressive small communities in the state . If he was not leading an undertaking , he was sure to be a busy member of some committee working on it .
Hops made many farmers wealthy , including Meeker , who at one point claimed he had earned a half million dollars for his crop . In 1880 , he wrote his first book , Hop Culture in the United States , and soon after became known as the " Hop King of the World " . By the 1880s , he was the wealthiest man in the territory , and had formed a London branch of his hop brokerage . He served as Washington Territory 's representative at the 1885 – 1886 North Central & South American Exposition in New Orleans ; he also took exhibits to London 's Colonial and Indian Exposition after the New Orleans fair closed . In 1886 , Meeker sought the Republican nomination for territorial delegate to Congress , but was defeated after many ballots at the party convention . He became a supporter of women 's suffrage , which was the subject of a long @-@ running political battle in Washington Territory , a dispute which lasted well after statehood in 1889 .
Eliza Jane felt that the family should live in a better house than their original cabin , and between 1887 and 1890 built what became known as the Meeker Mansion in Puyallup . The cost was $ 26 @,@ 000 , a very large sum at the time . An Italian artist lived with the Meekers for a year , painting careful details on the ceilings . The Meekers moved in during 1890 , the same year Puyallup was formally incorporated under state law — they donated their old homesite to the town for a park . In 1890 , Meeker served as first mayor of Puyallup . He was elected to a second , non @-@ consecutive term for 1892 .
= = Ruin and Klondike = =
In 1891 , a blight of hop aphids struck the hop @-@ growing West Coast from British Columbia to California . Although sprays of various liquids were used in an attempt to defeat the insects , use of such pesticides damaged the hops . In 1892 , the crop decreased to half of what it had been before the infestation . Meeker had advanced money to many growers , who were unable to repay him . The problems in the valley were made worse by the Panic of 1893 , a severe worldwide depression . Business after business in which Meeker had invested failed , such as the Puyallup Electric Light Company . He was overextended , and lost much of his fortune , and eventually his lands to foreclosure .
Meeker spent part of the winter of 1895 – 1896 in London , recouping what he could from his interests there . In 1896 , gold was discovered both in Alaska and in Canada , and when Meeker returned from the United Kingdom , he found his sons , Marion and Fred , preparing to leave for Cook Inlet , Alaska . They found all the worthwhile claims had already been taken . Nevertheless , the Meeker family saw the finds as a possible road to financial recovery , and founded a company to buy and sell mining claims , though they knew little about the trade . In 1897 , Meeker and his sons journeyed to the Kootenay country of southeastern British Columbia , where gold had been found . Despite the fact Meeker was aged 66 , he undertook a full share of the labor . Both Meeker sons filed claims in Canada , but the mines required additional investment . Meeker raised money to travel to New York to speak with his old contacts , where he received more promises than cash . On the return leg he failed to raise money in visits in Illinois and Minneapolis and by July 1897 , he was back in the Kootenays , working the claim . When the gold discovery in the Klondike in northwestern Canada was publicized that year , Meeker saw that as a better opportunity , and sent his son Fred to investigate . Fred Meeker returned with a report in November ; the Meekers sought to finance a mining expedition to the Klondike , but failed to raise adequate money from investors .
Despite his inability to raise funds for mining , Meeker was certain there was a way to make money from the gold rush . He and Eliza Jane spent much of the winter of 1897 – 1898 drying vegetables , and Ezra Meeker departed for Skagway , Alaska , on March 20 , 1898 with 30 @,@ 000 pounds ( 14 @,@ 000 kg ) of dried produce — Fred Meeker and his wife Clara were already across the border in what would soon be designated as the Yukon Territory . The 67 @-@ year @-@ old Meeker , with one business associate , climbed the steep Chilkoot Pass . With thousands of others in boats and on rafts , he floated down the Yukon River once the ice broke up in late May , and sold his vegetables in two weeks in Dawson City . He returned to Puyallup in July , only to set out again with more supplies the following month . This time , he and his son @-@ in @-@ law , Roderick McDonald , opened a store , the Log Cabin Grocery , in Dawson City , and remained through the winter .
Meeker returned to the Yukon twice more , in 1899 and 1900 . Most of the money earned through groceries was invested in gold mining , and was lost . When he departed the Klondike for the last time in April 1901 , he left behind him the body of his son Fred , dead of pneumonia in Dawson City on January 30 , 1901 . In his writings , Meeker ascribed his sudden departure from the Yukon in 1901 to mining losses and his upcoming 50th wedding anniversary . Meeker scholar Dennis M. Larsen in his book on the pioneer 's Klondike adventure suggests that a more likely reason was attempts by those who had lost money in Meeker 's enterprises in the 1890s to gain the family 's remaining major asset , the Meeker Mansion . That property was sold by Eliza Jane Meeker to her daughter Caroline and son @-@ in @-@ law Eben Osborne for $ 10 @,@ 000 in mid @-@ 1901 and later that year both Ezra and Eliza Jane executed documents stating that the house had been her separate property , paid for with funds not deriving from Ezra . The sale to the Osbornes included provisions that Ezra and Eliza Jane were to have lifetime residence and $ 50 per month . Ezra Meeker did not live there after his wife 's death in 1909 , and the Osbornes sold the house in 1915 . Eben Osborne died in 1922 , survived by his 91 @-@ year @-@ old father in law .
= = Promoting the Trail = =
= = = Preparation for 1906 trip = = =
Meeker spent the years after the Klondike in Puyallup , where he wrote and served as president of the Washington State Historical Society , which he had helped to found in 1891 . The Ezra Meeker Historical Society described their namesake 's situation after the Klondike expeditions :
He was 71 years old . He had been an adventurer , laborer , surveyor , longshoreman , farmer , merchant , community leader , civic builder , richest man in the state , world traveler , miner and writer . He had made and lost millions . He had made money , not so much to hoard , but to do things with — to develop , control forces , build and promote . But his money was gone . It was generally assumed that he had finally come home to stay and live out his days in peace and quiet in his beautiful valley . Not so . He still had dreams .
Meeker had long contemplated the idea of marking the Oregon Trail , over which he had traveled in 1852 , with granite monuments . By the early 20th century , he was convinced that the Trail was in danger of being forgotten . Farmers were plowing up the Trail bit by bit , and as towns and cities grew along it , the Trail vanished under streets and buildings . Meeker viewed its preservation as an urgent matter because of this slow disappearance . He wanted the Trail properly marked , and monuments erected to honor the dead .
Meeker came up with a scheme to travel along the Trail again by ox @-@ drawn wagon , raising public awareness for his cause . He believed that public interest would provide enough money both to build markers and maintain himself along the way . Though many hucksters traveled by wagon , selling patent nostrums , Meeker felt that he would stand out , as an authentic pioneer able to tell real stories of the Trail — especially if he used authentic gear . He felt that it was likely that once newspapers got wind of his travels , they would give him ample coverage .
Meeker did not have much money , so he raised it from friends . Ox @-@ drawn wagons were not a common sight in the Puyallup of 1906 ; Meeker was unable to find an authentic complete wagon , and eventually used metal parts from the remains of three different ones . The construction was done by Cline & McCoy of Puyallup . Meeker found a pair of oxen ; even though one proved unsuitable , the owner insisted on him purchasing both . The one Meeker kept , named Twist , was lodged at the stockyards in Tacoma as he sought another . Meeker fixed on a herd of steers which had been brought in from Montana . He decided on one which was particularly heavy , which he named Dave . Although Dave gave Meeker much difficulty , beginning with the 8 miles ( 13 km ) drive home to Puyallup after the purchase , the animal eventually helped pull the wagon over 8 @,@ 000 miles ( 13 @,@ 000 km ) .
Although Meeker had not had a dog in his wagon in 1852 , he knew that people liked them , and sought to add one to his crew . Jim , a large , friendly collie who became an expedition member and Meeker 's companion for the next six years , had belonged to one of Meeker 's neighbors , a Mr. James . Meeker was impressed by the way Jim drove James ' chickens out of the area where the family grew berries , by moving slowly . Five dollars to one of James ' children secured the purchase . Some of Meeker 's friends tried to talk him out of the trip ; one local minister warned against this " impracticable project " , stating that it was " cruel to let this aged man start on this journey only to perish by exposure in the mountains " .
Meeker had taken an ox team and wagon to Portland 's Lewis and Clark Exposition in 1905 ; en route he had kept his eyes open for places to set up suitable monuments on the Cowlitz Trail , on which pioneers had journeyed from the Columbia River to Puget Sound . He made arrangements with locals in towns along that trail to raise money to build monuments there . He gave lectures as a fundraiser , but raised little money . He took his team and wagon for daylong shakedown trips , despite the mocking of some who remembered him as Hop King . After several days camped on his lawn as practice for the trip , and then in other nearby locales , Meeker set out from Olympia on February 19 , 1906 .
= = = Return to the Trail ( 1906 – 1908 ) = = =
According to Larsen in his book on Meeker 's journey east ,
It 's easy to assume Ezra Meeker 's remarkable 1906 – 08 expedition over the Oregon Trail was a well @-@ oiled machine that worked as planned ... But it wasn 't always an easy journey . ... Faith in the whole enterprise , let alone encouragement , was in rather short supply . His own daughter told him that people would laugh at him if he went out on the trail with an old yoke of oxen ...
The first stop after Olympia for " The Old Oregon Trail Monument Expedition " was Tenino , Washington , where Meeker went ahead by train on February 20 , 1906 to make arrangements for the first monument of the trip . He still had no driver , and had his wagon pulled to Tenino by horses , with the oxen trailing behind . He appealed to a local quarry for a suitable stone , which was carved and was dedicated in Tenino at a ceremony on the 21st . He had less success as he journeyed south towards Portland ; at none of the remaining Washington stops was a monument erected , and although Meeker placed wooden posts where monuments should go , most of the designated towns did not follow through . The lack of enthusiasm about Meeker 's mission continued in Portland , where the Unitarian church elders voted against allowing Meeker the use of the building to give a fundraising lecture , pledging to do nothing to " encourage that old man to go out on the Plains to die " .
In Portland , Meeker lost his remaining helpers ( one refused to take a pay cut , the others for personal reasons ) . One stayed on for the boat voyage up the Columbia before leaving at The Dalles , where Meeker hired a driver / cook , William Mardon , at $ 30 per month . He remained with Meeker for the next three years . Meeker also installed an odometer on his wagon , calling The Dalles " Mile Zero " of his expedition . In The Dalles , Meeker engaged in activities which would set the pattern for his progress along the Trail : He showed off himself , his wagon and animals , to the public , and sold tickets for a lecture ( fifty cents for adults , half that for children ) he would give about the Oregon Trail , including images shown with a stereopticon . He also met with members of civic committees to raise money for a local monument . Often these monuments were erected after Meeker passed : he would position a post to designate its location . According to reporter James Aldredge in his 1975 article on Meeker 's trip , " for a septuagenarian he must have been blessed with remarkable health and endurance ... When the curious procession got underway , not the least impressive part of it was Meeker himself , with his face framed by his flowing white hair and his patriarchal beard . " According to reporter Bart Ripp in his 1993 article on Meeker , " the first expedition east in 1906 was supposed to be a speaking tour , but people were more interested in seeing the old coot in a covered wagon . It was the 20th century , and Americans wanted a show . "
As he journeyed east from The Dalles , Meeker met with more enthusiasm than in his home state as he slowly passed through Oregon and Idaho . As word began to spread , he sometimes found the townsfolk prepared for him , or with a stone ordered or even ready . The monument in Boise , dedicated by Meeker on April 30 , 1906 , stands on the grounds of the Idaho State Capitol . On the road , he camped as he had a half century before , but in towns most often took a hotel room , though who paid for this is uncertain . Near Pacific Springs , Wyoming at South Pass , Meeker had a stone inscribed to mark where the Trail passes through the Continental Divide .
Meeker remembered in a memoir ,
The sight of Sweetwater River , twenty miles [ 32 km ] out from South Pass , revived many pleasant memories and some that were sad . I could remember the sparkling , clear water , the green skirt of undergrowth along the banks , and the restful camps , as we trudged up the stream so many years ago . And now I saw the same channel , the same hills , and apparently the same waters swiftly passing . But where were the camp fires ? Where was the herd of gaunt cattle ? Where the sound of the din of bells ? the hallooing for lost children ? Or the little groups off on the hillside to bury the dead ? All were gone .
Nebraska proved resistant to Meeker 's sales pitch , and near Brady , the ox Twist died , possibly after eating a poisonous plant . Meeker had to wire home to supporters for money . He hired teams of horses to pull the wagon on a temporary basis , and an attempt with two cows was not successful . He was able to temporarily yoke Dave with a cow which proved more suitable . At the Omaha Stockyards , Meeker found another ox , which he named Dandy , and broke him in on the way to Indianapolis , near where Meeker had once lived and 2 @,@ 600 miles ( 4 @,@ 200 km ) by road from Puyallup . Beginning in Nebraska , Meeker began to sell postcards from photos taken on the way — there was then a craze for postcards in the United States . He also arranged for the printing of a book about his 1852 trip , much of which he wrote during noontime halts on his 1906 trip . The funds from the sales of these items allowed him to meet expenses on the road . Meeker 's exploits were closely followed in newspapers on the West Coast as eastern and midwestern stories about him were reprinted there — when westerners perceived any slights towards Meeker , indignant editorials followed .
After a visit to Eddyville , Iowa , from where he had set out in 1852 , Meeker spent several weeks in Indianapolis , leaving on March 1 , 1907 when his permit to sell on the streets there expired . With the Oregon Trail run completed , he proceeded east through Ohio , Pennsylvania , and New York State , seeking to both raise public awareness and earn some money for himself through sales of his merchandise . He often spent several days in a location , so long as sales of postcards and books flourished . When the expedition reached New York City , Mayor George B. McClellan , Jr. was absent but the acting mayor told Meeker that , although he could not grant him a permit , he would instruct the police not to molest him . The message was apparently not well @-@ communicated , as at 161st and Amsterdam Avenue a policeman arrested Meeker 's helper , Mardon , for driving cattle upon the streets of New York in violation of a local ordinance . A stalemate followed as Meeker refused to move his oxen and the police had no means of doing so . The situation was resolved when higher authority ordered Mardon 's release . Meeker wanted to drive the length of Broadway ; it took a month to get the legal problems resolved . It took him six hours to drive the length of Manhattan . He had arranged with the press for photographers , who took shots of him at the New York Stock Exchange and Federal Hall . Later in his stay , he drove across the Brooklyn Bridge .
After a small family reunion at the old Meeker homestead near Elizabeth , New Jersey , Meeker headed south towards Washington , D.C. He had hoped to meet President Theodore Roosevelt at his summer home in Oyster Bay , New York , but Roosevelt 's staff declined , offering a meeting in Washington instead . Members of the Washington State congressional delegation cleared the way , and Meeker met Roosevelt on November 29 , 1907 . The President went outside the White House to view Meeker 's wagon and team , and expressed support for Meeker 's activities , and for a Meeker proposal for a cross @-@ country highway ( there were then none ) in honor of the pioneers . After Washington , the tour wound down : Meeker went home to Puyallup from Pittsburgh by train to see his ailing wife . On his return to the East , he arranged for transport by riverboat and train , with a journey across Missouri by wagon . The expedition was offloaded from the train in Portland , and Meeker proceeded north across Washington State ( receiving a much warmer reception ) on a slow route , finishing in Seattle on July 18 , 1908 .
= = = Advocate for the Oregon Trail ( 1909 – 1925 ) = = =
Meeker ran a large pioneer exhibit and restaurant at the 1909 Alaska @-@ Yukon @-@ Pacific Exposition in Seattle ; he later ruefully stated the Exposition had cost him his earnings from the book and card sales during his wagon tour . Later that year , he spent time in California , journeying with his wagon and team . Eliza Jane Meeker died in 1909 in Seattle — she had been in poor health for some years . Ezra Meeker was in San Francisco , peddling his wares , when his wife died — it took three days to locate him , after which he journeyed north for the funeral before returning to his work . On New Year 's Day 1910 , Meeker and his wagon and team participated in the Tournament of Roses Parade in Pasadena .
In 1910 , the Humphrey Bill , to appropriate money for monuments to mark the Trail , passed the House of Representatives and was introduced in the Senate , with a proviso that no money would be spent unless the Secretary of War could certify that the work would not require any further appropriations . Ezra Meeker set out that year on another two @-@ year @-@ long expedition , with the emphasis this time on locating and marking where the Trail had been , rather than on building monuments . Sometimes the ruts in the ground from the emigrants ' wagons still existed and made it obvious , but other times he had to rely on the memories of old settlers . He journeyed to Texas , but had no success in interesting people in his project there . His tour was ended in 1912 in Denver when a flood struck the city , resulting in damage to his books . Nevertheless , according to Green , Meeker 's two trips resulted in the placement of 150 monuments . A version of the Humphrey Bill passed the Senate in 1913 , but died when the House of Representatives took no action . Despite this failure , groups began marking western trails : the Sons and Daughters of the American Revolution put up plaques along the Cowlitz Trail in 1916 .
Beginning in 1913 , Meeker began to plan his role in the 1915 Panama @-@ Pacific Exposition in San Francisco . He had donated his wagon and oxen to a park in Tacoma : when officials there expressed concern about the cost of building a proper pavilion for them , Meeker reclaimed them and set off with them to California . Deeming Dandy unfit for the road , Meeker had him slaughtered in Portland in June 1914 and had the hide shipped back to Tacoma for taxidermy ; in November , the same fate met Dave in California . Meeker 's wagon was exhibited at the Exposition in San Francisco . His tales of the Oregon Trail became one of the star attractions of the Exposition . Nevertheless , he quarreled with the administrators of the Washington State Building , feeling that it should be open on Sundays , when the largest crowds came to the grounds . On his return , the oxen and wagon were mounted as an exhibit at the Washington State History Museum until it closed for a move to new premises in 1995 . The wagon was then deemed too fragile for display .
In 1916 , the 85 @-@ year @-@ old Meeker made another trip , this time by Pathfinder automobile . The Pathfinder Company , of Indianapolis , lent Meeker a car with a covered @-@ wagon @-@ style top and a driver as a publicity stunt . Meeker also received a small stipend , and journeyed in the vehicle from Washington , D.C. to Olympia . Meeker saw the use of a motor vehicle as publicizing the need for a transcontinental highway . During this trip , he lectured on the need for a national highway ; before he left he met with President Woodrow Wilson and discussed the topic with him .
Bernard Sun , whose grandparents were Oregon Trail pioneers in Wyoming , remembered another side of Meeker :
He 'd camp down on Rush Creek with a covered wagon . The old bum was riding a grub line . He 'd grub meals from all the ranchers around here . My grandmother hated the sight of him . He 'd comb that long hair at the dinner table . Put his [ false ] teeth in to eat and take them out to talk .
Although World War I distracted public attention from Meeker and his activities , he used the time to plan for the future . On December 29 , 1919 , his 89th birthday , he began work on another book , Seventy Years of Progress in Washington , which was published to favorable reviews . In association with Dr. Howard R. Driggs , a professor of English education at the University of Utah and later at New York University , he published a revised version of his memoirs , Ox @-@ Team Days on the Oregon Trail . In 1922 , he fell ill for one of the few times in his life . Newspapers reported that he refused to stay in bed , and his grandson , a physician , stated that he was going to put Meeker back to bed and " I am going to keep him there — if I can . If I can . "
Recovered , the nonagenarian Meeker began making fresh travel plans . With the International Air Races to be held at Dayton , Ohio , in 1924 , Meeker tried to get the War Department to allow him to fly there . He was successful , and flew with the Army pilot , Oakley G. Kelly . At a stop in Boise , Meeker quipped they were making better time than with his ox team , and in Dayton met aviation pioneer Orville Wright , to whom he commented , " You 'd be surprised at the difference between riding in a Prairie Schooner and in an airplane . " The publicity was so favorable that the Army had Kelly fly Meeker the rest of the way to Washington , D.C. , where the onetime pioneer met President Calvin Coolidge in October 1924 . Meeker returned to Seattle by train . Wanting the government to build a road over Naches Pass , where he had guided his father 's party seventy years before , Meeker ran for the Washington House of Representatives in 1924 from the 47th district but was defeated in the Republican primary by 35 votes . In 1925 , Meeker drove an ox team for several months while touring in J.C. Miller 's Wild West Show .
= = = Meeker reaches the end of the trail ( 1925 – 1928 ) = = =
By 1925 , Congress had still not passed an appropriation to mark the Trail . One means of federally sponsored fundraising at that time was to get Congress to authorize a commemorative coin ( usually a half dollar ) and designate a sponsoring organization to buy the issue at face value from the government and sell it to the public at a premium . Meeker got the idea from a group of Idahoans seeking a coin to further their preservation work at Fort Hall ; he arranged a merger of efforts . Beginning in 1925 , Meeker pressed for such a half dollar to honor the pioneers and provide money for his efforts , and in April 1926 he appeared before a Senate committee , urging the passage of legislation . Congress obliged , and Coolidge signed the bill on May 17 , 1926 at a ceremony which Meeker attended .
Meeker had founded the Old Oregon Trail Association in 1922 . In early 1926 , it was incorporated in New York as the Oregon Trail Memorial Association ( OTMA ) , and was given office space there by the National Highways Association . The legislation authorizing the new coin designated the OTMA as the organization which could purchase Oregon Trail Memorial half dollars from the government . The piece was designed by Laura Gardin Fraser and her husband , James Earle Fraser ( who had designed the Buffalo nickel ) . Six million coins were authorized , and a beginning was made by the striking of 48 @,@ 000 for the Association at the Philadelphia Mint ; when those ran low , 100 @,@ 000 more were coined at the San Francisco Mint . Meeker was less successful with the later issue , and many remained unsold . Although the Bureau of the Mint struck more in 1928 , these remained impounded until after Meeker 's death , with tens of thousands of the earlier issues unsold .
Seattle had been Meeker 's home since moving out of the mansion , but in the mid @-@ 1920s the citizens of Puyallup sought to honor him by the erection of a statue in Pioneer Park , the site of Meeker 's one @-@ time homestead . They also sought to preserve the home site , over which Eliza Jane Meeker had planted ivy a half @-@ century before , building a pergola to support the plant . With the statue and pergola completed , Meeker returned to Puyallup for the dedication ceremony in 1926 . The same year , at age 95 , Meeker published his first and only novel , Kate Mulhall , a Romance of the Oregon Trail .
Meeker was again advocating better roads , and gained the support of Henry Ford , who built him a Model A car with a covered wagon @-@ style top , dubbed the Oxmobile , to be used in another expedition over the Trail to publicize Meeker 's highway proposals . In October 1928 , Meeker was hospitalized with pneumonia in Detroit . He returned to Seattle , where he fell ill again . Meeker was taken to a room in the Frye Hotel , where he told his daughter Ella Meeker Templeton , " I can 't go . I have not yet finished my work . " Ezra Meeker died there on December 3 , 1928 , just under a month short of his 98th birthday . His body was taken in procession back to Puyallup , where he was interred beside his wife Eliza Jane in Woodbine Cemetery . Under a plaque based on the Oregon Trail Memorial coin Ezra Meeker had inspired , their gravestone , erected by the OTMA in 1939 , reads , " They came this way to win and hold the West " .
= = Legacy = =
Howard Driggs succeeded Meeker as president of the OTMA , and remained in that capacity at the association and its successor , the American Pioneer Trails Association ( APTA ) , until his own death at age 89 in 1963 . The year 1930 , marking 100 years since both Meeker 's birth and the first wagon train leaving St. Louis for the Oregon Country , was proclaimed the Covered Wagon Centennial . The largest event was at one of the landmarks along the Oregon Trail , Wyoming 's Independence Rock , on July 3 – 5 , 1930 . This event included the dedication of a plaque depicting Meeker , embedded in the rock . For many years , the OTMA made it a practice to go out each summer and dedicate monuments along the Oregon Trail . Although the APTA no longer exists , that mission has been continued by state historical societies and organizations which share its purpose , such as the Oregon @-@ California Trails Association .
The commemorative half dollars were struck in small numbers in most years of the 1930s ; after collectors complained about the lengthy series and high prices , Congress forbade further strikings in 1939 . The first route across America , the Lincoln Highway , was completed in the 1920s , and others soon followed . Although Meeker 's highway along the Trail was not built , U.S. 30 generally parallels the route of the Oregon Trail . A number of sites relating to Meeker remain in Puyallup . In addition to his gravesite , and the Meeker Mansion ( now owned by and being restored by the Ezra Meeker Historical Society ) there is Pioneer Park , where the ivy @-@ covered pergola and the statue of Meeker may be found .
Local historian Lori Price noted , " Throughout his long life of nearly 98 years , the word for Meeker was action . " Historian David Dary , in his book on the Oregon Trail , deems Meeker primarily responsible for re @-@ awakening public interest in it . According to Bert Webber , " There would be no ' Oregon Trail ' to enjoy today if Ezra Meeker had not set out , by himself , and without government subsidy , to preserve it . " Driggs stated of Meeker after his death :
So the Oregon Trail was blazed and tramped — traders , trappers , gold @-@ seekers , missionaries , colonists — until the highway stretched from the Missouri River to the Pacific Ocean . Years passed and railroads supplanted the old Oregon Trail ; its very location was forgotten ; disputes arose . Then an old man , almost eighty , clambered into a prairie schooner , made in part of some in which the pioneers had journeyed westward , and the Oregon Trail was retraced and marked with monuments , that a people and a nation may not forget .
= = Books by Ezra Meeker = =
Washington Territory West of the Cascade Mountains . Olympia , Washington Territory : Printed at the Transcript Office . 1870 . OCLC 718439467 . Retrieved June 21 , 2013 .
Hop Culture in the United States. with W.A. Lawrence . Puyallup , Washington Territory : E. Meeker & Co . 1880 . OCLC 499484270 . Retrieved June 21 , 2013 .
Pioneer Reminiscences of Puget Sound , the Tragedy of Leschi . Seattle , WA : Lowman & Hanford Stationery and Print . Co . 1905 . OCLC 667877082 . Retrieved June 21 , 2013 .
Ox Team ; or , The Old Oregon Trail , 1852 – 1906 . New York , NY : Ezra Meeker . 1907 . OCLC 285181271 , 669330590 . Retrieved June 22 , 2013 .
Ventures and Adventures of Ezra Meeker . Seattle , WA : Rainier Print . Co . 1908 . OCLC 679498491 . Retrieved June 22 , 2013 .
Uncle Ezra 's Pioneer Short Stories for Children . Tacoma , WA : D. W. Cooper. n.d. , c . 1915 . OCLC 4935396 , 680290582 . Retrieved June 22 , 2013 .
The Busy Life of Eighty @-@ Five Years of Ezra Meeker . Seattle , WA : Ezra Meeker . 1916 . OCLC 679500468 . Retrieved June 23 , 2013 .
Seventy Years of Progress in Washington . Seattle , WA / Tacoma , WA : Allstrum Printing Co . 1921 . OCLC 644000145 , 300598059 . Retrieved June 23 , 2013 .
Ox @-@ Team Days on the Oregon Trail . Pioneer life series . Revised and edited by Howard R. Driggs , illustrated with drawings by F.N. Wilson . Yonkers @-@ on @-@ Hudson , NY : World Book Co . 1922 . OCLC 53229256 , 746979402 , 681269138 . Retrieved June 24 , 2013 .
Kate Mulhall , a Romance of the Oregon Trail . Drawings by Margaret Landers Sanford , Rudolf A. Kausch and Oscar W. Lyons . New York , NY : Ezra Meeker . 1926 . OCLC 701648479 . Retrieved June 24 , 2013 .
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= Batman : Arkham Origins =
Batman : Arkham Origins is a 2013 action @-@ adventure video game developed by WB Games Montréal and released by Warner Bros. Interactive Entertainment for Microsoft Windows and the PlayStation 3 , Wii U and Xbox 360 video game consoles . Based on the DC Comics superhero Batman , it is the successor to the 2011 video game Batman : Arkham City and is the third main installment in the Batman : Arkham series . It was released worldwide on October 25 , 2013 .
Written by Corey May , Ryan Galletta and Dooma Wendschuh , the game 's main storyline is set five years before that of 2009 's Batman : Arkham Asylum and follows a younger , less @-@ refined Batman . A bounty is placed on him by crime lord Black Mask , drawing eight of the world 's greatest assassins to Gotham City on Christmas Eve . The villains , including the Joker and Anarky , take advantage of the chaos to launch nefarious schemes , while Gotham City police try to apprehend Batman .
The game , played from a third @-@ person perspective , focuses on Batman 's combat and stealth abilities , detective skills , and gadgets for combat and exploration . Aside from the main story , Batman can help the police deal with crimes , and confront other supervillains terrorizing the city . Arkham Origins introduces the ability for Batman to virtually recreate crimes , allowing him to investigate the scene and identify the culprit . The game is the first in the series with multiplayer capability . WB Games Montréal took over development duties for Arkham Origins from series creators Rocksteady Studios .
While the game received generally positive reviews , it was criticized for replicating previous Arkham games ' content and unnecessarily modifying it , while the multiplayer aspect was considered an unnecessary addition to the series . A companion game , Batman : Arkham Origins Blackgate , was released with Arkham Origins for Nintendo 3DS and PlayStation Vita , and a spin @-@ off mobile game for the iOS and Android platforms was released in October 2013 . An animated sequel , Batman : Assault on Arkham , was released in 2014 , and a successor game , Batman : Arkham Knight , was released in June 2015 .
= = Gameplay = =
Arkham Origins is an open world action @-@ adventure game incorporating stealth game tactics . Batman can use his cape to glide around Gotham City and the grapnel gun 's retracting rope to attach to hard @-@ to @-@ reach ledges and extend his flight . Some gadgets from previous Arkham games are present at the start of Arkham Origins , while others become available during play . Returning gadgets include the Cryptographic Sequencer , used to hack security consoles ; the Batclaw , used for hooking onto surfaces ; the Batarang , a throwing weapon ; the Remote Batarang , its remote @-@ controlled counterpart ; Explosive Gel , used to destroy weak surfaces and knock down enemies ; Smoke Pellets , used for stealthy exits and entrances ; the Disruptor , which can remotely disable guns and explosive mines , and the Grapnel Accelerator , an earlier version of the Grapnel Boost . New equipment in Batman 's arsenal include the Remote Claw ; this allows Batman to target two objects and pull them together , allowing him to throw enemies into each other or hit them with objects ( tethering two walled points creates a tightrope for Batman to cross ) ; Shock Gloves , which allow Batman to block electric attacks , disable some enemies and stun shielded ones , and short @-@ circuit objects , and the Concussion Detonator , capable of stunning large enemy groups .
The game introduces a fast travel system , allowing Batman to remotely summon his plane ( the Batwing ) to transport him to other areas of the game world quicker than gliding or grappling could . Enemy tower installations prevent Batman from summoning the craft in some areas , and must be disabled to make the Batwing ( not player @-@ controlled ) available . Some towers may be disabled only when the player has the necessary equipment .
Players can traverse enemy @-@ controlled areas by stealth or combat . Using an enhanced version of the series ' Freeflow combat system , combat introduces a tracking system assessing the players ' efficiency and highlighting battle achievements ( such as avoiding damage and using gadgets ) . Chaining attacks to maintain momentum , performance is rewarded with experience points . These points can be used in a branching upgrade system to enhance Batman 's abilities and gadgets , allowing players to upgrade several paths or specialize in one . Enemy attacks are prompted with a warning icon , indicating that the attack can be countered . Enemies are armed with weapons such as knives , lead pipes and shields . The game introduces new enemy types : the Martial @-@ Artist ( capable of blocking , evading and countering Batman 's attacks ) , the Armored Enforcer ( invulnerable until he is dazed and de @-@ armored ) and Venom @-@ infused henchmen ( who possess superhuman strength , allowing them to grapple Batman and launch attacks which cannot be countered ) . Some enemies are armed with guns , which can damage Batman , and a player can use stealth predatory tactics to tilt the odds in their favor . Many areas feature stone gargoyles or high outcrops , helping Batman remain concealed while setting traps and knocking out enemies .
Arkham Origins offers side missions , including Crime in Progress ( where Batman can assist the Gotham City Police Department ( GCPD ) by rescuing police officers from a gang or keeping an informant from being thrown to his death ) . Most Wanted allows Batman to pursue villains outside of the main story ( such as Anarky , who plants bombs around the city ) . The Dark Knight system offers tasks of escalating difficulty which improve stealth and combat . Batman 's radio scanner also allows him to locate side missions ; completed missions are rewarded with experience points and upgrades to Batman 's equipment . The game features collectible objects and puzzles similar to the Riddler challenges of previous games ( orchestrated by Enigma before assuming his Riddler identity ) . Collectible objects appear , similar to those in previous games . A " 1 vs. 100 " mode in the game 's challenge maps challenges the player to survive in combat against 100 increasingly difficult enemies .
The game emphasizes Batman 's detective skills ; for example , he can scan a crime scene with Detective Vision ( displayed in first @-@ person perspective ) to highlight points of interest ; holograms act out theoretical scenarios of the crime . The crimes can be reviewed via Batman 's link to the Batcomputer in the Batcave ; this allows a player to view virtual recreations of the scene from different angles ( with the ability to move back and forth through the crime 's timeline ) , view it in slow motion or pause while looking for clues to solve the crime . Small ( and large ) crime scenes are distributed throughout Gotham City . Reviewing the downing of a helicopter , Batman is presented with false and accurate clues ; investigation of the scene can reveal that the helicopter was shot , allowing Batman to trace the bullet 's trajectory to a murdered police officer and another crime scene . When a crime is solved , the player is shown a Batman @-@ narrated rundown of the crime . The Batcave is also a hub where Batman can change costumes , upgrade his equipment and access challenge maps to practice combat ( these maps were accessed separately in previous games ) . After completing the story mode a New Game Plus mode is unlocked , enabling a player to replay the game with all their acquired gadgets , experience and abilities ; enemies are tougher , and the icon warning players of attack is disabled . Completing New Game Plus unlocks I Am the Night mode , where the game ends if Batman dies .
On compatible systems , the Microsoft Windows version uses Nvidia 's PhysX software engine to produce more realistic , dynamic interactions with the game world . With PhysX enabled , some areas contain additional snow or fog ( which reacts to Batman moving through it ) ; with PhysX disabled , the effects are lessened or absent .
= = = Multiplayer = = =
Arkham Origins introduces a multiplayer component to the series . Invisible Predator Online revolves around a gang war in Blackgate Prison between supervillains Joker and Bane . Three Joker gang members fight three Bane gang members , and in turn the team of Batman and Robin . Gangs win by killing all the opposing team 's reinforcements , while Batman and Robin win by acquiring intimidation points ( from eliminating gang members ) . A gang member can become boss ( Joker or Bane ) , gaining more @-@ powerful abilities . Gang members can access guns and explosives ; Batman and Robin can access gadgets and abilities from the main game , including Detective Vision . Gang members have a limited Enhanced Vision , which requires recharging . Hunter , Hunted sets three Joker thugs and three Bane thugs against Batman in a last @-@ team @-@ standing match in which each character has one life .
= = Synopsis = =
= = = Characters = = =
Arkham Origins features a large ensemble cast of characters from the history of Batman comics . The main character is Batman ( Roger Craig Smith ) , a superhero trained to the peak of human physical perfection and an expert in martial arts who is aided by his butler , Alfred Pennyworth ( Martin Jarvis ) . Arkham Origins brings Batman into conflict with sadistic , brutal crime lord Black Mask ( Brian Bloom ) . The most powerful man in the city and ruler of Gotham 's criminal underworld , Black Mask has vast wealth and resources , has eliminated his opposition and is consolidating his power . His ebony mask conceals his identity , allowing him to operate publicly as Roman Sionis ( head of Janus Cosmetics ) . Black Mask has a bounty on Batman , which attracts eight accomplished assassins : the physically compelling Bane ( J. B. Blanc ) ; expert marksman Deadshot ; veteran mercenary Deathstroke ( Mark Rolston ) ; poisonous contortionist Copperhead ( Rosa Salazar ) ; the pyromaniac Firefly ( Crispin Freeman ) ; the highly charged Electrocutioner ( Steven Blum ) ; deformed criminal Killer Croc ( Khary Payton ) , and master martial artist Shiva ( Kelly Hu ) .
Batman is considered an outlaw by the Gotham City police , and is pursued by Captain James Gordon ( Michael Gough ) , Detective Harvey Bullock ( Robert Costanzo ) and corrupt GCPD officials Commissioner Gillian B. Loeb and SWAT team leader Branden . Other characters include the psychopathic Joker ( Troy Baker ) ; black @-@ market weapons dealer Penguin ( Nolan North ) ; the mind @-@ controlling Mad Hatter ( Peter MacNicol ) ; anti @-@ government , anti @-@ corporate anarchist Anarky ( Matthew Mercer ) ; rogue hacker Enigma ( Wally Wingert ) ; Alberto Falcone ; Gordon 's teenage daughter Barbara , and Blackgate warden Martin Joseph ( Khary Payton ) . The story takes place before Batman 's partnership with Robin ( Josh Keaton ) — although Robin is a playable character outside the main story — and before Barbara becomes Batman 's ally , Oracle . Dr. Harleen Quinzel ( Tara Strong ) , Vicki Vale , Amanda Waller ( C. C. H. Pounder ) , Quincy Sharp ( Tom Kane ) , and Calendar Man make cameo appearances in the game . Mr. Freeze ( Maurice LaMarche ) appears in the downloadable content , " Cold , Cold Heart " .
= = = Setting = = =
The events in Arkham Origins take place about five years before Batman : Arkham Asylum , in midwinter Gotham City . Batman , an experienced crime @-@ fighter in the second year of his career , is not yet the veteran superhero of Arkham Asylum and Arkham City . He is a mysterious force ; even the police do not know whether he is a vigilante , a myth or a supernatural being . Batman has fought ordinary criminals and gangsters , and is accustomed to being stronger and faster than his opponents . However , on a snowy Christmas Eve he is confronted with more @-@ dangerous foes : eight professional assassins hoping to collect a $ 50 @-@ million bounty placed on Batman 's head by Black Mask . Villains ( including the Joker ) take advantage of the assassins ' arrival to launch their own schemes , and Black Mask 's henchmen instigate a rise in crime and gang activity in the city .
The Gotham City Police Department is aware of " the Batman " , and does not condone his approach to crime @-@ fighting . Led by Commissioner Loeb , the GCPD is thoroughly corrupt ; Branden and his SWAT team are hunting for Batman to claim the bounty for themselves . The incorruptible Captain James Gordon is one of the most unpopular members of the force . Batman 's relationship with Alfred is strained ; the butler , an overbearing parental figure , reminds him of his parents ' deaths and Alfred sees Batman as a spoiled child squandering his inheritance on a vigilante crusade .
Old Gotham , the section of Gotham City which will become the Arkham City prison , is not yet walled off and has slums , low buildings , a shopping mall and docks ( where Penguin 's ship , the Final Offer , is moored ) . On the Final Offer , Penguin has added a casino , a fighting pit and a sales floor with weapons and ammunition . Across the bridge from Old Gotham is New Gotham , a modern metropolitan area filled with towering skyscrapers .
= = = Plot = = =
On Christmas Eve , Batman intervenes in a jailbreak at Blackgate Penitentiary led by Black Mask , who executes Police Commissioner Loeb and escapes . Left to battle the hired assassin Killer Croc , Batman prevails but learns that Croc is the first of eight of the world 's deadliest assassins in Gotham City vying to claim a $ 50 million bounty placed on Batman 's head by Black Mask . Hoping to learn Black Mask 's location , Batman tracks the Penguin to his ship . There , he defeats assassins Deathstroke and Electrocutioner and learns from the Penguin that Black Mask was purportedly murdered at an apartment complex . Batman investigates the murder scene , learning that the victim was not Black Mask and that the murder may have involved a criminal known as " the Joker " .
Needing more information to solve the case , Batman breaks into the GCPD to access its national criminal database . While escaping , he encounters Captain James Gordon , who is distrusting of Batman , and the corrupt SWAT team , who hope to collect the bounty money for themselves . Following advice from Gordon 's daughter Barbara , Batman enters the sewers beneath the GCPD for permanent access to the database and finds Black Mask 's crew planting explosives . Using the database , Batman deduces that Black Mask was kidnapped by the Joker , presumably to access the Gotham Merchants Bank . At the bank , Black Mask removes his disguise for Batman and reveals himself as the Joker ; having assumed Black Mask 's identity several days prior , the Joker seized his criminal empire and imposed the bounty on Batman . Batman chases the Joker to the Sionis Steel Mill , where he frees Black Mask and defeats the poisonous assassin Copperhead .
Tracking the Joker to the Gotham Royal Hotel , Batman discovers that the villain and his men have filled the hotel with explosives , murdered the staff , and taken the guests hostage . The Joker berates the assassins for their failure to kill Batman , throwing Electrocutioner out a window to his death : Batman recovers his electric gloves . The assassins leave , except for Bane , who thinks Batman is coming for the Joker . After traversing the building , Batman finds the Joker on the roof but is forced to battle Bane . Thinking Batman is outmatched , Alfred alerts the police so they will intervene . As Bane escapes by helicopter , he fires a rocket at the Joker , who is thrown from the hotel by the concussive force . Batman saves the Joker , leaving him with the police . Puzzled by the events , the Joker is imprisoned in Blackgate under the care of Dr. Harleen Quinzel ; he tells Quinzel that he and Batman were destined to meet .
In the Batcave , Alfred begs Batman to abandon his crusade , fearing he will die , but Batman refuses . Infiltrating Bane 's headquarters , Batman learns that his true identity as Bruce Wayne has been uncovered by the villain . Firefly attacks the Pioneers Bridge , forcing Batman and Gordon to work together to incapacitate the assassin and his bombs . Meanwhile , Bane breaks into the Batcave and nearly kills Alfred . Batman finds the cave in ruins and Alfred dying , but he is able to revive him with Electrocutioner 's gloves . Elsewhere , the Joker has taken over Blackgate after inciting a riot .
Realizing he needs allies , Batman works with Gordon and the police to retake the prison . Sitting at the electric chair , the Joker offers Batman a choice : kill Bane , or allow Bane 's heartbeat to charge the chair and kill the Joker . Batman uses the electric gloves to stop Bane 's heart . Satisfied , the Joker leaves , intending to detonate bombs placed around the city . Batman revives Bane , who injects himself with a steroid that transforms him into a hulking beast . He loses the ensuing battle to Batman and suffers amnesia as a side effect from the steroid , thus preserving Batman 's secret identity . With Gordon 's help , Batman locates the Joker in the prison chapel . Dismayed that Bane is still alive , the Joker tries to goad Batman into killing him but Batman subdues him instead . Gordon chooses not to pursue Batman , believing he can help the city . In a radio interview during the credits , Quincy Sharp says he will lobby to reopen Arkham Asylum to house the city 's worst criminals ; after the credits , an imprisoned Deathstroke is approached by Amanda Waller to join her Suicide Squad .
= = Development = =
By July 2012 , Warner Bros. Interactive Entertainment ( WBIE ) was planning Rocksteady Studios 's next Batman game as a prequel based on the Silver Age of Comic Books , featuring Superman , Wonder Woman , Green Lantern and the Flash . The game would explore Batman 's first confrontation with the Joker , with a release date no earlier than 2014 . In August 2012 , Paul Dini said he would not be involved in writing a sequel to Arkham City . He did not write any of that game 's downloadable content ( including the story @-@ based " Harley Quinn 's Revenge " DLC ) , and said that Warner Bros. and Rocksteady suggested he accept other work if offered . Dini added that he had taken on other projects , preventing his involvement until 2013 . In February 2013 , it was reported that a new game in the Batman Arkham franchise would be released by a developer other than Rocksteady .
Development of Batman : Arkham Origins began in late 2011 by Canadian development studio WB Games Montréal ( WB Montréal ) , and the game was announced on April 9 , 2013 . The studio had worked on the Wii U adaptation of Batman : Arkham City , familiarizing itself with the modified Unreal Engine 3 development engine used by Rocksteady ( developer of the first two Arkham games ) . WB Montréal decided not to heavily modify the established combat system ( believing it already worked well ) , but introduced new enemy types with opportunities for new tactics and combat moves to defeat opponents . Although Rocksteady provided advice on technology , game mechanics and its engine , WB Montréal developed the story independently . The plot was partly inspired by the comic @-@ book series Batman : Legends of the Dark Knight and the graphic novel Batman : Year One , detailing the first year of Batman 's career , with Arkham Origins described as a " Year Two " story . Parts of the plot ( such as Batman 's relationships with the Joker , Gordon and the game 's Christmas setting ) were partly inspired by Batman : The Man Who Laughs , Batman : Turning Points and Batman : The Long Halloween , respectively . The story is written by Dooma Wendschuh , Ryan Galletta and Corey May , with input from DC Comics and comic @-@ book writer Geoff Johns . Eric Holmes acted as Arkham Origins ' creative director . Explaining the decision to develop a prequel , Holmes said while the Batman of Arkham Asylum and Arkham City was comparable to his comic counterpart — a fully formed , experienced character — Arkham Origins could explore other aspects of the character ( such as his lack of experience and greater vulnerability ) . The game was considered 80 percent complete by January 2013 , and WB Montréal used the remaining development time to tweak the final product .
By April 2013 the developers had decided not to use veteran Batman voice actor Kevin Conroy in the role , preferring a younger voice for Batman 's early career . In May , Roger Craig Smith was announced as the voice of Batman and Troy Baker as the Joker . Conroy said at the 2013 Dallas Comic Con that he had been working on " the next Arkham " , inspiring speculation that he would reprise his role as Batman in Arkham Origins ; however , in June it was confirmed that Conroy would not be in the game . In July , it was announced that Arkham Origins would be the first game in the Arkham series to feature multiplayer gameplay . The multiplayer game was produced by independent British developer Splash Damage under creative director Alastair Cornish , separately from WB Montréal 's work on the main game . The Wii U version of the game is single @-@ player , with Warner Bros. saying that the team was focused on platforms with the largest multiplayer audience .
= = = Design = = =
Holmes described the Christmas setting as a juxtaposition between the joyful time of year and the grim world of Gotham City , including decorative Santas near Gothic gargoyles and Christmas lights in dark alleys . The city is dislodged from time and space , contrasting 1930s ( and older ) buildings with Batman 's futuristic technology . The New Gotham area was designed for vertical movement , allowing the placement of enemies above and below Batman to create areas dense with activity . The game features high contrast between darks and lights , with exaggerated shadows and few balancing colors . The city was divided into residential , industrial and commercial neighborhoods , which were decorated accordingly : the industrial setting is bleak , the commercial area has corporate decorations and residential neighborhoods have lights in their windows .
Designers aimed to make the younger Batman 's outfit look " assembled versus manufactured " , pieced together from a number of sources . Holmes said , " [ Batman 's suit is ] not something that was made in a factory . He 's taken pieces of tech either he 's invented , he 's fabricated or things from the Wayne facilities , and he has made this costume out of these pieces . " To emphasize the mystery and fear instilled by Batman in this early stage of his career , art director Jeremy Price and the design team used silhouettes and film noir @-@ style low @-@ key lighting to make the character more imposing . The name " Batman " is used sparingly in this game to emphasize his urban @-@ legend status and the lack of understanding of the character . It was suggested that Batman make mistakes because of his inexperience ( such as tripping or missing with batarangs ) , but this idea was discarded as inconsistent with the character . His inexperience was instead personality @-@ based : learning how to be the city 's protector and overcoming his obsession with vengeance . In designing Batman 's abilities and gadgets , gameplay took precedence over narrative consistency with the previous games ; the designers thought that removing features players had already experienced in those games would make playing Arkham Origins feel less empowering .
Holmes acknowledged that Black Mask is not as well known as some of Batman 's other villains ( such as the Joker and Penguin ) , and the character required expansion to make him interesting and scary . Black Mask was considered an appropriate antagonist for Batman 's early career because of his practicality ; he transitions from the typical criminals Batman has been facing and the neurotic , quirky super @-@ villains he will confront in the future . The team decided to make Arkham Origins ' Copperhead a female ( in contrast to the comic 's male character ) with input from Johns . The contortionist character required three motion @-@ capture actors to animate : a stunt woman , a Cirque du Soleil performer and a martial artist . This version of Copperhead will be added to DC Comics ' The New 52 . Anarky , an anti @-@ villain based on anarchist philosophy , was updated in appearance for the game to a street protester with a gang resembling a social movement . The character would appeal to Batman for a partnership ( since he is not necessarily evil ) but , as Holmes said , " is multidimensional in the Batman Universe . " The popularity of anti @-@ corporate and anti @-@ government protest movements factored in the character 's inclusion , and Holmes thought that of all of the villains Anarky was the most timely . The developers drew upon " original Alan Grant and Norm Breyfogle appearances " of Anarky for his character . Each main @-@ story boss reinforces the player 's mastery of a specific game mechanic ( such as Deathstroke , whose fighting focuses on countering attacks ) . The assassins selected for the game were chosen for abilities which would challenge the game mechanics . The boss fights were inspired by Arkham City 's battle against Mr. Freeze , which tasked players with exploring the full range of Batman 's strategies and abilities to overcome the villain .
The " Detective Vision " crime scenes were designed to be brief , visually rewarding and fun segments , rather than demanding challenges . The designers worked on the length of time for each scene , seeing how many pieces of evidence players wanted to scan before they had a solution ; they eventually settled on two to three minutes . A number of predator areas ( levels where Batman stalks enemies from the shadows ) provide variety and challenge . For example , the theatre aboard Penguin 's ship was gradually shrunk in size to pack the enemies closer together , and a hovering drone was removed when test players easily overcame it . A dynamic weather system altering gameplay ( such as wind and snow reducing visibility , making snipers more vulnerable to Batman 's stealth ) was implemented during development , but discarded when it was not completed within the available development time .
= = = Music = = =
The score for Arkham Origins was composed by Christopher Drake , replacing Ron Fish and Nick Arundel ( who composed the scores for Arkham Asylum and Arkham City ) . It was partially inspired by the 1988 action film Die Hard ( also set during Christmas ) , which features sleigh bells in its soundtrack to punctuate specific moments . Drake said that since the game was a prequel , it allowed him more freedom in the score while adhering to " the DNA " of Batman music . He added that although the previous scores were elegant and orchestral , he chose more electronic elements . Drake approached the cinematic scenes as a traditional film score , with the design team describing scenes over the phone while he worked out of Burbank , California . The in @-@ game music was created with layers which activate with action ( such as Batman entering a location or beginning a fight ) , and can be added or subtracted depending on what is occurring . Drake hoped the in @-@ game music would not be boring , since those sections work at differing lengths of time ( dependent on how long a player takes to complete a task ) .
The Batman : Arkham Origins – Original Video Game Score was released by WaterTower Music on October 22 , 2013 and features 32 tracks composed for the game .
All music composed by Christopher Drake .
= = Release = =
Batman : Arkham Origins was released worldwide on October 25 , 2013 for Microsoft Windows , PlayStation 3 , Wii U and Xbox 360 . A week before its scheduled release in Europe , the retail Microsoft Windows and Wii U versions were delayed until November 8 . A companion game , Batman : Arkham Origins Blackgate , was released with Arkham Origins for Nintendo 3DS and PlayStation Vita . A spin @-@ off beat ' em up game , also entitled Batman : Arkham Origins , was developed by NetherRealm Studios for iOS and Android . The iOS version was released on October 16 , 2013 , and the Android version was scheduled for release in late 2013 . NetherRealm Studios previously developed Batman : Arkham City Lockdown , a spin @-@ off of Arkham City . The brawler game has players using touchscreen controls to fight enemies one @-@ on @-@ one ( including villains such as Bane and Deathstroke ) . Defeating enemies earns points which can upgrade Batman 's statistics or unlock gadgets and costumes ; costumes unlocked in the game can unlock costumes in the console version and vice versa .
Coinciding with Arkham Origins ' United Kingdom launch , voice actors Roger Craig Smith and Troy Baker made a public appearance at Stratford 's GAME retailer . A series of game @-@ character action figures and a working , life @-@ size grapnel @-@ gun replica were released in October 2013 by DC Collectibles and NECA , respectively . In December 2013 , a digital comic book of the same name was released by digital studio Madefire with a prequel to the game . The comic is the first in DC Comics ' DC2 Multiverse initiative , featuring dynamic artwork and sound and the ability to choose while reading how the story progresses ( with several possible outcomes ) . Purchasing all eight chapters unlocks two costumes for the game .
= = = Retail editions = = =
The PlayStation 3 edition of the game features the Knightfall DLC pack , with alternate Batman outfits based on the character 's design in the 1960s TV series and Azrael 's Batsuit from the " Knightfall " story arc ( 1993 ) . The pack also contains five challenge maps ( based on " Knightfall " ) which task Batman with defeating Bane and the inmates of Blackgate prison : " Azrael Does Not Protect " , " City On Fire " , " No Rest For The Wicked " , " Venom Connection " and " Turning Point " . The UK , Australian and New Zealand Collector 's Edition contains a SteelBook game case and a 30 @-@ centimetre ( 12 in ) statue of Batman and Joker . The North American Collector 's Edition and the Australian and New Zealand Definitive Edition contain a light @-@ up statue of the Joker by Project Triforce , a Batman " Wanted Poster " , Batwing prototype schematic , Anarky logo stencil , glow @-@ in @-@ the @-@ dark map of Gotham City and a Wayne family photo . The North American version also contains the 2013 DC Comics super @-@ villain documentary , Necessary Evil . All regions also get an 80 @-@ page hardback art book , dossiers of the in @-@ game assassins , the Deathstroke DLC and the " First Appearance " skin ( based on Batman 's first appearance in Detective Comics # 27 ) . The PlayStation 3 version also has the Knightfall content . Both editions were released for PlayStation 3 and Xbox 360 .
= = = Additional content = = =
Deathstroke is available as a playable character for all the game 's challenge maps , with weapons and abilities such as regenerating health and super strength , a rifle @-@ staff with a built @-@ in grapple , a sword , explosives , firearms and his version of Detective Vision ( Tactical Vision ) . The " Deathstroke " pack , available as a preorder bonus , includes two alternate outfits ( worn by the character in the 2013 video game Injustice : Gods Among Us and the 1984 storyline " The Judas Contract " ) and two challenge maps , " No Money Down " and " 100 to 1 " .
The " Black Mask Challenge " pack , released in November 2013 , contains two additional challenge maps : " Lot Full " and " Hidden Facility " . Bruce Wayne is playable in the " Initiation " pack , released December 3 , 2013 . The pack contains five challenge maps , with narrative content to explain the setting . " Initiation " features Wayne before he becomes Batman , as he trains under his ninjutsu mentor Kirigi in an Asian monastery and comes into conflict with Shiva . The DLC also contains two alternate skins for the character : Initiation Bruce Wayne ( based on his monastery clothing ) and Vigilante Bruce Wayne ( a masked @-@ ninja outfit ) . Also available in December was the " Hunter , Hunted " multiplayer mode . The story @-@ based campaign expansion , " Cold , Cold Heart " was released on April 22 , 2014 . Set a week after the events of Arkham Origins , on New Year 's Eve , " Cold , Cold Heart " ' s narrative focuses on the origin of the supervillain Mr. Freeze and features similarities to the Batman : The Animated Series episode , " Heart of Ice " . The content introduces new equipment for Batman , including the XE suit which generates heat , allowing him to melt ice or throw thermal @-@ charged batarangs . In January 2014 , the Wii U version of the expansion was cancelled by Warner Bros. , who cited a lack of demand as the reason .
A number of alternate outfits for Batman and Robin were made available by completing in @-@ game tasks and as downloadable content . Batman 's skins include designs worn in the 1960s TV series , Batman : Noël , Arkham City , Batman : The Animated Series , Batman : Earth One , Batman Incorporated , Batman : Year One , The Dark Knight Returns , " DC One Million " , Brightest Day , Gotham by Gaslight , " Knightfall " , Injustice : Gods Among Us , Blackest Night , The New 52 ( and a metallic variant ) , Red Son , Batman : Dark Knight of the Round Table , The Long Halloween and Thrillkiller . Additional skins include his Sinestro Corps suit , Neal Adams ' 1970s depiction of the character , the " First Appearance " design , the classic Earth @-@ Two design ( and its New 52 variant ) and the " Worst Nightmare " outfit , an original design based on how criminals perceive Batman ( available after completing the game ) . Robin 's skins include Tim Drake 's first and second Robin costumes , his Red Robin costume , the designs from Batman : The Animated Series and Arkham City and a slightly altered version of the default Arkham Origins costume . Cosmetics were also released for the game 's multiplayer component , including Joker 's Vandal Online Vanity Pack and Bane 's Forces Online Vanity Pack .
= = Reception = =
= = = Pre @-@ release = = =
Batman : Arkham Origins was displayed at the 2013 Electronic Entertainment Expo ( E3 ) , and received two Game Critics Awards nominations : Best Action / Adventure Game and Best Console Game . It was also recognized at the expo for " Best Videogame " by Forbes ; " Best Action Game " by Game Informer ; " Best Comic Book @-@ Related Game " by Newsarama and " Best Xbox 360 Game " by IGN .
= = = Critical reception = = =
Aggregate @-@ review websites GameRankings and Metacritic rated the PlayStation 3 version 73 @.@ 59 % and 76 / 100 , the Xbox 360 version 73 @.@ 14 % and 74 / 100 , the Wii U version 70 @.@ 50 % and 68 / 100 , and the Microsoft Windows version 73 @.@ 57 % and 74 / 100 .
Arkham Origins was considered an incremental installment for the series , rather than a transformative one . GameSpot said that Arkham City expanded on Arkham Asylum by applying the game mechanics to a larger open @-@ world setting , but criticized Arkham Origins for replicating Arkham City without moving the series forward . Other critics agreed , saying that the game 's well @-@ received elements from the previous game were not significantly developed or augmented and it was routine rather than inspired . However , other reviewers rated it on a par with Arkham City .
Critics cited Arkham Origins ' handling of the genesis of Batman 's relationships with his adversaries and allies and its question of whether Batman 's presence enhances crime in Gotham City as the game 's greatest assets . Scenes with the Joker received the most praise , with Polygon saying that although he was also a central antagonist in previous Arkham games , the story shone new light on the character ; GameSpot called the story surprising in its exploration of the bond and similarities between Batman and the Joker . The story was criticized for lacking a cohesive narrative ( particularly the opening plot line of assassins hunting Batman , largely forgotten by the game 's end ) , but EGM said that when it works , the story was worthy of any Batman film , TV show or comic book .
The game world was well received for its number and variety of side missions and distractions but its scale was criticized as unnecessarily large , with GameSpot describing it as " bigger just for the sake of being bigger " ; Joystiq described the city as unattractive , with the expanded play area increasing the commute but not the enjoyment . Others criticized changes in navigating the city ; some areas prevented grappling , slowing ( or stopping ) travel . Polygon called the world more linear , with fewer chances to revisit areas with new gadgets to open new paths and deviation from the most obvious path necessary only to find collectables . However , some reviewers considered the city 's vastness and activities engrossing . Kotaku criticized the side quests as " busywork " for not advancing the narrative or providing appropriate rewards . Others found the use of previous elements tedious , with replacements simply mimicking the old ( such as the glue grenade , with an identical purpose to Arkham City 's ice grenades ) .
Detective Mode , allowing the investigation of crimes , was not considered an improvement by Kotaku and GameSpot ; while they considered it a good idea , its execution was minimal since a player simply looks for the next highlighted piece of evidence rather than solving a puzzle . Game Informer liked it , saying that they were complicated and showed how Batman analyzes a crime scene . The combat system received mixed reviews . The shock gloves were criticized as overpowered and making fights too easy , allowing Batman unblockable attacks ( instantly disabling most opponents ) and removing the need for tactics . Reviewers said that changes to combat punished more than challenged ; greater enemy numbers and variety made sustaining an attack difficult , and ( combined with an array of gadgets which hindered — rather than damaged — enemies ) made encounters long and repetitive . Joystiq noted that the game emphasized combat over stealth . Kotaku called the combat rating system distracting screen clutter which broke the player 's concentration , but GameFront said that the system was positive reinforcement for successful fights . The stealth sections were considered of similar quality to previous installments ; their unchanged function left the methods of obtaining victory the same , making for a rote experience . The Remote Claw was criticized for making stealth sections too easy , allowing multiple enemies to be disabled without moving from the player 's starting position .
Critics agreed that Arkham Origins 's boss battles were one area of improvement over its predecessors ; they offered dynamic , multiphase conflicts with their own stories . While not considering all equally fun or impressive , reviewers said that their variety and unpredictability provided excitement . Less @-@ notable characters from the comics were considered less compelling than more @-@ popular characters .
The multiplayer component was criticized , with Polygon calling it one of the least necessary multiplayer additions to a typically single @-@ player experience . The gameplay was described as a mediocre shooter , incapable of supporting the necessary use of guns by its villains and with poor control of movement . GameSpot noted that poor weapon accuracy and movement controls made the thugs seem weak and inept , while playing as the heroes lacked empowerment because of more restrictive combat ability and less resistance to damage . Other reviewers called the experience fun and hectic , but lacking sufficient depth to retain long @-@ term interest .
The main voice cast was well received . Troy Baker was praised as the Joker , for his performance and as a worthy replacement for longtime previous voice actor Mark Hamill , and criticized for his interpretation 's replicating Hamill 's . Dooma Wendschuh , Ryan Galletta , and Corey May were nominated for the Outstanding Achievement in Videogame Writing award by the Writers Guild of America . The game 's cinematic content , under the direction of supervising sound editor Alain Larose , received a Golden Reel Award nomination for Best Sound Editing in Interactive Entertainment .
Reviewers described the " Cold , Cold Heart " DLC as better paced and focused than the main game , owing to its shorter play time that allowed for a more interesting experience . It was also criticized , however , for losing focus near the end , and padding the running time with unnecessary deviations . GameSpot said that the DLC featured a satisfying combination of the series ' combat , stealth , and detective mechanics , and introduced interesting new enemy types that wield ice guns capable of freezing both Batman and other enemies . Reviewers described the story as entertaining , following the interesting character of Mr. Freeze , but considered it lacking in surprise because it replicates that of the 1992 Batman : The Animated Series episode " Heart of Ice " . The final battle against Mr. Freeze was criticized for replicating several elements of the fight against the character in Arkham City . Similarly , IGN and Destructoid noted that the content lacked originality and innovation , providing generic environments and removing , rather than adding new abilities and weapons .
= = = Sales = = =
During its first week of sales in the United Kingdom Batman : Arkham Origins was the number @-@ one @-@ selling game on all available formats , topping the all @-@ format chart . Its sales were half those of Arkham City during the same time , and approximately even with those of Arkham Asylum . It was the eleventh @-@ best @-@ selling boxed game of 2013 in the country . It was also the top @-@ selling game on the digital @-@ distribution platform Steam between October 20 and 26 , 2013 .
= = = Technical issues = = =
After the game 's launch , a number of issues on all platforms were noted by the media and players , including lagging ; unending " falling " in the game world , preventing the completion of missions ; no " continue " button on the startup screen , preventing a previous game from continuing , and some progression gameplay failing to unlock . On Windows , a bug prevented players from accessing one of Enigma 's towers ; on the Xbox 360 , the save files were corrupted and unplayable , with crashing and freezing problems . On October 31 , 2013 , these issues were addressed by WB Montréal ; in a community post , it said that the development team fixed many of the multi @-@ platform problems and an update would be available by November 7 . The company added that the Windows @-@ specific issues were addressed in an update which went live on October 31 , and the Xbox 360 issues were still under investigation . In February 2014 , WB Montréal announced that they would not release any additional patches to fix any issues , due to the development team focusing on the upcoming single @-@ player DLC . Any future patches would only address issues preventing progression in the game .
= = Series continuation = =
Batman : Arkham Knight , the successor to Arkham Origins , was announced in March 2014 . The game , which is a sequel to Arkham City , is once again developed by Rocksteady Studios for PlayStation 4 , Xbox One and Microsoft Windows , and is set one year after the events of Arkham City . An animated sequel , Batman : Assault on Arkham , was released on August 12 , 2014 . The film features the Suicide Squad , hinted at during the credits of Arkham Origins , attacking Arkham Asylum to recover information from the Riddler , but their plans go awry when the Joker escapes , and Batman is drawn to the facility .
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= Boz ( king ) =
Boz ( c . 380 ) was the king of the Antes , an early Slavic people that lived in parts of present @-@ day Ukraine . His story is mentioned by Jordanes in the Getica ( 550 – 551 ) ; in the preceding years , the Ostrogoths under Ermanaric had conquered a large number of tribes in Central Europe ( see Oium ) , including the Antes . Some years after the Ostrogothic defeat by the invading Huns , a king named Vinitharius , Ermanaric 's great @-@ nephew , marched against the Antes of Boz and defeated them . Vinitharius condemned Boz , his sons , and seventy of his nobles , to crucifixion , in order to terrorize the Antes . These conflicts constitute the only pre @-@ 6th century contacts between Germanics and Slavs documented in written sources .
= = History = =
= = = Background = = =
Byzantine historian Jordanes wrote in his De origine actibusque Getarum ( or " Getica " , written in 550 or 551 ) that King Ermanaric ( fl . 370s ) of the Greuthungi ( a Gothic tribe , most likely the same as the later Ostrogoths ) , member of the Amali dynasty , managed to subdue a large number of tribes in Europe ( Cassiodorus called him " ruler of all nations of Scythia and Germania " ) , and he is said to have lastly subjugated the Wends ( Slavs ) . Jordanes noted that the Gothic tribes regularly made raids into Slavic territory .
Jordanes mentioned three tribes of the same origin , that constituted the Slavs : Wends ( West Slavs ) , Antes ( East Slavs ) and Sklaveni ( South Slavs ) , and stated that the Antes were the bravest and strongest among these . He also stated that the Antes ' rule was hereditary , while Procopius maintained that the Sklaveni and Antes " are not ruled by one man , but they have lived from old under a democracy " . According to Roman Smal @-@ Stocki , the Antes received a strong ruling power and military organization over time from the Gothic influence . They inhabited the area between the Dniester and Dnieper , most likely in the region extending from the Vistula to the Danube mouth and eastwards to the Don . The tribal union of the Antes probably included some neighbouring West Slavic tribes . The Antes seem to have attempted to form their own state in the frontiers of – or even within – the Gothic state , judging by Jordanes ' naming Boz as " king " .
= = = Story of Boz = = =
The Huns , accompanied by the Alani whom they had just conquered , invaded Ermanaric 's territories . Ermanaric , who feared devastation , took his own life . In the years following Ermanaric 's death , there was a war between the section of the Ostrogoths who remained under Hun rule , and the Antes .
Ermanaric 's great @-@ nephew , Vinitharius , who disliked being under Hun rule , withdrew his forces and marched against the Antes in order to defeat them and to show his courage . This took place in the last quarter of the 4th century , possibly around 380 . Boz , the king of the Antes ( rex Antorum ) , had organized an alliance to defend the Antes , and managed to defeat Vinitharius in their first encounters , however , Vinitharius fought valiantly and managed to capture and crucify Boz , together with his sons and 70 of his chiefs ( primates ) . Vinitharius left their bodies hanging to induce fear in those who had surrendered . These conflicts constitute the only pre @-@ 6th century contacts between Germanics and Slavs documented in written sources .
= = = Aftermath = = =
Afterwards , the Alans ( according to contemporary Marcellinus , though Jordanes said it was Huns ) rushed to rescue their kin , with a decisive battle fought against the Ostrogoths at the river Erak ( now called Tylihul ) , in which the Ostrogoths were defeated and pushed west . The Ostrogoths eventually reached the lower Danube shores .
= = Assessment = =
Jordanes wrote his name in Late Latin as Boz ( " Boz nomine " ) , though several manuscripts of the Getica use Box or Booz . There are various theories in etymological studies regarding the name .
The name has been rendered in the Slavic languages as Bož ( Бож , Божь ; transliterated as Bozh ) . One theory is that it derives from the Slavic word bog , " God " , interpreted as " God 's " . Polish linguist Stanisław Urbańczyk ( 1909 – 2000 ) mentioned * Božь ( divine ) , * Vo ( d ) žь ( chief ) , and * Bosь ( barefooted ) as possibilites . Polish linguist Stanisław Rospond ( 1906 – 1982 ) concluded that Bos , " barefooted " , was his name , and that the other etymologies put forward by Urbańczyk were less probable ; he supported this by connecting Boz with Bus ( Боусь ) of The Tale of Igor 's Campaign , as Omeljan Ohonovskyj ( 1833 – 1894 ) had first done in 1876 . Ukrainian scholar Mykhailo Hrushevsky ( 1866 – 1934 ) speculated that his name was " perhaps Bozhko , Bozhydar , Bohdan " . Ukrainian Bohdan Struminsky stressed that as the first palatalizations ( gь > žь , etc . ) had not yet occurred in Slavic at the time of Boz , * Božь was unconvincing and * Vo ( d ) žь " even less acceptable " . Although supporting the connection with Bus , he assumed that it was Gothic , as * Bōs , found in similar variants as West Gothic Bōsō , of uncertain date , " probably meaning ' Sorcerer ' " , and Anglo @-@ Saxon Bōsa , from the 7th century .
His title , rex Antorum , translates to " King of the Antes " . Ukrainian historian Mykola Andrusiak assumed , as Jordanes used rex for both Germanic rulers and the ruler of the Antes , that the Eastern Slavs had adopted " * kuning- " from the Goths and Slavicized it into " kǔnędzǐ " ( knyaz ) , translated by Jordanes as " rex " .
Historian Florin Curta believes that Jordanes ' account regarding Boz and Vinitharius possibly originated in the Gothic oral tradition , given the narrative pattern of the story . He views of Boz as " quasi @-@ legendary " , as he is the only Slavic leader mentioned by Jordanes , while no leader is mentioned by Procopius .
Some historians have tried to identify Boz with Bus mentioned in the Tale of Igor 's Campaign , in which boyars tell Sviatoslav I of Kiev ( r . 945 – 972 ) of " Gothic maidens ... singing about the time of Bus " , but this has been refuted . The first to connect the two was Omeljan Ohonovskyj ( 1833 – 1894 ) , in 1876 . He was later supported by Stanisław Rospond .
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= Henoch – Schönlein purpura =
Henoch – Schönlein purpura ( HSP ) , also known as IgA vasculitis , anaphylactoid purpura , purpura rheumatica , and Schönlein – Henoch purpura , is a disease of the skin , mucous membranes , and sometimes other organs that most commonly affects children . In the skin , the disease causes palpable purpura ( small hemorrhages ) , often with joint pain and abdominal pain . With kidney involvement , there may be a loss of small amounts of blood and protein in the urine ( hematuria and proteinuria ) , but this usually goes unnoticed ; in a small proportion of cases , the kidney involvement proceeds to chronic kidney disease . HSP is often preceded by an infection , such as a throat infection .
HSP is a systemic vasculitis ( inflammation of blood vessels ) and is characterized by deposition of immune complexes containing the antibody immunoglobulin A ( IgA ) ; the exact cause for this phenomenon is unknown . It usually resolves within several weeks and requires no treatment apart from symptom control , but may relapse in a third of cases and cause irreversible kidney damage in about one in a hundred cases .
= = Signs and symptoms = =
Purpura , arthritis and abdominal pain are known as the " classic triad " of Henoch – Schönlein purpura . Purpura occur in all cases , joint pains and arthritis in 80 % , and abdominal pain in 62 % . Some include gastrointestinal hemorrhage as a fourth criterion ; this occurs in 33 % of cases , sometimes , but not necessarily always , due to intussusception . The purpura typically appear on the legs and buttocks , but may also be seen on the arms , face and trunk . The abdominal pain is colicky in character , and may be accompanied by nausea , vomiting , constipation or diarrhea . There may be blood or mucus in the stools . The joints involved tend to be the ankles , knees , and elbows , but arthritis in the hands and feet is possible ; the arthritis is nonerosive and hence causes no permanent deformity . Forty percent have evidence of kidney involvement , mainly in the form of hematuria ( blood in the urine ) , but only a quarter will have this in sufficient quantities to be noticeable without laboratory tests . Problems in other organs , such as the central nervous system ( brain and spinal cord ) and lungs may occur , but is much less common than in the skin , bowel and kidneys .
Of the 40 % of patients who develop kidney involvement , almost all have evidence ( visible or on urinalysis ) of blood in the urine . More than half also have proteinuria ( protein in the urine ) , which in one eighth is severe enough to cause nephrotic syndrome ( generalised swelling due to low protein content of the blood ) . While abnormalities on urinalysis may continue for a long time , only 1 % of all HSP patients develop chronic kidney disease . Hypertension ( high blood pressure ) may occur . Protein loss and high blood pressure , as well as the features on biopsy of the kidney if performed , may predict progression to advanced kidney disease . Adults are more likely than children to develop advanced kidney disease .
= = Pathophysiology = =
Henoch – Schönlein purpura is a small @-@ vessel vasculitis in which complexes of immunoglobulin A ( IgA ) and complement component 3 ( C3 ) are deposited on arterioles , capillaries , and venules . As with IgA nephropathy , serum levels of IgA are high in HSP and there are identical findings on renal biopsy ; however , IgA nephropathy has a predilection for young adults while HSP is more predominant among children . Further , IgA nephropathy typically only affects the kidneys while HSP is a systemic disease . HSP involves the skin and connective tissues , scrotum , joints , gastrointestinal tract and kidneys .
= = Diagnosis = =
The diagnosis is based on the combination of the symptoms , as very few other diseases cause the same symptoms together . Blood tests may show elevated creatinine and urea levels ( in kidney involvement ) , raised IgA levels ( in about 50 % ) , and raised C @-@ reactive protein ( CRP ) or erythrocyte sedimentation rate ( ESR ) results ; none are specific for Henoch – Schönlein purpura . The platelet count may be raised , and distinguishes it from diseases where low platelets are the cause of the purpura , such as idiopathic thrombocytopenic purpura and thrombotic thrombocytopenic purpura .
If there is doubt about the cause of the skin lesions , a biopsy of the skin may be performed to distinguish the purpura from other diseases that cause it , such as vasculitis due to cryoglobulinemia ; on microscopy the appearances are of a hypersensitivity vasculitis , and immunofluorescence demonstrates IgA and C3 ( a protein of the complement system ) in the blood vessel wall . However , overall serum complement levels are normal .
On the basis of symptoms , it is possible to distinguish HSP from hypersensitivity vasculitis ( HV ) . In a series comparing 85 HSP patients with 93 HV patients , five symptoms were found to be indicative of HSP : palpable purpura , abdominal angina , digestive tract hemorrhage ( not due to intussussception ) , hematuria and age less than 20 . The presence of three or more of these indicators has an 87 % sensitivity for predicting HSP .
Biopsy of the kidney may be performed both to establish the diagnosis or to assess the severity of already suspected kidney disease . The main findings on kidney biopsy are increased cells and Ig deposition in the mesangium ( part of the glomerulus , where blood is filtered ) , white blood cells , and the development of crescents . The changes are indistinguishable from those observed in IgA nephropathy .
HSP can develop after infections with streptococci ( β @-@ haemolytic , Lancefield group A ) , hepatitis B , herpes simplex virus , parvovirus B19 , Coxsackievirus , adenovirus , Helicobacter pylori , measles , mumps , rubella , Mycoplasma and numerous others . Drugs linked to HSP , usually as an idiosyncratic reaction , include the antibiotics vancomycin and cefuroxime , ACE inhibitors enalapril and captopril , anti @-@ inflammatory agent diclofenac , as well as ranitidine and streptokinase . Several diseases have been reported to be associated with HSP , often without a causative link . Only in about 35 % of cases can HSP be traced to any of these causes .
The exact cause of HSP is unknown , but most of its features are due to the deposition of abnormal antibodies in the wall of blood vessels , leading to vasculitis . These antibodies are of the subclass IgA1 in polymers ; it is uncertain whether the main cause is overproduction ( in the digestive tract or the bone marrow ) or decreased removal of abnormal IgA from the circulation . It is suspected that abnormalities in the IgA1 molecule may provide an explanation for its abnormal behaviour in both HSP and the related condition IgA nephropathy . One of the characteristics of IgA1 ( and IgD ) is the presence of an 18 amino acid @-@ long " hinge region " between complement @-@ fixating regions 1 and 2 . Of the amino acids , half is proline , while the others are mainly serine and threonine . The majority of the serines and the threonines have elaborate sugar chains , connected through oxygen atoms ( O @-@ glycosylation ) . This process is thought to stabilise the IgA molecule and make it less prone to proteolysis . The first sugar is always N @-@ acetyl @-@ galactosamine ( GalNAc ) , followed by other galactoses and sialic acid . In HSP and IgAN , these sugar chains appear to be deficient . The exact reason for these abnormalities is not known .
= = = Classification = = =
Multiple standards exist for defining Henoch – Schönlein purpura , including the 1990 American College of Rheumatology ( ACR ) classification and the 1994 Chapel Hill Consensus Conference ( CHCC ) . Some have reported the ACR criteria to be more sensitive than those of the CHCC .
More recent classifications , the 2006 European League Against Rheumatism ( EULAR ) and Pediatric Rheumatology Society ( PReS ) classification , include palpable purpura as a mandatory criterion , together with at least one of the following findings : diffuse abdominal pain , predominant IgA deposition ( confirmed on skin biopsy ) , acute arthritis in any joint , and renal involvement ( as evidenced by the presence of blood and / or protein in the urine ) .
= = Treatment = =
Analgesics may be needed for the abdominal and joint pains . It is uncertain as to whether HSP needs treatment beyond controlling the symptoms . Most patients do not receive therapy because of the high spontaneous recovery rate . Steroids are generally avoided . However , if they are given early in the disease episode , the duration of symptoms may be shortened , and abdominal pain can improve significantly . Moreover , the chance of severe kidney problems may be reduced . However , some evidence suggests that steroids do not decrease the likelihood of developing long @-@ term kidney disease .
Evidence of worsening kidney damage would normally prompt a kidney biopsy . Treatment may be indicated on the basis of the appearance of the biopsy sample ; various treatments may be used , ranging from oral steroids to a combination of intravenous methylprednisolone ( steroid ) , cyclophosphamide and dipyridamole followed by prednisone . Other regimens include steroids / azathioprine , and steroids / cyclophosphamide ( with or without heparin and warfarin ) . Intravenous immunoglobulin ( IVIG ) is occasionally used .
= = Prognosis = =
Overall prognosis is good in most patients , with one study showing recovery occurring in 94 % and 89 % of children and adults , respectively ( some having needed treatment ) . In children under ten , the condition recurs in about a third of all cases and usually within the first four months after the initial attack . Recurrence is more common in older children and adults .
= = = Kidney involvement = = =
In adults , kidney involvement progresses to end @-@ stage renal disease ( ESRD ) more often than in children . In a UK series of 37 patients , 10 ( 27 % ) developed advanced kidney disease . Proteinuria , hypertension at presentation , and pathology features ( crescentic changes , interstitial fibrosis and tubular atrophy ) predicted progression . About 20 % of children that exhibit nephrotic or nephritic features experience long permanent renal impairment .
The findings on renal biopsy correlate with the severity of symptoms : those with asymptomatic hematuria may only have focal mesangial proliferation while those with proteinuria may have marked cellular proliferation or even crescent formation . The number of crescentic glomeruli is an important prognostic factor in determining whether the patient will develop chronic renal disease .
In ESRD , some eventually need hemodialysis or equivalent renal replacement therapy ( RRT ) . If a kidney transplant is found for a patient on RRT , the disease will recur in the graft ( transplanted kidney ) in about 35 % of cases , and in 11 % , the graft will fail completely ( requiring resumption of the RRT and a further transplant ) .
= = Epidemiology = =
HSP occurs more often in children than in adults , and usually follows an upper respiratory tract infection . Half of affected patients are below the age of six , and 90 % are under ten . It occurs about twice as often in boys as in girls . The incidence of HSP in children is about 20 per 100 @,@ 000 children per year , making it the most common vasculitis in children .
Cases of HSP may occur anytime throughout the year , but some studies have found that fewer cases occur during the summer months .
= = History = =
The disease is named after Eduard Heinrich Henoch ( 1820 – 1910 ) , a German pediatrician ( nephew of Moritz Heinrich Romberg ) and his teacher Johann Lukas Schönlein ( 1793 – 1864 ) , who described it in the 1860s . Schönlein associated the purpura and arthritis , and Henoch the purpura and gastrointestinal involvement . The English physician William Heberden ( 1710 – 1801 ) and the dermatologist Robert Willan ( 1757 – 1812 ) had already described the disease in 1802 and 1808 , respectively , but the name Heberden – Willan disease has fallen into disuse . William Osler was the first to recognise the underlying allergic mechanism of HSP .
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